Inhumation Rites in Late Roman Britain: The Treatment of the Engendered Body 9781841713052, 9781407319711

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Summary
Acknowledgments
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF APPENDICES
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2. FUNERARY REMAINS AS SOCIAL REPRESENTATION
CHAPTER 3. TEXTUAL SOURCES AS SOCIAL REPRESENTATION: THE IMAGE OF WOMAN
CHAPTER 4. AGENCY, STRUCTURE, SEX AND GENDER: INVESTIGATING CEMETERY DISCOURSE
CHAPTER 5. ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE CORPSE
CHAPTER 6. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATABASE
CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF THE FUNERARY PROCESS
CHAPTER 8. OVERVIE W
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES

Citation preview

lnhumation Rites in Late Roman Britain The Treatment of the Engendered Body

Sarah L. Keegan

BAR British Series 333 2002

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR British Series 333 Inhumation Rites in Late Roman Britain © Sarah L. Keegan and the Publisher 2002 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841713052 paperback ISBN 9781407319711 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841713052 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2002. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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S U M MARY

AC KNO WLEDGE MENTS

F ocu s ing u pon b u r ia l r i t e s t h is s t udy i n ve s t iga te s t h e a ppea rance o f g ende r w i th in t h e h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t o f l a te R oman B r i ta in . Wh i l s t g ende r c anno t b e o b se rved d i r ec t ly a s m a te r ia l i ty , i t s r e p re sen ta t ion s c an b e t r aced a nd s t ud ied . G ende r c oncep t s a nd a r rangemen t s a r e d ynam ic , b e ing c ons tan t ly n ego t ia ted a nd ' made ' t h rough s oc ia l p rac t ice , a nd w e c an r e cogn ise d i s t inc t p roce s se s b y w h ich e ng ende r ed i d en t i t ie s a r e b u i l t u pon t h e b ody , r e -wo rked a nd r e -p r e sen ted t h rough h uman a gency ; t h rough t h e a c t ion s o ft h e b ody a si t s e lf d u r ing l i f e , a nd i n t h e w ay s t h e b ody i st r ea ted b o th b y t h e f u ne ra l o rgan ise r s a td ea th , a nd a s a n a r chaeo log ica l f i nd . We a r e p r e sen ted w i th as e r ie s o fp rac t ice s a nd c on s t ruc ted i mage s a nd t h i s s t udy e xp lo re s t h e w ays i nw h ich g ende ra ppea r s t o u si n an umbe ro fd i f f e ren tg u i se s .

W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f af ew m ino r r e v is ions t ot h e t e x t , t h is s t udy i se s sen t ia l ly d e r ived f r om my P hD t h e s is , s ubm i t ted t ot h e U n ive r s i ty o fS heff ie ld i nJ anua ry 2 00 1 .

P a s t s o c ia l r e la t ion s , i n c lud ing g ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s , a r e c u l tu ra l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s pec if ic i s sue s o f n ego t ia t ion t h rough s oc ia l d i scou r se , a nd e l emen t s o f t h is d i scou r se m ay b e p l ayed o u t t h rough f u ne ra ry r i tua l . T he b u r ia l p roce s s i n vo lve s t h e a c t ive c on t ro l a nd m ak ing o f i d en t i t ie s a nd w e a r e p r e sen ted w i th t h e s t ra teg ica l ly c on s t ruc ted r ep resen ta t ion s o ft h e f u ne ra l a gency , d ep loyed a s p ar t o f t h e o n -go ing s oc ia l d i scou r se w i th in t h e c ommun i ty . G iven t h e o ver t e mpha s is p l aced u pon g ende r w i th in R oman s oc ie ty , t h is s t udy u s e st h e s ex o ft h e s ke le ton a s ag u id ing p o in t t o e xp lo re t h e e x ten t t o w h ich c once rn w i th g ende r r ep r e sen ta t ion m ay h ave b een p l ayed o u t t h rough t h e f une ra ry p r ac t ice s o ft h e p e r iod i nt h e p rov ince s o f s ou the rn B r i ta in . U s ing d a ta c o l la ted f r om f o u r l a te R omano -B r i t ish u rban c eme te r ie s I a s se s s s t a t is t ica l v a r iab i l i ty i nt h et r ea tmen t o ft h e s e xed c o rp se a s am ean s o f i n ve s t iga t ing w he the r t h e e ngende r ed i d en t i ty o f t h e b ody a ppea r s t o h ave b een r emembe r ed a nd e mpha s ised o r f o rgo t ten a nd o ve r -w r i t ten b y o t he r f o rms o f i d en t i t ie s . I i n ve s t iga te h ow e ngende red r e la t ion sh ip s m ay h ave b een r e w o rked o r r e -p re sen ted i nd ea th a nd c on s ide r t h e s t ra teg ie s i n vo lved i nt h ese r e -wo rk ing s . I ti sf o und t h a t i ng ene ra l t h e p r e sence o f s ex -ba sed d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nb u r ia l t r ea tmen t i s o n ly w eak ly a ppa ren t a nd t h a t g ende r d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een t h e s pec if ic f o cu s o f t h e d i scou r se p l ayed o u t w i th in t h e c eme te ry c on tex t s s t ud ied . O n ly a to ne o f t h e s i t e s , t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , W inche s te r , d oe s t h e s e x o f t h e d ecea sed a ppea r t o h ave s i gn if ican t ly s t ruc tu r ed t h e m a te r ia l t r ea tmen to ft h e d ead .

Ih ave r e a son t ot h ank m any i n d iv idua l s a nd i n s t i tu t ion s f o r t h e i rv a r ied h e lp d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f my r e sea r ch . F i r s t a nd f o remo s t Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank J ohn C . B a r r e t t , m y t h e s i s s upe rv i so r a nd R eade r i n A r chaeo logy a t t h e D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is to ry , U n ive r s i ty o f S heff ie ld , f o r a l h i s t ime , e ncou ragemen t , g u idance a nd s t imu la t ing d i scu ss ion , t h roughou t t h e p roduc t ion o f m y t h e s is , a nd t h e p r epa ra t ion o f t h is m anu sc r ip t f o r p ub l ica t ion . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t ot h ank m y t h es is e xam ine r s , D r . Mau r een C a r ro l l , L ec tu re r i n R oman A rchaeo logy a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f S heff ie ld , a nd L ind say A l la son Jone s , D i rec to r o f A r chaeo log ica l Mu seum s a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f N ewca s t le u pon T yne , f o rr e commend ing my w o rk f o r p ub l ica t ion , a nd f o r t h e i r p e r t inen t c ommen t s a nd s ugge s t ion s w h ich h ave b een i n corpo ra ted i nt o t h is t e x t . Ia m a l so g ra tef u l t o D r . C a r ro l l f o rh e rk i nd p rov i s ion o fL a t in t r an s la t ion . R e spon s ib i l i ty f o r a ny e r ro r s i nf a c t o r i n te rp r e ta t ion m us t r ema in m ine . T hank sa r e a l so d ue t o : Ma lco lm G ome r sa l a nd p ar t icu la r ly H e len R eece o f t h e W inche s te r Museum s S e rv ice f o r much a pp rec ia ted a cce s s t o u npub l ished ma te r ia l , s i te p l an s a nd d i scu s s ion ; P h i l ip C rummy a nd e spec ia l ly C a r l C ro s san o f t h e C o lche s te r A rchaeo log ica l T ru s t f o r h e lp w i th t h e p rov is ion o f s i te r e co rd s a nd p ho tog raph s ; P au l R . S ea ly o f t h e C o lche s te r Mu seum s S e rv ice ; P au la G en t le o f t h e C o tswo ld Mu seum S e rv ice ; P a t r ic ia Sm i th o ft h e B io logy D epa r tmen t a tE ssex U n ive r s i ty f o ra i d w i th l o ca t ing r e cen t DNA r e sea r ch , a nd t o K en V oong f o re xp la in ing i tt om e . T he i n te re s t a nd e ncou ragemen t o f v a r iou s f r i end s a nd c o l league s h a s b een m uch a pp rec ia ted , p a r t icu la r ly t h a t o f Ma t t P r ice , w ho se s uppor t a nd d i scu ss ion h a s b een i n va luab le . T hank s f o r t h e p ho tocopy ing , a nd f o r m ak ing t h et e a .

CONTENTS

S ummary A cknow ledgemen t s L i s t o fF igure s

i

L i s t o fT ab le s

i

L i s t o f Append ice s

Chap ter 1 I n troduc t ion 1 . 1 B r ief O u t l ine o fT heo re t ica l P o s i t ion a nd A ims 1 . 2 S t ruc tu re o ft h e Wo rk 1 . 3 T he C on tex to ft h e I nves t iga t ion 1 . 3 .1 P rac t ica l p rob lems a nd l im i ta t ions 1 . 4 T he S e lec ted C eme tery S i te s

Chap ter 2 F unerary R ema ins a s S oc ia l R epre sen ta t ion 2 . 1 P rocessua l T heo ry i nF une ra ry A rchaeo logy 2 . 2 A ssump t ions i n Me thodo logy 2 . 2 .1 F une ra ry I nves tmen t 2 . 2 .2 S pa t ia l O rgan isa t ion 2 . 2 .3 E vo lu t iona ry C la ss if ica t ion 2 . 3 I mp l ica t ions f o ra n A rchaeo logy o f G ende r

Chap ter 3 T ex tua lS ources a s S oc ia l R epresen ta t ion : T he I mage o f Woman 3 . 1 E va lua t ing t h e E v idence 3 . 1 .1 C la ss ica l L i te ra tu re 3 . 1 .2 E p ig raphy 3 . 1 .3 L ega l R eco rds 3 . 2 I nves t iga t ing R omano -Br i t ish Women 3 . 2 .1 T he ' I dea l ' Woman 3 . 2 .2 Ma r r iage a nd Mo the rhood 3 . 2 .3 P ub l ic R o le

Chap ter 4 Agency ,S truc ture ,S ex a nd Gender : I nve s t iga t ing C eme tery D iscour se 4 . 1 ' Ru les ' a nd ' P rac t ices ' : T he D ua l i ty o f S t ruc tu re 4 . 2 G ende ra s aS oc ia l C on s t ruc t 4 . 3 Ma te r ia l P rac t ice a nd S ymbo l ism 4 . 4 B u r ia l a sS t ra tegy 4 . 4 . 1 A u tho r i ta t ive D iscou r se 4 . 4 .2 H e te rogeneous D iscou r se 4 . 4 .3 ' Woman t h eN ego t ia to r ' 4 . 5 I n ves t iga t ing C eme tery D iscou r se 4 . 5 .1 G ende r D iscour se 4 . 5 .2 R ep re sen ta t ion i nD ea th : AL a te R oman C on tex t

1

Chap ter 5 A rchaeo log ica l R epre sentat ions o ft he C orpse 5 . 1 E s tab l ishmen t o fs ex 5 . 1 .1 A r tef ac t sa sS ex I nd ica to r s 5 . 1 .2 ' Wha t i sS ex? ' 5 . 1 .3 S ex D e te rm ina t ion o fS ke le ta l R ema in s 5 . 2 D e te rm ina t ion o f Age -a t -Dea th 5 . 3 D emog raph ic S t ruc ture 5 . 4 A na lys ing t h e H is tory o ft h eB ody 5 . 4 .1 D ie ta ry C ompos i t ion a nd S ign s o f N u t r i t iona l S t re ss 5 . 4 .2 A c t iv i ty re la ted S t ress 5 . 4 .3 T rauma

3 9

Chap ter 6 Cons truc t ion o ft he D a tabase 6 . 1 D a taba se S t ruc tu re 6 . 1 .1 G rave D e ta i ls 6 . 1 .2 C off in D e ta i ls 6 . 1 .3 S ke le ta l D e ta i ls 6 . 1 .4 A s soc ia ted A r tef ac t s 6 . 1 .5 T ex t i le R ema ins

5 3

3 9 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 3 4 5 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0

1 2 3 5 5

1 3

5 3 5 4 5 7 5 7 6 0 6 3

1 3 1 5 1 5 1 6 1 7

Chap ter 7 A na lys is o ft he F unerary P roce ss 7 . 1 I mp lemen ta t ion o fA na lys is 7 . 2 T he S e lec t ion o fG rave P o s i t ion a nd t h e

1 8 7 . 3 7 . 4 7 . 5 2 1 7 . 5 .1 7 . 5 .2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 4 2 5

7 . 5 .3 7 . 5 .4 7 . 5 .5 7 . 6 7 . 7 7 . 8

P repa ra t ion o ft h e G rave -p i t T he S e lec t ion o f aB ody C on ta ine r T he P os i t ion ing o ft h e B ody T he S e lec t ion a nd P o s i t ion ing o fG rave A r tef ac t s T he I n c lu s ion o fG rave A r tef ac t s T he S e lec t ion a nd P os i t ion ing o f P a r t icu la rC a tego r ies o fA r tef ac t s T he P os i t ion ing o fA r tef ac t s I r re spec t ive o fT ype T he D epos i t ion o f Mu l t ip le A r tef ac ts T he P lacemen to fA r tef ac t s I n s ide / O u t s ide t h eC off in T rea tmen to ft h e G rave S urf ace T he C rema t ion P roce ss C onc lu s ion

6 5 6 5 6 6 8 5 8 7 9 4 9 4 9 5 9 8 9 9 9 9 1 02 1 02 1 02

2 9

2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6

Chap ter 8 Overv iew 8 . 1 T he Wo rk ing o fA gency a tD if f e ren t L eve l s w i th in t h e C eme te r ies 8 . 2 A l te rna t ive F i e ld so fD iscou r se 8 . 2 .1 C on s t ruc t ion o fS t a tus I den t i t ie s 8 . 2 .2 C on s t ruc t ion o fF am i ly I den t i t ies 8 . 2 .3 E xp re s s ion o fC iv ic I d en t i ty 8 . 3 T he E ngende red B ody a tt h e L ankh i l ls C eme te ry

1 05 1 05 1 06 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 08

B ib l iography

13

A ppend ices

1 31

L IST OF F IGURES

F ig . 1

F ig . 2 F ig . 3

F ig . 4 F ig . 5

F ig . 6 F ig . 7 F ig . 8 F ig . 9 F ig . 1 0 F ig . 1

F ig . 1 2 F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

F ig . 2 0 F ig . 2 1 F ig . 2 2 F ig . 2 3 F ig . 2 4 F ig . 2 5 F ig . 2 6 F ig . 2 7 F ig . 2 8 F ig . 2 9 F ig .3 0 F ig .3 1

P l an o ft h ep rov inces o ff o u r th c en tury 6 B r i ta in s how ing t h e l o ca t ions o ft h e s e lec ted c eme t e ry s i tes L oca t ion o fL ankh i l ls i nr e la t ion t oR oman 7 V en ta B e lgarum T he n o r the rn c eme tery o fR oman 7 W inches te r ,d e ta i l ing t h e l o ca t ion so f L ankh i l ls , V ic to r ia R oad a nd H yde S t ree t b u r ia ls L oca t ion o ft h eB u t tR oad c eme te ry i n 8 r e la t ion t oR oman C amu lodunum P l an o ft h ea r ea se xcava ted a tB u t tR oad i n 9 1 845 a nd 1 976 1989 s how ing t h e c on jec tu red e x ten to ft h e f o ur th c en tu ry c eme tery T he s i te o fP oundbu ry C amp i nr e la t ion t o 1 0 R oman Durnova r ia E xcava ted s i te s o fP oundbu ry c eme te ry 1 0 P l an o fR oman C or in ium D obunnorum 1 s how ing t h e l o ca t ion o fB a th G a te E xcava ted a r ea so fB a th G a te c eme te ry 1 A du l ta ge -a t -dea th d i s t r ibu t ion b y s ex f o r 4 7 e a ch c eme te ry F ra c tu red l i mb b one s a s ap e rcen tage o f 5 1 t h et o ta l n umbe ro fb one sr e cove red f o r e ach s ex a tt h e B a th G a te a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s D a taba se E n t ry P age e xh ib i t ing t h em a in 5 3 f o rm s u t i l ised E n t i ty R e la t ion sh ip D iag ram 5 4 G rave D e ta i ls F o rm 5 5 C off in D e ta i l s F o rm 5 7 C off in F i t t ing sF o rm 5 8 S ke le ta l D e ta i l s F o rm 5 8 A s soc ia ted A r tef ac t s F o rm 6 1 E xamp le o ft h eb ackg round s t a t is t ica l 6 6 w o rk D i s t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia l sb ys e xf o rP e r iod 2 6 8 a tt h e B u t tc eme te ry D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia ls b ys e xa tt h e 6 9 P oundbu ry c eme te ry D i s t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia ls b ys e xa tt h e B a th 7 0 G a te c eme tery ( Pa r t 1 ) D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia ls b ys e xa tt h e B a th 7 1 G a te c eme te ry ( Pa r t2 ) D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia l sb ys ex -and -age f o r 7 2 P e r iod 2a tt h eB u t tR oad c eme t e ry D i s t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia l sb ys ex -and -age a t 7 3 t h eP oundbu ry c eme t e ry D i s t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia l sb ys ex -and -ag e a t 7 4 t h eB a th G a te c eme te ry ( Pa r t 1 ) D i s t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia l sb ys ex -and -ag e a t 7 5 t h eB a th G a t ec eme te ry ( Pa r t2 ) D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia ls b ys ex a tt h e 7 6 L ankh i l l sc eme te ry D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia ls b ys ex -and -age a t 7 7 t h e L ankh i l l s c eme t e ry D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia ls b ys e xa tt h eV ic to r ia 10 R oad s i t ef r om t h es e cond b u r ia l p e r iod D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia ls b ys ex a tt h eV ic to r ia 10 R oad s i t ef r om t h et h i rd b u r ia lp e r iod

L IST OF TABLES

T ab le 1

D isag reemen tb e tween t h e u se o f b i o log ica l s ke le ta l e xam ina t ion a nd a r tef ac ta s soc ia t ion a sm ean s o fs ex ing a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s T ab le 2 A ccu racy r a te sc l a imed f o ra du l ts ex d e term ina t ion f r om v a r iou s s ke le ta l e l emen t s T ab le 3 O ve ra l l f ema le :ma le r a t io s a te ach c eme tery T ab le 4 S t a tu re e s t ima t ion , r anges a nd m eans b ys ex f o rt h e s ke le ta l s amp le s f r om t h e B u t t R oad , B a th G a te a nd P oundbury c eme te r ies T ab le 5 D is t r ibu t ion o ff r ac tu res b y s ex a tt h e B u t tR oad c eme te ry T ab le 6 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia ls w i th f une ra ry e nc lo su r e s o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 7 S i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i t a l ignmen to n t h e b a s is o fs ex f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 8 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t a l ignmen to nt h e b a s is o fs e x -and -age f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 9 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t a l ignmen to nt h e b a s is o fs ex f o rt h e n or the rn p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry a t P oundbu ry T ab le 1 0 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i ts i de t r ea tmen to nt h e b a s is o fs ex f o rt h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry T ab le 1 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i tl e ng th o nt h eb a s is o fs ex f o rt h eP oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 1 2 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t l e ng th o nt h e b a s is o fs ex -and -age f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 1 3 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t l e ng th o nt h e b a s is o fs ex f o rt h em a in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbu ry T ab le 1 4 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t l e ng th o nt h eb a s is o fs ex -and -age f o rt h e m a in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbu ry T ab le 1 5 S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t w id th o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 1 6 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t w id th o nt h eb a s is o fs ex -and -age f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 1 7 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i tw id th o nt h eb a s i s o fs e x f o rt h e m a in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbu ry T ab le 1 8 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t w id th o nt h eb a s i so fs ex -and -age f o rt h e m a in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbu ry T ab le 1 9 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov is ion o f g r ave l i n ing o nt h e b a s i so fs e x -and -age f o rt h eB u t tR oad c eme te ry T ab le 2 0 S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o f g r ave l i n ing o nt h eb a s i so fs e x f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le

4 0

4 1

4 5 4 9

5 1 7 8

7 9

7 9 7 9

8 0

8 0

8 0

8 0

8 1

8 1

8 1

8 1

8 1

8 2

8 3

Table 21 Significant variation in the provision of grave lining on the basis of sex-and-age for the Poundbury cemetery as a whole Table 22 Significant variation in the provision of grave lining on the basis of sex for the main late cemetery at Poundbury Table 23 Significant variation in the provision of grave lining on the basis of sex-and-age for the main late cemetery at Poundbury Table 24 Significant variation in the provision of multiple grave lining materials on the basis of sex-and-age for the Poundbury cemetery as a whole Table 25 Significant variation in the provision of multiple grave lining materials on the basis of sex-and-age for the main late cemetery at Poundbury Table 26 Significant variation in the provision of coffin/corpse markers on the basis of sex-and-age for the Butt Road cemetery Table 27 Significant variation in coffin nail distribution on the basis of sex-and-age for the Bath Gate cemetery Table 28 Significant variation in the distribution of nails at coffin corners on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Table 29 Significant variation in the provision of corpse-wrapping on the basis of sexand-age for the Poundbury cemetery as a whole Table 30 Significant variation in 'general' arm position combinations on the basis of sex for the Lan.khills cemetery Table 31 Significant variation in 'general' arm position combinations on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Table 32 Significant variation in 'specific' (left and right) arm position combinations on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Table 33 ignificant variation in 'general' combinations of all four limb positions on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Table 34 Significant variation in 'specific' (left and right) combinations of all four limb positions on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Table 35 Significant variation in the association of burials with the standard arm position combination 'versus' deviations from this 'standard' on the basis of sex-andage for the Poundbury cemetery as a whole Table 36 Significant variation in the association of burials with the standard arm position combination 'versus' deviations from this 'standard' on the basis of sex-andage for the main late cemetery at Poundbury Table 37 Significant variation in the association of burials with the standard four limb position combination 'versus' deviations from this 'standard' on the basis of sexand-age for the Poundbury cemetery as

83

Table 38

83 83

Table 39

83

Table 40 Table 41

84

Table 42

84

Table 43

86 86

Table 44

87

Table 45

88

Table 46

88

Table 47

88

Table 48

89

Table 49

89

Table 50 Table 51

90

Table 52 90

Table 53 Table 54

90 Table 55 iv

n . the associatio in . b a whole variati. on h Signi�can t jth the standard f?ur � . 1at1ons dev sus ls a 'ver of bun -.// bination position co�ndard' on the basis of sext firom th.is ,5 he main late cemetery at t and-age fof · · Poundbur)' . . . anat10n m b ody pos1t10n S.1gm. fi1cant v on the basis of sex for Bath Gate cemetery . . . . . Significant vanat1on m body pos1t1on on the basis of sex-and-age for the Bath Gate cemetery Significant variation in skull position on the basis of sex-and-age for the Bath Gate cemetery Significant variation in left leg position on the basis of sex-and-age for the Bath Gate cemetery Significant variation in 'left arm with left leg' position combinations on the basis of sex-and-age for the Bath Gate cemetery Significant variation in 'left arm with right leg' position combinations on the basis of sex-and-age for the Bath Gate cemetery Counts and percentages of sexed adult burials associated with grave artefacts (excluding hobnails) at each cemetery Significant variation in the association of burials with textile equipment on the basis of sex for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in the association of burials with miscellaneous equipment on the basis of sex for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in the association of burials with jewellery on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in the association of burials with specific types of jewellery on the basis of sex for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in the association of burials with toiletries (combs) on the basis of sex for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in the association of burials with toiletries (combs) on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in the placement of vessels inside/outside the coffin on the basis of sex for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in hobnail positioning 'at' or 'on' the feet on the basis of sex for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in hobnail positioning 'at' or 'on' the feet on the basis of sex-and-age for the Lankhills cemetery Significant variation in the association of burials with equipment on the basis of sex for the Poundbury cemetery as a

90

91 91 91 93 93

93

94 95 95

96 96

96 96

97

97 97

98

w ho le T ab le 5 6 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l s w i th e qu ipmen to nt h eb a s i s o fs e x -and -ag ef o rt h eP oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 5 7 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia ls w i th e qu ipmen to nt h eb a s is o fs e x f o rt h em a in l a te c eme t e ry a t P oundbu ry T ab le 5 8 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l s w i th t e x t i le e qu ipmen to nt h e b a s i s o fs e x f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 5 9 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ei n c lu s ion o f m u l t ip le a r t ef ac t s i nb u r ia l so nt h eb a s i s o fs ex f o rt h eP oundbu ry c eme te ry a sa w ho le T ab le 6 0 S i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h ei n c lu s ion o f m u l t ip le a r t ef a c t s i nb u r ia l so nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -ag e f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 6 1 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l s w i th m u l t ip le so fp a r t icu la r t y pes o fa r tef a c t so nt h eb a s i so fs e x f o rt h e L ankh i l l sc eme te ry T ab le 6 2 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l sw i th m u l t ip le so fp a r t icu la r t y pe so fa r tef ac t so nt h eb a s i so fs e x a nd -age f o rt h e L ankh i l l sc eme te ry T ab le 6 3 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l sw i th t o i le t r ie s( c omb s ) i n s ide t h e c off in o nt h eb a s i so fs e x -and -age f o rt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry T ab le 6 4 S i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l sw i th e qu ipmen ti n s ide t h e c off in o nt h eb a s i so fs e xf o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le T ab le 6 5 S ign if i can tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l sw i th e qu ipmen ti n s ide t h e c off in o nt h eb a s i so fs e xf o rt h e e a s te r np e r iphe ra l c eme t e ry a t P oundbu ry T ab le 6 6 S ign if i can tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep l a cemen t o fa r tef ac t s i n s ide /ou t s id et h ec off in o n t h eb a s i so fs e x -and -age f o rt h e L ankh i l l sc eme te ry T ab le 6 7 S ign if i can tv a r ia t ion i nt h ed epo s i t ion o fv e s se ls a nd a n ima lr ema in s i n s ide / o u t s ide t h ec off in o nt h eb a s is o fs e x f o rt h e L ankh i l l sc eme t e ry T ab le 6 8 S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ed epo s i t ion o fv e s se l sa nd a n ima lr ema in so u t s ide t h e c off in o nt h eb a s i so fs e x f o rt h e L ankh i l l sc eme t e ry T ab le 6 9 P e rcen tage so ft h et o t a l n umbe ro f g rave sa te a ch c eme t e ry a s so c ia ted w i th g r ave f u rn i sh ing T ab le 7 0 S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fg r ave f u rn i sh ing ( e xc lud ing h obna i l s ) o nt h eb a s i so fs e xa tt h eV ic to r ia R oad s i te

9 8

L IST OF APPEND ICES

A ppend ix 1 C eme te ry D e ta i l s

1 3 1

A ppend ix 2 S ec t ion D e ta i l s

1 3 1

A ppend ix 3 C r ema t ion D e ta i l s

1 32

9 8

A ppend ix 4 E nc lo su r eD e ta i l s

1 32 1 33

9 9

A ppend ix 5 E xamp le so ft h et e rm ino logy a pp l ied t ot h eB u t t R oad s k e le ta l p o s i t ion ing A ppend ix 6 C omponen t s D e ta i ls

1 35

A ppend ix 7 T ex t i le R ema in s

1 36

A ppend ix 8 A rm p o s i t ion v a lue se x c luded f r om t h em a in a na ly s i so rs u b sumed w i th in s imp l if ied d a ta v a lue s f o rt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry

1 36

A ppend ix 9 A rm p o s i t ion v a lue se xc luded f r om t h em a in a na ly s i so ft h eB u t tR oad c eme te ry

1 37

9 8

9

9 9

1 00

1 00

1 00

1 00

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 09

1 09

CHAPTER 1

I NTRODUCT ION

1 . 1

B r ie f Out l ine o fT heore t ica l P o s i t ion a nd A ims

t h is w o rk i sa ne xp lo ra t ion o fh ow f a r w e c an t r ace t h a t l i nk . My d i scu s s ion f o cu se s u pon f une ra ry d a ta a st h is i su n ique i ni t sp rov i s ion o ft h e p hy s ica l r ema in s o fi n d iv idua l p eop le , a nd t h u s i na low ing a cce s s t oa gency 's a c t ions u pon b e ing s w ho a r e n o t o n ly b i o log ica l ly s exed b u t w ho c a r r ied m emo r ie s , a s soc ia t ion s a nd s en t imen t s w i th t h em i n t h e m ind s o ft h e m ourne r s . U s ing d a ta c o l la ted f r om f ou r l a te R omano -B r i t ish u rban c eme t ery s i tes Ia im t o l o ok a tt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e s idue o ft h e s e r ie s o fa c t ion s u pon t h e b ody i n t e rm s o f v a r iab i l i ty i n f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t s , a s se s s ing s t a t is t ica l ly w he the r t h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e c o rp se c or re spond s w i th w ha t w e s e e a r chaeo log ica l ly a st h e i r s e xed i d en t i t ie s . A ny d i scu s s ion o f ' s ex ' a nd ' g ende r ' m u s t a ccoun t f o r t h e c ur ren t r e a l i sa t ion t h a t t h ese f e a tu re s a r e r e la ted b u t n on i d en t ica l . H ow t h en a r e w e t ol o ok a tg ende r v i a t h e s exed c a tego r ie s o f s ke le ta l r ema in s i fs ex a nd g ende r a r e n o t t h e s ame t h ing? I n t h is s t udy I a t temp t t o a vo id t h e ' n a tu re :cu l tu re ' ( s ex :gende r ) d i s t inc t ion b y t a lk ing o f b o th b i o log ica l a nd s oc ia l c ond i t ions a sc on t r ibu t ing t ot h e s e xed i d en t i ty o f t h e a gen t . T he t e rms s e x a nd g ende r w i l l t h e ref o re n o t b e u s ed a s i ft h ey r e p re sen t ac l ea r a na ly t ica l d i s t inc t ion . T he s exed b od ie s w e a r e l o ok ing a t w e re i n hab i ted b y c on sc iou sne s s , b y h uman a gency , w h ich c ons t ruc ted i t s g ende r i d en t i ty t h rough s e t s o f m a te r ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c ond i t ions a nd p a rame te r s , o fw h ich t h e b i o log ica l s e x o ft h e b ody w a s ap ar t . G ende r i d en t i t ies a ppea r a st h e w ay t h e s e xua l b ody i s l i ved t h rough t h ese p a rame te r s d u r ing l i f e , a nd a td ea th t h is r e -wo rk ing i su nder taken b y o t he r a genc ie s i nt h e w ays t h e c orp se i st r ea ted . T he b u r ia l p roce s s c on s t ruc t s i d en t i ty r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e l i v ing a nd t h e d ead i nw h ich c a tego r ie s , i d en t i t ie s a nd m emo r ie s o f t h e l i v ing a r e r e f o rmu la ted b y d ea th a nd w e a r e p r e sen ted w i th t h e c on s t ruc ted r e p re sen ta t ion s o ft h e f une ra l a gency . I a m i n te r e s ted i nw ha t t h e f une ra l a gency i sd o ing i ni t s r e w o rk ing o ft h a t s e xed b ody , w he the r a n e ngende red i d en t i ty o f t h e c orp se a ppea r s t o h ave b een e mpha s ised o r o ve r w r i t ten b y o t he r f o rms o f i d en t i t ie s w i th in t h e b u r ia l c on tex t s s t ud ied . T ak ing l a te R omano -B r i t ish i n huma t ion r i t es a s ac a se , t h is s t udy i n ve s t iga te s h ow e ngende red r e la t ion sh ip s m ay h ave b een r e -wo rked a nd r e -p re sen ted i n d ea th , a nd c on s ide r s t h e s t ra teg ie s i n vo lved i n t h e se r e w o rk ing s .

F ocus ing u pon b u r ia l r i t es t h i s s t udy i n ve s t iga te s t h e a ppea rance o f g ende r , a nd i n p a r t icu la r t h e a ppea rance / r ep resen ta t ion o f w omen a s a n e ngende red c a tego ry w i th in t h e h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t o f l a te R oman B r i ta in . T h is i sn o t a n a t temp t t o ' d i scove r ' g ende r a s i ti sn ow c l ea r t h a t a r cha eo log is t s d o n o t f i nd a n e ng ende r ed p re sence a s g i ven b y t h e p a s t ; t h e re i sn o o ne t r ue r e p resen ta t ion o f g ende r o r w omen m an if es t i n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . G ende r i sn o t a' t h ing ' o r ac a tego ry t h a t c an b ee xcava ted , i td oe s n o th ave f o rm o rm a t te r , b u t i s d ynam ic a nd c hang ing , c ons t i tu ted b y as e t o f h i s to r ica l r e la t ion sa nd p roce s se s . G ende rc anno tb e o b se rved d i rec t ly b u t i t s r e p r e sen ta t ion s c an b e t r aced a nd s t ud ied . T h is w o rk t h us c on s ide r s t h e w ay s ab i o log ica l b ody h a s b een t r ea ted i ni t sj our n ey f r om l i f e t ot h e e xcava t ion r e por t , r e cogn is ing t h ree d i s t inc t p roce s se s b y w h ich g ende r i sb u i l t u pon a st h e b ody a nd r e -wo rked a nd r e p re sen ted t h rough h uman a gency . G ende r i sr e p resen ted f r om a s e r ie s o f p e r spec t ive s w h ich c r o s s -cu te a ch o the r , b e ing w o rked u pon t h eb ody b y i t so wn a gency , b y t h e a genc ie s o f o t he r s i n t h e p a s t , a nd b y a r chaeo log ica l a gency . E a ch o ft h e se p roce s se s i n vo lve s t h e c on s t ru c t ion a nd r e -wo rk ing o f t h e e ngende red i d en t i ty o f t h e b ody . T o c oncep tua l ly c l a r if y t h e se p roce sse s w e c an l o ok a tt h e b ody i nt e rms o fi t sh i s to ry : 1 .

T he a ppea rance o fg ende r i sb u i l t d u r ing t h e l i f e t ime o f p eop le i n t h e w ay s i n w h ich t h ey a c t . G ende r i s c on s t ruc ted t h rough s oc ia l p r a c t ice , a ppea r ing a s ap a r t o f e xp re s s ion o f s e lf iden t i ty w i th in t h e m a te r ia l a nd i d eo log ica l c on tex t o ft h e l a t eR oman w o r ld .

2 .

When a p e r son d i e s t h ey c an n o l o nge r p ar t ic ipa te a c t ive ly i n t h e c r ea t ion , t r an sf o rma t ion a nd r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h e i r o wn i d en t i ty . E ngende red i d en t i t ies a r e t h en r e -wo rked i nt h e w ay s t h e b ody i s t r ea ted b yt h ea gency o fo t he r s w ho a c t u pon t h e c orp se , t h e se a c t ion s i ns ome w ay o ro t he r e i the r r emembe r ing o rf o rge t t ing t h e p r ev iou s i d en t i t ie s b u i l t u pon t h e b ody , a nd t hu s e i the r e mpha s i s ing o r o ve r -w r i t ing t h e e ng ende red i d en t i ty o ft h e c o rp se i nf une ra ry t r ea tmen t .

3 .

A pp roach ing f u ne ra ry d a ta f r om t h i s a ng le i sa n e x t r eme ly c omp lex t a sk i n vo lv ing c omp rehens ive t h eo r ie s o f s oc ia l i n terp re ta t ion o f m o r tua ry r ema in s , a gency , s t ruc tu re , s ex a nd g ende r . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s o u t l ine m y i n tended a pp roa ch t ot h is t a sk b y p rov id ing ac on ten t s umma ry o ft h e i n d iv idua l c hap te r s , ab r ief d i scu s s ion o ft h e c on tex t o f l a te R omano -B r i t ish u rban b u r ia l r i t e s , i n c lud ing i n he ren t p rob lem s a nd l i m i ta t ions i n t h is k i nd o f d a ta s e t , a nd d e sc r ip t ion s o fm y c ho sen c eme te ry s i t e s .

G ende r i sa l so r e -e s tab l i shed i nt h ew ay s i nw h ich w e a s a r chaeo log i s t s t a ke t h e c o rp se , a s s ign i t t o a s e x c a t egory a nd a na ly se i tf r om o u r o wn t empo ra l a nd i d eo log ica l p e r spec t ive s .

S e t o u t i n t h is m anne r t h e se d i f f e ren t r e p re sen ta t ions o r c on s t ruc t ion s o f e ngende red i d en t i t ie s a r e c l ea r ly r e cogn i sab le t r an sf o rma t ion s ; a s a r chaeo log is t s w e c an r e cogn ise t h e a c t ion s o ft h e b ody a si t s e lf , i t st r ea tmen t a sa c o rp se , a nd u l t ima te ly a s a n a r chaeo log ica l f i nd , b u t t h e p r ob lem w e f a ce i su nde r s tand ing e ach o ft h e se p roce s se s . T he re i sa n i n de te rm ina te l i nk b e tween e ach o f t h em , a nd 1

1 . 2

S truc ture o ft h e Work

T he f i r s t f o u r e n su ing c hap te r s a r e a l c oncer ned w i th e xp lo r ing t h e d i f f e r en t f o rm s o f r e p r e sen ta t ion s o u t l ined a bove . C hap te r Two p r ov ide s a c r i t ique o f r e levan t a s sump t ion s a nd p r ob lem s i n he r en t i np r oce s sua l / sy s tem ic t h eo ry a nd m e thodo logy w h ich v i ew s f u ne r a ry r ema in s a s d i r ec t r e p re sen ta t ion s o f s o c ia l f o rm . Ie xp la in w hy I b e l ieve t h is t y pe o fa pp roa ch t ob e h i gh ly q u e s t ionab le a sa n a v enue o f i n s igh t i n t o p a s t s o c ia l l i f e , a nd p a r t icu la r ly i n adequa te a s am ean so fi n ve s t iga t ing g ende ra r rangemen t s . 1c a nno t a c cep t t h a t f u ne r a ry i n ve s tmen t a nd o rgan i sa t ion r e p r e sen t s a d i r ec t m app ing o f s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e a nd c omp lex i ty ; t h i s e xpec t s at o o l i t e ra l a nd m echan i s t ic r ef l ec t ion o f s o c ia l l i f e t h rough t h e p a t t e rn ing o f m a te r ia l r e s idue s , av i ew o f h uman b ehav iou r t h a t s uppo r t s a d i cho tomy b e tween f u nc t ion a nd m ean ing . S uch a n a pp roa ch h a s f a i led t o a cknow ledge h uman c apac i ty f o r k now ledgeab le a c t ion a nd i st h u s b l ind t ot h e p roce s se s b y w h ich a n e ngende r ed b e ing a ppea r s t ou s a r chaeo log ica l ly . P eop le a r e a s sumed t o h ave f o l lowed s o c ia l ' r o le s ' p r e d e t e rm ined b y t h e s y s t em , g ende r ' r o le s ' a r e a s sumed t o h ave b een p r e -de te rm ined b y b i o logy , a nd b u r ia l i ss e en a s ap a r t o f p r oce s s r a the r t h an s p ec if i c m omen t s o f s oc ia l a c t ion . C oncen t ra t ion u pon t h e t o ta l s y s tem a st h e u n i t o f a na ly s i s a nd t h e p r odu c t ion o f p r ed ic t ive c r o s s -cu l tu ra l g ene ra l i sa t ion s h a s s ub sumed ' p eop le ' i n t h e s y s tem a nd s p ec if i c c u l tu r a l c on tex t s h ave e s sen t ia l ly b een i g no r ed . T he r e i s n o c oncep t ion o f t h e a c t ive c on s t ruc t ion o f i d en t i t ie s , e i the r b y t h e d ecea sed d u r ing l i f e , o rt h e f u ne r a l a g ency w i th in t h e b u r ia l d oma in , a nd g ende r h a s b een v i ewed a sc omp r i s ing f i xed c a tego r ie s r a the rt h an av a r iab le a nd d ynam ic s e to fp roce s se sc hang ing a c co rd ing t oc on tex t . T h i s a pp roa ch h a s d en ied p eop le t h e i r a gency i nf a vou r o f t h e g en e ra l p r oce s se s r e gu la t ing t h e f u nc t ion ing o f t h e ' who le ' s o c ia l s y s t em , a nd u s ing f u ne ra ry r ema in s a s r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f s o c ia l f o rm h a s p r even ted u s f r om v i ew ing t h e m a te r ia l i na ny k i nd o fs t r a teg ic c on t ex t . T he i mpo r tance o f r e cogn is ing t h e s t ra teg ic c on tex t o f h uman r e p re sen ta t ion i s c l ea r ly e xpo sed b y t h e c on s ide ra t ion o f t e x tua l s o u r ce s i n C hap te r T h r ee . T ex t s , w he the r l i t e ra ry , e p ig raph ic o r l e ga l s ou r ce s , c an b e v i ewed i n an umbe ro fd i f f e r en tw ay s , e a ch p r ov id ing v e ry d i f f e ren t k i nd s o f r e p r e sen ta t ion s . T hey h ave o f ten b een t a k en a s f a c tua l a c coun t s , a sa no the r f o rm o fr e p r e sen ta t ion o f' r ea l ' s o c ia l f o rm , b u t a c cep tance o fh uman a g ency m ean s t h a t w e c an n o tm e r e ly t a ke r e p r e sen ta t ion t ob e v a lue -f r ee . T ex tua l s ou r ce s l a rge ly r e p r e sen t w omen t h rough a genc ie s o f l e ga l i ty a nd m a le t e x t s a nd m u s tt h u s b es e en a ss t ra t eg ica l ly d ep loyed . T hey a r e w r i t t en b y m en , h i s to r ian s a nd l awye r s , w ho h ave a n i n ve s tmen t i nt h e s o c ia l o r de r t h ey d e sc r ibe a nd a r e t h u s a temp t ing t oc on t ro l . I nt h i s s e n se ap a ra l le l m ay b e d r awn b e tween t h e l i t e ra ry a nd f u ne r a ry d oma in s a s b o th p r ov ide u s w i th r e p r e sen t a t ion s o f p eop le , a nd m o r eove r , m ay b o th p rov ide u s w i th d om inan t r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f w omen t h a t w e r e c on s t ruc t ed b y m en . W i th t h is i d ea i n m ind I h ave f o cu sed u pon s e lec ted c ommon a nd p rom inen t t h eme s a ppa r en t i n t e x tua l r e p r e sen ta t ion s o fw omen w i th av i ew t oa s se s s ing e v idence f o ra c tua l s o c ia l p r ac t ice , e xp lo r ing t ow ha td eg r ee i tm ay b e p o s s ib le t os e e w omen 's a c t iv i t ie s a se cho ing o rd i ve r s if y ing f r om t h e g i ven r e p re sen ta t ion s . I n ve s t iga t ion o f w omen 's p owe r s o f s e lf -exp re s s ion a nd c ho ice o f l i f e p a ths i s

u nd e r tak en t o c on s ide r t h e s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l p a rame te r s c on s t i tu t ing t h e c on t ex t o f t h e i r o wn g ende r c on s t r uc t ion a sa n a t emp t t oc on s ide r momen t s w hen w omen 's a gency m ay b e s e en t o e me rge t h rough t h e ' c amouf lag e ' o f r e p r e sen ta t ion sc r ea ted b yo t he r s . T he f o u r t h c hap te r e xp lo r e s c u r r en t ' i n t e rp r e ta t ive ' d eba te s p e r ta in ing t o a g ency , s t r uc tu re , s e x a nd g ende r , a nd h ow t h e se a f f e c t i n t e rp re ta t ion s o f s o c ia l l i f e t h rough m or tua ry r e s idu e s . H e r e Ia m p a r t icu la r ly c once rned w i th t h e e l uc ida t ion o ft wo d i f f e r en t f o rm s o fh uman r e p r e sen ta t ion ; f i r s t ly , s e lf r ep r e sen ta t ion , a si nt h e c r ea t ion o fs e lf iden t i ty , i n c lud ing g ende r , t h rough t h e a c t ion s o f t h e a g en t s t h em se lv e s d u r ing l i f e , a nd s e cond ly , t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o f i d en t i t ie s i nt h e f u ne r a ry d oma in b y t h e a g ency o f o t he r s w ho a c t u pon t h e d ead . I n t e rm s o f t h e f i r s t t y p e o f r e p r e sen t a t ion , r e cogn i t ion o fh uman a g ency a cknow ledge s t h e c on s c iou sne s s o f p a s t p eop le , t h e i r a b i l i ty t o f o rm a s se s smen t s a nd a im s a nd t h u s t h e i r c apac i ty f o r s t ra teg ic k now ledg eab le a c t ion . T he d i f f e r en t a im s a nd m o t iva t ion s o fs o c ia l a g en t s a nd t h e i r c or r e spond ing ly d i f f e r en t c ou r se s o fa c t ion m ean t h a t s o c ia l i d en t i t ie s a nd l i ved r e a l i t ie s a r e i n a c on s tan t s t a te o f n ego t ia t ion . P eop le c on s t ruc t a nd n ego t ia t e ap l ace f o rt h em se lve s w i th in s p ec if ic m a te r ia l a nd h i s to r ica l c o n t ex t s . I ti sw i th in a nd t h rough t h e se c on tex t s t h a t g ende r c oncep t s a nd c a tego r ie s w e re b r ough t i n t o e x i s tence , g i v en m ean ing a nd r e p roduced a s d i scou r se ( c ommun ica t iv e p r a c t ice ) w h ich s t ruc tu r e s s oc ia l r e la t ion s . S oc ie ty a nd i t s a g en t s a r e c r ea ted t h rough ' p e r f o rmance ' , g ende r s a r e c on s t ruc t ed t h rough s o c ia l p r ac t ic e w i th in s p ec if ic c on t ex t s a nd s hou ld b e v i ewed a ss e t s o fr e la t ion s a nd p r oce s s e s c on s t i tu t ive o f s oc ia l l i f e . I n l i gh t o ft h e se p e r spec t ive s R omano -B r i t i sh s oc ia l l i f e a nd g ende r a rang emen t s c a n b e c oncep tua l i sed i n a m uch m o r e i n s igh tf u l m anne r . I n s tead o f t h e c ommon c oncen t r a t ion u pon g ene r a l i sed m ode l s o f d om ina t ion a nd s ubo rd ina t ion ( powe r o ve r ) ' e xpec ted ' o f p a t r ia r cha l s o c ie t ie s , w e m u s t c on s ide r t h e i n te rac t ion a nd n ego t ia t ion ( p owe r t o ) b e tween m en a nd w omen a s a c t ive s oc ia l a g en t s w i th in t h e i r p a r t icu la rc on tex t s . O fm a jo ri mpo r tt oa r chaeo log ica l s t ud i e so fs oc ia l l i f e i st h e r e cogn i t ion o fm a te r ia l c u l tu r e a s as t r a t eg ica l ly o pe r a t iona l f o r ce t h rough h uman a gency , d r awn u pon i nd i scou r se a nd t h e c on s t i tu t ion o f s e lf , a nd w i th t h e p o t en t ia l t o b e u s ed s t ra t eg ica l ly i ng ende r r e la t ion s a nd r e p r e s en ta t ion s . T h i s p o in t b r ing s u s t o t h e s e cond t y p e o f r e p re sen ta t ion c once r n ing t h e s t r a teg ic u s e o f b u r ia l b y f u ne ra l a g enc ie s . I nt h i s c a se Ia r gue t h a t a ss t ra teg ic p r a c t ic e , b u r ia l m ay b e u s ed a s p a r t o f t h e o n -go ing s oc ia l d i scou r se w i th in a ny s o c ie ty . F une r a l s c an b e u s ed t op roduc e p a r t icu la rk i nd s o f r e p r e sen ta t ion s u s ing , a mong s t o t he r t h ing s , t h e c o rp se , a b ody o nce c on s c iou s o fi t s e lf a nd n ow s u b je c t t ot h e a gency o fo t he r s . Wh en w e i n ve s t iga te mo r tua ry d a ta t h e r ef o r e w e a r e n o t l o ok ing d i r ec t ly a tt h e i n d iv idua l i nt h e g r ave , b u t a t a no the r a g ency 's r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h a t p e r son . T h i s r e p r e sen ta t ion m ay i n vo lv e m a in tenance o ft h e r emembe r ed i d en t i ty o ft h e d e cea sed , b u t i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t w ha t w e s e e i s ac on s t ru c ted i d en t i ty f a r r emov ed f r om t h a t c r ea t ed b yt h e d ecea sed a g en tt h em se lve s d u r ing l i f e . I nt h i s w o rk I a im t oe xp lo re t h e w ay s i nw h ich a gen cy o p e ra ted t h rough t h e m ed ia o ff u n e ra l s , t ol o ok a tt h e p o s s ib le d i f f e r en t l e ve l s a tw h ich a g ency m ay b e a tw o rk , a nd t oc on s ide r t h e t y pe s o f s t ra teg ie s t h a t a r e b e ing d ep loyed . Ii n ve s t iga te w ho se a gency w e a r e l o ok ing a ta nd w ha t t h ey a r e d o ing i nt h e i r

s t ra tegy , t h e r e su l t s a r e a r ranged i nt e rm s o f s t age s i nt h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s ; f r om t h e s e lec t ion o f g r ave p o s i t ion a nd t h e p r epa ra t ion o ft h e g r ave -p i t t h rough t h e p rov is ion o f a b ody c on ta ine r , t h e p o s i t ion ing o f t h e c o rp se , a nd t h e s e lec t ion o fg rave a r tef ac t s , t o t h e b ack -f i l l ing o ft h e g r ave a nd t h e e r ec t ion o fs u rf ace m a rke r s . T h is a pp roach n o t o n ly e nab le s c ons ide ra t ion o fw he the r g ende r d i scou r se i sv i s ib le a ta ny o ft h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s , b u t a l so a tw h ich s t age (s ) i nt h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s , i fa ny , g ende r r e p r e sen ta t ion s a r e b e ing m ade , a nd w he the r /how t h i s m ay h ave v a r ied a c ro s s t h e d i f f e ren t s i te s . A s w i l l b e d i scu s sed i nt h e f o l low ing s e c t ion o f t h is i n t roduc t ion , t h e a ppa ren t ' managed ' n a tu r e o fl a te R omano -B r i t ish c eme te r ie s h a s b een t a ken t oi n d ica te ad eg ree o f o ff ic ia l c on t ro l o ve r f u ne ra l a r r angemen t s a nd o rgan isa t ion a nd Ib e l ieve t h a t t h i s r a i se s q ue s t ions a s t o t h e k i nd s o f a gency t h a t w e re o pe ra t iona l i nl a te R omano B r i t i sh m or tua ry c on tex t s . We a r e t h u s p r ov ided w i th t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o c on s ide r w he the r d i f f e ren t l e ve ls o f a gency a ppea rt oh ave b een a c t ive i nd i f f e r en t s t age s o ft h e f u ne ra ry s e quence , a nd t o i n ve s t iga te t h e i r p o ten t ia l ly v a ry ing s t ra teg ie s i nr e la t ion t ot h et r ea tmen to ft h e s e xed c orp se .

r e -wo rk ing o f t h e s exed c o rp se , w ha t k i nd s o f r e p re sen ta t ion s a r e b e ing m ade . T he f i na l s e c t ion o f t h is c hap te rt u rn s t owa rd s as pec if ica l ly R omano -B r i t i sh c on tex t a nd t h e c ons ide ra t ion o ft h e e me rgence o fw omen 's a gency , e xam in ing t h e t ypes o f r e p re sen ta t ion s o fw omen a va i lab le o n t omb s tone s , a nd a sk ing t o w ha t d eg r ee w e c an t e l l i f w omen 's a b i l i t ie s t o c on s t ruc t i d en t i t ie s i n d ea th w e r e e qu iva len t t ot h o se o f m en , b y c on t r ibu t ing t ot h e f o rm o f t h e i r o wn f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t t h rough t h e p rov is ion o f t e s tamen t s , o r d ep loy ing t h e i r o wn s t ra teg ie s a s f u ne ra l a gen t s . C hap te r F ive i s c once rned w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e c orp se , i n vo lv ing t h e a gency o f a r chaeo log i s t s w ho a c t u pon t h e m a te r ia l , a nd t h i s c hap te r f o rm s t h e s t a r t o f m y a na ly t ica l p u r su i t o f e ng ende r ed i d en t i t ie s f r om t h e s e lec ted l a te R omano -Br i t ish c eme te ry s i te s . T he m a in q ue s t ion h e re i st h e c on s t ruc t ion o fg ende r i d en t i ty t h rough s ke le ta l a na ly s is , h ow i ti sm ade ' k nown ' a na ly t ica l ly . A r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is i s ac on s t ruc t a nd t h e f i r s t s t ep i st h e e xpec ta t ion t h a t t h e b ody w i l l a ppea r a s b i o log ica l ly s exed e ven t h ough s exua l d imo rph ism i sn eve r b i o log ica l ly e xac t . T he f i r s t p a r t o f t h is c hap te r t h us d i scu s se s t h e a na ly t ica l m eans b y w h ich t h e g i ven s k e le ta l s amp le s w e re p l aced i n s e x a nd a ge c a tego r ie s , w ha t t h i s m ay t e l l u s i nt e rms o fd emog raph ic c ha ra c te r is t ic s , a nd t h e r e spec t ive d eg rees o fc onf idence t h a t m ay b e p l aced o n t h e r e su l t s . T he s e cond p a r t o ft h e c hap te ri sc oncer ned w i th t h e h i s to ry w r i t ten u pon t h e b ody i n t e rm s o f i n d ica to r s o f d i e ta ry c ompo s i t ion , n u t r i t iona l s t re s s , a c t iv i ty re la ted s t re s s a nd t r auma , a nd ac ompa ra t ive s t udy o ft h e se f e a tu r e s a c ro s s t h e c ho sen s amp le s i su nder taken . S ome a spec t s o fg ende r m ay b ecome v i s ib le t o u s t h rough s u ch a na ly s i s d ue t ot h e c l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween ap e r son 's l i f e s ty le a nd d i e t a nd t h e t y pe s a nd f r equenc ies o f s t re s s a nd d i sea se s t o w h ich t h ey s u ccumb . A s g ende r i st i ed t os o c ia l p r ac t ice i nt ime a nd s p ace , v a r iab i l i ty i n s uch f e a tu re s b e tween m en a nd w omen m ay h e lp t o e l uc ida te d i f f e r en t ia l t r ea tmen t a nd l i f e s ty le s . T h is s hou ld n o t b e c onf u sed w i th s imp le a s s ignmen t o f s ex ro les o r a t temp t s t o p l ace ' v a lue s ' o n d i f f e r en t t a sk s , b u t t h e h i s to ry o f t h e b ody m ay p rov ide a r e p r e sen ta t ion o f e ngende red p r a c t ice s a nd w ay s o f l i f e . D ependen t u pon t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f o s teo log ica l a na ly s i s w e m ay t h u s h ave a n a venue o fi n s igh t i nt ot h e ' p e rf o rmance ' o fs ome a spec t s o fg ende r , al i nk b e tween t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fe ngende red i d en t i t ie s t h rough p r a c t ice d u r ing l i f e a nd t h e r e -e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e se i d en t i t ie s u pon t h e b ody b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is o ft h ec orp se .

T he o ve rv iew o ft h e a na ly t ica l r e su l t s f i nd s t h a t i ng ene ra l t h e p r e sence o fs e x -ba sed d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nb u r ia l t r ea tmen t h a s o n ly b een w eak ly s uppor ted a nd t h a t g ende r a ppea r s t o h ave b een l a rge ly o ve r -w r i t ten w i th in t h e l a te R omano B r i t ish c eme te ry c on tex t s s t ud ied . R a the r , c oncen t ra t ion a ppea r s t o h ave b een p l aced u pon t h e c r ea t ion o f f am i ly i d en t i t ies ( i n w h ich g ende rp l ayed ap a r t ) a nd t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e f am i ly w i th in t h e u rban c ommun i ty . O n ly a to ne o ft h e s i t e s , t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , W inche s te r , d oe s t h e s ex o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a ppea r t o h ave s i gn if ican t ly s t ruc tu red t h e m a te r ia l t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ead .

1 . 3

T he C on tex t o ft h e I nve s t iga t ion

C ur r en t k now ledge i n d ica te s t h a t af undamen ta l a l te ra t ion i n R omano -Br i t ish b u r ia l r i t e s o ccur red d u r ing t h e l a te r s e cond c en tu ry AD w i th t h e c hange f r om c r ema t ion t oi n huma t ion , at r end a ppa ren t ly o r ig ina t ing i nt h e t owns a nd s p r ead ing t o r u ra l a r ea s , b ecom ing t h e d om inan t r i t e a c ro s s t h e p rov ince s b y t h e e nd o f t h e t h ird c en tu ry ( E smonde C lea ry , 1 992 ) . T he f o ur th c en tu ry s aw t h e e me rgence o f an ew u rban p henomenon i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f ' managed ' c eme te r ies ( Thoma s , 1 981 : 2 32 ) , e x tens ive a nd o rde r ly e x t ra -mu ra l i n huma t ion g round s o f t en l o ca ted o n n ew s i t e s a l ong a pp roach r oad s t o t h e t own s . U se o f t h ese c eme te r ies g ene ra l ly a ppea r s t o h ave c ea sed b y a r ound AD 4 20 , n o rma l ly e qua ted w i th t h e b r eakdown o f u rban l i f e i n B r i ta in d u r ing t h e e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry . We t h u s a ppea r t o b e p r esen ted w i th a n i d en t if iab le ' t ype ' o f c eme te ry i n t e rm s o f p l acemen t , i n te rna l o rgan i sa t ion a nd l a rge ly c on tempo raneou s p e r iod s o fu se a s soc ia ted w i th v a r iou s l a te R omano -B r i t ish u rban c en t re s a nd i ti s r a the r s u rp r is ing t h e ref o re t of i nd ag ene ra l l a ck o fc ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re . T he m a jo r i ty o f p ub l ished a na lyse s h ave c oncen t ra ted u pon i n d iv idua l c eme te ry s i tes , o r mo re r a re ly , h ave i n ve s t iga ted t h e k nown c eme te r ie s d i s t r ibu ted a r ound ap a ren t t own . Wh i l s t s ome s t ud ie s h ave a s ser ted ' r eg iona l i ty ' a s ac r uc ia l f a c to r i nd e term in ing h ow o ne w a s b u r ied i nR oman B r i ta in ( E smonde C lea ry , 1 987 ; 1 992 ) , c oncen t ra t ion g ene ra l ly h a s b een p l aced u pon d ec iphe r ing t h e s p r ead o f u rban a nd r u ra l t r ad i t ion s a nd

C hap t e r S ix e xp la in s my d e s ign a nd c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e d a taba se i n t o w h ich t h e d e ta i l s o f m or tua ry t r ea tmen t r e co rded f o r e ach b u r ia l a tt h e c ho sen c eme te r ie s h ave b een e n te r ed . H e re a r e a l so o u t l ined t h e c ons ide rab le d i f f icu l t ie s i n he r en t i nd ea l ing w i th s uch am a s s ive a r ray o f d a ta , a nd t h e p r ob lems i n vo lved i nt r y ing t o u nder take c ompa ra t ive s t ud ies o fc eme te ry s i tes . A s a l ready i n t ima ted , m y s t udy o f t h e c eme te ry d a ta c oncen t ra te s u pon s t a t is t ica l a ppea rance s o f v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e ' s exed ' c orp se a s a m ean s o f i n ves t iga t ing w he the r e ngende r ed i d en t i t ie s c r ea ted b y t h e a gen t t h em se lve s d u r ing l i f e w e r e r emembe red a nd e mpha s ised o r f o rgo t ten a nd o ve r -w r i t ten b y t h e s t ra teg ic p rac t ice o f t h e f u ne ra l a gency . D e ta i ls o f h ow t h is a na ly s is w a s u nde r taken a r e p r e sen ted i nC hap te r S even , w he re , i n o rde r t o p l a ce t h e b u r ia l d a ta i n r i tua l c on t ex t a nd t o v i ew t h e f i nd ing s a s a s pec t s o f b u r ia l 3

t h e r e i s an o tab le l a ck o f c on temp la t ion o f t h e p o s s ib le v a ry ing s t ra teg ie s o ft h o se w ho ' managed ' i nd i f f e ren t u rban c on tex t s .

b e l ief s . I n deed t h e r e i s an o tab le l a ck o f e xp l ic i t m a te r ia l e xp r e s s ion o r s ymbo l ism r e la ted t o C h r is t ian i ty a t t h e c eme te r ie s i nq ue s t ion , a nd e v idence f o r a d jo ined c eme ter y c hu r che s i si n sub s tan t ia l a t p re sen t w i th o n ly t wo b e ing k nown f r om B u t t R oad i n C o lche s te r a nd l c k l ingham ( C rummy , 1 990 ; e ta l . , 1 993 ) . F i na l ly , t h e e me rg ence o f t empo ra l a noma l ie s d e se rve s c on s ide ra t ion . A l i nk i s c ommon ly p o s tu la ted b e tween t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e ' managed ' c eme te r ie s a nd t h e c on so l ida t ion o f t h e C hu r ch i nR oman B r i ta in w i th t h e e d ic t o fC on s tan t ine i n AD 3 13 ( Thoma s , 1 98 1; W i lson , 1 968 ; S pa r ey -Green , 1 982 ) . H oweve r , an umbe ro ft h e s i te s p r e -da te t h is e d ic t , i n c lud ing f o r e xamp le s ome b u r ia ls f r om t h e m a in c eme te ry a t P oundbu ry , D o rche s te r , a nd t hus d e sp i te e xh ib i t ing t h e ' c o r r ec t ' f e a tu re s t h e se b u r ia l s w e r e a c tua l ly u nder taken w hen t h e i nf luence o fC h r is t ian i ty o n t h e p opu la t ion a tl a rg e w a s u n l ike ly t oh ave b een g rea t , a nd b ef o r e t h e C hu r ch w a s l i ke ly t oh ave r e ached t h e s t a tu s o f ac on so l ida ted o ff ic ia l a ppa ra tu s s u i tab le t oh ave i n te r sec ted i nf une ra ry c once rns f r om a n a dm in is t ra t ive v i ewpo in t ( Ca sa H a t ton , 1 999 ) . A ccep tance o f t h e se c eme te r ie s a s t h e r e s t ing p l ace s o f a dhe ren t s t o t h e f a i th t h u s r e qu i r e s u naccep tab ly h i gh p ropo r t ion s o f C h r is t ian s f o r R omano -B r i t ish p opu la t ions d u r ing t h e e a r ly f o ur th c en tury ( Ph i lpo t t , 1 99 1 : 2 27 ) . I n a g r eemen t w i th P h i lpo t t ( 199 1 : 2 35 ) i t w ou ld b e u n r ea sonab le t o d eny R omano -Br i t i sh b u r ia l p r ac t ice s a r e l ig iou s d imens ion , p a r t icu la r ly a s c l a s s ica l s ou r ce s i n d ica te a s t rong r e l ig iou s c omponen t , b u t t h e d eg r ee t o w h ich t h i s c omponen t a f f ec t ed t h e p r a c t ice s o f t h e f u ne ra l a gency a so ppo sed t oa l te rna t ive s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s r ema in sq ue s t ionab le i nl i gh to ft h e a bove d i scu s s ion .

T h i s l a ck o fe nqu iry h a s b een e ncou raged b y t h e a ppa ren t ly u n if o rm a nd i n su la r n a tu re o f b u r ia l p rac t ice s a t t h e ' managed ' c eme te r ie s i n t e rm s o f l a rge ly w e s t -ea s t o r ien ta ted e x tended s up ine c off ined i n huma t ion s l a id o u t i n r ow s o r p l o t s w i th a r e la t ive d ea r th o f g r ave a c compan imen t s . T h i s s i tua t ion i sa l so e xace rba ted b y t h e f r equen t ly a r gued a s soc ia t ion o ft h ese s pec if ic f e a tu re s w i th C h r i s t ian i ty , m any s t ud ie s a t t r ibu t ing t h e s t ra teg ie sd ep loyed i n b u r ia l t o c oncern w i th t h e a c t ive c on s t ruc t ion a nd r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h e C h r is t ian i d en t i t ies o f t h e b u r ied c ommun i t ie s . C on sequen t ly v e ry l i t t le a t ten t ion h a s b een p a id t ot h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fa l te rna t ive d i scou r ses b e ing p l ayed o u t w i th in t h e se c eme te r ie s , d e sp i te e v idence f o r t h e i r c a tego r i sa t ion a s C h r is t ian r ema in ing c on t rove r s ia l . Ia m p e r sona l ly b y n o m ean s c onv inced b y t h e C h r is t ian d ef in i t ion , a nd i nc oncu r rence w i th T homa s ( 198 1) , Wa t t s ( 1 99 1) , a nd p a r t icu la r ly P h i lpo t t ( 199 1 : 2 27 ) , b e l ieve t h a t t h e f r equen t ly c i ted e v idence f o r t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f C h r i s t ian i d en t i t ie s w i th in t h e c on tex t o ft h e se l a te R oman u r ban ' o rgan ised ' c eme te r ie s i sq ue s t ionab le f o r an umbe ro f r e a son s . I n t e rm s o f t h e d ea r th o f g rave g ood s i ta ppea r s t h a t aw ide sp read g ene ra l d ec l ine i ni n c lu s ion s h ad a l r eady b een i np rog re s s s i nce t h e e nd o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry , a nd w e m u s t a lway s b e a wa r e o f t h e p rob lem s o f r e ly ing u pon n ega t ive e v idence ; an umbe ro fs cho la r s h ave r i gh t ly a r gued t h a t a b sence o f g ood s d oe s n o t n eces sa r i ly e qua te w i th C h r i s t ian i ty , n o r d oe s t h e ir p r e sence n ece s sa r i ly i n d ica te p agan ism ( Macdona ld , 1 979 ; T homa s , 1 98 1 ; S a lway , 1 98 1 : 6 93 -4 ) . We s t -ea s t o r ien ta t ion , e x tended s up ine p o s i t ion ing , l a ck o fi n te r -cu t t ing a nd s ugg e s ted a t temp t s a tp r ese rva t ion , s u ch a sp l a s te r b u r ia l , h ave a l o f t en b een a s c r ibed t ob e l ief i np hy s ica lr e sur rec t ion , b u t t h is b e l ief d oe s n o ta ppea rt ob e s ub s tan t ia l ly s uppo r ted i ne a r ly C h r i s t ian d oc t r ine (Wa t t s , 1 993 ) . A dd i t iona l p o in t s a l so m e r i t n o te f o rt h e se p a r t icu la r f e a tu re s . We s t -ea s t a l ignmen t d oe s n o t s e em t o h ave o r ig ina ted f r om o r b een c onf ined t o ' Ch r is t ian ' c eme te r ies , a nd a l te r na t ive e xp lana t ion s h ave b een p o s tu la ted , s uch a s a t t r ibu t ion t o s o la r c u l t s ( Macdona ld , 1 979 : 4 25 -6 ; T e r tu l l ian , A pa loge t icu s 1 6 ; Wa t t s , 1 99 1 : 5 4 ) . E x tended s up ine i n te rmen t a ppea r s t oh ave b een ag ene ra l f e a tu r e o f R oman i n huma t ion c oncu r r en t w i th , r a the r t h an i n s t iga ted b y , t h er i se o fC h r is t ian i ty . AR oman l aw s t a t ing t h a tt omb s d ed ica ted d i s m an ibu s a r e i n v io la te ( Ga iu s , I n s t i tu te s 2 . 4 -6 ; Wa t t s , 1 993 ) , a l ong w i th c ommon ly f ound ' t h rea t s ' t owa rd s a nyone d amag ing t omb s , m ay s ugges t t h a t a vo idance o f g r ave i n te r sec t ion a nd d i s tu rbance w a s a l so a g ene ra l i n ten t ion r a the r t h an as pec if ica l ly C h r is t ian f e a tu re . S ome p l a s te r b u r ia ls o ccu r e a r l ie r t h an t h e f our th c en tu ry , s eve ra l a r e r e co rded f r om ' p agan ' c eme te r ie s (Wa t t s , 1 99 1 ; G r een , 1 977 ) , a nd t h e u se o f q u ick l ime , s uch a s a t B u t t R oad c eme te ry , C o lches te r , w ou ld h ave a cce le ra ted d es t ruc t ion r a the r t h an p r ese rva t ion o ft h e f l e sh ( C rummy e ta l . , 1 993 : 3 6 ) .

A f te r T homa s ( 198 1) , P h i lpo t t s ugge s t s t h a t t h e e me rgence o f t h e se d i s t inc t ive t y pe s o f c eme t e r ie s r e su l ted f r om p r e s su re o n t h e a u tho r i t ie s t o a ccommoda te b u r ia l o f t h e d ead o u t s ide u rban c en t r e s , t h e i n t roduc t ion o f o rgan i sed r ow s a nd p l o t s f a c i l i ta t ing s pace -u se e ff ic iency . T h i s n o t ion h a s b een l i nked c h rono log ica l ly t o t h e c r ea t ion o f l a rge a dm in is t ra t ive m ach ine ry i n t h e t owns d u r ing t h e r e o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e p rov ince s u nde r D ioc le t ian a nd C on s tan t in iu s 1( Sa lway , 1 981 : 3 16 -7 ) , a nd h a s b een p ropo sed t o i n d ica t e i n c rea sed b u reauc ra t ic c on t ro l o ve r c eme te ry d eve lopmen t a nd o rgan i sa t ion b y l o ca l g over nmen t s i n t h e e a r ly f our th c en tu ry , p e rhap s e ven i n c lud ing t h e a ppo in tmen t o f " spec ia l is t p a r t t ime u nde r take r s" r e spon s ib le f o r c e r ta in a s pec t s o f f u ne ra ry a c t iv i ty ( Ph i lpo t t , 1 99 1 : 2 27 ) . A cco rd ing t o T homa s t h e se m anage r ia l ' a spec t s ' i n c luded " i n i t ia l c ho ice s o f s i t es , a loca t ion o f p l o t s , a nd a d eg r ee o f s ma l l -m inded f u s s ine s s a bou t o rde r , a r rang emen ta nd a l ignmen t " ( Thoma s , 1 981 : 2 32 ) . T he i d ea o f s ome i mpo s i t ion o f b u reauc ra t ic c on t ro l o ve r t h e se s t a ted a spec t s i si nm y o p in ion m o re c onv inc ing t h an t h e a l ter n a t ive a dm in is t ra t ive i n vo lvemen t o f t h e e a r ly C h r i s t ian c hu rch , b u t t h e re a r e s ome p rob lem s w i th t h e p ropo sed h ypo the s i s b e tween t h e s t a tu s o f s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e d eg r ee o f o rgan isa t ion e xh ib i ted b y a s soc ia ted c eme te r ie s w h ich s hou ld b e n o ted ( E smonde C leary , 1 987 : 1 76 ) . F i r s t ly , w h i l s t t h e d eve lopmen t o f c eme te r ie s w i th ' manag ed ' c ha rac te r i s t ic s a ppea r s t o h ave b een a n u r ban p henomenon , t h ey a r e a l so e v iden t i n c on tex t s a s soc ia ted w i th s ma l l r u ra l s e t t lemen t s a nd f a rms tead s ( J one s , 1 975 ; L eech , 1 98 1 ; C a sa H a t ton , 1 999 ) . S econd ly , s ome m a jo r

P h i lpo t t ( 199 1 : 2 27 ) h a s s t re s sed t h e l a ck o fc l ea r e v idence i n d ica t ing p rov inc ia l C h r i s t ian s ' c oncer n w i th m a rk ing t h e i r r e l ig iou s p e r sua s ion t h rough d i s t inc t ive r i te s i n f u ne ra ry c on tex t s , a nd i n a cco rdance w i th t h is a rgumen t i ts e em s m o re l i ke ly t h a t C h r is t ians w ou ld h ave a dop ted t h e e x i s t ing l a te R oman b u r ia l p rac t ice s a s t h e re w a s n o th ing o b jec t ionab le w i th in t h em i nt e rm s o f p a r t icu la r r e l ig iou s 4

u rban c eme te r ie s d o n o t a ppea r t o c onf o rm t o ' e xpec ted ' l e ve ls o f o rgan isa t ion . A t t h e B a th G a te c eme te ry , C i r ence s t e r , f o r e xamp le , t h e s e em ing ly h aphaza rd a r rangemen t o f s ome b u r ia l s w i th m uch i n te r -cu t t ing a nd d i s tu rbance r a the r t h an o rgan isa t ion i nt oc l ea r o rde r ly r ow s m ay b e s e en t oc on t ra s t w i th t h e a dm in is t ra t ive f u nc t ion o f t h e t own a st h e p rov inc ia l c ap i ta l o fB r i tann ia P r ima f r om t h e e a r ly f o ur th c en tu ry . T h is p o in t c ou ld r e la te t ov a r iance i n b u r eauc ra t ic e f f ic iency , a nd t h e d i rec t a s soc ia t ion b e tween s e t t lemen t a dm in is t ra t ive s t a tu s a nd c eme te ry d eve lopmen ta nd o rgan isa t ion r ema in s e qu ivoca l .

s hou ld b e a cknow ledged a tt h e o u t se t a nd a ccep ted a s t h e ' s ta te o f p l ay ' . I n t e rm s o f g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , t h e m a jo r i ty o f R omano -B r i t ish b u r ia l g round s h ave b een r e co rded i ns ou thern a nd s ou th -eas te rn E ng land , a nd i n deed t h e re i s ad i s t inc t d ea r th o f i n f o rma t ion p e r ta in ing t o n or ther nB r i ta in . D iv is ion o fB r i tann ia i nt ot h e l a te R oman p rov ince s e xh ib i t s ar e la t ive l a ck o f ' managed ' c eme te r ie s c ur ren t ly a ppa ren t a s soc ia ted w i th u rban c en t re s i n B r i tann ia S ecunda a nd F lav ia C ae sa r ien s i s , m ak ing r e g iona l p a t te rn s a nd c r o s s inve s t iga t ion o fb u r ia l p r ac t ice s p o ten t ia l ly i mp lemen ted b y t h e b u reauc ra t ic a genc ie s o ft h e v a r iou s p rov ince s e x t r eme ly d i ff icu l t . T he r e i su nce r ta in ty c oncer n ing t h e p r ec i se l i m i t s o f s ome c eme te r ie s , i ns ome c a se s c h rono log ica l e v idence i su n sa t isf ac tory , a nd a s w i l l b ecome c l ea r i nC hap te r s F ive a nd S ix , t h e r e i s ag r ea t d ea l o fv a r ia t ion i nt h e a cce s s ib i l i ty , q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o fd a ta b e tween s i tes , a nd c ompa rab i l i ty o f t h e d a ta t h a t a r e a va i lab le i sf r augh t w i th d i ff icu l t ies .

T h i s s t udy i sw r i t ten f r om t h e s t andpo in t t h a t f u ne ra ls a r e s t ra t eg ic . B u r ia l c on ten t s a nd f e a tu res r e su l t f r om t h e c on sc iou s a c t ion o f a gency . D ec is ion s p er ta in ing t o s uch f a c to r s a st r ea tmen to ft h e c o rp se , i n c lu s ion o fa r tef a c t s , a nd ' who g oe s w he re ' a r e p u rpo sef u l , a nd t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l m an if e s ta t ion r e p re sen t s t h e r e su l t o fk now ledgeab le a c t ion ( g iven p r ob lems o fp r e se rva t ion a nd r e cove ry ) . Ia r gue t h a t a gency m ay o pe ra te o n m u l t ip le l e ve ls w i th in a ny b u r ia l d oma in , v a r iou s s t ra teg ies m ay h ave b een i mp lemen ted t h rough f u ne ra ry r i t e s b y i n d iv idua l f am i ly m embe r s o r m ou rne r s , a nd /o r b u r eauc ra t ic c on t ro l a s m ean s o f s oc ia l n ego t ia t ion a nd r e p roduc t ion . V ery l i t t le a t temp t h a s b een m ade i na r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e t o e l uc ida te t h e k i nd s o f s t ra teg ie s t h a t m ay h ave b een i mp lemen ted v i a R omano B r i t i sh b u r ia l p rac t ice s , b y w hom a nd f o r w ha t b enef i t . My s t udy a ims t or ed re s s t h is s i tua t ion w i th p a r t icu la r a t ten t ion d i r ec ted t owa rd s h ow w e m ay b e a b le t oi n ve s t iga te w he the r g ende r d i scou r se i s v i s ib le i n R omano -B r i t ish c eme te ry c on tex t s , w he the rd i f f e ren t l e ve ls o fa gency a r e e v iden t , a nd i fw e c an d ec iphe rt h e k i nd s o fr e p r e sen ta t ion s t h a ta r e b e ing m ade .

T he r e a r e n ume rou s i n te rmed ia ry t r an sf o rma t ion s b e tween t h e m or tua ry p r ac t ice s o f t h e f u ne ra l a gency a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f t h o se p r ac t ice s . I n a ny c on s ide ra t ion o fb u r ia l p rac t ice s d i f f e r en t ia l p r e se rva t ion o f d epo s i t s a nd h uman r ema in s , a nd q ua l i ty o f r e cove ry a nd r e co rd ing a r e a l i nf luen t ia l f a c to r s a f f ec t ing t h e d a ta s e t s . T he se f a c to r s , b o th i n t r ins ic , s uch a st h e a ge a nd p a tho logy o f t h e d ecea sed , a nd e x t r ins ic , s u ch a s s o i l t y pe , b u r ia l d ep th , h uman d i s tu rbance a nd e xcava t ion t e chn ique s , s umma r i sed b y H ende r son ( 1987 ) , h ave a p rof ound e f f ec t u pon t h e a va i lab le d a ta , b o th w i th in i n d iv idua l c eme te ry s i te s a nd i n t e rm s o f c ompa rab i l i ty b e tween d i f f e r en t s amp le s . T he L ankh i l l s c eme te ry , W inche s te r , f o r e xamp le , p r e sen t s ap o s s ib le i n s tance o fo ne w ay i nw h ich d i f f e ren t ia l t r ea tmen t o ft h e c orp se m ay d i rec t ly a f f ec t t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e s amp le s w e h ave a cce s s t o . A t t h is s i te f ema le s k e le ton s w e re r e po r ted ly c ons i s ten t ly mo re d ecayed t h an t h o se o f m a le s ( 3 7 :23 % r e spec t ive ly w i th ' o n ly m a jo r b one s l e f t ' ) w h ich h a s b een p a r t ia l ly a t t r ibu ted t o t h e p r e sence o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l a r ound t h e b one s , t a ken t o r e p r e sen t t h e u t i l isa t ion o f h eav ie r c l o th ing o r c orp se -w rapp ing m a te r ia l i n f ema le b u r ia l s ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 38 ) . I n g ene ra l t e rm s B r i t ish s o i l s a r e n o t c onduc ive t o g ood p r e se rva t ion o f h uman r ema in s , a nd t h e re i ss t i l l o n ly a r e la t ive ly s ma l l a moun t o f c ompa rab le d a ta a va i lab le f o r R omano -B r i t i sh s k e le ton s .

P h i lpo t t ( 199 1 : 2 27 ) h a s a r gued t h a t b u reauc ra t ic c on t ro l o ve r b u r ia l m ay h ave s u rpa s sed g r ave l o ca t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion , e x tend ing ' t o t h e f u ne ra l i t se lf ' , i n c lud ing s uch a spec t s a sf u rn ish ing a nd t r ea tmen t o ft h e c orp se p r ev ious ly u nde r taken b y t h e f am i ly /mou rne r s o ft h e d ecea sed . T he r e i s , h oweve r , a tp r e sen t n o c onc lu s ive e v idence t h a t o f f ic ia l i n te rven t ion w a s i mpo sed t o t h i s d eg ree , n o r i st h e re a n a ppa ren t s a t isf ac to ry r e a son w hy t h is o ccur rence i sl i ke ly t o h ave t a ken p l ace . Wh i l s t f am i ly m embe r s /mou rne r s h ave a p e r sona l i n vo lvemen t / inve s tmen t o f s ome n a tu re w i th t h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ecea sed , Ic an n o t s e e w ha t t h e s t ra teg ic p o in t o r b enef i t w ou ld h ave b een o fo ff ic ia l i n te rven t ion i n a spec t s o f f u ne ra ry r i tua l t h a t w ou ld n o t h ave u l t ima te ly b een p ub l ic ly v i s ib le i n t h e s ame s en se a s c eme te ry o rgan isa t ion . I ti st h u s w or th c on s ide r ing w he the r t h e re i s m o re v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t u nde r taken b y t h e f am i ly /mour ne r s t h an e v iden t i nt h o se a spec t s u nder taken b y t h e a gency o f s t a te a ppa ra tu s , i f ad i v id ing l i ne m ay b e a dequa te ly h ypo the s ised b e tween t h e t wo . T he q ue s t ion a s t o w he the r i mpo sed b u reauc ra t ic c on t ro l i n t e rms o f h omogene i ty i ng r ave p o s i t ion ing a nd a l ignmen t m ay h ave s t if led t h e a gency o fs ome m ou rne r s w ho m ay h ave w ished t oi mp lemen t d i f f e r en t r i t e s r ema in s u nan swe red , b u t i tm ay b e p o s s ib le t os e e a gency w o rk ing a td i f f e r en t l e ve ls w i th in l a te R omano -B r i t i sh u rban b u r ia l c on tex t s .

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T he f o u r l a te R omano -B r i t ish s i te s s e lec ted f o r a na ly s i s c omp r ise t h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry , W inche s te r , a nd B u t t R oad c eme tery , C o lche s te r , s i tua ted w i th in Ma x ima C ae sa r ien s i s , a nd t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , D o rche s te r , a nd B a th G a te c eme te ry , C i rence s te r , s i tua ted w i th in B r i tann ia P r ima ( F igu re 1 ) . T hese s i te s h ave b een c ho sen m a in ly o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i r c on tempo raneous p e r iod s o fu se f r om t h e l a te t h i rd t h rough t h e f our th c en tu ry AD , t h e c on s ide rab le s i ze o f t h e i r s k e le ta l s amp le s i nc ompa r ison t o o t he r s i te s , t h e i r l a rge ly ' managed ' c r i te r ia , a nd a s soc ia t ion w i th l a t e R oman u r ban c en t re s .

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F ig . 1 P lan o ft h ep rov ince s o ffo ur th c en tury B r i ta in s how ing t h e l o ca t ion s o ft h es e lec ted c eme tery s i te s ( Adap ted f r om J ohn son , 1 980 : 6 )

L ankh i l ls C eme tery , Winches ter ( C larke , 1 979 )

E xcava ted f r om 1 967 1972 L ankh i l ls f o rms p ar t o f t h e n or thern c eme te ry o f R oman V en ta B e lgarum , s i tua ted

b ecause t h is p rov ides t h e l a rges t d a ta s e t , a nd i sp ar t ia l ly p ub l ished . D e ta i ls f r om e xcava t ions a tV ic to r ia R oad a nd H yde S t r ee t h ave b een c o l la ted f r om t h e W inche s te r a r ch ive s a nd i n corpo ra ted i nt ot h e d a taba se f o r c ompa ra t ive p urpose s b ecause t h e se s i te s a l so a ppea rt oh ave f o rmed p ar t o f t h e n o r thern c eme tery . T hey h ave n o t , h oweve r , b een a ma lgama ted w i th t h e L ankh i l ls d a ta t o f o rm a ' n or ther n c eme tery s amp le ' b ecause t h ey w e re e xcava ted a s d i sc re te s i te s a nd i na dd i t ion much o f t h e ir d a t ing h as b een b a sed u pon s im i la r i ty w i th t empo ra l ' t rends ' a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry . S umma r ised d e sc r ip t ions a r e p rov ided f o r thw i th a nd t h e l o ca t ion o ft h ese s i tes i n r e la t ion t o L ankh i l ls a nd V en ta B e lga rum a r e p r e sen ted i nF igure 3 .

b e tween t h e l t chen V a l ley t o t h e e a s t , a nd t h e v a l ley o f a s ma l l s t ream , t h e F u lf lood , t o t h e s ou th . I n t o ta l 4 51 g r ave s w ere i d en t if ied , i n c lud ing 7c r ema t ions , a nd 3 75 o f t h e i n huma t ions w e re f u l ly e xcava ted . I n t e rms o f c h rono log ica l d eve lopmen t , b ur ia ls a ppea r t o h ave s p read f r om t h e N or th G a te o ft h e R oman t own a l ong t h e e a s t s i de o ft h e m a in r oad t o C irence s te r f r om t h e f i r s t c en tu ry AD , r e ach ing L ankh i l ls , 5 00m f r om t h e g a te , i n t h e f o ur th c en tu ry ( F igu re 2 ) . T he h o r izon ta l a nd v er t ica l s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence e s tab l ished f o r t h e s i te , a l ong w i th d a t ing e v idence f r om c o ins a nd p o t tery i n corpo ra ted i nt h e b u r ia ls , p rov ide a n a pp rox ima te s t ar t ing d a te f o r b u r ia l a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry o fc . 310 AD , c essa t ion o ccur r ing c .4 10 AD .

V i c tor ia R oad (W inche s te r Mu seums S e rv ice , f o r thcom ing ) N ume rous o t he r l a te R oman b u r ia ls h ave b een r e cove red f r om v a r ious s i te s a cross t h e p a ren t t own , s ome , m a in ly

T he V ic to r ia R oad s i te l o ca ted o u t s ide t h e Nor th G a te o f R oman W inches te r t ot h e w es t o ft h e C i rences te r R oad w a s e xcava ted i n 1 979 p roduc ing , a s ide f r om a h andf u l o f b u r ia ls p r e -da t ing c .2 70 , 18 l a te R oman i n huma t ions f r om 15 g rave s , a nd 6c r ema t ion s . D ue t o al a ck o fs t ra t ig raph ic e v idence a nd d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted d a tab le m a te r ia l t h is s i t e h a s b een d i v ided i n t o f ou r b u r ia l p e r iod s r e la t ive t o c ompa r isons o f b u r ia l p rac t ice s a nd g rave t y pes w i th in t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry .

i n f an ts , h ave b een r e co rded w i th in t h e t own w a l ls , a nd t h ree e x t ra -mu ra l ' c eme te ry a r eas ' h ave b een d i s t ingu ished . A t o ta l o f8 1 i n d iv idua ls h ave b een r e cove red f r om t h e w e s te rn c eme te ry ( New R oad , C l if ton R oad , R om sey R oad a nd C a rf ax ) , a nd 1 30 i n d iv idua ls f r om t h e e a s te rn c eme te ry ( Ches te r R oad , S t . J ohn 's S t ree t a nd S t . Mar t in 's C lo se , W inna l l ) . C oncen t ra t ion w i th in t h e p r esen t s t udy h a s b een p l aced u pon t h e L ankh i l ls s i te i n t h e n or ther n c eme te ry 6

F ig . 2 L oca t ion o fL ankh i l l s i nr e la t ion t oR oman V en ta B e lgarum . ' A ' m a rks t h e n or thern c eme tery , ' B ' t he e a s tern c eme te ry , a nd ' C ' t h ew e s tern c eme te ry a r ea s ( Adap ted f r om C la rke , 1 979 : f i g . 1 )

C eme tery A reas

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T he n o r thern c eme te r yo fR oman W inche s ter , d e ta i l ing t h el oca t ions o fL ankh i l l s( L ) . V ic tor ia R oad ( VR ) a nd H yd e S tree t( HS ) b ur ia l s ( Adap ted f r om ap l an p rov ided b y t h e W inches te r Museums S e rv ice ) 7

P e r iod : T he se b u r ia l s w e r e d i v ided i nt o t wo g roup s , n o r ther n a nd s ou thern , r unn ing p a ra l le lt o ad i tch ( F 12 ) a nd d a ted t o 2 70 -320 o n t h e b a s i s o f n or th sou th g rave a l ignmen t s a nd s ome a s soc ia ted p o t te ry . 2n d P er iod : T he se b u r ia l s w e re d i v ided i nt o t wo g roups c omp r i s ing 2 1 e a s te rn a nd a tl e a s t 2 6 , p o s s ib ly 3 8 , w es te rn b u r ia l s , r e spec t ing d i tch ( F 12 ) b u t e xh ib i t ing m a rked o rgan isa t ion i n t o c o lumn s a nd r ows . B o th g roup s w e re d a ted t o c . 350 -390 o n t h e b a s i s o f w e s t -ea s t g rave a l ignmen ts , l a ck o fg r ave a ccompan imen t s a nd s ome c u t t ing o f l s tP e r iod g r ave s . . rd P e r iod : 3 2b u r ia ls i nt h ee a s ter na r ea , w i thou ts emb lance o f o r de r ed a r rangemen t a nd d a ted t o c . 390 - e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry b a sed u pon a ppa r en t d ec l ine i nt h e c a re o f g r ave p r epa ra t ion a nd u se o fc off in s , a nd i n c rea se i nt h e c u t t ing o f e a r l ie rg r ave s . F ina l P e r iod : 7b u r ia l s b e tween t h e e a s t er n a nd w e s te rn a r ea s c on s ide red t ob e c on tempo ra ry t o o rt o p o s t -da te t h e 3r d P e r iod b u r ia ls . T he V ic to r ia R oad s i te h a s b een s ugge s ted t o b e al a te e x t en s ion t ot h e m a in c eme te ry , t h e b r eakdown i no rde r a nd r egu la r i ty i n t h e l a te r b u r ia ls a nd t h e i r s h if t c l o se r t o t h e t own w a l l s p e rhap s r e p re sen t ing t h e b r eakdown o f ' c on t ro l ' i n t h e l a te f ou r th c en tu ry u rban c en t re ( K je dbye -B idd le , 1 992 : 2 18 ) .

B u t t R oad C eme tery , C o lche s ter ( Crummy e ta l . , 1 993 )

T he B u t t R oad c eme te ry , C o lche s te r , e xcava ted f r om 1 976 1 989 , w a s s i tua ted o ppos i te t h e s ou th -we s t c or ne r o f t h e w a l led a r ea o fR oman C amu lodunum , 2 50m f r om t h e m a in s ou th -w e s tg a te ( F igu r e4 ) . L a te R omano -Br i t ish b u r ia ls w e r e i d en t if ied f r om t h ree t empo ra ls t ages o fs i te u s e a tt h eB u t t R oad c eme t e ry : P e r iod 1P ha se 2 :c . 270 -300 /320 AD D u r ing t h is p ha se t h e s i t e w a s l o o se ly d iv ided i nt od i tched p l o t s p robab ly f o r a g r icu l tu ra l o r h or t icu l tu r a l u s e , b u t d i d c on ta in 2 0 b u r ia l s ( 1 5 i n huma t ion s a nd 5 c r ema t ion s ) . A s t h e se b u r ia ls a r e r e p r e sen ta t ive o fa n e a r l ie r p ha se w hen t h e a r ea w a s n o t p r edom inan t ly u t i l i sed f o r b u r ia l p u rpo se s t h ey h ave n o t b een i n co rpo ra ted i n t o t h e d a ta s e t f o r t h e c eme te ry . P e r iod 1P ha se 3:3 00 -320 /340 AD D u r ing t h i s p ha se mo s t o ft h e s i te w a s s e t a s ide f o r am o r e f o rma l ly -e s tab l ished i n huma t ion c eme te ry . 4 4 i n huma t ion s w e re e xcava ted i nt h ee a s ter n p or t ion o ft h e s i te . P e r iod 2 :3 20 / 340 -c .400 AD D u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h e f o rma l c eme te ry c on t inued i n u s e , a l though t h et empo ra l p ha se i s ma rked b y as e em ing ly s ha rp c hange i na l ignmen t f r om n o r th sou th t oe a s t -we s t . I nt o ta l , 6 69 b u r ia l s w e r e r e cove red , 6 20 o f w h ich w e re f u l ly i n ve s t iga ted . A n a p s ida l s t one s t ruc tu re , i n terp r e ted a s a c eme t e ry c hu r ch , w a s c on s t ruc ted o n t h e n o r th -we s t e dge o f t h e c eme te r y c . 330 w h ich a ppea r s t oh ave c on t inued i nu se u p t o4 00 AD o r l a te r . B y 3 50 t h e c eme te ry h ad e xpanded b eyond t h e l i m i t s o ft h e e a r l ie r b u r ia l g r ound . N um i sma t ic e v idence h a s s ugge s ted ar ef ined s t a r t ing d a te f o r b u r ia l o f c . 330 a nd i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e e xcava ted b u r ia ls p robab ly d i d n o t c on t inue p a s t t h e 3 90 s , b u t t h e c on t inued u s e o f t h e c hu rch a nd t h e f a c t t h a t o n ly a bou t h a lf t h e c eme te ry h a s b een e xam in ed c ou ld i n d ica te t h a t l a te rf o ur th a nd e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry b u r ia ls m ay h ave e x i s ted b eyond t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e xcava t ion . O ve r 2 00 b u r ia ls w e re e xcava ted a tt h e s i t e b y W i l l iam W i r e i n 1 845 , a nd b a sed u pon h i s s ke t che s a nd

H yd eS t ree t (W inche s te r Mu seum s S e rv ice , f o r thcom ing ) E xcava ted i n 1 979 , H yde S t r ee t i st h e s i t e f u r the s t e a s t o f t h e C i r ence s te r R oad e xcava ted t o d a te . H e re 5 4 g r ave s w e re r e co rded b u t o n ly 2 7 w e re e xcava ted , 3o fw h ich w e re f ound t o b e d oub le b u r ia l s a nd t h u s r e p re sen t ing 3 0 i n d iv idua ls i nt o ta l . V e ry f ew d a tab le o b jec t sw e re r e cove red b u t t h e s im i la r i ty o f s ome g r aves t ot h e 2n d a nd 3r d b u r ia l p e r iod s a t V ic to r ia R oad h a s e ncou raged a t e n ta t ive s ugg e s t ion o f3 50 -ea r ly f i f th c en tu ry d a te .

F ig . 4 L oc at i on o ft h eB u t tR oad c eme t e ry i nr e la t ion t oR oman C amu lodunum ( Adap ted f r om C rummy e ta l . , 1 993 : 2 , f i g . 1 . 1) 8

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F ig . 5 P lan o ft h ea rea s e xcava ted a tB u t tR oad i n1 845 a nd 1 976 -1989 s how ing t h e c on jec tured e x ten t o ft h ef our th c en tury c eme tery ( Crummy e ta l . , 1 993 : 6 ,f i g . 2 . 1)

m a in c eme te ry , b u t t h e w ho le s i te i sd ea l t w i th i n b ur ia l g roups a sf o l lows ( F igu re 7 ) :

p r e sumed b ounda r ies , t h e o r ig ina l f o ur th c en tu ry c eme te ry p opu la t ion h a s b een e s t ima ted t o b e t w ice t h a t r e co rded i n t h e modem e xcava t ion , t o ta l l ing a pp rox ima te ly 1 300 1400 i n d iv idua ls ( F igure 5 ) .

Ma in L a te R oman C eme te ry: 114 i n huma t ions , 1 028 o f w h ich w ere e xcava ted , f i l l ing e nc losu re s 2a nd 3 ,c en t red a c ros s s i te E . S t ra t ig raphy a nd g rave a ccompan imen t s s how t h a t t h is c eme tery w a s i nu se a t l e a s t f r om t h e e nd o ft h e f i r s t q uar te r o ft h e f our th c en tu ry AD t o t h e e nd o f t h e c en tury , a nd s ugges t at empo ra l p rog ress ion o fb u r ia l f r om e a s t t ow es t a c ro ss t h e s i te .

An umbe r o fo ther l a te R oman b u r ia ls h ave b een r e cove red f r om a r ound t h e p a ren t t own , s uch a s t h e 1 4 l a te r t h ird f o ur th c en tury i n huma t ions a t S heepen ( N ib le t t , 1 985) a nd t h ose i n c luded i n M .R . H u l l 's u npub l ished g rave i n ven to ry c omp i led c . 1 927 -1959 , b u t i n t h e l a t te r c a se i n te res t w a s f o cused u pon o b jec t r e t r ieva l , e mpha s is w a s p l aced u pon c r ema t ions , a nd h uman b ones w e re r a re ly c o l lec ted . T h ir ty f o u r i n huma t ions c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e B u t t R oad s i te ( t h ird -f our th c en tury ) w e re e xcava ted i n S t . J ohn 's A bbey G round s i n1 972 ( Crummy , 1 993a ) b u t i tp roved i mpo ss ib le

S i te C : A d i sc re te ly e xcava ted a r ea c on ta in ing 1 0 1 b u r ia ls , 9 1 o f w h ich w e re e xcava ted . S t ra t ig raphy a nd g rave g oods p rov ide ac en t ra l d a te o fa r ound t h e m id -f our th c en tu ry AD .

t o e s tab l ish u pper a nd l owe r l i m i t s o f i t s p e r iod o f u se . A reas o fC rouch S t ree t a pp rox ima te ly 3 0m t ot h e n or th -wes t o f S t . J ohn 's Abbey G rounds p roduced a f ew i n huma t ions

P er iphera lB ur ia lG roups: E a s tern : 9 0 i n huma t ion s a nd 3c r ema t ions l o ca ted w i th in t h e s ou thern a rm o fe nc lo su re I ,s i te s Da nd F . N or thern : 3 6 i n huma t ions l o ca ted w i th in t h e w es tern a rm o f e nc losu re 1 ,n or th -eas tp a r t o fs i te E ,a nd s i te F . B u r ia l i n b o th t h e e a s ter n a nd n or thern p er iphe ra l g roup s c on t inued t h roughou t t h e t h ird c en tury u n t i l a t l e as t t h e m idd le o ft h e f our th c en tury AD , t hu s l a rge ly c on tempo rary w i th t h e m a in l a te c eme te ry .

h eav i ly d i s tu rbed b y l a te r a c t iv i ty w h ich m ay h ave f o rmed p ar t o ft h e s ame c eme te ry ( Sh imm in , 1 993) , a nd t h e Ma ldon R oad s i te , e xcava ted i n 1 971 , p roduced 1 8 i n huma t ions o f l a te t h i rd -f our th c en tu ry d a te w h ich w e re much l e ss d i sc ip l ined i n l a you t t h an t h e b u r ia ls a tB u t t R oad a nd t hus " p resumab ly . . l e ss w e l l -managed" ( Crummy , 1 993b : 2 36 ) . T he B u t t R oad c eme te ry p rov ides t h e l a rges t s amp le o f l a te R omano -Br i t ish b u r ia ls f r om C o lches te r .

O u t ly ing L a te R oman B ur ia l s: 3 9 i s o la ted b u r ia ls l o ca ted o n t h e e dge s o f t h e e xcava ted a r ea s , s i tes G , I PL , C , D , a nd e nc losu re 4 . C omb ina t ions o f s t ra t ig raphy , g rave a r tef ac t s a nd g ene ra l f o rm o f b u r ia l i n d ica te c on tempo rane i ty w i th t h e ma in c eme tery .

P oundbury C eme tery , D orche s ter , D or se t ( Farwe l l a nd Mo l le son , 1 993)

T he P oundbury s i te r ep resen t s o n ly o ne o f t h e k nown l a te R oman b u r ia l a r ea s i nt h e v i c in i ty o fD o rches te r . O ther s i tes i n c lude t h e 7 3 b u r ia ls s ou th -ea s t o f t h e t own a t A l ing ton A venue ( Dav ies e t a l . , 1 985 ) , a nd m a jo r i n huma t ion c eme te r ies a t F o rd ing ton a nd I c en Way t o t h e e as t , t h e B o rough G a rdens /A lber t R oad /Cornwa l l R oad a r ea t o t h e w es t , a nd t h e a r ea o f t h e c a t t le ma rke t a nd p o l ice s t a t ion t o

E xcava t ion s o ft h e P oundbury C amp c eme te ry ( 1966 -1987 ) w e r e l o ca ted o n t h e n or th -we s t o u t sk ir t s o f moder n D o r che s te r ( SY 6 859 11) , l e s s t h an 0 . 5 k m d i s tan t f r om R oman Durnovar ia b e tween t h e R oman P oundbu ry R oad t o t h e s ou th a nd t h e R ive r F rome t ot h e n or th ( F igure 6 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f l a te R oman b u r ia ls w e re f o und w i th in t h e 9

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t h e s ou th , e s tab l ished b y t h e s e cond a nd t h i rd c en tu r ie s a nd m o s t ly s ugge s ted t o h ave c on t inued i nu s e i nt ot h e f our th c en tu ry (Woodwa rd , 1 993) . A b u r ia l g round r e co rded i n 1 97 1 u nde r t h e p r e sen t C rown B u i ld ing s s i tua ted t o t h e s ou th -wes t o fP oundbu ry n ea re r t h e We s t G a te o ft h e t own h ou sed n ume rou s b u r ia l s a l igned w es t -ea s t i no rde red r ow s a nd l i ne s . Af i rm c h rono logy c ou ld n o t b e e s tab l ished f o r t h is s i te d ue t o al a ck o f d a t ing e v idence b u t s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e m a in c eme te ry a t P oundbu ry h ave s ugg es ted a c on tempo raneou s d a te o ft h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e f our th c en tu ry ( Spa rey -G reen , 1 982 ; e ta l . , 1 982 ) ; m uch o f t h e e v idence , h oweve r , w a sd es t royed b ef o re e xcava t ion .

B a th G a te C eme tery , C irence s ter ( Me Wh irr e ta l . , 1 982 )

R ecove r ed d u r ing e xcava t ion s ( 1969 1976 ) o f al a rge t r ac t o fl a nd t ot h e s ou th -we s to f 'C i rences te rb e tw een t h e w a l l s o f C or in ium D obunnoru in a nd t h e a mph i thea t re , B a th G a t e c eme te ry i s d ef ined a s t h e a r ea o f b u r ia l s i tua ted i mmed ia te ly o u t s ide a nd t ot h e w es t o ft h e R oman t own g a te o f t h a t n ame ( F igu re 8 ) . A t o ta l o f 4 53 R omano -B r i t ish b u r ia l s , i n c lud ing 3 c r ema t ions , w e re f o und e x tend ing a t l e a s t 6 0m e i the r s i de o f t h e F o sse Way t o t h e n o r th a nd s ou th a s i tl e av e s t h e t own h ead ing t owa rd s B a th . D ue t o t h e h eav i ly d i s tu rbed c ha rac te r o f t h e s i t e a nd t h e h omogeneou s n a tu r e o ft h e e a r th , b ur ia ls h av ing b een b ack f i l led w i th u n if o rm b l ack -b rown l o am , n o s t ra t ig raphy w a s

T he P oundbu ry c eme te ry w a s s e lec ted f o r a na ly s is b ecau se a l though i t m ay n o t r e p r e sen t a n e xc lu s ive ly u rban c ommun i ty a s i ti ss ugge s ted t oh ave a l so s e rved t h e l o ca l r u r a l p opu la t ion , i t p r e sen t s t h e l a rge s t R omano -Br i t i sh m o r tua ry s amp le a va i lab le a nd h a s a r e la t ive ly f i rm 1 0

e v iden t i n t e x tu re o r c o lou r o ve r 9 0% o f t h e a r ea . C onsequen t ly o n ly a r e la t ive r a the r t h an a n a bso lu te c h rono logy c ou ld b e e s tab l ished o n t h e b a s is o f b u r ia l p os i t ion ing a nd n um isma t ic e v idence f r om c o ins . B u r ia l a ppea r s t o h ave b een u nder taken s imu l taneou s ly o n b o th

s i des o ft h e r oad f r om t h e f our th c en tury AD , a nd t h is s i te r ep re sen t s t h e o n ly c ur ren t ly k nown m a jo r l a te R oman c eme te ry l o ca ted a tC irences te r ( Pau la G en t le , p e r s . c o rn . ) . T he e xcava ted a r ea s a r e e xh ib i ted i n mo re d e ta i l i nF igu re 9 .

F ig . 8 P lan o fR oman C or in ium D obunnorum s how ing t h el o ca t ion o fB a th Ga te ( Mc Wh ir re ta l . , 1 982 : 2 0 , f i g . 1 )

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CHAPTER 2

FUNERARY RE MA INS A S SOC IAL REPRESENTAT ION

T h is c hap te rp rov ide s ab r ief c r i t ique o ft h e m a jo r p rob lems i n he ren t i n p roce s sua l / sys tem ic s oc ia l i n te rp re ta t ion s o f m o r tua ry r ema in s i n o rde r t o p rov ide c l a r if ica t ion o f t h e a pp roach t a ken w i th in t h is w o rk . B eg inn ing w i th a d i scu ss ion o fr e levan t p roce s sua l t h eo ry a nd a n o ve rv iew o f a s sump t ion s i n a pp l ied m e thodo log ie s , t h e f i na l s e c t ion t u rns t o t h e i mp l ica t ions o f t h is t y pe o f a pp roach f o r a n a r chaeo logy o f g ende r . T he m a in p rob lem h e r e i st h a t a p roce s sua l f r amewo rk s l o t s d i f f e ren t d a ta s e t s i nt o ' b oxe s ' , f r om t h i s s t andpo in t e ve ry th ing a nd e ve ryone h ad i t s p l ace w i th in t h e o rde red m echan ics o f t h e t o ta l s oc ia l s y s tem . A c t ion s , r o le s a nd i t ems w e re s e en t o b e u nde r taken a nd d epo s i ted a s p ar t o f g ene ra l p roce s s , b e ing t h us c r o s s c u l tu ra l ly a pp l icab le a nd p rov id ing a d i rec t r e f lec t ion o f s oc ia l f o rm . U se o ff une ra ry r ema in s a s r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f s oc ia l f o rm h a s p r even ted u s f r om v i ew ing t h e m a te r ia l i na s t ra teg ic c on tex t , i th a s d en ied p a s t p eop le t h e i r a gency , a nd t h is i sa bundan t ly c l ea r i nt e rms o ft h e n on inve s t iga t ion o f g ende r . I th a s b een a s sumed t oo o f t en t h a t m en a nd w omen w e r e f u ndamen ta l ly b io log ica l ly d i f f e ren t , t h a t e a ch s ex f o l lowed t h e i r p r e -de te rm ined s oc ia l r o le s , a nd t h a t t h ese w ou ld b e d i rec t ly t r an sc r ibed o n t o m or tua ry r ema in s . E xamp le s a r e p rov ided o f t h e w ay i n w h ich a p r ior i e xpec ta t ion s o f t h is s oc ia l f o rm m e r e ly r e i te ra te c on tempo ra ry s exua l s t e r eo type s w i th n o c on temp la t ion o f s pec if ic m a te r ia l o r h i s to r ica l c on tex t o r t h e p l a ce o f i n d iv idua l s /g roup s a ss oc ia l a gen t s c apab le o fc on sc iou s a nd s t ra teg ic a c t ion , c on s tan t ly c on s t ruc t ing a nd n ego t ia t ing t h e i r s oc ia l a nd s e lf i d en t i t ie s , i n c lud ing g ende r . T h i s t ype o fa pp roach h a s n o t o n ly d en ied t h e a gency o ft h e d ecea sed d u r ing l i f e , b u t a l so t h e a gency o f t h o se w ho a c ted u pon t h e d ead i n f une ra ry c on tex t s , a nd t h e c l ea r b e l ief i n t h e o b jec t iv i ty o f a r chaeo logy a s a s c ience a nd o u r r o le s a s e x t rapo la to r s o f ' h a rd f a c t s ' h a s d en ied t h e e f ec t s o fa r chaeo log is t s ' o wn a gency u pon m e thodo log ie s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s . I ndeed t h e a gency o f p roce s sua l a r chaeo log is t st h emse lve s h a s d i rec ted , l i m i ted a nd o b scu r ed t h e a ppea rance o fg ende rt h rough t h e m a te r ia l r e s idue s t h ey a na ly se .

2 . 1

P roce s sua l T heory i nF unerary A rchaeo logy

w o rk e ne rg ie s p ropo r t iona te t o t h e s oc ia l s t a tu s o f t h e d ecea sed" ( He r tz , 1 960 [ 1907 ] : 7 6 ) . T he se i d ea s w e r e c en t ra l t o t h e h ypo the ses o f B inf o rd ( 197 1) a nd S axe ( 1970 ) w h ich h ave b een e x t reme ly i n f luen t ia l i nf o rm ing t h e b a s i s o f many s ub sequen ta na lyse s o f m o r tua ry r ema in s , p a r t icu la r ly i n r e la t ion t o t h e i r p ropo s i t ions o f a p o s i t ive c or re la t ion b e tween s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd s t ruc tu ra l c omp lex i ty i n b u r ia l p r ac t ice s , c oncen t ra t ion u pon p roce s sua l r a the r t h an f o rma l r egu la r i t ie s , a nd c oncer nw i th t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re o ft h et o ta l s y s tem a st h e u n i to fa na lys i s . F orma l t r a i t l is t c ompa r isons o f m o r tua ry d a ta w e re c or rec t ly s e en t o y i e ld l i t t le i n f orma t ion a bou tt h e o rgan isa t ion o ff u ne ra ry p rac t ice s a nd t h e ir s ymbo l ism ( H i l l , 1 970a : 1 04 ) . E thnog raph ic c a se s c l ea r ly i l u s t ra te t h a t f o rma l ly s im i la r p r ac t ice s d o n o t n ece s sa r i ly h o ld t h e s ame s i gn if icance f o r d i f f e ren t s o c ie t ie s ( Ucko , 1 969 ) ; t h e s ame p rac t ice o r o b jec t m ay h ave a d if e r en ts ymbo l ic s i gn if icance f o rd i f f e r en t g roup s a nd e ach g roup m ay h ave v a r iou s w ay s o f s ymbo l is ing t h e s ame c oncep t . T he ' n ew ' a pp roach a dvoca ted b y B inf o rd a nd S axe m oved a way f r om t h e f o rma l c ompa r i son i s sue b y c oncen t ra t ing u pon t h e o ve ra l l s t ruc tu re o f p a s t s oc ia l s y s tem s , s t re s s ing t h a t i n te rp r e ta t ion o f v a r ia t ion w i th in a nd b e tween t h em r e qu i red t h e a na ly s is o f " r egu la r i t ie s i nt h ep roce s se s t h a t r e su l t i n as e t o f mo r tua ry p r ac t ice s r a the r t h an . . t h e f o rma l a t t r ibu te s o ft h e p rac t ice s t h em se lve s" ( Saxe , 1 970 : 1 ) . S axe a imed t o " s epa ra te a t o ta l s e t o f d i spo sa l p rac t ice s i n to i t s c on s t i tuen t c omponen t s i n s uch a w ay t h a t t h e p r inc ip le s o r " r u le s" b y w h ich t h e c omponen t s w e re c omb ined t o r ep re sen t s oc ia l f a c t s m ay b e d i scove red" ( Saxe , 1 970 : 3 ) . I tw a s a s sumed t h a tt h e s t udy o fc u l tu r e a s as y s tem ic w ho le c ompo sed o fi n te r re la ted s ub sys tem s w ou ld e nab le ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f o pe ra t iona l c u l tu ra l p roce s se s a nd t h u s f a c i l i ta te p r ec i se s t a temen t s c once r n ing t h e s t ruc tu re o fp a s t s oc ia l g roup s ( Longac re , 1 970a ) . P a s t h uman b ehav iou r w a s v i ewed a se s sen t ia l ly f u nc t iona l , m a te r ia l c u l tu re b e ing m e re ly t h e b y -p roduc t o f t h i s f unc t iona l a c t iv i ty , a r tef ac t s u sed a s t o o l s a nd s ymbo l ism u t i l ised t o m ax im ise i n f o rma t ion f l ow , a l t h e se c omponen t s w o rk ing t oge the r t o p romo te t h e a dap t ive e f f ic iency o ft h e t o ta l s oc ie ty . H uman a c t iv i t ie s w e re t h u s v i ewed a s s y s tem ic , w ha t p eop le d id , i n c lud ing b u r ia l p r ac t ice , w a s d e te rm ined , r egu la ted a nd c on s t ra ined b y t h e s oc ia l s y s tem a nd t h en r e f lec ted i ns uch a spec t s a s f u ne ra ry d epo s i t s , m ak ing t h ese f e a tu re s c r o s s c u l tu ra l ly c ompa r ab le . I ndeed o ne o f t h e m a in a im s o f ' m idd le rang e ' t h eo ry w a s t o p roduce e xp l ic i t h i gh l e ve l g ene ra l isa t ion s t h a t c ou ld b e t e s ted a ga in s t s pec if ic c a se

P roce s sua l a r chaeo logy i n t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s h e ra lded a f u ndamen ta l c hange i n t h e t r ad i t iona l ly c once ived l i m i ta t ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l i n f e r ence , e s tab l ish ing t h a t i n s igh t c ou ld b e g a ined i n t o t h e s oc ia l c omp lex i ty a nd o rgan i sa t ion o f p a s t p opu la t ion s t h rough t h e a na ly s is o f mor tua ry d a ta . No tab ly t h is s o -ca l led ' n ew ' a r cha eo logy m a rked a r e tu rn t o a n th ropo log ica l t h eo ry o f t h e e a r ly 1 900 s , e cho ing t h e c oncep t s t h a t " d is t inc t ion s m ade b y p eop le i n l i f e a r e r ef lec ted i n t h o se m ade a t d ea th" ( Wedgewood , 1 927 : 3 95 -6 ) ,t h a te a ch p a r t ic ipan t i nf u ne ra ry a c t iv i ty " ha s t o o b se rve h i s o wn p r e sc r ibed r u le s o f b ehav iou r "a cco rd ing t ot h e i rb roken s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ip w i th t h e d ecea sed ( G luckmann , 1 937 : 18 -9 ) , a nd t h a t " t he s oc ie ty o f w h ich t h a t i n d iv idua l w a s am embe r . . p u t t o 1 3

s t ud ie s ,t h u se s tab l i sh ing af r amewo rk o ft e s tab le i n f e r ence .

I th a st h u st r ad i t iona l ly b een a s sumed t h a tt r ea tmen t i nd ea th r ef lec t s s e lec ted s oc ia l p er sonae a nd t h a t t h e se b ea r a p r ed ic tab le r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re o ft h e s oc ie ty i nw h ich t h e d ecea sed w a s am embe r . B u r ia ls h ave b een s e en t o p r e sen t u s w i th t h e " f o s s i l iz ed s t a tu se s o f i n d iv idua ls" ( Peeb le s , 1 971 : 6 9 ) , t h u s t h eo re t ica l ly e nab l ing p roce s sua l a r chaeo log is t s t o o b se rve t h e r a nge a nd f r equency , t h e v a r ia t ion a nd c o -va r ia t ion o f d i f f e ren t d i spo sa l t r ea tmen t s a nd t h en i n f e r t h e g ene ra l p r inc ip le s g over n ing a ppa ren t d i f f e ren t ia t ion ( He ize r , 1 960 ; B inf o rd , 1 962 ; S t icke l , 1 968 ; S axe , 1 971 ; H i l l , 1 970b ; L ongac re , 1 970b ; G rübe r , 1 97 1 ; H od son , 1 979 ; P i e rpo in t , 1 979 ; S hepha rd , 1 979 ; O 'Shea , 1 984 ) .

T he i d ea t h a tt h e m o t iva t ion s b eh ind p a s t h uman a c t ion s a r e a cce s s ib le t h rough a r chaeo log ica l e nqu i ry , r a the rt h an b e ing l o s ti na n i n tang ib le ' B lack B ox ' ( Leach , 1 973 ) , i so ne o ft h e mo s t i mpo r tan t t e ne t s o f t h e p roce s sua l a pp roach . I t r e p re sen t s ak ey d eve lopmen t i na r chaeo log ica l s o c ia l t h eo ry b ecau se i te mpha s ised c oncern w i th n o t o n ly w ha t p a s t s oc ie t ie s d i d t o d i spo se o ft h e i r d ead , b u t a l so w hy c e r ta in mode s o f f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t w e re c ho sen a nd w ha t s i gn if icance t h e se h e ld i n t e rm s o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu ra l o rgan i sa t ion . A s w i l l b e m ade c l ea r , h oweve r , ap roce s sua l f r amewo rk i sq ue s t ionab le a s am ean s o fi n ve s t iga t ing t h e se m o t iva t ions b ecau se b y t r y ing t ou nde r s tand p a s ts oc ie t ie s i n t e rm s o f g ene ra l p roce s se s i te mpha s ise s at o o d i rec t a nd l i t e ra l r ef lec t ion o f s oc ia l l i f e t h rough t h e p a t te rn ing o f m a te r ia l r e s idue s . Mo r tua ry r ema ins m ay r e p re sen t t h e r e a l i ty c on s t ruc ted b y t h e f une ra l a gency a t t h e a c tua l momen t / s o fb u r ia l r a the r t h an p rov id ing ar ef lec t ion o ft h e g ene ra l o rgan isa t iona l p r inc ip le s o fe ve ryday l i f e w i th in t h e s oc ie ty .

T he r e a r e f u ndamen ta l p rob lem s i n he ren t i n t h i s t y pe o f a pp roach . A l though p roce ssua l t h eo ry a cknow ledge s t h a t c ho ice s a r e m ade b yt h e f une ra l o rgan i se r sa st oh ow t ot r ea t t h e d ead , m or tua ry p r ac t ice s a r e s t i l l v i ewed a s b e ing " p roduced b y a s y s tem" ( Saxe , 1 970 : 3 ) . T he p eop le c a r ry ing o u t m o r tua ry r i tua l a r e p e rce iv ed t oh ave d one s o i n af i xed , p r e sc r ibed a nd t hu s p r ed ic tab le m anne r , m e re ly f u lf i l l ing r o le s d i c ta ted b y t h e l a rge rs oc ia l s y s tem ; a dhe r ing t o " r u le s a nd s t ruc tu ra l s l o t s" ( Saxe , 1 970 : 4 ) , f o l low ing " l aw s o fc u l tu ra l p roce s s" ( B inf o rd , 1 972 : 1 99 ) . S uch r o let h eo ry i si n adequa te b ecau se a s G idden s ( 1976 : 1 6 ) s t a te s , " t he s t age i ss e t , b u t t h e a c to r s o n ly p e rf orm a cco rd ing t o s c r ip t s w h ich h ave a l ready b een w r i t ten o u t f o r t h em" . A nyone p e rce ived t o b e ' a d l ibb ing ' ( i . e . r e s i s t ing t h e f u lf i lmen t o ft h e i r e xpec ted s oc ia l r o le s ) i sm ade t of i ti nt o t h e s y s tem b y b e ing o s t rac ised f r om i t ,a s i nS axe 's ( 1970 : 3 ) c l a s s if ica t ion o f ' s oc ia l d ev iance ' . T he c oncep t o fr o let h eo ry i su naccep tab le a si ta s ser t s t h e p r imacy o ft h e s oc ia l s y s tem o ve r a nd a bove a l l e l se , b u t r o le s a r e n o t f i xed a nd f u l ly p r e -de term ined , t h ey a r e n ego t ia ted a nd r e -nego t ia ted b y a c t ive s o c ia l a gen t s . I ti si n d iv idua l p eop le a nd n o t r o le s t h a t c on s t i tu te s oc ie ty ( T i l ley , 1 982 : 2 9 ) , a nd a s P a rke r P ea r son s t a te s ,

T he c oncep tua l isa t ion o fs oc ie ty a s am echan i sm c ompo sed o f i n te r r e la ted s ub sy s tems i s c l ea r ly e xp re s sed i n t h e u t i l i sa t ion o f ' r o le theory ' mode ls w h ich a imed t oe s tab l i sh w h ich c omponen t s o ft h e s oc ia l s y s tem r e ce ived r e cogn i t ion i n f u ne ra ry c on tex t s . Af t e r R adc l if f e -B rown ( 1922 ) a nd G oodenough ( 1965 ) , B inf o rd a nd S axe a pp l ied t h e t e rm s oc ia lp er sona , d ef ined a s " a c ompo s i te o ft h e s o c ia l i d en t i t ies m a in ta ined i n l i f ea nd r e cogn ized a sa pp rop r ia te f o rc on s ide ra t ion a td ea th" ( B inf o rd , 1 97 1 : 1 7 ) . T h i s a pp roach a s sume s t h a t i n d iv idua l p eop le h o ld s e ve ra l d i f f e ren t s oc ia l i d en t i t ie s s imu l taneou s ly d u r ing l i f e . T he se d i f f e ren tr o le st h a ta r e b e l ieved t oc on s t i tu te s oc ia lp e r sonae a r e c on s t ruc ted i n s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s a nd t h e o rde r ed a r rangemen t s o f t h e se r e la t ion sh ip s a r e p e r ce ived t o f o rm t h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu re . A t d ea th c ho ice s a r e m ade a st ow h ich v a r iab le s a r e m o s ta pp rop r ia te t or e p re sen tt h e d ead , B inf o rd a r gu ing t h a t t h e p r ima ry d imens ion s o f t h e s oc ia l p e r sona g i ven r e cogn i t ion i n mor tua ry t r ea tmen t a r e t h e a ge , s ex , s oc ia l p o s i t ion a nd s ub -g roup a ff i l ia t ion o f t h e d ecea sed . T he se c ho ice s w e re s t a ted t o b e d e term ined b y " t he r i gh t s a nd d u t ie s o f t h e i d en t i ty r e la t ion sh ip s w h ich a dhe re b e tween t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e l i v ing " ( Saxe , 1 970 : 9 ) , t h ey d e term ined t h e t y pe s o f m or tua ry t r ea tmen t g i ven t o t h e d ead a nd t h u s v a r ia t ions i n s u ch t r ea tmen t w ou ld r ef lec t v a r ia t ions i nt h e s oc ia l p o s i t ions a nd s t a tuse s h e ld b y t h e d ecea sed w i th in t h e s oc ie ty d u r ing l i f e . T he h i ghe r t h e s t a tu s a n i n d iv idua l h ad h e ld w i th in t h e c ommun i ty , t h e mo re n ume rous a nd c omp lex w ou ld b e t h e c omponen t s e v idenced i n t h e i r f une ra ry t r ea tmen t . S uch a n a pp roach w ou ld , i nt u r n , p e rm i tt h e m ea su remen to ft h eo rgan i sa t iona l c omp lex i ty o ft h e s oc ie ty a s aw ho le t h rough a n a s se s smen t o f t h e o rgan i sa t iona l c omp lex i ty o f t h e b u r ia l e v idence a s o ne s y s tem w ou ld e f f ec t ive ly b e m apped o nt ot h eo t he r ;

" t he r e con s t ruc t ion o f s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion t h rough t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fr o le s . . c an b e c ha l lenged b y t h e t h eo r e t ica l s t ance t h a t s oc ia l s y s tems a r e n o t c on s t i tu ted o f r o le s b u t b y r e cu rren t s o c ia l p r ac t ice s" ( Pa rke rP ea r son , 1 982 : 1 00 ) . A s y s tem ic a pp roach i s t o o l i t e ra l a nd m echan ic a nd I c anno t a ccep t t h a t mor tua ry r ema in s n ece s sa r i ly r e p r e sen t a d i rec t m app ing f r om l i f e t o d ea th . S uch a f r amewo rk p re sume s t h e p a s t i s ap roduc t o f an umbe r o f g ene ra l p roce s se s w i th m embe r s o f as oc ie ty r e ac t ing t od ea th i na u n if o rm m anne rt i ed t ot h e p r inc ip le s o fs o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion . T h i s c omp le te ly f a i ls t o r e cogn i se p eop le 's c apac i ty f o r d e l ibe ra t ion a nd k now ledgeab le a c t ion a nd t o ta l ly d i s r ega rd s O ke ly 's ( 1979 : 8 7 ) w a rn ing t h a t " t he i d en t i ty , s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e a nd i d eo logy o f t h e l i v ing m ay b e i n ve r ted o r d i sgu i sed i nd ea th" . C oncen t ra t ion u pon m ax ima l e ff ic iency t h eo r ie s a nd c r o s s -cu l tu ra l g ene ra l isa t ion s h a s s ubme rged p a s t p eop le a nd g roup s i n t h e ' s ys tem ' , t h ey h ave b een d en ied t h e i r a gency i n f a vou r o f t h e g ene ra l p roce s se s r e gu la t ing t h e f u nc t ion ing o f t h e s oc ia l s y s tem a s aw ho le ( B inf o rd , 1 965 : 2 03 10 ; 1 987 ) . T h i s p o in t a pp l ie s t o b o th t h e d ecea sed 's a c t ions d u r ing l i f e a nd t h e a c t ion s o f t h e f u ne ra l o rgan i se r s u pon t h e b ody a td ea th ; h uman b ehav iou r i sb e l ieved t oa dhe re t op r e -d ic ta ted r o le s a nd p ro sc r ip t ion s a nd t h e re i s n o c oncep t ion o f t h e h uman c apac i ty f o r s t ra teg ic a c t ion .

" The s eve ra l d imen s ion s o f v a r iab i l i ty a mong l i v ing s oc ia l p e r sonae w i l l b e r e p r e sen ted b y d i s t inc t d imens ions o f v a r iab i l i ty i n b u r ia l t r ea tmen t s w i th in t h e t o ta l m o r tua ry p rog ram" ( B raun , 1 979 : 6 7 ) . 1 4

c ommun i ty , t h e p r e sence o f s uch f e a tu re s a c ross d i f f e ren t s oc ia l d i s t inc t ions s hou ld i n d ica te t h e f o rm o f r a nk ing r e p re sen ted i nt h e b ur ia l d oma in a nd t h us r ef l ec t t h e s t a tu s s y s tem o f t h e p a s t l i v ing s oc ie ty . T he m a in v a r iab les i n c luded i n s u ch a na lyse s h ave c omp r ised a r tef ac t a s soc ia t ion , e ne rgy e xpend i tu re a nd s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion , a nd t h e r e su l tan t m ode ls o fs t a tu s g r ad ing h ave f r equen t ly b een c ompa red t o t h o se o f e vo lu t iona ry s oc ie ta l c l a ss if ica t ion s . T he f o l low ing s e c t ions d i scus s s ome o ft h e a s sump t ions a nd p rob lem s i n he ren t i nt h e se t y pes o fa pp roache s .

A s t ruc tu ra l is t a pp roach d i f f e r s i n a s much a s i t s e es ma te r ia l c u l tu re a s as t ruc tu red s e t o fd i f f e rence s r a the r t h an am e re r e s idue o f a c t iv i ty a nd e mphas ises t h a t o b se rved p a t terns o fi n te r re la t ionsh ips s hou ld b e e xp la ined i nr e la t ion t ou nde r ly ing c odes . L ike ap roce s su a l a pp roach , h oweve r , s t ruc tu ra l i sm s uppor t s ad i cho tomy b e tween f unc t ion a nd m ean ing . L Av i -S t rau ss ( 1963) i d en t if ied a s e r ie s o f u n ive r sa l u nconsc iou s m en ta l s t ruc tu r e s , p roduc ing t h eo ry i n w h ich " i nd iv idua ls s e em c augh t i n s ome a b s t rac t c ode w h ich i s l i t t le r e spons ive t o c hang ing c ond i t ion s o f m ean ing " ( P reuce l a nd H odde r , 1 996 : 3 03) . Whe re a p roce s sua l f r amewo rk v i ew s t h e i n d iv idua l a s s ubo rd ina te t ot h e s y s tem , as t ruc tu ra l is t f r amewo rk v i ew s t h e i n d iv idua l a s s ubo rd ina te t o t h e c u l tu ra l c ode , t o t h e o rgan is ing m echan isms o f h uman u nconsc iou sne ss , r educ ing s oc ia l a c t ion a nd m ean ing t o u nde r ly ing r u le s o f l o g ic t h a t t h e s oc ia l a c to r s t h emse lve s d o n o t p e rce ive ( Moo re , 1 996 ; B ou rd ieu , 1 977 : 3 -9 ) .

2 . 2 .1

T he p resence o ra bsence , q uan t i ty , t y pe , m a te r ia l a nd q ua l i ty o fg r ave a r tef ac t s h ave a l b een u sed f r om t h is p er spec t ive a s m eans o f g aug ing r a nk w i th in mor tua ry p opu la t ion s . P a t tern ing i nt h e a l loca t ion o fg rave -good s h a s b een t a ken t o r ef lec t t h e d eg ree a nd f o rm o f r a nk ing w i th in p a s t l i v ing c ommun i t ies a nd t hu s a l so t h e o rgan i sa t iona l c omp lex i ty o f t h e s oc ie ty a s aw ho le ; " g rave g oods a r e a s sumed t o m i rro r t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re o ft h e s oc ie ty w h ich d ona ted t h em" ( Van d e V e lde , 1 979 : 3 8 ) . N ume rou s a r chaeo log is t s h ave c l a ss if ied c e r ta in a r tef ac t s a s ' s ymbo ls o f a u tho r i ty ' o r ' b adge s o f o ff ice ' w h ich h ave t h en b een t a ken t o i n d ica te " t he c ompo s i t ion o f t h e g roup w i th in w h ich a u tho r i ty i s n o rma l ly v es ted" ( Brown , 1 98 1 : 2 9 ; W in te r s , 1 968 ; C la rk , 1 969 ; R a th je , 1 969 ; 1 973 ; L a r son , 1 971; P eeb le s , 1 971; H a tch , 1 976 ; P eeb le s a nd K u s , 1 977 ; B raun , 1 979 ; R o thsch i ld , 1 979 ; G rebe r , 1 979 ) . A cco rd ing t oB info rd a nd

N e i the r a pp roach a dequa te ly e xp la ins t h e g ene ra t ion o f s oc ia l c hange a s b o th i g no r e t h e p os i t ion o f p a s t p eop le /g roups a s c ausa l a c to r s a nd t hu s p reven t u s f r om v i ew ing t h e ma te r ia l i n a ny k i nd o f s t ra teg ic c on tex t . F unc t ion a nd m ean ing a r e n o t d i cho tom ised , t h ey a r e i n ex t r icab ly l i nked ; " i deo logy i sa n a c t ive p ar t o f h uman p rac t ice" ( Pa rke r P ea r son , 1 984a : 6 0 ; P reuce l a nd H odde r , 1 996 ) . H uman b ehav iou r i sn o t m e chan ised a nd s t a t ic , p a s t p eop le w e re n o t m ind le ss a nd u nconsc iou s ' c u l tu ra l d opes ' o r " s imp ly i n s t rumen t s i n s ome o rches t ra ted g ame" ( Hodde r , 1 982a : 5 ) , t h ey w ere c apab le o fa ims , a s se ssmen ts a nd i d ea s w h ich w e re e mbedded i n a nd mo t iva ted t h e ir b ehav iou r s a nd i ti st h e d i f f e rences i nt h ese a spec t s b e tween

S axe , d i s t inc t ion s w i th in l e ss c omp lex s oc ie t ies , f o r e xamp le , a r e e xpec ted t ob e a ppa ren t o nt h e b a s is o fs e x , a ge a nd p e r sona l a ch ievemen t w h ich s hou ld b e r ep resen ted b y t h e a loca t ion o f g rave -goods a c ro ss s u ch d i s t inc t ion s ;

i n d iv idua ls /g roup s w h ich g ene ra te s c hange v i a s oc ia l a c t ion w i th in a nd t h rough t h e s oc iocu l tu ra l c on tex t . A s H odde r ( 1982a ) s t a te s , p a s t h uman b ehav iou r s hou ld b e v i ewed a s m ean ingf u l ly c on s t i tu ted k now ledgeab le a c t ion t h a t i s c on tex tua l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s pec if ic . P eop le mu s t b e s e en a sa c t ive r a the r t h an p a s s ive c omponen t s o ft h e s ys tem . T he b u r ia l p rocess a c t ive ly c on s truc t s r a the r t h an m ere ly r ef lec t s

c e r ta in a r tef ac ts w ou ld b e r egu la r ly /exc lus ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th a p a r t icu la r s ex a nd /o r a ge c l a ss , t h e n umbe r a nd /o r q ua l i ty o fg oods g ene ra l ly i n crea s ing w i th a ge -a t -dea th , a nd ' poo r ' c h i ld b u r ia ls w ou ld r ef lec t t h e a ch ieved n a tu re o f s oc ia l s t a tus . E ne rgy e xpend i tu re mode ls a r e b a sed u pon t h e s ame p r inc ip les . D eceased i n d iv idua ls w ho h ad o ccup ied p o s i t ions o f h igh s t a tus w i th in t h e c ommun i ty d ur ing l i f e a r e e xpec ted t o h ave h ad more d u ty -s ta tus r e la t ionsh ip s w i th t h e s u rv ivo r s t h an p e r sons o f l owe r r a nk . A cco rd ing ly t h e i r f une ra ry r i tes s hou ld h ave i n c luded a h ighe r d eg ree o f c orpo ra te i n vo lvemen t , a nd t h e s i ze a nd c ompo s i t ion o ft h e g roup ow ing mourn ing o b l iga t ions t ot h e d ecea sed w ou ld h ave a f f ec ted t h e s c a le o f t h e r i tua l , i n c lud ing t h e s i ze a nd f o rm o f i n termen t f a c i l i ty , t r ea tmen t o ft h e b ody , a nd t h e n a tu re o fg rave a s soc ia t ions . F o l low ing t h is a rgumen t , t h e mo re e ne rgy e xpended o n t h e mo r tua ry r i tua l , t h e h i gher t h e s t a tu s o ft h e d ecea sed i n d iv idua l , a nd

i d en t i ty r e la t ionsh ips , a nd i n ve s t iga t ions o f mor tua ry p rac t ice s c an n o t t hus s imp ly a s sume a r ef lec t ion o f f unc t iona l a c t iv i ty d e term ined b y t h e s ys tem , b u t mus t c ons ide r t h e s t ra teg ic u se o fb ur ia l t oc r ea te , t r ansf o rm a nd r e c rea te t h a t s ys tem .

2 . 2

F une ra ry I nve s tmen t

A ssu mp t ions i n Me thodo logy

F ocu s w i th in t h e p roces sua l a pp roach t o f une ra ry a r chaeo logy c en t red l a rge ly u pon t h e i d en t if ica t ion a nd ' e xp lana t ion ' o f s t a tu s r a nk ing w i th in p a s t s oc ia l s y s tems ( B rown , 1 971) , a nd i th a s t r ad i t iona l ly b een a s se r ted t h a t t wo m a jo r f o rms o f r a nk ing s hou ld b e r ep re sen ted i n mor tua ry c on tex t s ; v e r t ica l r a nk ing ( h ie ra rch ica l s oc ia l d i s t inc t ions ) a nd h o r izon ta l r a nk ing ( s oc ia l ly d ef ined d i s t inc t ions w i th in a ny r ank , s u ch a s s ex a nd a ge ) . T h is a pp roach a s sume st h a t b u r ia l a t t r ibu tes , b e t h ey d imens iona l , a r ch i tec tu ra l , l o ca t iona l o r a r tef ac tua l , a r e n on random . T h i s m uch i s t r ue , b u r ia l a t t r ibu te s h ave b een s o c ia l ly c ho sen a s f o rms o ft r ea tmen t , c ons t ruc t ion o r i n c lus ion f o r s pec if i c i nd iv idua ls , d ec is ions a re made a s t o h ow a nd w he re t h e d ead a r e b u r ied . H oweve r , ap roce ssua l a pp roach p roceed s t o a s ser t t h a t i fc e r t a in a t t r ibu tes c an b e t a ken t o s ymbo l ise s t a tu s /wea l th /au tho r i ty i n t h e p a s t l i v ing

m a jo r q uan t i ta t ive d i f f e rences i n e ne rgy e xpended s hou ld i n d ica te g rada t ions i nr ank ( Bu ik s t ra , 1 972 ; C hapman , 1 977 ; K ing , 1 976 ; P eeb le s , 1 974 ; R a th je , 1 979 ; T a in ter a nd C o rdy , 1 977 ; T a in te r , 1 973 ; 1 975a ; 1 975b ; 1 978 ; B rown , 1 979 ) . T h is t y pe o fa pp roach i sh igh ly q ues t ionab le f o r am u l t i tude o f r e a son s w h ich c an o n ly b e b r ief ly c ommen ted o n h e re . A l though d eg ree s o fw ea l th v a r iab i l i ty w i th in as i ng le b u r ia l c on tex t m ay e l uc ida te p a t terns o f d i f f e ren t ia l i n c lu s ion f o r s pec if ic i n d iv idua ls /g roups , c oncen t ra t ion u pon i d en t if y ing v a r iou s g r ades o f ' r i chness ' o f a r tef ac ts a nd g r ave e l abo ra t ion p r e sume s c onco rdance b e tween p r esen t a nd p a s t p e rcep t ions o f ' r i chnes s ' . T he p roposed " h igh p robab i l i ty t h a t t h e w ea l thy w i l l b e b u r ied w i th m any g oods , t h e p oo r 1 5

h ave r i g h t ly s hown t h e se me thodo log ie s t o b e i n adequa te , p a r t icu la r ly i nt e rms o ft h e c oncep t o fc on tex t . Ap roce s sua l a pp roach e s sen t ia l ly i g no re s s pec if ic c u l tu ra l c on tex t s b ecau se i t c oncen t ra te s o n p r ed ic t ive c r o s s -cu l tu ra l g ene ra l i s a t ion s w h ich c r o ss -cu t d i f f e ren t c on tex t s , c l ea r ly u nde r es t ima t ing t h e c omp lex n a tu re o f r i tua l a nd s ymbo l ic a c t s . A l t hough s t ruc tu ra l i sm d i d a im t o i n ve s t iga te t h e ' mean ing ' o fs ymbo l i sm , i tc oncen t ra ted u pon t o o c l osed a c on tex tt h us d e tach ing i tf r om t h er e s to ft h e c u l tu r a l s y s tem , b u t " t he m ean ing o f a n o b jec t r e s ide s n o t m e r e ly i n i t s c on t ra s t t oo t he r s w i th in as e t . Mean ing a l so d e r ive s f r om t h e a s soc ia t ions a nd u se o f a n o b jec t" ( Hodde r , I 982a : 9 ) . T o e xemp l if y t h is p o in t b o th H odde r ( i b id .) a nd P ade r ( 1982 : 8 )h ave c i ted L each 's w e l l -known d i scu s s ion o ft h e u se o f ac r own a s at r adema rk f o r b ee r w h ich r e qu i r e s n o f u r the r e l uc ida t ion h e r e . T he p rob lem s o f t r y ing t o ' r ead ' m ean ing s f r om a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l s a s i ft h ey p r ov ided at e x t , h oweve r , a r e r e f er red t oi nC hap te r F ou r .

w i th f ew" ( K ing , 1 970 : 7 ) , a nd t h e f r equen t ly a s sumed d i rec t e qua t ion b e tween w ea l th a nd s t a tu s , h ave b een c l ea r ly r e f u ted b y a bundan t e t hnog raph ic e v idence ( Goody , 1 962 ; P ade r , 1 982 ) , c onc i se ly c r i t ic ised b y K ehoe ( 1999 ) , a nd c once rn s a bou t t h e u se o fn ega t ive e v idence a r e b o rne o u t ( O 'Shea , 1 98 1) . P roce ssua l t h eo r i s t s h ave c ommon ly a s sumed t h a t g rave a s soc ia t ion s ' b e longed ' t ot h e d ecea sed ( Saxe , 1 970 : 2 7 ) , b u t d ec i s ion s c once rn ing w ha t i s / is n o t a pp rop r ia te f o ri n c lu s ion i nb u r ia l r i tua l i su nde r taken b yt h e f u ne ra l a gency a nd i s r e l ian t u pon i nf in i te c u l tu ra l a nd i d eo log ica l f a c to r s . E xpend i tu re m ode l s a s sume t h e a moun t o fe ne rgy i n ves ted i nc orp se d i spo sa l i sp ropo r t iona l t ot h a t i n ve s ted i nt h e m or tua ry p rog ram a s aw ho le , b u td eg ree s o f i n ve s tmen t i np r e in te rmen t r i tua l ( e .g . p r e -bu r ia l s ymbo l ic u s e o fg oods ; U cko , 1 969 : 2 67 ) , c an n o t b e a s se s sed . Wha t w e s e e i so n ly as ub se t o ft h e t o ta l e f f or t e xpended a nd t h u s c an n o t b e e xpec ted t o p rov ide ac l ea r v i ew o f r a nk l e ve ls ( O 'Shea , 1 984 : 1 8 ) . E ven i fw e c ou ld a s sume t h a tm or tua ry p a t te rn ing d i r ec t ly m ap s t h e s oc ia l o rgan isa t iona l p r inc ip le s o f p a s t s oc ie t ie s , d i scu s s ions o f t h e i n compa rab i l i ty o f d i f f e ren t mode s o f e xpend i tu r e h ave e xpo sed t h e u na t ta inab le n a tu re o f r e l iab le g aug ing ( Go ld s te in , 1 98 1; B rown , 1 98 1) . T he g r ad ing o f g r ave a s soc ia t ion s i n t h e m anne r d e sc r ibed h a s e ncou raged t h e r a nk ing o fs t a tu s o n a s imp le l i nea r s ca le f r om l ow t oh i gh ' o r ' p oo r t or i ch ' a nd a s P ade r ( 1982 : 5 4 ) a r gue s , t h is a pp roach h a s c l ea r ly u nde r e s t ima ted a nd o ve r s imp l if ied t h e c omp lex i ty o f p a s t s oc ia l s y s tem s a nd s e ve re ly u nde rva lued t h e p o ten t ia l i n f o rma t ion c on ten t o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip t os oc ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd b u r ia l r i tua l .

L ack o f r e cogn i t ion o ft h e i mpor tan t r o le o f s ymbo l i sm i n b u r ia l r i t e s o pened t h e w ay f o r m is in t erp re ta t ion o f s e x r e p re sen ta t ion s . A s P ade r ( 1982 : 5 9 ) n o tes , f o r e xamp le , d e sp i te e v idence f r om n ume rou s c eme te r ie s i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e s e xe s m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th d i f f e ren tt ype s o fa r tef ac t s , c oncen t ra t ion w a s s t i l l p l aced u pon q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive a s se s smen t s a nd t h ese d i f f e ren t k ind s o f g ood s w e re t h u s a na ly sed a nd i n te rp re ted b y t h e s ame c r i te r ia a si f t h e d i f f e ren ces b e tween t h em w e re i n con sequen t ia l . O n t h is b a s i s o ne s e x m ay b e d eemed t oh ave b een ' r iche r ' t h an t h e o t he r w i thou t c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e p o s s ib le d i f f e r en t m ean ing s o f g r ave i n c lu s ion s f o r e ach s ex . R a the r t h an i n terp re t ing t h e se f i nd ing s a sr ef lec t ions o f' r ichne s s ' , i ft h e p o s s ib i l i ty o ft h e d ep loymen t o fs ymbo l s a pp rop r ia te t ot h e c a tego r ie s o fs ex a nd g ende r i sc ons ide r ed , o ne s ex m ay n o t n ece ssa r i ly h ave b een r e p r e sen ted a sb e ing ' r iche r ' t h an t h e o t he r , b u ts imp ly ' d if f e ren t ' i ns ome s oc ia l ly p e rce ived w ay . I t i s t h e se ' d if f e rence s ' t h a t a r e i mpo r tan t r a the r t h an a t temp t s t oi mpo se g rada t ions , t h ey s hou ld n o t b e s ub sumed a nd l o s t i n t h e s e a r ch f o r r a nk . T h i s i s w hy m y s t udy f o cu se s u pon s t a t is t ica l s e x -ba sed v a r ia t ion i nt r ea tmen t a nd i n c lu s ion . F undamen ta l ly , p roces sua l a pp roache s h ave f a i led t o r e cogn ise t h a t i d en t i t ie s a r e b e ing a c t ive ly c on s t ruc ted b y t h e f une ra l a gency r a the r t h an d i rec t ly r e f lec ted , a nd t h e r e h a s b een t o o much c oncen t ra t ion u pon t h e e l uc ida t ion o fr ank ing s y s tems w hen t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s t a tu s i d en t i t ie s i so n ly o ne o f many p o s s ib le o p t ion s t h a t m ay h ave b een e mpha s ised / rep re sen ted i n t h e b u r ia l d oma in . T he c on sc iou s d i f f e ren t ia l t r ea tmen t / rep re sen ta t ion o f m a le s a nd f ema le s m ay i n d ica te t h e c ons t ruc t ion / r e w o rk ing o fg ende r i d en t i t ie s w h ich n eed n o t n ece s sa r i ly b e r e la ted t o s t a tu s c on s t i tuen t s . D if f e ren t ia l t r ea tmen t o ft h e s exe s i n d ea th d oe s n o t a u toma t ica l ly e qua te w i th t h e e xp re s s ion o fs e x -ba sed s t a tus i n equa l i ty .

T h is f a i l ing o fp roce s sua l a na ly se s i sc l ea r ly e v iden t i nt h e l a ck o fa cknow ledg emen t o f t h e i mpor tance o f s ymbo l ism e mp loyed i nb u r ia l r i tua l . Wh i ls t B inf o rd ( 197 1 ; 1 972 ) d i d p a r t i t ion m o r tua ry r i tua l a nd m a te r ia l c u l tu re i nt ot e chn ica l a nd s o c io techn ic c omponen t s , t h e f o rme r a c t s a nd i t em s b e ing f u nc t iona l i nn a tu re , a nd t h e l a t te r i n vo lv ing s ymbo l ic c ommun ica t ion ,t h is c oncep tw a ss ub sumed w i th in e mpha s i s u pon t h e t o ta l s y s tem . Whe the r t e chn ica l o r s oc io techn ic , i t ems a nd a c t s w e re a s sumed t o h ave b een u s ed o r u nder taken a cco rd ing t o p r e -de te rm ined ' r u le s ' , a nd a l though t h e se c oncep tua l d i v is ion s w e re a dop ted a nd a dap ted b y s eve ra l c on tempo ra ry a r cha eo log is t s ( e .g . S t icke l , 1 968 ; K ing , 1 970 ; P eeb le s a nd K u s , 1 977 ) , t h ey w e re n o t g ene ra l ly c a r r ied a ny f u r the r t h an m e r e ly b e ing i n corpo ra ted i n t o t r a i t l i s t s f o r t h e p l acemen t o f b u r ia l p opu la t ion sw i th in e vo lu t iona ry c l a s s if ica t ion mode l s . T he b ackg round t o a n a r chaeo logy t h a t b egan t or e cogn i se t h e a c t ive r o le o f s ymbo l ism l i e s w i th in t h e f i e ld o f l i ngu is t ics , t h e w o rk o f S au s su re ( 1 960 ; C u l le r , 1 976 ; R obey , 1 973 ) , a nd t h e e x tens ion o f t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s em io t ic p r inc ip le s t o t h e a na ly s is o f n on l ingu i s t ic s i gn s ys tem s b y L ev i -S t rau s s ( 1963) w h ich h ave i n f luenced many s ub sequen t s t ruc tu ra l i s t a pp roache s t o s ymbo l ism i n a r chaeo logy . Wh i ls t t h e r e a r e n ume rou s v a r ia t ion s i n t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s t ruc tu ra l is t a pp roache s , t h e b a s ic p r em ise s c an b e f o l lowed i n L each ( 1976 ) . N o tab ly b o th L each ( 1976 : 1 4 ) a nd B inf o rd ( 197 1 : 1 6 ) c on s ide red t h e a c t o f s ymbo l is ing a s ' t he a rb i t ra ry a s s ign ing o fm ean ing t of o rm ' , a nd w h i ls t s ome o b jec t s a r e i n terp re ted a ss ymbo ls f o rs oc ia l v a r iab le s s uch a s s ex , s t a tu s , o r a ff i l ia t ion , t h e a s sumed a rb i t ra r ine s s o fs ymbo ls h a s r e su l ted i n al a ck o fa temp t t o a s se ss w hy p ar t icu la r s ymbo l s w e re u sed i n p ar t icu la r c on tex t s ( Hodde r , 1 982a : 9 ) . ' Po s t -p roce s sua l ' t h eo r ie s

2 . 2 .2

S pa t ia l O rgan isa t ion

A p roce s sua l f r amewo rk e xpec t s t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f c u l tu ra l m a t e r ia ls t o b e p a t ter ned ( H i l l , 1 970a ) a nd t h e m a in a im o f s p a t ia l a na ly se s h a s b een t o i n f e r t h e s o c ia l e l emen t s r ep re s en ted b y a ny a ppa ren t p a r t i t ion ing o fb u r ia l p opu la t ion s . D if f e r en t ia t ion b e tween s ub -g roup s w i th in t h e l i v ing s oc ie ty , b e t h ey o n t h e b a s is o f s e x , a ge , w ea l th , s t a tus , a ff i l ia t ion , o ra ny o t he r v a r iab le , h ave b een e xpec ted t o b e t r anspo sed o n t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l f u ne ra ry r e co rd ; 1 6

c u l tu re m eans c hange s y s tem

B inford e ta l . ( 1970 ) , f o r e xamp le , s t a t ed t h a t a r chaeo log ica l s i t es s hou ld e xh ib i t c omp lex f o rma l spa t ia l s t ruc tu re s i n d i rec t c o r re spondence t o d eg rees o f d i f f e ren t ia t ion w i th in t h e l i v ing c ommun i ty . T h is e xpec ta t ion o f ad i rec t m app ing f r om t r ea tmen t i n l i f e t o t r ea tmen t i nd ea th i st oo l i nea r . A ga in i ta s sumes t h a t f une ra l o rgan i ser s f o l lowed s oc ia l ly p r escr ibed p a t terns o fb ehav iou r ( Saxe , 1 970 : 4 ) a nd t h a t a l l s o c ie t ie s c hose t o e xp ress s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n a p r ed ic tab le m anne r w i th in t h e b u r ia l d oma in . S pa t ia l s t ruc tu r e d oe s r ep resen t " t he n on random o u tpu t o f h uman c ho ice p roce s ses" ( C la rke , 1 977 : 1 0 ) b u t i n terp re ta t ions c ou ld b e m is lead ing i fc oncen t ra t ion i sf o cused u pon l i t e ra l , s y s tem ic r e la t ions . I ft h e c ho ice o fb u r ia l p l acemen t w i th in t h e c eme te ry i sc ons is ten t ly d i f f e ren t f o r t h e s exes i tm ay b e p o ss ib le t o a dduce t h a t t h e s ex o f t h e d ecea sed w a s a s i gn i f ican t o rgan is ing p r inc ip le a f f ec t ing d i spo sa l p rac t ice s , b u t i tc an n o tj us t b e a s sumed t h a tt h i s f e a tu re o fb u r ia l r i tua l r ef l ec t s t h e e veryday o rgan isa t iona l p r inc ip les o ft h e l i v ing s oc ie ty . I n as oc ie ty w h ich d i d h eav i ly d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween t h e s e xe s i ne veryday l i f e , t h e f une r a l o rgan ise r s m ay h ave c ho sen t o r e -wo rk , m is rep resen t , i d ea l ise o r i n ver t t h i s f e a tu re o fs o c ie ty i nb u r ia l r i tes , o r t oc oncen t ra te u pon t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f o t he r i d en t i t ie s i n s tead , s u ch a s f am i ly r e la t ion sh ip s . T hus , ac l ea r ly s e xua l ly s eg rega ted b u r ia l d oma in a nd o ne i nw h ich t h e s exes a r e t ho rough ly s pa t ia l ly m ixed d o n o t n ecessa r i ly r ef lec t c on t ra s t ing d eg rees o f s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion w i th in t h et wo l i v ing c ommun i t ie s , b u t r a the r m ay i nd ica te t h e d i f f e ren t c ho ices a nd e mphases m ade b yt h e f une ra l a genc ies a tt h et ime o fb u r ia l .

s t imu l i , s uch a s t h e p hys ica l e nv ironmen t ( C la rke , 1 978 [ 1 968 ] ; H i l l , 1 97 1; R enf rew , 1 969 ; 1 972 ; C a rne iro , 1 968 ; 1 970 ; F l anne ry , 1 972 ) . T he a s sumed g ene ra l i ty o fs oc ia l p roces ses a nd b ehav iou ra l p a t ter n ing h a s p romo ted f u nc t iona l is t a nd a dap ta t iona l is t i n terp re ta t ions a nd t h e a pp l ica t ion o f e vo lu t iona ry c l a ss if ica t ion mode l s ; a' c h ief dom ' l e ve l o r r anked s oc ie ty h av ing mo re f u l ly e vo lved /adap ted t oe x ter na l s t imu l i t h an a ' b and ' l e ve l o r e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie ty , t h e ir b ehav iou ra l p a t tern ing a dap t ing a cco rd ing ly i n ap r ed ic tab le m anne r ( Se rv ice , 1 962 ; F r ied , 1 967 ; S ah l in s , 1 958 ) . D if f e ren t ia t ion i n mo r tua ry t r ea tmen t w i th in a nd b e tween d i sposa l d oma ins h a s b een t a ken t op rov ide a n a lmo s t d i rec t r e p resen ta t ion o f t h e f o rm o f s pec if ic s t a tu s s y s tems u nde r i n ves t iga t ion a nd i th a s b een a rgued t h a t i f c e r ta in t r a i t s a r e e v iden t i n f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t , p a r t icu la r ly i n t e rms o f t h e t y pes a nd d i s t r ibu t ions o f a r tef ac t a s semb lage s , t h e d eg ree o f o rgan isa t iona l c omp lex i ty c an b e i n f er red a nd b ur ia l s i tes c an b e c l a ss if ied a s p e r ta in ing t o ap a r t icu la r ' t ype ' o f s oc ie ty . A rchaeo log ica l s i tes h ave t h us b een p igeon -ho led b y r e f e rence t o r e ady -made e vo lu t iona ry s c a les o f s oc ie ta l t y po log ies . Nume rou s p red ic t ive a r chaeo log ica l t r a i t l is t d ef in i t ions o f e ga l i ta r ian / ranked s oc ie t ies w e re p roduced ( B inf o rd , 1 972 ; S axe , 1 970 ; S t icke l , 1 968 ; K ing , 1 970 : 1 8 ; R enf rew , 1 973) , b u t e ven r ef ined mode ls , s uch a s t h a t o f P eeb le s a nd K u s ( 1977 ) , s t i l l v i ewed s oc ie t ie s a s a dap t ive m echan isms a nd c oncen t ra ted u pon e ff ic iency i n i n f orma t ion p roce ss ing .

Ib e l ieve t h a t s pace -use i sa n i mpo r tan t d imens ion o fb u r ia l r i tua l w h ich r i gh t ly d ese rves c ons ide ra t ion i nt e rms o fs oc ia l i n f e rence f r om a v a r ie ty o f a ng le s ( e .g . p l acemen t o f t h e g rave w i th in t h e c eme tery , p o s i t ion ing o f t h e b ody w i th in t h e g r ave , p l acemen t o fo b jec t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e b ody ) , a nd a s s u ch t h is d imens ion c ons t i tu te s an o tab le p o r t ion o f my d a ta a na ly s is a tt h e s e lec ted c eme t e r ie s . U n l ike ap rocessua l a pp roach , h oweve r , c oncen t ra t ion s hou ld b e p l aced u pon t h e c ons truc t ions a nd s t ra teg ie s o ft h e f u ne ra l a gency r a the rt h an p r e -de te rm ined ' r u les ' a nd p r e sumed r ef lec t ions o f s oc ia l r e a l i ty . A long w i th ma te r ia l i t ems , s pace i s ap hys ica l s ou r ce t h a t may b e u sed i n i d en t i ty c ons t ruc t ion , a nd t h e m anne r i n wh ich i t i s u sed , i . e . d i f f e ren t ia l s pace -use a cco rd ing t o s ex , m ay i n d ica te t h e c ons t ruc t ion / re -wo rk ing o f g ende r i d en t i t ie s b y t h e f u ne ra l a gency . I ti s v i ta l t o r e cogn i se t ha t t h is s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion d oe s n o t n ece ssa r i ly p r ov ide a d i rec t t r anspos i t ion o f s oc ia l f o rm , b u t a r e p re sen ta t ion c ons t ruc ted a t t h e momen t / s o f b u r ia l . A s s t a ted b y S o rensen ( 2000 : 8 5 ) , w e mus t a cknow ledge t h e p o ten t ia l v a r iance b e tween a n i d eo log ica l s t age -se t t ing o f d i f f e rence a nd i t s e x is tence a nd e f f ec t u pon p eop le 's d a i ly l i f e .

2 . 2 .3

i sv i ewed a s " t he s y s tem o f t h e t o ta l e x t ra soma t ic o f a dap ta t ion" ( B inf o rd , 1 972 : 2 05 ) , a nd s oc ia l i sb e l ieved t oh ave b een i n s t iga ted f r om o u t s ide t h e a s t h e r e su l t o f a dap t ive r e spon se s t o e x terna l

T he a pp l ica t ion o f p r e -de term ined s oc ie ta l d ef in i t ions h as d ese rved ly r e ce ived much c r i t ic ism , t h e g enera l c onsensus o f w h ich c en t re s u pon t h e r e cogn i t ion o f n umerous a r chaeo log ica l s i tes w h ich d o n o t f i t e a s i ly i n t o c l a ss if ica t ion mode ls ( Ha tch , 1 976 ; T a in te r , 1 975b ; 1 977 ; S ande r s a nd Web s te r , 1 978 ; K ing , 1 978 ; C hapman a nd R and sbo rg , 1 981) . S uch mode ls d o n o t a l low r oom f o r s oc ie t ie s o fv a ry ing d eg ree s o fr a nk d if e ren t ia t ion , r e su l t ing i n t h e s t re tch ing o r s ubd iv id ing o f t ypo log ies t o a ccommoda te i l -f in ing s i tes ( Renf rew , 1 974 : 7 4 ; T a in te r , 1 978 : 1 7 ) , o r t h e t e rm ing o f s ome s i tes a s ' e xcep t iona l ' w h i ls t i ti sc l ea r ly i n suff ic ien t t op r esume t h a t s i te s w h ich d o n o t f i t n ea t ly i nt ot h e c a tego r ies mus t b e m e re ly d ev ia t ions f r om t h e n o rm . Wh i ls t i n p r inc ip le t h is m e thodo logy i s e a s i ly r ep roduc ib le a nd p ar t ly s t anda rd ise s l e ve ls o f s oc iocu l tu ra l c omp lex i ty p rov id ing s ome b a s i s f o r c ompa r ison s o fg ene ra l o rgan isa t ion a c ro ss p a s t s oc ie t ies , i n p r ac t ice i to n ly l a be ls s i te s i n ar e la t ive s ense r a the r t h an i n ves t iga t ing a nd i n te rp re t ing s pec if ic s t ruc ture s ( Go lds te in , 1 976 : 1 8 ) . D issa t isf ac t ion w i th t h is a pp roach h a s l e d many a r chaeo log is ts t o a dvoca te t h e a bandonmen t o f s uch c l a s s if ica t ion mode ls a l toge the r ( Hodde r , 1 986 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley , 1 987a ) . I n a g reemen t , Ib e l ieve t h e a dap ta t iona l is t p o s i t ion i s i n adequa te b ecau se u s e o f ' c heck l is t s ' v i ew s s oc ie t ies a sl i s t s o ft r a i t sa nd f a i ls t or e cogn ise t h e i rp o ten t ia l f o r c hange . A ga in p eop le a r e d en ied t h e ir p l ace a s c ausa l a c to r s a nd t h is v i ewpo in t f a i ls t o r e cogn ise t h a t s oc ia l c hange r equ ires as oc ia l e xp lana t ion :

E vo lu t iona ry C la ss if ica t ion

Ak ey p roces sua l c oncep t i st h a t s oc ie t ie s a r e e s sen t ia l ly c ompo sed o f p a t terned s e ts o fb ehav iou r s w h ich " descr ibe i ns ome mean ingf u l w ay t h e s oc iocu l tu ra l s y s tem" ( Grübe r , 1 9 7 1 : 6 4 ) . T he p a t tern ing o f p r e sumed ' wea l th / s ta tus ' m a rke r s h as b een t a ken t o d i r ec t ly r ef lec t s e lec ted s oc ia l p e r sonae a nd t h us i n t h e ir g enera l o rgan isa t ion t o e xpo se t h e t y pe o f s t a tu s s y s tem r e p r esen ted a nd f a c i l i ta te c ro s s c u l tu ra l c ompa r isons . S ys tem s t h eory a s sume s h omeo s ta t ic e qu i l ib r ium , m ax ima l e ff ic iency i ss e en a s a' p r ime move r ' ,

" Env i ronmen t s a r e d ynam ic s e t s o f c u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra l c ond i t ion s t h a ta r e c on s tan t ly mod if ied a nd 1 7

' l en se s o f g ende r ' w h ich mu s t b e r e cogn ised a nd s e t a s ide b ef o re g ende r i n t he p a s t m ay b e a dequa te ly a dd re ssed i ns oc ia l t h eo ry . T he se ' l en se s ' a r e i d en t if ied a s : a nd rocen tr i sm , i n vo lv ing t h e b e l ief t h a t m a le s a r e t h e s t anda rd , w ha t t h ey d o i sn orma l a nd c en t ra l , w omen a r e ' t he o t he r s ' a nd f ema le a c t iv i t ie s a r e t h us i n f e r io r a s t h ey d ev ia te f r om t h is n o rm ; g end er p o la r i sa t ion w h ich a s sume s af undamen ta l d i f f e r ence b e tween m en a nd w omen w h ich r uns " t h roughou t t h e e n t ire s o c ia l f a b r ic , r a the r t h an r e p re sen t ing o ve r lapp ing a nd i n te r tw ined c a tego r ie s" ( Ne l son , 1 997 : 2 6 ) ; a nd b io log ica l e s sen t ia l i sm w h ich i n s is t s t h a t d i f f e rence s i nm a le a nd f ema le r o le s a r e i mpo sed a nd r e s t r i c ted b yb io logy .

c r ea ted b yh uman i n te rven t ion" ( Ea r le , 1 99 1 : 1 ) . C u l tu re i s n o t j u s t am eans o f a dap t ive e f f ic iency , a nd p eop le 's a c t ion s a nd s oc ia l c hange a r e n o t f u l ly d e te rm ined b y e x t erna l s t imu l i . O nce a ga in i tmu s t b e e mpha s i sed t h a t s o c ie t ie s a r e n o t c on s t i tu ted o f r o le s , b u t a r e c on s t ruc ted t h rough s oc ia l p r ac t ice s , a nd t h e m a in tenance o f t h e se p ra c t ice s r e p roduce s t h e s oc ia l s y s tem . A s T i l ley ( 1984 ) s t re s se s , au n i ta ry mode l f o rc hange f o r a l t imes a nd p l a ce s i su nf ea s ib le a s c hang e i st h e h i s to r ica l p roduc t o fs i tua ted k now ledgeab le p r ac t ice s , i t i s c on t ingen t u pon s pec if i c c i rcum s tance s . Mo re r e cen t f o cu s u pon s e ek ing t h e g ene ra t ive s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s b eh ind s oc ia l c hange a nd v a r ia t ion , a nd r e cogn i t ion o fh uman a g ency w i th e mpha s is o n v a r iab le ss u ch a sg ende ra nd i d eo logy a sc en t ra l f o rce s o f s oc ia l t r ansf o rma t ion o r m a in tenance h ave b egun t o i n jec t n ew l i f e i nt oi n ve s t iga t ion s o fs oc ia l s t ruc tu r e , o rgan isa t ion a nd c hange ( s ee C hap te rF ou r ) .

2 . 3

T he a nd rocen t r ism i n he r en t i n m any a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s d e r ive s i np a r t f r om t h a t e mbedded i na n th ropo logy w h ich h a s b een w ide ly d emon s t ra ted a nd c r i t ic i sed ( Ro sa ldo a nd L amphe re , 1 974 ; S chuck , 1 974 ; R oh r l ich -Leav i t t , 1 975 ; A rdene r , 1 975 ; F r ied ! , 1 975 ; R oge r s , 1 978 ; M i l ton , 1 979 ; S chepe r -Hughe s , 1 983) . I ta l so d e r ive s f r om ap ro jec t ion o f t h e r e sea r che r s o wn c u l tu re -bound g ende r s t e reo type s o n t o t h e p a s t , a nd d e sp i t e c l a im s t o as c ien t if ic o b jec t iv i ty , a r chaeo log ica l d a ta h a s b een u sed " t o p r ov ide ' emp i r ica l ' s ub s tan t ia t ion o r j u s t if ica t ion f o r c on t empo r a ry g ende r i d eo logy" ( Conkey a nd S pec to r , 1 984 : 2 ;L eone , 1 973 : 1 29 1 32 ; G e ro , 1 985 ) . T he ' Man t h e H un te r ' mode l i s ac a se i n p o in t (Wa shbur n a nd L anca s te r , 1 968 ; L augh l in , 1 968 ; Ma r t in a nd V oo rh ie s , 1 975 ; S locum , 1 975 ; B eechy , 1 978 ; Z ih lman , 1 978 ; 1 98 1 ; D ah lbe rg , 1 98 1 ; Dob re s , 1 988 ; Wa t son a nd K ennedy , 1 99 1) .

I mp l ica t ions f o r a n A rchaeo logy o fG ender

A l though p roce s sua l a pp roache s h ave a dvoca ted t h e a na ly s i s o fs o c ia l o rgan isa t ion , f o cu s u pon b road p roce s se s f r om a f unc t iona l p e r spec t ive h a s o b scu red g ende r i n ve s t iga t ion . A s s y s tems t h eo ry s e e s i n d iv idua ls a s f unc t iona l c omponen t s o f i n f o rma t ion -p roce s s ing s y s tems , p a r t s o f t h e o rde red m echan ic s o f t h e t o ta l s oc ie ty , a nd v i ew s m a te r ia l c u l tu re a sp a s s ive , b u r ia l t r ea tmen t r ef l ec t ing s t a tu s , p eop le , w he the rm a le o rf ema le , h ave b een s ub sumed t ot h e p o in t o fn ea r i n v i s ib i l i ty . I ndeed t h e t h eo re t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l f r amewo rk o f p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy a s a ' s c ience ' h a s e mpha s ised e mp i r ica l ' f ac t s ' a s t h e o n ly r e a l k now ledge b a se f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e p a s t , a nd ' i n te rna l ' v a r iab le s s u ch a s g ende r d ynam ic s h ave b een c on s ide red i n acce s s ib le a nd i re levan t (Wy l ie , 1 99 1a : 3 5 -38 ) . I ts e ems s omewha t c on t rad ic to ry t h e ref o re t o v i ew t h e n ume rou s p roce s sua l e nqu i r ie s i nt os u ch c oncep t s a s ' s ta tu s ' , ` r ank ' , o r ` p re s t ige s y s tem s ' w h ich , a s s oc ia l c ons t ruc t s , m ay b e c on s ide red t o b e a s e qua l ly ' a b s t rac t ' i n n a tu re a s g ende r ( Conkey a nd G e ro , 1 99 1 : 1 4 ) . A na ly se s o f as y s tem ic a nd f unc t iona l n a tu r e h ave l a cked c oncep t ion o f s ymbo l ic a nd r i tua l a spec t s o f h uman b ehav iou r , b y n eg lec t ing t h e i n d iv idua l a nd l a ck ing t h eo r ie s c oncern ing s oc ia l a c t ion t h ey h ave n o tb een a b le t op rov ide a n a dequa t ee xp lana t ion o ft h e g ene ra t ion o fc hange a nd t r ansf o rma t ion o fs oc ia l s y s tem s , w h ich m u s t b e s e en t o h ave a g ende r c omponen t , a nd s pec if ic i n ve s t iga t ion o f g ende r r o le s , r e la t ion s a nd i d eo log ie s h a s n o t e ven b een a t temp ted . A p roce s sua l f r amewo rk h a sp roduced

N ume rou s e xamp le s o f t h e i mpo s i t ion o f i mp l ic i t p r econce ived i d ea s c oncern ing g ende rc an b e c i ted f r om k ey p roce s sua l t e x t s s uch a s B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd ( e d s . 1 968 ) w h ich e mpha s ise t h e v a lue a nd c en t ra l i ty o f ma le a c t iv i t ie s w h i l s t t r iv ia l is ing a nd p e r iphe ra l is ing t h o se o f f ema le s . S pec if ica l ly i nt e rms o f mo r tua ry r ema in s , W in te r s ( 1 968 ) p rov ide s ap r ime e xamp le o ft h e d if e ren t ia l a pp l ica t ion o f t h eo ry t om a les a nd f ema le s . B a s ic t oW in te r s w o rk i st h e f undamen ta l p roce s sua l p r em ise t h a t t r ea tmen t i n d ea th d i rec t ly r ef lec t sr o le s a nd s t a tu se s i ns o c ia l l i f e , b u te ven t h i s n o t ion i sn o t e mp loyed i n t h e s ame m anne r f o r e a ch s e x . W in te r s ( 1968 : 2 04 -207 ) h a s ap r io r i e xpec ta t ion s o f s e xl i nked g r ave -good s a nd h i s i n terp re ta t ion s o ft h e p r e sence o f s uch g ood s c on t ra s t s a cco rd ing ly f o r m a le s a nd f ema le s . G r ind ing p es t le s a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le b u r ia l s a r e a s sumed t or ef lec t f ood -p r epa ra t ion a c t iv i t ies , w h i ls tw hen a s soc ia ted w i th m a le b u r ia ls a r e t a ken t oi n d ica te m a le m anuf a c tu re o f s uch t o o l s o r t h e i r u se a s h amme r s tone s . I mpo r ted m a r ine s he l l f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th f ema le b u r ia ls i sa s sumed t o m e r e ly r e p resen t t h e i r p o s se s s ion a nd p ub l ic d i sp lay o fs u ch o r namen t s , w h i ls t a l though s uch a r t ic le s w e re a b sen t f r om a du l t m a le g r ave s , m a le c on t ro l o f t h e p rocu remen t a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fs u ch t r ade i t em s i sa s sumed .

" v ir tua l ly n os y s tema t ic w o rk o nt h ea r chaeo log ica l s t udy o f g ende r . . [ n o r ] a r chaeo log ica l w o rk i n w h ich a na u tho re xp l ic i t ly c l a im s t h a tw e c an k now a bou t g ende r i nt h e p a s t a s o b se rved t h rough t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w ho t h en p roceed s t o d emon s t ra te t h a t k now ledge , o rt od e sc r ibe h ow w e c an k now" ( Conkey a nd S pec to r , 1 984 : 2 ) .

T he u nc r i t ica l a pp l ica t ion o f g ende r s t e reo type s r e i te ra te s c on tempo ra ry a s sump t ion s c oncern ing t h e a c t iv i t ie s , r e la t ion s , p rof i c iency a nd s oc ia l p os i t ion ing o ft h e s e xe s a nd i mpo se s a s sump t ion s a bou t r e la ted p a s t v a lue s y s tem s . C ir cu la r i ty i s i n t roduced a s p r econcep t ion s a bou t g ende r a r rangemen t s s t ruc tu re t h e w ay i nw h ich m a te r ia l c u l tu r e i s i n te rp re ted a nd r e su l tan t mode ls a cco rd ing ly a ppea r s im i la r t oc on tempo ra r y g ende r a rangemen ts ; i ne f f ec t , t h e p a s t i s r e con s t ruc ted i n t h e i mage o f t h e p r e sen t . I n t u r n t h i s s ugge s t s t h a t s u ch a r rangemen t s a r e c on t inua l a nd u n ive r sa l

D e sp i te t h is m a rked l a ck o f t h eo ry a nd m e thodo logy , h oweve r ,p roce s sua l l i t e ra tu re i sf u l l o fr e f e rence st os ex a nd g ende r a nd t h e se a r e r i dd led w i th a s sump t ion s , s t a temen t s a nd l a nguage t h a t a r e s t eeped i ng ende r b i a s . B em ( 1993) h a s d i scu ssed t h e f em in is t d i v is ion o f t h is b i a s i nt o t h ree 1 8

f e a tu re s o f h uman l i f e r ega rd less o f t empo ra l a nd c u l tu ra l c on tex t , t h u s i mp ly ing a' n a tu ra l ' a nd ' i nev i tab le ' b i o log ica l d e term ina t ion . G ende r r o le s a nd s oc ia l p o s i t ions h ave t hus b een v i ewed a s s t ruc tu red a nd l im i ted b y b i o logy , a s i n he ren ta nd s t a t ic , l e ad ing t ot h e e s tab l ishmen to fn ume rou s

R app , 1 979 ; C ap lan a nd B u r ja , 1 979 ; R o sa ldo , 1 980 ; MacCo rmack a nd S t ra thern , 1 980 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , 1 981 ; A tk inson , 1 982 ) .

u nsubs tan t ia ted d i cho tom ies i n w h ich ' ma le /f ema le ' i s c ommon ly r e p resen ted b y ' a c t ive /p a s s ive ' , ' d om inan t / s ubo rd ina te ' , ' p ub l ic /d omes t ic ' , o r' c en t ra l /p e r iphera l ' .

( B ia sed I n terp re ta t ion o f G ende r ; H u rcombe , 1 995 ) a nd a t tacked t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a in tenance o f am a scu l ine p a s t . Many f em in is t a r chaeo log is t s h ave , h oweve r , a t temp ted t or ed re s st h e s i tua t ion b y f o cu s ing u pon ' l oca t ing t h e f ema les ' i n p r eh is tory , b u t t h is ' a dd w omen a nd s t i r ' a pp roach h a s r i gh t ly b een c r i t ic ised f o r r ep lac ing o ne s e t o f b i a ses w i th a no the r a nd f o r c r ea t ing my th ica l i n ve r s ions o f a nd rocen t r ic a s sump t ions ( Conkey a nd G e ro , 1 99 1 ; H a s ted , 1 985 ; S amson , 1 988 ) . Women c an n o t s imp ly b e a dded t o s oc ia l p roces s " s ince t h ey a r e t h e s t uf f o f s oc ia l p roces s" ( S i lve rb la t t , 1 991 : 1 55) . S uch r e a l isa t ions h ave h e lped a r chaeo logy t o b ecome a mo re s e lf -cr i t ica l d i sc ip l ine a nd h ave e ncou raged r e cogn i t ion o f t h e c omp lex a nd v a r iab le n a tu re o f g ende r a r rangemen t s ( e .g . M i l le r e d . 1 993 ) . T he i d ea o fg ende r r e la t ion s a s s t a t ic a nd u n ive r sa l d ue t o t h e i r b i o log ica l d e te rm ina t ion h a s n ow b een t ur ned o n i t s h ead . A s a n i s sue o f c ons truc t ion a nd n ego t ia t ion , g ende r mus t b e s e en a s c on tex tua l a nd d ynam ic , a nd t h ere mus t b e c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e r e cu r s ive p l ace o f s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l , i d eo log ica l a nd e conom ic f a c to r s i n s t ruc tu r ing , a nd b e ing s t ruc tu red b y , t h e r e la t ions , s oc ia l p o s i t ions a nd r o les o ft h e s exes . A s s ha l l b e d i scu ssed i n C hap te r F our , g ende r h a s r e cen t ly c ome t ob e a cknow ledged a s ah i s to r ica l f o rce .

F em in is t s cho la r sh ip h a s n ow e xposed t h e ' B IG ' p rob lem

" Gende r h a s b een t r ea ted i n av e ry d i cho tom ized , A r i s to te l ian w ay , i nw h ich e ve ry th ing m us t b e " A" o r " No t -A" , ma le o r n o t -ma le" ( Ne l son , 1 997 : 1 76 ) . " Gende r w a s v i ewed a s ab i na ry c l a ss if ica t ion a nd t h e m a scu l ine g ende r c a tego ry w a s t a ken t o b e p r ima ry" ( Hays -G i lp in a nd Wh i t ley , 1 998 : 6 ) . T he c oncep tua l isa t ion o fg ende r a s s e t s o fm a le a nd f ema le b i na ry o ppo s i t ions h a s a l so f r equen t ly b een e xp res sed b y a r chaeo log is t s i nf luenced b y s t ruc tu ra l ism . L e ro i -Gou rhan ( 1965 ; U cko a nd R o senf e ld , 1 967 ) , f o r e xamp le , a r gued f o r as t ruc tu r a l d i v is ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic w o r ld i nt om a le a nd f ema le d oma ins , p o s tu la t ing t h a t t h i s b a s ic s exua l d ua l ism w ou ld b e e xpres sed t h rough a spec ts a menab le t o a r chaeo log ica l e nqu i ry s uch a s c ave a r t . L e ro i -Gourhans ' i n te rp re ta t ions w ere f o rmu la ted b ef o re t h e i mpac t o f f em in is t s c ho la r sh ip o n a r chaeo logy a nd t h ey d o n o t a t temp t t oa dd re s s h ow g ende r m ay h ave ' wo rked ' i ne ve ryday l i f e . I ts e em s t h a t i ns uch c a ses c l a r if ica t ion o ft h eo r ies a bou t s ex w a s c on s ide red u nnecessa ry a s t h e e x is tence a nd n a tu re o f d i f f e ren t ia ted g ende r r o le s w a s c on s ide red t ob e b io log ica l ly d e term ined , g iven a nd u np rob lema t ic , a nd a s s uch c ou ld b e p r e suppo sed . T he i n c lus ion o f m a le a nd f ema le c u l tura l c a tego r ie s i n t h e v a r ious u n ive r sa l s t ruc tu r ing o ppo s i t ion s

T o a dd res s t h e p a r t icu la ra ims o ft h is s t udy , af r amewo rk f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion o f g ende r i sn eeded , w h ich mu s t f o rm p a r t o f a n e xp l ic i t t h eo ry o f s oc ia l a c t ion . A s y s tem ic /f unc t iona l is t f r amewo rk i s i n adequa te b ecause o f i t s f o cu s u pon s ys tem r a the r t han agency , t h ese c oncep t s e xemp l if y ing o ne o f t h e mos t f undamen ta l c on t ra s t s b e tween p roces sua l a nd ` pos tp rocessua l ' a pp roache s t o a r chaeo logy : c ros s -cu l tu ra l u n ive r sa ls a nd h uman u nconsc iousnes s ' v e r sus ' c on tex t s pec if ic a nd s t ra teg ic k now ledgeab le a c t ion . V iew ing p a s t p eop le a s b i o t ic c omponen t s o f t h e s oc ia l s y s tem , t h e a r chaeo log ica l ' r eco rd ' o f t h e i r a c t iv i t ies p rov id ing a d i rec t ly t r ans la tab le m ap o fs oc ia l s t ruc tu re , f a i ls t oa cknow ledge h uman a gency a nd t hus l a cks c oncep tua l isa t ion o fs t ra tegy a nd n ego t ia t ion t h rough s oc ia l p r ac t ice . A p roce s sua l a pp roach h a s t hus f a i led t o r e cogn ise a l t h ree p roces ses b y w h ich g ende r a ppea r st ou sa r chaeo log ica l ly :

v a s t ly o ve r s imp l if ies t h e c omp lex i ty a nd v a r iab i l i ty o f g ende r a r rangemen t s . A s h a s b een r epea ted ly n o ted f o r e xamp le , i tc anno t b e p r esumed t h a t m a le -f ema le i st h e o n ly c u l tu ra l ly d ef ined g ende r c a tego ry w i th in a l l p a s t s oc ie t ie s ( e .g . t h e b e rdache ; C a l lende r a nd K ochems , 1 983 ; B lackwood , 1 984 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r , 1 984 ; G i lch r is t , 1 99 1) . A s N e lson s t a tes , p eop le d o n o t p e rce ive t h emse lve s i n s u ch a b ina ry m anne r i n e veryday a c t iv i t ies a nd a r chaeo logy s hou ld t hus e mp loy ' f uzzy t h ink ing ' ( Ko sko , 1 993 ) , " cha rac te r ised b y s ub t le ty r a the r t h an p rec ise c l eavage s b e tween a l terna te s t a tes" ( Ne lson , 1 997 : 1 76 ) . F rom a s y s tem ic v i ewpo in t t h e a s sump t ion t h a t p eop les ' r o le s a r e d e term ined b y b i o logy a nd i n ex t r icab ly t i ed t ot h e o rgan is ing p r inc ip les o f t h e s oc ia l s y s tem h a s r e su l ted i na l a ck o fc oncep t ion o ft h e s oc ia l c ons t ruc t ion o fg ende r . T he " cu l tu ra l b l inke r s" ( Ne lson , 1 993 : 2 97 ) w orn b y s ys tem ic r e sea rche r s h ave a i ded a c omp le te f a i lure t o r e cogn ise t h e d ynam ic n a tu re o fg ende r a r rangemen t s , s uch a r rangemen t s h ave b een v i ewed a s s t a t ic a nd u n ive r sa l , a s k nown a nd u nde r s tood , b u t t h is ' know ledge ' a nd ' unde r s tand ing ' h a s b een g rounded i n c on tempo ra ry i d eo logy r a the r t h an i n a na ly s is o ft h e o rgan isa t ion o fp a r t icu la rp a s t s oc ia l s y s tems . T h is t y pe o f a pp roach h a s n o tab ly o ccur red a nd c on t inued d esp i te t h e i n crea s ing a wa renes s o ft h e s oc ia l ly c ond i t ioned n a tu re o f a r chaeo log ica l e nqu iry a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f i n f luen t ia l a nd e n l igh ten ing w o rk b y f em in is t s cho la r s , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e f i e ld o fs oc ia l a n th ropo logy ( Ma t th ia son , 1 974 ; R e i te r , 1 975 ; L amphe re , 1 977 ; R oh r l ich -Leav i t t , 1 977 ; K ess ler a nd McKenna , 1 978 ; L aFon ta ine , 1 978 ;

1 .

B y a s sum ing t h e m echan is t ic f u lf i lmen t o f r o les p re d e term ined b y t h e s y s tem a nd b io logy t h is a pp roach f a i ls t o r e cogn ise t h e b u i ld ing o fg ender u pon t h e b ody b y i t s o wn a gency .

2 .

B y c oncep tua l is ing b u r ia l p rac t ice s a s b e ing ' p roduced b y as y s tem ' , p rov id ing a d i rec t r ef lec t ion o f s oc ia l f o rm , t h is a pp roach f a i ls t o r e cogn ise t h e s t ra teg ic n a tu re o f b u r ia l a nd t h e r e -wo rk ing o f g ende r i d en t i ty u pon t h e b ody b yt h e f une ra l a gency .

3 .

B y a s sum ing s c ien t if i c o b jec t iv i ty a nd t h e e x t rapo la t ion o f ' f ac t s ' a nd ' t ru ths ' t h is a pp roach f a i ls t o r e cogn ise t h e w ay s i nw h ich a r chaeo log ica l a gency i sa c t ive i nt h e r e -w r i t ing o fg ende ru pon t h e b ody .

L ack o f t h eo ry c oncern ing t h e s e cond p o in t i sp ar t icu la r ly 1 9

v i ta l w hen d ea l ing s pec i f ica l ly w i th t h e s oc ia l i n ve s t iga t ion o fm o r tua ry c on tex t s . Ak ey e l emen t i nt h e i n adequacy o fa p roce s sua l a pp roach i st h a t t h e f o cu s o fs t udy i sc ons is ten t ly p l aced u pon t h e p e r son i nt h e g r ave . T he d ecea sed 's b u r ia l t r ea tmen t i s t a ken t o d i rec t ly r ep re sen t t h e i r s oc ia l p e r sona / s ta tu s /af f in i t ie s , a nd t h u s i n c ong lome ra t ion t h e o ve ra l l s oc ia l f o rm . A s s ha l l b e s t res sed i nC hap te r F ou r , a cknow ledgemen t o f h uman a gency a nd s t ra teg ic p rac t ice t h rough b u r ia l m ean s t h a t w e c anno t a ccep t t h a t t h e se r e p r e sen ta t ion s n ece s sa r i ly m ir ro r t h e s oc ia l f o rm . R a the r w e m u s t c ons ide r m or tua ry r ema in s t op rov ide ap a r t icu la r r e p re sen ta t ion o f s oc ia l f o rm , c ons truc ted b y t h e s t ra teg ic p rac t ice o fa gency w i th in a s pec if ic t empo r a l a nd m a te r ia l c on tex t ; ar e p re sen ta t ion c r ea ted a tt h e s pec i f ic m omen t / s o f b u r ia l .

2 0

CHAPTER 3

TEXTUAL SOURCES A S SOC IAL REPRESENTAT ION : THE IMAGE OF W O MAN

s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n i d eo logy a nd s o c ia l a nd l e ga l p r ac t ice . T he re a r e , h oweve r , n ume rou s p rob lems i n he ren t i n r e l iance u pon s uch a ccoun t s a nd t h e i r a pp l ica t ion t o c on tempo ra ry l i f e , a nd t h ey a r e b y n o m ean s c omp rehen s ive , p a r t icu la r ly i n r e la t ion t o t h e B r i t i sh p rov ince s . P or t raya ls o fw omen i nt e x tua l s ou rce s p r e sen t a v e ry c heque red p i c tu re , r a ng ing f r om ' s ea soned d i rec to r s o f h u sband s ' t o m e r e c ha t te l s . Wha t i sc l ea r i st h a t t h e re i s n o t j u s t o ne s t o ry f o r a l w omen ; g ende r a r rangemen t s a r e d ynam ic a nd v a r iab le . T he s ou rce s p rov ide e v idence f o r p rov inc ia l a nd r e g iona l v a r iab i l i ty , a nd a s s uch , a r chaeo log ica l e v idence p e r ta in ing t o t h e s oc ia l l i ve s a nd d i scou r se o fm en a nd w omen i ns pec if ic s o c ia l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t s i sv i ta l . P rob lem s s u ch a st h e p e r spec t ive s , m o t ive s a nd v a r iou s c on s t ra in t s o f c l a s s ica l a u tho r s a nd t h e i r r e su l tan tp roduc t ion o fp o ten t ia l ly s t y l ised r e p re sen ta t ions o f p eop le a nd e ven t s c an n o t b e f u l ly a dd re s sed h e re , b u t t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion s o u t l ine s ome d i ff icu l t ie s d i rec t ly r e levan t t oi n ve s t iga t ion s o fR omano -B r i t i sh g ende ra r rangemen t s .

T he i mpor tance o f r e cogn is ing t h e s t ra teg ic n a tu r e o f p a s t r ep resen ta t ions o fp eop le i sn owhe r e m o r e a ppa ren t t h an i n t h e c on temp la t ion o ft e x tua l s ou rce s , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t h e i r r ep re sen ta t ion s o f w omen . T ex t s h ave o f ten b een t a ken a s a no the r f o rm o f r ep re sen ta t ion o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re , p a ra l le l t o t h a t e xpec ted f r om mo r tua ry r ema in s b y p roce s sua l t h eo r i s t s , a nd a ga in t h i s d i rec t r ef lex ive a pp roach d en ie s t h e c omp lex a nd v a r iab le p roce s se s o f s o c ia l c on s t ruc t ion . I t f a i ls t o r e cogn ise t h a t t e x tua l r e p re sen ta t ion s a r e s t ra teg ic , t h a t t h ey w e re p roduced o ve rwhe lm ing ly b y m en w ho h ad a n i n ve s tmen t i nt h e s oc ia l o rde r t h ey d e sc r ibed , a nd t h u s t h e i r o wn m o t ives f o r c hoo s ing w ha t t o s ay i nt h e i r t e x t s . A ccep tance o ft h e se r e p r e sen ta t ion sa tf a ce v a lue a l so d en ie s t h e p eop le r e p re sen ted t h e i r a gency b ecau se w e f a i l t o c on s ide rt h e ir a c t ion s , s t ra teg ie s a nd n ego t ia t ion s w h ich m ay h ave b een f a r r emoved f r om t h e i r r e p re sen ta t ion b y o t he r s . We a r e p rov ided w i th r e p re sen ta t ion s o f w omen t h rough a genc ie s o f l e ga l i ty a nd m a le t e x t s w h ich m ay h ave r e w o rked g ende r a ppea rance s f o r t h e i r o wn e nd s . H ow t h en a r e w e t o l o ok a t g ende r t h rough t e x tua l s ou rce s? T h is q ue s t ion h a s l e d m any a r cha eo log is t s t od i s tance t h emse lve s f r om t e x tua l e v idence , a r gu ing t h a t i fs uch t e x t s c an n o t b e t a ken a sr ef lex ive d ep ic t ion s t h e i r v a lue i sq ue s t ionab le , b u t t h i s a na ly t ica l e xc lu s ion i su naccep tab le a s i td en ie s u s a p o ten t ia l w ea l th o f i n f o rma t ion . R ecogn i t ion o f h uman a gency m eans t h a t i ti sp r ac t ice s a nd s t ra teg ie s t h a t s hou ld f o rm t h e f o cu s o fa r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ions o fs oc ia l l i f e , a nd t h ep roduc t ion o fl i t e ra tu r e a nd l e ga l c ode s p l ayed ap a r t i n t h is d i scou r se , i n t h e n ego t ia t ion a nd a r rangemen t o f g ende rr o le s a nd r e la t ions .

3 . 1 .1

P e rhap s t h e m o s t o bv iou s p rob lem i n t e rms o f g ende r i n ves t iga t ion i st h a t c l a s s ica l s ou rce s a r e a lmo s t a l w r i t ten b y m en . Wh i ls t s ome f ema le a u tho r s a r e k nown , f ew s uch w o rk s s u rv ive a s a ny th ing m o re t h an f r agmen t s a nd t h e q uan t i ty a nd t h u s b r ead th o fc on ten t i sm inu te i nc ompa r i son t ot h e l i t e ra tu re p roduced b y m en . R oman s oc ie ty w a s a n a cknow ledged p a t r ia r chy a nd i ts e ems t h a t w omen 's p owe r s o fp ub l ic e xp r es s ion w e r e l i m i ted a cco rd ing ly ( C la rk , 1 993 ) . T he e p i taph o fA l l ia P o te s ta s f r om t h e t h i rd c en tu ry AD i n R ome m ay p rov ide a p t i l u s t ra t ion ; " she w ou ld s peak b r ief ly a nd s o w a s n eve r r e p roached" ( C IL V I .37965 ; L e fkow i tz a nd F an t , 1 982 : 1 37 ) . C onsequen t ly w e l a ck d e ta i ls o f w omen 's d a i ly e xpe r ience s a nd v i ewpo in t s , a nd w hen l i t e ra ry r e p re sen ta t ion s o f w omen d o o ccu r t h ey a r e p r e sen ted t h rough am a le l e n s . A nd rocen t r ism a k in t ot h a t n o ted o f a n th ropo log ica l f i e ld r e sea rche r s m ay h ave p roduced a t e ndency f o r m a le a u tho r s t o f a i l t o n o t ice o r d e l ibe ra te ly e xc lude f ema le a c t iv i t ie s , b e l i t t le o r p r e sen t t h em i n i d ea l ised f o rm . A t temp t s t o i n ve s t iga te R oman f am i ly r e la t ion sh ip s , f o r e xamp le , a r e h ampe red b ecau se t h e l i t e ra tu re w a s e s sen t ia l ly w r i t ten b y f a the r s a nd s on s a nd t h us l a ck s i n s igh t i nt ow ho l ly f ema le r e la t ionsh ip s ( D ixon , 1 988 ) . T he p opu la r R oman p r ef e r ence f o r p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry h i s tory h a s o b scu red t h e r e co rd o fp eop le , n o tab ly w omen , w ho w e re u nab le t o p ar t ic ipa te i ns uch s phe re s o f l i f e ( Pome roy , 1 975 ) . C la s s ica l l i t e ra tu re t e nd s t o r e po r t ' e xcep t iona l ' r a the r t h an ' t yp ica l ' i n f orma t ion , r e su l t ing i n e ve ryday a c t iv i t ie s b e ing l a rge ly i g no red a nd , a s s t a ted b y C la rk ( 1993 ) , w e a r e t r y ing t o p rocu r e i n f o rma t ion a bou t s oc ia l l i f e t h a t i td i d n o t o ccu r t ot h e a u tho r s t or e co rd . I n o rde r t og a in s ome i n s igh t i nt o l i f e o u t s ide t h e s ena te a nd b a t t lef ie ld a v a r ie ty o f s ou rce s a r e n eeded a nd e a ch h a s a s soc ia ted p rob lem s a nd l i m i ta t ion s . T he g en re o fl i t e ra tu re r e f er r ed t o , f o r e xamp le , c ou ld h ave i mpo r tan t i mp l ica t ion s ; J uvena l 's S a t i re s , f o r i n s tance , p r e sen t as omewha t v u lga r

T h i s c hap te r b eg in s b y b r ief ly c on s ide r ing t h e n a tu re o f a va i lab le e v idence a nd e va lua t ing i t s w o r th i n t e rms o f i n ve s t iga t ing t h e l i ve s o f R omano -B r i t i sh w omen . T he s e cond s e c t ion c oncen t ra te s u pon s e lec ted p rom inen t t h eme s a ppa r en t i n t e x tua l r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f w omen , a s se s s ing e v idence f o r t h e c oncur rence o r d i sco rd o fw omen 's a c tua l a c t iv i t ie s w i th a v i ew t o c on s ide r ing m omen t s w hen w omen 's a gency m ay b ecome v i s ib le . T h is l a t te re xe r c i se i s p ar t icu la r ly r e levan t t ot h is s t udy w hen w e a ccep t t h a t b o th l i t e ra tu r e a nd b u r ia l d a ta p rov ide u s w i th r e p re sen ta t ion s o f g ende r t h rough t h e c on s t ruc t ion s a nd s t ra teg ie s o f a g ency . A s s u ch w e c an n o t t a ke t h e se r e p re sen ta t ion s , f r om e i the r m ed ia , a s v a lue -f r ee . We m ay b e p r e sen ted w i th ' i dea l ' f o rma l isa t ions o f g ende r a rangemen t s , a s s e ems t o b e a ppa ren t i n t h e c ommon r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h e m a trona i mage , b u t t h ese i d ea l /con s t ruc ted r e p re sen ta t ion s c an s t i l l p rove i n f o rma t ive w hen o ne c on s ide r s t h em i n t e rms o f s t ra teg ic p r ac t ice , a s p ar t o ft h e o n -go ing d i scou r se w i th in t h e s o c ie ty .

3 . 1

C la ss ica l L i te ra tu re

E va lua t ing t he E v idence

S t udy o f t e x tua l s ou rce s , n o tab ly i nt h e f o rm o f c l a s s ica l l i t e ra tu r e , e p ig raphy a nd l e ga l t e x t s , m ay h e lp t o e l uc ida te c e r ta in p rac t ica l i t ie s o fl i f e , p e rhap s i n c lud ing i n d ica t ion s o f 2 1

v i ew o f R oman w omen w h ich w ou ld b e m i s lead ing a s a b a s i sf o rs o c ia l r e con s t ru c t ion .

3 . 1 .2

E p ig raphy

E p ig raph ic e v id ence i n t h e f o rm o f i n sc r ip t ion s o n t omb s tone s , b u i ld ing s , a l ta r s , a nd w r i t ing o r c u r se t a b le t s p rov ide s t h e b u lk o f i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing i n d iv idua l p eop le i nR oman B r i ta in , b u t c ompa r ed t o o t he r p r ov ince s t h e v o lume o f s u rv iv ing i n sc r ip t ion s f r om B r i ta in i s e x t r eme ly m eag r e ( B i r ley , 1 980 ) . A l la son Jone s ( 1 989 : 9 ) s t a t e s t h a t o n ly a pp rox ima te ly t e n p e r cen t o f B r i t i sh i n sc r ip t ion s r e cove r ed s of a r m ake a ny r e f e rence t ow omen , a nd a l though d a t ing c an b e p rob lema t ic , n one a ppea rt od a te f r om t h e f o u r th c en tu ry . We t h u s k now o f v e ry f ew i n d iv idua l w omen a nd m any e l emen ta ry f a c t s a bou t t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s , q u i te a pa r t f r om t h e i r o p in ion s , a r e i n acc e s s ib le . I n sc r ip t ion s o n a l ta r s a nd t omb s tone s a r e b i a sed t owa rd s t h e u ppe r -m idd le c l a s se s , t h e re i s an o tab le d ea r th f r om r u ra l a r ea s , a nd r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f i n d iv idua l s o n l e ad c u r se t a b le t s a r e a l so v e ry l i m i ted ; o f t h e o ne h und r ed a nd t e n t a b le t s r e cov e r ed f r om t h e B a th t emp le s i te , o n ly s i x t een r e f e r t o w omen b y n ame , s i x o f t h e se m e r e ly p rov ide t h e n ame , a nd o n ly t h r ee p r e sen td a ta r emo te ly r e levan tt os t a tu s ( A l la son Jone s , i b id .) . P apy ru s d ocumen t s , p a r t icu la r ly f r om E gyp t , a r e i mpo r t an t p r ima ry s o u r ce s a s m any w e r e w r i t ten b y , o rf o r , w omen o f' l owe rc l a s s ' , b u t l i f e s ty le s m ay h ave v a r ied c on s ide rab ly b e tween p r ov ince s a nd s u ch t e x t s m ay t h u sb eo fl i t t le d i r ec tr e levance t oR omano -B r i t i sh l i f e .

C la s s -b ia s p r e sen t s an o tab le p r ob lem a st h e v a s tm a jo r i ty o f k nown a u tho r s b e long ed t o t h e e duca t ed R oman e l i te a nd w omen r e f e r r ed t ow e r e u sua l ly o ft h e s ame s o c ia l s phe r e . A l though ' o rd ina ry ' w omen h ave a lway s b e en m o r e n ume rou s t h ey a r e s e ldom m en t ioned a nd c on cen t ra t ion u pon h i ghe r -c la s s f ema le s m ay d i s to r t i d ea s a bou t w omen 's l i f e s ty le s i ft h ey a r e t a ken a s g ene ra l r e p r e sen t a t ion s . T he c omp l ica ted c l a s s -con sc iou s a nd c o smopo l i tan n a tu r e o f R oman s o c ie ty m ak e s t h e g ene ra l p o s i t ion o f w omen d if i cu l t t o d e te rm ine . T he p opu la t ion w a s d i v ided i n t o t h o s e w ho w e re f r ee , f r eed o re n s laved , a nd f a c to r s s u ch a s w ea l th , c i t iz ensh ip a nd o ccupa t ion c r ea ted v a r iou s s ub d i v i s ion s w i th in t h e se c a tego r ie s . A s s u ch , o ne c anno t v i ew t h e l i ve s o f ' women ' a s as i ng le p henomenon . F ema le r i gh t s , l i f e s ty le s a nd r o le s m ay h ave d i f f e r ed g r ea t ly a c co rd ing t on ume rou s v a r iab le s i n c lud ing s o c ia l p o s i t ion , d a t e a nd l o ca t ion . D if f e r ence s b e tween l i f e s ty le s o f t h e w ea l thy a nd p oo r m ay n o t o n ly h ave b e en q uan t i ta t ive b u t a l so e mbedded i nt h e i r r e spec t ive p r ac t ice s a nd a s p i ra t ions a nd a r e t h u s e x t r eme ly d i ff icu l t t o g aug e . T he r e a r e p r ob lem s i n he ren t i n t h e d e f in i t ion o f s o c ia l c l a s se s , t h e t e rm ' l owe r -c la s se s ' , f o r e xamp le , c r ea t e s ah uge c ong lome ra te o f p eop le e xpe r ienc ing v e ry d i f f e ren t l i f e s ty le s . C la s s d i v is ions w e r e n o t n e ce s sa r i ly c on s i s ten t t h roughou t t h e Emp i r e a nd w e h ave n o i d ea o f t h e p r opo r t ion s o fm en a nd w omen p e r ta in ing t oe a ch c l a s s , t h e n umbe r s n o d oub t f l uc tua t ing o ve r t i me a nd b e tween r e g ion s . C la s s ica l l i t e ra tu r e d oe s , h oweve r , l e ave l i t t le d oub t a s t o c ommon m a le e l i te o p in ion s c once rn ing t h e f ema le s e x , a s w omen a r e c o l lec t ive ly d e sc r ibed a s p hy s ica l ly , i n te l lec tua l ly a nd e mo t iona l ly w eak e r t h an m en , l a ck ing s e lf -con t ro l a nd i n n eed o f m a le g u idance . U nf o r tuna t e ly w e d o n o t k now w he the r o t he r m en o f t h e s ame s o c ia l s phe re , o rm en o fo t he r c l a s se s , v i ewed w omen i n t h e s ame w ay , o r w he the r w omen i n te rna l i sed t h is p e r cep t ion o ft h e i rs e x( C la rk , 1 993 ) .

3 . 1 .3

L oca t ion a nd d a te a r e e x t reme ly i mpo r tan t f a c to r s d e te rm in ing t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o fc l a s s ica l s ou r ce s . T he r e a r e v e ry f ew s p ec if i c l i t e ra ry r e f e r ence s t o B r i t a in , a nd w h i l s t s ome d o p r ov ide i n d ica t ion s o f R oman a nd n a t ive a t i tude s t owa rd s w omen , t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty a r e c once rned w i th l i f e i n R ome . A s w omen 's s i tua t ion s m ay h av e d i f f e r ed c on s ide rab ly i n p rov inc ia l l i f e s u ch s o u r ce s m u s t b e u s ed w i th g r ea t c au t ion w hen a pp l ied t o R oman B r i ta in . T he u t i l i sa t ion o fl i t e ra ry m o t if s i nw a l l -pa in t ing s a nd m o sa ic s i n R oman B r i ta in m ay i n d ica te t h a t s ome c l a s s ica l w o rk s w e r e q u i t e w ide ly r e ad i nt h e p r ov ince ( Ba r r e t t , 1 978 ) a nd i ti s p e rhap s w o r th c on s ide r ing t h a t t h e a t t i tude s t h ey e s pou sed c ou ld h ave e xer ted s ome i n f luence u pon a t i tude s t owa rd s p r ov inc ia l w omen , b u t t h e e x ten t o f s u ch i n f luence a nd w hom i t m ay h ave a f f ec ted a r e t o ta l ly u nc lea r . U nf o r tuna t e ly mo s tt e x t sd a t e f r om t h e l a t eR epub l ic t oe a r ly E mp i r e a nd a t i tude s m ay h ave c hanged s i gn if ican t ly b y t h e t h i rd t o f o u r th c en tu r ie s AD , p e rhap s p a r t icu la r ly i n a p r ov ince w he r e a s s im i la t ion o f R oman a nd n a t ive i d ea s n e ed s c on s ide ra t ion . T h i s d a te b i a s i sa l so p r eva len t i n m ode rn s c ho la r ly w o rk s w i th f a r f ewe rp ape r s c oncen t ra t ing u pon t h ep e r iod a f te rt h e e a r ly t h i rd c en tu ry ( C la rk , 1 993 ) .

2 2

L ega l R eco rd s

L ega l c ode s w ou ld h ave a f f ec ted m any d i f f e r en t f a c e t s o f w omen 's l i ve s a nd m ay t h u s p rov ide s ome i n s igh t i n t o o ff ic ia l p o l icy t owa rd s w omen , t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s a nd c on sequence s t h e r eof ; w ha t w a s l e ga l ly , s o c ia l ly a nd m o r a l ly e xpec ted o ft h em , h ow t h ey w e r e l e ga l ly p ro t ec ted o r r e s t r ic ted , a nd w he the r t h e i r s i tua t ion s d i f f e r ed t ot h o se e v idenced f o r c on t empo r a ry m en . T he r e a r e , h ow eve r , a n umbe r o f s e r iou s p r ob lem s w h ich n ega te s ome o f t h e u s ef u lne s s o f s u ch t e x t s . Much a c t iv i ty i n R ome w a s r e gu la ted b y s o c ia l c onven t ion a nd p r eceden t r a the r t h an l e ga l c ode , m o s t e v idence r e la te s t o i sue s a f f ec t ing t h e h i ghe r e c he lon s , r e co rd s a r e i n comp le t e a nd g eog r aph ica l ly p a t chy , a nd m o s t t e nd t op r e sen t m en 's d ec i s ion s o n w ha t s hou ld b e d one b y , o rf o r , w omen ( C la rk , 1 993 ) . We h ave v i r tua l ly n o i d ea a bou t w omen 's o p in ion s o n l aw s w h ich d i r ec t ly a f f e c ted t h em o rh ow s t r ic t ly t h ey a dhe r ed t os u ch l e g i s la t ion , a nd t h i s l a t te r p o in t i l u s t ra te s am a jo r p r ob lem c once rn ing t h e d i ff i cu l t ie s i nd e te rm in ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l e g i s la t ion a nd s o c ie ty ; l aw s r e la t e t ow ha t p eop le ` s hou ld / shou ld n o t ' d o , n o t t o w ha t t h ey a c tua l ly d o , a nd t h e r e a r e a lway s t e n s ion s a nd c on t rad ic t ion s b e tween l a w a nd s o c ia l p r ac t ice . T he i n t roduc t ion o f al aw d oe s n o t m ean t h a tt h et y pe o fb ehav iou ri ta imed t op r oh ib i tw a sr i f e , a nd t h e r e -enac tmen t o f m any l aw s i n d ica te s t h a t t h e i n t roduc t ion o f n ew o r m od if ica t ion o f e x i s t ing l e g i s la t ion d i d n o t m ean t h a t s u ch b ehav iou r c ea sed . N o t e ve rybody w i l l h av e f o l lowed t h e ' r u le s ' a nd a sC la rk ( 1 993 : 1 2 )n o t e s , i ti sn o t c e r ta in t h a t e ve rybody k new w ha t t h e r u le s w e r e . L eg i s la t ive p r oc lama t ion s m ay n o t h ave r e ached t h e w ho le p opu la t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i nr u r a l a r ea s , a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t m any ' o rd ina ry ' p r ov inc ia l p eop le m ay h ave b een u nawa r e o f R oman l e ga l i t ie s . A l so , l aw c an b e ar a r ef ied s y s tem , a nd t h e a ppa r en t R oman r e ve r ence o f a nce s t ra l h i s to r y a nd r e su l tan t r e luc tance t o a l te r l e ga l c ode s m ay h av e e ncou raged c on t inued r e p r e sen ta t ion o f p a s t v a lu e s

w ha teve rt h e r e a l i ty o fs oc ia l p rac t ice .

d eg ree t ow h ich w e m ay b e a b le t os e e w omen 's a c t iv i t ies a s e cho ing o r d i ve r s if y ing f r om s uch r ep resen ta t ions . T h is e xe rc ise i n ve s t iga tes a nd c l ea r ly h i gh l igh t s t h e d ange r s i n a s sum ing ad i rec tr ef lec t ion o fs oc ia l f o rm t h rough h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l m ed ia . I fe v idence o f w omen 's s oc ia l p r ac t ice c an b e s e en t oc on t ra s t w i th t h e i r r e p resen ta t ion i n l i t e ra ry c on tex t s , t h e re i s n o r e a son t o s uppo se t h a t r e p re sen ta t ions o f w omen i n f une ra ry c on tex t s a r e a ny m o re ' t ru thf u l ' . We mus t a cknow ledge t h a t w ha t w e a r e p r e sen ted w i th i nb o th c on tex t s a r e s t ra teg ic r e p resen ta t ions c on s t ruc ted b y t h e a gency o fo t her s . T he i r s t ra teg ic n a tu re d oe sn o t m ean t h a tt h ey c anno tt e l l u s a ny th ing a bou t g ende r i d ea ls , r o le s a nd r e la t ions . O n t h e c on t ra ry , t h ey m ay p rov ide u s w i th a n a venue o f i n s igh t i n t o p ar t o f t h e o n g o ing g ende r d i scou r se w i th in t h e s oc ie ty , p l ayed o u t , n ego t ia ted a nd u l t ima te ly p r esen ted t ou s t h rough t h e med ia o fl i t e ra tu re a nd f u ne ra ls .

I n ves t iga t ion o f women 's l i ves i n t h e B r i t ish p rov inces d u r ing t h e l a te t h ird t o f our th c en tury f a ces a dd i t iona l p rob lem s i nt e rms o ft ime a nd l o ca t ion . A s G a rdne r ( 1986 : 3 ) n o te s , R oman l aw a nd s oc ie ty u nde rwen t an umbe r o f m a rked c hanges d u r ing t h e t h ird c en tu ry a nd t h e l e ga l p os i t ion o f w omen m ay h ave a l te red c ons ide rab ly w i th in t h is t ime s c a le . I ti sc l ea r t h a t R oman l aw w a s n o t i mposed p er s e t h roughou t t h e Emp ire , a nd A l la son Jones ( 1989 : 9 ; 1 5 ) s t a te s t h a t g ene ra l ised a rgumen t s a bou t p rov inc ia l l i f e b ased u pon s uch l aw s h ave o f ten p roved i n accu ra te . A l though c l a ss ica l l aw r e co rd s m ay p rov ide a n i n d ica t ion o f t h e o ff ic ia l l i ne t aken t owa rd s c on tempo ra ry w omen i nI t a ly , e ach p r ov ince h ad i t s o wn l e ga l c ode a nd R oman l e ga l f o rm s a ppea r t o h ave o pe ra ted i n p ar t a s a n o ve r lay o n e x is t ing n a t ive c u s toms i n s ome p rov ince s a nd m ay t hus h ave b een i nf luenced d i f f eren t ly b y t h e l o ca l t r ad i t ions o f v a r ious r e g ions ( Row landson , 1 998 ) . G a rdne r ( 1986 ) d i scus se s al e ng thy p e r iod f o l low ing t h e c i t izensh ip e d ic t i n t h e e a r ly t h ird c en tury d u r ing w h ich p eop le p e r s is ted i n h ab i t s w h ich h ad b een l e ga l u nde r t h e i r n a t ive l aw s . Unf o r tuna te ly w e l a ck d e ta i ls o fp r e -Roman l e ga l c odes a nd t r iba l g overnmen t i nB r i ta in a nd i ti su nc lea r t ow ha t e x ten t c l a s s ica l R oman c ode s m ay h ave b een a dap ted . D ue t ot h i s d ea r th o f d i rec t e v idence c onc lu s ions a bou t w omen 's l e ga l s t a tus i n t h e p rov ince s mus t r ema in t e n ta t ive . T h is i s e spec ia l ly t r ue s i nce l aws may h ave v a r ied n o t o n ly b e tween R ome a nd t h e r e s t o f t h e Emp ire , b u t a l so b e tween p rov ince s , a nd e ven a r ea s w i th in t h e s ame p rov ince . B y t h e l a te f o ur th c en tu ry AD B r i ta in h ad f i ve s imu l taneous r eg iona l g overno r s a nd t h e re i s n o g ua ran tee t h a t t h ey f o l lowed t h e s ame c ode . T he ' r ank ing ' o fs e t t lemen t t ype s w i th in t h e p rov ince m ay a l so a dd t o t h e u ncer ta in ty . C o lonae a nd mun ic ip ia , f o r e xamp le , o r ig ina l ly h oused l a rge r p ropor t ions o f R oman c i t izens a nd m ay t h us h ave a dhe r ed mo re s t r ic t ly t o c l a ss ica l l e ga l c ode s t h an c i v i ta s c ap i ta l s w h ich w e re e s tab l ished a sa dm in is t ra t ive c en t res f o r e x is t ing t r iba l a r ea s ( A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 7 6 ) . T owa rd s t h e l a te r R oman p er iod d i s t inc t ion b e tween R oman / ind igenous wou ld h ave b ecome d i lu ted a nd i t i s u nc lea r h ow t h is a s s im i la t ion c ou ld h ave a f f ec ted t h e l e ga l s i tua t ion .

3 . 2

3 . 2 .1

T he ' I dea l ' Woman

C la ss ica l l i t e ra tu re c on s is ten t ly p resen t s a n i d ea l ised i mage o ft h e q ua l i t ie s aR oman ma t rona s hou ld e xh ib i t , c omp r is ing p ie ta s ( du ty , d evo t ion a nd l o ya l ty t o f am i ly , f r iends a nd g od s ) , p ud ic i t ia ( mo ra l i n teg r i ty a nd i rep roachab le s exua l c onduc t ) , o b seq ium ( du t ifü l o bed ience ) , f ide s ( f a i thf u l w idowhood a s u n iv i rae ) , p rudence , modes ty , p rop r ie ty , d i gn i ty , p a t ience , h onou r , s e lf sac r if ice , s t o ic ism , f e cund i ty , a nd i n dus t r ious d ome s t ic i ty p ar t icu la r ly empha s is ing w eav ing a nd s p inn ing a s t r ad i t iona l f ema le t a sk s ( Ba lsdon , 1 962 ; C la rk , 1 993) . D e sp i te t h e s t agge r ing l i s t o f d e s ired c ha rac te r is t ic s , w omen a r e c l ea r ly p ra ised i n l i t e ra ture a nd e p ig raphy f o r f o l low ing t h e t r ad i t iona l b ehav iou ra l c ode ( C IL V I . 1 0230 / ILS 8 394 ; C IL V I . 1 527 , 3 1670 / ILS 8 393 ; C IL I I I . 1 2 11/ ILS 8 403 ; P l iny L e t ter s 5 . 16 .1-7 , 4 . 19 .2 -4 ; V a ler iu s Max imu s , Memorab le D eed s a nd S ay ing s 6 . 7 .1-3 ; D ixon , 1 988 : 4 4 ) . A l though t h e p a ragon o f ma t rons , C orne l ia , l i ved i n t h e s e cond c en tu ry BC , h e r i d ea l w a s r e pea ted ly p erpe tua ted d u r ing t h e Emp ire ( P lu ta rch , T i ber ius G racch i 1 . 4 ; G a ius G racchus 4 . 19 ; P l iny , Na tura l H i s tory 3 4 .31) a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l v i r tues o f i mpe r ia l women w e re a l so w ide ly c ommemo ra ted o n c o inage ( Pome roy , 1 975) . C ons ide ra t ion o fw he the ro rh ow r ep resen ta t ions o ft h e i d ea l m a trona m ay h ave a f f ec ted w omen i nR oman B r i ta in r a ises an umbe r o f p er t inen t q ue s t ions , s uch a s t h e e x ten t o f a wa rene s s o f t h e i d ea l i n t h e p rov ince , t h e a t t i tudes o f R omano -Br i t i sh w omen a nd m en t owa rds i t , h ow f a r i t f i l te red t h rough t h e v a r ious s oc ia l c l a sses a nd w he the r i t r ema ined af o rcef u l i mage b y t h e l a te t h ird -four th c en tu r ies AD . F an tham e t a l . ( 1994 : 3 48 -351) s ugges t t h a t a s t h e i d ea l o f R oman w omanhood w a s e mbedded i n s oc ia l c ond i t ions a nd l aw , a r t icu la ted b y e p i taphs a nd a r t , a nd c ons tan t ly r e i te ra ted i nl i t e ra tu re , i tw ou ld h ave s p read t o t h e mo s t ` Roman ised ' p a r t s o f t h e Emp ire . T ombs tone e p i taphs f o cu s ing u pon w omen 's d omes t ic a nd ' f em in ine ' v i r tues c ou ld i n d ica te t h a t t h e i d ea l m ay h ave f i l te red d own t ot h e l owe r c l a sse s a c ros s t h e Emp ire , a nd i nt e rms o ft ime s pan t h e m a trona i mage a ppea r s t o h ave r ema ined f a ir ly c on s tan t ,

I nves t iga t ing R omano -Br i t ish Women

I n ve s t iga t ions o f t h e l i f es ty les o f R omano -Br i t ish w omen a r e f a ced w i th a s eve re l a ck o f d i rec t t e x tua l e v idence a nd t h e s ea rch f o r s im i la r i t ies /d ispa r i t ies w i th R ome e ncompa sses a h uge a r ea o f r e sea rch w h ich c an n o t b e c omp r ehens ive ly a ddressed w i th in t h e c on tex t o ft h is s t udy . W i th t h e amb igu i t ies o f t e x tua l e v idence k ep t f i rm ly i n m ind , t h e f o l low ing s e c t ions t hu s f o cus u pon p rom inen t a nd c ommon t h emes a ppa ren t i nr ep resen ta t ions o fw omen w i th av i ew t o a s ses s ing t h e ir r e levance t o s pec if ic s e lec ted f e a tu re s o f l i f e i n t h e B r i t ish p rov inces ; ' mar r iage a nd m o the rhood ' a nd ' p ub l ic r o les ' . A sse ssmen t o f t h e c o r r e la t ion o f s uch r e p resen ta t ions t o e v idence f o r a c tua l s oc ia l p r ac t ice i sp ar t icu la r ly r e levan t a s ap o ten t ia l p a ra l le l m ay b e d rawn b e tween r ep resen ta t ions o f w omen i n l i t e ra tu re , a nd i n t h e f une ra ry d oma in , i f b o th t ype s o f r e p re sen ta t ions w e re c on s t ruc ted b y m en . P a r t icu la r a t ten t ion w i l l t h u s b e p a id t o momen t s w he re w omen 's a gency may b ecome a ppa ren t , t o p o s s ib le w ay s a nd t h e

" s teeped . i n t h e l a nguage o f t h e c onse rva t ive g ende r i d eo logy o f t h e R epub l ican a nd A ugus tan p e r iod s w h ich c hanged s urp r is ing ly l i t t le o ve r t h e c ou r se o f6 00 y ea r s" ( Fan tham e ta l . , 1 994 : 3 49 ) . 2 3

( Poems 6 2 .57 -65 ; E van s -Grubb s , 1 989 : 6 1) . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h i s s i tua t ion v a r ied i n t h e B r i t ish p rov ince s a s t omb s tone e v idence a nd s ke le ta l r ema ins i n d ica te t h a t R omano -B r i t ish w omen t e nded t o m a r ry l a te r t h an t h e i r c oun terpa r t s i nI t a ly , e n te r ing w ed lock p ar t icu la r ly i nt h e i r e a r ly -m id t wen t ie s ( A l la son Jone s , 1 9 89 : 3 1) , b u t w he the r t h e i r i n c r ea sed m a tu r i ty h e ld p rac t ica l i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e i r a b i l i t ie s t oc hoo se t h e i r o wn p a r tne r s i su nc lea r . Ma ter na l c on sen t w a s n o t l e ga l ly r equ i s i te u n t i l t h e l a t e r Emp i r e ( T heodo s ian C od e 9 . 24 ) a nd s ome s ou rces i n d ica te t h a t w omen w e r e u s ed t o c emen t i nf luen t ia l a l l iance s a mong s t t h e R oman u ppe r -c la s se s ( P lu ta r ch , P ompey 4 4 ; S yme , 1 9 39 ; B a l sdon , 1 962 ; C a rp , 1 98 1) . T he r e i sa l so e v idence , h oweve r , o fw omen 's r e s i s tance t os u ch man ipu la t ion , s ome s t ra teg ic m a r r iage s w e r e i n s t iga ted b y w omen ( Pome roy , 1 975 ; P lu ta r ch , S u l la 2 5 ; F an tham e ta l . , 1 994 ; L e fkow i tz , 1 983 ) a nd i np r ac t ice i ts e em s t ha t m any u ppe r -c la s s R oman m o the r s a nd t h e i r o l de r d augh te r s p l ay ed d e te rm in ing r o le s i n a r rang ing u n ion s ( L ivy 3 8 .57 .7 ; P l iny E p i s t l e s 1 . 14 ; C ice ro , A d F am i l iare s 3 . 12 .3 ; A d A t t icum 1 3 .28 ; B a l sdon , 1 962 : 1 73 -4 ; D ixon , 1 988 ) . T he a ppea l s o fs ome w omen t o c onsu ls t oe nf o r ce t h e i r c ho ice o fp a r tne r , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t r ap tu s , i nt e rm s o fb e ing p a r ty t ot h e i ro wn a bduc t ion , w a s a k nown m e thodo logy b y w h ich w omen c ou ld e nf o r ce p a ren ta l c onsen t m ay s peak v o lume s a bou t s ome w omen 's i n ab i l i ty t o f r ee ly m ake t h e i r o wn ma r i ta l c ho ice s ( C ice ro , A dA t t icum 6 . 6 .1 ; D ige s t 2 3 .2 . 19 ; G a rdne r , 1 986 ) . H oweve r , t h e se f a c to r s a l so e xpo se w omen 's a gency a tw o rk a st h ey f ound m eans o pen t ot h em w i th in t h e ir c on tex t s t o n ego t ia t e t h e ir o wn w i she s . C lea r ly n o t a l g i r l s a dhe r ed t o t h ep a ter na ld u ty e xpec ted b y C a tu l lu s .

A n i n sc r ip t ion f r om R ome o ft h e f our th c en tu ry , d ed ica ted t of o r ty y ea r o l d A con ia F ab ia P au l ina b y h e r h u sband , s t i l l e xpound s t h e s ame t r ad i t iona l v i r tue s ; s h e i sd e sc r ibed a s t r ue a nd c ha s te , modes t , f a i thf u l , p u r e , v i r tuou s , p i ou s , a nd d evo ted t oh e r f am i ly ( I LS 1 2 59 : 1 , 4 ,7 -8 ,23 ) . I f , a s m any m ode rn s cho la r ss ugges t , t h er e p re sen ta t ion w a s w e l l -known i nt h e B r i t ish p rov ince s , t h e r e i sn o r e a son t oa s sume t h a t i t h ad p e te red o u t b yt h e f ou r th c en tu ry i fi th ad n o td one s o i n I t a ly . I ti s , h oweve r , e x t r eme ly d i ff icu l t t o i n ve s t iga te t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i d ea l s a nd a c tua l b ehav iou r . Wh i l s t t h e p r eva lence o ft h e i d ea l ised i mage m ay b e i n d ica t ive o f t h e v i r tue s t h a t m any m en h oped t o f i nd i nw omen , i td oe s n o t i n d ica te w he the r t h e se w e r e m ir ro red i nt h e p ar t icu la r q ua l i t ie s f o r w h ich w omen d eemed t h emse lve s , o r e a ch o t he r , w o r thy o fp r a ise , o rh ow t h is m ay h ave a f f ec ted t h e i r d a i ly p rac t ice s . T he f o l low ing s e c t ions e xp lo r e s e lec ted f a ce t s o f t h is c ommon r e p re sen ta t ion o f w omen t h rough v a r iou s t e x tua l a nd a r cha eo log ica l s ou rce s , d emons t ra t ing t h a t w he the r c on s ide r ing l i t e ra ry o r f une ra ry m ed ia , w e c l ea r ly c an n o t t a ke t h e r e p r e sen ta t ions w e a r e p rov ided w i th a tf a ce v a lue . We m u s t a cknow ledge s uch r e p r e sen ta t ion s a ss t ra teg ica l ly d ep loyed a nd a d ju s t o u r a na ly t ica l c ou r se t o a c commoda te t h i s r e a l isa t ion . B o th m ed ia f o rmu la te c on s t ruc t ion s o r r e w r i t ing s o f g ende r a r rangemen t s r a the r t h an p rov ide d i rec t r e f lec t ion s .

3 . 2 .2

Mar r iage a nd Mo the rhood

C la s s ica l s ou rces r e pea ted ly e mpha s ise m a r r iage a nd mo the rhood a st h e p r eo rda ined r o le s o fR oman w omen , t h e a r che typa l m a t ron C o rne l ia , Mo the r o f t h e G racch i , b o re t we lve c h i ld ren , a nd i n deed i ti ss ugg e s ted t h a t " i f af ema le d i ed b ef o r e h e r w edd ing h e r l i f e w a s t h ough t t ob e a sg ood a s w a s ted" ( Ga rdne r a nd W iedemann , 1 99 1 : 1 09 ) . T he s t re s s p l aced u pon t h e se t r ad i t iona l r o le s i n t h e s ou rce s a ppea r s t o b e b o rne o u t i n R oman s oc ie ty a s a l though b ache lo r s a r e e v iden t , s ome m en d e l ibe ra te ly a vo id ing m a r r iage t h rough b e t ro tha l t ob ab ie s ( A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 3 3 ) ,t h ee x ten tt ow h ich w omen c ou ld c hoo se n o tt om a r ry i s u ncer ta in . C a tu l lu s ( Poem s 6 2 .57 -65 ) d e sc r ibe s u nma r r ied w omen a s h a tef u l a nd u nde s i rab le b u rdens t ot h e i r p a ren t s , a nd t h e r a r i ty o f k nown s p in s te r s , a nd i n deed t h e l a ck o f d i rec t t r an s la t ion f o r t h e t e rm ' s p in s te r ' , m ay i n d ica te t h a t mo s t w omen m a r r ied a tl e a s t o nce ( She l ton , 1 988 ; C owe l l , 1 96 1 ; C la rk , 1 993) . I ts e ems t h a t w omen m ay h ave h ad l i t t le c ho ice b u t t of o l low a tl e a s t t h i s p a r t o ft h e t r ad i t iona l e xpec ta t ions . U nf o r tuna te ly i ti se x t reme ly d i ff icu l t t og auge h ow a c t ive a p a r t w omen w e re a b le t op l ay i nt h e se l i f e c ho ice s e ven i n R ome i t se lf . U nde r s t r ic t R oman l aw d augh t e r s , b u t n o t s on s , c ou ld b e f o rced t o m a r ry a ga in s t t h e i r w i l l , b u t t h e a moun t o f p r e ssu re e xe r ted t o t h is e nd w ou ld h ave v a r ied b e tween i n d iv idua l f am i l ie s ( D ige s t 2 3 .2 ,2 1 ; T e r en t iu s C lemens , O n t h e J u l ian a nd P ap ian L aw 3 ; C rook , 1 970 ; P ome roy , 1 975 ; G a rdne r , 1 986 ) . L ega l ly t h e c onsen t o ft h e f a the r a nd t h e c on t rac tua l p a r tne r s w a s r e qu i red , b u t t h e d augh te r 's r i gh t t o r e f u se a ppea r s t o h ave b een s e ve re ly r e s t r ic ted ( U lp ian , D ige s t 2 3 .1 .12 ; R aw son , 1 992 : 2 1) a nd m any b r ide s , p e rhap s a s y oung a s t we lve , m ay n o t h ave a t temp ted t o r e s is t p a te rna l a u tho r i ty , p a r t icu la r ly a s C a tu l lu s t e l l s u s t h a t i tw a s ag i r l 's d u ty t oo bey h e r f a the r 2 4

O ff ic ia l s uppo r t f o r C h r is t ian i ty m ay h ave i n c rea sed t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r w omen i n s ome r e spe c t s , p a r t icu la r ly b y e ncou rag ing p eop le t oc hoo se t h e i r o wn m ar r iage p a r tne r s , a low ing w omen t o o p t o u t o f m a r r iag e a nd m o the rhood t h rough c e l ibacy , a nd p a r t ia l ly e rod ing t r ad i t iona l v a lue s b y e mpha s i s ing d evo t ion t ot h e C hu rch r a the rt h an t h ef am i l ia s . H oweve r , t h e re i se v idence t h a t w omen c ou ld b e p r e s su r ed i n to c e l ibacy a s t h ey c ou ld b e p r e s su r ed i n to m a r r iage ( Ba s i l , L e t te r 1 99 .18 , P a t ro log ia G raeca 3 2 .7 19 ; C la rk , 1 993 : 5 4 , 1 40 ) , l e g is la t ion l im i ted w omen 's r i gh t s t o g i ve l e gac ie s t o t h e C hu rch i n o rde r t o r e ta in w ea l th w i th in t h e t r ad i t iona l f am i ly s y s tem , a nd e a r ly C h r i s t ian t e ach ing s o n t h e s p i r i tua l e qua l i ty o f t h e s exe s d i d n o t n ece s sa r i ly p r oduce p rac t ica l c on sequence s . T he r i tua l a nd a dm in i s t ra t ion o f t h e c hu rch w a s am a le p r ese rve ( F in ley , 1 968 ) , t h e re a r e e xp l ic i t r e f e r ence s t o m a le s upe r io r i ty a nd p r e -em inen t p os i t ion w i th in t h e f am i ly , a nd P au l e n jo ined m en t o s i lence w omen 's p ub l ic v o ice s ( 1 C or in th ian s 1 4 , 1 .3 , 1 .70 ) . T h is l a t te r p o in t p e rhap s p rov id ing a n i n d ica t ion o f u nde r ly ing s o c ia l t e ns ion c once rn ing t h e ' p rope r ' p l ace o fw omen , w h ich m ay h ave b een r e levan t t o t h e g row th o fC h r i s t ian i ty i nt h e B r i t i sh p r ov inces a sw e l l a s I t a ly . I na s soc ia t ion w i th m a r r iage , t h e s ou rce s c l ea r ly e mpha s i se c h i ld -bea r ing a st h e e xpec ted f ema le r o le i nl i f e . I n AD 5 31 i tw a s s t a ted t h a t " na tu r e p roduced w omen f o rt h is v e ry p u rpose , t h a t t h ey m igh t b ea r c h i ld ren , a nd t h is i st h e ir g rea te s t d e s i re" ( J u s t in ian C od e6 . 40 .2 ; C la rk , 1 993 : 1 3 ) . I ta ppea r s , h ow eve r , t h a t d e sp i te t h e p roc lama t ions o f m a le

a u tho r s , n o t a l women c onf ormed t o t h e t r ad i t iona l ly e xpec ted r o le o f mo the rhood . T he p rac t is ing o f c on t racep t ion , a bor t ion , a nd e xposu re o f n ew -born s i s a t te s ted b y m ed ica l , l e ga l a nd l i t e ra ry s ou rce s f r om I t a ly ( So ranus , G ynaeco logy 1 . 60 -61; P l iny , N a tura l H i s tory 7 . 40 .3 ; 2 9 .85 ; H opk ins , 1 966 ) , b u t s uch p rac t ice s a r e d i ff icu l t t oe s t ima te i nt h e B r i t ish p rov inces . A l la son Jones ( 1989 : 3 8 ) h a s n o ted t h a t t omb s tone e v idence a nd n umbe r s o fi n f an t s k e le tons r e cove red a ppea r t oi n d ica te a l ow b i r th r a te i n R oman B r i ta in c ompa red w i th Med ieva l a nd p o s t Med ieva l p er iods , a nd t h a t a s t h ese p e r iod s e ncompa ssed s im i la r c i rcums tances a nd d i e t s i tm ay b e c on jec tu red t h a t s ome f o rm o f b i r th c on t ro l w a s b e ing p rac t ised i n t h e p rov ince . T oo l i t t le i s k nown a bou t i n d iv idua l c a ses t o e nab le d ef in i te s t a temen t s c once rn ing t h e p a t tern o f s uch p r ac t ice s , b u t w h i ls t c ove r -up o f c l andes t ine r e la t ions b y u nma r r ied o r a du l terous w omen , e conom ic mo t ive a mong s t t h ep oo r , a nd p r even t ion o fe s ta te f r agmen ta t ion a mong s t t h e w ea l thy h ave b een p o s tu la ted , i ti sp a r t icu la r ly n o tewor thy t h a t s ome w omen a r e c r i t ic ised i n t h e s ou rce s s imp ly f o r t h e i r a vo idance o f t h e r e spons ib i l i t ies o f mo the rhood ( Seneca , a d H e lv iam 1 6 .3 ; A u lus G e l l iu s , N ode s A t t icae 1 2 .1 .8 ; J uvena l 6 . 592 -7 ; R awson , 1 99 1; G a rdne r , 1 986 ) . A l though t h e e f f ec t iveness o f m any c on t racep t ive a nd a bo r t ive m e thods w as d ub ious , t h e ir e x is tence d oes i n d ica te t h a t s ome w omen w ere t r y ing t o f l ou t t h e i r t r ad i t iona l ly ' e xpec ted ' p roc rea t ive r o les , a nd c on t ra ry t ot h e p roc lama t ion o ft h e J us t in ian C od e i tw a s n o t t h e ' g rea te s t d e s i re ' o fa l w omen t ob ea r c h i ldr en . T h is c ommon t h eme i n t e x tua l r e p resen ta t ions c l ea r ly d oes n o t t a l ly w i th i n d ica t ion s o fs ome w omen 's a c tua l p rac t ice . I tm ay b e t h a t c h i ldb ir th w a s o ne p a r t o f t h e p r eorda ined l i f e -pa th u pon w h ich w omen c ou ld a t temp t t o a s ser t ad eg ree o f c on t ro l ,

v a r iou s ly p un ished f o r c omm i t t ing a du l te ry , f r om t h e d ea th p ena l ty t o manda to ry d ivo rce a nd p ub l ic p ro secu t ion ( T heodo s ian C od e9 . 9 .25 ; D ige s t4 8 .5 .25 ; 4 8 .5 .2 .2 ; G a rdne r , 1 986 ; R ich l in , 1 981 ; S he l ton , 1 988 ) . I n c on t ra s t , t h e re a r e f ew s pec if ic r e f e rence s t o w omen d ivo rc ing t h e ir h usband s o n t h e se g rounds a nd i ta ppea r s t h a t m a r r ied m en c ou ld e n te r i n vo lvemen t s w i th w omen o f l owe r c l a s s , s l aves o r p ros t i tu tes , w i thou t f e a r o f p ena l isa t ion ( U lp ian , D iges t 4 8 .5 .6 .1; P ome roy , 1 975 ; C la rk , 1 993) . I ti sc l ea r , h oweve r , t h a t n o t a l w omen a t temp ted t o l i ve u p t o t h e p ud ic i t ia e xpec ted o f a ma t rona , a nd t h e re i s e v idence o f s oc ia l t e ns ion r e ga rd ing t h e d i sc r im ina te r e s t r ic t ions a nd e xpec ta t ions c oncern ing s exua l f r eedom ; s ome u ppe r -c la ss R oman w omen , s uch a s V is t i l ia , a ppea r t o h ave m ade a s t and b y r eg is te r ing t h emse lves a s p ro s t i tu tes ( Tac i tus , A nna l s 2 . 85 .1; G a rdne r , 1 986 : 1 30 ) . O nce a ga in w e m ay p e rce ive t h e e me rgence o fw omen 's a gency t oc on t ra s t w i th t e x tua l r e p resen ta t ions . T he re a r e momen t s w hen w omen b ecome v i s ib le t o u s a c t ive ly n ego t ia t ing t he i r c u l tu ra l p a rame te r s a nd i mp lemen t ing s t ra teg ie s t o f u r the r t h e i r o wn a im s . T he f a c t t h a t i nr e tur n t h ese w omen w e re e xc luded f r om i n he r i tances a nd l e gac ies a nd t h a t e ven tua l ly s uch r e g is t ra t ion w as p roh ib i ted b y T ibe r iu s ( Sue ton ius , T i ber ius 3 5 .2 ; R ich l in , 1 981 : 3 87 ) e xpo se s t h is ' s tand ' a s p ar t o ft h e o n -go ing d i scou r se w i th in t h e s oc ie ty .

3 . 2 .3

P ub l ic R o le

A cco rd ing t o t h e g ende r i d eo logy e xp res sed b y c l a ss ica l a u tho r s w omen w e re i d ea l ly s uppo sed t of o l low t h e l i f e -pa th o f a ma t rona , e xh ib i t ing t h e r e levan t v i r tues a nd l e ad ing p a ss ive , o bed ien t a nd d omes t ica ted l i ves c en t red a r ound t h e h ome a nd f am i ly . Wh i ls t s uch a u tho r s a dm i t t h a t w omen m ade a v a luab le c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e f unc t ion ing o f s oc ie ty , p a r t icu la r ly t h rough p roc rea t ion a nd t h e i mpor tance o f f am i ly l i f e t o t h e w e lf a re o f t h e s t a te , t h ey w e re s t i l l e xpec ted t or ema in i nt h e b ackg round ( Humph rey s , 1 993) . S i nce t h e f o ur th c en tury BC i th ad b een a rgued t h a t w omen w e re p hy s ica l ly s u i ted t or ema in ing a th ome ( C la rk , 1 993) , d i s t inc t g ende r b ounda r ies a r e e mpha s ised w i th c l ea r d ema rca t ion b e tween p ub l ic a nd d omes t ic a r ena s , t h ef orum f o r m en a nd t h e a t r ium f o r w omen , a nd t h is d i v is ion i s p r esen ted n o t j us t a s ar e su l t o fs oc ia l c onven t ion ( nomos ) b u t a s ab i o log ica l ly -de term ined n ece s s i ty ( phu s i s ) . T he R oman m a t ron w a s r e spec ted w i th in t h e c onf ines o f a g ende r s y s tem p e rpe tua ted b y t h e c ons t ruc t t h a t ' a na tomy i s d e s t iny ' ( McNama ra , 1 987 ) .

b u t a t t h e o t he r e nd o f t h e s c a le i ti sp oss ib le t h a t s ome w omen w e r e f o rced t o a bor t ( Sue ton ius , Dom i t ian 2 2 ; B a l sdon , 1 962 ; U lp ian , D ige s t 4 0 .7 .16 ; C an ta re l la , 1 987 ) , a nd i nt e rms o f s e lec t ive e xpo su r e o r i n f an t ic ide , t h e l e ga l r i gh t t o d ec ide w he the r o r n o t t o r e a r a n i n f an t b e longed o n ly t o t h e f a the r ( Eyben , 1 980 ; H ar r is , 1 982 ; S he l ton , 1 988 ) . I ts e em s t h a t R oman w omen h ad l i t t le c ho ice b u t t o m ar ry , a nd o nce w ed i tw a s d i ff icu l t t o r e t rac t a s d i vo rce l aws c l ea r ly d i f f e ren t ia ted b e tween t h e s exes t h roughou t mos t o f R oman h i s to ry . Amb ro s ia s te r 's c ommen t t h a t w omen e xp lo i ted t h e ir n ew f r eedom b y d i vo rc ing t h e i r h usband s ' d a i ly ' a f t e r t h e J u l ian l aw o f AD 3 63 m ay i n d ica te t h a t m any w omen d id i n deed f e e l r e s t r ic ted a nd m ade t h e mo s t o ft h is c oncess ion , b u t d i vo rce l aw w a s a ga in t i gh tened b y AD 4 2 1 ( Que s t ion s o n t h e O ld T e s tamen t a nd t h e N ew T e s tamen t 15 .2 . P a t ro log ia L a t ina 3 5 .2348 -9 ; T heodos ian C od e 3 . 16 .2 ; C la rk , 1 993 ) . S epa ra t ion w a s u sua l ly b l amed o n t h e w if e , t h e b i a s o f t h e s ou r ce s b e ing c l ea r ly e xposed h e re a st h e re a r e n ume rou s d e scr ip t ions o ft h e s hor tcom ing s o f av a r ie ty o fi n to le rab le w ive s ( no tab ly J uvena l , S a t i res 6 ) , b u t s u ch s oc ia l c r i t ic ism w a s r e s t r ic ted t o m en ( Ba lsdon , 1 962 : 2 11-4 ; P ome roy , 1 975 ) . U nf or tuna te ly t h e re i s a s eve re l a ck o fd i rec t e v idence c once rn ing d i vo rce i nR oman B r i ta in , p r e -Roman c onven t ion i s d i ff icu l t t o f a thom a l though i n d igenou s B r i t ish w omen d o s e em t oh ave h e ld a s t ronge r l e ga l p o s i t ion t o i n i t ia te d ivo rce , b u t h ow t h e s i tua t ion s t ood b y t h e l a te t h ird t o f our th c en tu r ies AD i s u nc lea r . D oub le s t anda rds a bounded i nr e la t ion t o R oman s exua l mo ra l i ty a s i tw a s c ons idered a du l te rou s f o r w omen t oc onsor t w i th a nyone b u t t h e i r h usband s , a nd w omen w e re

L i te ra ry g l o r if ica t ion o f w omen i sc l ea r ly d i rec ted t owa rds s u cces s i n d ome s t ic d u t ie s ( Ha l le t t , 1 984 ) a nd t h e i r p ro t rus ion i n t o l e ga l , p o l i t ica l , i n te l lec tua l a nd b u s iness c oncern s i sf r equen t ly c ensu red a nd v i ewed w i th d e r is ion i n t h e s ou rce s . Women w e re c ons ide red n a tu ra l ly w eak ( i n f i rm i tu s s exu s ) , l i gh t -m inded ( l ev i ta s a r n in i ) , a nd l a ck ing i n e xpe r ience , t h u s n ece s s i ta t ing m a le p ro tec t ion , a nd t h roughou t much o f R oman h i s to ry w omen w e re t r ea ted a s w a rds u nde r m a le g ua rd iansh ip ( C ice ro , p ro Murena 2 7 ; U lp ian , R u le s 1 .1 , 2 1 , 2 7 -8 ; D ige s t 5 0 .17 .2 ) . T he p a terf am i l ia s s y s tem p l aced w omen u nde r t h e p o tes ta s o f t h e i rm a le r e la t ives , o ro wne r s i ff r eed , w h ich r e s t r ic ted t h e i r a b i l i t ie s t o a c t i n dependen t ly i n l e ga l a nd c i v ic ma t te r s ( C ice ro , p ro F laco 8 4 ; U lp ian , R u les 1 . 17 ; I n s t i tu tes 1 . 21; G a rdne r , 1 986 ; D ixon , 1 988) . R oman w omen w e re a l so c l ea r ly m inor s i n t h e s phe re o f p o l i t ic s a s t h ey c ou ld n o t 2 5

i n te l lec tua l p u r su i t s , a c ted a s p ub l ic p r ie s te s se s , w e r e i n vo lved i n c ommun i ty s e rv ic e s a nd g ene ra l ly p l ayed a n a c t ive a nd v i s ib le p a r t i n p ub l ic l i f e . L i te ra ry s ou rce s d o p or t ray s ome u ppe r -c la ss w omen a c t ive ly i n vo lved i n p o l i t ica l a f f a i r s , p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing p e r iod s o f c i v i l w a r o r p o l i t ica l t u rmo i l ( C ice ro , Ad A t t icum 1 5 . 1112 ; C a s s iu s D ia 7 7 . 18 .2 ; C a rp , 1 98 1 ; H a l le t t , 1 984 ; F an tham e ta l . , 1 994 ) . S ome w omen g a ined o ff ic ia l r e cogn i t ion a s c i v ic p a t ron s , s uch a s Mo the r o ft h e A rmy a nd S ena te , ( C IL 1 1 .2564 ; C IL V I I I .26598 ; C a s s iu s D io 7 1 .10 .5 ; H e rod ian 5 . 8 .8 ; B a l sdon , 1 962 ) , a nd a n E gyp t ian w oman w a s t e rmed ' F a the r o f t h e C i ty ' w h ich F an tham e t a l . ( 1 994 : 3 63 ) h ave t a ken t o d emon s t r a te " t he e x ten t t ow h ich t h e o ccupa t ion o f ap ub l ic r o le c ou ld c onf u se g ende rt i tu la t ive" .

v o te i ne l ec t ion s o r l aw c ou r t s , h o ld p o l i t ica l o rc i v ic o ff ice , o r i n deed t a ke a ny f o rma l p ar t i np ub l ic d ec i s ion -mak ing p roce s se s a st h ese w e re v i r i l ia o f f ic ia , d u t ie s e xc lu s ive ly t h e p r e se rve o f m a le c i t iz en s ( U lp ian , D ige s t 5 0 .17 .2 ; H a l le t t , 1 984 ; G a rdne r , 1 986 ) . T he i mpo r tan t q ue s t ion h e re i st o w ha t e x ten t w e m ay b e a b le t o s e e w omen 's a c t iv i t ie s a s c o r re spond ing w i th t h e m a t rona r e p re sen ta t ion , a nd h ow f a r w e c an i n ve s t iga te t h is i nr e la t ion t ol i f e s pec if ica l ly i nR oman B r i ta in . I nt e rm s o f w omen 's i n dependence , g ua rd ian sh ip w a s t h eo re t ica l ly i n f o rce u n t i l D ioc le t ian ( AD 2 85 -305 ) a l though i th ad b een s t ead i ly e r oded l e ga l ly a nd t h e re i s a bundan t r e a son t o s u spec t t h a t m any w omen h and led t h e i r o wn a f f a i r s p r io r t o t h is d a te . Women w i th t h e r e qu is i te n umbe r o f c h i ld ren c ou ld c l a im e xemp t ion ( i u s l i be rorum ) f r om t u te lage , s ome s e lec t ed t h e i r o wn t u to r s , a nd i n te r f e r ing g ua rd ian s c ou ld b e r e p laced o r f o rced t o a cqu ie sce b y a ppea l t o am ag i s t ra te ( Ga iu s , I n s t i tu te s 1 . 194 , 1 44 , 1 90 1 ; U lp ian , E p i tome 2 9 .3 -6 ; C a s s iu s D io 5 .2 ; 4 9 .38 .1 ; P apy r i O xy rhynchu s 1 2 . 1267 ; G a rdne r , 1 986 ; D ixon , 1 988 ) . B y t h e f o u r th c en tu ry g ua rd ian sh ip w a s l a rge ly o b so le te , a l though t h e re i sn o c l ea r e v idence o f w omen b e ing p erm i t ted t o a c t a s t u to r s u n t i l AD 3 90 ( T heodo s ian C od e 3 . 17 .4 ; G a rdne r , 1 986 ) . I n a cco rdance w i th P ome roy ( 1975 ) , t h is e r o s ion m ay h ave b een d ue i np ar t t ot h e a s ser t ivene s s o f s ome w omen w ho w ished t om anage t h e i ro wn a f f a i r s , b u t i tm u s tb e n o ted t h a t m any w omen w ho h ad g a ined i u s c on t inued t o a va i l t h em se lve s o f m a le a s s is tance i n b u s ine s s t r an sac t ion s d u r ing t h e m id la te t h i rd c en tu ry , a nd s ome w omen w ho q ua l if ied f o r i u s d id n o t c l a im t h e i r i n dependence ( Papy r i O xy rhynchu s4 . 720 , 1 2 .1466 ; R ow land son , 1 998 ) . Women 's p ub l ic s ucce s se s a r e f r equen t ly a t t r ibu ted t ot h e ir m a le r e la t ive s o r ' ma lene s s ' i n g ene ra l i n t h e s ou rce s . V a le r iu s Max imus (M emorab le D eed s a nd S ay ing s 8 . 3) s t a te st h a t Ama s ia S en t ia , w ho s ucce s sf u l ly d ef ended h e r se lf b efo r e t h e p r ae to r , ' wo r e am an 's s p ir i t u nde rt h e g u ise o fa w oman ' , a nd J uvena l ( Sa t i re s 6 . 398f f ; A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 5 2 ) d e sc r ibe s w omen w ho p a r t ic ipa ted i n d i scu s s ions o f p o l i t ic s a nd m i l i ta ry a f f a i r s a sh av ing ' u nf l inch ing f a ces a nd d ry b r ea s t s ' , t hu s r e i te ra t ing a c ommon t h eme i n t h e d i sa s soc ia t ion o f s uch w omen w i th ' f em in in i ty ' ( C la rk , 1 989 ) . Wh i l s t s uch s ou rce s i n d ica te t h a t w omen w e re g ene ra l ly e xpec ted n o tt oe xh ib i ti n dependence o ft h ough t o r c once rn t h emse lves w i th m a t te r s o u t s ide t h e h ome a nd f am i ly ( Lefkow i tz a nd F an t , 1 982 ) , t h ey a l so r e vea l t h e a t temp t s o f s ome w omen t o b ecome i n vo lved a nd m ake t h emse lve s h ea rd . T h is p o in t i sc l ea r ly a ppa ren t i ne v idence f o r m any w omen 's a c t ive i n te r es ti nl o ca l p o l i t ic sa tP ompe i i w he re d e sp i te b e ing u nab le t o v o te i n e l ec t ion s t h e re a r e n ume rou s e xamp le s o f w omen 's p ub l ic e ndo r semen t s o f c and ida te s ( e .g . C IL I V . 171 ; I LS 3 678 ) a nd s uch g r aff i t i i s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t b ecau se i te xpo se s a n i n te re s t i n c u r ren t a f f a i r s t h a t r e a ched p a s t d ome s t ic c onf ine s a nd i nt o t h e l i f e o ft h e c ommun i ty a mong s t w omen o fl e ss p r iv i leged c l a s se s( MacMu l len , 1 980 ; P ome roy , 1 975 ) . D e sp i te t h e l i m i ted o ppor tun i t ies t oo ff ic ia l ly e n te rc i v ic a nd p o l i t ica l r o le s , t h e re a r e i n d ica t ions o f w omen 's p ub l ic f u nc t ion ing a c ro s s m any p a r t s o f t h e Emp i re , a nd m a in ly t h rough f am i ly p os i t ion , w ea l th a nd r e l ig ion s ome w omen d o a ppea r t o u s t r ave r s ing t h e p ub l ic /dome s t ic b ounda r ie s . Women a r e e ncoun te red w ho c on t ro l led n o tab le p rope r ty a nd b u s ine s s e n terp r ise s , h ad i n te r e s t i n p o l i t ic s , f o l lowed 2 6

T he s c a t te red , n o to r iou s a nd o f t en c on t rad ic to ry n a tu re o f s uch a c coun t s , h oweve r , make s t h e f r equency , t o p ic s a nd e f ec t ivene ss o f s uch w omen 's a c t iv i t ie s a nd i nf luence d i ff icu l t t o g auge . T he s ou rce s i n d ica te s oc ia l t e ns ion c once rn ing t h e ' p rope r ' p l ace o f w omen , w i th a ccep tance a nd e ven e xpec tance o f s ome i n pu t b e ing c oup led w i th b e l ief i nt h e i n app rop r ia tenes s o fw omen 's i n te rf e r ence a nd t h e c ove t ing o ft r ad i t iona l ma le p r e se rve s . E ven f r om R ome w e d o n o t r e ce ive ac l ea r p i c tu re a nd i tw ou ld b e s t re tch ing t h e e v idence s omewha t t o s ugge s t t h a t s uch w omen g ene ra l ly p l ayed a n a c t ive p a r t i n d e te rm in ing p o l i t ica l p o l icy a nd t h us e ven t s . D e sp i te w omen 's i n ab i l i ty t o d i r ec t ly a nd o ff ic ia l ly e n te r t h e p ub l ic d oma in , m any w e re s t i l l p ub l ic ly v i s ib le i n am anne r w h ich e ncou raged r e spec t , p ar t icu la r ly f o rt h e ir p a t ronage a nd b enef ac t ion o fb u i ld ing s a nd i n s t i tu t ion s a nd t h e ir u nder tak ing o f h ono r if ic o ccupa t ions , s u ch a s p ub l ic p r ie s tes se s ( C IL X .8 10 , 9 98 ; I LS 1 259 126 1 ; MacMu l len , 1 980 ; W i l l , 1 979 ) . S ome w omen w e r e c l ea r ly p rom inen t p ub l ic f i gu r e s a nd r a the r t h an r ema in ing h i dden i nt h e d ome s t ic s phe r e t h ey e me rg ed t ot r an sg r es s a nd s omewha t b lu r t h e l i ne s b e tween ' p ub l ic ' a nd ' p r iva te ' . T h i s t r an sg r e s s ion i sa l so a ppa ren t a mong s t w omen b e low t h e u ppe r -c la sse s a s t h e i mp l ied d ome s t ic i ty o f ' l ook ing a f t e r t h e h ou seho ld ' a ppea r s f o r s ome t oh ave e ncompa s sed n ume rou s m oney -mak ing a c t iv i t ies . E p ig raphy , r e l ief s , l i t e ra tu r e a nd p a in t ing s f r om I t a ly , n o tab ly P ompe i i , a nd p rov ince s s u ch a s G au l a nd No r th A f r ica a t te s t t o aw ide s p read o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty b e ing o pen t o w omen , m any p u r su ing c a r e e r s o u t s ide t h e h ome ; f r om p rope r ty -dea l s a nd l a rge sca le b u s ines s c once rns t o i n vo lvemen t i np roduc t ion c r af t s a nd b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s , a nd o ccupa t ion s s u ch a s d oc to r s , s e am s t r e s se s , w oo l -we ighe r s , s e c re ta r ie s , m oney l e nde r s , t a ve r n o wne r s , a nd s a leswomen ( C IL 1 .2 117 ; I V .8203 -4 ; V 1 .964 1 , 9 037 , 1 0006 , 9 846 , 9 2 11 ; X IV .2850 ; I LS 9 496 , 9 523 , 9 683 ; T heodo s ian C od e 9 . 7 . 1 ; B oughne r a nd G oeh r ing , 1 990 ; C la rk , 1 993 ; G a rdne r , 1 986 ; W i l l , 1 979 ) . T he re a r e p rob lem s , h oweve r , c once rn ing t h e a moun t o fe mpha s is t h a t c an b e p l aced u pon s u ch a c t iv i t ie s a s i n d ica t ion s o f w omen 's l i f es ty le s i ng ene ra l . E v idence h a i l s f r om s c a t te r ed l o ca t ion s a c ro s s t h e Emp ir e a nd o n ly a c tua l ly r e f e r s t o ar e la t ive ly s ma l l n umbe r o f w omen ( Ga rdne r , 1 986 ) . T h i s m ay i n d ica te t h a t f ew w omen u nder took n on -dome s t ic w o rk , b u t c ou ld e qua l ly i n d ica te t h a t h oweve r m any w omen e a rned a l i v ing o u t s ide t h e h ome , t h e i r d ome s t ic i d en t i t ie s w e re c ons ide red m o re a pp rop r ia te f o rr e p re sen ta t ion . P au lu s ( D ige s t 5 . 1 . 12 .2 ) , f o r e xamp le , s t a ted i nt h e t h i rd c en tu ry AD t h a t w omen w e re b a r red f r om h o ld ing a ny p ub l ic o f f ice , b u t c on tempo ra ry

g i f t s f r om c l ien t p r ince s i n d ica tes t h a t t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o ft h e i r i n f luence w a s g ene ra l ly r e cogn ised , e ven i f o n ly o n a p e r sona l a nd p r iva te l e ve l r a the r t han i na n o f f ic ia l c apac i ty ( Tac i tus , A nna l s 2 . 58 .2 ; Ma r sha l l , 1 975 ; A l la son Jones ,

i n sc r ip t ion s f r om R oman G reece a nd A s ia M ino r r e f e r t o f ema le o ff iceho lde r s a nd mag is t ra tes ( Ma r sha l l , 1 975 : 1 25 ; F an tham e ta l . , 1 994 ) . I tm ay a l so b e a r gued t h a td i f f e ren t ia l c ho ice o fr e p re sen ta t ion b y t h e f u ne ra l a gency r a the r t h an l a ck o f f ema le emp loymen t may e xp la in t h e mo re f r equen t r e co rd ing o f ma le r a the r t h an f ema le o ccupa t ions o n t omb s tone s .

1 989 : 5 2 ) . W i thou t c l ea r e v idence f r om R oman B r i ta in w omen 's p e r sona l i n te res t s i np ub l ic m a t te r s c an n o t b e a cce ssed , a nd i ti se ven d i f f icu l t t o a s se ss t h e d eg ree t o w h ich w omen 's e xp res s ions o f o p in ions o n s uch i s sue s m ay h ave b een ' t o le ra ted ' i nt h e p rov ince s , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce a t t i tudes may h ave b een i nf luenced t o s ome d eg ree b y n a t ive c us tom . Among t h e n a t ive B r i t ish t h e l e ga l a nd p o l i t ica l s i tua t ion o f

W i thou t a s sum ing a d i rec t p a ra l le l w i th l i f e i nR ome t h e re a r e c on s ide rab le d i ff icu l t ies i n t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s uch a c coun ts t ow omen 's l i f es ty les a nd a c t iv i t ies i nB r i ta in . I n t e rm s o fe conom ic a c t iv i ty , c u r se t a b le t s i n d ica te t h a t s ome R omano -Br i t ish women owned p rope r ty a nd u nder took t r ansac t ion s i nt h e f our th c en tu ry ( A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 2 1; 8 0 ) , b u t P eacock ( 1982 : 8 6 -87 ) p rov ides t h e o n ly s ugges t ion t h a t w omen w e re d i rec t ly e ngaged i nc r af t p roduc t ion , t r ade a nd i n du s t ry t h rough t h e l i ke l ihood o f t h e i r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n w ork shop i n dus t r ies p roduc ing b l ack -bu rn ished w a re . Wh i ls t w omen a r e w e l l -a t tes ted a s p a t rons o f w o rke r 's g u i ld s i nI t a ly a nd G au l ( C IL 1 .5748 ; F an tham e ta l . , 1 994 : 32 -334 ) t h e re i s n o e v idence o f f ema le p a t ronage o r m embe r sh ip o fa ny g u i lds i nR oman B r i ta in . I n deed t h e re i s v i r tua l ly n o f i rm e v idence o f w omen u nde r tak ing a ny k i nd o fn on -dome s t ic w o rk i nt h e p rov ince : e p ig raph ic e v idence p rov ide s u s w i th o n ly t wo w omen k nown t o h ave f o l lowed s pec if ic c a ree r s ; D iodo ra , ap r ies tess a t C o rb r idge , a nd V e recunda , a n a c t ress a t L e ice s te r ( R IB 129 ; C IL V I .1335 .4 ) . I na dd i t ion , J us t in ian 's D ige s tr e f er s t o af ema le s l ave c ondemned t o w o rk ing a s ac ook i n as a l t m ine ( R IB 1 62 ) . T he r e i sa l so ' p o ten t ia l ' e v idence f o r f ema le a c roba t s ;

w omen h ad d i f f e red s i gn if ican t ly f r om t h a t o f R ome a nd i ti se x t reme ly h a rd t oe va lua te h ow t h is m ay h ave a f f ec ted t h e r i gh t s a nd a c t iv i t ie s o f R omano -Br i t ish w omen . I n vo lvemen t i n m i l i ta ry a f f a i r s p re sen t s a n i lu s t ra t ive c on t ra s t . I n I t a ly , m i l i ta ry a c t iv i t ies w e re e xc lus ive ly t h e f o r te o fm en , t h e L a t in t r ans la t ion f o rc ou rage ( v i r tus ) m ean s ' man l iness ' , w omen c ou ld n o t p ar take i na ny f i gh t ing , e ven t h e i r v i ew ing o fm i l i ta ry d r i l ls i sd esc r ibed a su nseem ly , a nd f ema le i n te res t i ns uch a f f a i r s i sh eav i ly c en su red ( Ma r sha l l , 1 975 ; H a l le t t , 1 977 ; C la rk , 1 989 ) . I nc on t ra s t , w omen f r om v a r iou s E u ropean I r on A ge t r ibes a r e d e sc r ibed i n t h e s ou rces a so b se rve r s , s uppor te r s , a rb i te r s a nd f i gh te r s o n t h e b a t t lef ie ld ( Tac i tu s , G erman ia 7 , 8 ; H i s tor ie s 4 . 18 ; A nna l s 4 . 51 .2 ; 1 4 .34 .2 ; C aesa r , D e B e l lo G a l l ico 1 . 51 .3 ; P lu ta rch , D e V i r tu te Mu l ierum 6 ; Amm ianu s Ma rce l l inu s , 1 5 .12 .1; E h renbe rg , 1 989 : 1 62 171) . T ac i tu s ( Ag r ico la 1 6 ) s t a tes t h a t t h e B r i tons m ade n o d i s t inc t ion o f s ex i n t h e ir a ppo in tmen t o f c ommande r s , a nd a l though f ew I r on Age g ene ra ls a r e k nown b y n ame i ts e ems t h a t a tl e a s tt h ree w e re w omen ( A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 1 9 ) . N a t ive B r i t ish w omen r e p resen ted i nt h e s ou rce s a ppea r a s e x t reme ly f o rm idab le c r ea tu res ' po ssessed o f t h e s ame v a lou r a s m en ' , a nd a d jec t ive s s uch a s ' bu r ly ' , ' f i e rce ' , ' r a sp ing ' , a nd ' d iso rde r ly ' c e r ta in ly p rov ide a v e ry d i f f e ren t i mage f r om t h a t o f t h e a r che typa l R oman ma t ron ( Tac i tu s , A nna l s 1 4 ; D io C a s s ius , H i s tory o f R ome 6 2 ; B a lsdon , 1 962 : 1 8 ) . I n deed S t rabo ( Geog raph ia 4 . 4 .3) , w r i t ing c . AD 2 0 , s t a ted t h a t f em in ine r o les i n G au l a nd m any o t he r ' b a rba r ian ' p eop les w e re t h e r e ver se o f t ho se i n R ome , a l though p r ec ise ly w h ich k i nd o f r o les w e re b e ing r e f er red t o i s u nc lea r ( Eh renbe rg , 1 989 : 1 54 ) , S uch a ccoun ts s hou ld , h oweve r , b e t r ea ted w i th c au t ion d ue t ot h e p o l i t ica l b i a s o f t h e a u tho r s a nd t h e i rt e ndency t oe mpha s ise t h e ' unc iv i l ised ' n a tu re a nd ' b a rba r i ty ' o ft h e n a t ive p eop les .

ad ep ic t ion o n a p o t f r om Wa te r N ew ton , a nd We l ls ' i n te rp re ta t ion o f i n ju r ie s e xh ib i ted b y af ema le s ke le ton f r om Y o rk (Wenham , 1 968 : 1 50 152 ) , b u t t h is e v idence i s r e spec t ive ly s ub jec t t o p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f d ep ic t ion s o n p o r tab le o b jec ts , a nd i n a s s ign ing o ccupa t iona l a c t iv i t ies o n t h e b a s is o fo s teo log ica l e xam ina t ion . A s A l la son Jones ( 1994 : 7 0 ) s t a te s , R oman B r i ta in w a s ah ive o f a c t iv i ty , w omen w e re n o t l e ga l ly b a r red f r om w ork ing , a nd , o u t s ide t h e m i l i ta ry s phe re , t h e re i sa c tua l ly l i t t le f i rm e v idence f o r m en u nder tak ing s pec if ic w o rk e i the r . I n ves t iga t ion o f women 's p o l i t ica l i n te re s t s a nd i n vo lvemen t i sa l so s e ve re ly f r us t ra ted b y l a ck o f e v idence . P rov inc ia l g overno r s h ad b een m ade r e spons ib le f o r t h e ir w ive s ' c onduc t s i nce AD 2 4 ( Tac i tus , A nna l s 4 . 20 .4 -6 ) a nd t h e s ou rce s c l ea r ly e xpound t h e i r s e conda ry r o les , s t re ss ing t h a t p rov inc ia l m i l i tary o pe ra t ions a nd p o l i t ica l a dm in is t ra t ion w e re e xc lus ive ly m a le s phe re s a s w omen w e re " ap t , b y l u xu ry o r b y t im id i ty , t o r e ta rd t h e b u s ine s s o f p eace o r w a r" ( Tac i tu s A nna l s 3 . 33 -4 ; A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 5 0 ) . U nfo r tuna te ly , r a the r t h an p rov id ing a ny r e a l i n s igh t i nt o t h e l i ve s a nd g ene ra l c onduc t o f s u ch w omen , t h e s ou rces t e nd t o e i the r e l abo ra te v a r ious f ema le m isdemeano r s o r p r esen t i d ea l i sed v e r s ions o fh ow s uch w ives s hou ld b ehave . S eneca , f o r e xamp le , p ra ises t h e w if e o fG a le r iu s w ho w as a ppa ren t ly n eve r e ven s een i np ub l ic d u r ing h e r s i x teen y ea r r e s idence i n E gyp t ( Ad H e lv iam 1 9 .6 ; Ma r sha l l , 1 975 ) . A l though t h e l i t e ra ture c l ea r ly o ppo se s t h e i d ea o f w omen h av ing a ny i n vo lvemen t i np rov inc ia l a f f a ir s , A l la son Jones s ugge s t s t h a t g ove rno r 's w ives b ecame r e cogn ised m embe r s o ft h e p rov inc ia l h i e ra rchy , a ccompany ing t h e i rh u sbands o n o ff ic ia l v i s i t s a nd a c t ing a s h o s tes se s a t f u nc t ion s , t h u s h o ld ing ap ub l ic ly v i s ib le r o le i nt h e B r i t ish p rov inces , a nd t h e a ppa ren t i mp rop r ie ty o f t h e i r a ccep tance o f f a vou r s o r

C u r se t a b le ts f r om B a th i n d ica te t h a t p re -Roman a t t i tudes t owa rds w omen may h ave c on t inued t os ome e x ten t i nt ot h e f our th c en tu ry AD . I r on A ge w omen i nB r i ta in h ad h e ld a s t ronge r p os i t ion a tl aw t h an t h e i r c on tempo ra r ies i nR ome , i n deed w omen p ar t ic ipa ted much mo re n o t iceab ly i ne ven ts a nd c ou ld p l ay a m a jo r r o le i n p ub l ic l i f e . Wh i ls t R ome f o l lowed a p o l icy o f e xc lu s ive m a le s uccess ion , n a t ive B r i t ish w omen c ou ld r u le t r ibes i n dependen t ly ; a tt h e t ime o f t h e R oman i n va s ion , f o r e xamp le , C ar t imandua r u led o ve r t h e B r igan tes , t h e n ume r ica l ly l a rges t o f t h e B r i t ish t r ibes ( Tac i tu s , A g r ico la 1 7 ) , a nd t h e f ema le c onsor t o f a l e ade ra ppea r s t oh ave b een e qua l ly r e ve red ( Tac i tus , A nna l s 1 2 .36 ; A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 1 7 ) . T he s eve re l a ck o f e v idence f r om R oman B r i ta in c oup led w i th t h e c on t ra s t ing R oman a nd n a t ive a t t i tudes t owa rds w omen m ake i t e x t reme ly d i ff icu l t t o e va lua te R omano -Br i t ish w omen 's r o le s . I t d oes s e em q ues t ionab le w he the r n a t ive B r i t ish 2 7

r e p re sen ta t ion s c r ea ted b y t h e a gency o fo t he r s i nt h e p a s t . We c an s e e momen t s w he re w omen 's a gency e me rge s , w he r e g ende r i sc ons t ruc ted a nd n ego t ia ted t h rough s oc ia l p r ac t ice , a ppea r ing a s ap a r t o f e xp r e s s ion o f s e lf iden t i ty w i th in t h e c on tex t o ft h e R oman w o r ld . F ina l ly , t h e w ay i n w h ich w e a s a r chaeo log is t s c hoo se t o i n te rp re t t h ese s ou rce s , e i the r a sr ep re sen ta t ion s o fs o c ia l f o rm o ra si s sues o f s o c ia l d i scou r se , p rof ound ly a f f ec t s o u r r e -w r i t ing o f g ende r o n t ot h e p a s t . A s s ha l l b e c l a r if ied i nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r , t h e se a r e k ey p o in t s w hen c on s ide r ing t h e s t ra teg ic r e p re sen ta t ion s p r e sen ted t o u s w i th in f une ra ry c on tex t s : w ho se a g ency a r e w e l o ok ing a t , w ha t k i nd s o f r e p re sen ta t ion s a r e b e ing made , a nd w ha t c an t h i s t e l l u s a bou t t h e s oc ia l /gende r d i scou r se b e ing p l ayed o u t w i th in c eme te ry c on tex t s?

w omen w ou ld h ave e a s i ly r e l inqu ished s ome o ft h e i r r i gh t s a nd s ubm i t ted t o t h e a u tho r i ty o f t h e t r ad i t iona l R oman p a t r ia r chy , e spec ia l ly t h e p a terf am i l ia s s y s tem , b u t s hor t ly a f t e rt h e c onque s t Ma r t ia l ( Ep ig rams 1 .53 ) p r a ise s C laud ia R uf ina , aw oman o f B r i t ish d e scen t , f o r b e ing a ' p e rf ec t R oman w if e ' ( B i r ley , 1 980 ) . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t R oman g ende r i d ea l s w e re t r an sm i t ted a s a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f R oman isa t ion , b u t i ti su nc lea r t ow ha t e x ten t a nd i nw h ich w ay s t h i s m ay h ave a f f ec ted a t t i tude s w i th in t h e p rov ince s . A s F an tham e t a l . ( 1994 ) s t a te , ` Roman isa t ion ' g r adua l ly c hanged f r om b e ing c l ea r ly I t a l ian a s i ta b so rbed e l emen t s o fl o ca l p rov inc ia l c u l tu re s a nd b ecame i n c r ea s ing ly h yb r id . B yt h et h i rd t of ou r th c en tu r ie s AD ' Roman ' r u le r s a nd t h e i r w ive s o r ig ina ted f r om t h e p rov ince s , o r a t l e a s t h ad p rov inc ia l a nce s t ry , a nd n a t ive c us tom s a nd i d ea ls m ay h ave i nf luenced t h e i r a t t i tude s a nd p rac t ice s i ng ove rnmen t . L a te R oman B r i ta in w a s ac o smopo l i tan p l ace , i t s i n hab i tan t s c an n o t b e s imp ly d i v ided i nt o ' Roman ' a nd ' n a t ive ' a nd t h e a t t i tude s o f n ume rou s d i f f e ren t c u l tu r e s e mana t ing f r om a c ro s s t h e w ho le e mp i r e m ay h ave i nf luenced g ende r i d eo logy i ns ome w ay .

B y t h e l a te R oman p e r iod i ta ppea r s t h a t a l though b a s ic u nde r ly ing b e l ief s c once rn ing ' p rope r ' f ema le d ome s t ic r o le s r ema ined f a i r ly c ons tan t i n I t a ly , a t l e a s t a mong s t t h e m a le l i t e ra ry s phe re , w omen 's l i ve s w e r e i n f a c t f a r m o r e v a r iab le t h an t h e m a trona i d ea l s ugge s t s . Women 's i n vo lvemen t i nv a r iou s a c t iv i t ie s o u t s ide t h e h ome i n d ica te s ac e r ta in f l u id i ty i nf ema le r o le s , b u t t h ey w e re s t i l l d en ied e qua l r i gh t s w i th m a le c i t izen s , r ema ined f o rma l ly e xc luded f r om o ff ic ia l p a r t ic ipa t ion i n p o l i t ica l , c i v ic a nd m i l i ta ry a f f a i r s a nd r ema ined s ub jec t t oq u i te ac l ea r s exua l d i v is ion o f l a bou r . T he p r ec ise e x ten t t ow h ich t h e p ub l ic a c t iv i t ie s o f i n d iv idua l w omen w e re l i m i ted b y t h e i mpo s i t ion o f ' r u le s ' o rt h e i ro wn i d eo logy c once rn ing t h e p rope r p l ace o f t h e i rs e x w i th in s oc ie ty , a nd t h e d eg ree t ow h ich t h is p i c tu re m ay b e a pp l icab le t o w omen 's s t a tu se s i n R oman B r i ta in u nf o r tuna te ly r ema in u nc lea r . Wha t i sc l ea r i st h a t w h i ls t t e x tua l r e p re sen ta t ion s o fw omen c an n o t b e t a ken a sv a lue f r ee , i ti sp o s s ib le t o u se t h is e v idence t o e l uc ida te s ome f e a tu r e s o f g ende r d i scou r se . We s e e i n s tance s w he re w omen c l ea r ly d o n o t a t temp t t o f u lf i l t h e m a t rona i mage ; s t ra teg ic a c t ion t o e nf o r ce t h e i r o wn c ho ice o f m a r r iag e p a r tne r s , p r ac t ice s t o p r even t c h i ldb ir th , a c t ion a ga in s t i mpo sed s e xua l mo ra l i ty , i n te res t a nd i n vo lvemen t t os ome d eg ree i n c ommun i ty a nd p o l i t ica l l i f e , a c t ion t o g ua rd f i nanc ia l a r rangemen t s f r om m a le i n te rf e rence , a nd p ub l ic p r e sence t h rough r e l ig ion , b enef ac t ion o r n on -dome s t ic o ccupa t ion . We s e e t h a t e ven w i th in t h e c on t ex t o f a n a cknow ledged p a t r ia rchy w omen s t i l l n ego t ia ted a p l ace f o r t h emse lve s , t h ey w e re a c t ive i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e i r o wn s e lf a nd s oc ia l i d en t i t ie s t h rough s oc ia l p rac t ice . We a r e p r e sen ted w i th s t ra teg ic c ons t ruc t ion s o f g ende r a r rangemen t s , r o le s , r e la t ion s a nd e xpec ta t ion s i nt h e t e x t s , b u t r a the r t h an t h i s r e a l isa t ion n u l l ing t h e v a lue o f t h e se s ou rce s , d eepe r c on temp la t ion a l low s u s t o c on s ide r u nde r ly ing s t ra teg ies a nd t o s e e momen t s w he r e w omen 's a gency e me rge s . E xam ina t ion o f t e x tua l s ou r ce s f r om a s t ra teg ic v i ewpo in t c l ea r ly h i gh l igh t s t h e d i f f e ren t r ep re sen ta t ions /cons t ruc t ion s o f e ngende red i d en t i ty a s o u t l ined i n t h e i n t roduc t ion t o t h is w o rk . We a r e p rov ided w i th t e x tua l r e p re sen ta t ion s o f g ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ion s , s t ra teg ica l ly d ep loyed 2 8

CHAPTER 4

AGENCY , S TRUCTURE , S EX AND GENDER : I NVEST IGAT ING CE METERY D ISCOURSE

4 . 1

Wh i ls t i t i s i mp rac t icab le t o a t temp t a s ympo s ium o f t h e w ide v a r ie ty o f t h eo re t ica l a pp roache s c ommon ly l umped t o ge the r a s ` p o s tp roce s sua l ' o rl a t te r ly ' i n te rp re t ive ' a r chaeo log ie s w h ich h ave d eve loped s i nce t h e 1 980 s , t h e re a r e a r ea s o fc ommona l i ty b e tween t h e se f r amewo rk s w h ich i l u s t ra t e af u ndamen ta l s h if t i nt h e w ay t h a t p a s t s oc ia l l i f e , i n c lud ing i n terp re t ive t h eo r ie s o f g ende r a r rangemen t s a nd m ean ingf u l t r ea tmen t o f t h e d ead , a r e p e r ce ived t h rough a r chaeo log ica l e nqu iry . C ruc ia l a r ea s o f t h i s r e concep tua l i sa t ion c once rn t h e d e -empha s i s o f s y s t em ic a nd b i o log ica l b ehav iou ra l d e te rm ina te s i n f a vou r o f t h e a c t ive r o le o f h uman a gency a nd t h e a dop t ion o f p r a c t ice , s t ruc tu r e , i d eo logy a nd s t ra tegy t i ed t oc u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex ta sc en t ra l i s sue s i ns o c ia l i n te rp r e ta t ion s o fm o r tua ry r ema in s .

' Ru le s ' a nd ' Prac t ice s ' : T he D ua l i ty o f S truc ture

Af r amewo rk f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion o fg ende r , a nd c oncep tua l isa t ion o f b u r ia l p rac t ice s a s s t ra teg ic , m u s t f o rm p a r t o f a n e xp l ic i t t h eo ry o f s o c ia l a c t ion . B ef o re a dd r e s s ing e ngende red i d en t i ty a nd c eme te ry d i scou r se t h e r ef o r e i ti sn ece ssa ry t oe xp la in m y s t ance u pon t h e i s sue s o fa gency a nd s t ruc tu r e ; t oc l a r if y t h e s t a temen t t h a t ' s oc ie ty a nd i t sa gen t sa r e c r ea ted t h rough p e rf o rmance ' . I ti sn ow a bundan t ly c l ea r t h a t e xp lana t ion s o f s oc ia l a nd b u r ia l s y s tem s a nd ' t he p a s t ' i n g ene ra l c an n o t b e u nde r s tood w i thou t s ome r e f e rence t oa gency ; s t ra teg ic a c t s o n b eha lf o fk now ledgeab le a gen t s :

I n l i gh t o f t h e se ' n ew ' p e r spec t ive s , f o cu s w i th in t h is c hap te r i s c en t red u pon t h e e l uc ida t ion o f t wo f o rm s o f h uman r e p r e sen ta t ion a s p r ac t ice . F i r s t ly , s e lf r e p r esen ta t ion , a s i nt h e c r ea t ion o fs e lf iden t i ty , i n c lud ing g ende r , b y t h e w ay s i nw h ich t h e a gen t s t h emse lve s a c ted w i th in a nd t h rough t h e i r c on tex t s d u r ing l i f e . S econd ly , t h e r e p re sen ta t ion /cons t ruc t ion o f i d en t i t ie s , i n c lud ing e ngende red i d en t i t ie s , w i th in t h e f u ne ra ry d oma in b y t h e a gency o ft h o se w ho a c ted u pon t h e d ead . E ach o f t h e se f o rm s o fr e p r e sen ta t ion s p r e sen t s t age s i nt h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e b i o log ica l b ody , ab u i ld ing a nd r e -wo rk ing o fi d en t i t ie s u pon t h a t b ody d u r ing i t s j ou rney f r om l i f e t o t h e g r ave . W i th in t h is f r amewo rk t h ree m a in p o in t s a r e e mpha s ised w h ich l a y t h e f o unda t ion f o r m y a na ly t ica l a pp roach t ot h e i sue s a head :

" agency i n vo lve s t h e t r ansf o rma t ion o f t h e b i o log ica l b e ing i n to a s oc ia l b e ing t h rough k now ledgeab le a c t ion , w he r e ' b e ing s oc ia l i n vo lve s c on sc iou sne s s" ( Ba r r e t t , 1 994 : 1 65 ) . A cknow ledgemen t o f t h e c on sc iou s n a tu r e o f p a s t p eop le r u le s o u t a ny n o t ion o ft h e i r b e ing d r iven p u re ly b y s o c ia l m echan i sm . R a the r , p eop le a r e c apab le o f mon i to r ing t h e c on sequence s o f c er ta in a c t ion s u pon t h e i r c ond i t ion s o f e x is t ence , t h ey c an b u i ld u p as t ock o fk now ledge a bou t h ow t h e i r w o r ld w o rk s . U s ing t h is k now ledge -ba se p eop le h ave s ome c ho ice a s t o f u tu re a c t ions , t h ey c an a dap t t h e i r b ehav iou r a nd m an ipu la te t h e c u l tu ra l w o r ld t h rough t h e i r a c t ion s t o a ch ieve c e r ta in a ims , ' f ind ing s t ra teg ie s w h ich w o rk f o rt h em ' ( Hodde r , 1 985 : 4 ) . A gen t s h ave t h e c apac i ty t o r e -wo rk a nd r e c rea te t h e i r l i ved r e a l i t ies , t o t r ansf o rm t h em se lve s a nd t h e i r c ons truc ted s o c ia l w o r ld t h rough k now ledgeab le a c t ion . T he r e cogn i t ion o fh uman a gency i s v i ta l f o r i t s move a way f r om t h e ' h o l i sm ' e v iden t i ns y s tem s t h eo ry , b u t t h e e x t reme p o la r ised v i ewpo in t w h ich a s ser t s t h e s ub jec t ive d i spo s i t ions a nd m o t ive s o fi n d iv idua l s t ot h e d en ig ra t ion o f w ide r s o c ia l s t ruc tu re s a s " me re ly a b s t rac t m ode ls o f c o l lec t iv i t ie s o f i n d iv idua ls" s hou ld a l so b e a vo ided ( T i l ley , 1 982 : 2 7 ) . S oc ie t ie s c on s is t o f b o th i n d iv idua l a c to r s a nd s o c ia l s t ruc tu re s , a nd i n ve s t iga t ion s o f p a s t s oc ia l l i f e mu s t c ons ide r t h e g ene ra t ive o r s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le st h a t l i nk s oc ia l a c t ion a nd s o c ia l s t ruc tu re .

I . t h a t s oc ie ty a nd i t s a gen t s a r e c r ea ted t h rough ' p e rf o rmance ' 2 . t h a tg ende r s a r e ' made ' 3 . t h a tf u ne ra ls w r i te av e ry p a r t icu la ro rde r i n to b e ing . E ach o f t h e se p o in t s i s d i scu s sed w i th p a r t icu la r e mpha s is b e ing p l aced u pon s t ra teg ic p rac t ice a s t h e f o cus o f a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s o f s o c ia l l i f e ; i t i s h uman p r ac t ice w i th in a nd t h rough c e r ta in m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s w h ich c on s t i tu te s ' s e lf , w h ich r e p roduce s s o c ia l i n s t i tu t ion s , a nd w h ich d e te rm ine s t h e t y pe s o f r e p re sen ta t ion s w e e ncoun te r i n t h e f u ne ra ry d oma in . R e cogn i t ion o f s oc ia l d i scou r se - n ego t ia t ion t h rough c ommun ica t ive p r ac t ice -m ean s t h a t w e c an n o t e xpec t t o f i nd as t a t ic ' r eco rd ' o ft h e p a s t . R a the r , w ha t w e s e e a r e s p ec if ic m omen t s o fs oc ia l a c t ion w i th in p a r t icu la r c on tex t s . W i th in m o r tua ry c on tex t s w e s e e t h e s t ra t eg ic c on s t ruc t ion s o f t h e f u ne ra l a gency c r ea ted a tt h e s p ec if ic m omen t / s o f b u r ia l . T hu s b y i n ves t iga t ing t h e t y pe s o f r e p re sen ta t ion s b e ing m ade w e h ave a cce s s t ot h e s t ra teg ie s d ep loyed , t ot h e s o c ia l d i scou r se b e ing p l ayed o u t i n t h e c eme te ry , a nd a s s h a l l b e m ade i n c r ea s ing ly c l ea r t h roughou t t h e p rog r e s s ion o ft h is c hap te r , i ti st h e e xp lo ra t ion o ft h is d i scou r se w h ich s h ou ld b e t h e m a in c oncer n i ni n ve s t iga t ions o f s oc ia l a nd b u r ia l s y s tem s .

T he s oc ia l a c t ion s o f i n d iv idua ls /g roup s ( p rac t ice ) a nd s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s ( r u les ) a r e b ound t oge the r i n ar e cur s ive i n te r re la t ionsh ip . S oc ia l a c t ion r e su l t s i n s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s w h ich m ay s e t p a rame te r s o n t h e p o ten t ia l i ty f o r f u tu re a c t ion s , b u t t h e se s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s d o n o t j u s t c on s t ra in t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f s oc ia l a gen t s , t h ey a r e a l so g ene ra t ive a s t h ey f o rm a m ed ium f o r t h a t a c t ion a nd g i ve i tm ean ing . G idden s e mpha s ise s t h e ' d ua l i ty o fs t ruc tu re ' b y s t a t ing t h a t t h e ' r u le s ' f u nc t ion a sb o th t h e " med ia a nd o u tcome o ft h e r e p roduc t ion o f s oc ia l s y s t em s . . [ b ecau se ] . . r u le s a nd p rac t ice s o n ly e x i s t i nc on junc t ion w i th o ne a no ther" ( G idden s , 2 9

1 979 : 6 5 ) . S t ruc tu re s a r e t r an sf o rmed a nd r ep roduced t h rough t h e v a r iou s r e su l t s o f t h e s o c ia l p ra c t ice s t h ey e nab le a nd o r ien ta te . S oc ia l a c t ion m u s t b e s e en a s d ynam ic b ecau se c on sc ious /exp l ic i t a nd u nconsc iou s / imp l ic i t k now ledge i s c on s tan t ly b e ing d rawn u pon t om ake d ec is ion s c oncern ing e ve ryday b ehav iou r . E xp l ic i t k now ledge i st h a t w h ich c an b e d i scu r s ive ly f o rmu la ted , t h e a c to r i sa wa re o ft h e r e a son s f o r , o rt h e p r inc ip le s s t ruc tu r ing , t h e i rp a r t icu la ra c t ion s , a nd m ay t h u s mod if y t ho se a c t ion s a cco rd ing ly a nd p u rpo s ive ly . I mp l ic i t k now ledge r ema in s t a c i t a nd u nd iscu s sed , k now ing ' h ow t og o o n ' i sl a rg e ly t a ken f o r g r an ted a nd t h e a c to r i s n o tc on sc iou s ly a wa r e o ft h e p r inc ip le s u pon w h ich t h ey a r e a c t ing . G idden s ( 1979 : 5 7 ) r e f e r s t o t h is k now ledge a s ' p ra c t ica l c onsc iou sne s s ' a nd B ou rd ieu ( 1977 : 1 8 ) r e la te s t h i s f o rm o fs oc ia l a c t ion t ot h e h ab i tu s o ft h e s oc ia l g roup , t h e c ommon ly u nde r s tood , h ab i tua l p rac t ice o f w ha t i s p o s s ib le a nd p rope rt ot h eo cca s ion . Whe the r e xp l ic i t ly / imp l ic i t ly k nown , a gen t s ' a c t ion s a r e m ed ia ted b y t h e i r i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s s pec if ic t ot h e ir c on tex t i nt ime a nd s pace , a nd i nt u rn t h e se s t ruc tu re s a r e r e f o rmu la ted a s a gen t s " ac t ive ly n ego t ia te ' s oc ia l r u le s ' , c r ea t ing a nd t r an sf o rm ing t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re" ( Hodde r , 1 985 : 2 ) . S oc ia l s t ruc tu re s t h u s h ave a c ons tan t p o ten t ia l f o r c hange v i a h uman a gency . T he s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s a r e c on s tan t ly b e ing r e in te rp re ted , r e f o rmu la ted a nd r e -p re sen ted , ac on t inua l p roces s r e f er red t ob y G idden s a s ` s t ruc tu ra t ion ' ( Pade r , 1 982 : 1 ; H o lmwood a nd S t ewa r t , 1 99 1) . A cco rd ing t ot h is t h eo ry , t h e d i f f e r en t s e lf in te re s ted mo t iva t ion s o fs oc ia l a gen t s a nd t h e i rc or r e spond ing c ou r se s o f a c t ion m ean t h a t s o c ia l i d en t i t ies , p o s i t ion s a nd l i ved r e a l i t ie s a r e c ons tan t ly b e ing n ego t ia ted a nd r e nego t ia ted , c r ea t ed a nd r e -c rea ted . I nt h i s l i gh t ' t he p a s t ' h a s c ome t o b e s e en n o t a st h e p roduc t o fg ene ra l l aw s o fp roce s s , b u t a s t h e p roduc t o f " mu l t ip le o r s pec if ic momen t s o f c u l tu ra l c r ea t ion" ( Ba r re t t , 1 994 : 1 64 ) , s pec if ic i n s tance s o f s oc ia l a c t ion o rde red a c ro s st i me a nd s pa ce .

4 . 2

f i xed c a t ego r ie s , b u t m u s t b e v i ewed a s as e t o fh i s to r ica l r e la t ion sa nd p roce s se st h a ta r e e nme shed i na nd c on s t i tu t ive o f a l a s pec t s o f d a i ly l i f e . G ende r i s v a r iou s ly a nd i n ex t r icab ly r e la ted t o t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s oc ia l l i ve s , a n i n t r in s ic f a c to r i n h ow p eop le o rgan i se , c a tego r i se a nd i n te rp re t t h e i r w o r ld , a nd a s s uch i sf u ndamen ta l t o a ny c on s ide ra t ion o f s oc ia l a r chaeo logy ( Wy l ie , 1 99 1a ) . T h i s r e a l i sa t ion h a s a t l a s t e ncou raged a d epa r tu re f r om mo r e f unc t iona l is t a nd p o s i t iv i s t a pp roache s t owa rd s a n a r chaeo logy t h a t c en t re s u pon p eop le a nd t h e i r r e la t ions a nd a c t ion s w i th in a nd t h rough t h e i r m a te r ia l a nd s oc ia l c ond i t ion s . I ti sn ow c l ea r t h a t a n a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry o f g ende r c anno t m e re ly e n ta i l t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f m en a nd w omen a nd a s soc ia ted " t oo l k i t s" r ef lec t ing t h e i r v a r iou s a c t iv i t ie s ( F lanne ry a nd W in te r , 1 976 ) , b u t m u s t i n co rpo ra te r e cogn i t ion a nd t h eo r isa t ion c oncern ing t h e w ay s i nw h ich g end e r i s as t ruc tu r ing p r inc ip le t h rough a r chaeo log ica l m a t e r ia l ; g ende r i sc on s t ruc ted b y s oc ie ty a nd i s ap r ima ry s t ruc tu r e o f s oc ie ty ( Moo re , 1 99 1 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r , 1 984 ; K en t , 1 995 ; 1 999 ; H ay s -G i lp in a nd Wh i t ley , 1 998 ; S o r en sen ,2 000 ) . U nde r s tand ing t h e p a s t a s a n i s sue o f s t ra teg ic c u l tu ra l c r ea t ion r e cogn ise s m en a nd w omen a s s oc ia l a gen t s c on s tan t ly n ego t ia t ing a nd r e nego t ia t ing t h e ir l i ved e xpe r ience s , t h e i r p l ace s i nt h e w o r ld , t h e i r r e la t ions w i th o t he r s a nd t h e i r d ef in i t ion s o f' s e lf . G ende r a r rangemen t s , i n c lud ing r o le s , r e la t ion s a nd i d eo log ie s , a r e d ynam ic , t h ey b o th s t ruc tu r e a nd a r e s t ruc tu red b y s o c ia l a c t ion . T hey r ep re sen t ' r u le s ' o r g u ide l ine s c once rn ing p o s s ib le a nd a pp rop r ia te p r ac t ice s f o r m en a nd w omen w i th in p a r t icu la r s oc ia l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t s . S oc ia l a c to r s ' k now h ow t o g o o n ' , t h ey k now , w he the r i mp l ic i t ly o re xp l ic i t ly , w ha t i s s oc ia l ly e xpec ted a nd a ccep tab le o f t h em a s m a le s a nd f ema le s , a nd " l ea rn t ob ehave a cco rd ing ly , t ob e m a scu l ine o r f em in ine a cco rd ing t ot h e n o rm s o f ap a r t icu la r c u l tu r e" (Wa l lman , 1 978 : 2 2 ; C ap lan , 1 987 ) , a cco rd ing t ot h eh ab i tu s o ft h es o c ia lg roup . I nd iv idua ls a r ed i f f e r en t ia ted b yg ende r , a nd b y p e rf o rm ing a cco rd ing t o t h e ' r u le s ' , b y b ehav ing , mov ing , s p eak ing a nd d r e s s ing i n c u l tu ra l ly ' p rope r ' w ay s , t h i s d i f f e r en t ia t ion i s p erpe tua ted . A n a gen t s ' k now ledgeab i l i ty , h oweve r , m eans t h a t t h ey a r e n o t e n t i r e ly c on s t ra ined b y t h e se c u l tu ra l p a rame te r s . A s s oc ia l a gen t s , p eop le h ave t h e p o ten t ia l t oc ha l lenge o rc hange t h e ' r u le s ' a nd t h u s a l te r t h e s t ruc tu re o f g ende r , t h rough s t ra teg ic p rac t ice , o rt h e u n in tended c on sequence s o fa c t ion . G ende r i st h u s c u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted , b u i l t u pon t h e s exed b ody b y t h e w ay t h e b ody i sl i ved t h rough p ar t icu la r s e t s o fc u l tu ra l p a rame te r s .

G ender a s aS oc ia lC ons truc t

R ecogn i t ion o f t h e a c t ive c r ea t ion o f s o c ia l a nd s e lf i d en t i t ie s t h rough ' p e r f o rmance ' o r s oc ia l p r ac t ice h a s p rof ound ly a f f ec ted t h e w ay s i nw h ich g ende r a r rangemen t s c an b e c oncep tua l ised a r chaeo log ica l ly . G ende r i s n ow c ommon ly p e rce ived a s s oc ia l ly c on s t ruc ted i d en t i t ie s , r e la ted t o , b u t n o t d e te rm ined b y , s exua l d i f f e rence s , a nd a s a s o c ia l c ons t ruc t g ende r m u s t h e s e en a s ' made ' ( c on s t i tu ted , c oncep tua l ised a nd o rgan ised ) i n h i s to r ica l ly a nd c u l tu ra l ly s pec if ic w ay s ( Rapp , 1 979 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , 1 981 ; N e l son , 1 997 ; S i lve rb la t t , 1 99 1 ; S co t t , 1 986 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r , 1 984 ; Whe lan , 1 99 1a ; Moo r e , 1 996 ) . T he s oc ia l c on s t ruc t ion o f ' ma scu l in i ty ' a nd ' f em in in i ty ' , t h e i n ve s tmen t o fs oc ia l v a lue i nt h e c u l tu ra l ly p e rce ived a nd i n sc r ibed d i f f e rence s b e tween m en a nd w omen v a r ie s w i th in a nd b e tween c u l tu re s a nd o ve r t ime , t i ed t o s oc ia l p rac t ice i nt ime a nd s pace (We s tko t t , 1 979 ; R o sa ldo , 1 980 ; G i lch r is t , 1 99 1; C onkey a nd G e ro , 1 99 1 ; G a i ley , 1 987 ) ,

I n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s t ruc tu ra t ion o f s oc ie ty a nd a s a n i s sue o f a g ency , s t ruc tu re , c on tex t a nd h i s to ry , g ende r i s a lway s " i n p r oduc t ion" ( Conkey a nd G e ra , 1 99 1 : 9 ) , g ende r c a tego r ie s a r e f l u id a nd d ynam ic r a the rt h an f i xed a nd s t a t ic . G ende r i so ne p a r t o ft h e c omp lex p roce s s o ff o rm ing s e lf i d en t i t ie s , b e ing s oc ia l ly c on s t ruc ted a nd c hang ing , g ende r i s mu l t id imen s iona l a nd m ay o pe ra te i n v a r ious w ay s t o s t ruc tu r e s o c ia l r e la t ions o fw h ich i ti s ac on s t i tu t ive f e a tu r e . G ende r m u s t b e c on s ide r ed o f c en t ra l i mpo r t i n c on s ide ra t ion s o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re , c ommun i ty a nd p owe r r e la t ion s a nd s o c ia l c hange a s i t i s i n ex t r icab ly a nd r e cu r s ive ly r e la ted t o o t he r v a r iab le s a nd d ynam ic s o f h uman s oc ia l l i f e . G ende r m ay b e ' a t w o rk ' i na nd ' wo rked o n ' , c r o s s -cu t b y o r r e f rac ted t h rough , v a r iou s o t he r s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c on s t ruc t s s u ch a s s t a tu s , r a ce , a ge , c l a s s a nd

A s s t r e ssed b y v a r ious p ape r s i n G e ro a nd C onkey ( e d s . 1 99 1) , g ende r t hu s c an n o t b e u nde r s tood a st h e p roduc t o f 3 0

p owe r s y s tems ( G i lch r is t , 1 99 1 ; C onkey a nd G e ro , 1 99 1 ; d i L eona rdo , 1 99 1 ; Wy l ie , 1 99 1a ; P reuce l a nd H odde r , 1 996 ) . G ende r r e la t ion s , c onf l ic t s , s t a tu se s a nd r o le s m u s t t hu s b e s e en a s h i s to r ica l f o rce s . G ende r c oncep t s a nd c a tego r ie s w e re b rough t i n t o e x is tence a nd i mbued w i th c u l tu ra l m ean ing s u nde rs pec if ic h i s to r ica l c ond i t ion s o r ' c on tex t s o f a c t ion ' a nd w e re r ep roduced a s d i scou r se , " s t ruc tu r ed b y c on t ro l o ve rc e r ta in h uman a nd m a te r ia l r e sou rce s" ( Ba r r e t t , 1 988 : 1 3 ; C onkey a nd G e ro , 1 99 1 ; J a ck son , 1 99 1 ; R o sa ldo , 1 980 ; O 'B r ien , 1 982 ; Moo re , 1 982 ) . A c t ive c on t ro l o f b u r ia l r i tua l t o p l ay o u t p a r t o f t h i s d i scou r se w i l l b e d i scussed i nd e ta i l l a te r i nt h e c hap te r , b u th e r e w e a r e m o r e c oncerned w i th t h e p rac t ice s o f t h e a gen t s a s t h ey a c t t o n ego t ia te a p l ace f o r t h emse lve s d u r ing l i f e . A s C onkey s t a tes , " we c an i mag ine t h a t m en a nd w omen h ad t o h ave d i scussed , e ven n ego t ia ted , t ime a nd s pace , m a te r ia l s a nd l a bou r " ( 199 1a : 8 0 ) :

' s a id ' , b u t h ow i t i s b e ing ' s a id ' , l e ad ing t o i n c rea sed e mpha s is u pon t h e p roce s s o f s i gn if ica t ion , t h e ' r u le s ' o r s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s " d rawn u pon a nd r ep roduced b y a c to r s i nt h e f o rm o f i n terp r e t ive s c heme s" ( G idden s , 1 979 : 9 8 ) . T he se p r inc ip le s , a nd t hu s t h e s ymbo l ism t h ey g ene ra te , o n ly e x i s t t h rough t h e i r e voca t ion , i n terp re ta t ion a nd r e pea ted u s e i n s oc ia l a c t ion , a nd i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s t ruc tu ra t ion o fs oc ie ty s ymbo l ic s y s tem s h ave t h e c on s tan t p o ten t ia l f o r c hange a nd r e -f o rmu la t ion . A gen t s m ay i n terp re ts ymbo l ism i nd i f f e ren t w ay s a cco rd ing t ot h e i ro wn s e lf in te re s t s a nd m o t iva t ion s , r e su l t ing i n ac ons tan t s t a te o f n ego t ia t ion a nd t r an sf orma t ion . T h i s p o in t r a ise s t wo i mpor tan t i s sue s r e levan t t ot h e a im s o ft h i s s t udy . F i r s t ly , t h e i d ea t h a t t ho se w ho c on t ro l r e s t r ic ted s ymbo l ic r e sou rce s , s uch a s b u r ia l r i t ua l , m ay a c t t o ' n a r row d own ' t h e e voca t iona l f i e ld , t o c hanne l p eop le t owa rd s ad e s ired i n te rp re ta t ion t o f u r the r t h e i r o wn a im s . T h i s p o in t w i l l b e e l abo ra ted u nde r ' Bu r ia l a sS t ra tegy ' . S econd ly , d ue t ot h is c on s tan t p o ten t ia l f o r c hange , t h e c oncep t s a nd a s soc ia t ions e voked b y s ymbo l ism a t t h e i n s tance o f i t s u s e a r e c on tex tua l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s pec if ic . A ga in t h is i d ea u nde r l ine s t h e c oncep t t h a t w e a r e d ea l ing w i th s pec if ic i n s tance s o f s oc ia l a c t ion r a the r t h an g ene ra l p roce sse s , w h ich mu s t a f f ec t t h e w ho le f o cu s o f a r chaeo log ica l e nqu iry . A genc ie s ' r e pea ted d raw ing u pon s ymbo l ic p roper t ie st r ansf o rms t h o se p rope r t ie s a c ro s s t ime a nd s pace , a nd t ime a nd s pace a r e t h us a c t ive e l emen t s i n vo lved i n s oc ia l a c t ion , " t hey s t ruc tu r e a c t ion a nd a r e i n t u rn s t ruc tu red b y i t " ( T i l ley , 1 982 : 3 1-32 ) . I ti st h e ref o re ' s oc ia l p rac t ice s o rde red a c ro s s t i me a nd s pace ' t h a t m u s t f o rm t h e b a s ic d oma in o f s t udy ( G idden s , 1 984 : 2 ) . I t i s s oc ia l p rac t ice /d i scou r se w i th in c e r ta in c ond i t ions w h ich c on s t i tu te s ' s e lf , i t i s s o c ia l p r ac t ice t h a t r e p roduce s s oc ia l r e la t ions a nd i n s t i tu t ion s a c ro s s t ime a nd s pace , a nd a s s uch i ti s h uman p r ac t ice s , w i th in a nd t h rough m a te r ia l c ond i t ions , t o w h ich a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s o nce c on t r ibu ted , t h a t s hou ld b e t h e f o cu s o fo u r e nqu i r ie s i nt o s oc ia l s y s tems .

"Women a nd m en l i ve t o ge the r i n aw o r ld o ft h e i r o wn m ak ing . H ow t h ey r e la te t o e ach o t he r i n s pec if i c h i s to r ica l c ond i t ion s c r ea te s g ende r" ( Arno ld e ta l . , 1 988 : 4 ) . R ecogn i t ion o f t h e p i vo ta l s t ruc tu r ing r o le o f g ende r r e la t ion s h a s c onv inc ing ly c ha l lenged p r ev iou s t e ne t s ; d i v is ion s o f l a bou r a nd c on t ro l o ve r d if e r en t c u l tu ra l r e sou rce s d o n o t s imp ly r ef lec t b i o log ica l ly o r s oc ia l ly p e rce ived d i f f e rence s b e tween m en a nd w omen , b u t a l ong w i th t h e f o rms o f d i scou r se ( n ego t ia t ion , c o -ope ra t ion , c onf l ic t ) w h ich t ook p l ace , w e r e t h ec on tex t i nw h ich g ende r d i f f e rence s w e re p roduced a nd r e p roduced ( Spec to r , 1 99 1 ; Moo re , 1 99 1 ; C onkey , 1 99 1a ) . ' Gende r s a r e m ade ' , t h ey a r e w o rked u pon t h e b ody b y i t s o wn a gency , b u i l t d u r ing t h e l i f e t ime o ft h e a gen t i nt h e w ay s i nw h ich t h ey a c t . T he e ngende red i d en t i ty o f t h e l i v ing b ody i s n ego t ia ted , t r an sf ormed a nd s t ruc tu red t h rough s oc ia l d i scou r se a s a n i n teg ra l a nd c en t ra l p a r t o f s o c ia l m a in tenance a nd r e p roduc t ion .

4 . 3

T h i s s h if t i n f o cu s f r om ' mean ing ' t o ' p rac t ice ' i n a r chaeo log ica l e nqu i ry i s av i ta l move f o rwa rd . Wh i ls t s ymbo l ic / s t ruc tu ra l / con tex tua l a pp roache s h ave g r ea t ly c on t r ibu ted t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e ' wo rk ing s ' o f s ymbo l ism a nd i t s s t ra teg ic o pe ra t iona l isa t ion t h rough h uman a gency ( no tab ly H odde r , 1 985 ; 1 986 ) , v i ew ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a s t h e o b jec t o f s t udy c ompo sed o f m a te r ia l s ymbo ls t h a t m ay b e ' r ead ' a s at e x t i su nf ea s ib le . T he m a jo r p rob lem s i na t temp t ing t oe l uc ida te t h e ' mean ing o fm ean ing ' , i na t temp t ing a ' r e th ink ing o fp a s t t h ough t s ' , a r e n ow l a rge ly r e cogn i sed b y t h e i mp lemen to r s o f t h e a pp roach , a nd h ave b een l u c id ly e xpo sed b y P a t r ik ( 1985 ) a nd B a r re t t ( 1987 ; 1 988 ) a mong s t o t he r s . T he n o t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a s ar e co rd a t a l h a s b een f r equen t ly a nd s eve re ly c on te s ted , i n he ren t ly r ef lec t ing u pon t h e c oncep tua l isa t ion o f b u r ia l a s a ' r eco rd ' o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion . When c on s ide r ing t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h uman p rac t ice a nd m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s , t h e r ema in s w e h ave a cce s s t o s hou ld n o t b e v i ewed a s ar e co rd o f s oc ia l f o rm , a s ar e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e e ve ryday o rgan i sa t iona l p r inc ip le s o ft h e l i v ing c ommun i ty , b ecause t h e se p r inc ip le s a r e i n ac ons tan t s t a te o fc hange ; t h ey a r e b e ing r e -wo rked a nd r e -f ormu la ted f r om m omen t t o momen t . R a the r , b y u nde r s tand ing t h e p a s t a s t h e p roduc t o f ' mu l t ip le / spec if ic momen t s o fc u l tu ra l c r ea t ion ' , t h e r ema in s w e h ave a cce s s t o s hou ld b e v i ewed a s e v idence f o r p a r t icu la r s oc ia l

Ma ter ia l P rac t ice a nd S ymbo l ism

A ccep tance o f s oc ia l a gen t s a c t ive ly c r ea t ing t h e i r o wn s oc ia l r e a l i t ie s w i th in c e r ta in g i ven m a te r ia l a nd s t ruc tu ra l c ond i t ion s r e cogn i se s t h a t p eop le m ay u se t h e i r m a te r ia l a nd s ymbo l ic r e sou rce s s t ra teg ica l ly t o i nf luence s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e s . Ma te r ia l c u l tu r e h a s n ow l o ng b een a cknow ledged a s a n a c t ive c ons t i tu t ive f e a tu r e o fs oc ia l l i f e ( Hodde r , 1 982a ; 1 985 ; 1 986 ; P a rke r P ea r son , 1 9 82 ; 1 984a ; M i l le r , 1 983 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley , 1 982 ; 1 987a ; 1 987b ) . I n hab i ted m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s p rov ide t h e c on tex t w i th in w h ich s t ra teg ic p r ac t ice s a r e u nde r taken , t h ey f a c i l i ta te s oc ia l a c t ion , w h ich i n t ur n t r ansf o rms t h e m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s . Ma te r ia l c u l tu re i st h u s b o th t h e ` med ia a nd o u tcome ' o f s oc ia l p rac t ice ( G idden s , 1 979 ) a nd mu s t b e s e en a s a n a c t ive c omponen t o f t h e s t ruc tu ra l p roper t ie s o f s o c ia l s y s tems . Ma te r ia l c u l tu re i s a s t ra teg ica l ly o pe ra t iona l f o rce t h rough h uman a gency , i ts t o r e s s ymbo l ic c ode s w h ich a r e d r awn u pon i ns o c ia l d i scou r se a nd i st h u s a c t ive i nt h e s t ruc tu r ing o fs oc ia l r e la t ion s . S ymbo l ic a nd s t ruc tu ra l a pp roache s t o a r chaeo logy h ave s t re s sed t h e d ynam ic a nd g ene ra t ive n a tu re o f s ymbo l ism a nd t h e i mpor tance o f l o ok ing n o t o n ly a t w ha t i sb e ing 3 1

p r ac t ice s t o e l uc ida te s t ra teg ie s o f s o c ia l a c t ion , s o c ia l f o rma t ion , p roduc t ion a nd r e p roduc t ion ( Ba r r e t t , 1 988 ; C onkey , 1 99 1a ) :

s o c ia l d i scou r se b e ing p l ayed o u t t h rough b u r ia l . A s s h a l l b e s hown i nt h e f o l low ing s e c t ion s , a r chaeo log ica l a gency , t h e w ay s i nw h ich a r chaeo log i s t s c hoo se t o c oncep tua l i se t h i sd i s cou r se ,p rof ound ly a f ec t so u ri n te rp re ta t ion s .

" A rcha eo log i s t s c an e nqu i re a bou t t h e w ay d i f f e r en t t y pe s o fd i scou r se m ay h ave o pe ra ted a nd b een s t r uc tu r ed b y d i f f e r en t m a t e r ia l c ond i t ion s" ( Ba r r e t t , 1 987 :4 7 1) .

4 . 4 . 1

Mo s t a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o f m o r tua ry r i tua l t h a t h ave r e cogn i sed t h e a c t ive p a r t s o f s t ra t egy a nd i d eo logy h ave c oncen t r a ted u pon i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e w ay s i nw h ich i tm ay b e m an ipu la ted t om a in ta in a nd l e g i t im i se t h e d om inance o f o ne s u b -g roup o ve r o t he r s w i th in p a s t s o c ie t ie s ( Hodde r , 1 982b ; S hank s a nd T i l ley , 1 982 ; S hennan , 1 982 ; P a rke r P ea r son , 1 9 82 ; K r is t ian sen , 1 984 ; T i l ley , 1 9 84 ) . Two d i f f e r en t Ma rx i s t -de r ived c oncep t s o f p owe r h ave h e ld a c en t ra l p l a ce i ns u ch e nqu i r ie s : p owe r t oi si n vo lved i na l s o c ia l i n t e ra c t ion , a l a g en t s h ave t h e p owe r t oa c t a nd t o e f f ec t p a r t icu la r s t ra teg ie s w i th in a nd t h rough t h e i r l i ved e nv i ronmen t s ; p owe r o ve r r e f e r s t o t h e d om ina t ion a nd c on t ro l o f c e r ta in h uman a nd m a te r ia l r e sou r ce s w h ich e nab le s c omp l iance a nd t h u s t h e a b i l i ty t o a ch ieve c e r ta in a im s t h rough t h e a gency o fo t he r s ( M i l le r a nd T i l ley , 1 984 ; S hank sa nd T i l ley , 1 9 82 ) .

C on s ide ra t ion s o f d i scou r se o r s o c ia l p r ac t ice h ave p r of ound ly a f f ec ted t h e w ay b o th g ende r a r rang emen t s a nd m o r tua ry a c t iv i t ie s c an b e c oncep tua l i sed a r chaeo log ica l ly . A s p a r t o f t h e m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s o f e x i s tenc e , m a te r ia l i t em sp l ay a n a c t ive p a r t i nt h e s t ruc tu r ing a nd r e s t ruc tu r ing o f s o c iocu l tu ra l p henomena , t h ey a r e a c t iv e i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f s o c ia l i d en t i t ie s a nd m ean ing s , a nd i ti s w i th in a nd t h rough t h e se c u l tu ra l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s p ec i f ic m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s t h a t g ende r c a tego r ie s a r e c r ea t ed , n ego t ia ted a nd p e rf o rmed . F une ra l s p r ov ide o ne s p ec if i c c u l tu r a l c on t ex t i nw h ich s o c ia l d i scou r se w a s p l ayed o u t . Mor tua ry r ema in s p r e sen t e v idence o fs o c ia l p r a c t ice , t h ey f o rmed p a r t o ft h e o pe ra t iona l m ed ia t h roug h w h ich a gency w o rked a nd t h us p l ayed a n a c t ive p a r t i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion , r e -wo rk ing a nd r e p roduc t ion o f s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e s a nd i d en t i t ie s . B u r ia l t h u s d oe s n o t r e p r e sen t am echan i s t ic r e f lec t ion o f s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion , b u t p l ay s a n a c t ive p a r t i n i t s c on s t i tu t ion . Mo r tua ry d a ta r e p r e sen t s t h e r e a l i ty c on s t ruc ted a tt h es p ec if ic m omen t / s o fb u r ia l ,a pp rop r ia te t o t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion s a nd s t ra teg ie s o f t h e f u ne ra l a g ency a s t h ey n ego t ia te t h e i rs o c ia l w o r ld .

4 . 4

A u tho r i ta t ive D i scou r se

F rom a M a rx i s t p e r spec t ive , t h e ' s ucce s s ' o f d om inan t i n d iv idua l /g roup s t ra t eg ie s r e s t s u pon t h e c ompe t en t c on t ro l a nd m an ipu la t ion o f as o c ie ty 's s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s ( Ea r le , 1 99 1 ; H odde r , 1 982b : 1 50 ) . A s s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s a nd s o c ia l a c t ion a r e r e cu r s ive ly i n t e r r e la t ed , a g en t s ' a c t ion s h ave t h e p o t en t ia l t o c hange e x i s t ing i d eo log ica l f o rm s . S oc ia l a g en t s a r e c apab le o f m an ipu la t ing o t he r p eop le 's i d ea s , b e l ief s a nd a c t ion s b y t h e i r s t ra teg ic a c t s t h rough t h e m ed ia o fm a t e r ia l c u l tu r e a nd s ymbo l i sm ( Hodde r , 1 9 82a ; B r a i thwa i t e , 1 9 82 ) . S ymbo l sm ay t h u sb ecome " i n s t rumen t s f o r ap a r t icu la r c on s t ruc t ion a nd m an ipu la t ion o ft h e s o c ia l w o r ld" ( Shank s a nd T i l ley , 1 982 : 1 3 3 ) a nd m ay p r oduce p owe rf u l s o c ia l e f f ec t i fc on t ro l led b y c ompe t en t a gen t s ( Hodde r , 1 9 82b ) . F o l low ing t h i s a r gumen t , t h o se w ho c on t ro lr e s t r ic t ed s ymbo l ic c ap i ta l m ay a c tt o' n a r row d own ' t h e e voca t iona l f i e ld , t o f o cu s p eop le t owa rd s as i ng le i n t e rp r e ta t ion i no r de rt of u r the rt h e i ro wn s t ra teg ie s . I nt h i s m anne r m o r tua ry r i t ua l h a s b een r e ga rded a s" an i mpo r tan t r e sou r ce o fp ow e ra va i lab le t ol e ade r s " ( B renne r , 1 9 88 : 1 4 9 ) b e cau se c on t ro l o f m o r tua ry r i tua l p r ov ide s ap owe r f u l m ean s o f l e g i t im i s ing s o c ia l h i e ra r ch ie s t h rough i t s a c t ive u s e . E a r le ( 1 99 1) a nd P a rke r P ea r son ( 1982 ) , a mong s t o t he r s , h ave a r gued t h a t t h i s i d ea i sp a r t icu la r ly v a l id a s e x i s t ing p r inc ip le s o f l e g i t imacy a r e t i ed t o t h e p a s t , a n ce s to r s , t h e n a tu r a l a nd s upe rna tu r a l , a nd a r e t h u s i n t ima t e ly c onnec t ed t or i t ua l sc once rn ing d ea th :

B ur ia l a sS t ra tegy

T he i d ea t h a t b u r ia l p r ac t ice s a r e " s t ruc tu r ed t h rough s ymbo l ica l ly m ean ingf u l s t ra t eg ie s" ( Hodde r , 1 9 82a : 1 0 ) n ega t e s t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e m a te r ia l p a t t e rn i n t h e g r ound m i r ro r s t h e o r gan i sa t iona l p a t t e rn , i n c lud ing s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd g ende r a r rang emen t s , o f t h e p a s t l i v ing c ommun i ty . R ecogn i t ion o f s t ra teg ic p r a c t ice , o f s o c ia l d i scou r se t h rough b u r ia l , m ean s t h a t , a s H odde r s t a te s , w h i l s t " bu r ia l s m ay b e u s ed a sp a r t o fa n i d eo logy w h ich f a i thf u l ly r e p r e sen t s . . a s pec t s o f al i v ing s o c ie ty . . i ti se qua l ly p o s s ib le t h a t t h e i d eo logy m ay b e c once rned w i th d i s to r t ing , o b scu r ing , h i d ing o r i n ve r t ing p a r t icu la r f o rm s o f s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s" ( Hodde r , 1 982b : 1 52 ) . I ti sv i ta l t o r e a l i se t h a t i ti st h e p r a c t ice s o f t h e f u ne ra l a g ency t h a t d e t e rm ine s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e i r c on s t ruc ted r e p r e sen ta t ion s w i th in t h e f une ra ry d oma in . I nl o ok ing a tb u r ia l d a ta w e a r e f a ced w i th ar e -wo rk ing a nd r e -p r e sen ta t ion o f i d en t i ty a nd s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s c on s t ruc ted a nd e xp r e s sed t h rough b u r ia l p r ac t ice i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e i d eo log ie s a nd s t ra teg ie s o f t h e f u ne r a l a g ency . R a the r t h an r e f lec t ing s o c ia l f o rm , ' f une ra l s w r i t e av e ry p a r t icu la r o r de r i n to b e ing ' . I n r e i te ra t ion t h e r ef o r e , a na ly se so fm o r tua ry d a ta n eed t of o cu s u pon t h e p r a c t ice s o ft h e f u ne ra l a gency , t ol o ok a tt h e w ay s i nw h ich a g ency o pe ra ted t h rough b u r ia l r i t e s , t oi n ve s t ig a te t h e k i nd s o fr e p r e sen ta t ion s t h a t a r e b e ing m ade , t h e ' o rde r ' t h a t i sb e ing c on s t ruc ted , i n a n a t t emp t t o e l u c ida t e t h e

" The d ead a r e . s u scep t ib le t o m an ipu la t ion b y c e r ta in g r oup s t o m a in ta in a nd e nhance t h e i r i n f luence o ve r o t he r s" ( Pa rke r P ea r son , 1 9 82 : 1 0 1) . S o c ia l s t ruc tu r e a nd p owe r r e la t ion s h av e t h u s b een a r gued t ob e m a in ta in ed a nd r e p roduced t h rough t h e e f f ec t s o f a ' d om inan t i d eo logy ' i mpo sed f r om ' a bov e ' . I na c co rdan ce w i th t h e Ma rx i s tn o t ion o fu n ive r sa l isa t ion ,d om inan tg r oup s m an ipu la te t h e e f f ec t s o f s ymbo l ic s y s t em s t o p e rpe tua te a nd y e t c oncea l s o c ia l d i v i s ion s a nd s ubo rd ina t ion , ' my s t if y ing ' o r ' m is rep r e sen t ing ' r e a l s o c io -po l i t ica l r e la t ion s t om ake m a in tenance o ft h e p r e sen t p owe r s y s t em 3 2

p rac t ica l c ommun ica t ion . I t i s t h e d i scour se b e tween a genc ies w i th v a ry ing a nd c on tes t ing i n te re s t s a nd p e rcep t ions w i th in s pec if ic h i s tor ica l a nd c u l tu ra l c on tex t s t h a t g ene ra te s s oc ia l c hange ( Swee ly , 1 999 : 3 ; G idden s , 1 984 : 1 4 16 ) . T hese r e a l isa t ion s n eces s i ta te a cknow ledgemen t o ft h e s imu l taneous e x is tence o f mu l t ip le i d eo log ies , o ft h e h e te rogeneous n a ture o fs oc ia l d i scou r se , a nd t h en o t ion t h a t

a ppea r t o b e b enef ic ia l t o a l a nd t h u s l e g i t im is ing a nd s u s ta in ing t h e e x is t ing p os i t ions o f e l i te g roup s ( Ma rx a nd E nge ls , 1 970 ; T homa s , 1 990 ; F r iedman a nd R ow land s , 1 977 ; B loch , 1 977 ; 1 986 ; G ode l ie r , 1 982 ; S ah l ins , 1 981 ; McGu i re , 1 988 ; T i l ley , 1 984 ; L eone , 1 984 ; M i l le r a nd T i l ley , 1 984 ) . D om inan t i d eo log ie s h ave b een s t a ted t o mys t if y t r ue s oc ia l r e la t ions i n t wo w ay s ; " t he d en ia l o r t r ansmu ta t ion o f c on t rad ic t ions . . [ a nd ] . t h e n a tu ra l isa t ion o f t h e p r esen t : r e if i ca t ion" ( G iddens , 1 979 : 1 93-6 ) , a nd i th a s b een a rgued t h a t t h ese i d eo log ica l f o rms m ay b e i n s t rumen ted i nb u r ia l c on tex t s t h rough ' ma sk ing ' o r ' ma rk ing ' s t ra teg ies ( Hodde r , 1 982b : 1 52 -3 ; S hanks a nd T i l ley , 1 982 ; S hennan , 1 982 ; P a rke rP ea r son , 1 984a ) .

4 . 4 .2

" a t a ny g iven t ime , v a r ious i n d iv idua ls a s w e l l a s d i f f e ren t s egmen ts w i th in a s oc ie ty a r e a l l a t temp t ing t o a s ser t t h e ir own i n te res t s" ( Swee ly , 1 999 : 1 ) . T h is s t a temen t i st r ue o f mor tua ry c on tex t s a nd McGu ire ( 1988 ) , f o r e xamp le , h a s d emons t ra ted t h e a r chaeo log ica l

H e te rogeneous D iscou r se

r e cogn i t ion o ft h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f mu l t ip le i d eo log ie s a nd a s soc ia ted s t ra teg ic p rac t ice s i mp lemen ted t h rough b u r ia l b y v a r iou s s ub -g roup s w i th in as i ng le c eme te ry p opu la t ion .

Mode ls o f a u tho r i ta t ive d i scour se s hou ld b e d i scoun ted i n f a vou r o f h egemon ic d i scou r se w h ich a low s f o r t h e c o e x is tence o f d i f f e ren t i d eo log ie s t h a t a r e u nde r c on s tan t n ego t ia t ion ( Gramsc i , 1 97 1; B eaud ry e t a l . , 1 99 1; P ayn te r a nd McGu i re , 1 991) . A be rcromb ie e t a l . ( 1980 ) a nd T homa s ( 1990 ) h ave e xpo sed t h e ' d om inan t i d eo logy t h e s is '

4 . 4 .3

' Woman t h e N ego t ia tor '

a s i n adequa te b y n o t o n ly p re sen t ing c a se s i n w h ich d om inan t i d eo log ica l s chemes h ave f a i led t o p ervade a l l

S oc ia l d i scour se i s s t i l l t o o c ommon ly c oncep tua l ised a s b e ing e xc lus ive ly c on t ro l led b y m en ( e .g . C la rk a nd B lake ,

c onsc iousnes s , b u t a l so b y c onv inc ing ly q ues t ion ing w he the r t h is w a s e ven a n a im i ni t s e lf . A s F oucau l t ( 1980 ) o bse rved , t h e who le c oncep to fi d eo logy a sa n i luso ry ' f a lse c onsc iou sne ss ' p l ace s i d eo logy i n o ppo s i t ion t o s ome th ing w h ich i sr e ga rded a s t h e ' t ru th ' , b u t i d eo logy i s ap ar t o f s oc ia l r e a l i ty . T he n o t ion t h a t a n e l i te c on t ro ls t h e k now ledge a nd v a lues o f t h e s oc ie ty t h ey d om ina te , s t ra teg ica l ly ma sk ing a u tho r i ty a nd p roduc ing a p e rva s ive w o r ld -v iew t h a t a l s ubo rd ina te s s ubsc r ibe t o , v a s t ly o ve r s imp l if ies s oc ia l d ynam ics ( Thoma s , 1 990 ) . S uch a v i ew a s sumes t h a t i d eo log ica l my s t if ica t ion t h rough a c t ive c on t ro l o f b u r ia l p rac t ice s c an b e e f f ec t ive i n as im i la r m anne r t o c oe rc ive f o rce , i mp ly ing a c yn ica l m an ipu la t ion o f p eop le a nd a lmos t m a rk ing a r e tu rn t o h o l i sm , o r S y s temne ss ' , w i th t h e s ubo rd ina te s a c t ing a nd e ven t h ink ing a nd b e l iev ing i n p re sc r ibed m anne r , ' d uped ' b y m ys t if ica t ion .

1 993 : 2 59 ) . D e sp i te r e cen t a dvance s i n t h e l i t e ra tu re t h e p l ace o fw omen a sn ego t ia to r s , l e t a l one d om ina to r s , i so f t en n o t c on temp la ted ; f i nd s w h ich wou ld h ave b een c ons ide red t o i mp ly ' h igh s t a tu s ' i ff ound w i th m a le b u r ia ls h ave o f ten b een d i scoun ted b y a r chaeo log is t s w hen a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le s , ' c h ief ly ' b u r ia ls h ave b een c l a s s if ied a s m a le d e sp i te a mb iguou s b io log ica l s ex ing , a nd f ema le r u le r s a r e f r equen t ly l a be l led a s a noma lous d e sp i te " r u l ing w omen i n c h ief doms a nd e a r ly s t a te s ( be ing ) n o t a s u ncommon a s g ene ra l t h eo r ies . w ou ld s ugges t" , e xamp les i n c lud ing t h e S i l la s t a te o f K o rea , C e l t ic s oc ie ty , e a r ly S ume r a nd e a r ly J apan ( Ne lson , 1 993 : 2 98 ; G i lman , 1 98 1 ; A rno ld , 1 991 ; T roco l l i , 1 999 ; L evy , 1 999 ) . S ure ly i t i s t ime f o r ' Woman t h e N ego t ia to r ' t o r ep lace t h e f r equen t ly a s sumed s ub juga t ion o f w omen a s ac r i t ica l f a c to r i n s t ud ies o ft h e r i se o f s t a tes ( Roh r l ich , 1 980 : 7 6 ; R app , 1 977 ; S i lve rb la t t ,

T he r e p roduc t ion o f p owe r s t ruc tu re s t h rough s t ra teg ic u se o f b u r ia l i s n o t r e duc ib le t o a n a u tho r i ta t ive d i scou r se a s i n d iv idua l a gen t s f o rm t h e i r o wn r e ad ing s o f i n s t i tu t iona l ised i d eo log ies ; ' c onsc iou s s e lves i mpu te m ean ing t or e ce ived f o rms ' ( Cohen , 1 994 : 1 46 ) . P eop le a r e n o t p a s s ive r e c ip ien t s o ft h e i r c u l tu re , t h ey a r e a c t ive i n i t s c r ea t ion t h rough s oc ia l p rac t ice . P owe r i s n o t a o ne d imens iona l e n t i ty , ac ommod i ty o r s t a t ic h i e ra rchy , b u t a p roce ss , " a d ynam ic s e t o f p rac t ice s" (Wy l ie , 1 992b : 6 2 ) , a nd t h e re i sn ow f r equen t c r i t ic ism o f mode l s o fd om ina t ion w h ich d o n o t c on s ider r e s is tance ( Foucau l t , 1 980 ; 1 981; 1 988 ; H a l l a nd J ef f er son , 1 975 ; M i l iband , 1 977 ; B ra i thwa i te , 1 984 ; B ende r , 1 985a ; 1 985b ; M i l le r e t a l . , 1 989 ; McGu ire a nd P ayn te r , 1 99 1) . C oncep t s o f p owe r , a u tho r i ty , d om ina t ion a nd s t a tus a r e mu l t id imens iona l , t h ey m ay b e c omb ined a nd v i ewed i nd i f f e ren t w ays . Men a nd w omen w i l l n o t v i ew e ach o t he r i nt h e s ame w ay t h a t t h ey v i ew t h emse lve s , j u s t a s p eop le o f d i f f e ren t ' r ank s ' w i l l v i ew s oc ia l r e la t ions d i f f e ren t ly , a nd t h ese p e rcep t ions w i l l a f f ec t t h e ir p rac t ices . P owe r r e la t ions a nd i d eo log ica l s t ruc tu res a r e c on t ingen t a nd r e la t iona l , t h e i r m ean ing s a nd t e rm s a r e c on t inua l ly b e ing c r ea ted a nd n ego t ia ted t h rough

T h is l a t te r s t a temen t s hou ld n o t b e m iscons t rued ; as h if t f r om o ne b i a s t oa no the r ( i . e . m a le s ex is t t of ema le -cen t red ) mus t b e a vo ided a nd a n a n t i -essen t ia l is t p os i t ion s hou ld b e a dop ted r e cogn is ing t h a t g ende r may n o t a lways b e au sef u l c a tego ry o f a na ly s is ( Hodde r , 1 997 ) , b u t a s af undamen ta l s t ruc tu r ing p r inc ip le g ender c an n o t b e d i scoun ted i n c ons ide ra t ion s o f p owe r s t ruc tu res . A n a r chaeo logy o f s oc ia l l i f e mus t i n co rpo ra te b o th m en a nd w omen a s a c t ive a gen t s a nd v i ew p a s t s oc ia l r e la t ions a s c u l tu ra l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s pec if ic i s sue s o f n ego t ia t ion t h rough s oc ia l d i scou r se . T he n ego t ia t ion i nr e la t ions b e tween i n d iv idua ls , b o th m en a nd w omen , h a s o f t en b een d i sm issed a s ' me re ly i n te rac t ion is t ' ( e .g . Wo lf , 1 990 : 5 91) , b u t i t i s t h is i n te rac t ion w h ich o pe ra t iona l ises a nd c ha rac te r ises p owe r c on s t ruc t ions , c r ea t ing a nd c hang ing c u l tu ra l i n s t i tu t ions , i n c lud ing g ende r a r rangemen t s , f r om ' b e low ' r a the r t h an f r om ' a bove ' . I n a g reemen t w i th many f em in is t a r chaeo log is ts , t h e p ro jec t ion o f p ower o ver o n t o p a s t s oc ie t ie s r ef lec t s a n a nd rocen t r ic c l a im " t ha t o n ly m en 's p ub l ic l a rge -sca le h i s to ry i sc ausa l ly i mpor tan t" ( Spence r Wood , 1 999 : 1 78 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r , 1 984 ) . Ab a lanced a r chaeo log ica l i n ves t iga t ion o f g ende r /powe r r e la t ions i s

1 99 1) .

3

p a r t icu la r ly v i ta l f r om t h i s v i ewpo in t a s w e a r e a l read y p r e sen ted w i th a ' ma le -on ly c au sa l ly i mpo r tan t l a rg e sca le h i s to ry ' i n t h e p r ef e r ence a nd p r eva lence o f s u ch s ub jec t m a t te r a nd a t t i tude s e v inced i n R oman l i t e ra tu r e . A n a r chaeo logy o f s o c ia l l i f e w h ich l a ck s t h eo r i sa t ion c on ce r n ing t h e n ego t ia t ion a nd s t ruc tu r ing o f g ende r a nd p ow e r r e la t ion s m ay a s w e l l t a ke t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion s p r ov id ed b y R oman l i t e ra tu r e a tf a ce -va lue . T he f a c t t h a t R oman s o c ie ty w a s p a t r ia r cha l d oe s n o t m ean t h a t w omen d i d n o t p l ay a n a c t ive p a r t i ni t s c on s t i tu t ion , r e p roduc t ion a nd t r an sf o rma t ion . Women w e r e s t i l l a c t iv e i n t h e n ego t ia t ion o f t h e i r p l ace s w i th in t h a t s o c ia l w o r ld , t h e c on s t ruc t ion , n ego t ia t ion a nd t r an sf o rma t ion o ft h e i rs e lf a nd s o c ia l i d en t i t ie s , i n c lud ing g ende r , e ven i ft h e i r a b i l i t ie s t o f r ee ly m ake l i f ec ho ice sw e r em o r e c on s t ra ined t h an t h o se o f c on t empo ra ry m a le s .

c a t ego r ie s , b u t m ay b e a c t ive ly u s ed i nt h e i r c on s t ruc t ion , n ego t ia t ion a nd r e c la s s if ica t ion . F rom t h is v i ewpo in t s o c ia l c on s t ruc t s s u ch a sg ende r a nd s t ra t if i ca t ion m u s t b e s e en t o h av e b e en m ad e a nd r e -wo rked i nt h e c eme te ry r a the r t h an r e f lec t ed ,e ven i ft h i sr e -wo rk ing i n vo lved m a in tenance . T he b u r ia l p r oce s s t h u s i n vo lve s t h e a c t iv e c on t ro l a nd m ak ing o f i d en t i t ie s . I d en t i t ie s a r e r e -wo rked a nd r e p r e s en ted b y t h e a gency o fo t he r s w ho a c t u pon t h e d ead . T o c l a r if yt h i s p o in t i ti su sef u l t or e f e rt ot h e r e a l i sa t ions o f H e r tz ( 1 960 [ 1 907 ] ) a nd V an G ennep ( 1960 [ 1 908 ] ) t h a t r i t ua l s r e p r e sen t p r oce s se s o f s e pa ra t ion a nd i n t eg r a t ion , t h ey r e la t e t op a thway s b e tw een d i f f e ren t s t a te s o f ' b e ing ' , w he the r t h i s i n c lude s s o c ia l c a tego r ie s s u ch a s s i ng le / m a r r ied , y oung /o ld , o rl i v ing /dead . P eop le m ove a c ro s s t h e s o c ia l c a t ego r ie s v i a r i t ua l s . F une ra ry r i tua l r e p r e sen t s a n i n t e rmed ia ry , ` l im inar p e r iod , at r an s i t iona ls t age i nw h ich t h e c a tego r ie s a ppea r t o d i s so lve a nd b e r e -made . T he c a t ego r ie s a nd i d en t i t ie s o f t h e l i v ing a r e r e f o rmu la ted i n to d ea th , a nd b u r ia l i n vo lve s t h e t r an sf o rma t ion o f l i ved r e la t ion sh ip s u s ing t h e d ead a s ac a tego ry . T he b u r ia l p roce s s c on s t ruc t s i d en t i ty r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e l i v ing a nd t h e d ead , a nd a n a r chaeo log ica l u nde r s tand ing o f c on s t ruc t ss u ch a ss t a tu sa nd g ende rt h rough i n ve s t iga t ion o f m o r tua ry r ema in s t h u s r e l ie s u pon i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e se c on s t ruc ted r e la t ion sh ip s w i th in s pec if i cb u r ia l c on tex t s .

R a the r t h an c oncen t ra t ing u pon g ene ra l i sed m ode l s o f d om ina t ion a nd s ubo rd ina t ion , a r cha eo log ica l e nqu i ry m u s t c on s ide r t h e i n te rac t ion a nd n ego t ia t ion b e tween m en a nd w omen w i th in s p ec if i c c u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l c on t ex t s . G ibb s s t a te s t h a t i nm any e t hnog raph ic s o c ie t ie s " g ende r d i f f e r ence s a r e t h e c au se o f c on s ide rab le t e n s ion a nd n ego t ia t ion f o r p owe r w h ich o f t en a f f ec t , a nd a r e r e p r e sen ted i n , m a te r ia l c u l tu r e p a t te r n ing " ( 1 987 : 8 0 ) . C hap t e r T h ree p r e sen t ed i n s tance s w he r e w omen 's a g ency / s t r a t eg ic p r ac t ice c an b e s e en t oe me rg e t h rough t h e c on tex t o ft h e l a t e R oman w o r ld , a nd i ti sc l ea rt h a ta s af u ndamen ta l s t ru c tu r ing p r inc ip le o f s o c ia l i n te rac t ion a nd o r gan i sa t ion , g ende r , a nd o t he r c o jo ined s o c ia l c on s t ruc t s s u ch a s a g e , s t a tu s a nd e t hn ic i ty , c a n n o t b e e xc luded f r om c on s ide ra t ion s o fs o c ia l a nd p owe rs t ruc tu r e s ( M i l le t t , 1 97 1 ; C ap lan , 1 987 ; S wee ly , 1 999 ) . P owe r i so r gan i sed a l ong m u l t ip le a xe s i n a ny s o c ie ty , a l s o c ia l a gen t s , m en a nd w omen , h ave t h e p owe r t o a c t , r e a c t a nd i n te r a c t , a nd w he the r i n ten t iona l ly o r u n in ten t iona l ly , d i r ec t ly r e la t ed t o g end e r d i f f e rence s o rn o t , v a r iou s a nd a l ter na t ive d i scou r se s m ay b e c on s tan t ly p l ayed o u t t h rough r i tua l a nd s ymbo l ic p r a c t ice s . O u rt a sk , a nd i n deed am a in a im o ft h i s s t udy , i s t o b u i ld t h eo ry c oncer n ing t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion s w e a r e p r e sen ted w i th i nm o r tua ry c on t ex t s i no r de rt og a in i n s igh t i nt ot h e s t ra teg ie s b e ing i mp lemen ted t h rough b u r ia l , t ot r y t o g a in a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s o c ia l d i scou r se b e ing p l ayed o u tw i th in t h ec eme t e r ie ss t ud ied .

4 . 5

A n e s sen t ia lp o in tt on o te i nc on s ide r a t ion s o fm o r tua ry d a ta i st h a t w e a r e n o t l o ok ing d i rec t ly a tt h e i n d iv idua l i nt h e g r av e , b u t a ts omebody e l se 's c on s t ruc t ed r e p r e sen t a t ion o f t h a t p e r son . T h i s c hap te r h a s a l r eady d i scu s sed a gen t s ' a c t ive c r ea t ion o fs e lf iden t i t ie s d u r ing l i f e , b u t p eop le c a n n o t c r ea t e t h em se lve s i n d ea th , t h ey c an n o l o ng e r t a ke c on sc iou s p a r t i n t h e p roce s s o f s o c ia l n ego t ia t ion a nd r e p roduc t ion . T he d i scou r se i nt h e c eme t e ry i sc on t ro l led b y t h e b u r ia l a g ency , i ti st h i s a gency w h ich i n ve s t s i n t h e f u ne ra l a nd t h e i r v a r iou s s t ra teg ie s a nd d ec i s ion s p e r ta in ing t ow ha t i s / i s n o t a pp rop r ia te f o r r e p r e sen ta t ion m ay p r oduc e b u r ia l f o rm s t h a t t h e d ecea sed w ou ld n o t h av e c ho sen f o r t h em se lve s . Ap e r son 's i d en t i ty i sr edef ined o rr e -wo rk ed i n d ea th a si ti sa c t ed u pon b yo t he r s . A s ' s pec if ic m omen t ' so f c u l tu r a l c r ea t ion ' b u r ia l s m ay b e u s ed t o r e p r e sen t t h e f u ne r a l a g ency 's t r ue i n t e rp r e ta t ion o fr e a l i ty a tt h a tt i me , o r m ay b e u s ed t op r oduce a n i mage o ft h e w o r ld a nd c ou ld t h u s b e i d ea l i sed , d i s to r t ed o r i n ve r ted a s p a r t o fa gency 's n ego t ia t ive s t r a teg ie s , a nd c on sequen t ly p a r t s o f t h e d e cea s ed 's l i v ed i d en t i ty s u ch a s s t a tu s o r g ende r m ay b e d r ama t ica l ly a l t e r ed i nt h e i rr e p re sen ta t ion a td ea th .

I nve s t iga t ing C eme tery D i scour se

D e sp i t er e cogn i t ion o ft h e l a ck o fd i re c tc o r r e la t ion b e tween m a te r ia l c onf igu ra t ion a nd s o c ia l f e a tu r e , m o r tua ry d a ta i s s t i l l u n ique ly u s ef u l b ecau se i t i n vo lved p u rpo sef u l t r ea tmen t a c co rded t o s p ec if i c i n d iv idua l s . T he r e i s a s t ru c tu r a l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween m o r tuar y r i t ua l a nd t h e n ego t ia t ion a nd r e p roduc t ion o fs o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion , b e tween s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion a nd t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f d ea th . B u r ia l i s m ed ia ted b y v a r iou s s t r a teg ie s a nd i t i s t h e se s t ra teg ic p r ac t ice s t h a t d e te rm ine t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween ' r ea l ' s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e i r c u l tu r a l ly c on s t ruc ted r e p r e sen ta t ion s i nt h e b u r ia l d oma in . A s s t ra teg ic p r ac t ice , b u r ia l i sa c t ive i nt h e c on s t i tu t ion o ft h e s o c ia l w o r ld , i tm ay b e u s ed a s p a r t o f t h e o n -go ing s o c ia l d i scou r se w i th in a s o c ie ty . A ny a spec t o fm o r tua ry r i t ua l m ay b e d r awn i nt o t h i s d i scou r se i nc u l tu r a l ly m ean ingf u l w ay s a nd m o r tua ry t r ea tmen t t h u s c an n o t b e s e en t o m e r e ly r e f le c t s o c ia l 3 4

Mo r tua ry r i t ua l d oe s n o t s imp ly i n vo lve t h e t r ans i t ion o ft h e d ecea sed a c ro s ss o c ia l c a tego r ie s , i ta l so p r ope l sm embe r so f t h e l i v ing c ommun i ty i nt os o c ia l t r an s i t ion s . T he d ea th o fa f am i ly m embe rm ay i n s t iga t e t h e t r an sf o rma t ion o f as pou se t o aw idow e r , aj u n io r t o as e n io r f am i ly m embe r , a nd t h e d ea th o f ap r om inen t s o c io -po l i t ica l a c to r m ay i n s t iga t e t h e r e o rgan i sa t ion o r r e -c la r if i ca t ion o f t h e r o le s , s t a tu s e s , a ff in i t ie s a nd r e la t ion s o f v a r iou s a c to r s w i th in t h e s o c ia l g r oup ( Damm , 1 9 9 1) . D ea th t h u s i n s t iga te st h e r e c r ea t ion o f a s pec t s o fs o c ia l s t ru c tu r e , a nd f u ne ra ls a r e a n i n teg r a l p a r t o ft h i s s o c ia l d i scou r se a st h ey p rov ide am ed ium t h rough w h ich t on ego t ia t ec l a im st oc e r ta in s o c ia lp o s i t ion s . B u r ia l s m ay t h u s b e v i ewed a sc u l tu ra l ly a nd s t ra teg ica l ly p r oduced r e p r e sen ta t ion s t h a t a r e a c t ive ly i mp lemen t ed i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion a nd n ego t ia t ion o ft h e s oc ia l w o r ld . Ia m n o t t r y ing t o i mp ly t h a t a l s t r a t eg ie s i n vo lved i n m o r tua ry

4 . 5 .1

p r ac t ice a r e c en te red a round n ego t ia t ion s o fs t a tus o rp owe r s t ruc tu re s a s t h is c l ea r ly u nde res t ima t e s v a ry ing c u l tu ra l v a lue s a nd a t i tudes t owa rd s d ea th ( Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf , 1 979 ) . T he i d ea o f a' p rope r ' l a y ing t or e s t o ft h e d ead i s w ide ly d i ve r se a nd may b e i nf luenced b y n ume rou s f a c to r s s u ch a s b e l ief s a bou t d ea th a nd t h e a f t e r l if e , a nd t h e w ay s i nw h ich t h e d eceased w a s s i gn if ican t t oo t he r m embe r s o f t h e s oc ia l g r oup . Any s u ch f a c to r s m ay a f f ec tt h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ead a nd b u r ia l r i t e s m ay r e p re sen t c op ing s t ra teg ie s f o r t h e g r ea t p o ten t ia l e mo t ive i mpac t u pon t h e s u rv ivo r s ; A ugu s t ine s t a ted t ha t f u ne ra ls a r e c onduc ted a s much f o r t h e s o lace o ft h e l i v ing a s f o r t h e b enef i t o ft h e d ead ( De C iv i ta te D e i 1 . 12 ; P h i lpo t t , 1 99 1 : 2 35) . D ea th i n s t iga te s b o th a n e mo t iona l a nd s t ruc tu ra l t r an s i t ion f o r t h e s u rv ivo r s t h a t i sn ego t ia ted a nd r e -wo rked t h rough mor tua ry r i tua l :

G ende rD iscou r se

A s p a r t o f s oc ia l d i scou r se , b u r ia l d epo s i t s p rov ide t h e o ppo r tun i ty f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e s t ra teg ic p r ac t ice s o fa gency , a nd p a t te rn ing e v iden t i ns uch r i tua l m ay i n d ica te t h e t ype s o f s oc ia l d i scou r se t h a t a r e b e ing p l ayed o u t w i th in s pec if ic b u r ia l c on tex t s . I th a s a l ready b een e s tab l i shed t h a t m a te r ia l r e sou rce s a r e u t i l ised a s a m ed ium t h rough w h ich g ende r a r rangemen t s a r e a r t icu la ted a nd n ego t ia ted , a nd a s am a jo r s t ruc tu r ing f o rce o f h uman s o c ia l l i f e , i ti sr e a sonab le t o a sk w he the r /how g ende r r e la t ion s m ay h ave b een d rawn i nt o t h e d i scou r se a r t icu la ted w i th in c eme te ry c on tex t s . K eep ing t o a n a n t i e s sen t ia l i s tp o s i t ion i tmu s tb e r e cogn ised t h a t g ende r i so n ly o ne o f an umbe r o f p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s o f p a t te rn ing e v iden t i na ny f u ne ra ry d oma in . V a r iou s a l ter na t ive f i e ld s o fd i scou r se m ay b e r e p re sen ted , s uch a sk i nsh ip , s ub -g roup a ff i l ia t ion , e t hn ic i ty o r s t a tus , t h ese f e a tu re s a l c on s t i tu te p a r t o fh uman i d en t i ty , a nd n ego t ia t ion t h rough b u r ia l n eed n o t h ave b een l i m i ted t oo ne v a r iab le i ni s o la t ion . T he k i nd o fd i scou r se t h a t i sb e ing n ego t ia ted m ay b e c l a r if ied i ft h e c a tego r ie s o f ' man ' a nd ' woman ' a r e r e nde red v i s ib le i n d ea th a s as t rong c or re la t ion b e tween b u r ia l p a t ter n ing a nd t h e s e xed b ody m ay h e lp t od i s t ingu i sh t h e n ego t ia t ion a nd r e p re sen ta t ion o f g ende r i d en t i t ie s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s f r om o t he r p o s s ib le s o c ia l c a tego r ie s . T h is i sw hy t h e a na ly t ica l s e c t ion o f t h is s t udy c oncen t ra te s u pon t h e e xp lo ra t ion o f s t a t i s t ica l v a r iab i l i ty i nt h et r ea tmen t o ft h e s e xed c orp se .

" The c o rpse , i t ' s p r e sen ta t ion a nd t r ea tmen t , i s d ep loyed a s as ymbo l a round w h ich t h e c once rn s o ft h e m ourne r s a r e r e f o rmu la ted" ( Ar no ld e ta l . , 1 988 : 7 ) . T he b u r ia l r i t e i s at r an sf o rma t ion , t h e b ody i st r ansf o rmed i nt oa n o b jec t o r a r tef ac t , am ean s o fs ymbo l ism , w h ich i s s ub jec t t o i d eo log ica l o b jec t if ica t ion a nd m an ipu la t ion b y t h e s u rv ivo r s , b u t t h e b ody i sa l so s t i l l a s soc ia ted w i th i t s p a s t i d en t i ty a nd t h i s m ay h ave ap r of ound a f f ec t u pon t h e t r ea tmen t i ti sa cco rded . I n t e rm s o f a gency , w e a r e n o t l o ok ing a t t h e c on sc iou s a c t ion s o f t h e b ody i t s e lf i n b u r ia l c on tex t s , b u t a t ab ody t h a t i sr emembe red i n av e ry c omp lex a nd e mo t iona l w ay a nd t h a t i su sed a sa n o b jec t o n w h ich o t he r p eop le p l ay o u t t h e i r h ope s a nd w ishe s . T he b ody i sn o t , h oweve r , s imp ly a n a r tef ac t o r n ego t ia t ive t o o l , i t h a s ah i s to ry , w i th a s soc ia t ions a nd s en t imen t s s t i l l a t tached a nd w e m ay t h us c a tch a g l imp se o f t h e b u r ied p e r son a st h e memo r ie s o ft h em m ay b e a c t ive i nt h e w ay s t h a t t h ey a r e b u r ied . T he b u r ia l d epo s i t i sa n e x t reme ly c omp lex i n te r sec t ion o f t h e m emo r ie s o f t h a t p e r son a nd w ha t t h ey h ad made t h em se lve s i nl i f e , a nd o t he r p eop le 's d e s i re s a nd w ishe s i nr e la t ion t ot h a t p e r son ; m o r tua ry d a ta p r e sen t st h e c onsequences o f ac omp lex s e t o fs t ra teg ie s , t h e m emo ry a nd c ommemo ra t ion o f as oc ia l b e ing , a nd t h e a c t ion s o n t ha t b e ing . T he re i sn o s imp le d i rec t o ne to -one l i nk b e tween t he se f a c to r s .

T he c ommon d i s t inc t ion d rawn b e tween ' s ex ' a nd ' g ende r ' h a s i n t roduced c on s ide rab le p o ten t ia l t h eo re t ica l p rob lem s i ni n ve s t iga t ions o fg ende rt h rough m or tua ry d a ta , n ame ly i n t e rm s o f h ow w e a r e t o l o ok a t g ende r v i a t h e s exed c a tego r ie s o fs ke le ta l r ema in s i fs ex a nd g ende r a r e n o t t h e s ame t h ing . Ib e l ieve t h a t t h is n a tu re :cu l tu re ( s ex :gende r ) d i s t inc t ion c an b e b y -pa s sed w hen o ne c ons ide r s b o th b i o log ica l a nd s oc ia l c ond i t ions a s c on t r ibu t ing t o t h e e ngende r ed i d en t i ty o f t h e a gen t . R ecogn i t ion o f h uman a gency h a s a lowed u s t oc ons ide r t h e w ay s i nw h ich s o c ia l a c t ion d r aw s u pon m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s , a nd h ow t h e se m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s a r e e mbedded i n s oc ia l s t ra teg ie s . I n t h e se t e rms t h e b ody i s am a te r ia l c ond i t ion , i t s p hy s ica l a t t r ibu te s a r e a l m a te r ia l c ond i t ions , b u tt h ey a r e g i ven t h e i r p a r t icu la r v a lue d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e b ody i si n hab i ted b y c on sc iou sne s s . Wha t w e a r e l o ok ing a t i s h ow t h e c on sc iou sne s s o ft h e b ody u se s i t s o wn p hy s ica l r e sou rce s , i ne f f ec t i td oe s n o t m a t te r i ft h a t b ody w a s m a le o r f ema le , w ha t m a t te r s i st h a t c on sc iou s ly t ho se b od ies w e re m ade t o h ave p a r t icu la rr o le s , v a lue s , s t a tu ses a nd c a tego r ie s b y t h e i r o wn i n hab i ta t ion . G ende r i d en t i t ies a ppea r a s t h e w ay t h e s e xua l b ody i sl i ved a nd r e -wo rked t h rough s e t s o fc u l tu ra l a nd m a te r ia l p a rame te r s d u r ing l i f e . I n d ea th t h i s r e w o rk ing o f i d en t i t ie s i su nde r taken b y t h e f une ra l a gency a nd w ha t i si mpor tan t i sw ha t t h a t a gency i sd o ing i ni t s r e w o rk ing o ft h e s exed b ody .

T h i s w o rk t r ies t o u nde r s tand b u r ia l p rac t ice s f r om t h e p a r t icu la r p e r spec t ive o f t h e d i f f e ren t s t ra t eg ie s a pp l ied t o d i spo sa l . A s b u r ia l i s a c t ive i n t h e c ons t i tu t ion o f s o c ia l l i f e a nd i n vo lve s t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f i d en t i ty r e la t ion sh ips , w e c an a sk : H ow a r e t h ese c ommun i t ie s b e ing r e p r e sen ted / iden t if ied i n d ea th? I s t h e re e v idence f o r r e g iona l v a r ia t ion i ns t ra teg ic p r ac t ice t h rough b u r ia l? C an w e s e e d i f f e ren t l e ve ls o f a gency a tw o rk? Wha t k i nd s o f r e p r e sen ta t ions a r e b e ing m ade? Wha t k i nd s o f d i scou r se a r e b e ing p layed o u t? I sg ende r b e ing o ve r -w r i t ten b y a b r oade r i d en t i ty , s uch a s f am i ly o r c l a s s? T h is s t udy d oe s n o t a temp t t o c omp rehen s ive ly a n swe r a l t h e se q ue s t ion s , b u t i td oe s a im t od emon s t ra te t h a t t h ey a r e w o r th a sk ing , t o h e lp t o b u i ld a n u nde r s tand ing o f R omano -B r i t ish b u r ia l p r a c t ice s a nd a l so a n a r chaeo logy o fd ea th a nd g ende r . B y t a k ing l a te R omano -Br i t ish i n huma t ion r i t e s a s ac a se , t h is s t udy e xp lo re s h ow e ngende red r e la t ion sh ip s m ay h ave b een r e -wo rked a t d ea th a nd t h e s o c ia l s t ra teg ie s i n vo lved i n t h o se r e -wo rk ing s , h ow f a r w e c an t r ace t h e l i nk b e tween l i v ed i d en t i t ie sa nd t h e i rr e p re s en ta t ion s i nd ea th .

Mov ing a way f r om t h e s ex /gende r d i s t inc t ion w e a r e f a ced w i th a no the r p e rp lex ing p rob lem . Ia m i n te re s ted i n t h e w ay s i n w h ich a gency w o rked t h rough t h e m ed ium o f f u ne ra l s , c once rned w i th w ha t o ne g roup o f p eop le ( t he m ou rne r s )d ot oa no the rg roup ( t he d ead ) , c ons ide r ing h ow a b ody t h a t h a s a h i s to ry i s r e ca tego r ised a nd p o s s ib ly e ngende r ed i nd ea th . T h i s t ype o fa pp roach r e cogn i se s t h a t a l though g ende r i ss t ruc tu red b y t h e v a r iou s d i scou r se s o f m en a nd w omen , a l though s oc ia l a gen t s a r e a c t ive i nt h e 3 5

c r ea t ion a nd r e c rea t ion o f t h e i r s o c ia l w o r ld a nd t h e n ego t ia t ion o fg ende r i d en t i t ie s a nd r e la t ion s i nl i f e , t h e f a c t t h a tt h e b ody i sa c ted u pon b y o t he r s i nd ea th m ean st h a t w e a r e l o ok ing a t ac r ea ted i mage . T he c on s t ruc ted r e -wo rk ing o fg ende r i d en t i t ie s i nb u r ia l m ay i n vo lve m a in tenance a nd i fs t rong ly a f f ec t ed b y t h e m emo r ie s o f t h e i d en t i t ie s t h e d ec ea sed h ad c r ea ted f o rt h em s e lve sd u r ing l i f e , m ay p r e sen t u s w i th a n i mage t h a t i sn o t t o o f a r r emoved f r om t h a t p e r son 's l i ved r e a l i ty . H oweve r , g ende r d i s t inc t ion s i n b u r ia l m ay n o t b e a r t icu la ted i nt h e s ame m anne r a s t h ey w e r e w i th in t h e l i v ing c ommun i ty , ' f une ra l s w r i t e a p a r t icu la r o r d e r i n to b e ing ' , a nd r e p r e sen ta t ion s m ay r e f e r t o w ha t t h e a g ency w i shed t o e xp r e s s a bou t g ende r w h ich m ay h ave b een f a r r emoved f r om t h e d ecea sed 's o wn p e r cep t ion o fh i s o rh e ro wn g ende r i d en t i ty . I fw omen w e r e c on s i s ten t ly b u r ied b y m en , f o r e xamp le , w e m ay b e p r e s en ted w i th a n i d ea l ised r e p r e sen ta t ion o f ' womanhood ' a nd g ende r r e la t ion s , a s i s c l ea r ly t h e c a se i n c l a s s ica l l i t e r a tu r e . A na ly se s o f b u r ia l d a ta m u s t r e cogn i se t h e s t ra t eg ic n a tu r e o f t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion s w e a r e p r ov ided w i th , c on s ide r a t ion m u s t b e g i ven t ow ho se a c t ion s w e a r e l o ok ing a ta nd w ha t t h e s t ra teg ie s b e ing i mp lemen t ed , t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion s b e ing m ade , m ay t e l l u s a bou t t h e o n -go ing g end e r / soc ia l d i scou r se w i th in t h e s o c ie ty .

4 . 5 .2

R ep r e sen ta t ion i nD ea th : AL a te R oman C on tex t

A s o u t l ined i nC hap te r T h r ee , t e x tua l s ou r ce s i n d ica t e t h a t R oman w omen 's c apa c i t ie s f o r i n dependen t a c t ion , s e lf d e t e rm ina t ion o f l i f e -cho ice s a nd p owe r s o f p ub l ic e xp r e s s ion w e r e l i m i ted d u r ing t h e l a te R oman p e r iod i n c ompa r i son w i th c on tempo r a ry m a le s . I f i tc a n b e p o s tu la ted t h a t w omen i n R oman B r i ta in w e r e s ub jec t t o s im i la rt y pe s o fr e s t r ic t ion s , i ti sw o r th c on s ide ra t ion t h a t a s f u ne r a l s a r e p ub l ic e ven t s , w omen m ay a l so h ave b een r e s t r ic ted i nt h e i r a b i l i t ie s t o e xp r e s s t h e i r s e n t imen t s a nd c a r ry o u t t h e i r w i she s i n d ea th r i t ua l s , b o th i n t e rm s o f d e te rm in ing a nd u nder tak ing t h e b u r ia l t r ea tmen t o f o t h e r s , o r c on t r ibu t ing t o t h e a u tho r ing o f t h e i r o wn f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t v i a t e s t amen t s . We r e w omen 's a b i l i t ie s t oc on s t ruc t i d en t i t ie s i nd ea th e qu iva len t t ot h o se o fm en? T he s o u r ce s t e l l u s t h a t R oman w omen 's o ff ic ia l m ou r n ing p e r iod s f o rh u sband s a nd c h i ld r en w e r e l i m i ted ( S eneca , O n C on so la t ion 1 6 ; S he l ton , 1 988 ; L e fkow i tz a nd F an t , 1 9 82 : 1 40 ) , a nd w h i l s t t h e a im o fs u ch l e g i s la t ion m ay h ave b een t op r even td ea th f r om h i nd e r ing ar e -ma r r iage , i tn one the le s s i n d ica te s t h a t s ome r e s t r ic t ion s w e r e i mpo sed r e ga rd ing a t l e a s to ne a r ea o ff ema le p ub l ic e xp r e s s ion c once r n ing d ea th . A lso , U lp ian ( D ige s t 1 .7 .4 ) s t a te s t h a t i fp r o spec t iv e h e i r s r e f u s ed t op a r t ic ipa t e i nt h e b u r ia l o ft h et e s ta to r , t h es on s o f t h e d ecea sed s hou ld u nde r take t h e f u ne ra l a r rang emen t s a c co rd ing t o f i l ia l d u ty ( Sa i le r a nd S haw , 1 9 84 : 1 26 ) . F une r a ry a c t iv i ty , h oweve r , d o e s n o t f i t n ea t ly i n t o t h e p ub l ic /p r iva te d i cho tomy . F une ra l s a r e p ub l ic a f f a i r s , c e remon ie s l i ke ly v i ewed b y o n looke r s , a nd t omb s tone s p r ov id ing p ub l ic s t a temen t s f o r a l t os e e , b u t t h e d ea th o fa r e la t iv e i sa l so a n i n tense ly p r iva te a f f a i r i n t r in s ic t oh ome a nd f am i ly l i f e a nd t h u s a l so t h o rough ly e n t r enched w i th in t h ep r oc la imed f ema le s phe r e . A l though t h e r e i s n o s u rv iv ing d e ta i led a c coun t o f a p r iva te R oman f u ne ra l , i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r u nde r tak ing a r r ang emen t s g ene r a l ly f e l l u pon t h e h u sband /w if e /he i r o f t h e d ecea sed , a nd w omen 's 3 6

i n vo lv emen t i n s u ch a c t iv i t ie s i se v idenced b y av a r ie ty o f s o u r ce s . A l la son Jone s ( 1 989 : 1 44 145 ) s ugge s t s t h a t w omen w ou ld h ave p r epa red t h e f e a s t sh e ld b ef o r e a nd a f te r t h e c e r emony a nd t h a t t h e w ho le f am i ly w ou ld h ave a t t end ed p i cn ic s a t t h e t omb d u r ing t r ad i t iona l f e s t iva l s . S uch f e a s t ing i sa ppa r en t i n R ome ( Toynbee a nd Wa rd P e rk in s , 1 9 56 ) a nd i nB r i ta in i se v idenced b y p i pe -bu r ia l s a nd t omb s tone d ep ic t ion s , w h ich n o tab ly p o r t ray w omen r e c l in ing a ts u ch o cca s ion s (Wh ee le r , 1 929 ; C IL X I .5047 ; H opk in s , 1 9 83 ) . I n deed H ope ( 1 997 : 2 54 )h a s d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o f s u rv iv ing B r i t i sh t o tenmah l s t e lae c ommemo r a t e w omen a nd /o rc h i ld r en . T he p opu la r i ty o f c o -ope ra t ive b u r ia l c l ub s a c ro s s t h e Emp i r e e xpo se s ag ene r a l R oman c oncer n f o r ' r e spec tab le ' o r' d ecen t ' t r ea tmen t a td ea th . I th a s b een a r gued t h a t s u ch c l ub s u nd er took t h e r o le s t h a t k i n sh ip a nd p a t ronag e w ou ld h ave f u lf i l led ( Hopk in s , 1 983 : 2 11 -2 17 ) , a nd A l la son Jone s ( 1 989 ) s u gg e s t s t h a t s ome u nma r r ied R omano -B r i t i sh w omen m ay h ave j o ined f unera t i c ium c o l leg ium t oe n su r e t h a t t h ey w ou ld r e ce ive a' p rope r ' b u r ia l . S uch c l ub s m ay p rov ide u sw i th i n s tance s o fa gency w o rk ing a t ad i f f e r en t l e ve l t h an t h a t o f f am i ly m embe r s , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h ey m ay h av e r e gu la r i sed t h e f o rma t o fm o r tua ry t r e a tmen t f o r t h e i r m embe r s , p e rhap s c on s t ruc t ing s u b -g roup i d en t i ty a t d ea th , b u t i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t a ss u ch c l ub s a ppa r en t ly h e ld r e gu la r m ee t ing s o fs o c ia l c ha r a c t e r , p eop le m ay h ave e xp r e s sed t h e i r p e r sona l w i she s c once r n ing b u r ia l t r ea tmen t t of e l low m embe r s . D ixon ( 1 988 ) s t a t e s t h a t c l ub m embe r s c e leb ra ted t h e b i r thday s o fd ecea sed f r i end s , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e m emo r y o f t h e d ecea sed 's i d en t i ty w a s c a r r ied a nd c ommemo r a t ed p a s t d ea th , a nd i ti sp l au s ib le t h a t t h e se m emo r ie s c ou ld h ave i n f luenced t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h e d ecea sed i n f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t . A s a l r eady s t r e s sed , h oweve r , o u r i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f s u ch r e p r e sen ta t ion s m u s t r ema in c au t iou s a s t h e f u ne ra l a g ency 's c on s t ru c t ion o f i d en t i t ie s i n d e a th r i t ua l m ay h av e b e en i nf luenced b y v a r iou s o t h e r s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s a nd m o t iv e s . D i scu s s ion o f t e x tua l a nd i c onog raph ic e v idence f r om t omb s tone sh e lp st oi l u s t ra t et h is p o in t . Wh i l s t n o f u ne r a ry i n sc r ip t ion s a r e e v iden t f r om t h e l a t e R omano -B r i t i sh c eme te r ie s s t ud ied h e r e , c on s ide ra t ion o f s u ch s ou r ce s a s f o rm ing a p a r t o f r e p r e sen ta t ion a td e a th c l ea r ly e xpo s e s t h e p r ob lem s w e f a ce i nd ec iphe r ing a nd u nde r s tand ing p a t t e rn s i nb u r ia l d a ta . I ft h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f t omb s tone r e p r e sen ta t ion s t o t h e a c tua l l i f e s ty le s a nd a c t iv i t ie s o fw omen b u r ied c a n b e f ound t ob e q ue s t ionab le , t h en t h es ame m ay b ep o s tu la t ed f o ro t h e rf o rm s o fm o r tua ry d a ta . T he d r aw ing o fp a ra l le l s b e twe en r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f w omen o n t omb s tone s a nd i n c l a s s ica l l i t e ra tu r e m ay s ugge s t t h a t o t he r f o rms o f b u r ia l t r ea tm en t / r ep r e sen t a t ion m ay a l so h av e r e -wo rked g ende r r e la t ion s a nd i d en t i t ie s i n a c co rdance w i th t h e p r eva len t e l i te m a le i mag e o f t h e i d ea l i s t ic m a t rona . T ak ing f a b r ic -wo rk ing a s a n e xamp le , t h e i d ea l o f t h e d ome s t ic -o r ien t ed m a t rona a n d p ub l ic /dome s t ic s e xua l d i v i s ion o ft a sk s i nl i t e ra ry s ou r ce si s c l ea r ly r e p r e sen t ed o nR oman t omb s tone sf r om v a r iou sp a r t s o f t h e Emp i r e . Women a r e r e pea ted ly c ommended f o r s p inn ing a nd w eav ing ( I LS 8 393 ; 8 402 ) , t h e s e pu lch r a l i n sc r ip t ion o f C o r ne l ia s t a t e s t h a t ' s he m ade w oo l ' ( C IL 1 . 2 .12 11) a nd n ume rou s d ep ic t ions a nd i n sc r ip t ion s o n w omen 's t omb s ton e s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th f a b r ic -mak ing p a raphe r na l ia a n d i mage s o f d ome s t ic d u ty ( e .g . R eg ina , S ou th S h ie ld s ; A l la son Jone s , 1 9 89 : 2 5 ) . Wae lkens ( 1 977 :

2 77 ) d i scu sse s h u sband a nd w if e s ymbo l s p a i red t oge the ro n t ombs tones f r om R oman A s ia M ino r w h ich p resen t a g ende red d i v is ion o f r o le s i n v i sua l f o rm . Women a r e c ommon ly r e p r esen ted w i th s p ind le s , w oo l -ba ske t s a nd k eys , e vok ing i mages o f d ome s t ic d u ty , w h i ls t i n

t omb s tone s i n d ica te t h a t t h e d ecea sed h ad f une ra l a r rangemen t s ( R IB 1 4 , 2 33 , 6 75 , 9 31) , a nd s ome p eop le h ad t omb s a nd s t one s c ons t ruc ted w h i ls t s t i l l a l ive , s uch

m ade t h e ir o wn 6 78 , 6 88 , 8 64 , c ommemo ra t ive a s L . A u re l ius

Me rcu r ia l i s a tY o rk ( A l la son Jone s , 1 989 ) . T he c ons t ruc t ion o f a n te -mor tem m emo r ia ls w a s r epo r ted ly c ommon i n t h e R oman w o r ld , A ugu s tu s f o r e xamp le c omm iss ioned t h e b u i ld ing o f h i s o wn t omb i n 2 8 BC a nd d i ed i n AD 1 4 ( Sue ton iu s , A ugus tu s 1 00 ) , b u t a cco rd ing t o H ope ( 1997 : 2 51) , s uch p r e though t a nd p repa ra t ion a r e r a re ly a t te s ted i n B r i t ish e p ig raphy .

c on t ra s t m en a r e f r equen t ly a s soc ia ted w i th s c ro l ls , t a b le t s , c ons t ruc t ion m a ter ia l s , t o o ls a nd l i ve s tock , e vok ing c onnec t ion s w i th s cho la r sh ip a nd o ccupa t iona l i d en t i ty . D iv is ion i ng ende r i d eo logy c an a l so b e s e en i nt h e d i f f e ren t c ho ice s o fm y ths f o r i n c lus ion o n s a rcophag i p opu la r f r om t h e f i r s t t ot h ird c en tu r ies AD i nR ome . T he i c onog raphy o f w omen 's s a rcophag i c oncen t ra te s u pon V enu s , H yge ia , D iana a nd C e re s o r S u I la , r e spec t ive ly r e p re sen t ing l o ve a nd b eau ty , h ea l th , v i rg in i ty a nd c ou rage , a nd f e r t i l i ty , w h i ls t t h a t o f m en e mpha s ise s Ma r s , Me rcu ry a nd H e rcu les , a nd t h us w a r , m oney -mak ing a nd s t reng th ( Fan tham e ta l . , 1 994 : 3 70 ) . Wh i l s t t h e u t i l isa t ion o ft h ese p a r t icu la r e xamp les o f i c onog raphy w a s l a rge ly l o ca l ised t oR ome , F an tham e ta l . ( 1994 : 3 75) s t a te t h a t d u r ing t h e t h i rd c en tu ry t omb s tone s , i n sc r ip t ion s , l i t e ra tu re , r e l ief s a nd o t he r t e s t imon ia f o r p rov inc ia l w omen r ema ined " f i rm ly r oo ted i n ag ende red i d eo logy a nd d i v is ion o fl a bou r" .

I ti sp o s s ib le , h oweve r , t h a t R oman w omen 's a b i l i t ie s t o s t a te t h e i r p ref e rence s w e re s omewha t r e s t r ic ted a s u n t i l H ad r ian i tw a s av e ry c omp l ica ted p rocedu re f o r w omen t o make t e s tamen t s , af r eeborn woman h av ing t o u nde rgo ac oemp t io i n vo lv ing a n o t iona l s a le t h a t c u t t h e t i e s w i th h e r f am i ly o fo r ig in ( Ga iu s , I n s t i tu te s 1 . 157 , 1 71; G a rdne r , 1 986 : 1 ; 1 67 ) . T h i s s i tua t ion a ppea r s t oh ave e a sed d u r ing t h e s e cond c en tu ry AD w hen women s e em t o h ave b ecome i n c rea s ing ly r e cogn ised a s m embe r s o ft h e i r c on juga l r a the r t h an a gna t ic f am i l ie s ( Pome roy , 1 976 ; R awson , 1 991; C an ta re l la , 1 987 ; C a rcop ino , 1 964 ) b u t u nde r R oman l aw , d esp i te i t sg radua l e r o s ion , g ua rd iansh ip w a s t h eo re t ica l ly i n f o rce u n t i l t h e l a te t h ird -e a r ly f ou r th c en tury a nd s o m a le s anc t ion m ay h ave b een r e qu is i te t o t h e p roduc t ion o f w omen 's t e s tamen t s u n t i l t h is t ime a nd w e h ave n o w ay o f k now ing h ow t h is c ou ld h ave a f f ec ted t h e ir i n s t ruc t ions . A ga in t h e re i sd ange r i na s sum ing ap a ra l le l w i th t h e B r i t ish p rov ince s , b u t i td oe s s e em p os s ib le t h a t w omen 's i n pu t c oncern ing t h e i r o wn r e p resen ta t ions a t d ea th m ay h ave b een mo re l i m i ted t h an t h a to fc on tempo ra ry ma les .

I n scr ip t ions m ay b e s e en a s p roc lama t ions o f s ucces s , a s s uch t h ey c an n o t b e e xpec ted t o ' t e l l t h e w ho le t r u th ' a nd e u log ies a r e u n l ike ly t o d we l l u pon p e rce ived s hor tcom ing s o r r e s is tance t o c onven t ion . Ih ave a l ready d emons t ra ted t h a t s ome w omen 's p rac t ices m ay b e s e en t o e me rge a s c on t rad ic to ry t o t h e i r l i t e ra ry r ep re sen ta t ion s a nd i ti sq u i te p o ss ib le t h a t r epre sen ta t ions o n t omb s tone s m ay l i kew ise p rov ide u s w i th a n i d ea l ised ' v e r s ion o fr e a l i ty ' c ons t ruc ted a t b u r ia l . I n as t udy o f t omb s tone s f r om R oman B r i ta in H ope a r gued t ha t " t he f une ra ry r e co rd h a s at e ndency t o i n ver t r e a l i ty r a the rt h an t or ef lec t i t " ( 1997 : 2 58 ) a nd t h u s i f o ne w a s t ot a ke t h e m a t ron ly p ra ise e v inced o n t ombs tones

I n t h e p rov inces t h e re i sa l so t h e m a t te r o f c i t izensh ip t o c on tend w i th , a s o n ly f r ee c i t izen s c ou ld o f f ic ia l ly make w i l l s u nde r R oman l aw . I n t h is c a se B r i t ish p eop le 's a b i l i t ie s t o l e ave t e s tamen t s m ay h ave i n c rea sed w i th t h e c i t izensh ip e d ic t i nt h e e a r ly t h i rd c en tury , b u t i ti su nc lea r w he the r t h is w ou ld h ave p rac t ica l ly i n c rea sed t h e

a s e v idence o fa c tua l s oc ia l p rac t ice w e c ou ld r e ach a v e ry d i s tor ted v i ew . T omb s tone i n sc r ip t ions a nd i c onog raphy , a l ong w i th a ny o t he r a spec t o f b u r ia l r i te s , a r e ' o the r p eop le 's ' c ons t ruc t s a nd a s s uch m ay b e u sed t op roduce a n i mage t h a t may b e f a r r emoved f r om t h e r ea l i ty o f t h e d ecea sed p e r son 's p a s t p e rcep t ion s o ft h e i r o wn l i ves , t h e ir v a lues , a nd t h e ir l i ved g ende r i d en t i ty . T he t e rm ' l ived mos t d u t if u l ly ' , f o r e xamp le , w a s u s ed mo s t o f t en t o r e f e r t o w ive so fm uch loved f r eedwomen ( A l la son Jones , 1 989 : 2 2 ) a nd t h us s e ems t oh ave b een mo re c oncerned w i th ' p rope r ' a nd c onven t iona l p h ra seo logy r a the r t h an p rov id ing a r e a l i s t ic a ccoun t o f t h e d ecea sed p e r son 's l i f es ty le a nd a t t i tude s . Of c ou r se t h is m ay a l so a pp ly t o e p i taphs o f R omano -Br i t ish m a le s a s n umerou s w ives e r ec ted t omb s tones t ot h e i r h usband s i nt h e p rov ince . D ixon ( 1988 ) s t a te s t h a t many e p i taphs t e nd t of o l low s e t f o rmu lae w i th a

p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r w omen . I ti se x t reme ly d i f f icu l t t o e ven s pecu la te a bou t t h e s i tua t ion f o r t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e R omano -Br i t ish p opu lace , t h e p r epa ra t ion o f aw i l l s ugges ts mo re i n vo lvemen t f r om t h e h i ghe r a nd l i t e ra te c l a sses , e ven i fm any p eop le h ad p roduced w i l ls t h ey w i l l n o t n ece ssa r i ly h ave p rov ided c l ea r s pec if ica t ions c oncern ing f une rary a r rangemen t s , a nd n o a c tua l w i l ls s u rv ive f r om t h e p rov ince . T he re i s ,h oweve r , s ome e v idence t h a t w i l ls w e re p roduced ; 5o f t h e 3 77 R omano -B r i t ish f une ra ry i n sc r ip t ions s t ud ied b y R aybou ld ( 1999 ) d i rec t ly r e f e rt o aw i l l ( R IB 9 , 1 08 , 1 2 1 , 2 0 1 , 2 57 ) , a nd i ti ss ugges ted t h a t t h e a ppo in tmen t o fa n h e i r i si n d ica t ive o ft h e e x is tence o f aw i l l , ' h e ir (s ) ' b e ing n amed o n 5 0 o ft h ese t omb s tone s . T e s t imon ia l s pec if ica t ions may p rov ide u s w i th o ne w ay o fa cces s ing s ome d eg ree o f' s e lf r e p re sen ta t ion ' i nd ea th , b u t t h is i sl i ke ly t or e la te t oo n ly a m ino r i ty o ft h e p opu la t ion , t h e re w ou ld n o t g enera l ly b e a w ay o fd i f f e ren t ia t ing b e tween b u r ia l t r ea tmen t s p rev ious ly d ef ined b y t h e d ecea sed a nd t ho se t h a t w e re n o t , a nd n o m a t te rh ow c l ea r ly s pec if ied t h e re i so bv iou s ly n o g ua ran tee t h a t t h e d ecea sed 's w ishe s w e re i n f a c t c ar r ied o u t ( e .g . P l iny , L e t ter s V 1 .10 ; H ope , 1 997 ) .

l i m i ted s t ock o fc onven t ions a nd t h e e ven tua l e p i taph m ay t h u s o n ly h ave at e nuou s c onnec t ion w i th t h e w ishe s o ft h e b e reaved . O ne w ay i nw h ich w e m ay g a in ac l ose r i mp ress ion o ft h e d ecea sed 's l i ved i d en t i ty i si ft h ey o u t l ined t h e ir p ref er red f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t i n t e s tamen ts a nd t hu s t o s ome e x ten t a u tho red t h e ir o wn r e p resen ta t ion a td ea th . P e t ron ius ( Sa tyr 7 1 ) d e scr ibes T r ima lch io 's d i rec t ions f o r t h e p repa ra t ion o f h i s monumen t , p rov id ing v i v id d e ta i l o fp r ef er red l i f e scene d ep ic t ions a nd d i c ta t ing h i s o wn e p i taph , a nd a l though a l i t e rary a ccoun t t h is m ay b e i n d ica t ive o f s ome p eop le 's p rac t ices ( Sa i le r a nd S haw , 1 984 ) . A cco rd ing t o R aybou ld ( 1999 : 1 03) s ome e xp ress ion s o n R omano -Br i t ish

Aw oman b u r ied w i th s p ind le -who r ls a nd p or t rayed o n h e r t omb s tone w i th a s sor ted f a b r ic -mak ing p a rapher na l ia may r e p resen t ac ons t ruc ted i d ea l ised i mage o f h e r d omes t ic f ema le r o le . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h is w oman m ay h ave 3 7

e n joyed s u ch a c t iv i t ie s w h i l s ta l ive , t h i s m emo ry c ou ld h ave b een c a r r ied o ve r i nt o h e r r e p re sen ta t ion a td ea th , o r s h e m ay h ave s p ec if ied t h a t s he w ished t o b e b u r ied i n t h i s m anne r . A l la son Jone s ( 1989 ) c oncede s t h a t t h e b e l ief s o f t h e s u rv iv ing p a r tne r c ou ld ' o cca s iona l ly o ver r ide ' t h ose o f t h e d ecea sed , p a r t icu la r ly i nm ixed m a r r iage s , a nd p rov ide s t h e e xamp le o f B r i t i sh R eg ina w ho se t omb s tone r e semb le s t h o se o fP a lmy rene w omen , r ef l ec t ing h e r h u sband B a ra te s ' o r ig ins r a the r t h an h e r f e l low C a tuve l lan ian s ( R IB 1 065 ) . I t c ou ld b e t h a t i na cco rdance w i th B a ra te s ' w i she s R eg ina 's t omb s tone m ay b e f a r r emoved f r om p rov id ing a n i d ea o f h e r o wn a t t i tude s , b u t a l te rna t ive ly s h e c ou ld h ave a dop ted h i s ' way s ' i n l i f e . D ec iphe r ing s uch r ep re sen ta t ions i s c l ea r ly a n e x t r eme ly c omp lex t a sk . Wha t i sc l ea r , h oweve r , i st h a tp eop le c an n o ta u tho rt h e i r o wn b u r ia l t r ea tmen t a f te r d ea th , a nd t h e r e p re sen ta t ion s w e h ave a cce s s t o w e r e u l t ima te ly p u rpo sef u l ly p l aced b y t h e f u ne ra l a gency . l ti s t h e w i she s a nd d e s i r e s , t h e s t ra teg ie s o f t h i s a gency t h a t u l t ima te ly d e te rm ine t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e r e p re sen ta t ions m ade a nd s oc ia l r e a l i ty . l t i s i n te re s t ing a nd i mpo r tan t t o n o te h e re t h a t a lmo s t a l s u rv iv ing t omb s tone i n sc r ip t ion s f r om R ome f e a tu re b o th t h e n ame o f t h e d ecea sed a nd t h a t o ft h e c ommemo ra to r , a nd H opk in s ( 1983) h a s s t a ted t h a t f r om a n a dm i t ted ly s ma l l a nd a r b i t ra r i ly d r awn s amp le , 2 3% o f c a se s m a rked t h e c ommemo ra to r 's n ame m o re p rom inen t ly . T h i s p o in t c l ea r ly e xpo se s t h e v a l id i ty o f a sk ing j u s t w ho w e a r e l o ok ing a tw hen s t udy ing f u ne ra ry d a ta . Wha t w e n eed t o c oncen t ra te o n i sw ha t k i nd s o f i d en t i t ie s a r e b e ing c r ea ted i nt h e f u ne ra ry d oma in , w ha t k i nd s o f d i scou r se a r e b e ing p l ayed o u t , w ho i sd o ing i t ,a nd w ho m ay h ave b ene f i ted s t ra teg ica l ly .

3 8

CHAPTER 5

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL REPRESENTAT IONS OF THE CORPSE

A g e b u r ia l s p rov ide s a' t yp ica l ' e xamp le i nt h a t d e sp i te t h e ' r a re p r e se rva t ion ' o fs k e le ton s h e a s ser ted t h a t i tw a s s t i l l " po s s ib le t o d e term ine t h e s e x o f m o s t o ft h e d ecea sed b y m eans o f t h e c omb ina t ion s o f t h e a ccompany ing a r tef ac t t y pe s" . Ma le s w e re a s sumed t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th a n a s so r tmen t o f w eapon s , a nd w omen w i th e l abo ra te j ewe l le ry . I n s ome p ape r s s uch a s sump t ion s a r e n o t e ven l i m i ted t o t h e s ame c l a s s o f a r tef ac t , s u ch a s ' swo rd s f o r m a le s ' , b u t a r e e x tended t o e ncompa s s i t ems o f s im i la r s hape ( e .g . s wo rd s / f i le s , H od son , 1 977 : 3 97 ) . T he a pp l ica t ion o ft h is a s sumed a r tef a c t d i cho tomy p roduced a c l ea r i mba lance i n s e x r a t io s f o r b o th c i ted e xamp le s . H od son ( 1977 : 4 0 1) p r ef e r red t op ropo se " po s s ib le e xcu ses " t o e xp la in t h is i mba lance r a the r t h an e n t er ta in ing d oub t a bou t t h e m a le /f ema le d i cho tomy . I t mu s t b e s t a ted t h a t t h e a c cep tance o fd emog raph ic a noma l ie st om ake t h ej ob e a s ie r i sh a rd ly a s ound b a s is f o r s oc ia l i n f e r ence a nd t h a t t h is m e thodo logy e xemp l if ie s o ne w ay i n w h ich g ende r i sr e w r i t ten u pon t h e c o rp se b y a r chaeo log i s t s w ho c hoo se t o a ccep t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion w h ich f i t s t h e i r p r e -expec ta t ion s w i thou ta cknow ledg ing t h e i ro wn a s sump t ion s .

We t u rn n ow t o ad i f f e r en t k i nd o f r e p r e sen ta t ion , t h a t p roduced b y a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s , a nd w i th i t t h e b eg inn ing o f m y a na ly t ica l p u r su i t o f g ende r f r om t h e s e lec ted R omano -Br i t ish c eme te ry p opu la t ion s . I a m c once rned w i th t h e w ay s a r chaeo log ica l a gency a c t s u pon t h e m a te r ia l t o r e -w r i te g ende r i d en t i t ie s u pon t h e b ody t h rough s ke le ta l a na lys is . T h i s c hap te r b eg in s b y c ons ide r ing t h e f i r s t s t ep i n t h is a r chaeo log ica l r e e s tab l i shmen t o f g ende r , i . e . t h e e xpec ta t ion t h a t t h e p hys ica l b ody w i l l a ppea r a s b i o log ica l ly ' s exed ' , a nd d i scu s se st h ew ay s i nw h ich w e b r ing t h i s s e x ing i nt ob e ing , b o th t h rough a s sump t ion s r ega rd ing o b jec t a s soc ia t ion a nd a s sump t ion s r e ga rd ing s e xua l d imo rph ism . A t ten t ion t h en t u r ns t owa rd s t h e h i s to ry o ft h e b ody , i nt e rms o ft i me l i ved a nd e v idence f o rt r ea tmen t /ac t iv i t ie s . S ke le ta l r ema in s o nce f o rmed p a r t o f t h e p hy s ica l b ody i t s e lf , a nd b i og raphy , i n m any w ay s , w a s w r i t ten o n t o t h e b ody . A c ompa ra t ive s t udy o fs e x re la ted e v idence f o r p a t tern s o f l i f e a nd d ea th a c ro s s t h e c hosen s i te s i su nde r taken v i a t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f d emog raph ic p ro f i le s a nd i n ve s t iga t ion o f i n d ica to r s o f n u t r i t iona l i n take / s t re s s , a c t iv i ty re la ted s t re s s a nd t r auma . A s g ende r i sb u i l t u pon t h e b ody b y t h e w ay s i n w h ich a gen t s a c t d u r ing l i f e , i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e i n sc r ib ing o f s ome o ft h e se a c t ion s u pon t h e i rp hy s ica l r ema in s m ay a low u s s ome i n s igh t i nt ot h e e ngende r ed i d en t i ty o f t h e b ody . S ex l inked d i f f e rence s i nt h e h i s to ry w r i t ten u pon t h e b ody m ay p r ov ide u s w i th ar e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e ' p e rf o rmance ' o f s ome a spec t s o f g ende r , o f e ngende red p r ac t ice s a nd w ay so fl i f e .

5 . 1

B io log ica l ly i d en t if ied m en a nd w omen m ay b e a s soc ia ted r e gu la r ly w i th s pec if ic c l a s se s o f g ood s , b u t i tc an n o t n ece s sa r i ly b e p r ec luded t h a t t h e s ame i s t r ue f o r t h e r ema in ing b i o log ica l ly i n de term ina te s e c t ion s o f t h e c eme t e ry p opu la t ion . T he r e l iab i l i ty o f f u r the r s oc ia l i n f e rence mu s t t h u s r ema in q ue s t ionab le , g rounded a s i t i s i n t h e e l uc ida t ion o f ' n o rm s ' w h ich a r e ap roduc t o f a s sump t ion b a sed u pon v e ry s ma l l d a ta s e t s . Wh i ls t a r chaeo log is t s m u s t a c cep t t h a t m uch o f w ha t w e d o i ss o b a sed , m any r e por t s m ake q u i te f a r reach ing i n f e rence s a bou t t h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o fp a s t s oc ie t ie s w i thou t e ven p rov id ing t h e s t a t is t ic s u pon w h ich t h ey a r e g rounded . R and sbo rg 's ( 1975 ) s t a temen ta st ot h e s c a rc i ty o fp r e se rved s k e le ton s , f o r e xamp le , m ake s o ne q ue s t ion t h e p ropor t ion s i n vo lved . T h is h i gh l igh t s am a jo r p rob lem a s i n deed t h e re s e em t o b e n o g ene ra l g u ide l ine s a s t o h ow m any b i o log ica l ly s exed s k e le tons a r e n eeded f r om t h e e n t ir e b u r ia l p opu la t ion b ef o r e s uch a s sump t ion s m ay r e a sonab ly b e m ade , a nd o ne i sl e f t h av ing n o r e a l i d ea o f t h e d eg ree o f c onf idence t h a t m ay b e p l aced o n t h e r e su l t s . O ne i n te r e s t ing e xcep t ion t ot h is g ene ra l p rac t ice i sH ende r son 's ( 1 989 ) p rov is ion o f c ompa ra t ive d a ta f r om f ou r A ng lo S axon c eme te r ie s ( Tab le I) .

E s tab l ishmen to fS ex

I n o r de r t o c l a r if y m y s t andpo in t o n t h is i s sue f r om t h e o u t se t Im u s t s t a t e t h a t Ib e l ieve t h e a r cha eo log ica l ' s ex ing ' o f b u r ia ls t o b e a f o rm o f e ngende r ing a nd t h a t n o m a t te r h ow ' s c ien t if ic ' o r ' l og ica l ' o u r m e thodo log ie s a r e a s sumed /c la imed t ob e , t h i s s ex ing i ss t i l l ac on s t ruc t a nd i s t h u s p r of ound ly a f f ec ted b y a r chaeo log ica l a s sump t ion s a nd p r ac t ice s . T o e xpand u pon t h is a r gumen t a nd t o e xp lo re a r chaeo log ica l r e p r e sen ta t ion s o ft h e c orp se i ti sa pp rop r ia te t o a dd re s s t h ree k ey i s sue s ; f i r s t ly , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e s tab l i shmen t o f s e x v i a a r tef ac t a s soc ia t ion i n b u r ia l c on tex t s , a nd s e cond ly , c u r r en t d eba te s p er ta in ing t o ' wha t i s s ex? ' , w h ich l e ad s t o t h e t h i rd i s sue i n vo lv ing c on temp la t ion o ft h e e xpec ta t ion t h a t p hy s ica l r ema in s w i l l a ppea r a s s exua l ly p o la r ised , a nd t h e d eg r ee o fc onf idence t h a t m ay b e p l aced o n r e su l t s o f s ex d e te rm ina t ion b a sed u pon e xam ina t ion o f t h e p hy s ica l c ha rac te r is t ic s o f t h e s k e le ton .

5 . 1 .1

T h i s t a b le d emon s t ra te s t h a t a l though s ex c l a s s if ica t ion b a sed u pon s k e le ta l a na ly s i s a nd a s sump t ion s r e ga rd ing g r ave a s semb lage s g ene ra l ly c oncu r red , t h e r e su l t s d id d i f f e r i n a n umbe r o f s ke le ton s f r om e ach s i t e . A s H ende r son n o te s , av a r ie ty o f e xp lana t ion s h ave b een p o s tu la ted t oa ccoun t f o rt h e d i sc repanc ie s , i n c lud ing f a u l ty b one r epo r t s a nd g rave d i s tu rbance , a nd s ome a r chaeo log is t s h ave q ue s t ioned t h e a ccu racy o f t h e b i o log ica l r e su l t s , p r ef er r ing t o a ccep t t h e c u l tu ra l d e term ina t ion . A s i n d ica ted b y We i s s ( 1972 ) , o ne s hou ld n o t s t a r t t o q ue s t ion b i o log ica l d a ta j u s t b ecau se i td oe s n o t f i t e xpec ted p a t ter ns . T he d i f f e ren t d a ta s e t s o pe ra te

A r tef ac t sa sS ex I n d ica to r s

I nr e la t ion t o t h e f i r s t i s sue , a r tef a c t a s soc ia t ion i sw ide ly u s ed b y c on tempo ra ry a r chaeo log is t s a s am ean s o fs ex ing b u r ia ls . R and sbo rg 's ( 1975 : 1 40 ) w o rk o n D an ish B ronze 3 9

S exed b y A r te fac t

B io log ica l ly , S i te , P or tway H ampsh i re S ewe rby E as t Y o rksh i re B uck land K en t B eck fo rd G louces te rsh ire

S exed

A ssoc ia t ion

i

Nu mber o f

S ame

D if feren t

%

S ke le tons

C lass if ica t ion

C lass if ica t ion

D isagreemen t

3 7

3 5

2

5 .4

1 2

3

2 0 .0

4 2

3 0

1 2

2 8 .6

6

3

3

5 0 .0

, 1 5 -

T ab l e1 D i sag reemen tb e tween t h eu s eo fb i o log ica ls k e l e ta le xam ina t ion a nd a r tef ac ta s soc ia t ion a sm ean so fs e x ing a rchaeo log ica ls amp le s ( Adap ted f r om H ende r son , 1 989 : 8 1 )

a c co rd ing t o d i f f e r en t a na ly t ica l a nd c l a s s if ica to ry p r inc ip le s . A s s e x i sc on s ide red t o b e ab i o log ica l r a the r t h an a c u l tu ra l h uman c ha rac te r i s t ic , a b i o log ica l d e t e rm ina t ion o ft h e b ody m u s t b e t h e c ho sen m e thodo logy . D i s r ega rd o f b i o log ica l r e su l t s i n f a vou r o f c u l tu ra l i n t e rp re ta t ion i n s u ch a c on tex t i s n o t j u s t " unhea l thy" ( B ru sh , 1 9 88 ) , b u t i n deed , a s H ende r son ( 1 989 : 8 1 ) s t a t e s , s e em s " l i t t le s ho r t o f a b su rd" . I n i t ia l ly I w a s s omewha t r e t icen t t o u t i l i se t h e t e rm ' a b su rd ' u n t i l Ic on s ide r ed t h e e xamp le o ft h e P r ince s s o f V i z , aw e l l -f u rn i shed I r on A g e b u r ia l w h ich d e sp i te b e ing b i o log ica l ly ' f ema le ' a nd a s so c ia ted w i th n ume rou s o b jec t s ' t r ad i t iona l ly ' a s soc ia t ed w i th w omen , w a s a ppa r en t ly r e in te rp r e t ed a s at r an sve s t i t e w a r r io r ( Ar no ld , 1 99 1 ; N e l son , 1 997 ) . T h i s n o t o n ly e x emp l if i e s t h e t y pe o fs t r ik ing i n te rp r e ta t ion w h ich m ay b e p r oduced w hen ' c on t r ad ic to ry ' i t em s a r e f o und t o g e the r w i th in c e r ta in g r ave s , b u t m o r eove r c l ea r ly s how s t h a t d i f f e r en t m e thodo log ie s a nd t h u s t h e d i f f e ren t c ho ice s a nd a genda s o fa r chaeo log ica l a genc ie s m ay p r oduce c on t r a s t ing ' s ex ' v e rd ic t s . A r chaeo log ica l a gency i sc l ea r ly a c t iv e i n t h er e -w r i t ing o fs e x a nd g ende ru pon t h eb ody .

d i scou r se i n t h e c eme t e r ie s i s b a s ed u pon d i f f e r en t ia l t r ea tmen to ft h es e xe s Im u s tb r ief ly j u s t if y m ym e thodo logy i nl i gh to fc u r ren td eba t e s . I na dd r e s s ing t h e q ue s t ion ' wha t i ss e x ' Ir e f e r l a rge ly t ot h e w o rk o fL aqueue r ( 1 990 ) a nd N o rdb ladh a nd Y a te s ( 1 990 ) w h ich , s umma r i ly , r e g a rd s e x a s a' c on tex tua l i s sue ' , e xpe r ienced a nd l e a r n t , r a the rt h an a s ag i ven b i na ry d i v is ion . F o l low ing t h e i r a r gumen t , r a the r t h an t h e p o la r i sed c l a s s if ica t ion o f ' ma le ' a nd ' f ema le ' , s e x s h ou ld b e v i ewed a s as p ec t rum ; t h e r e a r e n o t s imp ly t wo d i sc r e t e s e x c a t ego r ie s b u t ar a ng e o fd i f f e rence s b e tween t wo p o le s u pon w h ich e a ch s o c ie ty b a se s t h e c on s t ru c t ion o f i t so wn s e xua l c a tego r ie s . T h i s n o t ion r a i se s t wo i mpo r tan t p o in t s ; f i r s t ly , t h e w ay i nw h ich a s o c ie ty r e cogn i se s s e x , a nd s e cond ly , o u r a s sump t ion t h a t t h e p hy s ica l r ema in s o f t h e b ody s h ou ld a ppea r a s s e xua l ly p o la r i sed ( s ee s e c t ion 5 . 1 .3 ) . I nr e spon se t ot h e f i r s t p o in t Ia g r e e w i th S o r en sen t h a tt h i sn o t ion

Wh i l s t t h e p ub l ished a na ly se s o ft h e l a t e R oman c eme te r ie s s t ud ied h e r e d o n o t a dvoca te s u ch a n e x t r eme a pp roa ch , s e x a t r ibu t ion b y a r tef a c t a s soc ia t ion i s s t i l l u nde r taken . R ega rd ing P e r iod 2a tt h e B u t t R oad C eme t e ry , C o lche s t e r , f o r e xamp le , o n ly o ne o f t h e s e ven t een i n huma t ion s a s soc ia t ed w i th a rm le t s c ou ld b e b i o log ica l ly s e xed a s f ema le , b u tt h e r ema in ing s i x t een i n de te rm ina te b u r ia l s w e r e a s sumed t o b e f ema le o n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s a r tef a c t a s soc ia t ion , l e ad ing t oh ypo the se s c once rn ing t h e p rov i s ion o fd ow r ie s f o r y oung f ema le s ( C rummy e ta l . , 1 993 : 1 30 ) . A l so , w h i l s t o n ly o ne g r ave , o f a9 11 y ea r o l d c h i ld c on ta ined l e a the r b e l t s , t h is w a s a s sumed t ob e m a le d e sp i t e al a ck o f s uppor t ive e v idence f r om t h e c eme te ry . A s I c l ea r ly h av ed oub t s c once rn ing t h i s s e x ing m e thodo logy a nd t h e v a ry ing p ropo r t ion s o f b i o log ica l ly s e xed s k e le ton s i n vo lved , t h e r e levan t c l a s s if ica t ion s , u sua l ly m a rked a s ` ( ma le ) ' o r ' ma le? ' h ave n o t b een i n co rpo ra ted i n t o m y a na ly s i sb u ts ub sumed w i th in t h e i n de te rm ina t ec a tego ry .

5 . 1 .2

' Wha t i sS ex? '

T u r n ing t ot h e s e cond i s sue , Ic an n o t h e r e e mba rk u pon a d e ta i led d i scu s s ion p e r ta in ing t o t h e n a tu r e o f ' s ex ' a s a g ene ra l c a tego ry , b u t a s m y c on s ide ra t ion o f g ende r 4 0

" m ixe s b i o log ica l d i f f e rence s w i th t h e s o c ia l r e cogn i t ion a nd r e spon se t ot h em . T hu s , t h e i d ea o f s p ec t rum m ay b e v e ry a pp rop r ia t e a s r e ga rd s c h romo some c ompo s i t ion , b u t i ti sn o t r e levan t t o s o c ia l a na ly s i s u n le s s t h e s oc ie ty s t ud ied s t ruc tu r e s i t s r e cogn i t ion o f s e x i n a c o r r e spond ing u nd if f e r en t ia ted f a sh ion . ( t he i r ) a pp roach . i s t h e r ef o r e p r obab ly r a r e ly , i fe ve r , r e levan t i nt e rm s o fs o c ia l p r ac t ice s a nd c u l tu ra l r e a l i ty" ( So ren sen , 2 000 :4 7 ) . Af t e rG a ten s( 1 996 : 3 5 ) , S o r en sen s t a t e st h a t " bod ie s a r e s e xed , a nd . s oc ie ty r e cogn i se s ' i t s ' b od ie s a s d i f f e r en t ly s e xed . d e sp i t e t r an sg r e s s iona ry p r ac t ice s a nd c on t r a ry t op e r sona l e xpe r ience s , ( s oc ie t ie s ) i n g ene ra l s e e b od ie s a s v a r ia t ion s u pon m a le a nd f ema le" ( So r en sen , 2 000 : 5 1 ) . S ex a nd g ende r a r e n o t i d en t ica l , n e i the r a r e t h ey e n t i r e ly s e pa ra te . T he b i o log ica l s e x o ft h e b ody i s ap a r t o f t h e m a te r ia l c ond i t ion s t h rough w h ich g ende r i d en t i ty i s c on s t ruc ted . G ende r i d en t i t ie s a ppea r a st h e w ay t h e s e xua l b ody i s l i ved t h rough s e t s o f b i o log ica l , m a te r ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c ond i t ion s a nd p a rame t e r s d u r ing l i f e , a nd a td ea th t h is r e -wo rk ing i su nde r taken b y t h e f u ne r a l a gency i nt h e w ay t h e s e xed c o rp se i st r ea ted . S t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t v a r ia t ion i nt h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e s e xed c o rp s e m ay t h u s h e lp

t o e xh ib i t v a r iou s d eg ree s o f d ive r s if ica t ion i n m o s t m o rpho log ica l c ha rac te r is t ic s , s ome s ke le ton s m ay e xh ib i t b o th ' ma le ' a nd ' f ema le ' t r a i t s , a nd t h e a b sence o f c l ea r ly d ef ined s exua l f e a tu re s m ay h ave b een c ha rac te r is t ic o f c e r ta in p eop le i nl i f e . G iven t h e i n exac t n a tu r e o fs exua l ly d imo rph ic t r a i t s , t h e a s sump t ion t h a t s ke le ta l s amp le s w i l l c on s i s t o ft wo d i s t inc t s exed p opu la t ion s ( ma le a nd f ema le ) o ve r s imp l if ie s a c omp lex s i tua t ion a nd ` mea su re s o f a ccu racy ' a r e s t a temen t s o ft h e se a s sump t ion s . Ac l a imed p e rcen tage o f a c cu racy d epend s u pon t h e e x i s tence o f a c l ea r d i cho tomy a bou t w h ich o ne m igh t b e ' a ccu ra te ' b u t c onf idence i nt h e se c l a ims i ss eve re ly u nde rm ined w hen o ne c on s ide r s t h a t i n f a c t m a le :f ema le a r e e s sen t ia l ly ' f uzzy s e t s ' .

t od i s t ingu i sh t h e n ego t ia t ion a nd r e p re sen ta t ion o f g ende r i d en t i t ie s a nd r e la t ionsh ip sw i th in t h eb u r ia l d oma in .

5 . 1 .3

S ex D e te rm ina t ion o fS ke le ta l R ema in s

Wh i l s t i ti so ne t h ing t oa s ser t t h a t s oc ia l s e xua l b od ie s a r e g ene ra l ly s e en a s v a r ia t ion s u pon ' ma le ' a nd ` f ema le ' , i ti s a no the rt oe xpec t p rec ise c l eavage sb e tween t h e se c a tego r ie s t ob e e v iden t t h rough t h e a na ly s i s o f p hy s ica l r ema in s . I n t h i s c a se , a s S o rensen s ugges t s , t h e i d ea o f s pec t rum m ay w e l l b e v e ry a pp rop r ia te . We m u s t b e s u sp ic iou s o f b io log ica l ` a b so lu te s ' . O s teo log ica l d e te rm ina t ion o f b i o log ica l s e x i s b a sed u pon t h e a s sump t ion t h a t c e r ta in p hy s ica l c ha rac te r is t ic s w i l l e xh ib i t o b se rvab le s exua l d i f f e rence s i ns hape a nd s i ze , a nd t h a t t h i s d imo rph ism w i l l n o t h ave a l te red s i gn if ican t ly o ve r t i me . H oweve r , n o o b se rva t ion t e chn ique i s i n f a l l ib le , o n ab a s ic l e ve l a ny t e chn ique h a s t h e p o ten t ia l t o b e d i sc r ed i ted a t al a te r d a te ( p ar tu r i t ion s c a r s p rov ide a p r ime e xamp le ) , c l a imed ' a ccu racy ' r a te s t e nd t ob e b a sed u pon ' b l ind ' s ex te s t s o n s k e le ton s o f k nown s ex w h ich n ece s sa r i ly c on s t i tu te r e la t ive ly m odern s amp le s w h i ls t t h e r e i s i n f a c t n o g ua ran tee t h a t s exua l d imorph i sm i s at empo ra l c on s tan t , a nd e ven i fw e c ou ld a s sume t h e l a t te rt ob e ` g iven ' , s exua l d imorph i sm i sn eve rb i o log ica l ly e xac t i na ny c a se .

We l a ck , h oweve r , a ny a l terna t ive w ay o f e xp re s s ing b i o log ica l d i ve r s i ty i n c u r ren t p rac t ice o t he r t h an t h e e xpec ta t ion t h a t b i o log ica l s ex w i l l a ppea r r e la t ive ly u namb iguou s ly i n s ke le ta l s amp le s , a nd t h is e xpec ta t ion t h u s n eces sa r i ly f o rm st h e f o unda t ion f o ra l c on s t ruc t ion s o f s e xed i d en t i ty u pon t h e b ody . D esp i te m i sg iv ing s t h e ref o re , r e l iance u pon c u r ren t s ex ing t e chn ique s i st h e o n ly m ean s a va i lab le t of a c i l i ta te i n ve s t iga t ion o fg ende r t h rough b u r ia l d a ta . A s s uch , g i ven t h e w ay i n w h ich t h e m a te r ia l i s e ngende red b y a r chaeo log ica l p rac t ice , Ii n tend t oc ons ide r w ha t ` h appens ' w hen t h e c a tego r ie s o f ' ma le ' a nd ' f ema le ' a r e p l ayed a ga in s t o t he r b u r ia l v a r iab les , t ot a ke t h e r e su l t s o ft h e s ex ing t e chn ique s u t i l ised a tt h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s a nd t oe xp lo re h ow t h ey ' f i t ' o n t ot h e e v idence f o r f u ne ra ry p r ac t ice s a te ach s i t e .

I nl i gh t o ft h e se f a c to r s i ti se s sen t ia l t oc ons ide r t h e m eans b y w h ich w e b r ing t h is s ex ing i nt ob e ing , a nd t ot a ke s t ock o f c l a imed a ccu racy r a te s ( Tab le 2 ) . I n s um , w e a r e f r equen t ly p r e sen ted w i th c l a ims o f a ccu racy i n a du l t s k e le ta l s e x ing t h a t m ay r e ach u p t o 9 8% w i th s uff i c ien t s u rv iva l o f r e cogn ised t r a i t s ( K rogman , 1 962 ; U be lake r , 1 978 ; M i le s , 1 989 ) . T h is h igh f i gu re m ay e ncou rag e o p t im ism i nt h e d ep loymen t o f ma le :f ema le d ua l i ty , b u t o ne m u s t a lway s b e c au t iou s i n t h e d eg ree o f c onf idence t h a t m ay b ep l a ced o nt h e se c l a ims .

We n ow t u r n t ot h e s ke le ta l s e x ing t e chn ique s a pp l ied a tt h e s pec if ic c eme te r ie s s t ud ied . T he p re se rva t ion o fr e cogn ised s ke le ta l t r a i t s w a s v a r iab le a c ro ss t h e s i te s . T he o ve ra l l c ond i t ion o ft h e B a th G a te s amp le w a s d e sc r ibed a s` p oo rt o m ed ium ' w i th p e lv ic b one s o f t en much d amaged a nd f ew c r an ia s u rv iv ing w e l l e nough t op erm i t m ea su remen t ( We l ls , 1 982 : 1 35 -7 ) . T he o ve ra l l c ond i t ion o ft h e s k e le ta l m a te r ia l f r om t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry w a s " very p oo r" ( B ro thwe l l , p e r s . c o rn . ) , a nd t h a t f r om t h e B u t t R oad s i t e d i d n o t s u rv ive w e l l o n t h e w ho le , w i th ` f rus t ra t ing ly f ew ' m a rke r s f o r s e x ing b e ing i n tac t ( P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 7 ; 3 2 ; 6 1-2 ) . O f t h e a du l t s k e le ton s a t t h e se s i te s , 1 7 .1 % ( of 3 62 ) , 3 1 .3 % ( o f 2 52 ) a nd 3 3 .3 % ( o f 4 69 ) r e spec t ive ly c ou ld n o t b e

I n o rde r t o s ex p hy s ica l r ema ins , a r chaeo log ica l p rac t ice e xpec t s t h e b ody t of i ti nt oe i the ro ft h e t wo s e x c a tego r ie s , t e chn ique s a r e d eve loped w i th t h is a im i n m ind , a nd a mb igu i ty i n' s exed i d en t i ty ' i ss e en a sf a i lu re . T h i s a t t i tude i s m i sgu ided . T he re s hou ld b e a mb igu i ty r a the r t h an a p r ec i se c l eavage a s a ny s amp le p opu la t ion c an b e e xpec ted

S ke le ta l E l emen t S ku l l

% A ccu racy 8 0 -90

R e fe rence K een , 1 950 ; K rogman , 1 962

O s P ub is

9 6

P hen ice , 1 969 ; K e l ley , 1 978

Mand ib le

8 5

G i les , 1 970

F emu r m idsha f t c i rcum fe rence F emu r l e ng th

8 2 -85 8 0

M i les , 1 989 ; B lack 1 978b D iBenna rdo a nd T ay lo r , 1 979

T ib ia c i rcum fe rence

8 6 -87

I s can a nd M i l le r -Sha iv i tz , 1 984

T ib ia l e ng th

6 6 -8 1

I s can a nd M i l le r -Sha iv i tz , 1 984

T a lus T a lus a nd C a lcaneus

8 1

S tee le , 1 976

7 9 -89

S tee le , 1 976

2 nd C erv ica l v e r teb rae

8 0

R ibs

8 3

S te rnum

8 5 -89

H e lmu th , 1 968 I s can , 1 985 J i te ta l . , 1 980

T ab le 1 Accuracy r a te s c l a imed f or a du l ts e xd e term ina t ion f rom v a r iou ss ke le ta le l emen t s ( Adap ted f r om S t . H oyme a nd I 5 can , 1 989 : 8 3 ) 4 1

a s c r ibed b i o log ica l s e x . I n c on t ra s t , a t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry s k e le ta l m a t e r ia l w a s u sua l ly i n ag ood s t a t e o f p r e se rva t ion a nd o ve ra l l o n ly 2 . 6 %( o f8 07 ) a du l t s k e le ton s w e r en o t s e xed ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 42 ) . T he s e x ing c r i t e r ion p r io r i t i sed a t t h e c eme te r ie s w a s i n nom ina te m o rpho logy , c r an ia l f e a tu r e s w e r e a l so u s ed w he r e p o s s ib le , a l ong w i th s ome s upp lemen ta t ion f r om g ene ra l s i z e a nd r o bu s t c ha r ac t e r i s t ic s . U nf or tuna te ly t h is i s a l t h e i n f o rma t ion a va i lab le r e ga rd ing t h e L ankh i l l s s e r ie s b ecau se t h e s k e le ta l a na ly s i s w a s o r ig ina l ly o n ly u nde r tak en a s ap r e l im ina ry e xam ina t ion t of a c i l i ta t e p ub l ica t ion o ft h e c eme te ry r e po r t a nd Ic ou ld n o t a c ce s s t h e e xam ina t ion r e co rd s a st h ey a r e c u r r en t ly i nt h e U SA b e ing p r epa r ed f o r m o r e d e ta i led p ub l ica t ion . A t t h e o t he r s i t e s s e x ing b y r e f e r ence t o i n nom ina t e m o rpho logy f o l lowed t h e w o rk o f P hen ice ( 1 969 ) w h ich c l a im s o ne o f t h e m o s t a c cu ra t e s t anda rd s f o r t h e s e x d e te rm ina t ion o ff r agmen ta ry r ema in s , r i va l l ing a c cu ra cy r a te s r e po r t ed f o r s e r ie s c on ta in ing c omp le t e s k e le ton s , a t9 6% . O f t h e a du l t s k e le ton s f r om P oundbu ry 4 1 .4 % w e r e s e xed i nt h i s v i sua l m anne r , b a sed u pon t h e f o l low ing s i x v a r iab le s ; v en t r a l a r c , s ubpub ic a ng le , m ed ia l a s pec t o f i s c io -pub i s r amu s , p ub ic l e ng th , p r eau r icu la r s u lcu s , a nd s c ia t ic n o tch . P hen ice 's a c cu ra cy r a t ew a sb a sed u pon t h e f i r s tt h r ee o ft h e se v a r iab le s , a nd t h e P oundbu ry s ke le ton s w e r e i n c luded o n ly i ft h ey e xh ib i ted f o u r s u ch v a r iab le s . T he r e w a s a ppa r en t c onco rdance b e tween r e su l t s w hen t h e v i sua l s e x ing a nd p e lv ic m ea su r emen t s w e re c ompa r ed , w i th o n ly s i x i n d iv idua l s s c o r ing d i f f e ren t ly ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : m fA 3 ) , a nd P hen ice 's m e thodo logy i sf a vou rab le b ecau se i te mpha s i se s s t ruc tu r e s r e la t ed t o' f ema lene s s ' a nd s om ay c oun te rt h e " r egu la ra nd s y s t ema t ic b i a s" o fu p t o 1 2% i nf a vou ro f am a le d i agno s i s e ncou rag ed b y t h e m o re c onven t iona l s k e le ta l m a rk e r s ( We i s s , 1 972 : 2 39 ) . R e l iance u pon g ene ra l s i z e a nd r obu s t c ha ra c te r is t ic s , h oweve r , m u s t b e c on s ide red a m o r e d ub iou s m ean s o f s e x d e te rm ina t ion . I n t e rm s o f l o ng -bone l e ng th , t h e d eve lopmen t o f m e t r ic s t anda rd s f o r g i ven p opu la t ion s a s sume s t h e m ea su remen t s w i l l e xh ib i t av i s ib le b imoda l i ty r e p r e sen ta t ive o f t h e s e xe s , i . e . m a le s w i l l g ene r a l ly h av e l a rge ra nd m o r e r o bu s tb one st h an f ema le s . I ti so f t en s t a ted t h a t m a le s i ze a ve rag e s c an b e e xpec ted t oe xceed t h o se o f f ema le sb y5 10% , b u t " when w e g ene ra l i se t h a t " women a r e s ho r te rt h an m en" , w e f o rg e t t h a t f o r m o s t p hy s ica l c ha ra c te r is t ic s b o th s e xe s s ha re a bou t 9 5% o ft h e t o t a l r a nge i n v a r ia t ion" ( S t . H oyme a nd Wan , 1 9 89 : 5 9 ) . A t P oundbu ry , w h i l s t m en w e re g ene r a l ly t a l le r t h an w omen , t h e r e w a s ac on s ide rab le o ve r lap i n r a ng e s , a nd t h e s ho r t e s t m a le ( 1 .48m /4 '10" ) w a s s ma l le r t h an t h e s ho r te s t f ema le ( 1 .5 1m /4 '11" ; Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 6 8 ) . S ome r e sea r che r s h ave a r gued t h a t s e xua l d imo rph ism i nw id th s , c i r cumf e r ence s a nd a r ea so f t en e xceed st h a to fb one l e ng th s , c l a im ing a c cu racy r a t e s o f a r ound 8 5% f r om f r agmen ta ry b one ( B la ck , 1 978b ; M i le s , 1 989 ) , b u t t h i s m e thod a l so i n vo lve s a' g r ey a r ea ' o f o ve r lap b e tween ' ma le ' a nd ' f ema le ' g r oup s o fm ea su r emen t s w h ich i nt e rm s o fs l o t t ing s k e le ta l r ema in s i nt oe i the r o ft h e t wo s e x c a tego r ie s o pen s t h e t e chn ique t o m i sc la s s if ica t ion . We a r e n o tab ly f a ced w i th ac on t inuum b e tween p o le s , b u t i na ny c a se , c on t r a ry t o

c ommon a s sump t ion s , i ti sn o t y e t c e r ta in w he the r b one r o bu s t ic i ty a nd m u scu la r i ty l a rg e ly r ef l ec t g ene ra l b ody s i z e o rd eg r ee o fs t r enuou sa c t iv i ty a nd t h i s m ay c au s e c onf u s ion i n s e x ing ( Genove s , 1 969a ; S t i r land , 1 986 ) . Wh i l s t , a s s hou ld c l ea r ly b e t h e c a se , s u ch m e thod s w e r e g ene ra l ly u s ed a s s upp lemen ta ry d a ta i n c on junc t ion w i th m o r e ' r e l iab le ' m e thod s a t t h e R omano -B r i t i sh c eme te r ie s i n q ue s t ion , i ti su nc lea r t o w ha t e x t en t s u ch m ea su r e s w e r e a pp l ied t ot h e B a th G a te a nd L ankh i l ls s e r ie s , a nd s e xua l d imo rph i sm i nv a r iou s b one s w a s u s ed a s as o le m ean s o f s e x d e t e rm ina t ion i n' af ew ' s k e le ton s f r om P oundbu ry f o r w h ich n oo t he rm ean sw e re a va i lab le ( Mo l le son , 1 9 93 : 1 6 5 ) . I n g ene r a l , w i th r e a sonab le p r e se rva t ion a nd c a r ef u l a nd s ub je c t ive a pp l ica t ion o ft e chn ique s i ti so f t en c l a imed t h a t a du l t s e x e s t ima te s m ay n o t d i f f e r s i gn if ican t ly f r om t h e a c tua l s e x r a t io s o ft h e mo r tua ry p opu la t ion s s t ud ied , b u t , e ven a s id e f r om t h e a f o r emen t ion ed p r ob lems o fa s sum ing a c l ea rd ua l i ty , o ne m u s t a lway s a l so b e a wa re o ft h eq ue s t ion o fw ha t t h e s t anda rd i sa ga in s t w h ich t h i s c l a imed a c cu r acy i sm ea su r ed ; w e d o n o t h ave a cce s s t ol a rge a nc ien ts amp le s o f k nown s e x . Ia m e ncou raged , h oweve r , t op l a ce m o r e c onf idence o nt h e c l a imed a ccu ra cy r a t ing s i nl i gh to fr e cen t DNA r e sea r ch a t E s sex U n ive r s i ty , p a r t icu la r ly a s t h i s r e sea r ch c en t r ed u pon o ne o f m y c ho sen c eme te r ie s , a nd b ecau se i tp r ov ide s a n i n dependen t s t anda rd a ga in s t w h ich o s teo log ica l s e x ing m ay b et e s ted . V oong ( 2000 )d e t e rm ined t h e s e x o f as ma l l s amp le o ft h e s k e le ton s f r om B u t t R oad c eme t e ry u s ing P CR ( p o lyme ra se c ha in r e ac t ion ) , a ni nv i t ro m e thod o f a mp l if y ing s e lec ted s e gmen t s o f DNA , i nt h i s c a se DNA f r om t h e Xa nd Y c h romo some s . V oong t a rge ted as e gmen t c on ta in ing t h e Ame log en in g ene w he r e t h e r e i sa s ma l l 6b a se p a i r d e le t ion i nt h e Xc h romo some , m ean ing t h a t w hen t h e P CR p roduc t s a r e e l ec t ropho re sed t h rough a g e l ( s epa ra t ing DNA o nt h eb a s is o fs i z e ) , m a le s w ou ld h ave t wo b and s c o r r e spond ing t ot h e Xa nd Y c h romo some s a nd f ema le s w ou ld o n ly h ave o ne b and c o r r e spond ing t ot h e X c h romo some . T he re a r e n ume rou s DNA -ba sed m e thod s f o r d e te rm in ing s e x , w i th v a r iab le a ccu ra cy , m o s t o fw h ich t e nd t ot a rg e t m u l t icopy r e pea t s o n t h e c h romo some s a nd w h i l s t t h i s m e thod h a s ag r ea t e r c hance o fs u c ce s s t h e n umbe r o f r e pea t s a r e n o t e qua l o n t h e X a nd Y c h romo some s a nd m i s in t e rp r e ta t ion o fs e x i s al i ke ly p o s s ib i l i ty ( Voong , p e r s . c o rn . ) . V oong t a rge ted s i ng le c opy r e pea t s w h ich i s t h eo r e t ica l ly l e s s s e n s i t ive b u t l e s sen s t h e c hance s o f m i s in te rp r e ta t ion . O u t o f t h e t e n s amp le s t e s ted i n t h i s m anne r e i gh t w e r e p o s i t ive a nd t h e se a l c or r e la t ed w i th t h e o s teo log ica l s e x d e te rm ina t ion s . I n a dd i t ion , o ne f r agmen ta ry s k e le ton t h a tc ou ld n o tp r ev iou s ly b e s e xed w a s d i agno sed ' f ema le ' . T h i s t e chn ique i s ar e la t ive ly r e cen t d eve lopmen t ( a round 1 985 ) a nd i sn o t w ide ly a pp l ied t o a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l a s y e t ( Pa t r ic ia S m i th , p e r s . c o r n . ) b u t t h e r e i sc l ea r ly d ef in i te p o ten t ia l i nt h is a r ea a nd t h e p o s i t ive c o r r e la t ion w i th o s t eo log ica l s e x ing r e su l t s i nt h e s amp le f r om B u t t R oad d oe s e ncou r ag e c onf idence i n c u r r en tm o rpho log ica l m e thod s . H opef u l ly a ts ome p o in t t h e u s e o f DNA b a sed s e x t y p ing t e chn ique s w i l l b ecome c ommon i nt h e s e x d e t erm ina t ion o f j uven i le s ( i t s a c cu racy i sn o t a ge d ependen t ) b ecau s e a t p r e sen to s teo log ica l d e te rm ina t ion i se x t r eme ly p rob lema t ic . O n ly a tP oundbu ry w a s t h e s e x ing o fj uven i le r ema in s e v en a temp ted . H e r e s e x d e te rm ina t ion o f i n f an t s w a s b a sed u pon v i sua l e xam ina t ion o f t h e s c ia t ic n o tch i n d ex , a ppa r en t ly s i gn if ican t ly l a rge r i n f ema le s , a nd d eepe r a nd

4 2

m o re a ng led i n ma le s ( Mo l le son , 1 99 3 : 1 7 1-4 ; B ouche r , 1 957 ; F az eka s a nd K ö sa , 1 978 ) , b u t r e levan t t e s t s b y Weave r ( 1980 ) o n as amp le o f k nown a ge a nd s ex f ound o n ly ' imp r e s s ion s o f p a t terns o f d imo rph i sm ' r a the r t h an s i gn if ican t s e x d i f f e rence s , a nd r e f inemen t o f c r i te r ia a nd t e chn ique s s e em sn ece s sa ry i ft h es e x ing o fi mma tu re p e lves i se ven t oa ta in a n a ccep tab le c l a imed d eg ree o f a ccu racy ( Sund ick , 1 977 ; K ösa , 1 989 ; S aund e r s , 1 992 ) . T he s ex ing o f6 7 P oundbu ry s ubadu l t s o n t h e b a s i so ft o o th d imens ion s m ay a l so b e q ues t ionab le a s s ome s t ud ie s h ave c l a imed a c cu racy r a te s o f o n ly 7 0% ( Ba i l i t a nd H un t , 1 964 ) , a nd t o o th d eve lopmen t m ay b e d e t r imen ta l ly a f f ec ted t ov a ry ing d eg ree s b y s t re sso r s s u ch a s d i sea se a nd m a lnu t r i t ion ( Guag l ia rdo , 1 982 ) . I nl i gh t o ft h e v a r iou s p rob lem s i ti st h e v i ew o f m any r e sea r che r s t h a t a t p r e sen t t h e r e i s n o o s teo log ica l m e thod o f d i s t ingu ish ing s ex i n n on -adu l t s k e le ton s b ef o re t h e o n se t o f p uber ty w i th a ny s i gn if ican t d eg ree o fa c cu racy ( S t . H oyme a nd I 5 can , 1 989 ; S aunde r s , 1 992 ; R obe r t s a nd Manche s te r , 1 995 ) a nd i n a cco rdance w i th t h i s v i ewpo in t m y a na ly s is o fs e x -ba sed d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n mor tua ry t r ea tmen t i sl i m i ted t od i scus s ion o fa do le scen t a nd a du l ts k e le tons .

5 . 2

s e lec ted c eme t e r ie s w a s b a sed u pon t h e e s t ima t ion o f p hy s io log ica l a ge t h rough s t age s o f d eve lopmen ta l c hange i n b one s a nd t e e th , n ame ly d en ta l c a lc if ica t ion s equence s ( Schou r a nd Ma s s le r , 1 94 1 ; H un t a nd G le se r , 1 955 ; Moo r ree s e ta l . , 1 963b ; D em i r j ian e ta l . , 1 973 ; Me rchan t a nd U be lake r , 1 977 ) a nd e p iphysea l u n ion s t age s ( McKern a nd S t ewa r t , 1 957 ; McKe rn , 1 970 ; H of fman , 1 979 ; B a s s , 1 987 ) . Wh i l s t s ubadu l t a ge -a t -dea th e s t ima t ion i n g ene ra l i s s ugge s ted t o h ave a p o ten t ia l a ccu racy r a t ing o f 8 0% ( Mo l leson , 1 993 : 2 07 ) , w i th d en ta l d eve lopmen t c h rono log ie s r e po r ted ly p rov id ing a ge e s t ima te s r e l iab le t o a pp rox ima te ly ± 2 y ea r s d u r ing a do le scence a nd t hu s b e ing w e l l w i th in t h e d e s igna ted ± 5 y ea r s d emog raph ic c a tego r ie s ( M i le s , 1 989 ) , t h e r e a r e p rob lem s w h ich r e qu i re n o t ice . I n r e la t ion t od en ta l c a lc if ica t ion m any s t anda rd s e xh ib i t c l ea r v a r ia t ion i nt h e n umbe r o f s t ages r e cogn i sed ( compa re f o r e xamp le G a rn e t a l . , 1 958 a nd Moor ree s e t a l . , 1 963a ) i n d ica t ing d if i cu l t ie s i n i d en t if ica t ion , d ef in i t ion a nd c ompa rab i l i ty . T he s ame m a tu ra t iona l d en ta l s t age d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean t h e s ame c h rono log ica l a ge i n b oy s a nd g i r ls , m a tu ra t ion r a te s m ay v a ry b e tween a nd w i th in p opu la t ion s a nd e ven b e tween i n d iv idua l t e e th i n ag i ven c h i ld . I na n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t o ne c an o n ly a s sume t h a t t h e d en ta l d eve lopmen tp roce s s f o l lowed as im i la r p a t ter n t o t h a t o f m ode rn p opu la t ion s , b u t t h e re a r e s i gn if ican t d i sc repanc ie s i nt h e d eg ree o fp a ra l le l d eve lopmen t b e tween s ome m oder n a nd p r eh i s to r ic t e e th ( Powe l l , 1 988 ) . I nt e rm s o f o s teo log ica l e xam ina t ion , w h i l s t e p iphy sea l f u s ion s chedu le s h ave b ecome af a vou red a ge e s t ima t ion t e chn ique f o r a do le scen t s ke le tons ( c . 12 -20 y ea r s ) , t h e e p iphy se s a r e h i gh ly c ance l lou s b one s s u scep t ib le t oe r o s ion s ho r t ly a f te r s ke le ton isa t ion , a nd m e thodo log ica l p rob lem s e x is t w i th o b se rva t ion o ft h e p roce s se s a nd d u ra t ion o f f u s ion ; m any r e por t s f a i l t o p r e sen t f u l l r a nge s o f d eve lopmen t , a nd d i f f e r en t e xam ina t ion m e thod s ( mac ro scop ic / rad iog raph ic ) c an p roduce v a ry ing r e su l t s ( Ke r ley , 1 976 ) . T he re a r e a l so v a r ia t ions b e tween p opu la t ion s , a nd m a rked s ex re la ted d i f f e rence s i nb o th t h e s equence a nd t im ing o ff u s ion w h ich m ean t h a t t h e r a nge o fe r ro r f o r t h is m e thod i sp a r t ly r e l ian t u pon d i ff icu l t ie s i n s ex ing s ubadu l t r ema ins ( K rogman , 1 962 ; S t ewa r t , 1 979 ; U be lake r , 1 978 ; 1 989 ) .

D e term ina t ion o fA ge -a t -Dea th

D i scu s s ion o f t h e d e te rm ina t ion o f a ge -a t -dea th f o r t h e s ke le ta l s e r ie s i s i mpo r tan t t o t h i s s t udy b ecau se w h i ls t c h rono log ica l a ge ing i s a' g iven ' , d i f f e r ing v a lue s , c oncep t s a nd r o le s e t c . a r e c u l tu ra l ly a s c r ibed t o d i f f e ren t a ge c a tego r ie s a nd t h i s f o rm s p a r t o f t h e b u i ld ing o f i d en t i t ie s a l ong w i th g ende r . T o p rov ide a n o bv iou s e xamp le , ap r e p ube scen t g i r l may a c t a nd b e p e r c e ived i n av e ry d i f f e r en t m anne r f r om women o f y oung o r p o s t -menopau sa l a ge ; g ende r c oncep t s , c a tego r ie s a nd i d en t i t ie s m ay a l te r ' a long s ide ' t h is c h rono log ica l d eve lopmen t . A ge a nd g ende r c a n t hus b o th b e s e en a ss o c ia l c ons t ruc t s w h ich a r e i n te r l inked a nd a ny c ons ide r a t ion o fs t a t i s t ica l v a r ia t ion i n t h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e s exes mu s t a l so c on s ide r s e x -w i th -age r e la t ed v a r ia t ion . A s m y a na ly s is w i l l t h u s b e b a sed p a r t ia l ly u pon a ge -a t -dea th a s se s smen t s i ti sn ece s sa ry t o c on s ide r t h e i r c l a imed r e l iab i l i ty i nr e la t ion t ot h e s e lec ted c eme te ry p opu la t ion s . I n a c co rdance w i th t h e c onf ine s p l aced u pon t h e s cope o f t h is s t udy b y t h e d i f f icu l t ie s i n he r en t i ns ex ing i mma tu re r ema ins m y d i scu s s ion w i l l b e l i m i ted t o t h e p r inc ipa l m e thod s u sed i n e s t ima t ion s o f a do le scen ta nd a du l ta ge -a t -dea th .

A ge -a t -dea th e s t ima t ion i n a du l t s ke le ton s i s much mo r e p rob lema t ic . T he p r inc ipa l m e thod s u sed a t t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s a r ed i scu s sed f o r thw i th , b u t i ti su nc lea rp r ec ise ly w h ich m e thod s w e r e p r io r i t i sed w i th r e spec t t o t h e B a th G a te a nd L ankh i l l s s amp le s . We l ls ( 1982 : 1 35 ) r epo r ted a n a ge e s t ima te o f" va r iab le r e l iab i l i ty" f o r2 39 o ft h e 3 62 a du l t s ke le ton s f r om B a th G a te , a nd m o r e d e ta i led a na ly s is s ub sequen t t ot h e p ub l i shed p r e l im ina ry e xam ina t ion o ft h e L ankh i l ls s k e le tons a ppa ren t ly i n d ica ted t h a t t h e l a t te r h ad u nde re s t ima ted a ge ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 23) . T he r e levan t d i s ser ta t ion ( by Wa t t ) w a s , h oweve r , n eve r s ubm it ted a nd t h ed eg ree o fd i sc repancy t h us c an n o tb e a s ce r ta ined h e re .

I n i t ia l p o in t s t o c ons ide r a r e t h a t f a c to r s s uch a s s ex , r a ce a nd s o c io -econom ic s t a tu s m ay a l a f f ec t t h e r a te a tw h ich a n i n d iv idua l a ge s , a nd t h u s , a l ong w i th p os t -mor tem c ond i t ion s , may i nf luence a ge e s t ima t ion f r om e xcava ted b one ( Genoves , 1 969b ; S t in i , 1 9 85 ) . A lso i mpo r tan t i st h a t t h e u s e o f b o th m odern a nd a n c ien t s t anda rd s i n vo lve s t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a l h uman p opu la t ion s a ge a ta pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame r a te , d e sp i te k now ledg e t h a t m a tu ra t ion r a te s v a ry b e tw een i n d iv idua ls , a nd b e tween p opu la t ion sd ue t og ene t ic a nd /o r e nv ironmen ta l f a c to r s ( Bu ik s t ra a nd M ie lke , 1 985 ) . O ne m u s t a l so a lway s b e m indf u l o f t h e l a ck o f ad i rec t c o r r e spondence b e tween s k e le ta l o r d en ta l a ge a nd a b so lu te a ge i ny ea r s . A s n o ted f o r s e x d e term ina t ion , w e a r e n o t d ea l ing w i th a b so lu tes . A g e -a t -dea th

a s se ssmen t

o f s ubadu l t

s ke le tons

T he r e i sc ons ide rab le a nd j u s t if iab le s c ep t ic ism c oncern ing t h e a ccu racy o f a ge -a t -dea th e s t ima t ion s b a sed u pon p ub ic s ymphy sea l c hang e s l a rge ly d ue t o b e tween -popu la t ion a nd s ex re la ted v a r ia t ion s i n c hange r a te s ( Me ind l e t a l . , 1 985 ; K a tz a nd S uchey , 1 986 ) . S t anda rd s f o r f ema le a ge e s t ima t ion r e qu i re f u r the r s t udy a s t h e r e m ay b e o ve r e s t ima t ion w hen m a le s t anda rd s a r e a pp l ied , a nd t r auma i n i t ia ted b y c h i ldb ir th m ay c ause i n d iv idua l o s p ub i s t o a ppea r o f m o r e a dvanced a ge ( G i lbe r t a nd McKern , 1 973 ; S t ewa r t , 1 957 ; 1 962 ; B ro thwe l l , 1 968 ; J acke s , 1 992 ) .

a t t h e 4 3

B u ik s t r a a nd M ie lke ( 1 985 ) s t a te t h a t v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e c hang e s o f p ub ic a g e r e la ted s t ruc tu r e s c an p roduce i n a ccu ra c ie s o f t e n o r m o r e y ea r s a nd t h i s s i tua t ion i s e xa ce rba ted b y t h e i n c r ea sed o b scu r i ty o f s ymphy sea l c hange s w i th i n c r ea sed a g e ; u s ing a u top sy c a se s S uchey e t a l .( 1 979 ) r e po r ted o n ly a1 0% c hance o fc o r rec t a s s ignmen t t o± 5 y ea r a g e c a tego r ie s i nf ema le s o ve r 6 0 y ea r s o l d . I n a dd i t ion , B ocque t -Appe l 's ( 1 985 ) s t a temen t t h a t t h e u s e o f r e f e r ence s amp le s p r of ound ly a f f e c t st h ea g e s t ru c tu re o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l p opu la t ion w a s f o und t o b e t r ue f o r t h e P oundbu ry s e r ie s( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 2 10 ) . A ge r e la t ed d eg ene ra t ion , n o tab ly o f t h e s p ine , h a s b een t a ken t o i n d ica te a dvanced a g e ( Ke r ley , 1 970 ; B a s s , 1 987 ; L o th a nd I 5 can , 1 989 ) , b u t s u ch e s t ima t ion c an o n ly b e v e ry g ene ra l , t h e r e i s ag r ea t d ea l o f i n d iv idua l v a r ia t ion a nd s im i la rc hang e s c an b e c au sed b yt r auma . V a r iou s s t age s o f t h e p r og r e s s ive a ge r e la ted r e so rp t ion o f c ance l lou s b one h ave a l so b een p r oduced ( S ch r anz , 1 9 59 ; Wa lk e r a nd L ove joy , 1 985 ; U be lake r , 1 9 78 ) b u tt h e re i sa n e v iden t l a ck o fd ef in i t ion a nd s t anda rd i sa t ion i nm e thodo logy w h ich m ay e ncou rag e i n te r -ob se rve r e r ro r a nd c ompa rab i l i ty p rob lem s ( Kau r a nd J i t , 1 990 ; J a cke s , 1 992 ) , a nd a s w omen 's l o s t p e r cen tage s o f c o r t ica l a nd t r abecu la r b one e ven tua l ly e xceed t h o se o f m en ( So rg e t a l . , 1 9 89 ) , t h i s m e thod i s p a r t ia l ly d ependen tu pon s e x d e te rm ina t ion . A m o r e p r om i s ing m e thodo logy i st h e a na ly s i s o f a ge a s soc ia ted v a r ia t ion s i nc or t ica l b one m ic ro s t ruc tu r e a sb one c on t inua l ly r emode l s d u r ing l i f e , o s teon c oun t s i n c rea s ing a nd p r ima ry b one d ec r ea s ing w i th a g e ( J ow sey , 1 960 ; C u r r ey , 1 964 ) . U s ing b one h i s tomo rphome t ry o n as amp le o f k nown a ge K e r ley ( 1 965 ) r e po r t ed t h a t 8 7 .3% o f e s t ima t e s w e r e w i th in ± 5 y ea r s , a nd a l e s t ima t e s w e r e w i th in ± 10 y ea r s o f a c tua l a ge -a t -d ea th , a nd m o r e r e cen t m od if i ca t ion s u s ing s ma l le r b one s a nd c o r e s /wedg e s r a the r t h an l o ng -bone c r o s s sec t ion s h ave e x t ended t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h i s m e thod t o m o r e f r agmen ta ry s e r ie s , w i th a l owe s t s t anda rd e r ro r o f 6 . 2 1 y ea r s ( Thomp son , 1 979 ; S t ou t a nd T e i te lbaum , 1 976 ; A h lqv i s t a nd D am s t en , 1 969 ; S am son a nd B r an igan , 1 9 87 ; S t ou ta nd P a ine , 1 992 ) . Wh i l s t c au t ion i sn eeded r e ga rd ing s p a t ia l v a r ia t ion , f o ca l r emode l l ing a nd d i sea se ( F ro s t , 1 969 ) , t h i s t e chn ique h a s m uch p o ten t ia l f o r i n c rea s ing t h e a c cu r acy o fa ge -a t -dea th d e t e rm ina t ion a c ro s s t h e a du l t a ge g r ade s , a nd n o tab ly f o r e x tend ing s u ch e s t ima te s i n t o a dvanced a g e g r oup s f o r w h ich n o m a c ro scop ic s t anda rd e x i s t s ( Bu ik s t r a a nd M ie lke , 1 985 ; S t ou t , 1 989 ; J a cke s , 1 992 ) . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan tt o d emog raph ic s t ud ie s w h ich h ave b een h ampe r ed b y t h e l ump ing t o ge the ro fa l a du l t s o ve rt h ea ge o fa bou t4 5 y ea r s i nt o as i ng le c a tego ry . T he f i na l a du l t a ge a s se s smen t t e chn ique r e qu i r ing d i scu s s ion i s t h e a na ly s i s o f d en ta l a t t r i t ion a nd i t i s i mpo r tan t t o n o t e t h a t w h i l s t t h e c o r r e la t ion o f i n c rea sed d en ta l w ea r w i th a ge h a s b een d emon s t ra ted i nn ume rou s c on tempo r a ry p opu la t ion s ( Wa lk e r e t a l . , 1 99 1) , d i e ta ry d i f f e r ence s b e tween m ode r n a nd a nc ien tp opu la t ion s m ake i t u nc lea r t o w ha t e x ten t s u ch r e po r t s a r e a pp l icab le t o a r chaeo log ica l s e r ie s . M i le s ' ( 1 962 ) p r og r e s s ive f u nc t iona l d en ta l w ea r s c hema h a s b een s e ve r e ly q ue s t ioned b y s u ch r e sea r che r s a s Mo l le son a nd C ohen ( 1 990 ) w ho u s ed m echan ica l a b ra s ion t o r e p l ica t e a t t r i t ion s t ag e s a nd c onc luded t h a t w ea r i sn o t al i nea r p r og r e s s ion , a t t r i t ion s t age s d on o ta l r e p r e sen te qua l a moun t s o fw ea r ,a nd u s e o f 4 4

s t anda rd s b a sed o n t e e th f r om y oung i n d iv idua l s w i l l u nde rag e t h e o l de ra du l t s . At e s t b yK ie se re ta l .( 1 985 )d i d e xh ib i t q u i te h i gh c o r re la t ion s f o r c e r ta in t e e th , b u t e s t ima t ion b ecame l e s s a ccu ra t e a f t e r t h e l a te t wen t ie s a nd w ea r r a t e s a ppea r ed t ot a pe r o f fa f t e rt h e a ge o ft h i r ty n i ne . A s S t ewa r t ( 1 962 ) s t a te s t h e r ef o r e , i ts e em s t h a t w h i l s t d en ta l a t r i t ion m ay a i d t h e s epa ra t ion o f' y oung ' a nd ' o ld ' a du l t s , a temp t s t o d i s t ingu ish n a r row e r a g e g r ade s a r e u n r e l iab le . I na dd i t ion , w ea r s t ag e s a r e p opu la t ion spec if i c ( Lun t , 1 9 78 ; C ruwy s , 1 989 ) b u t t h e r e a r e s t i l l v a r ia t ion s w i th in p opu la t ion s , e ven b e tween t e e th i nt h e s ame m ou th ( Ube lak e r , 1 9 78 ) , a nd t h i s m e thod i sn o t a pp l icab le t o a l p opu la t ion s ( Webb , 1 995 ) . S ex d i f f e r ence s i n w ea r r a t e s h ave b ee n n o ted a s ap o ten t ia l s ou r ce o fe r ro r( Wa lk e re ta l . , 1 99 1) a nd v a r ia t ion m ay a l so b e c au sed b y o c c lu s ion , m o rpho logy , n on -ma s t ica to ry u s e o f t e e th , d i e t a nd f o od p r epa ra t ion t e chn ique s . I n d iv idua l s w ho d i d n o t p a r t ic ipa te i n c e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s m ay b e s ub jec t t o u nde r -ag e ing , a nd f a c to r s s u ch a sp o s t -mor tem t o o th l o s s a nd h i gh c a r ie s r a t e s m ay m ak e a du l t a ge e s t ima te s f r om a t t r i t ion p r a c t ica l ly i mpo s s ib l e f o rs ome s e r ie s ( J acke s , 1 9 92 ) . I ns um , i ts e em s t h a ta s se s smen to fd en ta la t t r i t ion a s as o le m e thodo logy w i l l n o t p r ov id e ah i gh c o r r e la t ion w i th a c tua l a g e ( H i l l son , 1 986 ;C o s t a , 1 9 86 ; B ro thw e l l , 1 989 ) . Wh i l s t m u l t ip le f a c to r s t ra teg ie s c omb in ing d en t a l a nd o s teo log ic a l a n a ly se s h ave b een e ncou raged t o i n c r ea se a c cu ra cy , s ome c l a im ing r a t e s o f8 0 -85% w i th e r ro rm a rg in s o f ± 2 t o ± 5 y ea r s , t h e u s e o f m u l t ip le f e a tu r e s p r oduce s m u l t ip le r e su l t sa nd i ti sc l ea rf r om c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e B u t t R oad a nd P oundbu ry m e thodo log ie s t h a t t h e r e i s d i sag r eemen t a st o h ow d i sc repancy b e tween t h e d i f f e r en t v a lue s s hou ld b e t a ck led i n o rde r t o p r ov ide t h e c l o s e s t c o r re la t ion w i th a c tua l a g e . F o rt h e B u t tR oad s e r ie s P i n t e r B e l low s ( 1 993 : 7 )u s ed a l a va i lab le i n d ica to r s t oe s tab l i sh a r a nge o fp o s s ib le a g e s a nd t h en t o ok t h e s ma l le s t r a ng e t o d e te rm ine t h e b e s t e s t ima t e . F o r t h e P oundbu ry s e r ie s e xam ina t ion o ft h e p ub ic s ymphy s i s p r oduced g r ea t e r a g e s t h an d en ta l e x am ina t ion a nd t h e d i sco rdance w a s t o o g r ea t f o r t h e i n t e r re la t ion o f m e thod s ; Mo l le son ( 1 993 : 2 10 ) p r ef e r r ed d en ta l a g e s a s t h e se w e r e c a l ib ra ted w i th in t h e s e r ie s r a the r t h an f r om a r e f e rence s amp le . I n g ene r a l , f o l low ing Mo l le son a nd C ohen ( 1990 ) a nd J a cke s ( 1 992 ) , i t a ppea r st h a ta du l ta ge -a t -dea th c an n o ty e tb e e s t ima t ed w i th s a t i sf a c to ry a c cu r a cy f r om a r chaeo log ica l s k e le ta l m a t e r ia l . A s i n d ica ted a bove , t h e p r oduc t ion o f t h e ' f i na l ' a g e e s t ima t e s b a s ed u pon m u l t ip le f a c to r s a ppea r s t o b e a ' j udgemen t c a l l ' , a s ub jec t ive d e c i s ion t a k en b y a r chaeo log ica l a g ency , t hu s p r ov id ing a no the r i n s tance o f h ow o u ro wn p r a c t ice s m ay a f f ec tt h e r e -w r i t ing o ff a ce t s o f i d en t i ty u pon t h e b ody . S uch v a r ia t ion i n s t ra t egy a l so m ake s o ne q u e s t ion t h e c ompa rab i l i ty o fd i f f e ren t s amp le s a nd i nc onc lu s ion t h e ref o re Im u s t s t r e s s t h a t m y r e f e r en ce s t oa g e c a t ego r i e s i nt h e f o l low ing d i scu s s ions a nd a na ly s i s s hou ld b e v i ewed a s g ene ra l g u ide l ine s r a the r t h an d i r ec t r e p r e sen ta t ion so fp opu la t ion s t ruc tu re . A n a dd i t iona l a g e ing c r i te r ia t h a t r e qu i r e s a dd r e s s i st h e a loca t ion o f g r av e s t o a du l t / ch i ld c a tego r ie s o n t h e s o le b a s i s o fg r ave -p i t a nd /o r c of f in s i ze a sw a s u nder taken f o ra n umbe r o f s k e le ton s f r om t h e B u t t R oad a nd L ankh i l l s c eme te r ie s . I nt h e i n te r e s to fu s ing a l l e xcava t ion d a ta t ot h e u tmo s t , e s t ima t ion s o fa ge i nt h is m anne r c a n p rove u s ef u l b y a mp l if y ing n umbe r s f o r p o s tu la t ion a s l o ng a s t h e p r ob lem s a r e c l ea r ly r e cogn i sed . T h is i st h e c a se f o r B u t t

c u l tu ra l ly d e term ined s ex -ba sed a l loca t ion o f p ref e ren t ia l t r ea tmen t ( c a re , n u t r i t ion , l o nge r w ean ing p e r iods ) , t h u s r educ ing t h e s u scep t ib i l i ty o f ap a r t icu la rs ex t om a lnu t r i t ion a nd d i sea se a nd h ence c h i ldhood mor ta l i ty ( Guss le r , 1 987 ; W ing a nd B rown , 1 979 ) . Nume rou s e t hnog raph ic a nd

R oad w he re t h is me thodo logy ma rked ly i n c rea sed t h e n umbe r o fc h i ld ren , 3 4% ( 59 o f 1 75 ) b e ing i d en t if ied i nt h is m anner , w i th e xp l ic i t r e cogn i t ion o f t h e p o ten t ia l p i tf a l ls ; n o t o n ly m ay s ome a du l t s h ave b een e x t reme ly s hor t , b u t s ome c h i ld ren may h ave b een b u r ied i n a du l t -s ized c on ta ine r s , a sa ppear s t oh ave b een t h e c a se f o r G 287 , a2 3

e t hnoh is to r ica l e xamp les o f ' b en ign ' i n f an t ic ide e xh ib i t d i sc r im ina t ion a ga ins t f ema le s ( Ca s s idy , 1 980 ; B ened ic t , 1 972 ) a nd w h i ls t l i f e e xpec tancy i n mos t modern p opu la t ions i su sua l ly g r ea te r f o r f ema le s , t h is p a t ter n m ay b e r e ve r sed i ns t rong ly p a t r ia rcha l s oc ie t ie s ( De Jong , 1 972 ; A nge l , 1 969 ; B enn ike , 1 985 ) . H igh i n f an t mor ta l i ty r a tes m ay b e i n d ica t ive o fi n ten t iona l i n f an t ic ide , b u t t h e p o ss ib le s e x se lec t ive n a tu re o f t h i s p r ac t ice mus t b e a dd res sed b y i n d irec t m ean s d ue t o t h e c u r ren t u nre l iab i l i ty o f s e x ing i n f an t r ema ins . I n f an t e xpo su re w a s l e ga l u nde r R oman l aw t h roughou t mos t o ft h e f ou r th c en tury ( un t i l AD 3 74 ; D ige s t 2 5 .3 .4 ) , l e g is la t ion i n AD 5 28 i n d ica te s i t s c on t inued p r ac t ice ( J u s t in ian C od e 8 . 51 .3 ; C an ta re l la , 1 987 ) a nd i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t i n f an t ic ide w a s q u i te w ide ly p rac t i sed i n R oman B r i ta in d ue t o t h e u nde r -enume ra t ion o f i n f an t b u r ia ls . A s A l lason Jone s ( 1989 : 4 2 ) p o in t s o u t , h oweve r , c ompa r isons b e tween R omano -Br i t ish i n f an t mor ta l i ty s t a t is t ic s a nd t h ose f r om o t he r p e r iod s a r e c omp l ica ted b y c onf u s ion i n t h e u se o f s uch t e rms a s ' p e r ina ta l ' a nd ' n eona ta l ' i n a r chaeo log ica l r e por t s a nd t h e d ea r th o f s t i l lbor n s t a t is t ics b ef o re t h e 1 940s . I n f an t s o r ' non -be ing s ' l e ss t h an f o r ty d ays o l d w e re e xemp t f r om t h e R oman l aw f o rb idd ing b u r ia l w i th in t own l im i t s , s uppor ted b y t h e r e cove ry o f i n f an t r ema ins f r om r ampar t s , d i tche s a nd h ou ses i nv a r iou s R omano -Br i t ish t owns , a nd e v idence f r om T ren tho lme D r ive , H amb ledon V i l la a nd B ar ton C ou r t F a rm h a s b een t a ken t os ugges t t h a t many i n f an t s may h ave b een i n ter red i ns epa ra te b u r ia l p l o t s . T he i n c rea sed f ema le i n f an t m or ta l i ty r a te a tB rad ley H i l l h a s b een p o s tu la ted t oi n d ica te t h a t f ema le c h i ld ren w e re c ons ide red l e s s w or thy o fr e a r ing , an o t ion p e rhap s s uppor ted b y Ov id 's Me tamorpho se s a nd v a r iou s E gyp t ian p apy r i , b u ta sA l la son Jones r ema rks , mo s t R omano -Br i t ish s i te s e xh ib i t ac l o se r c or re la t ion t o t h e e xpec ted ' n a tu ra l ' p a t te rn s .

y ea r o l d c h i ld b u r ied i n ac off in 1 . 6m l o ng a nd a lmo s t 0 . 6m w ide , q u i te a dequa te ly s i zed f o r m any a du l t s ( Crummy e t a l . , 1 993 : 6 1 ) . T he t r ea tmen t o f s u ch d a ta a t L ankh i l ls , h oweve r , p rov ide s as t a rk c on t ra s t . A t t h is s i te 1 5 .7% ( 47 o f 2 52 ) a du l t s a nd 2 2 .5% ( 25 o f 8 6 ) c h i ld ren / inf an ts w e re c a tego r ised i nt h is manne r ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 23) w i thou t a ny a cknow ledgemen t o f t h e p rob lem s o r t h e p rov is ion o f a ny d e ta i ls c once rn ing t h e m ea su remen t s u pon w h ich s uch a s sump t ion s w e re b a sed . Ib e l ieve t h i s a ge ing c r i te r ia t ob e e x t reme ly d ub ious , a nd a s s uch , c a se s i n w h ich t h is m e thodo logy h as b een a pp l ied a r e c l ea r ly s pec if ied w i th in m y d a taba se a low ing t h em t o b e e a s i ly d i s t ingu ished a nd e i the r i n c luded /exc luded f r om s ub sequen t a na lys is .

5 . 3

D emograph ic S truc ture

O nce i n d iv idua l s ke le tons h ave b een a loca ted t o a ge -a t d ea th ( u sua l ly ± 5 y ea r s ) a nd s ex c a tego r ie s , t h e t r ad i t iona l ' n ex t s t ep ' i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e -w r i t ing o f g ende r i d en t i t ie s u pon p hys ica l r ema ins i st h e p roduc t ion o f a ge a nd -sex spec if ic mor ta l i ty r a te s . A s mos t p r e indu s t r ia l g roup s s ha re e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame d ea th ra te s chedu le , t h e c r ude a ge re la ted ` U shaped ' c u rv e , a nc ien t mor ta l i ty d a ta s hou ld c or re spond t o ' e xpec ted ' o r ' mode l ' l i f e t a b les a nd a ny s i gn if ican t d ev ia t ion f r om t h is ' no rm ' m ay i n d ica te t h e p r esence o f b ia s ing f a c to r s (We is s , 1 972 ; 1 975 ; B ogue , 1 969 ; B lake ly , 1 977 ; Macf a r lane , 1 98 1) . S uch b i a s m ay h ave b een i n t roduced b y a v a r ie ty o f a r chaeo log ica l ( e .g . i n comp le te r e cove ry ) , e nv ironmen ta l ( d if f e ren t ia l p r ese rva t ion ) o r c u l tu ra l f a c to r s , t h e f i r s t t wo o fw h ich mus t b e c onv inc ing ly e l im ina ted b efo re s oc ia l ly c ons t rued a noma l ie s m ay b e i n f er red . I ti si mpor tan t t or emembe r t h a t e xcava ted s ke le ta l s e r ie s d o n o t c on s t i tu te ap opu la t ion , b u t r a the r as amp le o f ap opu la t ion , a nd a s ses smen t o f t h e r e p re sen ta t ive n a tu re o f t h is s amp le i s e s sen t ia l (We is s , 1 973 ; B u ik s t ra , 1 981) . S ex m ay b e s e en a s a n o bv iou s p o ten t ia l s ource o fb i a s i nt h e s e lec t ion o fp eop le f o r b u r ia l i n ac eme te ry , b u t " i n t h e m ean a nd i nt h e a b sence o fc l ear c u l tura l i n f orma t ion i nd ica t ing o therw i se" (We is s , 1 972 : 2 4 1-2 ) , i f t h e s amp le i s r e p resen ta t ive o f a ' n a tu ra l ' p opu la t ion t h e re s hou ld b e a n a pp rox ima te 1 : 1 r a t io o f t h e s e xe s . I th a s b een a rgued t h a t r a t ios c ou ld b e s kewed b y s e x r e la ted d i f f e ren t ia l s ke le ta l p r e se rva t ion a s f ema le b one s , p a r t icu la r ly o f p os t -menopau sa l a g e -a t -dea th , a r e m o re f r ag i le a nd t h u s l e ss l i ke ly t os u rv ive , b u t t h is h a s b een r i gh t ly c on tes ted a s f o e ta l b ones a r e a mong s t t h e mo s t f r ag i le o f h uman r ema ins a nd h ave s t i l l s u rv ived i n v e ry a dve r se c ond i t ions . U nde r rep resen ta t ion o f f ema les i n mo r tua ry s amp le s i st hu s much mo re l i ke ly t ob e a t t r ibu tab le t o c u l tu ra l r a the r t h an b io log ica l f a c to r s ( S t . H oyme a nd l s can , 1 989 ) . I t i s n o tewor thy , h oweve r , t h a t a s f ema le s k e le ton s a r e c ompa ra t ive ly mo re d i ff icu l t t o s ex u s ing t r ad i t iona l m e thods t h ey m ay b e o ver rep resen ted i n t h e ' i nde te rm ina te ' c a tego ry ( Mo l leson , 1 981) .

O ve ra l l a du l t s ex r a t io s , h oweve r , v a ry c ons ide rab ly a c ross t h e s pec if ic R omano -Br i t ish c eme te r ies i n q ue s t ion ( Tab le 3 ) . T he d a ta p re sen ted a r e i n c lus ive f o r e ach s i te a t t h is s t age b ecause i nt e rm s o fd emog raphy Ia m i n te re s ted i nt h e n a tu re o f ' t he c eme te ry ' a s aw ho le . A ppa ren t v a r ia t ion i n s e x r a t io s b e tween d i f f e ren t a r ea s o fi n d iv idua l s i tes w i l l b e d i scu ssed l a te r i nt e rms o fs pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion .

C eme tery

F ema le :Ma le

F ema le N o .

Ma le N o .

B a th G a te

8 0

2 30

1 : 2 .9

( 1 :2 .4 )

B u t t R oad

1 28

1 67

1 : 1 .3

( 1 :1 .2 )

P oundbu ry

4 3 1

3 8 1

1 : 0 .9

4 3

8 8

1 : 2 .0

L ankh i l ls

R a t io

( 1 :1 .5 )

T ab le 3 O vera l l f ema le . 'm a le r a t io s a t e ach c eme te ry . F i gu re s i n b racke t s r e p resen t t h e i n c lus ion o f ' p robab le ' s e xed c a tego r ie s b a sed u pon s ke le ta l a na lys is .

I regu la r s ex r a t ios h ave o f ten b een t a ken t or ef lec t d i f f e r ing a t i tude s t owa rds t h e s exe s f r om i n f ancy , p e rhaps i n d ica t ing

T he r a t io s e xh ib i t ag ene ra l p r eponde rance o f ma les a tt h e L ankh i l ls , B a th G a te a nd B u t t R oad c eme te r ie s . A t t h e 4 5

f o rme rt wo s i t e s t h e s e x r a t io s a r e s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t a t t h e 1 % l e ve l ( c h i s q . ) , t h e B u t t R oad r a t io o n ly b ecom ing s i gn if i can t a tt h e 5% l e v e l w hen ' p robab le ' s e x c a t ego r ie s a r e i n c lud ed . I n c on t ra s t , t h e s e x r a t io a t P oundbu ry i s c ompa ra t ive ly v e ry e ven , a l though t h e r e i s as l igh t ly h i ghe r ( b u t n o t s i gn if ican t ) n umbe r o f f ema le s . T h i s i sr e la t ive ly u nu sua l f o r R omano -B r i t i sh c eme te ry p opu la t ion s , b u t i s d i sc e r n ib le a t B rad ley H i l l a nd C ann ing ton ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 2 22 ) . Q u i te w ha t t h e se f i gu r e s m ay i mp ly i nt e rm s o f p opu la t ion s t ruc tu r e a nd s o c ia l i n f e r ence i s , h oweve r , d eba tab le . I t c ou ld b e t h a t t h e r e w a s a g enu ine p r eponde rance o fm en w i th in t h e l i v ing p opu la t ion s a tt h e f i r s tt h r ee s i t e s ,t h a ts ome f ema le sw e r eb u r ied e l sewhe r e( a s i n f an t s o r a du l t s ) , o r t h a t w e s hou ld t u rn o u r a t ten t ion t o b o th t h e a c cu ra cy o f t h e s e x ing m e thod s u s ed , a nd t h e p e r cen tag e s o fa du l t s k e le ton s w h ich c ou ld b e s e xed . I ti s p o s s ib le t h a t t h e s e x r a t io s a tL ankh i l l s a nd B u t t R oad a r e p r oduc t s o f a r chaeo log ica l m e thod r a the r t h an s o c ia l ly i n du ced p a t te rn s . A s a l r eady n o ted , t h e m o r e t r ad i t iona l s e x ing m e thod s i n c rea se t h e c hance s o f f ema le o ve r r ep r e sen ta t ion i n' i nde t erm ina t e ' c a tego r ie s a nd t h u s a p r eponde rance o f m a le s m ay g ene ra l ly b e e xpec ted , a l though t h e u t i l i sa t ion o f P hen ice 's s e x d e te rm ina t ion m e thod s h ou ld h e lp t o c oun te r s ome o f t h i s b i a s . A t L ankh i l ls a nd B u t t R oad c eme t e r ie s 3 1 .3% a nd 3 .3% r e spe c t ive ly o f a du l t s k e le ton s c ou ld n o t b e s e xed , p e r cen tage s q u i te s u ff ic ien t t os wa l low u p t h e d i f f e r ence i n f ema le :ma le r e p re sen ta t ion . I nt h e se t e rm s i ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t t h e c l o se s t r a t io t ot h e e xpec t ed 1 : 1 o ccu r s a t P oundbu ry , w he r e o n ly 2 . 6% o fa du l t s k e le ton s c ou ld n o t b e s e xed . A t B a th G a t e , h oweve r , t h i sp o s s ib i l i ty c an n o ta pp ly a st h e 1 7 . 1% o fi n de te rm ina te a du l t s k e le ton s i si n suff i c ien t t o e v en o u t t h e s e x p r opo r t ion s a nd t h e p r eponde rance o f m a le s m u s t t h u s b e s e en a s at r ue r e p r e sen t a t ion o f t h e b u r ied p opu la t ion . I t h a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t t h i s p r eponde rance m ay b e d ue t ot h e t own b e ing g i ven o ve r t o u nma r r ied l e g iona r ie s a nd R oman o ff i c ia ls ( We l l s , 1 982 : 1 35 ) ,a n i d ea p e rhap s s uppo r ted b y f i gu r e s f r om T r en tho lme D r iv e , Y o rk , r e por ted ly am i l i ta ry c eme t e ry w h ich e xh ib i t s a f ema le :ma le r a t io o f 1 : 4 .4 ( i nc lud ing ' p robab le ' s e xed c a tego r ie s ; Wa rw ick , 1 968 : 1 6 3 ) . T he B a th G a t e c eme te ry i s , h oweve r , d a t ed p o s t 197 AD m ean ing t h a t l e g iona r ie s c ou ld m any , a nd i ti sa l so t h e o n ly l a t e R oman b u r ia l g round d i scove r ed s of a r a tC i r ence s t e ra nd t h e e x i s tence o f m u l t ip le c eme te r ie s s e rv ing e a ch o f t h e o t he r l a t e R oman t own s m ay s ugge s t t h e e x i s t ence o fa dd i t iona l l a te R oman c eme t e r ie s a r ound C i r ence s te r . I ti sp o s s ib le t h e ref o r e t h a t t h e ' m i s s ing ' f ema le sm ay h ave b een b u r ied e l sewhe r e . C ro s s -compa r i son o f a g e -a t -dea th g r oup s a tt h e c eme te r ie s i se x t r eme ly d i ff icu l t n o t o n ly d ue t ot h e d i f f e r en t a ge ing c r i t e r ia u t i l i sed , b u t p a r t icu la r ly b ecau se t h e n umbe r a nd s p r ead o fa ge g r ade s v a r ie s b e tween r e po r t s . T h i s p r ob lem w i l l b e d i scu s sed i nm o r ed e ta i l i nt h e f o l low ing c hap t e r . A t p r e sen t , f o r c ompa ra t ive p u rpo se s , a g e a s se s smen t s h ave b een r o unded t of i tr o ugh ly e qu iva len t g r ade s f o r e a ch s i t e s ot h a t a g e -a t -dea th d i s t r ibu t ion b y s e x c a n b ed i scu s sed , b u t c on sequen t ly F i gu r e 1 0 s h ou ld o n ly b e c on s ide r ed ar o ugh g u ide . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t t h e a ge c a t ego ry ' Young A du l t ' c ov e r s as pan o ft e n y ea r s w h i l s t t h e ` M idd le -aged A du l t ' c a t ego ry c ove r s as p an o ft wen ty y ea r s . I ft h ea ge s a t B a th G a t e , f o r e xamp le , a r e b r oken d own i n t o s ma l le r s p r ead s , s u ch a s f i ve y ea r s , f ema le d ea th s a r e d i s t r ibu ted f a i r ly e ven ly f r om 1 8 -53 y ea r s w h i l s t m a le d ea th s m oun t s t ead i ly f r om t h e m id -20 st o5 3 y ea r s( We l l s , 1 982 : 1 3 5 ) . I t

w a s r i o t f e a s ib le t o f u r the r s u bd iv ide t h e a g e s f o r a l t h e c eme t e r ie s . T he f i r s t f e a tu r e o fn o t e e xh ib i t ed b y t h e c ha r t s i st h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion s a ppea r t o b e r e p r e s en ta t ive o f t wo g ene ra l ' p a i r ing s ' ; a tt h e B a th G a te a nd B u t t R oad s i t e s t h e g r ea t e s t p e r cen t ag e o f b o th s e xe s s e em t o h ave d i ed w i th in t h e m idd le -ag ed c a tego ry , p rov id ing am a rked c on t ra s t t o t h e h i gh p e r cen tage s o f y oung a du l t d ea th s o f b o th s e xe s a t L ankh i l l s a nd P oundbu ry . G r ea t e r p e r cen tag e s o f y oung a du l t f ema le d ea th s a r e n o t u ncommon i na nc ien t s o c ie t ie s a nd a r e o f t en a t t r ibu ted t oc h i ldb i r th s t r e s s , b u t t h i s f a i l s t o a c coun t f o rt h e l a rge p e r cen tag e s o fm a le d ea th s w i th in t h i s a g e c a t ego ry a t t h e L ankh i l l s a nd P oundbu ry s i t e s , a nd i n deed i nt h e f o rme r s amp le t h e p e r cen tage o fy oung a du l t m a le d ea th s e xceed s t h a t o f f ema le s . T he a ppa r en t n on c ompa rab i l i ty o f t h e d a ta p o se s a n a wkwa rd q ue s t ion ; a r e t h e d a ta a n a r t ef a c t o fm e thod , o rd o t h ey r e f lec t t h e v e ry d ynam ic a nd f l uc tua t ing d emog r aph ie s o f t h e l a t e R oman u r ban p opu la t ion s? T he r e i s n o e a sy a n swe r . Mo l le son ( 1 993 : 2 13 ) p r e sen t s v a r iou s p o s tu la t ion s t o e xp la in t h e m o r ta l i ty p a t te rn a t P oundbu ry , i n c lud ing t h e i n f lux o f y oung a du l t s f r om t h e c oun t ry s ide w ho w e r e s u scep t ib le t ot h ed i sea se so ft h et own , a nd t h e u s eo ft h em a in c eme te ry t o i n t e r r e cen t c onv e r t s t o C h r i s t ian i ty w ho f o r s ome u n spe c if ied r e a son w e r em o s t ly y oung a du l t s , b u tt h i sn o t ion i n vo lve s a c cep tance o ft h e C h r i s t ian n a tu r e o ft h e s i t e a nd t h e r e a son sf o rt h e d ea th s r ema in u nc lea r . S uch s ugge s t ion s c an b e n e i the r e mb raced n o r d i sc la imed w i th c e r ta in ty a nd o ne m ay c on t inue t op o s tu la te i n def in i t e ly . Wha t i sc l ea r i s t h a t t h e d a t a i mp ly n o tab le r e g iona l v a r ia t ion i na g e -and sex s pec if i c m o r ta l i ty s chedu le s a c ro s s t h e l a t e R oman t own s , b u t h ow m u ch w e r e ad i nt ot h e se d i f f e r ence s i s am a t t e r o f a r chaeo log ica l a gency . I t c ou ld b e t h a t t h e v a r ia t ion s d i r ec t ly r e f l e c t v a r ia t ion s i nt h e s k e le ta l a g e ing t e chn ique s u s ed . F o rt h eP oundbu ry s amp le Mo l le son c onced e st h a tt h e a g e -a t -dea th c a t ego r ie s m ay b e i n a c cu ra t e , w i th m any o ft h e ' o lde r a du l t s ' b e ing u nde r -ag ed . T h i s m ay a l so b e t r ue o f t h e L ankh i l l ss amp le , e s pec ia l ly i nl i gh to f Wa t t 's a s se r t ion s ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 2 3 ) a nd t h e a lmo s t c omp le te l a ck o f a ny o l de ra du l t s . G ene ra l u nde r -age ing a tP oundbu ry , h oweve r , d oe s n o t s e em t o b e t h e l i ke ly e xp lana t ion w hen o ne c on s ide r s t h e r e la t ive ly g r ea t e r p e r cen tag e s o f ' o ld ' a du l t s r e p r e sen t ed a nd t h e f a c t t h a t o n ly a tt h i s c eme te ry d o a ge e s t ima t e s e x ceed 6 5 y ea r s , e ven r e a ch ing 8 0 y ea r s . E xp lana t ion s o ft h e d i f f e r en t ia l m o r ta l i ty p a t te rn s m u s t t h u s r ema in s p ecu la t iv e , b u t If i nd m y se lf b e ing d r awn t owa rd s p r ob lem s a nd i n con s i s t enc ie s i n a ge ing t e chn ique s ; e i the r s ome th ing i n t h e s k e le ta l a g e a s se s smen t s i s a f f ec t ing a c cu ra cy r a t e s a tc e r t a in s i t e s o r t h e p eop le o f D o r che s te r c ou ld f o r s om e r e a son h ope t o e n joy a v e ry c on s ide rab ly l o ng e r l i f e spa n t h an t h e i r c on t empo ra r ie s i nt h e o t he r l a t e R omano -B r i t i sh t own s . C on s ide ra t ion o fj uven i le r e p r e sen ta t ion a tt h e s i t e s f a ce s a s im i la r d i lemma , p a r t icu la r ly a st h e d a t a a low s t h e s i t e s t o b e r ough ly d i v id ed i nt ot h e s ame p a i r ing s . A l though t h e r e i sad i s t inc t l a ck o fi n f an t b u r ia l i nt h e p e r iphe ra l c eme t e r ie s a tP oundbu ry ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 72 ) , t h eo v e ra l l n umbe r s o f j uven i le s a t b o th t h i s s i t e a nd L ankh i l l s c onf o rm t o ' e xpec ted ' p a t te r n s i n t h a tt h ey c on s t i tu t er o ugh ly at h i rd o f t h e t o ta l i n t e rmen t s ( a m in imum o f 3 0% u nde r 1 5 y ea r s o f a ge ; We i s s , 1 9 73 : 4 6 ) . I n c on t ra s t , a t t h e B a th G a t e c eme te ry o n ly 1 7 .4% o f t h e s k e le ton s w h ich c ou ld b e c a tego r i sed w e r e c l a s sed a s j uven i le s ( u nde r 2 0 y ea r s ;

4 6

We l l s , 1 982 : 1 36 ) , a nd B u t t R oad e xh ib i t s as im i la rp a t te rn , w h ich , e ven i n c lud ing t h o se j uven i le s c a tego r i sed b y g r ave p i t /coff in s i ze , s t i l l f a l ls s hor t o f a t ta in ing t h e e xpec ted ' n o rm ' ( P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 6 3) . A ga in e i the r s ome th ing i sa m i s s w i th t h e a ge ing m e thod s , o r m any c h i ld ren / inf an t s w e re b u r ied e l sewhe re . I n l i gh t o f t h e c l a imed g r ea t e r a ccu racy i n t h e a ge ing o f j uven i le r ema in s t h e l a t te r s ugges t ion m ay b e t h e m o re l i ke ly p o s s ib i l i ty , b u t u nf or tuna te ly t h e p o ten t ia l i ty o fs ex -ba sed d i f f e ren t ia l b u r ia l t r ea tmen t c an n o t b e e xp lo r ed d ue t op re sen t d i ff icu l t ie s i n s ex ing s ubadu l t r ema in s . I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te , h oweve r , t h a t i ft h e a t temp ted s ex ing o ft h e P oundbu ry j uven i le s i s a ccep ted , s exua l d i sp ropo r t ion i s e v iden t i n a ge -a t -dea th r a te sw i th g i r ls g r ea t ly o u tnumbe r ing b oy s a tm o s ta ge s f r om 7 10 y ea r s , a nd b y a lmo s t q uad rup le f i gu r e s b e tween 1 3 15 y ea r s ( Mo l leson , 1 993 : 1 80 1) . Mo l le son h a s a r gued t h a t t h i s p a t ter n i sn o t u nu sua l o f a g ra r ian s oc ie t ie s w i th g i r l s r e ce iv ing l e ss -p ref e ren t ia lt r ea tmen t , i n c lud ing d i e ta nd c a re , a nd t h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t h i s t y pe o fa t t i tude w a s p reva len t i n l a t e R oman B r i ta in . P e rhap s t h i s d a ta m ay t h u s p rov ide u s w i th s ome i n s igh t i nt od i f f e ren t ia l v a lue s p l aced u pon t h e s exes f r om a n e a r ly a ge . T he s e x r a t io o fb ab ie s a tt h e s i te i s , h oweve r , r e po r ted ly ' n o rma l ' w i th n o e v idence o f d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt r ea tmen t ( Mo l le son , 1 992 : 4 5 ) . A l so , t h e a ppa ren t s e xua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion d oe s n o t s e em t oo ccu r u n t i l 7 10 y ea r s , a nd t h en p eak s a t1 3 15 y ea r s , w h i ls t i ft h e s exe s w e re b e ing t r ea ted d i f f e ren t ly a sc h i ld ren o ne w ou ld e xpec t t h e r a te t o b e c on s i s ten t , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e mo re ' s u scep t ib le ' p e r iod b ef o r e 7y ea r s o f a ge ( A l la son Jone s , p e r s . c o rn ) .

5 . 4

A na ly s ing t he H i s tory o ft he B ody

A s p r ev iou s ly d i scu s sed , t h e b ody d oe s n o tj u s t b ecome a n a r tef ac t f o r t ho se w ho h ave t od ea l w i th i ta td ea th , i th a s a h i s to ry a nd i d en t i t ie s s t i l l a t tached , a nd w h i l s t w e f a ce d i ff icu l t ie s i na cce s s ing t h e se i d en t i t ie s v i a t h e c on s t ruc ted r ep re sen ta t ion s o f t h e f une ra l a gency i n b u r ia l d a ta , e xam ina t ion o f t h e p hy s ica l r ema in s o f i n d iv idua l p eop le m ay p rov ide u s w i th a m ean s o f mo re d i rec t ly a cce s s ing s ome a spec t s o f t h e i d en t i t ies c on s t ruc ted t h rough s oc ia l p ra c t ice b y t h e d ecea sed a gen t s d u r ing l i f e . N u t r i t iona l s t a t u s , d i sea se , t r auma a nd c e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s a nd c u s tom s m ay a l l l e ave c l ue s i mp r in ted i np hy s ica l r ema in s a nd w e m ay t hu s b e a b le t o r e -w r i te a spec t s o f i d en t i ty u pon t h e b ody v i a t h e a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s o f t h e c o rp se . A s g ende r i sc on s t ruc ted t h rough t h e w ay s i nw h ich p eop le a c t , e v idence f o r v a r iab i l i ty i na c t iv i t ie s b e tween t h e s exe s m ay p rov ide u s w i th i n d ica t ion s o f d i f f e ren t ia l t r ea tmen t a nd l i f e s ty les . T h i s m u s t n o t b e c onf u sed w i th t h e s imp le a s s ignmen t o f s ex ro le s o r a t temp t s t o p l ace v a lue s o n p a r t icu la r t a sk s , b u t r a the r , d epend ing o n t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s , w e m ay h ave am ean s o fi n s igh t i nt o t h e ' p e rf o rmance ' o fs ome a spec t s o fg ende r ; t h e h i s tory o f t h e b ody m ay p rov ide a r ep re sen ta t ion o f e ngende red p rac t ice s a nd w ay s o f l i f e . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s t h u s p r e sen t ac ompa ra t ive s ex r e la ted s t udy o fp a laeonu t r i t iona l a nd p a tho log ica l i n d ica to r s a c ro s s t h e c ho sen c eme te r ies . U nf or tuna te ly t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry h a s t o b e e xc luded f r om t h e d i scus s ion d ue t o ac omp le te l a ck o fa va i lab le d a ta . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t , d ue t od i f f e ren t ia l p r e se rva t ion , f i gu re s p r e sen ted f o r B a th G a te a nd B u t t R oad c eme te r ie s r e f e r t ot h e b u r ia l a r ea s ou th o ft h e F o s se Way a nd P e r iod 2

F ig . 1 0 A du l t a ge -a t -d ea th d i s t r ibu t ion b y s ex f or e ach c eme te ry . V er t ica l a xe s p r e sen tt h e p e rcen tages o fe ach s ex d y ing w i th in t h e g i ven a ge c r i te r ia : ' Young A du l t s ' 2 0 -29 .9 y ea r s ; ` M idd le -aged A du l t s ' 3 0 -49 .9 y ea r s ; ' O lde r A du l t s ' 5 0+ y ea r s . 4 7

r e spec t ive ly u n le s so t he rw ise s t a ted .

5 . 4 . 1

D ie ta ry C ompos i t ion a nd S ign s o fN u t r i t iona l S t re s s

Mo s t s t ud ie s o f d i e ta ry i n take f r om s ke le ta l r ema in s c oncen t ra te u pon d en ta l p a tho logy , t h e n a tu r e o f t h e d i e t i n f luenc ing t h e k i nd s o f d i sea se a nd b i omechan ica l f o rce s a f f ec t ing t e e th a nd j aw s . I t i s c ommon k now ledge t h a t d en ta l d ecay i s i n t ima te ly r e la ted t o d i e t , a nd v a ry ing d eg r ee s o f c a r ie s h ave o f t en b een u s ed t o i d en t if y d i f f e r en t ia l d i e ta ry h ab i t s a mong s t a nc ien t p opu la t ion s ( Tu rne r , 1 978 ; H i l lson , 1 986 ; L a r sen , 1 983 ; L a r sen e ta l . , 1 99 1) . O ve ra l l c a r ie s r a te s a tB u t t R oad ( 3 .9% ) a nd B a th G a te ( 5 .1 % )w e re r e la t ive ly l ow i nc ompa r i son t oo t he rs i tes ( We l l s , 1 982 : 1 47 ; P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 7 9 ; C ook a nd R owbo tham , 1 968 : 2 06 ; Eme ry , 1 963 : 2 75 ; Moo re a nd C o rbe t t , 1 973 ) b u t t h e p reva lence a t P oundbu ry w a s p a r t icu la r ly h igh f o r R omano -B r i t ish p opu la t ions a t 1 5 .8% ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 83) . A s c a r ie s r a te s i n c r ea sed w i th a ge a t P oundbu ry , t h e l a rge r p ropo r t ion o fo l d a du l t s i nt h e s amp le c ou ld a ccoun t f o r t h e h igh p r eva lence , b u t m ay a l so b e i n d ica t ive o f d i f f e rence s i n d i e ta ry i n take a c ro s s t h e s i te s , w i th h i ghe r c a rbohyd ra te a nd s uga r i n take b e ing i mp l ied f o r t h e P oundbu ry p opu la t ion . I n l i ne w i th mo s t R omano B r i t i sh s ke le ta l a s semb lage s ( A l la son Jone s , 1 989 : 4 9 ) , h oweve r , t h e c eme tery p opu la t ions s t ud ied h e r e e xh ib i ted a g ene ra lp a r i ty o fd en ta l h ea l th b e tween t h e s exe s . T he re w a s v i r tua l ly n o d i f f e rence i ng r ade s o fa t t r i t ion , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e o ve ra l l t e x tu re o ff ood c onsumed w a s e s sen t ia l ly s im i la r f o r b o th s exe s a nd a l a ge s , a nd t h e r e w a s v e ry l i t t le d i f f e rence i nc a r ie s r a te s , o ve ra l l m a le :f ema le r a tes a tB u t t R oad , f o r e xamp le , b e ing 3 . 9 :3 .8% ( P in t e r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 7 9 ) . O ve ra l l t o o th l o s s a t t h e B u t t R oad a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s , a l though n o t e spec ia l ly h igh a t1 0 .7% a nd 8 . 5% r e spec t ive ly , d i d e xh ib i t s ome s ex re la ted d if e rence . A tt h e f o rme r s i te ma les h ad ag r ea te r n umbe r o ft e e th l o s t ( 1 3% ) t h an f ema le s ( 8% ) , a nd o f t h e 1 3% o f s u rv iv ing j aw s s how ing s i gns o fd en ta l a b sce s se s , m a le s r e p r e sen ted 0 . 8% a nd f ema le s 0 . 5% o fo ve ra l l a b sce s se sp e rt o o th p o s i t ion . I n c on t r a s t , a t B a th G a te f ema le t o o th l o s s w a s 5 6% h i ghe r t h an a mong s t t h e m a le s . We l l s ( 1982 : 4 7 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s f i gu re i n d ica te s al owe r s t anda rd o f o ra l h yg iene a mong s t f ema le s , b u t t h e r e a r e a l ter na t ive e xp lana t ion s ; p r egnan t w omen m ay h ave l o s t t e e th d ue t o c a lc ium d ef ic iency , o r w omen m ay h ave mo re f r equen t ly u sed t h e i r t e e th i nn on -ma s t ica to ry f a sh ion . U nf o r tuna te ly t h e p o ten t ia l v a lue o fb io -chem ica l a na lyse s , b a sed o n t r ace e l emen t s a nd s t ab le i s o tope s , o f t en u sed t o l i nk d i e ta ry d i f f e ren t ia t ion t os ex , a ge a nd o ccupa t ion w i th in a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ions (W ing a nd B rown , 1 979 ) h a s n o t b een t a pped i n t o a s y e t i n s t ud ie s o f R omano -Br i t i sh s ke le ta l s e r ie s . A l though a ppa ren t ly " i n tended ( o r ig ina l ly )" f o rt h e B u t t R oad s e r ie s ( P in te r -Be l lows , 1 993 : 7 )i tw a s n o t u nder taken a nd m ay h opef u l ly ( d e sp i te i t s m any p rob lem s ; Mayha l l , 1 992 ; B lake ly , 1 989 ) p rove a f r u i tf u l a venue o f f u tu re r e sea rch . I nt e rm so fn u t r i t iona l s t a tu s , t h eb ody i sa s sumed t or e ac t t o b o th t h e q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o f d i e t i n s i gn if ican t a nd q uan t if iab le w ay s ( Ma r t in e t a l . , 1 985 ) . U nde r ' n o rma l ' n u t r i t iona l c i r cums tance s b one a nd d en ta l d eve lopmen t f o l low p r ed ic tab le a ge re la ted s chedu le s , a nd d i sce r n ib le 4 8

p a m s o f d i s tu rbance i n t h is s e quence m ay t h u s p rov ide am ean s o fs oc ia l i n f e rence c once rn ing t h e s e lec t ive e f f ec t s o f c u l tu re u pon c e r ta in s egmen t s o f t h e p opu la t ion , s uch a s s e x -de te rm ined i n equa l i ty o f a cce s s t o r e sou r ce s o r e xpo su re / su scep t ib i l i ty t o s t re s s . D e t e rm ina t ion o f n u t r i t iona l s t a tus i s , h oweve r , ac omp lex t a sk w i th n o tab le l i m i ta t ion s . T he s k e le ton t e nd s t o h ave a g ene ra l i sed r e spon se t o s t re s s m ak ing c au sa t ion d i ff icu l t t o a s cer ta in ( S t i r land , 1 986 ; P r ice e ta l . , 1 985 ) a nd i n d ica to r f r equenc ie s m ay b e a f f ec ted b y a g e -a t -dea th , g ene t ic f a c to r s , i n d iv idua l v a r ia t ion s i n n u t r i t iona l r equ i remen t , a nd s ex ( Cohen a nd B enne t t , 1 993 ; W ing a nd B rown , 1 979 ) . Mu l t ip le s i gn s o f s t re s s m ay e ven i n d ica t e ah igh l e ve l r a the r t h an a l a ck o f h ea l th a s s uch i n d iv idua ls s u rv ived t o t h e ' n ex t b ou t ' ( Goodman , 1 99 1) , a nd i tw ou ld b e n a ïve t oa s sume t h a t t h e f r equency o f d eve lopmen ta l d i s tu rbance s e v idenced b y a b u r ia l s amp le d i rec t ly r ef lec t s t h e e xpe r ience s o ft h e l i v ing p opu la t ion a sn o t a l s u ch s t re s s i sm an if e s t i nt h e s ke le ta l r e co rd , a nd s ome i n d iv idua ls m ay r e cove r o r d i e b ef o re o s teo log ica l a f f ec ta t ion ( Cook , 1 98 1 ; B ush a nd Z ve leb i l , 1 99 1) . D educ t ion s f r om t h e p r e sence /ab sence o f i n su l t m a rke r s m ay t h u s b e f a r l e s s s imp le t h an o f ten a n t ic ipa ted a nd t h e se g ene ra l p rob lem s , a l ong s ide o t he r s r e la ted t o s pec if ic m e thodo log ie s , s hou ld b e b o rne i n m ind i n a ny c on s ide ra t ion o fs oc ia l m ean ing . I n ve s t iga t ion o fn u t r i t iona l s t a tu s a tt h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s c oncen t ra ted u pon c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia ( a long w i th p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is ) a nd e name l h ypop la s ia . T he f o rme r , a r gued t o b e as k e le ta l m an if e s ta t ion o f i r on d ef ic iency a naem ia ( IDA ) , w a s e xh ib i ted i n9 . 9% , 1 7 .7% a nd 2 8% o fa va i lab le o rb i t s a t t h e B u t t R oad , B a th G a te a nd P oundbury c eme te r ie s r e spec t ive ly , p e rhap s i n d ica t ing r e g iona l v a r ia t ion i nn u t r i t iona l s t anda rd s . I nt e rm s o fs ex , m a le s a nd f ema le s w e re e qua l ly a f f ec ted a tP oundbu ry a nd B u t t R oad s ugge s t ing t h a t a t t h e se s i te s t h e s exe s w e re e xpo sed t o s im i la r c h i ldhood c ond i t ion s , b u t a t B a th G a te c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia w a s a lmo s t 5 0% mo re c ommon i n m a le s . T h is f i gu r e m ay g a in m o re c l ou t w hen o ne c on s ide r s t h a t w omen n a tu ra l ly l o se mo re i r on t h an m en , c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia t h u s o ccu r r ing m o r e c ommon ly i n a du l t f ema le s k e le ton s ( Cybu l sk i , 1 977 ; R a thbun , 1 984 ; S tua r t -Macadam , 1 985 ) . Wha t t h i s m ay i n d ica te i nr e la t ion t os e xua l ly d i f f e ren t ia ted d i e ta r y i n take i s , h oweve r , am a t te r o f d eba t e b o th i n t e rm s o f i n d ica to r r e l iab i l i ty a nd a r chaeo log ica l s oc ia l i n te rp r e ta t ion . Wh i ls tt h e c ond i t ion h a s b een c o r re la ted w i th n u t r i t iona l i n adequa cy i n n ume rou s s ke le ta l s amp le s ( S te inbock , 1 976 ; H u s s -Ashmo re e ta l . , 1 982 ; C a r lson e ta l . , 1 974 ; E l -Na j ja r e t a l . , 1 976 ; L a i bo e t a l . , 1 977 ) , t h e r e i s c on s ide rab le d eba te r e ga rd ing i t s a e t io logy a nd s i gn if icance . T he w o rk o f S t ua r t -Ma cadam ( 1985 1992 ) p rov ide s av e ry c onv inc ing c r i t ique w h ich s eve re ly q ue s t ion s t h e r o le o f d i e t i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f I DA a nd t h e l i ke l ihood o f t h is c ond i t ion p roduc ing r e la ted o s teo log ica l c hange s . C once rn ing t h e B a th G a t e s amp le , We l l s ( 1982 : 1 86 ) s t a te s t h a t a l though d i e ta ry d ef ic iency , p a r t icu la r ly i n adequa te q uan t i t ie s o fm ea t a nd g r een v ege tab le s , i st h e l i ke ly c au se , t h e o ve ra l l p hy s ica l d eve lopmen t o f t h e s e r ie s a c tua l ly s ugge s t s am ode ra te ly a bundan t a nd w e l l -ba lanced d i e t . D e sp i te t h i s c on ten t ion , h oweve r , We l ls p roceed s t os ugge s t t h a t p e rhap s w omen 's p r e sence i nt h e k i tchen p rov ided t h e ' c ho ice ' m o r se ls w h ich g ua rded t h em a ga in s t a naem ia w h i ls t m en 's a c t iv i t ie s t o ok t h em o u t s ide t h e h ome . C an t h is e v idence b e t a ken t or ef lec t t h e d omes t ic i ty o fw omen s o r e i te ra t ed i n c l a s s ica l s ou rce s , o r i s t h is s ugge s t ion

j u s t a no the r n orma t ive a s sump t ion? T he w ay i n w h ich a r chaeo log ica l a gency d ec ide s t o a n swe r t h is q ues t ion may h ave a p rof ound a f f ec t u pon t h e r e -w r i t ing o f g ender i d en t i t ies u pon t h e s amp le , a nd i ti sc e r ta in ly i n te res t ing t o n o te t h a t w h i ls t i nn ume rou s a r chaeo log ica l r epor t s e v idence f o r women 's l ower n u t r i t iona l s t anda rd s i sf r equen t ly t a ken t or ef lec tg ene ra l l ow s t a tu s , h e re t h e s ame e v idence f o r m en i st a ken t or e f lec tt h e ir p ub l ic a nd a c t ive o u tdoo r l i f e s ty les .

1 991) . A t t h e B a th G a te r e con s t ruc t ion f o rmu lae o f w e re u t i l i sed , a nd a t B u t t C onsequen t ly t h ey a r e a l l

t h a t t h e p ropor t ion s g l eaned f r om t h e s ke le ta l s amp les m ay d i f f e r f r om t h e r e f e rence p opu la t ion c ompo sed o f modern Ame r ican s o fn or th E u ropean a nce s t ry , a nd a s c onceded i n t h e p ub l ished r epor t s , t h e f o rmu lae may t hu s n o t n eces sa r i ly b e a pp rop r ia te . S pec if ic f o rmu lae f o r R omano -Br i t ish p opu la t ion s , h oweve r , c an o bv ious ly n ever b e d eve loped a s w e c an n o t k now t h e i r l i v ing h e igh t s , a nd t h e f o rmu lae o f T ro t te r a nd G lese r a r e g ene ra l ly c ons idered t o p rov ide t h e b e s ta l terna t ive , b u tr e su l t sc an o n ly b e c ons ide red i n d ica t ive r a the rt h an a b so lu te s t a tu re mea su remen ts ( Tab le 4 ) .

E name l h ypop la s ia h a s b een u sed t o i n ves t iga te t h e i n c idence o f ma lnu t r i t ion o r d i sea se a nd v a r ia t ions i n w ean ing p r ac t ices a mong s t a nc ien t g roup s a s t h e q ua l i ty o f a du l t e name l p rov ide s ap ermanen t r e co rd o f c h i ldhood s t ress e p isodes t ha t c an b e p l aced w i th in n a r row a ge i n terva ls a nd a na lysed b y s ex ( Dobney a nd G oodman , 1 99 1; S c iu l l i , 1 992 ; E nwonwu , 1 973 ; P e rz ig ian , 1 977 ; R o se e t a l . , 1 98 1) . T he re w a s , h oweve r , n o a ppa ren t s ex -ba sed d if e rence i nf r equency o fo ccur rence o fe name l h ypop la s ia a t a ny o f t h e s i tes , a l though a na ly s is o f aB u r t R oad s ub s amp le e xh ib i ted s ome s ex re la ted v a r ia t ion i n t h e a ge o f f o rma t ion w i th ma les a ppa ren t ly b e ing a t r i sk f r om a n e a r l ier a ge ( 0 .5 -1 .5 y ea r s w i th t h e b u lk o f c h i ld ren b e ing a f f ec ted f r om 1 . 5-3 .5 y ea r s ) a nd f o r ag rea te r p e r iod o f t ime ( 17% b e tween 4 . 5 -5 y ea r s ; P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 8 8 ) . I n g ene ra l , h oweve r , t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween n u t r i t ion a nd e name l s t ruc tu re i s c omp lex a nd n o t y e t f u l ly c omp rehended . T he a e t io logy o fe name l h ypop la s ia i sn on s pec if ica l ly r e la ted t o ' s t res s ' a nd w h i l s t t h is m ay r ef lec t d i e ta ry i n adequacy , s ome f o rms a r e h e red i ta ry , s ome a r e c au sed b y t r auma , a nd s u scep t ib i l i ty t o d ef ec t f o rma t ion v a r ies w i th in a nd b e tween t oo th t y pes ( Ro se e t a l . , 1 985 ; G oodman a nd R ose , 1 991 ; C ondon a nd R ose , 1 992 ; Ma rk s , 1 992 ) . T he re a r e a l so n o tab le p rob lems i n i d en t if ica t ion ( Danf o r th a nd G i l iber t i , 1 992 ; G oodman e t a l . , 1 992 ; P owe l l , 1 988 ; H i l lson , 1 989 ) .

T he h e igh t r a nge s f o r m a le s a nd f ema les a te ach c eme te ry c l ose ly a pp rox ima te t h ose o f many e a r ly g roups ; t h ey may b e c on s ide red ' med ium ' h e igh t s w i th ' no rma l ' d i s t r ibu t ions i n t e rms o f s exua l d imo rph ism . T he re i s s ome d i f f e rence a t t h e P oundbu ry s i te , t h e h ighe r ma le v a r iance b e ing p os tu la ted t o i n d ica te t h a t m en w e re d rawn f r om a w ide r a r ea t h an w omen , b u t a s Mo l leson ( 1993 : 1 68 ) s t a te s , m a les a r e mo re s ens i t ive t o e nv ironmen ta l s t ress a nd t hu s g ene ra l ly t e nd t oe xh ib i t g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty . T he m eans f o r b o th s exes a r e v e ry s im i la r a c ross t h e s i te s , a nd t o t h o se o f o t he r R omano -Br i t i sh p opu la t ions ( e .g . T ren tho lme D r ive , Y o rk ; Wa rw ick , 1 968 : 1 49 ) a nd t h e w ide sp read s im i la r i ty s ugges t s t h a t i n g ene ra l t h e re w a s n o ma rked s e x re la ted d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt h e n u t r i t iona l v a lue o fd i e ta ry i n take a nd t h a t s ubadu l t s a t e ach s i te e xpe r ienced s im i la r l e ve ls o f o ve ra l l s t re ss d ur ing d eve lopmen t .

5 . 4 .2

B u t t R oad

B a th G a te

P oundbury

S ex

A c t iv i ty -re la ted S t ress

R epea ted a nd p ro longed p hy s ica l a c t iv i ty o f c e r ta in k i nd s c an p roduce m a rked s ke le ta l c hange s , p ar t icu la r ly i f u nder taken f r om a n e a r ly a ge when t h e b ones w e re s t i l l g row ing a nd f u s ing . A c t iv i ty induced p a tho logy i s n on r a ndom , m ean ing t h a t h ab i tua l o ro ccupa t iona l s t res s m ay b e d i s t ingu ished i ns ke le ta l r ema ins a nd v a r ious t ypes o f' wea r a nd t e a r ' , c h ron ic i n ju ry o r d i sea se h ave b een a r gued t o r e p re sen tt h e p e rf o rmance o fp ar t icu la rt ypes o ft a sk s ( Lee e t a l . , 1 974 ; B enn ike , 1 985 ; K ennedy , 1 986 ; 1 989 ; K e l lg ren a nd L aw rence , 1 958 ; D ah l e t a l . , 1 981; Mo l leson , 1 989 , C ohen a nd A rme lagos 1 984 ; Merb s , 1 983 ; D u tou r , 1 986 ) . Many s t ud ie s h ave c oncen t ra ted u pon i n ves t iga t ion o f o s teoa r th ros is p a t ter n ing b ecause w h i ls t s uch f a c to r s a s g ene t ic p r ed ispo s i t ion , a dvanc ing a ge a nd g ene ra l h ea l th p rof i le m ay c on t r ibu te t oi t s d eve lopmen t ( J urma in , 1 977 ;

A du l t s t a tu re i so f ten u s ed a sa n i n dex o fh ea l th b a sed u pon t h e a s sump t ion t ha t w i th in -popu la t ion s hor t s t a tu re r ef lec t s c h ron ic d i e ta ry d ef ic iency o r d i sea se e xpe r ienced d u r ing y ounge r a ge g rade s ( Kennedy , 1 989 ; Ma r to re l l , 1 989 ) . L ong -bone m easu remen t s f r om a r chaeo log ica l s e r ies h ave t h us b een c ompa red t o s t a tu re r e cons truc t ion f o rmu lae t o g a in i n s igh t i n t o c h i ldhood g row th c ond i t ions ; a cces s t o n u t r i t iona l ly a dvan tageou s d i e t s p o ten t ia l ly e nab l ing c e r ta in p o r t ions o f c ommun i t ies t o mo re f u l ly r e a l ise t h e ir g row th p o ten t ia l ( Hav i land , 1 967 ; W ing a nd B rown , 1 979 ; McKeown , 1 988 ) . T he re a r e , h oweve r , c ons ide rab le d i ff icu l t ies i n he ren t i n s t udy ing g row th p a t terns f r om s k e le ta l r ema ins a nd i n a pp ly ing moder n s t anda rd s t o a nc ien t s amp les ( Hube r , 1 968 ; K rogman , 1 962 ; G oodman ,

C eme ter y

a nd P oundbury c eme te r ies t h e T ro t te r a nd G lese r ( 1952 ; 1 958 ) R oad , t hose o f T ro t te r ( 1970 ) . s ub jec t t o t h e s ame p rob lem i n

N o .

R ange

_

Mean

F ema le

5 9

1 . 42m ( 4 '8 " ) -1 . 7 1m ( 5 '7 " )

1 . 56m ( 5 '2 " )

Ma le

8 5

1 . 55m ( 5 '1" ) -1 . 90m ( 6 '3 " )

1 . 68m ( 5 '6 " )

F ema le

4 4

1 . 48m ( 4 '10 " ) -1 . 70m ( 5 '7 " )

1 . 58m ( 5 '2 " )

Ma le

1 07

1 . 60m ( 5 '3 " ) -1 . 82m ( 6 ' )

1 . 69m ( 5 '6 " )

F ema le

3 60

1 . 5 1m ( 4 '11" ) -1 . 71 m ( 5 '8 " )

1 . 61 m ( 5 '3 " )

Ma le

3 41

1 . 48m ( 4 ' 10 " ) -1 . 85m ( 6 '1" )

1 . 66m ( 5 '5 " )

T ab le 4 S ta ture e s t ima t ion , r ange s a nd m ean s b ys ex f or t h es ke le ta ls amp le sf rom t h eB u t tR oad , B a th G a te a nd P oundbury c eme ter ie s 4 9

T a in ter , 1 980 ) , t h e t y pe , d eg ree a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f j o in t a f f ec ta t ion may b e i n d ica t ive o f a n a c t iv i ty re la ted c au se a nd c ou ld h ave d i f f e ren t ia l ly a f f ec ted c e r ta in s ubg roup s o f t h e p opu la t ion , n o tab ly t h e s exe s , i f t h ey r e gu la r ly u nde r took d i f f e ren t t a sk s . O s teoar th ros is o ft h e s p ine , n eck a nd c l av ic le h a s , f o r e xamp le , b een l i nked t om anua l l a bou r ( S te inbock , 1 976 ; A nge l , 1 97 1; B r idge s , 1 994 ; L ove l l , 1 994 ) , i n c lud ing w omen 's u se o f c r ee ls ( M i le s , 1 989 ) a nd m en 's o ccupa t ions a s p a r ish b u tche r s (Wh i te , 1 988 ) . T he p resence o f d i s t inc t ive p a t terns r ef lec t ing s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n wo rk load s a nd a c t iv i t ie s c ou ld o bv ious ly p rove e x t reme ly u sef u l i n a r chaeo log ica l i n ves t iga t ions o f e ngendered p r ac t ices a nd l i f es ty les , p ar t icu la r ly p e rhaps i n t e rms o f c ha l leng ing n o rma t ive a s sump t ions ; B r idges ( 1987 ) , f o r e xamp le , f o und t h a t ` a t la t l e l bow ' ( a r th r i t is o f t h e e l bow j o in t ) w a s e ven ly d eve loped i n b o th s exes i n p r eh is to r ic A labama p opu la t ions d esp i te t h is a ff l ic t ion b e ing c on s idered d i agno s t ic o f s pea r th row ing a nd t h us a ' ma le

mo re s e ve re l e s ions i nt h e c e rv ica l r e g ion a nd ma le s i nt h e l umba r . We l ls ( 1982 : 1 54 ) s ugges t s t h is p a t tern i n d ica tes t h a t t h e w omen s t ra ined t h e ir n eck s a nd u ppe r b ack s b y c a r ry ing l o ad s o n t h e i r h ead s o r y ok ing w a te r , w h i ls t t h e m a le s s t ra ined t h e i r l owe r b acks b y u nder tak ing t h e h eav ie r l i f t ing w o rk . T he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n d i f f e r s i n t h e P oundbu ry s amp le w i th m a le a f f ec ta t ion e xceed ing t h a t o f f ema les i na l o ft h e s p ina l r eg ions . I ng ene ra l a tt h is s i te i t a ppea r s t h a t n e i the r s ex c a r r ied p ar t icu la r ly h eavy l o ad s t oa g r ea t e x ten t a s s p ina l c hange w a s n o t e xces s ive a nd o s teochond ro s is w a s r a re , b u t w hen h eavy t a sks s uch a s l i f t ing a nd d r agg ing w e re u nder taken t h ey a ppea r t o h ave m os t ly b een c ar ied o u t b y m a les a nd t h e h igher m a le r a te s o f c e rv ica l a nd t ho rac ic a f f ec ta t ion a r e s ugges ted t o b e r e la ted t o j e rk ing i n ju r ie s , p e rhap s w i th t h e m en d r iv ing c a r t s o r p l ough s a s t h e re i s s ome e v idence f o r w h ip la sh ( Mo l leson , 1 993 : 2 0 1-2 ) .

p r e se rve ' .

E ach s e r ies a l so e xh ib i ted s ex re la ted v a r ia t ion i n t h e a f f ec ta t ion o f o t he r j o in t s . A t B u t t R oad ma les e xh ib i ted h i ghe r r a te s o fo ve ra l l o s teoar th ro s is i n c idence ( 60 .83 % ; 7 3 o f 1 20 ) c ompa red t of ema les ( 46 .07% ; 4 1 o f8 9 ) w i th h i ghe r f r equenc ie s i n a l j o in t s a nd mo re c ommon mu l t ip le j o in t i n vo lvemen t ( P in te r -Be l lows , 1 993 : 8 5 ) . As im i la r p a t ter n , a l though w i th r e duced s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion , w a s a ppa ren t i nt h e B a th G a te s e r ie s , a nd a r th ro s is o ft h e h ips , k nees a nd a nk les , t a ken t o r ef lec t t h e s t resse s o f a g r icu l tu ra l w o rk , w e re mo re c ommon i nm a les . We l ls s ugges t s t h a t a r th ro s is o ft h e w r is t s a nd h and s a tC i rences te r " mus t h ave b een d ue t os uch . o ccupa t ions a sp lough ing , a x ing t imber , s m i th ing , a nd i n t h e c a se o f w omen p e rhap s , t o h oe ing o r b a ske t w eav ing" ( 1982 : 1 58 ) . O ne c an , h oweve r , o n ly h ope t h a t h i s d i v is ion o ft a sk s i nt h is m anner w a s b a sed u pon v a r ia t ion i n t h e s eve r i ty /pos i t ion ing o f a r th ro s is i n t h e w r is t s a nd h ands o ft h e s e xed s ke le tons , b u tt h e re i sn o e xp l ic i t m en t ion o f s uch f e a tu res . Mo l leson ( 1993 : 1 99 ) a s ser t s t h a t m a le s a nd f ema les i n t h e P oundbury s e r ie s " c er ta in ly a ppea r t o h ave b een i n vo lved i n d i f f e ren t a c t iv i t ie s" o n t h e b a s is o f d egene ra t ive j o in t d i sea se d i s t r ibu t ion . A s ide f r om t h e v a r ia t ions i n s p ina l a f f ec ta t ion , m a le s e xh ib i ted h i ghe r f r equenc ies o f c l av icu la r a nd w r is t c hanges a ppa ren t ly p o ss ib ly r e la ted t od i gg ing a nd l i f t ing a c t iv i t ies , a nd c r i te r ia u s ed t o i d en t if y h ab i tua l h o r se r i de r s ( Ange l , 1 964 ) w e re p r esen t i n1 7o f2 53 m a les ( 6 .7 % ) a nd o n ly 1o f3 42 f ema les ( 0 .3 % ) . Women e v idenced a much h i ghe r f r equency o f k nee a f f ec ta t ion , s ugges ted t ob e r e la ted t os uch a c t iv i t ies a s g r ind ing c or n o r c l ean ing f l oo r s , a nd s qua t t ing f a ce t s i d en t if ied i n3 2% o ff ema le s a nd 1 2% o fm a les may i n d ica te t h a t w omen s p en t mo re t ime f r om a n e a r ly a ge s qua t t ing , p e rhap s p i ck ing o ve r /g r ind ing g ra in ( Mo l leson , 1 993 : 2 00 ) . O ne mus t , h oweve r , a lway s k eep i n m ind t h e p rob lems o f i d en t if y ing s p ec if i c t a sk s f r om s ke le ta l a na ly s is .

I ti sv i ta l t on o te , h oweve r , t h a t w h i ls t m odern c l in ica l d a ta d oe s i n d ica te t h a t p eop le p rac t is ing p ar t icu la r o ccupa t ions i n cu r s pec if ic o s teoar thros is p a t terns , t h e a e t io logy i s c omp lex a nd t h e a s soc ia t ion i sn o t c l ea r -cu t ( Robe r t s a nd Manches te r , 1 995) . V a r ious s ke le ta l m od if ica t ions may r e su l t f r om as i ng le a c t iv i ty p a t te rn , a nd n ume rou s d i f f e ren t a c t iv i t ies m ay p roduce t h e s ame t ype s o f b iomechan ica l s t re s s r e sponses ( Eh renbe rg , 1 989 ) . T he re i sa c tua l ly l i t t le e v idence d i rec t ly l i nk ing s pec if ic o ccupa t ions t op a t ter n s o f o s teoar thros is a nd w e mus t b e c a ref u l n o t t or e ad t o o much i nt oi n conc lus ive a nd u n te s tab le e v idence ; t h e p rob lems o f i d en t if y ing k nown w eave r s i nt h e S p i ta lf ie ld s s amp le s hou ld b e h e ld u p a s a n e s sen t ia l c au t iona ry t a le ( Mo l le son a nd C ox , 1 993) . I ts hou ld a l so b e r emembe red t h a t i n d ica t ions o f s e xua l ly d i f f eren t ia ted l i f es ty les a nd a c t iv i t ies d o n o t p r ec lude s exua l i n equa l i ty a nd i ti sp r e sump t ive ( a nd o f ten b l a tan t ly s ex is t ) t o a s sume t h e a cc red i ta t ion o f d i f f e ren t ia l v a lue t oc e r ta in t a sk s . Mo s t e v idence f o r a c t iv i ty -re la ted s t ress i n t h e R omano B r i t ish s amp les i s p r esen t i n t h e f o rm o f s p ina l o s teoar th ro s is a nd o s teophy tos is ( f lange s o f n ew ly -fo rmed b one a round t h e m a rg in o f t h e a f f ec ted j o in t ) . T he f r equency a nd p a t tern ing o ft h ese f e a tu re s h a s b een t a ken t o i n d ica te t h e l i f e long p hys ica l w o rk o ft h e se p opu la t ion s a nd t h e re i ss ome s ex -ba sed d i f f e rence . H ighe r m a le r a tes o f s p ina l i n vo lvemen t a nd s eve r i ty w e re c ommon a c ro s s t h e s i te s a nd o n ly i nt h e B a th G a te s amp le d i d w omen 's s p ines e ven c l ose ly a pp rox ima te t h e f r equency o fa f f ec ta t ion o ft h e m en . T h is p a t te rn ing i n d ica tes s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n w o rk load s w i th m a les u nder tak ing t h e m o re s t renuou s t a sks , a nd w h i ls t a t C irences te r w omen 's s ha re o f t h e s t r enuou s w o rk load w a s d i sp ropor t iona te ly l a rge i nc ompa r ison t ot h e o t he r s i tes , h i ghe r m a le r a tes o f o s teophy t ic l i pp ing , S chmo r l 's n odes , a r th ro t ic h ead s o f r i b s a nd t h e f u s ion o f a d jacen t b one s b y l a rge o s teophy tes s ugge s t t h a t t h e h eav ies t w o rk w as s t i l l g ene ra l ly u nde r taken b y t h e m en (We l l s , 1 982 : 1 56 ) . D if f e ren t ia t ion i nt y pes o fw o rk loads i s a l so i n d ica ted b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o f a f f ec ta t ion a c ro s s t h e s p ina l r eg ions i nm a les a nd f ema le s . I nt h e B u t t R oad s e r ie s t h e l umba r r eg ion i st h e m os t a f f ec ted s i te i n m a les ( 33 o f 5) , f o l lowed b y t h e t ho rac ic ( 27 o f5 4 ) w h i l s t t h e f ema le p a t te rn i sr e ve r sed ( l umba r 8o f3 5 , t h o rac ic 1 8o f 3 7 ; P i n te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 8 5) . A s im i la r d i s t r ibu t ion i s p r e sen t i n t h e B a th G a te s amp le w i th f ema le s e xh ib i t ing

5 . 4 .3

T rauma

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f p a tho log ica l e v idence f o r t r auma t ic s t res s , i n corpo ra t ing a ny b od i ly i n ju ry o r wound , m ay p rov ide v a luab le i n s igh t i n t o t h e l i f e s ty les o f p a s t p opu la t ions , i n c lud ing a c t iv i ty p a t terns , e p isode s o f v i o lence , l i v ing e nv ironmen t a nd s ubs is tence e conomy . T he mo s t c ommon f o rm o fa nc ien t t r auma a r e f r ac tu res a nd i ti s o f t en p o ss ib le t o d i s t ingu ish b e tween t h o se c aused b y a cc iden t o r i n ten t iona l v i o lence o n t h e b a s is o f t h e ir t y pe a nd p os i t ion . T he mos t o bv ious e xamp le a r e ' p a r ry ' 5 0

f r ac tu re s ( J ans sens , 1 970 ; S t e inbock , 1 9 76 ) , a nd i nr e la t ion t ot h e B a th G a te s amp le We l ls ( 1982 : 1 6 1) o u t l ines c r i te r ia f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f a cc iden ta l /agg ress ive r i b f r ac tu re s , t h e f o rme r t e nd ing t o b e r e p resen ted b y b r eaks a t t h e r i b a ng le o rp o s te r io r t h ird , t h e l a t te r b y b r eak s i nt h e m idd le o r a n ter io r . S uch i n ju r ies , w he the r a cc iden ta l /agg ress ive , may h e lp t oe l uc ida te a n i n dex o f s t r if e w i th in p a s t p opu la t ions . T hey a r e u n l ike ly t o b e s p read w i th e ven f r equency a c ross a l a ge s a nd b o th s exes a nd m ay t h u s e nab le c u l tu ra l i n f erences r e ga rd ing d i s t r ibu t iona l d i spa r i ty , s uch a s t a sk d i v is ion o r t h eo re t ica l t e s t ing o f ' g ende r re la ted ' v io lence ( Arme lago s e t a l . , 1 98 1; 1 989 ; Swed lund a nd A rme lago s , 1 976 ; B enn ike , 1 985 ; P owe l l , 1 988 ) . T he re a r e , h oweve r , l i m i ta t ion s i n t h e i d en t if ica t ion a nd i n terp re ta t ion o f t r auma t ic l e s ions w h ich r e qu ire m en t ion . F i r s t ly , o n ly g ro ss i n jury i sr e presen ted i n t h e s ke le ton w h i ls t t he mu l t i tude o f c u t s a nd b ru ises e xpe r ienced b y ap opu la t ion r ema in i n v is ib le , t r auma i s u nder rep re sen ted i n j uven i les a s ' g reen s t ick ' f r ac tu res h ea l q u ick ly a nd e ff ic ien t ly , a nd e ven s ome f r ac tu res i n a du l ts m ay r epa i r w e l l e nough t o e vade d e tec t ion . D iagnos is i s a f f ec ted b y t h e c ond i t ion o f t h e r ema ins , w h ich , a l ong w i th t h e r e cogn i t ion , c o l lec t ion a nd r epo r t ing o f d a ta , m ay v a ry b e tween s i te s mak ing c r o ss c ompa r ison p rob lema t ica l ( S tewa r t , 1 969 ; S t e inbock , 1 976 ; L ove joy a nd H e ip le , 1 981) . P a tho log ica l b one m ay h ave a g ene ra l p r opens i ty t ob e l e ss l i ke ly t os u rv ive a nd t h e re m ay a l so b e d i f f icu l t ies i nd i s t ingu ish ing b e tween f r ac tu re s t h a t o ccur red c l ose t o o r a t d ea th , a nd a cc iden ta l p os t -mor tem d amage , r i tua l b reakage o r p seudopa tho log ica l l e s ions ( S t ir land , 1 986 ; B e l l , 1 990 ) . I n m o s t a nc ien t p opu la t ions i n ju r ie s a r e mo re c ommon i n ma le s ( Rober ts a nd Manches te r , 1 995) a nd t h e p a tho logy f r om t h e t h ree R omano -Br i t ish s e r ies g enera l ly f o l low s t h is p a t te rn . T h is c oncur rence i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le a tt h e B a th G a te a nd P oundbury c eme te r ies ( F igu r e 1) , 2 6 .7 % o f a du l t m a le s ( 5 5 o f2 06 ) a tt h e f o rme r s i t e , f o r e xamp le , h av ing a t l e a s t o ne f r ac tu re c ompa red t o 6 . 6% o fa du l t f ema les ( 6 o f 9 1 ; We l ls , 1 982 : 1 67 ) . F rac tu re d a ta f o r t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry c ou ld n o t b e d emon s t ra ted i n c ompa rab le v i sua l f o rm d ue t o al a ck o f i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing t h e n umbe r s o f e a ch b one t y pe r e cove red ( Tab le 5 ) . F o r p urpose s o f c ompa r i son o n ly t h e m a jo r b one s a r e r ep resen ted i n t h e f i gu res , f r ac tu res o f s ma l le r b ones a r e i n c luded i n t h e g ene ra l d i scu s s ion a nd o ve ra l l p ercen tages w he re

F ig . 1 1 F rac tured l i mb b one s a s ap ercen tage o ft h e t o ta l n umber o fb one s r ecovered f or e ach s ex a t t h e B a th Ga te a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s ( Adap ted f r om We l ls , 1 982 : 1 68 , T ab le 8 7 ; Mo l leson 1 993 : 2 04 , T ab le 5)

S ke le ta l E lemen t

a pp rop r ia te .

C lav ic le

F r ac tu res o f t h e f o rea rms ( Co l les ') a nd l owe r l imbs a r e c ommon a cros s t h e s i tes , r ef lec t ing ap a t tern s een i nr e cen t r u ra l p opu la t ions ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 2 04 ) . T ib ia a nd f i bu la f r ac tu re s a r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een a cc iden ta l , s uch a s s p ira l f r ac tu re s c aused b y t h e f oo t b e ing c augh t ( e .g . i n as t i r rup , r u t o rp loughsha re ) i n af a l l , w h ich w e re f a r mo re c ommon i nm a les t han f ema les ( 9 :2 ) a t P oundbu ry . O the r f r ac tu re s i t e s c ons is ten t w i th f a l ls , s uch a s t h e c l av ic le , w e re a l so m o re c ommon i nm a les a tt h is s i te , a nd w e re e xc lus ive t o m a le s a tB a th G a te . T h is h a s b een t a ken t o i n d ica te t h a t i t w a s t h e men w ho mos t ly u nder took s uch a c t iv i t ies a s p l ough ing a nd c ons t ruc t ion w o rk ( Mo l leson , 1 993 : 1 99 ) , a h ypo thes is p e rhap s s uppor ted b y f r ac tu red m a le f oo t b ones a t B a th G a te w h ich s ugges ted e i the r l a nd ing f r om a c on s iderab le h e igh t ( po ss ib le i n c ons t ruc t ion w o rk ) o r

_ M a le -

F ema le

I nde term ina te

-

1

H ume rus

-

-

1

R ad ius

4

2

-

U lna

1

4

-

F emu r

-

_

-

T ib ia

4

1

1

F ibu la

3

-

-

T ab le 5 D i s t r ibu t ion o ff rac ture s b y s ex a t t h e B u t t R oad c eme tery ( Adap ted f r om P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 7 5 ; T ab les 2 -28 ) a cc iden ta l f r ac tu re s , a ppa ren t ly l a rge ly r e su l t ing f r om f a l ls , w e re p r e sen t i n m a les ( P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 7 4 ) . S ome i n d irec t e v idence f o r s of t t i ssue t r auma , s uch a s e xos toses , w e re n o ted e xc lus ive ly i n ma les a tB u t t R oad a nd l a rge ly i n m a le s ( 87% ) a tB a th G a te ( P in te r -Be l lows , 1 993 : 7 4 ; We l ls , 1 982 : 1 73 -5 ) . I n c ong lome ra t ion , t h is e v idence c er ta in ly

d r opp ing s ome th ing o f w e igh t o n t h e f oo t ( pos s ib ly t r amp led b y a n a n ima l ; We l ls , 1 982 : 1 62 ) . T he f r ac tu re r a te a t B u t t R oad i sc ompa ra t ive ly l ow b u t s t i l l t w ice a sm any 5 1

a ppea r s t os ugges t s exua l d i f f e r en t ia t ion i ns u scep t ib i l i ty t o a cc iden t s , a nd h ence a l so i nc e r ta in t ype so fa c t iv i t ie s .

t r auma , i t ss t a tu s a s ab u r ia l r i te a nd i t sp ropo sed a s soc ia t ion w i th p r one b u r ia l ( Ph i lpo t t , 1 99 1) m eans t h a t i tw i l l b e d i scus s ed a l ong w i th t h et r ea tmen to ft h e c orp se .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f ' n on -acc iden ta l ' i n ju r ies v a r ie s c on s ide rab ly a c ro s s t h e s i te s , w i th f a r m o re e v idence f o r i n ten t iona l v i o lence b e ing a ppa ren t a tB a th G a te . H e re t h e m o s t c ommon b one s f r ac tu red o ve ra l l w e r e t h e r i b s , a bou t t h ree -qua r t e r s o f w h ich w e re i n d ica t ive o f a n a gg r e s s ive c au se d ue t o t h e i r p o s i t ion ing , a n i d ea a l so s uppor ted b y We l l s ' a s ser t ion t h a t v i o lence u sua l ly h i t s t h e l e f t s i de ( We l l s , 1 982 : 1 6 1) . ' Pa r ry ' f r a c tu re s w e r e i d en t if ied i ns i x m a le a nd o ne f ema le s ke le ton . F rac tu red m e taca rpa l s w e re e v iden t i nf i ve m a le s a nd o ne f ema le a nd a l though p o s s ib ly c au sed b y a cc iden ta l c r u sh ing , i n f ou r o f t h e m a le c a ses t h e f i f th m e taca rpa l ( l i t t le f i nge r ) w a s b roken , t h e d ig i t mo s t e xpo sed w hen w a rd ing o f f ab l ow . T h r ee o f t h ese c a se sh ad a l so s u s ta ined o the r i n ju r ie sw h ich c ou ld b ed ue t o v i o lence , o r i n d ica te v e ry p hy s ica l l i f e s ty le s c onduc ive t o t r auma (We l ls , 1 982 : 1 62 ) . Two b roken n o se s , b o th m a le , w e r e a l so a ppa ren t , b u t a gg re s s ive /acc iden ta l c au sa t ion i s u ncer ta in . I nt o ta l We l l s a r gue s t h a t a tl e a s t 4 0 ( 2 7 .8% ) o f t h e o ve ra l l 1 44 f r ac tu re s m ay h ave b een d ue t o d e l ibe ra te v i o lence , t h e o ve rwhe lm ing m a jo r i ty o f w h ich a f f ec ted m a le s .

I n s umma t ion , t h e s ke le ta l d a ta f r om t h ese l a t e R omanoB r i t i sh s i t e s i mp l ie s n o tab le r e g iona l v a r ia t ion i n d emog r aph ic p rof i le s . T he re a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s i n m a le :f ema le r a t io s w h ich a tl e as t a tt h e B a th G a te c eme te ry c an n o t b e ' s o lved ' b y t h e p ropo r t ion o f i n de te rm ina te s ke le ton s . Whe the r t h i s d i f f e rence r e f lec t s i n accu rac ie s i n s ex ing t e chn ique s , ag enu ine p reponde rance o fm a le s i nt h e l i v ing p opu la t ion , o r s pa t ia l d i f f e r en t ia t ion i n t h e c ho ice o f b u r ia l l o ca t ion f o r s ome f ema le s r ema in s u nc lea r . T he d a ta a l so i mp ly r eg iona l v a r ia t ion i n a ge -and sex s p ec if ic mo r ta l i ty s c hedu les w i th l a rge r p ropor t ion s o fm idd le -aged a du l t s o f b o th s exes d y ing a t B a th G a te a nd B u t t R oad c ompa red t ot h e l a rge r p ropo r t ions o fy oung a du l t s d y ing a t P oundbu ry a nd L ankh i l l s . O nce a ga in i ti su nc lea r w he the r t h is p a t te rn r e p re sen t s f l uc tua t ing r e g iona l d emog r aph ie s o r i s ap rodu c t o fa r chaeo log ica l me thod . Wh i l s t t h e re a r e i n d ica t ions o f d i f f e r ing d i e ta ry c ompo s i t ions a c ro s s t h e s i te s , t he r e i s ag ene ra l p a r i ty o f d en ta l h ea l th b e tween t h e s exe s a te ach s i t e a nd t h e r e i sl i t t le e v idence f o r s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n n u t r i t iona l s t a tu s . A l though t h e p r ef e ren t ia l t r ea tmen t o fm a le s f r om ay oung a ge i s s ugges ted t o e xp la in c h i ld m o r ta l i ty s chedu le s a t P oundbu ry , t h ese a r e b a sed u pon t h e d ub iou s s e x ing o f i mma tu re r ema in s a nd i n deed n u t r i t iona l i n d ica to r s s ugge s t t h a t m a le s a nd f ema le s u nde rwen t s im i la r c h i ldhood c ond i t ion s . O n ly a tB a th G a te w a s t h e re s ome h i n to fl owe r n u t r i t iona l s t anda rd s f o r m a le s , b u t t h e r e a r e p rob lem s w i th t h e a e t io logy o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia , a nd t h e re w a s n o s e x -ba sed d i f f e r ence i ns t a tu re o r i n c idence o fe name l h ypop la s ia . I n g ene ra l t h e r ef o r e i ta ppea r s t h a t t he re w a s n o ma rked s e xua l d i f f e r en t ia t ion i nn u t r i t iona l i n take .

I n ju r ie s c au sed b y w eapon s w e r e a l so f a r m o re f r equen t a t B a th G a te . D ep re s sed s ku l l f r ac tu r e s i n s even m a le s a nd o ne f ema le r e p re sen t i n ju r ie s l i ke ly t o h ave b een c aused i n ten t iona l ly w i th b l un t i n s t rumen t s , a nd f i ve m a le s a nd o ne f ema le e xh ib i ted i n c ised w ound s c au sed b y ab l ow t o t h e h ead w i th a s ha rp i n s t rumen t . I n c i sed l e s ion s w e re a l so f ound o n t h e a rms , l e g s o r s c apu la o f f i ve m a les , o ne o f w h ich w a s af a ta l w ound t yp ica l o fs wo rd to swo rd c omba t (We l l s , 1 982 : 1 69 ) . T h ree a dd i t iona l ' p o s s ib le w ound s ' w e r e a l so a s soc ia ted w i th m a le s ke le ton s . We l ls ( 1982 : 1 7 1) c onc lude s t h a t " a n umbe r o fw ound s . . p rove b eyond a l l r e a sonab le d oub t t h a t f i gh t ing — i nb a t t le , a r ena o r" pub" —w a s ac ommonp lace e ven t" , a tl e a s t a mong s t t h e m en o f l a te R oman C i rence s te r .

T he s u rvey o f a c t iv i ty r e la ted s t r e s s p a in t s a d i f f e r en t p i c tu re . We a r e s e e ing l a bou r ing u r ban p opu la t ion s i n w h ich s ex d oes a ppea r t oh ave b een as i gn if ican t o rgan i s ing p r inc ip le i nt e rm s o ft a sk d i v i s ion . T he r e a r e c ons i s ten t s e xb a sed d i f f e r ence s a c ro s s t h e s i te s w i th m a le s a ppea r ing t o h ave u nder taken t h e l i on 's s ha re o fh eavy l a bou r , a l though t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion i sr educed a tB a th G a te . I n ju r ie s p e rhap s r e la ted t o d r iv ing c a r t s o r p l oughs , e v idence f o r h ab i tua l h o r se r i d ing a nd h ighe r p ropo r t ion s o f t r auma t ic i n ju r ie s r e la ted t of a l l ing o r t r ampe l l ing a r e mo s t ly a s soc ia ted w i th m a le s , w h ich m ay b e t a ken t o s uppor t t h e i r mo re f r equ en t i n vo lvemen t i n h eavy a g r icu l tu ra l a nd e qu ine w o rk . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f ' n on -acc iden ta l ' i n jur ie s i si n te res t ing , b u t s omewha t i n conc lu s ive . T he i n c idence o fs u ch i n ju r ie s w a s s l igh ta tP oundbu ry a nd w a se ven ly d i s t r ibu ted b y s ex . B a th G a te e xh ib i ted b y f a r t h e mo s t e v idence f o r a gg r e s s ive i n ju ry a nd t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty w a s d i rec t ed t owa rd s m a le s , p e rhap s s uppo r t ing t h e h ypo the s is t h a t t h i s t own h ou sed a rmy v e te rans . T he B u t t R oad p a t ter n i sr e ve r sed a nd m ay i n d ica t e s ome g ende r re la ted v i o lence , w h ich S wed lund a nd A rme lago s ( 1976 ) t o ok t o r e f lec t l ow f ema le s t a tu s i n a nc ien t N ub ia . H oweve r , w e s hou ld n o t a u toma t ica l ly a s sume t h a t a l v i o lence a ga in s t w omen w a s u nder taken b y m en , a nd t h e re w e r e o n ly s even ' a gg re ss ive ' i n ju r ie s o ve ra l l m ak ing a ny s pe cu la t ion e x t reme ly d ub iou s .

E v idence f o r i n ten t iona l v i o lence i n t h e P oundbu ry s e r ie s w a s " s t r ik ing ly r a re" ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 2 03) . S even ' p ar ry ' f r ac tu r e s w e re i d en t if ied ( 5 m a le a nd 2 f ema le ) a nd p ene t ra t ing i n ju r ie s o ft h e s ku l l a nd s c apu la w e r e f o und i n t wo f ema le s , v i o len t d ea th b e ing s u spec ted i n t h e f o rme r c a se . T he B u t t R oad s e r ie s a l so e xh ib i ted a l ow f r equency o f i n t en t iona l t r auma t ic l e s ion s . H e re 8 1% o f f r a c tu r e s a ppea rt oh ave b een a cc iden ta l a nd t h e re i sn o e v idence f o r a ny w ound s c au sed b y s ha rp i mp lemen t s . I na l , o n ly s even i n ju r ie s a r e i n terp re ted a s a gg r e s s ive i n n a tu re , f i ve a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le s a nd t wo w i th m a le s . O ft h e se , t h ree w e re ' p a r ry ' f r ac tu re s ( 2f ema le , 1m a le ) a nd f o u rw e re h ead w ound s i n s t iga ted b y b l un t w eapon s . T he re i sa l so o ne ma le n a sa l f r ac tu re . I n v i ew o f R ober t s a nd Manche s te r 's c ommen t t h a t i n ju r ie s , a nd p ar t icu la r ly t h o se o f n on a cc iden ta l o r ig in , a r e u sua l ly m o r e c ommon i n m a le s , t h e B u t t R oad d a ta e xh ib i t s s ome v a r ia t ion . Wh i l s t o n ly 2 6% o f a cc iden ta l f r ac tu re s a f f ec ted f ema le s ( r educed t o 2 3 .3 % i f e xo s tose s a r e i n c luded ) , t h e re i sa lmo s t ar e ve r sa l i nt e rm s o f a gg r e s s ive i n ju ry d i s t r ibu t ion w i th o n ly 2 8 .6% o f s uch i n ju r ie s a f f ec t ing m a le s ( P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 7 6 ) . P o s tu la t ion c once rn ing t h is f e a tu re i sd i ff icu l t , h oweve r , a s t h ea c tua l n umbe ro ff r ac tu r e s i sv e ry s ma l l . A l though d ecap i ta t ion i s af o rm o f i n ten t iona l ly i n duced 5 2

CHAPTER 6

CONSTRUCT ION OF THE DATABASE

s ome s i t e s b e ing e xcava ted a nd r e por ted i n much m o re d e ta i l t h an o t he r s . T he v a r iou s p rob lems w i l l b e e l abo ra ted i nt u rn t h roughou tt h ep rog re s s ion o ft h is c hap te r .

T he m a in f o cu s o ft h e d a ta a na ly s i s w i th in t h i s w o rk i st h e e l uc ida t ion o fa ny a ppa ren t s t a t i s t ica l v a r ia t ion i nt h e b u r ia l t r ea tmen t o f t h e s exed c o rp se w i th in t h e s e lec ted l a te R omano -B r i t i sh c eme te r ie s a s am ean s o f i n ve s t iga t ing t h e t y pes o f r e p r e sen ta t ion s c on s t ruc ted i n t h e f une ra l r i t ua l . T h is a im f a ce s t wo i mmed ia te p r ac t i ca l p rob lems i nt h a t i t i n vo lve st h e m an ipu la t ion o f al a rge v o lume o fd a ta , a nd t h a t t h e se d a ta a r e e x t reme ly d i ve r se . T he u se o f ad a taba se p rov ide s t h e c apac i ty , t h e s imp le s t a nd mo s t f l ex ib le m ean s o fs o r t ing a nd a na ly s ing l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fi n f o rma t ion . F o r r e a sons o fc l a r i ty , c onven ience a nd a c cu racy t h e ref o r e , t h e d e ta i l s r e co rded f o r e ach g r ave a tt h e s e lec ted s i te s h ave b een e n te r ed i n t o ad a taba se c on s t ruc ted u s ing M ic ro sof t A cce s s V e r s ion 2 . 0 . T h is t y pe o f a pp roach d emand s a m e t icu lou s a t t i tude t owa rd s t h e d a ta a nd a t h o rough u nde r s tand ing o f t h e t y pes o f i n f o rma t ion i n vo lved a s t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined f r om t h e a na ly s i s a r e o n ly w or thwh i le i ft h e d a taba se c on s t ruc t ion i sa ss ound a nd d e ta i led a sp o s s ib le . I h ave t h u s d e s igned t h e d a taba se i n am anne r w h ich e nab le s a h igh l e ve l o f c on ten t c on s i s tency f o r c ompa ra t ive p u rpo se s . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion o f t h is c hap te r e xp la in s h ow t h e d a taba se h a s b een s t ruc tu red t o a l low c l ea r a wa rene s s o ft h e k i nd s o fa t t r ibu te s e ach d a ta f i e ld c on ta in s a nd h ow t h e se c an b e u t i l ised a nd c omb ined t og a in t h e mo s t i n -dep th a na ly t ica l u nde r s tand ing o ft h e d a ta . T he s t ruc tu r e d eve loped a nd d iv is ion o ft h e d a ta f r om 3 168 g rave s i nt o c omp r ehen s ive a nd c ompa rab le a s pec t s w he re a pp rop r ia te a c ro s s t h e s i tes h a s b een a n e x t r eme ly c omp lex t a sk . P rob lem s h ave r a nged i n s c a le f r om s imp le m a t te r s o f c onve r t ing t o m e t r ic m ea su remen t s a c ro s s t h e b oa rd , t o e qua t ing d i f f e r ing t e rm ino logy u s ed t o d e sc r ibe s k e le ta l p o s i t ion ing , a nd d i ff icu l t ie s i ne s t ab l i sh ing c ompa rab le a ge g rade s . C er ta in a spec t s o fs i te c ompa r i son s a r e i mpo s s ib le w he re p a r t icu la r c eme te r ie s l a ck a l r e levan t d a ta , w he the r t h i s i s d ue t o v a ry ing s o i l c ond i t ions a nd s t a te s o f p r e se rva t ion , o r d if e r en t ia l r e co rd ing m e thodo log ie s w i th

6 . 1

T he d a taba se h a s b een d i v ided i n t o v a r ious f o rm s a s e xh ib i ted i nt h e E n t ry P age ( F igu re 1 2 ) . T he se f o rm s h ave b een d e s igned t o a low t h e u nde r ly ing d a ta s t o red i n t h e t a b le st ob e m o r e c omp r ehen s ive ly a nd e a s i ly a cce s sed . T he f i r s t f o rm e n t i t led C eme ter yD e ta i l s l i nk st h e c eme te ry n ame t o i t s l o ca t ion a nd p r e sen t s t h e g ene ra l p e r iod o f u s e a nd m a in p ub l ica t ion r e f e rence d e ta i ls f o r e ach s i te ( Append ix 1 ) . T he S ec t ion D e ta i l s f o rm p r e sen t s t h e v a r iou s a r ea s o f t h e s i te s e xcava ted t o e nab le d i scus s ion o f t h e s pa t ia l a r rangemen t o f s pec if ic g r ave s a c ro s s e ach c eme te ry ( Append ix 2 ) . T he re i ss cope f o r m uch v a r ia t ion i nt h e m any a spec t s b y w h ich a ny g r ave c an b e d e sc r ibed , i n t h e t y pe o f b ody c on ta ine r s ( g rave a nd c off in ) a lo t ted t o t h e d ecea sed , t h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e b ody a nd t h e c ompo s i t ion o fa ny a s soc ia ted a r tef ac t s . F o ra na ly t ica l p urpo se s t h e d a taba se h a s t h u s b een s ub -d iv ided i n t o f o u r m a in /key s e c t ions ( i nden ted b ox F igu r e 1 2 ) c omp r i s ing G rave D e ta i l s , C of f in D e ta i l s , S ke le ta l D e ta i l s a nd A s soc ia ted A r tef ac t s , a l ong w i th s ome a dd i t iona l ' s p in -off f o rm s s uch a s T ex t i le R ema in s a nd E nc lo su re D e ta i l s . T o v i sua l ly r e co rd t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e k ey s e c t ion s i ti sa pp rop r ia te t o c on s t ruc t a n e n t i ty r e la t ion sh ip d i ag ram ( F igu re 1 3 ) . T he d i ag ram d emon s t ra te s h ow t h e t a b le s r e la te t o e ach o t he r , a nd c ommon d a ta u s ed a st h e t a b le 's p r ima ry k ey s . E ach g r ave h a s a u n ique i d en t if ica t ion n umbe r a s soc ia ted w i th a p a r t icu la ra r ea o f ac e r ta in c eme te ry . Wh i ls t e ach g r ave c u t

C eme te ry D e ta i ls

S ec t ion D e t a i ls

G rove D e ta i ls

C o f f in D e ta i ls

S ke le ta l D e ta i ls

C rema t ion D e ta i ls

C o f f in F i t t ings

E nc losu re D e ta i ls

Ma in tenance S c reens

F ig . 1 2

D a taba se S truc ture

A ssoc ia ted A r t e fac ts

T ex t i le R ema ins

t i e

D a taba se E n try P age e xh ib i t ing t h em a in f orm s u t i l i sed 5 3

m ay p o ten t ia l ly c on ta in mu l t ip le c of ins a nd e ach c off in m ay c on ta in mu l t ip le s ke le ton s , b ecause t h e p r ima ry f o cu s o fm y w o rk i st h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e i n d iv idua ls b u r ied , e ach i n d iv idua l s ke le ton h a s b een a lo t ted au n ique g r ave n umbe r w i th in i t s c eme te ry . T h is n umbe r c or re spond s t ot h e g r ave n umbe r g i ven i nt h e e xcava t ion r e por t b u t h as b een s uff ixed w he re mu l t ip le s ke le ton s a r e p r e sen t w i th in as i ng le g rave t o f a c i l i ta te d i s t inc t ion b e tween i n d iv idua ls . F o r t h is r e a son e ach g rave r e co rd w i th in t h e d a taba se c an o n ly c on ta in o ne s k e le ta l r e co rd a nd o ne c off in r e co rd , a nd e ach c off in r e co rd c an o n ly c on ta in o ne s ke le ta l r e co rd , t h u s p rov id ing ad i rec t o ne to -one r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e se e n t i t ies .

B ody C on ta ine r i s ap r esen t /ab sen t f i e ld t o e nab le g ene ra l c ompa r i son , t h e t ype o f c on ta ine r , s uch a s c off in o r h o l lowed -ou t l o g , b e ing e n te red i nt h e C off in D e ta i l s f o rm . C o rp se -w rapp ing r e f e r s t o e v idence f o r ' s h roud ' u s e , s uch a s l a te ra l c ompre s s ion o f t h e s ke le ton a nd t e x t i le r ema in s / imp re s s ion s , a nd i si n c luded i nt h is s e c t ion b ecause s uch b u r ia l s a r e n o t n ecessa r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th b ody c on ta ine r s a nd a r e t hu s a b sen t f r om t h e C of in D e ta i l s f o rm . W i ld ( 1983 : 1 48 )s ugge s t st ha tt h et e x t i le r ema in s a s soc ia ted w i th b u r ia ls a t t h e B u t t R oad a nd P oundbury c eme te r ies r ep resen t c o rp se a nd g r ave -good s w rapp ing r a the r t h an c l o th ing r ema ins . C la rke ( 1979 : 1 38 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h e mo re c ommon u se o f c orpse w rapp ing /heav ie r m a te r ia l u t i l ised i ns h roud s f o r f ema les a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry a nd c ons ide ra t ion o f s t a t is t ica l v a r ia t ion b e tween t h e s e xes i n t h is b u r ia l a spec t may t h us b e w or thwh i le , b u t c onc lu s ions mus t a lway s b e t e n ta t ive d ue t o p rob lem s w i th t h e p r ese rva t ion o fo rgan ic r ema ins .

T he k ey f o rms u t i l ised a r e p re sen ted a nd e xp la ined b e low , a nd r e f e rence i sm ade t o t h e A ppend ices f o r i n f o rma t ion r e ga rd ing ' s p in -of f ' f o rm s w he re a pp rop r ia te .

6 . 1 .1

G rave D e ta i ls T he m idd le s e c t ion o f t h is f o rm i s c oncerned w i th t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f g rave p repa ra t ion a nd t r ea tmen t . T he

T he f i r s t s e c t ion o f t h e G rave D e ta i l s f o rm ( F igu re 1 4 ) i s c once rned w i th t h e i d en t if ica t ion a nd s pa t ia l l o ca t ion o f t h e g raves a s e xp la ined i n t h e ER ( En t i ty R e la t ionsh ip D iag ram ) . A more p r ec ise D a te i sp rov ided f o r i n d iv idua l g raves a nd t h ey a r e a loca ted t o aB u r ia l P e r iod w he re a pp rop r ia te t o f a c i l i ta te t empo ra l c ons ide ra t ion . T he D i sposa l Me thod a nd d eg ree o f E xcava t ion a r e a l so r e co rded h e re . D ispo sa l Me thod d i s t ingu ishe s b e tween i n huma t ions , e mp ty g raves a nd c eno taphs . A s i n huma t ion w a s t h e d om inan t r i te , o n ly 1 3 c r ema t ions b e ing p r e sen t a c ro ss t h e f ou r m a in c eme te r ie s s t ud ied , a l ong w i th p rob lem s i nt h e s ex ing a nd a ge ing o fc r ema ted r ema ins , t h e f o rme rc ons t i tu te t h e b a s is o f my s t udy . C rema t ions a r e s t i l l i n c luded i nt h e d a taba se a nd w ar ran t s ome d i scuss ion i nt h e t e x t a s t h ey r ep resen t ac oncur ren t b u r ia l r i t e c ho sen f o r s pec if ic i n d iv idua ls a nd d e ta i l s h ave t h us b een r e co rded i na s epa ra te C rema t ion D e ta i l s f o rm e xh ib i ted a sA ppend ix 3 .

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A l ignmen t o fg r ave -p i t s h a s b een e n te r ed f o r e ach c eme tery w he re a va i lab le , b u t t h ey a r e d i ff icu l t t o c ompa re d ue t o a l a ck o fs t anda rd isa t ion i nr e co rd ing m e thodo log ie s . P rec ise b u r ia l a l ignmen t s m ay b e d i f f icu l t t od e term ine i na ny c a se i nc eme te r ies w h ich l a ck d i s t inc t ive g r ave c u t s , s uch a s a t B a th G a te c eme tery , a nd i n deed a tt h i s s i te e xac t c ompa ss b ea r ing s w e re n o t t a ken a te xcava t ion b u t w e re t a ken f r om r e ad ing s o f ac ompo s i te p l an a f t e r c omp le t ion o fe xcava t ion w h ich e ncou rage s i n accu racy ( V ine r a nd L eech , 1 982 : 7 6 ) . I n t e rms o f m e thodo logy , g rave -p i t a l ignmen t s a tb o th t h e B a th G a te a nd L ankh i l ls c eme te r ie s h ave b een b a sed u pon t h e a l ignmen t o ft h e s ke le ton . A t B a th G a te t h e g r ave -p i ts o fs ke le tons w i th ' h ead t on or th ' w e re t a ken t oh ave an o r th s ou th l o ng a x is , w i th in 4 5 ° e i the r s i de o f c ompa ss n o r th , w h i ls t t h e g r ave -p i t s o fs ke le tons w i th ' h ead t o s ou th ' w e re t a ken t o h ave as ou th -nor th l ong a x is . A t L ankh i l ls g r ave

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w i th in mauso lea h ave b een c onver ted t o c ompa ss p o in t s , a nd a par t f r om a f ew g raves e xh ib i t ing a l ignmen t s i n b e tween t h e c ompa s s p o in t s w h ich c l ea r ly d o n o t f i ti nt ot h e s t anda rd c eme tery l a you t , a l g raves a r e a l igned e i the r e a s t w es to rn o r th -sou th .

a l ignmen t s a r e p re sen ted i n d eg ree s g iven i n t e rms o f t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e h ead t o T rue N o r th . F o r p urpose s o f s t anda rd isa t ion t h ese m easu remen t s i n d eg rees h ave b een c onve r ted i n t o c ompa ss p o in t s f o l low ing t h e B a th G a te m e thodo logy o fw i th in 4 5° o ft h e f o u r ma in c ompa s s p o in t s . I nc on t ra s t , a tt h e B u t t R oad s i te t h e a l ignmen t o fg rave -p i t s a nd b ody p os i t ion ing w e re t r ea ted a s e n t ire ly d i f f e ren t a spec t s o f b u r ia l p rac t ice , a nd h e r e ag rave w i th a n or th s ou th l o ng a x is m ay c on ta in as ke le ton w i th ' h ead t on or th ' o r ' h ead t o s ou th ' ( Crummy a nd C ro ssan , 1 993 : 9 ) . T he s epa ra t ion o fg rave -p i t a nd s ke le ta l a l ignmen t a nd u se o ft h e 4 5 ° i d en t if ica t ion s pans m ean t h a t o n ly t wo c ompa ss p o in t a l ignmen t s a r e p os s ib le f o r t h e g r ave -p i t s , n o r th -sou th a nd e a s t -wes t , w h ich i sr e f lec ted i n t h e B u t t R oad d a ta . T he P oundbury m e thodo logy i sl e ss c l ea r ly s t a ted . O n ly 8 . 41 % o f g r ave -p i t s a r e p rov ided w i th a n a l ignmen t i n t h e g rave d a ta l i s t , b u t t h e s i te p l ans , t e x t a nd t h e d a ta s how ing t h a t 8 7% o fs ke le tons h ad h ead t o e a s t o r w e s t i n d ica te t h a t t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f g r ave -p i ts w e r e a l igned a l ong a g ene ra l e a s t -wes t a x is . T he d a ta a l so i n d ica te t h a t g rave -p i t a nd s ke le ta l a l ignmen t w ere t r ea ted s epa ra te ly a s g rave -p i t s a l igned n o r th sou th c on ta ined s ke le tons w i th h ead s t o b o th n or th a nd s ou th a nd t h is m e thodo logy t hu s a ppea r s t oh ave f o l lowed t h e s ame p r inc ip le s a dop ted a tt h e B u t t R oad s i te . F or a na ly t ica l p urpo ses t h e ref o r e , g rave -p i t s c on ta in ing a s ke le ton w i th ' h ead t oe a s t ' o r ' h ead t ow es t ' a tP oundbu ry h ave b een a cco rded a n a l ignmen t o f e a s t -wes t w i th in t h e d a taba se . A l ignmen t s p ub l ished i n d eg rees f o r g rave -p i t s

G rave -p i t d imens ions a r e n o t d i rec t ly c ompa rab le a c ross t h e c eme te r ie s , p a r t ly b ecause o f t h e d i f f e ren t ia l a va i lab i l i ty o fd a ta d ue t os o i l c ond i t ions , t h e h omogeneous b l ack l o am a t B a th G a te , f o r e xamp le , h ampe r ing t h e r e cogn i t ion o f g rave c u t s a nd s o w h i ls t d ep ths a r e r e co rded f o r a lmo s t 9 5% o f t h ese g raves , n o w id ths o r l e ng ths a r e n o ted . A t t h e L ankh i l ls s i te d ep th i sr e co rded f o r a lmo s t 9 4% o f g raves , b u t a ga in w id ths a nd l e ng ths a r en o tp rov ided . A t B u t t R oad d imens ions a r e p rov ided f o r l e s s t h an 2 4% o f g r aves , a nd a r e r e co rded e i the r f o r g rave -p i t o r c off in s i ze , i nt h e l a t te r c a se b e ing i n corpo ra ted i n t o t h e d a taba se a s am in imum g rave -p i t m easuremen t . A t P oundbu ry e ach o ft h e g r ave -p i t m ea su remen ts a r e p rov ided f o r a round 9 0% o f g raves . D iff icu l t ies i nc ompa r ison o fd ep ths a l so a r ise f r om e xac t ly w he re t h e m ea su remen t s w e re t a ken . A t t h e B a th G a te s i te d ep th s w e re r e co rded f r om modern g round l e ve l , b u t a t L ankh i l ls w e re t a ken f r om t h e c ha lk s u rf ace e xpo sed b y m echan ica l d igg ing . S uch m easu remen t s a r e t hu s r e la t ive t o s pec if ic s i te m e thodo log ies , a nd d o n o t a c tua l ly r ep re sen t t h e o r ig ina l d ep th o f t h e g r ave i n a ny c ase a s a l lowance s mus t b e m ade f o r t op so i l a nd p o ss ib le e ros ion ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 7 ) . T he s ame p rob lems w i th s o i l c ond i t ions a f f ec t 5

d e sc r ip t ion s o fp i t s hape , s i de s a nd c o rne r s . T he se f e a tu r e s a r e n o t c ompa rab le a c ros s t h e s i t e s b ecau se d e ta i led p i t s hape i so n ly a va i lab le f o r P oundbu ry , a nd d e sc r ip t ion s o f p i t s i de s a nd c o rne r s f o r L ankh i l l s . T he A na ly s is D ep th , L eng th a nd W id th e n t r ie s h ave b een i n corpo ra ted t o m ake t h e d a ta m o r e a menab le t oa na ly s is . A s ide f r om B u t t R oad w he re o n ly e i gh t s exed a du l t g r ave s e xh ib i t a d ep th m ea su remen t , t h e f i gu res h ave b een d i v ided i n t o t e x t c a t ego r ie s f o l low ing t h e L ankh i l l s m e thodo logy ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 33 ) a s t h i s f i t s t h e d a ta f r om t h e o t he r s i te s r e a sonab ly w e l l : -4 0 c m 4 1 -8 0 c m 8 1 -1 20 c m 1 2 1 +c m

I d en t if ica t ion o f T imbe r V au l t s a nd d e sc r ip t ion s o f g r ave S t ep s r e f e r t o c on s t ruc t ion m e thod s a nd g r ave p r epa ra t ion . S i x c l ea rt imbe r l ined v au l t s w e re r e co rded a tt h e B u t t R oad s i te a nd i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t s t epped g r ave s a t t h e L ankh i l l s a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s r e p re sen t as im i la r p henomenon , t h e s t ep s b e ing u sed t os uppo r t t imbe r c ro s s b eam s . I t i s p o s tu la ted t h a t v au l t c on s t ruc t ion a t t h e L ankh i l l s s i t e d id n o t r equ i re t h e u s e o f t imbe r l i n ing t o s uppo r t t h e p i t s i de s d ue t ot h e s o i l t y pe ( c ha lk ) w he rea s a t B u t t R oad t imbe r l ined v au l t s w e r e n ece s sa ry b ecau se s t ep s w ou ld h ave b een u n re l iab le s uppo r t i n i s o la t ion i n s and . T he se f e a tu re s m ay t h u s r ep re sen t as im i la r s t y le o f b u r ia l a dap ted t o s u i t l o ca l s o i ls ( Crummy a nd C ro s san , 1 993 : 14 ) . S im i la ru nna i led p lank v au l t sh ave b een n o ted a to t he r l a te R oman c eme te r ie s s uch a sK e lvedon i nE s sex ( Rodwe l l , 1 988 : 3 7 -4 1) .

-S ha l low -A ve rage -D eep -V e ry d eep

F o r t h e A na ly s i s L eng th e n t ry o n ly t h e B u t t R oad a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s w e re a menab le t o a na ly s i s , b a sed u pon t h e f o l low ing c r i te r ia : B u t t R oad —b a sed o n a n a ve rage l e ng th o f 1 24 .7 c m w i th a s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f5 3 .50 c m ; 0-7 1 c m 7 2 -1 06 c m 1 07 -1 42 c m 1 43 -1 78 c m 1 79 + c m

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P oundbu ry —b a sed o n a n a ve rage l e ng th o f 1 8 1 .02 c m w i th as t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f5 1 .96 c m ; 0-1 29 c m 1 30 -1 64 c m 1 65 -1 98 c m 1 99 -2 33 c m 2 34 + c m

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F o r t h e A na lys i s W id th e n t ry a ga in o n ly t h e B u t t R oad a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s w e re a menab le t o a na lys is , b a sed u pon t h e f o l low ing c r i te r ia : B u t t R oad -b a sed o n a n a ve rage w id th o f3 9 .71 c m w i th a s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f2 6 .16 c m ; 0-1 4c m 1 5 -3 1 c m 3 2 -4 9 c m 5 0 -6 6c m 6 7 +c m

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P oundbu ry —b a sed o n a n a ve rage w id th o f6 4 .33 c m w i th a s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f1 9 .0 1 c m ; 0-4 5 c m 4 6 -5 8 c m 5 9 -7 1 c m 7 2 -8 3 c m 8 4 +c m

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T he D iame te r m ea su remen t h a s n o t b een a loca ted a n A na ly s is e n t ry b ecau se o n ly t wo g r av e s f r om P oundbu ry e xh ib i ted d a ta . 5 6

G rave L in ing r e f e r s t ot h e e x ten t o f i n c lu s ion o f m a te r ia l s s uch a s s t one o r t i l e s w i th in t h e g r ave ( e .g . c y s t /pa r t ia l l i n ing ) . C ompa ra t ive a na ly s is c an b e u nde r taken o n t h e b a s i s o fp r e sence , e x ten t , t ype s o fm a te r ia ls a nd p o s i t ion ing , a l though t h e re c an b e s ome d i ff icu l ty i n d i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween i t ems p u rpo sef u l ly p l aced a s p a r t o f b u r ia l t r ea tmen t a nd t ho se i n corpo ra ted w i thou t ' mean ing ' , s uch a s t h e t i dy d i spo sa l o f r ubb le b y g rave d i gge r s . T he S u rf ace Ma rke r e n t ry o n ly r e f e r s t o t ho se m a rke r s t h a t a r e mo re s ub s tan t ia l t h an mound s , s uch a s t imbe r p o s t s o r s t one a nd t i l e f r agmen t s v i s ib le u pon e xcava t ion . A ga in t h e r e c an b e p rob lem s i nd i f f e ren t ia t ing r e s idua l b u i ld ing d eb r i s , a nd i n c l a r i ty b e tween s u rf ace o rc of f in /co rp se m a rk ing . T he l a t te r f e a tu r e , a r gued t ob e u t i l i sed t op reven t f u tu re d i s tu rbance o r t o f a c i l i ta t e l o ca t ion f o r s ub sequen t i n te rmen t s ( C rummy a nd C ro s san , 1 993 : 1 00 ) , h ave o n ly b een d i s t ingu i shed a tt h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry , a nd , i fp resen t a ta l , c ou ld h ave b een s ub sumed w i th in ' g rave l i n ing ' a tt h eo t he rc eme te r ie s . T he f i na l s e c t ion o f t h e G rave D e ta i l s f o rm i sc once rned w i th g rave p l acemen t . F i r s t ly , w he re a pp rop r ia t e , t h i sr e f e r s t o t h e a s soc ia t ion o f g r ave s w i th f u ne ra ry e nc lo su re s , i n c lud ing m au so lea a tt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry . D e ta i ls o f e ach e nc lo su re h ave b een e n te red i nt o as epa ra te E nc lo su re D e ta i l s f o rm ( Append ix 4 ) . S econd ly , g rave p o s i t ion ing i s c on s ide r ed i n r e la t ion t o o t he r b u r ia l s . D a ta p e rm i t t ing , a na ly s is o fg ene ra l p l acemen tw i th in ' Sha red G rave s ' c an b e u nde r taken , a l ong w i th mo re d e ta i led r e la t ive p o s i t ion ing , i . e . p l acemen t ' Above ' , ' Be low ' o r ' Be s ide ' ( t o l e f to rr i gh t o f ) o t he r s pec if ic b u r ia ls . T he A na lys i s P lacemen t e n t r ie s f a c i l i ta te c on s ide ra t ion o f w he the r s ha red b u r ia l s w e re c on s ide red t o b e c on tempo ra ry o r p r ima ry b u r ia l s w i th s ub sequen t i n ser t ion s , o r w he the r t h ey m ay b e c l a s sed a s ' mu l t ip le ' o r ' s tacked ' b u r ia l s . A lso i n c luded h e re a r e d e ta i ls o f g r ave I n te r sec t ion ( cu t s o r c u t /de s t royed b y l a te r g rave s ) , a nd ' S ea led b y ' r ep re sen t ing c h rono log ica l d eve lopmen t . T he re a r e p o ten t ia l p rob lem s i n t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f ' t rue ' s t acked /mu l t ip le b u r ia ls , h oweve r , t h a t mus t b e n o ted . T he s t ack ing o fb u r ia ls i sd i f f e ren t t o o ve r lapp ing d ue t o t h e i n ten t iona l r e -u se o f ap l o t f o r a s e cond o r s ub sequen t b u r ia l . T h is ' i n ten t ' r e ce ives s uppo r t i n t e rms o f DNA a nd g ene t ic a ff in i t ie s i n s ome s t a cked b u r ia l s a t t h e B u t t R oad s i te , b u t i n c r owded c eme t e r ie s s ome a ppa ren t ' s tack ing ' m ay h ave b een a cc iden ta l a nd d i s t inc t ion b e tween i n ten t /acc iden t m ay p rove d i f f icu l t i n m any c a se s .

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T he C of f in D e ta i l s f o rm ( F igu re 1 5 ) i s l a rge ly s e lf e xp lana to ry , f i e ld s w h ich r e qu ire f u r the r e l uc ida t ion i n c lude C off in D e ta i l a nd Na i l D is t r ibu t ion . C off in D e ta i l c on ta in s a dd i t iona l i n f orma t ion r e la ted t o t h e C off in D e sc r ip t ion ; a s t one c of f in , f o r e xamp le , m ay b e P or t land o r G reensand s t one , a nd t h e re may b e v a r ia t ions i n s hape s uch a s

n a i l c oun t s h ad t ob e c o l la ted f r om t h e o r ig ina l s i te r e co rds . F o r c ompa ra t ive p urpo se s , t h e m in imum n umbe r o f n a i ls r e qu i red t o i n d ica te t h e p r esence o f an a i led t imbe r c off in i n my s t udy h a s b een s e t t o ' 3 o r a bove ' a c ross a l l t h e

t a pe red /pa ra l le l s i de s a nd s qua re / sem ic i rcu la r e nd s . T he p resen ta t ion o f d a ta c once rn ing N a i l D is t r ibu t ion i s e x t reme ly v a r iab le a c ro ss t h e s i te r e por t s a nd w h i ls t s ome s pec if y t h e p re sence o f n a i ls a tt h e h ead a nd f oo t e nd , f o r e xamp le , o t he r r epo r t s m ere ly n o te t h e i r ' s ca t te red ' o r ' e ven ' d i s t r ibu t ion . D iscus s ion o f t imbe r /na i led t imbe r c off in p r e sence i s c onf ined b y d i ff icu l t ie s i n r e cogn i t ion . S ome t ime s t h e a bsence o f ac off in c an b e f a i r ly c er ta in , s uch a s w hen t h e p os i t ion o f t h e s ke le ton r e la t ive t o t h e g rave s i de p r ec ludes t h e p re sence o f ac off in p l ank i n -be tween ( s uch a s a t L ankh i l ls ; C la rke , 1 979 : 1 42 ) . Wood s t a ins o r f r agmen t s , w hen v i s ib le , m ay p rov ide e v idence o f c of f in p re sence , b u t o f ten n a i ls a r e t h e o n ly p o s i t ive e v idence w e h ave . T h is i s c l ea r ly l i m i t ing a s s ome c off in s m ay h ave b een c on s t ruc ted w i thou t n a i ls ( e .g . p egged / jo in ted /o rgan ic -

T he C of f in F i t t ing s b u t ton l e ads t o as epa ra te f o rm w h ich h ou ses t h e n umbe r , t ypes , d e sc r ip t ions a nd p os i t ion ing o f a s soc ia ted c off in f i t t ing s ( F igu re 1 6 ) . I n t h is f o rm mu l t ip le g rave n umber s a r e a pp l icab le w he re mo re t h an o ne s ke le ton a ppea r s t oh ave s ha red t h e s ame c off in , o r w he re mo re t h an

t i ed t imbe r c off ins ) , o r n a i l s m ay h ave c or roded , s ome m ay b er e s idua l , l o s tb yd i s tu rbance o rm i s sed o n e xcava t ion , a nd a s e em ing l a ck o f c off in m ay t hu s s ome t imes r ef lec t l i m i ta t ion s i n s u rv iva l , r e cogn i t ion a nd r e co rd ing . T he s ugges ted p resence o f an a i led t imbe r c off in i s o f ten a s ub jec t ive d ec is ion t a ken b y t h e a r chaeo log is t . Mo s t r epor t s s e t am in imum n umbe r f o r n a i ls r e cove red f r om a g rave b efo re n a i led c off in p r esence i st a ken t o b e i n d ica ted , b u t t h is n umbe r v a r ies b e tween r epor t s . T he B a th G a te r epor t , f o r e xamp le , s pec if ied t ha t mo re t h an 3 n a i ls w e re n eces sa ry , w h i ls t t h e P oundbu ry r e por t s pec if ied 3 o r mo re n a i ls b u t d id n o t p resen t t h e a c tua l n umbe r s r e cove red . Wh i ls t c ommendab le w o rk o n c off in c ons t ruc t ion m e thod s a nd p l ank t h ickne ss h a s b een u nder taken i n r ega rd t o t h e B u t t R oad d a ta , t h e m in imum n umbe r o f n a i ls t a ken t o s ugges t t h e p resence o f an a i led c off in i sn o t s t a ted a nd t h e

6 . 1 .3

c eme te r ies .

o ne c off in w a s p r e sen t w i th in a s i ng le g rave c u t a nd i ti s u nc lea r t o w h ich c off in t h e f i t t ings b e longed . D is t inc t ion b e tween t h ese p o ss ib i l i t ie s i s c l a r if ied i n t h e A dd i t iona l I n f orma t ion e n t ry , w he re i ti s a l so n o ted i ft h e f i t t ing s b e longed t oa n i n ne rc off in . S ome i t ems a r e e n tered a s ' i ron o b jec t s ' i nt h e c off in f i t t ing s t a b le i n a ccordance w i th t h e p ub l ished r e por t s , b u t t h e i r s t a tus a s f i t t ing s r ema ins q ues t ionab le a nd t h is i sa ccoun ted f o r i na na lyses .

S ke le ta l D e ta i ls

T he f i r s t s e c t ion o ft h e S ke le ta l D e ta i l s f o rm ( F igure 1 7 ) i s c oncerned w i th t h e s ex a nd a ge -a t -dea th o f t h e c eme tery p opu la t ion s . I n t e rms o f s ex , a na lys is o f b ur ia l t r ea tmen t m ay b e u nder taken b o th i n c lud ing a nd e xc lud ing " ?Fema le" a nd " ? Ma le" c a tego r ies w he re a loca t ion t o s ke le ta l s ex h a s b een s t a ted t ob e ' p robab le ' i nt h e p ub l ished g rave d a ta . T he A ge a nd A ge C r i te r ion e n t r ies r e f er r e spec t ive ly t o t h e a ge -a t -dea th i ny ea r s a nd t h e c r i te r ion ( Adu l t , A do le scen t , C h i ld ) a s s pec if ied i ne ach c eme tery r epor t . T he E s t ima ted e n t ry i n d ica tes w he the rt h is Age C r i te r ion w a s p o s tu la ted o n t h e b a s is o fc of f in /g rave -p i t s i ze a nd /o r s ke le ta l s i ze w he re w ho le /pa r t ia l s ke le tons w e re e xposed b u t n o t l i f ted , t h us e nab l ing t h e i n c lu s ion o re xc lus ion o f t h ese e s t ima tes f o r 5 7

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b een u t i l ised t o m ake t h e a ge d a ta f o r e ach s i te m o re a menab le . H e re e ach s ke le ton , w he the r r e p resen ted b y a ge i ny ea r s o rc r i te r ion i nt h e p ub l ished l i s t , h a s b een a lo t ted t o a n a ge c r i te r ion t o f a c i l i ta te w i th in -ceme tery a na lys is , p a r t icu la r ly a s t h e b a s ic a na lys is o f b u r ia l t r ea tmen t o f ` Ch i ld :Adu l t ' c an b e s upp lemen ted b y t h e d i v is ion o f ' Adu l t ' i n t o mo re d e ta i led c a tego r ie s , n ame ly ' Young

c ompa ra t ive p urpo se s . D ue t o t h e d i f f e ren t a ge ing m e thodo log ies u sed , t h e m ix tu re o f a ge r e p re sen ta t ion i n y ea r s a nd c r i ter ion , a nd t h e v a ry ing a ge -sp reads c on s ide red t o c on s t i tu te s pec i f ic a ge c r i te r ion a c ro ss t h e d i f f e ren t c eme te r ie s , d i rec t c ompa r ison o f b u r ia l t r ea tmen t b y a ge a c ro s s t h e s i tes i sp rac t ica l ly i mpo ss ib le . E ach s i te i st hus a na ly sed i n d iv idua l ly a nd my A na ly s is C r i ter ion e n t ry h a s 5 8

We l ls ( 1982 : 1 35 ) , t h e Y oung A du l t c a tegory mus t h ave a s t ar t ing a ge o f 1 8 y ea r s a s s ke le tons c l a ss if ied a s m e re ly ' Adu l t ' w i th n o p rov i s ion o f a ge i n y ea r s m ay h ave h ad a n a ge -a t -dea th o f 1 8 -19 .9 y ea r s . A du l t s a t t h is s i te may t h u s h ave b een u p t o t wo y ea r s y ounge r a t d ea th t h an t h e A du l t s a t t h e P oundbu ry a nd B u t t R oad c eme ter ies , a nd A do lescen t s m ay a ppea r t o b e c ompa ra t ive ly u nde r r ep re sen ted i nt h e B a th G a te mo r tua ry s amp le . T he A na ly s is C r i te r ia i n t roduced a r e a sf o l lows ;

A du l t ' , ` M idd le -aged A du l t ' a nd ' O ld A du l t ' w he re t h is d i v is ion i sn o t a l ready a l lo t ted i nt h e p ub l ica t ion . A s s ha l l b e d i scu s sed f o r thw i th , t h e A na ly s is C r i te r ion , whe re p o ss ib le , h a s b een b a sed u pon t h e a ge d i v is ions p rov ided i n t h e r e levan t p ub l ica t ion ( Poundbury a nd B u t t R oad c eme te r ie s ) , b u t h a s b een i n t roduced i nt h e m anne r d eemed t o mos t a pp rop r ia te ly s u i t t h e a ge i ny ea r s s p read s f o r d a ta w he re c r i te r ion a ge d i v is ion s a r e n o t s pec if ied ( Ba th G a te a nd L ankh i l l sc eme te r ie s ) .

A do le scen t Y oung A du l t M idd le -aged A du l t O ld A du l t

T he a ge A na lys is C r i ter ion f o r t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery , i n c lud ing d i v is ion o f ' Adu l t s ' i nt o t h e t h ree c a tego r ies , i s b a sed u pon t h e c l ea r ly s pec if ied a ge sp read d i v is ions i nt h e p ub l ica t ion ( F a rwe l l a nd Mo l le son , 1 993) ; F oe ta l /Neona te I n f an t C h i ld A do lescen t Y oung Adu l t M idd le -aged A du l t O ld A du l t

I n c a se s w he re t h e s p read o f a ge i n y ea r s c ro ss -cu t t h ese c r i te r ia Ih ave t a ken t h e m id -po in t i nt h e a ge r ange p rov ided t o i n d ica te a pp rop r ia te a loca t ion t o ac a tegory . A l though

0 1 mon th 1 11 .9 mon ths 1 12 .9 y ea r s 1 3 19 .9 y ea r s 2 0 -35 .9 y ea r s 3 6 -45 .9 y ea r s 4 6+ y ea r s

t h is m e thodo logy i sf a r f r om i d ea l i ti st h e mos t s u i tab le m eans a va i lab le o f m ak ing t h e d a ta p rov ided a menab le t o a ge a na ly s is . A t t h e L ankh i l ls s i te s ke le tons w i th a n a ge -a t -dea th o f 2o r l e ss y ea r s w e re c l a s s if ied a s ' i nf an t ' , a nd t ho se w i th a n a ge a t -dea th o f 2 15 y ea r s w e re c l ass if ied a s ' Ch i ld ' . T he d i v id ing l i ne b e tween ' Neona te ' a nd ' I nf an t ' i sn o t s t a ted . T he ' Ado le scen t s ' w i th in t h is s amp le c ou ld n o t b e d i s t ingu ished b ecau se t h e C h i ld c a tego ry e nd s a t 1 5 y ea r s a nd a l a ge g r ades a bove 1 5 y ea r s a r e l o o se ly d esc r ibed a s

T he c a tego ry ' Adu l t ' w here n o a ge i ss pec if ied r e f e r s t o i n d iv idua ls w i th a n a ge -a t -dea th o f2 5+ y ea r s . O n ly t h ree s k e le tons , r e co rded f r om e a r l ie r e xcava t ions , d i d n o t f i t n ea t ly i nt ot h e c r i te r ia ; W123 G rave 1 78 B u r ia l 1 27 w i th a n a ge -a t -dea th o f c . 40 -50 y ea r s c ro s s -cu t s t h e c a tego r ies a nd f o r a na ly t ica l p urpose s h a s b een p l aced w i th in t h e M idd le -aged Adu l t c a t ego ry ; G rave 1 268 a nd W123 G rave 2 22 B u r ia l 1 49 h ave t h e a ge c r i te r ion " ?Adu l t" a nd d ue t o t h e u ncer ta in ty o f t h is c l a s s if ica t ion h ave b o th b een s ub sumed w i th in t h e a ge i n de t erm ina te c a tego ry .

' Adu l t ' ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 23) . Wh i ls t t h e re a r e t h ir teen ' Adu l t s ' w i th a ge sp read s b e tween 1 5 a nd 2 0 y ea rs w ho m ay r e p resen t s ome o ft h e A do lescen t s w i th in t h e c eme te ry p opu la t ion , t ho se s ke le tons d esc r ibed a s ' Adu l t ' w i th n o a ge i ny ea r s p rov ided m ay h ave b een a s y oung a s 1 6 y ea r s a t d ea th a nd a t temp t s t o s epa ra te o u t t h e A do lescen t s i n t h is s amp le w ou ld t hu s p rove s omewha t a r b i t ra ry . T he ' Adu l t ' a ge d a ta f r om t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery i sb y f a r t h e mo s t d i ff icu l t t om an ipu la te f o r a na ly t ica l p urpo ses . T h is i sd ue t ot h e f o l low ing p rob lem s . Whe re ' O ld A du l t ' i sc l a ss if ied a s 4 6+ y ea r s a tP oundbu ry a nd 5 0+ y ea r s a t t h e o t he r t wo c eme te r ie s , t h e re a r e a c tua l ly o n ly t h ree ' Adu l t s ' w i th a ges p rov ided o f4 0+ y ea r s f r om t h e L ank i l ls s i te , a nd i n deed " of t h e 1 85 p eop le w ho s u rv ived u n t i l t h ey w e re a bou t t wen ty , o n ly f i f ty two d ef in i te ly d i ed when o lde r t h an t h ir ty" ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 23) . T h is a ppa ren t l a ck o f ' O ld ' A du l ts c ou ld b e d ue i np ar t t o t h e a f o remen t ioned s ugges t ion t h a t t h e L ankh i l ls s ke le ta l d a ta w a s u nde r -aged t o s ome u nspec if ied e x ten t , a nd i sf u r the r e xace rba ted b y t h e h i gh p ropor t ion ( 16 .42% ) o f' Adu l ts ' p rov ided w i th ' open -ended ' a ge -a t -dea th s p read s ( e .g . 2 5+ a nd 3 5+ y ea r s ) , m any o f w h ich w ou ld c l ea r ly h ave c ross -cu t a l l t h e ' Adu l t ' c a tego r ies c l a ss if ied a tt h e o the r c eme te r ie s . D iv is ion o ft h e L ankh i l ls a ge d a ta i nt ot h ree c o r respond ing Young , M idd le a ged a nd O ld A du l t c a tego r ie s i st hus i n app l icab le . I no rde r t oa t temp t s ome i n f e rence b y a du l t a ge d i v is ion s a tt h is s i te I h ave t hu s i n t roduced o n ly t wo a ge A na lys is C r i te r ia ;

T he a g e A na lys is C r i te r ion f o r t h e B u t t R oad c eme tery i s b ased u pon t h e c l ea r ly s pec if ied a g e -sp read d i v is ions i nt h e p ub l ica t ion ( Crummy e ta l . , 1 993 : 8 ) . S ubadu l t s a r e d iv ided i nt os i x c a tegor ies ; b i r th -0 .9 y ea r s , 1 1 .9 y ea r s , 2 -4 .9 y ea r s , 5 -9 .9 y ea r s , 1 0 -14 .9 y ea r s a nd 1 5 19 .9 y ea r s . I ts hou ld b e n o ted , h owever , t h a t t h e p r ec ise a ge re la ted d i v id ing l i ne b e tween ' Ch i ld /Ado lescen t ' i su nc lea r ; o ne s ke le ton w i th a n a ge -a t -dea th o f 1 3 -15 y ea r s , f o re xamp le , b e ing c l a ss if ied a s aC h i ld , w h i ls t a no the r w i th a n a g e -a t -dea th o f 1 4 -15 y ea r s i sc l a s s if i ed a s a n A do lescen t . I ns uch c a ses t h e d a ta i nt h e A na ly s is C r i ter ion e n t ry r ef lec t s t h e A ge C r i te r ion p rov ided i n t h e p ub l ica t ion . D e ta i led d i v is ion o f t h e ' Adu l t s ' i n t o Young , M idd le -aged a nd O ld c a tego r ie s i sp r e sen ted i nt h e p ub l ica t ion ; Y oung Adu l t M idd le -aged A du l t O ld Adu l t

1 3 17 .9 y ea r s 1 8 -29 .9 y ea r s 3 0 -49 .9 y ea r s 5 0+ y ea r s

2 0 -29 .9 y ea r s 3 0 -49 .9 y ea r s 5 0+ y ea r s

T he c a tego ry ' Adu l t ' i s u sed w he re n o a ge i n y ea r s i s s pec if ied a nd o ne c an o n ly a s sume t h a t t h is r e f e r s t o i n d iv idua ls o f2 0+ y ea r s , r e f lec t ing t h e l owe s t Y oung A du l t r ange , a l though i ti sn o tewo r thy t h a t t h is r e a son ing d oes n o t a pp ly t ot h e P oundbu ry d a ta .

Y oung A du l t O lde rA du l t

T he A ge C r i te r ia f o r t h e s k e le ton s f r om t h e B a th G a te c eme te ry a r e l e ss c l ea r ly s pec if i ed , w i th n o s ubd iv is ion o f t h e ' Adu l t ' c a tego ry b e ing p rov ided . T he A na lys is C r i te r ion e n t r ies f o r t h is s i te t hus c on ta in a ge c r i te r ia t h a t Ih ave i mpo sed u pon t h e d a ta , i n t roduc ing d i v i s ion s mos t s u i ted t o t h e s p reads o f a ge -a t -dea th i n y ea r s . I n a cco rdance w i th

1 6 -24 .9 y ea r s 2 5+ y ea r s

A s ar e su l t , o n ly t wo s ke le tons w i th ' open -ended ' a ge r a nges ( 20+ y ea r s ) c ou ld n o t b e a s s igned t o t h e A na lys i s C r i te r ia . T he V ic to r ia R oad a nd H yde S t ree t a ge A na lys i s C r i te r ion h ave b een o rgan ised i n t h e s ame manne r a s L ankh i l l s t o p romo te c ompa rab i l i ty a c ros s t h e W inches te r 5 9

s amp le s . T he s e cond s e c t ion o f t h e S ke le ta l D e ta i l s f o rm i s c once rned w i th t h e p o s i t ion ing o f t h e c o rp se . T he f i r s t e n t ry , e n t i t led H ead T o , c on ta in s c ompa s s p o in t s i n d ica t ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e h ead o ft h e b u r ia l . B ody P o s i t ion a nd S ku l l P o s i t ion c on ta in d a ta s uch a s S up ine /P rone /On l e f t s i de . S ku l l P o s i t ion d a ta h a s o n ly b een e n te red i n t o t h e d a taba se f o r t h e L ankh i l l s a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s w he re c l a s s if ica t ion i sc l ea r ly e xp la ined a nd p re sen ted i nt h e g rave l i s t s ; a tL ankh i l ls , f o r e xamp le , as ku l l w a s o n ly t a ken t ob e l y ing o n t h e l ef t o r r i gh t s i de i ft h e e n t i re s i de o ft h e s ku l l w a s r e s t ing o n t h e g rave b o t tom ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 8 ) , b u t t h is i n f o rma t ion i sn o t a va i lab le f o rt h e B u t t R oad s ke le ton s a nd i nm any c a se s If ound i ti mpo s s ib le t oc l a r if y s ku l l p o s i t ion w i th c e r ta in ty i nt h i s r e spec t f r om s i te p ho tog raph s . T he re a r e a l so s ome i n con s is tenc ie s i nt h e p ub l i shed d a ta w h ich h ave b een i r oned -ou t w i th r e cou r se t o s ke le ta l p l an s , p ho tog raph s a nd a dd i t iona lt e x t ; t h e B ody P o s i t ion ing o ft h e d ecap i ta ted s ke le ton G rave 4 51 a tL ankh i l l s , f o r i n s tance , i s d e sc r ibed a s " Body o n i t s b ack" i n t h e g r ave l i s t w h i l s t a s soc ia ted t e x t s t a te s t h a t t h e s ke le ton w a s " l y ing o n i t s f r on t" ( C la rke , 1 979 : 9 0 -9 1) . L eg a nd A rm p o s i t ion s a r e s e lf -exp lana to ry a l though i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t i n t h e d a taba se p o s i t ion s s uch a s ' Hand s o n p e lv i s ' a r e c on ta ined w i th in t h e A rm p o s i t ion f i e ld a st h e h and a nd a rm p o s i t ion s a r e r e la t ive . T he H and p o s i t ion f i e ld i st h u s r e se rved f o r mo re ' u nu sua l ' p l acemen t s , s uch a s c a se s w he r e t h e h and / s o f o ne s ke le ton h ave b een p l aced w i th t h e h and / s o f a n e ighbou r ing s ke le ton . B o th l i mb p o s i t ion s h ave b een d i v ided t o i n d ica te t h e l e f t a nd r i gh t s i de o f t h e b ody t o e nab le mo re d e ta i led a na ly s is o f c omb ina t ion s o f d i f f e ren t b ody e l emen tp o s i t ion s . D ecap i ta ted i s ay e s /b lank f i e ld a nd r e la te s t ot h e H ead P l aced e n t ry , s uch a s ' d ecap i ta ted w i th h ead p l aced b e tween k nee s ' . D e ta i ls c once rn ing c orp se p o s i t ion ing h ave b een e n te red a c co rd ing t o t h e w r i t ten d e sc r ip t ion s p rov ided i n t h e p ub l i shed g rave l i s t s f o r t h e P oundbu ry , B a th G a te a nd L ankh i l ls c eme te r ie s . T he B u t t R oad c eme tery r e po r t s t a te s t h e g ene ra l B ody P o s i t ion o f e ach s ke le ton ( s up ine /p rone e t c . ) w he re k nown , b u t w r i t ten d e sc r ip t ion s a r e o n ly p rov ided f o r ah and -f u l l o f t h e mo re ' u nu sua l ' l i mb p o s i t ion s a s d e ta i led s t udy o fb ody e l emen t p o s i t ion ing w a s n o t u nde r taken ( Ca r l C ro s san , p e r s . c o rn . ) . T he d a ta e n te red f o r t h e s k e le ta l p o s i t ion ing f r om t h i s s i te h ave t hu s b een c omp i led f r om t h e g r ave p l an s a nd e xam ina t ion o ft h e s i te p ho tog raph s s t o r ed a tt h e C o lche s te r A rchaeo log ica l T rus t . T he t e rm ino logy o fm y d e sc r ip t ions o f t h e B u t t R oad a rm a nd l e g p o s i t ion s i sc l a r if ied w i th s e lec t ed e xamp le s i nA ppend ix 5 . T he s t a te o fS ke le ta l S u rv iva l a nd w he the r o rn o t t h e g rave a ppea r s t o h ave b een D i s tu rbed a r e a l so i n c luded i n t h i s s e c t ion a st h e se f a c to r s m ay i nf luence t h e b ody p o s i t ion ing d a ta . I th a s t o b e a cknow ledged t h a t w h i ls t a ny a spec t o f b ody p o s i t ion ing m ay b e d r awn i nt ot h e s t ra teg ie s o f t h e f u ne ra l a gency , t h e re a r e n ume rou s o t he r f a c to r s w h ich h ave t h e p o ten t ia l t o a f f ec t t h e d a ta t o w h ich w e h ave a r chaeo log ica l a cce s s . B ody p o s i t ion ing m ay f o r i n s tance b e a f f ec ted b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance , d ecay o f t h e c o rp se a nd s h roud , a nd c o l lap se o f t h e c off in . S ome i n d iv idua ls m ay h ave d i ed w h i l s t i n ac er ta in b ody p o s i t ion a nd s imp ly w e re n o t s t ra igh tened o u t a f t e r r i go r m o r t i s s e t i n . I l ne s s m ay h ave p reven ted s ome p eop le f r om l y ing i na s up ine p o s i t ion , s uch a s o s teophy to s i s i n t h e v er teb rae a s m ay h ave b een t h e c a se f o rG rave s 2 06 a nd 3 4 1 a tt h e B a th 6 0

G a te c eme te ry w h ich w e re b u r ied l y ing o n t h e i r l ef t a nd r i gh t s i d e s r e spec t ive ly (We l ls , 1 982 : 8 1) . E ven w hen w e c an b e r e a sonab ly s u r e t ha t t h e b ody p o s i t ion h a s r ema ined t h e s ame a s i tw a s a t b u r ia l t h e re m ay s t i l l b e i n t e rp re ta t iona l p rob lem s . A s H a rman e ta l . ( 198 1 : 1 6 1-8 ) s t a te , f o r e xamp le , p rone b u r ia l m ay b e ad ef ined a nd i n ten t iona l ly s i gn if ican t b u r ia l p r ac t ice , b u t o n o cca s ion c ou ld a l t e rna t ive ly h ave r e su l ted f r om t h e i reve rence o r n eg lec t o fg r ave d i gge r s , a nd i nt e rm s o f h ead o r ien ta t ion t h e re i sa lway s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e u t i l isa t ion o fc off in s w i thou t e x ter na l i n d ica t ion o f t h e ' h ead -end ' m ay h ave s k ewed t h e i n ten t ion o f t h e f une r a l a gency i ns ome c a se s ( Crummy a nd C ro s san , 1 993 : 9 ) . T he f i na l p a r t o f t h e S ke le ta l D e ta i l s s e c t ion i sc once rned w i th h uman r ema in s f o und d epo s i ted w i th ' o the r ' b u r ia l s . T he R ema in s F o rm e n t ry s pec if ie s t h e f o rm o f s ke le ta l r ema in s r e cove red , s uch a s ' l oo se b one ' . T he R ema in s L oca t ion e n t ry s pec if ie s w he re t h e se r ema ins w e re p l aced i n r e la t ion t ot h e g r ave -p i t 's ' p r ima ry b u r ia l ' , s uch a s ' i n t h e f i l l o f G r ave 2 89 ' , a nd t h e T heo ry e n t ry c l a r if ie s t h e e xcava to r 's i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e p r e sence o ft h e se r ema in s ; i tm ay b e c on s ide red , f o r e xamp le , t h a t t h ey r e p re sen t a d i s tu rbed a nd r e -depo s i ted b u r ia l , o r w e re i n t en t iona l ly a s soc ia ted w i th p r ima ry b u r ia ls , s u ch a s i n f an t s k e le ton s p l aced a tt h e f o o to ft h e c off in .

6 . 1 .4

A s soc ia ted A r tef ac t s

T he A s soc ia ted A r tef ac t s f o rm ( F igu re 1 8 ) i sd i v ided i nt o t h ree s e c t ions ; d e sc r ip t ion , p os i t ion ing a nd c omponen t d e ta i l s . I n t h e f i r s t i n s tance a na ly s i s c an b e u nde r taken r e ga rd ing t h e i n c lu s ion /ab sence o f a ny g ood s a s soc ia ted w i th i n d iv idua l b u r ia ls , s upp lemen t ed b y a na lys i s o f t h e p re sence a nd q uan t i ty ( Coun t ) o f a r tef ac t T ype ( e .g . j a r , c o in , c omb ) a nd Ma te r ia l ( e .g . b one , p o t te ry ) w h ich c an b e u nder taken i ni s o la t ion a nd i nc omb ina t ion . A r tef a c t T ype c an b e f u r the r a nd v a r iou s ly s ubd iv id ed t o e nab le m o re d e ta i led a na ly s i s , a nd a s s uch , t h e Wa re e n t ry r e f e r s e xc lu s ive ly t op o t te ry , t h e S pec ies e n t ry t oa n ima l b one , a nd o t he rw i se t h e D e sc r ip t ion e n t ry i su t i l i sed t o f a c i l i ta te t h i s s ubd iv is ion . T h i s s ubd iv is ion i s i mpo r tan t b ecau se , f o r e xamp le , w h i ls tt h e re m ay b e n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i nt h e a s soc ia t ion o f m a le a nd f ema le b u r ia ls w i th c oppe r -a l loy a rm le t s , t h e r e m ay b e a s i gn if ican t d i f f erence i n t h e p rov i s ion o f a rm le t s o f ap a r t icu la r D e sc r ip t ion s u ch a s ' t h r ee s t rand c ab le ' o r ' p la in s o l id b and ' , a nd l i kew i se w i th i r on k n ive s c omp r is ing w ooden o r b one h and le s , a nd s oo n . F o r t h e m a jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t t ype s t h e D e sc r ip t ion e n t ry a l low s as u i tab le d eg ree o f s ubd iv is ion a s mu l t ip le f a c to r s c an b e s epa ra ted b y af u l l s top e nab l ing p i n -po in t ing d u r ing a na lys i s ; ab one h a irp in f o r e xamp le m ay h ave as phe r ica l g l a s s p i n -head a nd t h e D e sc r ip t ion w ou ld r e ad " Sphe r ica l . G la s s ." a nd c a n t h u s b e a na ly sed i nt e rm s o fe i the r o rb o th d e sc r ip t ion s . C e r ta in t ype s o f a r tef ac t s p e rm i t f u r the r s ubd iv i s ion a nd a dd i t iona l e n t ry b oxe s h ave b een c r ea t ed t o a ccommoda te mo re d e ta i led a na ly s i s ; a f i ng e r r ing D e sc r ip t ion f o r i n s tance m ay r e ad " w i th ac en t re -p iece ." b u t t h e s e xe s m ay h ave b een b u r ied w i th v a r ious t y pe s o f c en t r e -p iece s ( e .g . s i ng le s e t t ing / th ree s e t t ing s ) a nd t h u s a s epa ra te C en t r e -p iece e n t ry i s r equ i red . T he s ame p o in t a pp l ie s t o t h e f o l low ing e n t r ie s ; F a s ten ing ( e .g . s l eeved , h ook -and -eye ) ,S l eeve m a te r ia l ( f o r b one a nd i v o ry a rm le t s ) , C ro s s sec t ion , I n sc r ip t ion , C o lou r , D eco ra t ion , a nd f o r

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A s soc ia ted A r tef ac t s F orm

a r tef ac t s o fp o t tery a nd g l as s , S t amp a nd G raff i t i . E n t r ies i n S l eeve Ma te r ia l w i th t h e p r ef ix ? m ean t h a t n one o f t h e a c tua l s l eeve s u rv ive s a nd t h e ma te r ia l h a sb een i n d ica ted b y d i sco lou ra t ion o f t h e b one . T he S t a te a tD epos i t ion e n t ry n o tes t h o se a r tef ac t s , u sua l ly p o t tery /g la s s v esse ls , w h ich w e re i n comp le te a tb u r ia l , a nd t h e I n ten t iona l D amage e n try n o tes t h o se a r tef ac ts b e l ieved b y t h e e xcava to r t oh ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly b roken o r p e rf o ra ted a t b u r ia l ( pe rhap s i n d ica ted b y t h e p o s i t ion ing o f t h e s he rds , e . g . L ankh i l ls G rave 1 05 ; C la rke , 1 979 ) .

i c onog raph ic r ep resen ta t ions o f w omen , n o tab ly i n c lud ing t ombs tones , h ave b een n o ted t o p a r t icu la r ly e mpha s ise t h e i mage o f t h e d ome s t ic -o r ien ted ma t rona v i a d ep ic t ions o f s uch a r tef ac t s a s s p ind le -who r ls , w oo l b a ske t s a nd k eys , w i th w r i t ing m a te r ia l s , t oo ls a nd l i ves tock b e ing e mpha s ised f o r m en . T he C a tego ry e n t ry p rov ide s t h e e as ie s t m eans o f u s ing t h e d a taba se t o e xp lo re w he the r t h is t ype o f r e p resen ta t ion may h ave b een c a r r ied o ve r i nt ot h e c ho ice o f a r tef ac t s d epo s i ted w i th t h e d ead i n t h e c eme te r ies s t ud ied . T he d iv i s ions u sed a r e b a sed u pon t h e f o l low ing c a tego r ie s :

T he C a tego ry e n t ry p rov ide s a n a dd i t iona l m eans o f s ubd iv id ing t h e a r tef ac t d a ta f o r a na lys i s b y f unc t ion . T h is i s a u s ef u l m e thodo logy b ecau se i t i s c ro s s -ceme te ry a pp l icab le a nd i te nab les t h e ' c lu s te r ing ' o f a r tef ac t t y pes w i th s ma l l / s ingu la r c oun t s t h u s p rov id ing mo re s cope f o r s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is . Wh i ls t I o pen ly a ccede t h a t t h e i n s ta l la t ion o fs uch f u nc t ion -ba sed d i v i s ion s m ay b e d ub ious i n l i gh t o f t h e r enowned p unk / saf e ty -p in e xamp le a nd t h e i d ea t h a t a nybody m ay u se a s pea r t o s t i r ac ook ing p o t ( Hodde r , 1 982c ; 1 986 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r , 1 984 ) , I b e l ieve t h a t i t s u se i sj u s t if iab le h e re a s a n e xp lo ra to ry m e thodo logy , p a r t icu la r ly i nt e rm s o f m y p rev ious c i ta t ion o f Wae lken s ' ( 1977 : 2 77 ) d i scus s ion o ft h er ep re sen ta t ion o f g ende red r o le s i n d ea th ( Chap te r F ou r ) . B o th t e x tua l a nd 6 1

P er sona l A dornmen t , f u r the rs ubd iv ided i n to : • J ewe l lery •

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O b jec t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e w o rk ing /manuf ac tu re o f t e x t i le s ( e .g . s p ind le -who r ls , w eav ing tab le t s , n eed les / p in s ) O b jec t s a s soc ia ted w i th a g r icu l tura l a c t iv i ty ( e .g . o x g oad s , a w ls , s hea r s b l ade s ) O b jec t s a s soc ia ted w i th l o ck s ( e .g . k ey s , l a tch l if te r s , p ad lock s )

• •

O b jec t s a s soc ia ted w i th w r i t ing / commun ica t ion ( e .g . s t y l i ) M i sce l laneou s e qu ipmen t ( e .g . s t r ike -a l igh t , p unch , w e igh t , k n if e , w he t s tone , a r rowhead )

R ecrea t ion , ( e .g . g am ing -coun te r s ) T o i le tr ie s , ( e .g . c ombs , n a i l -c leane r s , t weeze r s ) V e s se ls , A n ima l R ema ins , C o ins a nd Hobna i l s e ach h ave t h e i r o wn c a tegory d ue t o t h e i r a mb iguou s ' f unc t ions ' v es se ls , f o r e xamp le , c ou ld r e p resen t h ouseho ld o b jec t s o r c ou ld h ave b een u sed t o c on ta in c onsumab le d epo s i t s , o r p e rhap s e ven f a ce c r eams i n t h e c a se o f u nguen ta r ia w h ich c ou ld t h en b e e n te red u nde r t o i le t r ies ; a n ima l r ema ins c ou ld b e r ep re sen ta t ive o f a n ima l h u sband ry o r c on sumab le d epo s i t s ; a nd h obna i ls , e ven i fa l l c onv inc ing ly r e p resen ta t ive o f f oo twea r , m ay b e r e p re sen ta t ive o f ' c o inc iden ta l ' o r ' i n ten t iona l ' d epos i t s a nd t h us r e qu ire s epa ra te a na ly s is ( s ee b e low ) . U nc lass if iab le , ( e .g . c ha in , s t ud , b a r , t u be , o b jec t , a l so s ub sum ing t h e t wo f i gu r ines a nd m in ia tu re a xe s a s t h e ir s t a tu s a s a mu le t s o r t oy s i su nc lea r a nd t h e ir c oun t s a r e t oo l ow t o b e o f s t a t is t ica l s i gn if icance . P ouches , p u r se s a nd b oxe s a r e a l so i n c luded i nt h is c l a ss if ica t ion b ecause t h e i r f u nc t ion a sc on ta ine r s i sd ea l t w i th i nt h e C on ta ined e n try ) .

T he s e cond s e c t ion o ft h is f o rm i sc once rned w i th a r tef ac t p o s i t ion ing . P os i t ion t o C of f in /Grave h a s t wo s epa ra te e n t r ies . T he f i r s t r e f e r s t o t h e p l acemen t o ft h e a r tef ac t i n r e la t ion t o t h e c off in ( i f p r esen t ) i . e . I n s ide /Ou t s ide , a nd t h e e n t ry m ay r e ad " ?Ou ts ide c off in -o n l i d" w he re t h e e xcava t ion r e por t s ugges t s t h a t t h e o r ig ina l p o s i t ion o f t h e o b jec t w a s o n t h e c off in l i d b u t i tw a s f o und i n s ide t h e c off in d ue t o l i d c o l lap se . T he s econd b ox r e f e r s t o t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e a r tef ac t i n r e la t ion t o t h e g r ave . T h i s i s ac ompa ss -po in t e n t ry I h ave i n t roduced t o i n s t i l s ome s t anda rd isa t ion a nd i t i s p ar t icu la r ly u s ef u l b ecau se t h e v a r iou s t e rm ino log ie s u sed t o d e sc r ibe g oods p o s i t ion ing

a l b ecome " A t s ku l l" . T h is f i e ld c on ta ins f o u r e n t r ies , w he re d a ta p erm i ts , d i s t ingu ished b y f u l l s top s t o e nab le a na ly s is b o th o n ag ene ra l p o s i t ion t o b ody e l emen t l e ve l ( e .g . l e g , s ku l l , s hou lde r ) a nd o n a mo re d e ta i led l e ve l ; w he the rt h e o b jec t i sp l aced o n /a t /benea th t h e b ody e l emen t , r i gh t o r l e f t s i de o f t h e b ody , u ppe r / lowe r a rms / leg s e t c . . P os i t ion t o B ody e n t r ie s w h ich r e ad " By l e f t t i b ia" o r " On u ppe r r i gh t a rm" , f o r e xamp le , w i l l b e r e p re sen ted i n t h e A na lys is p os i t ion ing f i e ld a s " Leg . A t . L ef t l e g . L owe r l e g ." a nd " Arm , O n . R igh t a rm . U ppe r a rm" r e spec t ive ly . T he s e cond A na ly s is P os i t ion f i e ld h a s n i ne p o s s ib le p r e -se t e n t r ie s ; ' Head e nd ' , ' Foo t e nd ' , ' Head e nd , r i gh t s i de ' , ' Head e nd , l e f t s i de ' , ' Foo t e nd , r i gh t s i de ' , ' Foo t e nd , l ef t s i de ' , ' M idd le s e c t ion ' , ' Lef ts i de ' , a nd ' R igh ts i de ' . B u r ia ls w h ich h ave d e ta i led p os i t ion ing r e la t ive t ot h e b ody c an b e t r ans la ted t o f i t o ne o f t h ese e n t r ie s , a s c an b u r ia ls w he re o n ly a c ompa ss -po in t i s p rov ided ( w i th k nown s ke le ta l a l ignmen t a nd b ody p o s i t ion ing ) , a nd t h is m e thodo logy a l so e nab le s t h e i n corpo ra t ion o f mo re g ene ra l p l acemen t s ( h ead e nd , f oo t e nd e t c . ) o f a r tef ac t s w he re t h e mo re d e ta i led p o s i t ion ing d a ta a r e u nava i lab le . T he b a s ic d i v is ion i n t o H ead , F oo ta nd M idd le s e c t ions i ss omewha t s ub jec t ive , a nd p e rhap s s omewha t a rb i t ra ry , b o th o n b eha lf o ft h e d i f f e ren t e xcava t ion r e por t s w he re t h e d i v id ing l i ne s a r e n o t s t a ted a nd m ay v a ry b e tween s i tes , a nd i n m y d ec is ion t o d i v ide t h e b ody i nt h is m anne r , b u t i nd ef ence o ft h is m e thodo logy t h e d a ta s e t i se xpanded b y t h e a ma lgama t ion o f d i f f e ren t t e rm ino log ie s a nd i ti sa pp l ied i n as t anda rd m anne r a c ro s s a l t h ec eme te r ie s . T he d i v is ion i su nder taken a sf o l low s : H ead e nd T he s hou lde r sa nd u pwa rd s F oo t e nd T he k nee s a nd d ownwa rd s M idd le s ec t ion F rom b e low t h e s hou lde r s t oa bove t h e k nees , w i th a r tef ac t s o n / to t h e s i de o ft h e a rms , h i p s a nd u ppe r l e g s b e ing e n te red a sL ef ts i de /R igh ts i de .

b o th w i th in a nd b e tween c eme te r ies , s uch a s ` b y l e f t f oo t ' a nd ' t op r i gh t h and c o rne r o fg r ave ' c an b e t r ans la ted i nt oa s i ng le c ompa ss -po in t e n t ry w h ich e xpand s t h e a moun t o f d i rec t ly c ompa rab le d a ta ( a s l o ng a s s ke le ta l a l ignmen t a nd b ody p os i t ion ( s up ine /p rone ) a r e k nown ) . T h is e n t ry i sa l so i mpor tan t b ecause i ti n creases a na ly t ica l p o ten t ia l i nt h a t i t a low s e nqu iry i n t o d i f f e ren t o rgan is ing p r inc ip le s b eh ind t h e c ho ice o fa r tef ac t p l acemen t ; w h i ls t g oods p l aced a tt h e ' h ead e nd ' f a l l i n t o t h e s ame a na ly t ica l c a tego ry w hen p o s i t ion ing i sc ons ide red i nr e la t ion t o t h e b ody , t h ey m ay p rov ide a n a venue o f s t a t i s t ica l v a r ia t ion w hen o ne c ons ider s t h e d i rec t ion i n w h ich t h e h ead w a s ' p o in t ing ' . G ood s p l aced a t t h e ' h ead e nd ' w i th ' h ead t o n or th ' a nd ' h ead t o s ou th ' , f o r e xamp le , d o n o t f a l l i n t o t h e s ame c a tego ry . T he P o s i t ion t o B ody e n t ry r e co rds t h e p r ec ise l o ca t ion o f t h e a r tef ac t a s p re sen ted i n t h e e xcava t ion r epo r t , s u ch a s ' On l e f t s hou lder ' , b u t t h is e n t ry h a s b een ' t ran s la ted ' i n t o m o re a menab le a nd c ompa rab le p o s i t ion ing d a ta i n t h e A na ly s is P os i t ion ing e n t ry . I n t h e f i r s t i n s tance t h is t r ans la t ion i n vo lves t h e g ene ra l s imp l if ica t ion o f t h e d e sc r ip t ion f o ra na ly t ica l p urpo se s ; ' Area o fs ku l l ' , ' A round s ku l l ' , ' A t h ead ' , ` By s ku l l ' a nd ' Nea r s ku l l ' , f o r e xamp le , 6 2

T he Wo rn e n t ry s imp ly i n d ica tes w he the r p e r sona l o rnamen t s / i tems o f d r es s w e re ' wo rn ' u pon t h e b ody a t b u r ia l . T he n ex t f i ve e n t r ie s a r e a l c oncerned w i th t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e o b jec t i nt e rms o f' i t se lf a nd i nr e la t ion t oo t he rd epo s i t s w i th in t h e b u r ia l . Ob jec t P os i t ion , w he re a pp l icab le , s t a te s w he the r t h e a r tef ac t w a s p o s i t ioned u p r igh t /ver t ica l , i n ver ted , o r o n i t s s i de . E n t r ies w i th t h e p r ef ix ? i n d ica te t h a t t h e o b jec t c ou ld h ave o r ig ina l ly b een p l aced i n a n u p r igh t / inver ted p os i t ion b u t w a s d i sp laced p o s t d epos i t iona l ly . A t t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry , f o re xamp le , t h e p o t te ry j a r i nG rave 1 70 f ound i n as l igh t ly t i l ted p os i t ion w a s o r ig ina l ly p o s i t ioned u pr igh t a nd w as o n ly p r even ted f r om b e ing ' o n i t s s i de ' b y t h e r i gh t l e g o ft h e i n huma t ion ( C rummy e ta l . , 1 993 : 4 9 ) . T he P o in t /Foo t D irec t ion e n t ry c on ta ins mo re d e ta i led p os i t iona l d a ta f o r i t ems s uch a s b rooches a nd k n ives . T he P i le e n t ry i n d ica te s w hen a r tef ac t s w e r e d epo s i ted i na r ranged p i les /g roup s w i th in t h e g r ave . T he I n te r lock ing o f g ood s s uch a s a rm le t s a nd f i nge r r ing s i s a l so n o ted , a l ong w i th t h ose f a s tened t o ge the r , s uch a s w i th t h read . T he C on ta ined e n t ry i s d i v ided i n t o t h ree f i e ld s . F i r s t ly , t h e t ype o f c on ta ine r w i th in w h ich t h e a r tef ac t w a s p l aced , e . g . w ooden b ox , p o t tery b ow l , p ouch , o r w rapped i nc l o th . T he s e cond e n t ry p rov ide s t h e s ma l l f i nds r e f e rence f o r t h e c on ta ine r s o t h a t i t

e n t r ies w i thou tc on temp la t ion o f t h e ' Neck lace ' t h ey f o rm , f o re xamp le , w ou ld p l ace t h eb eads o u to fc on tex t .

c an b e l i nked b ack t o i t s o wn d esc r ip t ion i n t h e a r tef ac ts f o rm a nd Ih ave p rov ided ar e f e rence n umbe r f o r c on ta ine r s w h ich d o n o t h ave a n S F r e f e rence s o t h a t mu l t ip le c on ta ine r s w i th in t h e s ame g rave c an b e d i s t ingu ished a par t . T he t h i rd e n try p r e sen t s t h e e v idence u pon w h ich t h e p r e sence o f ac on ta ine r h a s b een e s tab l ished s o t h a t i t s d eg ree o f r e l iab i l i ty c an b e f r ee ly j udged . C on ta ine r p r esence i sc l ea r w he re a c o in i sf ound w i th in aj a r , f o r e xamp le , b u t w hen g oods a r e b e l ieved t oh ave b een w rapped i nc l o th o rp l aced w i th in ap ouch /pu r se t h e o n ly e v idence i s u sua l ly a d a rk s t a in i n t h e s o i l a r ound t h e g ood s , o r s ome t ime st e x t i le f r agmen t s .

2 . 1 .5

T ex t i le R ema ins

T he T ex t i le R ema in s f o rm ( Append ix 7 ) w as c on s t ruc ted w i th t h e a im o fe xp lo r ing w he the r m a les a nd f ema le s t e nded t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th d i f f eren t t ype s o f t e x t i les ( e .g . f l ax , s i lk , w oo l , l e a the r ) w he re s uch o rgan ic r ema in s s u rv ived , t h e ir Weave ( e .g . p l a in , t a bby , b a ske t ) , D esc r ip t ion ( e .g . f i ne , m ed ium -f ine , t e a s led ) a nd S ugge s ted G a rmen t ( e .g . c l oak , t u n ic ) . S uch a na lys is i sn o t p o s s ib le , h oweve r , d ue t o t h e s ma l l n umber s o f b u r ia ls w i th a s soc ia ted s u rv iv ing t e x t i le r ema ins ( absen t f r om B a th G a te , f i ve a tB u t t R oad , t h ir teen a t L ankh i l ls a nd t we lve a t P oundbury ) , a nd t h e r e a l i sa t ion t h a ta c ro s s a l l t h e c eme te r ie st h ey c ompr ised o n ly o ne b u r ia l i d en t if ied a sf ema le , t e n i d en t if ied a sm a le , t wo a s ? ma le a nd t h e r e s t a s u n -sexed c h i ld ren o r a du l t s . T he T ex t i le R ema ins f o rm h a s b een r e ta ined i nt h e d a taba se t o m a in ta in c omp le tenes s o ft h eg rave d a ta f o re ach c eme tery .

T he ? Depo s i t e n t ry i su sed t of i l te ro u t g rave a r tef ac t s w he re t h e i n ten t iona l n a tu re o f t h e ir d epos i t ion i sq ues t ionab le . O 'Shea ( 1984 : 2 4 ) d i v ide s g r ave g ood s i n t o t h ree c a tego r ie s ; i n ten t iona l g ood s a r e t ho se f o r w h ich d epos i t ion w a s p urpo sef u l a nd c an t hus b e s uppo sed t o e xp ress s ome f o rm o f m ean ing ; c o inc id en ta l g ood s a r e t h o se p r esen t w i th in t h e g r ave w h ich w e re n o t t h e s pec if ic f o cu s o f t h e f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t , s uch a sb u t tons f r om i t ems o fd r es s ; a nd a cc iden ta l i n c lu s ions c ou ld b e p r e sen t i n t h e f o rm o f t h e b one s o f s ome a n ima ls wh ich f ound t h e i r w ay i n t o t h e b u r ia l a r ea . T h is d i s t inc t ion i se s sen t ia l b ecau se , a sO 'Shea n o te s , w h i ls t t h e l a t te r t ypes o f i n c lu s ions m ay p rove e x t reme ly i n f o rma t ive , c oncern ing , f o r e xamp le , s e a son o r c au se o f d ea th , t h e ir i n f orma t ion c on ten t i so f ad i f f e ren t k i nd t o t h a t o f o b jec t s p u rpo s ive ly p l aced w i th in t h e g r ave a nd l ump ing t h em t oge the r c ou ld s e r iou s ly s kew a na lyse s . T he c a tego r ies m ay , h oweve r , p rove d i ff icu l t t o d i s t ingu ish . H obna i l s f o r i n s tance a r e c ommon ly c l a ss if ied a s c o inc iden ta l i n c lu s ions p er ta in ing t o f oo twea r w o rn b y

I n a cco rdance w i th my a rgumen t s i n C hap te r F ou r , a ny a spec t o f b u r ia l t r ea tmen t /p rac t ice m ay b e d rawn i n t o c eme te ry d i scou r se . A s s uch , a ny o ft h e f i e lds c on ta in ing b u r ia l d a ta e xh ib i ted i nt h e a bove f o rms p rov ide ap o ten t ia l a venue o fa na lys is a nd t h e re i sn o m ean s o fp r io r g aug ing a s t o w h ich f i e lds may b e t h e mo s t ' r e levan t ' t o t h is s t udy i n t e rm s o f c on s ide r ing t h e s t ra teg ie s o f t h e f une ra l a gency . I ndeed t h e i mpo s i t ion o f ma rg in s o n t h e s cope o f s t udy f r om t h e o u t se t b y a t temp t ing t oi s o la te p ar t icu la r a spec t s a s b e ing mo re ' impor tan t ' t h an o t he r s i n vo lves u n ju s t if iab le a s sump t ions r ega rd ing mor tua ry r i tua l . E ach d a ta f i e ld mu s t b e c ons ide red a s a n i n teg ra l a spec t o f b u r ia l a nd t h e d a taba se h a s t hus b een d es igned t o f a c i l i ta te c on temp la t ion o fa l a va i lab le d a ta f r om e ach s i te , a l though t h e u sefu lne ss o fe ach f i e ld i nr e la t ion t o s t a t is t ica l a na lys is i sn ece ssa r i ly l i m i ted b y t h e n umbe r o fe n t r ies i tc on ta in s . T he f o l low ing c hap te r p r e sen t s t h e a na ly t ica l r e su l t s o ft h e a menab le d a ta f i e ld s i n e ach f o rm , w i th c omb ina t ion s o f d i f f e ren t f i e ld s w he re a pp rop r ia te , o n t h e b a s is o f s ex a nd s ex -and -age c a tego r ie s .

t h e d ecea sed a t b u r ia l , b u t t h e re a r e i n s tance s , s uch a s a t t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery , w he re h obna i ls w e re p r esen t i n r e la t ive ly l a rge c l u s te r s p o s i t ioned w e l l a way f r om t h e f e e t , w hen t h ese c an b e i n te rp re ted a si n ten t iona l d epo s i t s . O the r e xamp les i n c lude i t ems s uch a s b race le t s a nd c o in s f ound c l o se t ot h e c off in l i d i nt h eg rave f i l l w h ich c ou ld h ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly p l aced o r m e re ly d ropped a nd l o s t i n t h e c eme tery . A l though t h e t a sk m ay b e p rob lema t ic , t h e re i sa v a l id n eed t o d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween d ef in i te ly i n ten t iona l ly p l aced d epos i t s a nd t h ose t h a t w e c an n o t b e c e r ta in a bou t . O n t h i s b a s is , e n t r ies i n t h e ? Depo s i t f i e ld w h ich s t a te " I n f i l l" a r e e xc luded f r om a l l a na lyses . O the r e n t r ies c omp r is ing g ood s f o r w h ich t h e g r ave a s soc ia t ion i su nc lea r o r t h ey a r e l i s ted a s ' p robab ly r e s idua l ' i n t h e e xcava t ion r e por t a r e om i t ted f r om a na ly se s b u t a r e c on temp la ted i n r e la t ion t o t h e r e s t o f t h e d a ta . G rave a r tef ac t s f r om t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry s ugges ted i n t h e e xcava t ion r epor t t o h ave b een ' d e l ibe ra te s u rf ace o f f e r ing s ' d ue t o t h e ir b e ing i n ser ted u nde r g r ave t u rf , c a ref u l ly a r ranged , o r s e t i n t o g r ave mound s a r e a l so n o ted h e re . T he C omponen ts s e c t ion h a s b een i n co rpo ra ted t od ea l w i th a r tef a c t s w h ich c on s is t o f d i f f e ren t c omponen t s , s uch a s b ead n eck lace s , b e l t s w i th b uck le a nd s t rap -end , a nd b oxe s w i th f i t t ing s . T h is b a s ic d e sc r ip t ion i s e n te red i n t h e C omponen t s b ox , t h e Ma te r ia l f o r t h e a r tef ac t i se n te red a s M ixed C omponen ts , a nd t h e b u t ton l e ads t o as p in -of f C omponen t s D e ta i l s f o rm ( Append ix 6 ) . T he se c omponen ts c an t h u s b e s ub jec ted t o mo re d e ta i led a na lys i s , s uch a st h e t y pe a nd m a te r ia l o fb eads o r p endan t s , w i thou t ' c loud ing ' t h e m a in a r tef ac t a na lys is . T he i r ' s epa ra t ion ' f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e g rave d epos i t s m eans t h a t t h ey c an n o t b e c onf u sed w i th s i ng le a r tef ac t t ypes a s a na lys is o f s e t s o f " Bead" 6 3

CHAPTER 7

ANALYS IS OF THE F UNERARY PROCESS

n o t b een i n co rpo ra ted . T h i s a pp roach i sj u s t if iab le d ue t o c u r ren t d i ff icu l t ie s i nt h e s ex ing o fj uven i le r ema in s ( wh ich w a s o n ly e ven a t temp ted f o r t h e P oundbu ry s e r ies ) , t h e l ow n umbe r s o f s e xed a do le scen t s a t a l t h e s i tes , a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t j uven i le s m ay h ave b een b u r ied d i f f e ren t ly t oa du l t s r ega rd le s s o ft h e i r s e x . My a na lys is i st hu s l i m i ted t o s exed a du l t a ge -a t -dea th c a tego r ie s , n ame ly Y oung , M idd le -aged a nd O ld A du l t s , o rY oung a nd O lde r A du l t s , a s o u t l ined i nt h e p r ev iou s c hap te r . S exed ' Adu l t ' s ke le ton s f o r w h ich n o m o re p r ec ise a ge ing h a s b een p o s s ib le a r e n ece s sa r i ly e xc luded f r om t h is p a r to ft h e a na ly s is .

T h i s c hap te rp re sen t s t h e r e su l t s o fm y s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s is o f v a r ia t ion i nt h e m or tua ry t r ea tmen t o ft h e s k e le ta l ly s e xed m a le s a nd f ema le s a c ro s s t h e s e lec ted c eme te ry s i t e s . R a the r t h an p r e sen t ing t h e r e su l t s i n c eme te ry o rde r o r t a ck l ing e ach d a ta f i e ld i n t u rn , h oweve r , t h e a na ly s i s i s a r ranged i n t e rms o f s t age s i n t h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s . T h i s a pp roach a im st op l ace t h e d a ta f i e ld s i nr i tua lc on tex ta nd t o v i ew t h e f i nd ing s a s a spec t s o fb u r ia l s t ra tegy . T he f u ne ra l i s as e quence o fs pec if ic a c t ion s , ap roce s s d u r ing w h ich a s e r ie s o fc ho ice s a r e m ade p e r ta in ing t ot h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e b ody , a nd i ti st h e v a r iou s s t age s i nt h i s ' j our ney ' o rr i te d e p a s sage , f r om t h e d ea th o f ap e r son t o t h e b ackf i l l ing o f t h e i r g r ave a nd t h e d epa r tu re o ft h e m ourne r s , t h a t i st r aced w i th in t h is c hap te r . Ia m n o t s ugge s t ing t h a t t h i s j ou rney c an b e f o l lowed i nt e rms o f as imp le u n i l inea r p rog r e s s ion , w e c anno tk now t h e p rec i se o rde r o ft h e s equence o fe ven t s , b u t v e ry d i s t inc t s t age s i nt h e mo r tua ry r i tua l a r e d i scern ib le a r chaeo log ica l ly ; t h e s e lec t ion o f g r ave p o s i t ion a nd t h e p r epa ra t ion o f t h e g rave -p i t , t h e c ho ice a s t o t h e u s e a nd t y pe o f ab ody c on ta ine r , t h e p o s i t ion ing o ft h e b ody w i th in t h a t c on ta ine r , t h e ' d re s s ing ' o ft h e c o rp se , t h e s e lec t ion a nd a r rangemen t o f a ccompany ing a r tef a c t s , a nd t h e p rov i s ion o f s u rf ace o f f e r ing s a nd m a rke r s . T he c on s ide ra t ion o f f u ne ra ry r i tua l i nt e rms o f t h e se s t age s p rov ide s u s w i th a s e r ie s o f i d en t if iab le p o in t s a tw h ich d ec is ion s w e re m ade c once r n ing t h e m a rk ing -ou t o ft h e d ead i nr e la t ion t oo t he r s . S t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ead o n t h e b a s is o f s ex a nd /o r s ex -and -age i si n d ica t ive o f t h e m a rk ing -ou t o fm a le s a nd f ema le s a sd i f f e r en t a nd w e m ay t h u s b e a b le t o i d en t if y a t w h ich s t age (s ) i nt h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s g ende r a ppea r s t o h ave ' ma t te red ' t o t h e f u ne ra l a gency , a t w h ich p o in t (s ) , i fa ny , g ende r r e p re sen ta t ion s w e r e b e ing m ade .

7 . 1

A na ly s i s o ft h e P oundbu ry d a ta w a s mo re c omp lex t h an t h a t o f a ny o f t h e o t he r s i t es b ecause i tr e p re sen t s " t he o n ly e xcava ted l a te R oman c eme te ry i n B r i ta in w he re s pa t ia l d i s t inc t ion s o f b u r ia l t y pe m ay b e d i scer ned c l ea r ly" (Woodwa rd , 1 993 : 2 19 ) . A s ide f r om t h e m a in c eme te ry a t P oundbu ry , a nd t h e f ew o u t ly ing l a te R oman b u r ia l s , t h e re a r e t h r ee l a rge ly c on tempo ra ry m a rg ina l b u r ia l g roup s ( i . e . t h e e a s te rn a nd n or ther n p e r iphe ra l c eme te r ie s a nd s i te C ) w h ich h ave b een f o und i nt h e p ub l i shed c eme tery r e por t t o h ave e xh ib i ted c er ta in d i f f e ren t r i tes i n c ompa r ison t o t h e m a in g roup . A s o u t l ined b y Woodwa rd , t h e m a in l a te c eme te ry c on ta ined 8 3% o f t h e g rave t o ta l a nd t h e ref o re a na ly s is o ft h e c eme te ry ' a s aw ho le ' i sl i ke ly t om a sk a ny v a r ia t ion i nt h e m a rg ina l a r ea s a nd t h u s a l so a ny p o ten t ia l ly d i f f e r ing s t ra teg ie s i mp lemen ted b y t h e f u ne ra l a gency i n t h e s ma l le rb u r ia l g roup s . A dd i t iona l ly , w he re c er ta in b u r ia l v a r iab le s a r e s t rong ly p r e sen t i nt h e m a rg ina l g roup s t h e re i s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h i s c ou ld a f f ec t t h e o ve ra l l s t a t is t ica l r e su l t s f o rt h e w ho le c eme tery ( e .g . g r ave -p i t a l ignmen t ) . I n l i gh t o ft h e se p rob lem s , s t a t is t ica l a na lys is o ft h e P oundbu ry d a ta i su nder taken o n t wo l e ve ls ; t h e c eme te ry a s aw ho le , f o l lowed b y e ach o f t h e f ou r m a in c eme te ry a r ea s i n i s o la t ion . I ts hou ld b e n o ted , h oweve r , t h a t t h e s ma l le r n a tu re o ft h e m a rg ina l b u r ia l s amp le s m eans t h a t t h e re i sa l owe r l e ve l o f c onf idence i nt h e s i gn if icance f ound w i th in t h e se a r ea s o ft h ec eme te ry i ni s o la t ion .

I mp lemen ta t ion o fA na ly s i s

B ef o r e t u rn ing t o t h e p r e sen ta t ion o f r e su l t s , t h e i mp lemen ta t ion o f t h e d a ta a na ly s i s a nd c omp r ehen s ib i l i ty o f t h e t a b le s r e qu ir e b r ief a dd r e s s . Whe re s uff ic ien t , t h e d a ta v a r iab le s w i th in e ach o f t h e o u t l ined s t age s o f t h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s h ave b een a na ly sed f i r s t ly o n t h e b a s i s o f s e xed c a tego r ie s , a nd s e cond ly b yd i v is ion i nt os e x -and -age c a tego r ie s . T he s ex -ba sed a na ly s i s i se xh ib i ted i nt h e r e su l t s

A n e xamp le o ft h e b ackg round s t a t is t ica l w o rk u nder taken i s p rov ided i n F igu re 1 9 . T he ' Ac tua l ' t a l ly r e p re sen t s t h e c oun t r e co rded i n t h e d a taba se , a nd t h e ' Expec ted ' t a l ly r e p re sen t s t h e c oun t s t h a t w ou ld b e e xpec ted i ft h e re w a s n o d i f f e rence i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e s exe s a s r ega rd s t h e s p ec if ic b u r ia l v a r iab le . I r re spec t ive o fw he the ro ne s e x h a s al a rge r s amp le s i ze t h an t h e o t he r f o r t h e v a r iab le i n q ue s t ion , w e c an e xpec t t h e t o ta l r a t io o f m a le s :f ema le s t o b e c on s i s ten t ly m a in ta ined a c ro ss t h e r ange o f p o ss ib le v a lues w i th in t h a t v a r iab le i f s ex / sex -and -age w e re n o t d e term in ing f a c to r s i n t h a t p a r t icu la r a spec t o f m o r tua ry t r ea tmen t . T he c h i -squa red t e s t c ompa r es t h e a c tua l a nd e xpec ted v a lue s a c ro s s t h e d a ta r a nge a nd p rov ide s a n i n d ica t ion o f t h e p robab i l i ty o f w he the r t h e d i f f e rences i n d i s t r ibu t ion b e tween t h e s exes r e su l ted f r om c hance v a r ia t ion . O n ly w hen t h i s p robab i l i ty i sa ppa ren t a tt h e 5% o r l owe r l e ve l i st h e d i s t r ibu t ion t a ken t o b e s i gn if ican t ( Shennan , 1 988 ) . D ue t o i s sue s o f s pace a nd c l a r i ty , o n ly t h o se r e su l t s f ound t o e xh ib i t s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t

t a b le s b o th i nt e rm s o f ' ma le a nd f ema le a du l t s ' a nd t h en a l so w i th t h e i n c lu s ion o f ' p robab le ' s e xed c a tego r ie s , i . e . ? ma le a nd ? f ema le a du l t s . T he i n c lu s ion o f ' p robab le ' s e xed c a tego r ie s w a s d eemed i mpo r tan t b ecau se i tm a rked ly i n c rea sed t h e v o lume o f d a ta a va i lab le f o r c e r ta in s i t e s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e L ankh i l ls s e r ie s i n w h ich 2 9 . 19% o f t h e s e xed a du l t b u r ia ls w e r e r e p re sen ted i nt h i s c a tego ry . T h i s f i gu r e f a l l s t o8 . 85 % a tB a th G a te a nd 4 . 58% a tB u t t R oad , w i th n o ` ? sexed ' c a tego ry o ccu r r ing a t t h e P oundbu ry c eme t ery . B o th t h e s exed a nd ` ? sexed ' c a tego r ie s a r e i n c luded i n t h e s ex -and -age a na ly s i s , b u t a s m y w o rk i s p r inc ipa l ly c once rned w i th v a r ia t ion i nt h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e s e xed b ody ,j uven i le ( i nc lud ing a do le scen t ) a ge range s h ave 6 5

G rave -p i tW id th b yS ex

A c tua l

V e ry Sma l l

Sma l l

3

5 1

M a le F ema le

1 63

8 0

6 5

3 62

4 9

4 11

4

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6 6

2 18

4

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1 57

14

7 73

Sma l l

M ed ium

L a rge

V e r y L a rge

T o ta l

Sma l l M a le

1 . 87

5 4 .79

1 78 .42

7 3 .52

5 3 .39

3 62

F ema le

2 . 13

6 2 .2 1

2 02 .58

8 3 .48

6 0 .6 1

4 11

4

17

3 8 1

1 57

14

7 73

C h i -squa red t e s t:

3 . 88%

F ig . 1 9

E xamp le o ft h eb ackg round s t a t i s t ica lw ork c eme te r ie s a nd t h e re a ppea r s t ob e s ome c l u s te r ing o ft h ose o f p e r ina ta l a ge , t h e s ex a nd a ge c a tego r ie s a r e g ene ra l ly m ixed ; m en , w omen a nd c h i ld ren a r e a l p r esen t i nt h e r ow s o fb u r ia ls t h a t p r edom ina te i nt h e m a in l a te c eme tery , w h ich c on s t i tu te s t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e t o ta l s i te p opu la t ion . T he c onsen su s o f p ub l ished i n terp re ta t ion o f t h is ' m ixed ' p a t tern , a l ong w i th i t s p r esence w i th in r ow s /p lo t s a t t h ese c eme te r ies , i s t h a t i tr ep resen t s b u r ia l b y f am i ly g roup . I ndeed , a cco rd ing t o Mo l leson , " i t i s u n l ike ly t h a t a ny i n s t i tu t ion o t he r t h an t h e f am i ly w ou ld a cco rd e qua l b u r ia l r i t e s t oa l a ge s a nd b o th s exes" ( 1993 : 1 46 ) . T he p o ten t ia l c ons t ruc t ion o f f am i ly i d en t i t ie s w i th in t h e c eme te r ies w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n mo re d e ta i l i nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r .

v a r ia t ion a r e p r e sen ted i nt h e t e x t ; e ach t a b le , w he the rs ex o r s ex -and -age b ased , p r esen t ing t h e f r equency o f o ccu r rence b y s ex /age o fe ach d i s t inc t v a lue w i th in t h e v a r iab les , a l ong w i th t h e c h i -squa red t e s tr e su l t s f o rt h a tc a tego ry . T he f o l low ing a bb rev ia t ions a r e u t i l ised w i th in a l r e su l t s t a b le s : M =ma le F= f ema le + ?M = m a le a nd ? ma le i n c lus ive +? F =f ema le a nd ? f ema le i n c lu s ive . A s umma ry o ft h e r e su l ts i n w h ich t h e s i gn if ican t f i nd ing s a r e d r awn t oge the r f o r e ach c eme te ry i sp rov ided i n t h e c onc lud ing s e c t ion o ft h ec hap te r .

7 . 2

T o ta l

L a rge

7 7

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M ed ium

A l though o n i n i t ia l a ppea rance t h e s i te p l ans f o r t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery ( F igu res 2 8 -29 ) a l so a ppea r t o i n d ica te t h a t m a le s a nd f ema les ( of b o th a du l t a ge g roups ) w e r e f a i r ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a c ros s t h e e xcava ted a r ea ( bu t w i th mo r e m a les s i tua ted e a s t o f d i tch F 12 ) , c ons ide ra t ion o f t empo ra l f a c to r s h a s r e vea led s ome d ema rca t ion o f t h e c eme te ry w i th s pec if ic a r ea s ( i . e . w es t a nd e a s t o f F 12 ) b e ing l a rge ly s e t a s ide f o r ap a r t icu la r s ex a tc e r ta in t imes . T he a r ea w es t o fF 12 c on ta ined 7 1 m a le , 6 1 f ema le a nd 7 2 c h i ld b u r ia ls ( 26% , 2 2% a nd 2 6% r e spec t ive ly o f t h e t o ta l 2 75 g r ave s ) . T h is a ppea r s t o p r e sen t a f a ir ly e ven d i s t r ibu t ion , b u t C la rke 's ( 1979 : 1 26 ) s t udy o fs t ra t ig raph ic s co re s ( ma le — 24 , f ema le + 27 , c h i ld — 10 ) s ugges t s t h a t t h e g r ea t m a jo r i ty o fa du l ts b u r ied i nt h is a r ea o ft h e c eme te ry d u r ing t h e e a r ly f our th c en tury w e re m a le , t h a t t h is p a t tern w a s r e ve r sed a t al a te r d a te a s f ema le b u r ia ls b ecame p r edom inan t , a nd t h a t m o re c h i ld b ur ia ls o ccur red d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p e r iod . T he a r ea e a s t o f F 12 c on ta ined 4 1 m a le , 1 0 f ema le a nd 3 5 c h i ld b u r ia ls , m en c ons t i tu t ing 3 0% a nd w omen 7% o ft h e t o ta l g r aves a nd t hu s a ccoun t ing f o r t h e p r ev iou s ly d esc r ibed d i sp ropor t iona te s ex r a t io f o r t h e c eme te ry a s aw ho le .

T he S e lec t ion o f Grave P o s i t ion a nd t he P repara t ion o ft he Grave -p i t

My a na lys is o ft h is s t age i nt h e f une ra ry p roces s a te ach s i te c ommences w i th c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e s e lec t ion o f g rave p o s i t ion a nd t h us a ny v a r ia t ion a ppa ren t i n t h e c ho ice s m ade a s t o t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f b u r ia ls a c ro ss t h e c eme tery a r ea s , t h e i r a s soc ia t ion w i th f une ra ry s t ruc tu res , t h e i n c lus ion o f i n d iv idua ls i n s ha red g raves , a nd t h e a l ignmen t o ft h e g rave -p i t s . It h en t u rn t ot h e p r epa ra t ion o f t h e g rave -p i t i t se lf , i n corpo ra t ing t h e d igg ing o f t h e p i t ( s hape , d imens ions , p i t -s ide t e x tu res ) a nd t h e a dd i t ion o f a ny g rave l in ing m a te r ia ls . E xam ina t ion o ft h e s i te p l ans i n d ica tes t h a t t h e p opu la t ions i n ter red a t t h e B u t t R oad , P oundbury a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s w e re n o t s eg rega ted a t d ea th o n t h e b a s is o f s ex ( F igu re s 2 0 -23) o r s ex -and -age ( F igu res 2 4 -27 ) . T he v a r iou s c a tego r ie s e xh ib i t av ery m ixed s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion a c ros s a l l t h ese s i tes . D esp i te t h e h eavy p reponde rance o f m a le s a t t h e B a th G a te c eme tery , f ema le b u r ia ls w e re f ound t o b e " s ca t te red e ven ly" t h roughou t t h e e xcava ted a r ea s ( V ine r a nd L eech , 1 982 : 1 09 ) , a nd w h i ls t i n f an t s w e re s l igh t ly u nde r rep resen ted i nt h e P oundbu ry p e r iphe ra l

I ns um , i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e a r ea w es t o fd i tch F 12 w as u sed p r edom inan t ly f o r t h e i n te rmen t o fm en p r io r t oa r ound AD 3 50 a nd a t al a te r d a te w a s u sed m a in ly f o r t h e i n te rmen t o f w omen . T he a r ea e a s t o fF 12 a ppea r s t o h ave b een l a rge ly r e se rved f o r m en t h roughou t i t s p e r iod o fu s e , a nd c h i ld ren 6 6

w e re b u r ied i n b o th a r ea s a t a l l t imes . T he s ex o f t h e d ecea sed d oe s a ppea r a t t h i s s i te t o h ave b een a n o tab le p r inc ip le i nt h e s e lec t ion o f g rave p o s i t ion , w i th d i f f e ren t p ar t s o f t h e c eme te ry b e ing p r edom inan t ly , b u t n o t e xc lus ive ly , a loca ted t o b u r ia l s o n as ex re la ted b a s is a t d i f f e ren t t ime s . I n a dd i t ion , C la rke ( 1979 : 1 89 190 ) a l so s ugges t s t h a t b u r ia ls w e re a r ranged i nd i sc r e te ' g roup s ' o f m a le s a nd ' g roup s ' o ff ema le s a c ro s s s ub s tan t ia l p or t ion s o f t h e c eme te ry , a nd e xp la ins t h e p re sence o fm embe r s o ft h e o ppo s i te s ex w i th in t h ese g roup ing s c h rono log ica l ly ; am a le b u r ia l f ound w i th in ag roup o ff ema le b u r ia ls , f o r e xamp le , h av ing b een i n p l ace b ef o re t h e g roup w a s e s tab l ished o r a ppea r ing l a te r w hen t h e g roup w a s n o l o nge r r e cogn i sed . T he p ropo sa l o f s ame -sex g roup s m u s t , h oweve r , b e c ons ide red c au t ious ly b ecau se i ti sb a sed u pon b o th s ke le ta l s ex ing r e su l t s a nd t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f s ex v i a t h e a s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l s w i th p e r sona l or namen t s . Whe the rt h e b u r ia l o fc h i ld ren f o l lowed t h e p a t tern o fd ema rca t ion , w i th f ema le c h i ld ren b e ing b u r ied i n t h e s ame a r ea a s f ema le a du l t s f o r e xamp le , c an o n ly b e am a t te r o fs pecu la t ion d ue t oc ur ren tp rob lem s w i th s ex ing i mma tu re r ema in s . I ts hou ld b e n o ted w hen v i ew ing t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion p l ans t h a tw h i l s tt h ey a r e b a sed u pon t h e p ub l ished c eme te ry p l an s , t h ey h ave b een c o lou r ed t oc onf orm t o ac ommon k ey r e la t ive t o t h e s ex a nd s ex -and -age c a tego r ie s u t i l ised t o f a c i l i ta te a na ly s is . Wh i ls t t h e L ankh i l l s , B u t t R oad a nd P oundbu ry p l ans r ema in t o s c a le , t h e B a th G a te p l an w a s m o r e d i f f icu l t t oa dap t . T he l a ck o fd i s t inc t g r ave o u t l ine s a nd t h ec ommon i n te rcu t t ing o fb u r ia ls a tt h is s i te m ean tt h a t t h e p ub l i shed p l an d i f f e red c ons ide rab ly t ot h o se o ft h e o t he r s i t e s w i th b u r ia ls b e ing r e p re sen ted b y i lu s t ra t ion s o f s ke le ta l e l emen t s r a the rt h an g rave o u t l ine s . If ound t h a tt h e b e s t m ean s o fp rov id ing ac ompa ra t ive p l an w a st oi n se r t a n a pp rop r ia te ly c o lou r ed c i r c le i n p l ace o f t h e se s ke le ta l e l emen t s . Wh i ls t t h e m a rked e xcava ted a r ea s a nd o t he r f e a tu re s r ema in t o s ca le t h e ref o re , t h e c i rc le s r ep re sen t ing i n d iv idua l b u r ia ls a r en o t , a nd mu s tb e c ons ide r ed t op rov ide o n ly ag ene ra l i n d ica t ion o fp o s i t ion ing r a the r t h an a n e xac t p l an .

6 7

6 8

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys ex f or P e r iod 2a tt h eB u t tR oad c eme te ry ( Adap ted f r om C rummy e ta l . , 1 993 )

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T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys e xa tt h eP oundbury c eme t e ty ( Adap ted f r om F a rw e l l a nd Mo l leson , 1 993 ) 6 9

7 0

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys ex a tt h eB a th G a te c eme tery , CT 6 9 (b ) ,C S 7 0 , 7 1 , 7 2 -3 8a nd C S 7 4 1 0( Adap ted f r om Mc Wh ir re ta l . , 1 982 )

7 1

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys e xa tt h eB a th G a te c eme tery , CT a nd C S7 1-3 4( Adap ted f r om Mc Wh ir re ta l . , 1 982 )

7 2

Y oung U IB

Adu l t Ma le M idd le -aged N M Adu l t Ma le O ld Adu l t Ma le

U 1 1 1 1 L IUnexcavated n Mausoleum Ma le

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L _J Adu l t F ema le r i Middle-aged L_ J Adu l t F ema le 1 1 11 O ld A du l t 5 11 1 1 1 F ema le 1 11 F ema le I nde term ina te

( f-‘ )D i tched f unerary e nc losure 0

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T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys e x -and -age a tt h eP oundbur yc eme te ty ( Adap ted f r om F arwe l l a nd Mo l le son , 1 993 ) 7 3

7 4

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys ex -and -age a tt h eB a th G a te c eme te ry , CT 6 9 (b ) , C S7 0 , 7 1 , 7 2 -3 8a nd C S 7 4 1 0( Adap ted f r om Mc Wh ir re ta l . , 1 982 )

7 5

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7 6

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys ex a tt h eL ankh i l l sc eme tery ( Adap ted f r om C la rke . , 1 979 )

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T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys ex -and -age a tt h eL ankh i l l sc e r ne te ry ( Adap ted f r om C la rke . , 1 979 )

O n ly t h e L ankh i l l s a nd P oundbu ry c eme t e r ie s h ou sed s ome f o rm o f f u ne ra ry s t ruc tu re s . A t L ankh i l l s t h e se c omp r i sed r e c tangu la r h edged e nc lo su re s w i th w h ich t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e a s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia ls o n t h e b a s is o f s e x o r s e x -and -age . T he r e w e re t h r ee b a s ic v a lue s c oncer n ing t h e p o s i t ion ing o f a s soc ia ted b u r ia l s i nr e la t ion t ot h e e nc lo su re s , ' c en t ra l ' , ' i n te r sec t ing ' a nd ' p o s i t ioned i n t h e e n t rance ' , b u t t h e n umbe r o f s exed a du l t s e xh ib i t ing r e levan td a ta w a st oo s ma l l t ow a r ran ts t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s .

s ha r ing t h e s ame c off in . T he f i na l m a t te r f o r c ho ice a ppa r en t i n t h e se c eme te r ie s r e ga rd ing g r ave p o s i t ion w a s t h e a l ignmen t o ft h e g r ave -p i t . T he i mp lemen ta t ion o f ap ar t icu la r s t ra tegy i nt h e s e lec t ion o f g r ave a l ignmen t s f o r t h e m a jo r i ty o f b u r ia ls a t t h e L ankh i l ls a nd B u t t R oad c eme te r ie s i sv e ry c l ea r ly e xh ib i ted i nt h e s i t e p l an s d ue t ot h e l a rge d eg ree o fu n if o rm i ty , b u t t h is s t ra tegy w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ex o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed , a nd n e i the r s e x mo re c ommon ly d ev ia ted f r om t h e ' s tanda rd ' a l ignmen t s . T he re w a s a l so n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng r ave -p i t a l ignmen t o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex o r s e x -and -age a tt h e B a th G a te c eme tery . R a the r , a l ignmen t a tt h e se s i tes a ppea r s t oh ave b een l a rge ly b a sed u pon d om inan t a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s , s uch a s d i tch F 12 a nd t h e R oman C i rences te r r oad a tt h e L ankh i l ls s i te . A s n o ted p r ev iou s ly , t h e re w a s as e em ing ly s ha rp a l te ra t ion i na l ignmen t a tt h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry f r om n or th sou th i n P e r iod IP ha se 3 t o e a s t -we s t i n P e r iod 2 , b u t n e i the r t empo ra l p ha se e xh ib i ted s ex -ba sed v a r ia t ion .

T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e a s soc ia t ion o f b u r ia l s w i th e nc losu re s o n t h e b a s is o f s e x f o r t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le , b u t t h e re w a s s i gn if icance o n t h e b a s is o fs ex -and -age f o r t h e o l d a du l t c a tego ry w i th o n ly m a le s b e ing r e p re sen ted ( Tab le 6 ) . A pa r t f r om t wo o u t ly ing l a te R oman b u r ia ls ( one o l d a du l t m a le a nd o ne y oung a du l t m a le ) , e ach a s soc ia ted w i th ad i tched e nc lo su r e , a l l f u ne ra ry s t ruc tu re s w e re c on ta ined w i th in t h e m a in l a te c eme tery . T he l a t te r e xh ib i ted n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip w i th b u r ia ls o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex o r s ex -and -ag e w hen c on s ide red i n i s o la t ion . A l l t h e s exed a du l t b u r ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th f une ra ry e nc lo su re s i n t h e m a in c eme te ry w e r e p o s i t ioned ' i ns ide ' m auso lea a nd t h e r e w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion b e tween b u r ia l s o f ap a r t icu la r s e x a nd s qua re o rr e c tangu la rm au so lea s hape p l an s .

A t P oundbu ry a l b u t t h ree s exed a du l t g r ave s w e re a l igned e a s t -we s t o rn or th sou th , t h ese g r ave s w e r e n o t s uff ic ien t ly n ume rou s t oh ave a ny e f f ec t u pon t h e s i gn if icance t e s t s a nd s o m y a na ly s is i sc onf ined t ot h e t wo m a jo r a l ignmen t s . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e o t he r s i te s , t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s a w ho le d i d e xh ib i t s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i n g r ave -p i t a l ignmen t o n t h e b a s is o f s e x ( Tab le 7 ) a nd s ex a nd -age f o r t h e m idd le -aged a nd o l d a du l t c a tego r ie s ( Tab le 8 ) w i th m o re m a le t h an f ema le g r ave s b e ing a l igned o n a n o r th -sou th a x is .

C on s ide ra t ion o ft h e i n c lus ion o fb u r ia ls o fp a r t icu la r s e x o r s ex -and -age c a tego r ie s w i th in s ha red g r ave -p i t s w a s n o t p o s s ib le f o r t h e L ankh i l ls a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s a s t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween i n ten t iona l ly /acc iden ta l ly ' s ha red ' b u r ia l s w a s n o t s pec if ica l ly u nder taken i n t h e r e spec t ive e xcava t ion r e por t s . T h i s d i s t inc t ion w a s m ade , h oweve r , f o r s ome b u r ia ls a tt h e B u t t R oad a nd P oundbu ry s i t e s o n t h e b a s is o fc onf o rm i ty t oe x is t ing a l ignmen t s a nd c a r e t oa vo id d i s tu rbance o f p r ima ry i n te rmen t s , b u t t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e i n c lu s ion o f i n d iv idua l s i nt h e se s ha r ed g r ave s o n t h e b a s is o fs e x o r s e x -and -age a te i the r o f t h e s i t e s . F u r the r a na ly s i s w a s u nde r taken c once rn ing t h e s ubd iv is ion o f t h e s ha red c l a s s if ica t ion i n t o ' mu l t ip le ' a nd ' s tacked ' b u r ia ls a t t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry ( bo th i n c lud ing a nd e xc lud ing ? s tacked ) , a nd t h o se c on s ide red t ob e ' c on tempo ra ry ' o r ` s ub sequen t /p r ima ry ' i n te rmen t s a t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , b u t a ga in n e i the r s i t e e xh ib i ted s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion o n t h e b a s is o f s e x o r s e x -and -age . I n suff ic ien t d a ta f r om b o th s i te s p r ec luded c on s ide ra t ion o f w he the r t h e s e xe s s i gn if ican t ly s ha red g r aves w i th c er ta in ' c a tego r ie s ' o fi n d iv idua ls ( i . e . c h i ld r en o r ap a r t icu la r s e x ) . T he re w a s a l so i n suff ic ien t d a ta t o e x tend t h e s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i so fs ha red g r ave st ot h ec on s ide ra t ion o f i n d iv idua ls

M idd le -aged A du l ts

O ld A du l ts

T h i s s i gn if icance h i gh l igh t s t h e d i ve rgen t r i t e s o f t h e d i f f e r en t b u r ia l a r ea s a nd g oe s s ome w ay t oe xp la in ing t h e o ve ra l l s i gn if icance f o und f o r g rave -p i t a l ignmen t . Wh i ls t t h e m a in l a te c eme tery h a s o n ly 0 . 45% o f g rave s a l igned n o r th sou th ( 3 o f 6 74 g rave s w he re t h e a l ignmen t w a s k nown ) , t h o se i n t h e e a s ter n p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry a r e p r edom inan t ly a l igned i n t h i s manne r ( 7 5% o fm a le s a nd

A ssoc ia t ion w i th F une rary E nc losures

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

F ur the r a na ly s is o ft h e f ou r m a in P oundbury c eme te ry a r ea s r e vea led n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i n g r ave -p i t a l ignmen t o n t h e b a s is o f s ex -and -age i n a ny o f t h e b u r ia l a r ea s i n i s o la t ion , as i gn if ican t s e x -ba sed d i f f e rence o n ly b e ing o b se rvab le i nt h e n or ther n p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry ( Tab le 9 ) . T h is s e x -ba sed d i f f e rence i sa ppa r en t a s t h e m a le g r ave s a r e e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a c ro s s t h e n or th sou th a nd e a s t w e s t a l ignmen t s w he rea s t h e f ema le g r aves a r e a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly a l igned e a s t -we s t .

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

4

1 37

F

3

1 75

M

1

10

F

2

7 7

M

3

9 3

F

0

1 28

C h i -squa red 4 9% 3 7% 4%

T ab le 6 S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l sw i th f une ra ry e nc lo sure s o n t h eb a s i s o fs e x -and -age f o rt h e P oundbury c eme te ry a s aw ho l e 7 8

G rave -p i tA l ignmen t

S ex A du l t

M

'

F

N o r th -sou th

E as t -wes t

2 5

3 36

1 4

3 9 1

-

C h i -squa red 3%

T ab l e 7 S ign if i can tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i ta l ignmen to nt h eb a s i s o fs ex f o rt h eP oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho l e

G rave -p i tA l ignmen t

S ex -and -age N o r th -sou th

-

E as t -wes t

M

5

1 32

F

8

1 66

M idd le -aged

M

9

9 8

A du l ts

F

1

7 6

O ld A du l ts

M

Y oung A du l ts

F

'

8

8 8

2

1 24

C h i -squa red

_ .

6 8% 4% 2%

T ab le 8 S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i ta l ignmen to nt h eb a s i s o fs e x -and -ag ef or t h eP oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le

G rave -p i tA l ignmen t

S ex A du l t

N or th -sou th

E as t -wes t

M

5

4

F

1

9

C h i -squa red 3%

T ab le 9 S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i ta l ignmen to nt h eb a s i so fs ex f or t h en or thern p e r iphe ra lc eme tery a tP oundbury

P oundbu ry g rave s w e re d ug t or e c tangu la r , t a pe red , o va l o r i regu la r p l an , a nd a tL ankh i l ls g r ave -p i t c or ne r s w e re w e l l s haped r i gh t a ng le s , l e s s w e l l shaped r i gh t a ng les , r ounded o r i regu la r , b u t a tn e i the r s i te d i d t h e c ho ice o f g rave -p i t s hape e xh ib i t a ny s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip t ot h e s e x o r s ex a nd -age o ft h e d ecea sed f o r w hom t h e g rave w a s d e s igned . T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e i n c lu s ion o f m a le a nd f ema le b u r ia ls i nt imbe rv au l t / s tepped g rave s a tt h e B u t t R oad o r L ankh i l ls c eme te r ie s . T he re d i d a ppea r , h oweve r , t o b e a s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s e x a nd t h e ' f in ish ing ' o f g r ave -p i t s i de s a t t h e l a t te r c eme tery , w i th s i gn if ican t ly m o r e m a le g r ave s h av ing ` u n smoo thed ' a s o ppo sed t o' smoo thed ' p i t s i de s ( Tab le 1 0 ) .

7 1% o ff ema le s ) . T he l a rge r p ropo r t ion o fm a le s b u r ied i n t h e e a s ter n p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry i ss uff ic ien t t o s way t h e o ve ra l l s t a t is t ica l p i c tu re f o rP oundbu ry d e sp i te t h e 3 8 s e xed a du l t b u r ia l s r e p re sen t ing ac ons ide rab ly s ma l le rs amp le s i z e t h an t h a to ft h e m a in s i t e . T he o ve r a l l c eme te ry s i gn if icance i s t h e ref o r e a f e a tu r e o f t h e d i f f e ren t b u r ia l p rac t ice s a ppa r en t i nt h e p e r iphe ra l a r ea s o ft h e c eme te ry , a nd o n ly i n t h e n o r ther n p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry d oe s t h e s ex o f t h e d ecea sed a ppea r t o h ave b een a s i gn if ican t o rgan i s ing p r inc ip le i nt e rms o fg r ave -p i ta l ignmen t . T he o r ien ta t ion o f t h e b ody /cof f in w i th in t h e g r ave -p i t i s a l so c ons ide red h e re i nt e rms o ft h e p o s i t ion ing o f b u r ia ls w i th in t h e c eme te ry . T he d i gg ing o f t h e g r ave -p i t t o a c e r ta in a l ignmen t o bv iou s ly i mpo sed l i m i ta t ion s u pon t h e c ho ice o fb ody o r ien ta t ion a nd t h u s t h e ' h ead d i rec t ion ' o f t h e c o rp se l a rge ly b ecome s af u nc t ion o fg r ave p o s i t ion a nd p r epa ra t ion . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e m a rk ing o f g r ave s w i th h ead s ' a t t h e s ame e nd ' m ay h ave b een t i ed i nt ot h e e v iden tc once rn f o r ' n ea tne s s ' o r' o rde r l ine s s ' i nt h e g ene ra l o rgan i sa t ion o f c eme te ry l a you t . E xp l ic i t a na lys i s o fb ody o r ien ta t ion w a s n o t u nder taken f o r t h e L ankh i l ls a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s a st h e r e co rd ing o fg r ave -p i t a l ignmen t w a s b a sed u pon ' h ead d i rec t ion ' a nd e xh ib i ted n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion a t e i the r s i te . N o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip w a s a ppa r en t b e tween t h e c ho ice o fb ody o r ien ta t ion a nd s e x o r s e x -and -age a tt h e B u t t R oad o rP oundbu ry c eme te r ie s .

D e sp i te t h e a ppea rance o ft h e se r e su l t s , h oweve r , i tr ema in s u nc lea r w he the r t h e d ec is ion t o l e ave g rave -p i t s i de s i n a ' r ough ' s t a te o rt o ' smoo th t h em o ve r ' w a s a c tua l ly r e la ted t ot h e m a rk ing -ou t o ft h e s exe s . C on s ide ra t ion o fs ex -and a ge c a tego r ie s r e vea led t h a t y oung a du l t s w e re mo re c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th s moo th s ided g r ave -p i t s w h ich w e re r e la t ive ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted b y s ex , a nd t h a t o lde r a du l t s w e re m o re c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th ` u nsmoo thed ' g r ave -p i t s i de s a nd t h e re w a s a c ons ide rab ly l a rg e r p ropo r t ion o f o l de r a du l t m a le s a t t h e c eme te ry . I t i s p o s s ib le t h e ref o re t h a t t h e d ec i s ion s r ega rd ing g r ave -p i t p r epa ra t ion w e r e b a sed u pon t h e a ge o f t h e d ecea sed i re spec t ive o fs ex . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e d i f f e rence s i n g r ave -p i t s i de f i n ishe s c ou ld b e af e a tu re o f c h rono log ica l v a r ia t ion ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 34 ) ; f ema le b u r ia l s w e re l a rge ly c onf ined t ot h e c eme te ry a r ea w es t o fd i tch F 12 a f t e r a r ound AD 3 50 a nd t h e se l a te r g r aves w e re mo re c ommon ly

We n ow t u r n t ot h e p r epa ra t ion o ft h e g rave -p i t i t se lf . O n ly t h e P oundbury a nd L ankh i l l s c eme te r ie s e xh ib i ted s uff ic ien t d a ta t o a low c on s ide ra t ion o f g r ave -p i t s hape . A t 7 9

G rave -p i tS ides

S ex A du l t

T ab le 1 0

Smoo thed

U nsmoo thed

M

1 6

3 1

F

9

5

+ ?M

1 9

3 6

+ ?F

1 4

9

4% 3%

S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i ts id et r ea tmen t o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i t l e ng ths o n t h e b a s is o fs ex ( Tab le 1 ) a nd s ex -and -age f o rt h e o l d a du l t c a tegory ( Tab le 1 2 ) w i th m o re ma le g raves b e ing o fg r ea te r l e ng th , d esp i te mo re f ema le g r aves e xh ib i t ing d a ta . When t h e a na ly s is w a s a pp l ied t ot h e d i f f e ren t a r ea s o ft h e c eme tery t h e re w a s n o s i gn if icance o n e i the r b a s is f o r t h e p e r iphe ra l c eme te r ie s o r s i te C , b u t t h e s ame s i gn if icance p a t tern a s e v iden t f o r t h e w ho le s amp le w a s a ppa ren t i n t h e ma in l a te c eme tery ( Tab les 1 3 14 ) .

s moo th -s ided , w he rea s mo re m a les w e re i n ter red t o t h e e a s t o f d i tch F 12 w he re b u r ia ls mo re c ommon ly h ad ` u nsmoo thed ' p i t s i des . I nt e rms o fg r ave -p i t d imens ions t h e re a r e i n suff ic ien t d a ta t oa na lyse t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry o n t h e b a s is o fd ep th , a nd a l though t h e re w as s ome i n d ica t ion o f a t e ndency a t L ankh i l ls f o r mo re f ema les t ob e p rov ided w i th a ve rage , a nd mo re ma le s t ob e p rov ided w i th v ery d eep g rave s , g r ave -p i t d ep th d i d n o t a ppea r t ob e s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s ex o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a tt h is s i te , o r t h e P oundbu ry a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s . A s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip w a s a ppa ren t , h oweve r , b e tween g r ave -p i t s i ze a nd s ex / sex -and a ge a tt h e P oundbury c eme te ry , t h e o n ly c eme te ry t h a t c ou ld b e a na ly sed s t a t is t ica l ly i n t e rms o f g r ave -p i t l e ng th a nd w id th . T he P oundbury c eme te ry a s aw ho le e xh ib i ted

S ex A du l ts

T ab le 1

C h i -squa red

_

A v e ry s im i la r s i gn if icance p a t tern e me rged f o r g r ave -p i t w id th a c ro s s t h e w ho le c eme te ry w i th mo re m a les ( m idd le a ged a nd o l d ) h av ing l a rge a nd v ery l a rge p i t w id ths ( Tab le s 1 5 16 ) , a nd a ga in t h is s i gn if icance w a s o n ly a ppa ren t i nt h e m a in l a te c eme te ry i ni s o la t ion ( Tab le s 1 7 18 ) .

G rave -p i t L eng th

V e ry Sma l l

Sma l l

Med ium

L a rge

V e ry L a rge

M

4

6

7 7

2 12

6 0

F

2

1 3

13

2 53

2 7

0%

S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i ng ra ve -p i tl e ng th o n t h e b a s i so fs ex f or t h eP oundbury c eme tery a s aw ho le

G rave -p i t L eng th

S ex -and -age V e ry Sma l l Y oung A du l ts

Sma l l

Med ium

L a rge

V ery L a rge

3 0

8 5

2 0

0

1

F

1

5

3 8

16

1 4

M

'

.

M idd le -aged

M

1

3

2 7

5 7

2 0

A du l ts

F

0

3

2 5

4 6

4

O ld A du l ts

M F

T ab le 1 2

C h i -squa red

.

1

1

1 7

5 9

1 6

0

3

4 1

7 7

6

C h i -squared 2 1% 8% 1%

S ign if i can tv ar ia t ion i ng rave -p i tl e ng th o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -ag ef or t h e P oundbur yc eme te ry a s aw ho le

G rave -p i t L eng th

S ex A du l ts

M F

T ab le 1 3

_

V e ry Sma l l

Sma l l

Med ium

L a rge

V ery L a rge

4

5

6 6

1 85

4 7

1

1 0

1 0 1

2 3 1

2 0

C h i -squa red 0%

S ign if i can tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i tl e ng th o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex f or t h e ma in l a te c eme tery a tP oundbury

8 0

G rave -p i tL eng th

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

V e ry Sma l l

Sma l l

Med ium

L a rge

V e ry L a rge

M

0

1

2 7

7 6

1 5

F

0

4

3 2

1 04

2 2

4 9

1 6

2 3

4 4

4

1 0

'

M idd le -aged

M

1

3

A du l ts

F

0

3

O ld A du l ts

M

1

0

1 5

5 1

1 3

F

0

2

3 9

7 1

5

T ab le 1 4

'

-

2 5% 1 5% 1%

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i ng ra ve -p i tl e ng th o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h em a in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbury

G rave -p i tW id th

S ex V e ry Sma l l

Sma l l

Med ium

L a rge

V e ry L a rge

3

5 1

1 63

8 0

6 5

1

6 6

2 18

7 7

4 9

A du l ts

T ab le 1 5

4%

G rave -p i tW id th V e ry Sma l l

Sma l l

Med ium

L a rge

V e ry L a rge

M

0

1 6

7 0

2 8

2 3

F

1

2 5

8 5

4 1

2 4

M idd le -aged

M

2

1 9

4 4

2 5

1 9

A du l ts

F

0

1 2

4 9

1

7

M

0

1

4 1

2 4

1 8

F

0

2 3

7 0

2 1

1 3

Y oung A du l ts

O ld A du l ts

T ab l e 1 6

C h i -squa red

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i tw id th o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho l e

S ex -and -age

C h i -squa red 7 2% 4% 4%

S ign i f ican t v a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i tw id th o nt h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h eP ound bury c eme te ry a s aw ho le

G rave -p i tW id th

S ex A du l ts

T ab le 1 7

V e ry Sma l l

Sma l l

Med ium

L a rge

V ery L a rge

M

3

4 2

1 45

7 3

4 5

F

1

5 6

2 03

7 0

3 4

'

C h i -squa red 50/ 0

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i tw id th o n t h eb a s i s o fs e xf or t h em a in l a te c eme ter ya tP oundbu ry

G rave -p i tW id th

S ex -and -age V e ry Sma l l Y oung A du l ts

M

0

F

1

1 5 1 9

6 4

.

V e ry L a rge

L a rge

Med ium

Sma l l

7 6

2 6 3 9

.

1 5 1 5

' M idd le -aged

M

2

1 7

3 7

2 3

1 3

A du l ts

F

0

1

4 8

1 0

6

O ld A du l ts

M

0

8

3 7

2 1

1 3

F

0

2 1

6 7

1 8

1

T ab le 1 8

C h i -squa red

'

-

C h i -squa red 7 7 ° / 0 3% 5%

.

S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i ng rave -p i tw id th o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -ag ef o rt h em a in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbury 8 1

o fm u l t ip le l i n ing m a te r ia ls i nm a le a nd f ema le b u r ia l s .

T he se r e su l t s i n d ica te t h a t g r ave -p i t s i z e , s pec if ica l i n t e rm s o fl e ng th a nd w id th , e xh ib i t s as i gn if ican t ly d i f te r en t d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn f o r t h e s e xe s i nt h e m a in l a te c eme te ry w i th m a le s mo re c ommon ly b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th l a rge r g r ave -p i t s . I n t h i s a r ea o f t h e c eme te ry t h e a ve rage m a le g r ave -p i t l e ng th w a s 2 12 .7 c m c ompa r ed t o t h e a ve rage o f 2 06 .3 c m f o rf ema le g r ave s , a nd t h e a ve rage g r ave -p i t w id th f o r m a le s w a s 7 0 .5 c m c ompa red t o 6 8 .5 c m f o r f ema le s ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 68 ) . I tm ay b e a r gued t h a t t h is d i f f e r ence i s af u nc t ion o fb ody s i ze r a the r t h an c on sc iou s d i f f e ren t ia l b u r ia l r i t e , t h e m en a t P oundbu ry w e re a f te r a l g ene ra l ly t a l le r t h an t h e w omen . I ft h is i st h e c a se , h oweve r , w hy i s t h e r e n o s e x -ba sed s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n g r ave -p i t s i z e a mong s t t h e y oung a du l t c a tego ry? S u re ly ' a du l t s t a tu re ' w ou ld h ave b een a ch ieved b y t h e a ge o f 2 0 -35 .9 y ea r s . A lso , t h e g r ave d i gge r s c l ea r ly k new w he the r t h e b ody t h ey w e r e p r epa r ing t h e g r ave f o r w a s t h a t o f ac h i ld o ra du l t , s o i ti sn o t i n conce ivab le t h a t t h ey w ou ld h ave k nown t h e s e x a nd /o ra ge o fd ecea sed a du l t s .

A t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry t h e p rov i s ion o f s ome f o rm o f g r ave l i n ing w a s s i gn if ican t ly mo r e c ommon a mong s t f ema le s /young a du l t f ema le s ( Tab le s 2 0 -2 1) . A s g r ave l i n ing s w e re n o t p rov ided f o ra ny b u r ia ls w i th in t h e n or the rn p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry , a nd t h e e a s ter n p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry a nd s i te C e a ch h ou sed o n ly o ne s exed a du l t b u r ia l a s soc ia ted w i th s uch l i n ing s , t h is s i gn if ican t d i s t r ibu t ion p a t tern a ppea r s t ob e af e a tu re o ft h e m a in l a te c eme te ry i n i s o la t ion ( Tab le s 2 2 -23) . A l l g r ave l i n ing s a tt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry w e r e ' p a r t ia l ' a nd t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e i n c lu s ion o f d i f f e r en t t y pe s o f l i n ing m a te r ia ls o n t h e b a s is o fs e x o rs ex -and -age . I nt e rm s o ft h e p rov is ion o f m o re t h an o ne t y pe o f g r ave l i n ing m a t e r ia l w i th in b u r ia ls t h e r e w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion a cco rd ing t o s e x a l one , b u t t h e r e w a s as i gn if ican t d i f f e rence o n t h e b a s i s o fs e x -and -ag e f o r t h e c eme te ry a s aw ho le ( Tab le 2 4 ) a nd f o r t h e m a in c eme te ry a r ea i ni s o la t ion ( Tab le 2 5 ) a sy oung a du l t m a le s w e re m o re c ommon ly p rov ided w i th m u l t ip le l i n ing m a te r ia ls d e sp i te s i gn if ican t ly m o re f ema le s t h an m a le s b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th g rave l i n ing s o ve ra l l . T he c oun t s u pon w h ich t h e se l a t te r t e s ts w e r e b a sed , h oweve r , a r e e x t r eme ly s ma l l , m ak ing a ny s ugge s t ions a s t o s i gn if icance v e ry t e n ta t ive , a nd a s o u t l ined i nt h e p r ev iou s c hap te r , i ti sn o t a lway s c l ea rw he the r a ppa ren t g r ave l i n ing s d ef in i te ly r e p re sen t i n ten t iona l d epo s i t ion . T h is l a t te r p o in t b ecome s m o re c r i t ica l w hen d ea l ing w i th s ma l l s amp le s i ze s .

A no the r p a r t o fg r ave p r epa ra t ion u nder taken a te ach o ft h e c eme te r ie s w a st h e i n c lu s ion o fm a te r ia l s s uch a ss t one , f l in t a nd t i l e w i th in b u r ia ls , o f t en u sed t o ' l i ne ' t h e s i de s a nd /o r b a se o f t h e g r ave , a nd /o r t o c ove r p a r t s o f t h e b ody . A na ly s is r e vea led t h a t t h e p rov is ion o fs ome f o rm o fg r ave l i n ing , t h e t y pe s o f m a te r ia ls u s ed , t h e i n c lu s ion o f s i ng le /mu l t ip le m a te r ia l t y pe s , a nd t h e e x ten t o f t h e l i n ing p o s i t ion ( i . e . ` c isr o r ' p a r t ia l ' l i n ing ) w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s ex o rs ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed a tt h e B a th G a te o r L ankh i l ls c eme te r ie s . S ome o f t h e se a spec t s o f g r ave t r ea tmen t , h oweve r , d o a ppea r t o h ave b een u sed t o m a rk -ou t i n d iv idua ls o f c e r ta in s ex a nd /o r s e x -and -age c a tego r ie sa tt h e B u t tR oad a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s .

Mo r e d e ta i led l i n ing p o s i t ion s ( s uch a s s t one s p l aced a l ong t h e l e f t /nor th s i de o ft h e g r ave -p i t , c ove r ing t h e w ho le b ody , o r p l aced u nde r t h e s ku l l a s a ' p i l low ' ) c ou ld n o t b e a na ly sed s t a t i s t ica l ly a t a ny o f t h e c eme te r ie s d ue t o a c omb ina t ion o f l i m i ted s amp le s i ze a nd d i ve r s if ica t ion i n v a lu e s . Wh i ls tt h e P oundbu ry s amp le s i ze w a s c on s ide rab ly l a rg e r , t h e d e sc r ip t ive t e rm ino logy u s ed w a s e x t reme ly v a r ied a nd a temp t s t oe nab le a na ly s is v i a t h e s imp l if ica t ion o ft h is t e rm ino logy a nd t h u s r e duc t ion o ft h e r a nge o fv a lue s w ou ld a l so h ave r e duced t h e a moun t o f d e ta i l a nd t h e m ean ingf u lne s so ft h e r e su l t s .

A t t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e p rov i s ion o fs ome f o rm o fg r ave l i n ing o n t h e b a s is o f s e x a l one , b u t t h e re w a s as i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f m idd le -aged a du l t s w i th 1 .36% o f m a le b u r ia ls , b u t n o f ema le b u r ia ls w i th in t h is c a tego ry b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th g r ave l i n ing s ( Tab le 1 9 ) . A l l g r ave l i n ing s a t B u t t R oad w e re ' p ar t ia l ' a nd t h e r e w a s n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i n t h et y pe s o f m a te r ia ls u s ed o ri nt h e i n c lu s ion

P resence o fG rave Un ing

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

N o t P resen t

M

1

2 8

F

2

3 2

+ ?M

1

2 8

+ ?F '

2

3 2

M idd le -aged

M

1 0

7 8

A du l ts

F

0

5 0

4 7m

1 0

8 0

+ ?F

0

5 4

M

0

1 8

F

0

1 3

+ ?M

0

1 8

+ ?F

0

1 3

O ld A du l ts

T ab le 1 9

P resen t

C h i -squa red 6 5% 6 5% 1% 1% . _

S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fg ra ve l i n ing o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o rt h eB u t tR oad c eme ter y

8 2

P resence o fG rave L in ing

S ex A du l ts

T ab le 2 0

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

1 7

3 54

F

3 7

3 78

P resence o fG rave L i n ing P resen t

Y oung A du l ts M idd le -aged A du l ts O ld A du l ts

5

1 36

F

1 9

1 59

M

7

1 04

- F

4

7 5

M

4

9 2

F

1 2

16

2% 7 2% , 1 3%

S i gn if ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fg rave l i n ing o nt h eb a s i so fs e x -and -ag ef o rt h eP oundbury c eme te ry a s aw ho le

A du l ts

P resence o fG rave L in ing P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

1 6

2 99

F

3 5

3 30

C h i -squa red 3%

S i gn i f ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fg rave l i n ing o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex f o rt h em a in l a te c eme ter ya tP oundbu ry

P resence o fG rave L in ing

S ex -and -age P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

5

18

F

1 7

1 34

' M idd le -aged

M

6

8 8

A du l ts

F

4

7 1

O ld A du l ts

M

4

7 7

F

1 2

1 05

Y oung A du l ts

T ab le 2 3

C h i -squa red

N o t P resen t

M

S ex

T ab le 2 2

2%

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fg ra ve l i n ing o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex f o rt h eP oundbur yc eme te ry a s aw ho le

S ex -and -age

T ab le 2 1

C h i -squa red

C h i -squa red

,

3% 7No 1 8%

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fg rave l i n ing o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h em a in l a te c eme te ry a t P ound bury

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

T ab le 2 4

M u l t ip le G rave L i n ing M a te r ia ls P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

2

3

F

1

1 7

M idd le -aged

M

0

6

A du l ts

F

1

6

O ld A du l ts

M

0

5

F

3

1 0

C h i -squa red 4% 3 4% 2 4%

S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fm u l t ip le g rave l i n ing m a te r ia l so n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o rt h e P ound bury c eme te ry a s aw ho l e 8 3

Mu l t ip le G rave L i n ing M a te r ia ls

S ex -and -age ' Y oung

T ab le 2 5

A du l ts

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

2

3

F

1

1 9

M idd le -aged

M

0

7

A du l ts

F

1

6

O ld A du l ts

M

0

5

F

3

1 0

3% 3 0% 2 4%

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fm u l t ip le g ra ve l i n ing m a te r ia l s o nt h eb a s i s o fs e x -and -age f o rt h em a in l a te c eme tery a tP oundbu ry

A s ide f r om g r ave l i n ing , s ome s t one s a nd t i l e s i n c luded i n t we lve s e xed a du l t b u r ia ls a t t h e B u t t R oad s i te w e r e i n terp re ted a s c of f in / corp se m a rke r s ( d ef ined i n C hap te r S i x ) . T he p rov i s ion o fs uch ' ma rke r s ' w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s e x o ft h e b u r ia ls i ni s o la t ion ( bo th i n c lud ing a nd e xc lud ing t wo o ccu r rence s w h ich w e re ' p o s s ib ly r e s idua l ' ) ,b u tt h e i rp r e sence d i d e xh ib i ts i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion f o r m a le s a nd f ema le s o f t h e m idd le -aged c a tego ry ( Tab le 2 6 ) .

I ns umma t ion , t h e a na ly s is o fg r ave p o s i t ion a nd p r epa ra t ion h a s c l ea r ly e xpo sed t h e i mp lemen ta t ion o f d i f f e r en t s t ra teg ie s a tt h e d i f f e ren t c eme te r ie s . A t t h e B a th G a te a nd B u t t R oad c eme te r ie s t h e m a rk ing -ou t o fs e x i so n ly w eak ly a ppa ren t . I n deed a tt h e f o rme rs i te t h e s ex o rs ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a ppea r s t o h ave b een i re levan t t o t h o se m ak ing t h e d ec is ion s c oncern ing t h i s s t age i nt h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s , a nd a tt h e l a t te r s i te t h e s exe s w e r e o n ly t r ea ted s i gn if i can t ly d i f f e r en t ly i no ne a s pec t o f g r ave p r epa ra t ion ; t h e c ho ice t oi n c lude m a te r ia ls s u ch a ss t one o rt i l e a sg r ave l i n ing s a nd c of f in /corp se m a rke r s . I n c on t ra s t , t h e s e x o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a ppea r s t o h ave b een m uch m o re o f a n i nf luenc ing f a c to r a t t h e L ankh i l l s a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s , b u t t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion w a s r e p re sen ted i nd i f f e r en t w ay s . A t L ankh i l l s s e x w a s m ade v i s ib le b y t h e d ema rca t ion o fa r ea s o ft h e c eme te ry f o r t h e b u r ia l o fm a le s a nd f ema le s , a nd p o s s ib ly a l so t h e p ropo sed ' g roup ing s ' o fs ame sex b u r ia ls a c ro s s t h e s i t e , a nd t h e o n ly s i gn if ican t s e x -ba sed v a r ia t ion a ppa ren t i nt h e p r epa ra t ion o f t h e g r ave -p i t s t h em se lve s w a s t h e d ec is ion t o s moo th o ve r t h e p i t s i de s o rt ol e ave t h em r ough , w h ich h a s i na ny c a se b een a r gued t o b e r e la ted t o t h e c h rono log ica l s e x -ba sed d ema r ca t ion o ft h e c eme te ry a r ea s . T he ' o ppo s i te ' p a t ter n i s v i s ib le a t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry w i th t h e s e xe s b e ing t h o rough ly s p a t ia l ly m ixed a nd t h e s e x -ba sed d i f f e r en t ia t ion b e ing a ppa r en t i n v a r iou s o t he r a spec t s ; a s soc ia t ion w i th f u ne ra ry e nc lo su re s , a nd g rave -p i t a l ignmen t , d imen s ions a nd l i n ing m a te r ia ls .

Wh i ls t 8o ft h e 8 8 ( 9 .09% ) m idd le -ag ed m a le b u r ia ls w e re a s soc ia ted w i th s u ch m a rke r s , n one o ft h e 5 0 f ema le s w e re , y e t w e c ou ld h ave ' e xpec ted ' a r ound 5 t o e xh ib i t t h is a s soc ia t ion . T he s amp le s i ze f o rt h is v a r iab le i ss uff ic ien t ly l a rg e e nough t os t a te t h a t i ft h e e xcava to r s w e r e c or rec t i n t h e i r i d en t if ica t ion o f c of f in / corp se m a rke r s , t h e re d oe s s e em t o b e ' s ome th ing g o ing o n ' h e r e i n t e rm s o f d i f f e ren t ia l b u r ia l t r ea tmen t o f m a le s a nd f ema les o f t h e m idd le -aged a du l t c a tego ry . T he t y pe o f d i f f e r en t ia l t r ea tmen t t h is d a ta m ay i mp ly i s , h oweve r , u nc lea r . C rummy a nd C ro s san ( 1993 : 1 00 ) s ugge s t t h a t c of f in /corp se m a rke r s m ay h ave b een u t i l ised e i the r t o p r even t f u tu re d i s tu rbance o r t o f a c i l i ta te l o ca t ion f o r s ub sequen t i n te rmen t s , b u t t h e l a t te r s ugge s t ion m ay b e q ue s t ioned w hen w e c on s ide r t h a t t h e r e w a s n o s i gn i f ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a n i n d iv idua l 's s ex a nd t h e i r i n c lu s ion i ns t acked b u r ia l s ( i . e . a s soc ia ted w i th s ub sequen t i n te rmen t s ) . N o s ex o r s e x -and -age c a tego ry e xh ib i ted a s i gn i f ican t a s soc ia t ion w i th ' ma rke r s ' o f ap ar t icu la rm a te r ia l .

C of in /Co rpse M arke rs

S ex -and -age P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

0

2 9

F

2

3 2

+ ?M

0

2 9

+ ?F

2

3 2

M idd le -aged

M

8

8 0

A du l ts

F

0

5 0

+ ?M

8

8 2

+ ?F

0

5 4

M

0

1 3

F

0

1 8

+ ?M

0

1 3

+ ?F

0

1 8

Y oung A du l ts

O ld A du l ts

T ab l e2 6

C h i -squa red

C h i -squa red 1 8% 1 8% 3% 2% -

S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fc of f in / corp se m a rke r s o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and - a ge f or t h eB u t t R oad c eme te ry 8 4

7 . 3

b u r ia ls , o ne ma le a nd t wo f ema les . T he a ve rage m in imum n a i l c oun t w a s f a ir ly e ven a cco rd ing t os ex , a nd w h i ls tt w ice a s m any ma les ( 6 ) a s f ema les ( 3 ) e xh ib i ted ' e xcep t iona l ly ' h i gh n umber s o fn a i ls ( b a sed o n 2s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e m ean ( 95 % ) t oa vo id c onf us ion w i th s ma l ler d i f f erences c au sed b y p rob lems o f n a i l s u rv iva l a nd r e cogn i t ion ) , t h e s amp le w a s t oo s ma l l t o a low s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is a nd t h e c eme te ry h ad a h ighe r r a t io o f ma le s :f ema les g ene ra l ly . D a ta r ega rd ing n a i l d i s t r ibu t ion w a s n o t a va i lab le f o r t h e B u t t R oad c off ins . N o c off in f i t t ing s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th s exed a du l t b u r ia ls a nd o n ly i no ne s uch b u r ia l w a s a n i n ne r c of f in / l in ing p rov ided ( m idd le -aged f ema le ) . T he c off in s o f s even s exed a du l t s w e re ' p acked /f i l led ' w i th p l a s te r a nd , w h i ls t t h is s amp le w a s t oo s ma l l f o r s t a t is t ica l a na lys is , t h e i n c lus ion o ft h ree m a les a nd f ou r f ema les i n d ica te s af a ir ly e ven d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h is f e a tu re b y s ex , w i th n o a ppa ren t a s soc ia t ion b e tween s ex a nd t h e p l acemen t o ft h e p l a s te r i n r e la t ion t ot h e b ody .

T he S e lec t ion o f aB ody Con ta iner

O ne s t age i nt h e f unera ry p roce s s i n vo lve s t h e d ec is ion a st o w he the r o r n o t t o p l ace t h e b ody w i th in s ome k i nd o f c on ta ine r i n p r epa ra t ion f o r t r anspor ta t ion a nd b u r ia l . T he o ve rwhe lm ing p a t te rn i sf o r t h e u se o f ac off in ; 9 2% o ft h e s exed a du l t b u r ia ls a t t h e P oundbury c eme te ry w e re c on ta ined w i th in s ome f o rm o f c off in , 9 5% a t B u t t R oad ( w i th a no the r 1 . 3% ' u ncer ta in ') , a nd 8 3% a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery . T he f a r s ma l ler p e rcen tage a t t h e B a th G a te c eme tery ( 20% ) i sl i ke ly t ob e af e a tu re o fp r e se rva t ion a nd r e covery a sn o w ood s u rv ived a tt h is s i te e i the rp hys ica l ly o r a s s t a in ing , a nd t h e i n tens ive u se o f t h e c eme te ry c aused much d i s tu rbance o fc off in n a i ls . A t n one o ft h e c eme te r ie s w a s t h e re a ny s i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h e p rov is ion o f ab ody c on ta ine ro nt h e b as is o fs ex o rs ex -and -age . O nce t h e d ec is ion t o p rov ide a c off in w a s m ade , v a r ious o p t ions a r e a ppa ren t i nt e rms o fc off in ma te r ia l , c ons t ruc t ion t e chn iques a nd f i tmen t s /deco ra t ion , t h e i n c lu s ion o f i n ne r c of f ins / l in ing s a nd t h e u se o f c off in p ack ing /f i l l ing ma te r ia ls . Two d i f f e ren t t ypes o fc off in w e re r e p resen ted a t t h e B a th G a te c eme tery , ' Na i led T imbe r ' a nd ' S tone ' , a nd w h i ls t mo re f ema les t h an ma les w e re a s soc ia ted w i th s t one c off ins , d esp i te t h e f a r l a rge r p opu la t ion o fm a les w i th in t h e c eme te ry , t h e s amp le w a s v ery s ma l l a nd n e i the r s ex , n o r a ny s ex -and -age c a tego ry , w a s s i gn if ican t ly a s soc ia ted w i th e i the r c off in t ype . I n t e rm s o f c off in c ons t ruc t ion , t h e s amp le s i ze f o r s t one c off ins w a s t oo s ma l l t o e nab le a na lys i s ( e .g . p a ra l le l / tape red s i de s , s qua re / sem ic i rcu la r e nd s ) , a nd t h e n a i led t imbe r c off in s c ou ld o n ly b e c on s ide red a cco rd ing t on a i l c oun t s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . Whe re p r esen t , t h e a ve rage n umbe r o f n a i ls p e r c off in w a s f a ir ly e ven , a nd n e i the r s e x w a s p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th ' e xcep t iona l ly ' h igh c oun t s . S ome s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence w a s a ppa ren t i n n a i l d i s t r ibu t ion a r ound t h e c off in o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex -and -age a s mo re o ld a du l t m a les h ad n a i l s p os i t ioned a tt h e s i des , w i th n one a tt h e f o o t e nd ( Tab le 2 7 ) . H oweve r , w h i ls t t h is s i gn if ican t r e su l t m ay b e i n d ica t ive o f v a ry ing c off in c ons t ruc t ion t e chn iques a cco rd ing t os ex -and a ge , n a i l d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rns w ere o n ly e s tab l ished f o r2 6 o f t h e 5 6 s e xed a nd a ged a du l t b u r ia l s c on ta ined w i th in n a i led t imbe r c off ins a nd f u r the r s ubd iv is ion i nt o a ge c a tego r ie s m ean t t h a t t h e ' s ign if icance ' f o r t h e o l d a du l t c a tegory a c tua l ly o n ly r e la te st o 7ma le a nd 2f ema le b u r ia ls ( p lus o ne ? f ema le ) . T he s amp le s i ze w a s t hu s v ery s ma l l a nd i n f erence s mus tb er ega rded a sd ub ious .

A t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery t h e re w e re t wo t ypes o f c off in , ' Na i led T imbe r ' a nd ' T imbe r ' , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f' T imbe r ? P lank ' w he re ap l ank o fw ood s e ems t o h ave b een p l aced o ve r t h e b u r ia l , a nd t h e re w as n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s ex o r s ex -and -age c a tego r ies a nd a ny p a r t icu la r t y pe . I nt e rms o fc off in c ons t ruc t ion , t h e a verage n umbe r o f n a i ls p e r c off in w a s f a i r ly e ven a nd n e i the r s ex w a s mo re c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th ' e xcep t iona l ly ' h i gh c oun t s . N a i l d i s t r ibu t ion a tt h is c eme tery w a s r e co rded a s ' mo s t /p resen t ' a t t h e h ead , f oo t a nd s i des o f t h e c off ins , a l though t h e a c tua l n ume r ica l d i f f e rence b e tween ' mos t ' a nd ' p re sen t ' w a s n o t s t a ted i nt h e r epo r t . No s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence w a s f ound r e la t ing t o s e x o r s ex -and -age f o r t h e se v a r iab le s . S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion w a s a ppa ren t , h oweve r , o n t h e b a s is o f s ex -and -age c oncern ing t h e n umbe r s o f n a i ls d i s t r ibu ted a t t h e c off in c orne r s w hen t h e ` ? sexed ' c a tego ry w a s i n c luded ( Tab le 2 8 ) . Mo re o l de r a du l t m a le s a ppea r t o h ave b een a s soc ia ted w i th ' r ough ly t h e s ame n umbe r o f n a i ls u sed i n e ach c orne r ' ( 8 1 .25 % o f3 2 ) a nd p ropor t iona l ly mo re o lde r a du l t f ema les w e re a s soc ia ted w i th ' ma rked v a r ia t ion i nt h e n umbe r o fn a i ls u sed i ne ach c orne r ' ( 62 .5 % o f8 ) , a l though t h e s ma l l s amp le s i z e f o rt h is t e s t mu s tb e n o ted . No s exed a du l t b u r ia ls a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery a ppea r t o h ave b een p rov ided w i th c off in f i t t ing s o r i n ne r c off ins / l in ing s , a nd o n ly o ne o l de r a du l t ma le b u r ia l w a s a s soc ia ted w i th c off in p ack ing / f i l l ing ma ter ia l ( f l in t p l aced u nde rt h e s ku l l ) . T he P oundbury c eme te ry a s a w ho le e xh ib i ted t h ree d i f f e ren t t y pes o f c off in s , ' Na i led T imbe r ' , ' T imbe r ' a nd ' S tone ' , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f' T imbe r ? P lank ' w he re ap l ank o f w ood w a s p l aced a c ros s t h e t op o ft h ree b u r ia ls . T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s ex o r s ex -and -age a nd a ny p a r t icu la r t ype . O n ly n a i led t imbe r c off in s w e re p resen t i n t h e p e r iphe ra l c eme te r ie s a nd s i te C , a nd t h e re w as n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n b ody c on ta iner t y pe o n t h e b a s is o fs ex o r s ex -and -age w i th in t h e ma in l a te c eme tery i n i s o la t ion . S tone f r om t h ree d i f f e ren t s ou rce s w a s u sed i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o fc off in s , P or t land , G reen sand a nd H am H i l l , b u t o n ly t h e l a t te r w a s a s soc ia ted w i th s exed a du l t b u r ia ls ( 2 ma le a nd 3 f ema le ) . A na lys is c ou ld n o t b e u nder taken r ega rd ing c off in n a i l c oun t s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion f o r t h is c eme tery , b u t t h e s i te r e por t d i d d i v ide t h e n a i ls i nt o f ou r t y pes o n t h e b a s is o f h ead -shape ; f l a t -headed , d i amond h eaded , h o l low -dome -headed , a nd T shaped . T he re w a s n o

No s e xed a du l t b u r ia ls a t t h e B a th G a te c eme te ry w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th c off in f i t t ing s , i n ne r c of f ins / l in ing s o rc off in p ack ing / f i l l ing ma ter ia ls . F ou rd i f f e ren tt ypes o fc off in w e re a ppa ren ta tt h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry , ' Na i led T imbe r ' , ' T imbe r ' , ' Ho l lowed -ou t s ec t ion o f l o g ' , a nd ' T i le ' , w i th t he a dd i t ion o f ' T imbe r ? P lank ' w he re t h e b ody may s imp ly h ave b een b u r ied l a id o n ap lank o f w ood . T he re w a s av ery s im i la r d i s t r ibu t ion p a t tern a c ro s s t h ese d i f f e ren t ' c on ta ine r ' t ype s f o r m a le a nd f ema le b ur ia ls . I n t e rms o f c off in c on s truc t ion , t h e e xcava t ion r epor t i d en t if ied a tl e a s t s i x i n s tance s w he re t h e c ons t ruc t ion me thod d i f f e red f r om t h e s t anda rd w i th t h e b a se s e t i n b e tween t h e e nd a nd s i de b oa rds r a the rt h an r unn ing t h e f u l l l e ng th a nd w id th ( C rummy a nd C rossan , 1 993 : 1 20 ) , b u t o n ly t h ree o ft h ese c off ins w e re a s soc ia ted w i th s exed a du l t 8 5

S ex -and -age

C of f in N a i l D is t r ibu t ion F oo t e nd

H ead e nd Y oung A du l ts

M idd le -aged A du l ts

O ld A du l ts

T ab le 2 7

-

2

2

2

2

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+ ?M

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2

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+ ?F

1

1

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2

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-

2

-

,

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1

+ ?M

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2

2

+ ?F

1

1

2

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+ ?M

1

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'

5 5% 5 5%

2 -

5 5%

3

4

7

2

2

0

4

7

2

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C h i -squa red

1% 0%

S ign if ican tv ar ia t ion i nc of f in n a i ld i s tr ibu t ion o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h eB a th Ga te c eme tery

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

O lde rA du l ts

T ab le 2 8

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M

M

'

L e f t s i de

D is t r ibu t ion o fN a i ls a tC of f in C orners S im i la r C oun t

M a rked V a r ia t ion

M

1 0

8

F

1 2

5

+ ?M

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8

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1

M

1 9

6

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C h i -squa red 3 6% 9 3% 1% 1%

S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ed i s tr ibu t ion o fn a i l s a tc of f in c orne r s o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

a ppa ren t v a r ia t ion i n t h e s e lec t ion o f n a i l t y pe f o r c of f in c on s truc t ion o n t h e b a s is o fs ex /age ( M i l ls , 1 993 : 15 -117 ) . Twen ty -n ine s exed a du l t s ( 16 f ema le s a nd 1 3 m a les ) w e re a s soc ia ted w i th o ne o r more i r on c off in f i t t ing s a nd t h e i r p r e sence /ab sence e xh ib i ted n o s ex re la ted s i gn if icance . T he r e w e re n i ne d i f f e ren t t ype s o f f i t t ing s ; a ng le -b racke t , f l a t -headed s t ud , p l a te , r i ve t , s p l i t -sp ike l o op , s t rap -h inge , h and le , r i ng -bo l t a nd s t r ip /p la te , w i th n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e p rov is ion o f t h ese d i f f e ren t t ype s o n t h e b a s is o fs ex o r s ex -and -age . O n ly t h ree s exed a du l t b u r ia ls

o f i n ne r c of f ins / l in ing s w a s v ery e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a c ros s t h e s ex a nd s ex -and -age c a tego r ie s w i th 8( 2 .09% o f ) f ema le b u r ia ls a nd 7( 2 .06% o f ) m a le b u r ia ls . A l l t hose a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le s a nd 6 o f t h e 7a s soc ia ted w i th m a les w e re m ade o f l e ad , t h e o ne e xcep t ion b e ing a t imbe r i n ne r c off in / l in ing i n corpo ra ted i nt ot h e b u r ia l o fa n a du l t m a le i n t h e m a in c eme tery . None o f t h e s exed a du l t b u r ia ls w e re p rov ided w i th a' d oub le ' i n ner c of f in / l in ing . I ti sw o r thy o f n o te h e re t h a t t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h is f e a tu re w a s n o t e ven a c ro s s t h e s i te , f ou r w e re i n s ide m auso lea , t wo f o rmed ad i sc re te a d jo in ing p a i r i ns i te E a nd t e n w e r e c l u s te red i n t h e c en t re o fe nc lo su re 2 ( Farwe l l , 1 993 : 6 4 ) . T h is m ay b e

w e re a s soc ia ted w i th c omb ina t ions o f d if f e ren t t ypes o f f i t t ing s ( 1 f ema le a nd 2 m a les ) a nd t h e re w a s i n suff ic ien t d a ta t o u nder take f u r the r a na lys is c oncern ing f i t t ing d esc r ip t ions s uch a s t h e s hape o f t h e p l a te s , o r t h e i r p o s i t ion ing u pon t h e c off in . T he c eme te ry r e po r t s i ng les o u t c e r ta in f i t t ing t ype s w h ich a ppea r t o h ave b een d eco ra t ive r a the r t h an f unc t iona l i n n a tu r e , n ame ly , s p l i t -sp ike l o ops , t h e s t a r shaped p l a te a nd f l a t -headed s t ud s , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o fa ng le -b racke ts w he re t h e c off in w a s a l ready s uff ic ien t ly h e ld t o ge the r w i th n a i ls ( M i l ls , 1 993 : 17 ; 1 23 ) . T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e p rov is ion o f t h ese ' d eco ra t ive /f unc t iona l ' t y pes o f f i t t ing s a nd t h e s e x o r s ex a nd -age o ft h ed ecea sed .

t a ken t os ugges t s ome f o rm o fc ons t ruc ted p a t te rn ing w i th in t h e c eme tery i n t e rms o f i n ne r c of f in / l in ing a l loca t ion f o r c e r ta in g roup s o f i n d iv idua ls , p e rhaps e ven f am i ly g roup ing s , b u tt h is a loca t ion w a s n o tb a sed u pon s e x o rs e x a nd -age . A l ter na t ive ly , M i l ls ( 1993 : 1 28 ) h a s a r gued t h a t t h is c l us te r ing i nt h e s ou th -ea s ter n p a r t o ft h e m a in c eme tery m ay h ave a t empo ra l e xp lana t ion b a sed u pon s t ra t ig raph ic a nd n um isma t ic e v idence , t h is r i te b e ing mo s t p opu la r d u r ing t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e f ou r th c en tury a nd f a l l ing f r om f a vou rt h e reaf t e re xcep t f o ro cca s iona l u se . T he p ack ing / f i l l ing o f s ome c off in s a t P oundbu ry w i th p l a s te r o rg yp sum w as n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s ex o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed ; e l even b u r ia ls o f e a ch s ex r e ce ived t h is f o rm o f t r ea tmen t ( 3 .24% o fa du l t m a les a nd

S ome i n d iv idua ls a t P oundbury w e re a s soc ia ted w i th a dd i t iona l f e a tu res i n s ide t h e c off in i n t h e f o rm o f i n ne r c of f ins / l in ing sa nd /o rp ack ing /f i l l ing m a te r ia l . T he p rov is ion 8 6

C o rpse -w rapp ing

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

T ab le 2 9

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

7

1 34

F

2

1 76 1 09

M idd le -aged

M

2

A du l ts

F

2

7 7

O ld A du l ts

M

2

9 4

F

1

1 27

C h i -squa red 4 ') / 0

4 0%

S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ep rov i s ion o fc orp se -wrapp ing o nt h eb a s i so fs ex -and -age f or t h eP oundbu ry c eme te ry a s aw ho le

t h is s i gn if icance i sd ub iou s d ue t ot h e n a tu re o ft h e e v idence a nd t h e s ma l l s amp le s i ze s i n vo lved . I n g ene ra l , g ende r d oe s n o t s e em t o h ave d e te rm ined t h is p ar t o f t h e f u ne ra l p roces sa ta ny o ft h ec eme te r ie s .

2 . 88% o fa du l t f ema le s ) , a l b u t o ne o fw h ich w e re s i tua ted w i th in t h e m a in c eme te ry . One i n d iv idua l o fe ach s ex w a s a s soc ia ted w i th g yp sum , t wo o f e ach s ex w i th p l a s te r , a nd t h e r ema in ing s i x teen ( e igh t o f e ach s ex ) w i th ` p la s ter /gyp sum ' , t h e l a t te r c a tego ry mak ing s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s is o f a ny a s soc ia t ion b e tween s ex a nd p ar t icu la r c l a sses o f m a te r ia ls r edundan t . No d a ta c oncern ing t h e p l acemen t o fp ack ing /f i l l ing ma te r ia ls i nr e la t ion t ot h e b ody w a s e xh ib i ted f o rt h is c eme tery .

7 . 4

T he P o s i t ion ing o ft he B ody

A na lys is o f t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e c orpse i t se lf , t h e ' l ay ing o u t ' o ft h e b ody w i th in i t s c on ta ine r b eg ins , w he re p oss ib le , w i th c ons ide ra t ion o f g ene ra l b ody a nd s ku l l p o s i t ion ( i . e . s up ine , p rone , o n o ne s i de , d ecap i ta ted ) . T he c ons ide ra t ion o f l imb p os i t ion ing i s mo re c omp lex n o t o n ly d ue t o t h e n umbe r o f p oss ib le p o s i t ion c omb ina t ions i n co rpo ra t ing d i f f e ren t l i mb s , b u t a l so b ecause t h e s i de o f t h e b ody c an n o t b e i g no red a s a p o ten t ia l ly s i gn if i can t f a c to r . T he p o s i t ion ing o f e ach l imb ( l ef t l e g , r i gh t l e g , l e f t a rm , r i gh t a rm ) h a s t hus b een c ons ide red i ni s o la t ion , a nd t h en a s p ar t o f ap a i r , b o th i nt e rms o f' l ef t a nd r i gh t l e g s ' a nd ' l ef t a nd r i gh t a rms ' a nd mo re s imp ly a sp a i r s o f' l eg s ' a nd ' a rms ' t o a ccoun t f o r t h e p os s ib i l i ty t h a t b u r ia l w i th o ne l e g b en t f o r e xamp le m ay o rm ay n o t h ave b een r e la ted t o as pec if ic ( l ef t o r r i gh t ) l e g i n p a r t icu la r . A na ly s is w as t h en u nder taken c oncern ing c omb ina t ions o f a l t h e l imb e l emen t s ( r igh t l imb s ; l ef t l imbs ; r i gh t a rm w i th l e f t l e g ; l ef t a rm w i th r i gh t l e g ; a l l f ou r l i mbs ) . T he f o l low ing a bb rev ia t ion s a r e u t i l ised w i th in t h e l i mb p o s i t ion t a b le s : B =B en t ; S= S t ra igh t ; C— C ros sed ; RA = A tr i gh t a ng le s ; HP = H and o n p e lv is . When a na lys ing l i mb e l emen t c omb ina t ions r ep re sen ted b y t wo o r f ou r v a lues i nt h e t a b les , f o r e xamp le 'WS ' o r ` HP /FA B /S ' , t h e v a lue r ep resen t ing t h e r i gh t l imb p o s i t ion a lways p r ecede s t h a t o ft h e l e f t l imb , a nd a rms a lways p r ecede l e gs . T he l a t te r e xamp le g iven h e re w ou ld t hu s r ep resen t ' r igh t h and o n p e lv is w i th l e f t a rm f o lded o ve r a bdomen / s tomach , r i gh tl e gb en ta nd l e f t l e g s t ra igh t ' .

E v idence f o r s h roud u s e p resen t s u s w i th a n a dd i t iona l f o rm o f b ody ' c on ta inmen t ' , w he the r t h e w rapped c orpse w a s t h en p l aced w i th in a c of in o r d epo s i ted d i rec t ly i n t o t h e g r ave . O bv iou s ly , d ue t o t h e o rgan ic n a tu re o ft h i s f e a tu re o n ly a f r ac t ion o f i t s o ccur rence i s l i ke ly t o b e v i s ib le a r chaeo log ica l ly . On ly o ne s exed b u r ia l a te ach o ft h e B a th G a te a nd B u t t R oad c eme te r ie s w a s p os i t ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th c o rpse -w rapp ing , a nd d e sp i te C la rke 's ( 1979 : 1 38 ) s ugges t ion t h a t s h roud u se may h ave b een mo re c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema les a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , n o s exed a du l t s a c tua l ly e xh ib i ted p os i t ive e v idence i n t h is f i e ld . A t t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery , e v idence i n d ica t ive o fc orp se w rapp ing , s uch a s t e x t i le r ema in s / s ta in s a nd l a te ra l c ompre s s ion o ft h e s k e le ton , w a s p r esen t i n 1 9 s e xed a du l t b u r ia l s ( 1 3 o f 3 58 m a les a nd 6 o f 4 09 f ema les ) . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion w a s n o t s i gn if ican t o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex ( ch i s qua red = 6% ) , b u t t h ere d id a ppea r t o b e s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e c o rp se -w rapp ing o f ma les a nd f ema les o ft h e y oung a du l t c a tegory ( Tab le 2 9 ) i n d ica t ing t h a t m a les m ay h ave b een s i gn if ican t ly mo re c ommon ly p rov ided w i th s h roud st h an f ema les w i th in t h is a ge g roup . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f c o rpse -w rapp ing w a s n o t s i gn if ican t i n a ny o f t h e P oundbury s ub -a rea s i n i s o la t ion a nd t h e s i gn if i cance f ound t hu sa ppea r st or e la te t ot h e c eme tery a sa w ho le . I t m u s t b e n o ted , h oweve r , t h a t t h e n umbe r o f i d en t if i ed c orpse -w rapp ing o ccur rence s i sa c tua l ly v e ry l ow , p a r t icu la r ly w hen s ubd iv ided b y a ge , a nd a l though t h e v ery m ixed s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e xed b u r ia ls p r esumab ly i n cur red s im i la r s o i l c ond i t ion s a nd c hance s o fp r e se rva t ion , t h e b a s is o f t h is s i gn if icance l a rge ly i n t h e s u rv iva l o f o rgan ic r ema ins n ece ss i ta tes c au t ion i n t h e d eg ree o f c onf idence t h a t m ay b ep l aced o n t h ese r e su l t s .

A t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery f ou r p o s i t ions w e re r ep resen ted f o r t h e b ody a nd t h e s ku l l , ' s up ine ' , ' p rone ' , ' o n r i gh t s i de ' a nd ' o n l ef t s i de ' , a nd t h e c ho ice o fp o s i t ion f o r i n d iv idua l b u r ia l s w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e i r s ex o r s ex -and a ge . T he re w e re f i ve d ecap i ta ted b u r ia ls ( 3 m a le s , 1f ema le a nd 1? f ema le ) , a l l w i th t h e h ead sp l aced a round t h e l e g s . I n t e rm s o f l imb p o s i t ion ing , t h e re w e re t h ree p o s s ib le v a lues f o r l e g s , ' s t ra igh t ' , ' c ros sed ' a nd ' b en t ' , a nd n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip w a s a ppa ren t b e tween l e g p o s i t ion a nd s ex o r s ex -and -age e i the r i n i s o la t ion o r i n c omb ina t ion a s p a i r s ( bo th ' g ene ra l ' p a i r s , a nd ' s pec if ic ' p a ir s , i . e . l e f t a nd r i gh t l e g s ) . T he ' s tanda rd ' l e g p os i t ion a tt h is c eme te ry w as ' b o th l e g s s t ra igh t ' a nd t h ere w a s n o s t a t is t ica l s i gn if i cance i n

A na ly s is o f t h e s e lec t ion o f b ody c on ta ine r s h a s r evea led v e ry l i t t le s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion o n t h e b a s is o f s ex o r s ex a nd -age a c ro ss t h e s i te s . T he o n ly s i gn if i cance f ound , a tt h e B a th G a te a nd L ankh i l ls c eme te r ies , c oncerned p os s ib le d if e rence s i n c off in c ons t ruc t ion t e chn iques s ugges ted b y v a r ia t ion i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f n a i ls a r ound t h e c off ins , b u t 8 7

v a r ia t ion f r om t h is s t anda rd p os i t ion o n t h e b a s is o f s e x o r s ex -and -age . T h ree a rm p o s i t ions w e re r e p re sen ted , ' s t ra igh t a t s i de ' , ' c ro ssed /fo lded o ve r c hes t /wa is t ' a nd ' b en t ' , a nd a na ly s is w a s a dd i t iona l ly u nder taken w i th t h e s ubd iv is ion o f t h e b en t p o s i t ion i n t o ' b en t ' a nd ' f lexed ' v a lues w h ich i n corpo ra ted ' b en t a nd mo re b en t ' a nd ' s l igh t ly b en t ' r e spec t ive ly a s s t a ted i nt h e p ub l ished g rave l i s t . Wh i ls t n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence w a s f ound i n s i ng le a rm p os i t ions , t h e re w a s s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion b y s ex ( Tab le 3 0 ) a nd s ex a nd -age f o r t h e y oung a du l t c a tegory ( Tab le 3 1) f o r ' g ene ra l ' c omb ina t ions /pa ir s o f a rm p o s i t ion s , w i th mo re m a le b u r ia ls h av ing o ne a rm b en t a nd o ne a rm s t ra igh t , a nd p ropor t iona l ly mo re f ema les h av ing b o th a rm s s t ra igh t . A na lys is o f s pec if ic l ef t / r igh t a rm c omb ina t ions r e vea led t h a t t h e s i gn if icance b y s ex -and -age f o r y oung a du l t s w a s u phe ld ( Tab le 3 2 ) a nd t h is w a s a l so t h e c a se f o rb o th g ene ra l

B /B

B /S

C /C

S /S

M

1 6

2 5

6

1 8

F

7

3

2

1 5

+ 7 ro

1 8

2 8

6

2 3

+ ?F

1

8

3

2 3

A du l ts

3% 8%

' Genera l ' A rm P os i t ion C omb ina t ions B /B

B /S

C /C

S /S

M

2

1

2

6

F

5

1

0

1

+ ?M

2

1 2

2

6

+ ?F

8

2

0

1 6

M

9

1 2

4

1 2

F

2

1

2

4

+-n v i

1 0

1 4

4

1 4

+ ?F

3

5

2

5

Y oung A du l ts

O lde rA du l ts

C h i -squa red 1% 0% 3 4% 9 4%

S ign if ican t v ar ia t ion i n ' g enera l 'a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ions o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o rt h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

' Spec i f ic ' A rm P os i t ion C omb ina t ions

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

O lde rA du l ts

T ab le 3 2

C h i -squa red

S ign if ican tv ar ia t ion i n ' g enera l 'a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion s o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery

S ex -and -age

T ab le 3 1

T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s e x o r s ex a nd -age a nd a ny o f t h e o t he r ' t wo l imb ' p os i t ion c omb ina t ions ( i .e . l e f t / r igh t a rm w i th l e f t / r igh t l e g ) , b u t s i gn if icance w a s a ppa ren t f o r c omb ina t ions o fa l f ou r l i mb p o s i t ion s o n t h e b a s is o f s ex -and -age . T h is s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion w a s a ppa ren t i nt h e y oung a du l t c a tegory f o r b o th ' g ene ra l ' a nd ' s pec if ic ' l imb p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion s , w hen t h e b en t a rm c a tego ry w a s a pp l ied i ni t s e n t ire ty ( Tab le s 3 3 3 4 ) a nd w hen s ubd iv ided i n t o b en t a nd f l exed . T he s i gn if icance p a t terns i n d ica te t h a t mo re y oung a du l t f ema le s h ad a n S /S S /S c omb ina t ion ( a l l f ou r l i mb s s t ra igh t ) a nd mo re y oung a du l t ma les h ad a B /S S /S c omb ina t ion ( r igh t a rm b en tw i th l e f t a rm a nd b o th l e g s s t ra igh t ) .

' Genera l ' A rm P os i t ion C omb ina t ions

S ex

T ab le 3 0

a nd s pec if ic a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ions w hen t h e b en t c a tegory w a s b roken d own i nt o' b en t ' a nd ' f lexed ' .

B /B

B /S

C /C

S /B

S /S

M

2

8

2

3

6

F

5

1

0

0

1

+7M

2

9

2

3

6

+ ' ?F

8

2

0

0

1 6

M

9

5

4

7

1 2

F

2

1

2

0

4

+7M

1 0

5

4

9

1 4

+ ?F

3

3

2

2

5

C h i -squa red

"

1% 0% 4 1% 7 41 ) / 0

S ign if ican tv ar ia t ion i n ' s pec if ic '( l ef ta nd r i gh t ) a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion so n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry 8 8

' Genera l ' A l l F our L imb P os i t ion C omb ina t ions

S ex -and -age B /S C /C

B /S

B /S

B /B

B /B

C /C

C /C

B /B

B /B

S /S

C /C

S /S

B /B

S /S

B /B

S /S

2

0

2

0

6

5

0

0

0

1

C h i -squa red S /S

Y oung

M

0

0

1

0

A du l ts

F

0

- 0

1

0

+ ?M

0

0

1 2

0

2

0

2

0

6

+ ?F

0

1

1

0

8

0

0

0

1 6

_

O lde r

M

1

2

9

1

1 0

1

3

1

A du l ts

F

0

0

1

0

2

1

1

0

T ab le 3 3

'

+ ?M

1

2

1

1

' 1

1

3

+ ?F -

0

2

3

0

3

1

1

-

-

1 2 4

1

1 4

0

'

5

10/ 0 0% 8 9% 9 7%

S ign if ican tv ar ia t ion i n ' g enera l 'c omb ina t ions o fa l lf our l i mb p os i t ion s o nt h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery

' Spec if ic ' A l l F our L imb P os it ion C omb ina t ions

S ex -and -age

Y oung A du l ts

O lde r A du l ts

T ab l e3 4

B /S

B /S

B /S

B /B

B /B

C /C

C /C

B /B

S /B

S /B

S /S

C /C

B /B

S /S

C /C

S /S

B /B

S /S

B /B

B /B

S /S

S /S

M

08

0

2

0

2

0

0

3

6

F

0 - 0 .

0

1

0

5

0

0

0

0

0

1

+ ?M

0

0

9

0

2

0

2

0

0

3

6

+ ?F

0

1

1

0

8

0

0

0

0

0

1 6

5

1 2

,

_

M

1

0

4

1

1 0

1

3

1

2

F

0

0

1

0

2

1

1

0

0 ' 0:

4

+ ' ?M

1

0

4

1

1

1

3

1

2

7

1 4

+ ?F

0

0

3

_ 0

3

1 ' 1

0

2

0 —

5

C h i -squa red 1% 0% 9 0% 6 7%

S ign if ican tv ar ia t ion i n ' s pec c ' ( l ef ta nd r i gh t ) c omb ina t ions o fa l lf our l i mb p os i t ion s o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and a ge f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

' s t ra igh t a ts i de ' , ' f o lded a t9 0 d eg ree s ' , ' f o lded d i agona l ly o ve r c hes t ' , ' f o lded o ve r a bdomen / s tomach ' , ' h and o n p e lv i s / lowe r a bdomen ' a nd ' c rossed o ve r p e lv is /abdomen ' . T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s ex o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e p o s i t ion ing o f t h e ir a rms o rl e g s o n t h e i r o wn , a s ' g ene ra l ' o r ' s pec if ic ' p a i r s , o r i n a ny o f t h e t wo l imb o r f ou r l imb c omb ina t ions . T he re w a s a l so n o s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t e rms o f d ev ia t ion f r om t h e ' s tanda rd ' l e g p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion ( bo th

A t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , o n ly 9 o ft h e 7 50 s exed a du l t b u r ia ls w e re n o t p l aced i n as up ine p o s i t ion ; 5i n d iv idua ls w e r e b u r ied p rone ( 1m a le a nd 4f ema les ) a nd 4w e re b u r ied c r ouched o n o ne s i de ( 1 m a le o n t h e l e f t s i de , a nd 2 m a le s a nd If ema le o n t h e r i gh t s i de ) . T he s e lec t ion o f am anne r o t he r t h an s up ine w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s ex o r s ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed f o r t h e c eme tery a s aw ho le o r a ny o f t h e i nd iv idua l s ub -a rea s . S ku l l p o s i t ion s w e re n o t r e co rded a s ad i sc re te v a r iab le , a nd t h e re w e re o n ly t wo d ecap i ta t ion s a tt h is c eme tery , b o th w e re f ema les i no u t ly ing g raves .

l e g s e x tended ) , b u t d ev ia t ion f r om t h e ' s tanda rd ' a rm p os i t ion c omb ina t ion ( bo th a rms s t ra igh t a t s i de s ) w a s s i gn if ican t ly a s soc ia ted w i th s ex -and -age , w i th mo re m idd le -aged m a les e xh ib i t ing t h e more u nusua l a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion s f o r t h e c eme te ry a s aw ho le ( Tab le 3 5 ) , a nd

I n t e rm s o f l imb p l acemen t s , t h e re w e re f ou r d i f f e ren t l e g p o s i t ion s a t P oundbu ry , ' e x tended ' , ' c ros sed ' , ' b en t ' a nd ' c on t rac ted ' a nd a na lys is w a s a l so u nder taken w i th t h e s ubd iv is ion o f t h e b en t c a tegory i nt o ' f lexed t or i gh t ' a nd

t h e m a in c eme te ry i ni s o la t ion ( Tab le 3 6 ) . O n ly f o r t h e P oundbury c eme tery c ou ld a ' s tanda rd ' c omb ina t ion o f a l l f ou r l imb p o s i t ions b e i d en t if ied . T h is s t anda rd p os i t ion w a s ' b o th a rms s t ra igh t a ts i des w i th b o th l e g s e x tended ' a nd a s w i th t h e s t anda rd a rm p o s i t ion a na lys is , s i gn if ican t ly mo re m idd le -aged m a les e xh ib i ted n on s tanda rd l imb c omb ina t ions f o r t h e s i te a s aw ho le ( Tab le 3 7 ) a nd t h e m a in l a te c eme tery ( Tab le 3 8 ) . A s m idd le -aged m a le s e xh ib i ted n o s i gn if ican t d ev ia t ion f r om t h e s t anda rd l e g p o s i t ion i ni s o la t ion , t h e s i gn if icance f ound f r om a na lys is o fa l l f ou r l imb c omb ina t ions i sl i ke ly t ob e a f e a tu re o f t h e d if f e ren t ia l p o s i t ion ing o f a rms b y s e x -and a ge .

' f lexed t o l ef t ' . Wh i ls t P oundbu ry w a s t h e o n ly c eme tery f o r w h ich a ' s tanda rd ' a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion c ou ld b e i d en t if ied , t h ere w a s al a rge r a nge o f o t he r v a lue s w h ich n eces s i ta ted t h e man ipu la t ion o ft e rm ino logy i ns ome c a ses t o f a c i l i ta te s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is , a nd a f ew b u r ia ls w i th u n ique v a lues , n o t s uff ic ien t i n n umbe r t o af ec t t h e s i gn if icance t e s ts , w e re e xc luded f r om a l t e s t s e xcep t t h e c on s ide ra t ion o f ' s tanda rd ' v e r sus ' non -s tanda rd ' a rm p o s i t ion ing . T hose v a lue s e xc luded f r om t h e ma in a rm p o s i t ion a na lyses a nd t ho se s ub sumed w i th in t h e f o l low ing s imp l if ied c a tego r ie s a r ep r esen ted i n A ppend ix 8 . T he s i x s imp l if ied a rm p os i t ions i n c luded i nt h e ma in a na lys is w e re 8 9

_

S ex -and -age

' S tandard ' A rm P os i t ion C omb ina t ion S t ra igh t a ts i de

Y oung A du l ts

T ab le 3 5

4 7

8 5

F

6 2

9 9

M idd le -aged

M

3 5

6 8

A du l ts

F

4 2

3 6

O ld A du l ts

M

3 3

5 7

F

4 1

8 1

Y oung A du l ts

6 1% 1% 6 4%

' S tandard ' A rm P os i t ion C omb ina t ion N o t s t ra igh t a ts i de

M

4 2

7 5

F

5 7

8 5

M idd le -aged

M

3 1

5 6

A du l ts

F

4 2

3 2

O ld A du l ts

M

3 1

4 6

F

3 9

7 3

C h i -squa red 4 8% 1% 4 5%

S ign if i can tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l sw i th t h es t anda rd a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion ' v e r su s ' d ev ia t ion sf rom t h i s ' s tanda rd 'o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o rt h em a in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbury

' S tandard ' L imb P os i t ion C omb ina t ion

S ex -and -age

Y oung A du l ts

S tanda rd L imb

N o t S tanda rd L imb

C omb ina t ion

C omb ina t ion

M

4 7

8 5

F

6 0

1 0 1

M idd le -aged

M

3 5

6 8

A du l ts

F

4 1

3 6

O ld A du l ts

M

3 2

5 7

F

3 8

8 3

C h i -squa red 7 7% 1% 4 9%

S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l s w i th t h es t andardf our l i mb p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion ' v e r su s ' d ev ia t ion sf rom t h i s ' s t anda rd 'o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o rt h e P oundbury c eme tery a s aw ho le

' S tandard ' L imb P os i t ion C omb ina t ion

S ex -and -age

Y oung A du l ts

T ab le 3 8

C h i -squared

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l s w i th t h es t anda rd a rm p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion ' v e r su s ' d ev ia t ion sf rom t h i s ' s t anda rd 'o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -ag ef or t h eP oundbu ty c eme tery a s aw ho le

S t ra igh t a ts i de

T ab le 3 7

a ts i de

M

S ex -and -age

T ab le 3 6

N o t s t ra igh t

S tanda rd L imb

N o t S tanda rd L imb

C omb ina t ion

C omb ina t ion

M

4 2

7 5

F

5 6

8 6

M idd le -aged

M

3 1

5 6

A du l ts

F

4 1

3 2

O ld A du l ts

M

3 1

4 6

F

3 7

7 5

C h i -squa red 5 6% 1% 3 1%

S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th t h es t anda rdf our l i mb p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion ' v e r su s ' d ev ia t ion sf rom t h i s ' s t anda rd 'o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h em a in l a te c eme tery a tP oundbury 9 0

a nd " ? f ema le ' a r e i n c luded a s w h i ls t f ou r t ime s a s m any m a le s a r e r e p re sen ted i nt h is a ge c a tego ry , t w ice a s m any f ema le s w e re b u r ied i n ap rone p o s i t ion .

A tt h e B a th G a te c eme tery t h e m a jo r i ty o fs exed a du l t s w e r e b u r ied i n as up ine p o s i t ion , t h e o t he r s b e ing p rone o rl a id o n o ne s i de , a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ody p o s i t ion ing w a s f o und t ob e s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s e x a nd s ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed ( Tab le s 3 9 -40 ) . P ropo r t iona l ly m o re m a le s w e re b u r ied o n t h e ir r i gh ts i de , b u t t h e m os t s t r ik ing f e a tu r e i st h e d if e r ence i np rone b u r ia l ; t h e s im i la r n umbe r s i n t h e s ex r e su l t s t a b le a c tua l ly r e p re sen t 1 8 .31 % o ff ema le a du l t s a nd o n ly 6 . 28% o f m a le a du l t s . T h i s s i gn if ican t a s soc ia t ion b e tween f ema les a nd p rone b u r ia l i sc a r r ied o ve r i nt ot h e s ex -and -ag e r e su l t s f o rt h e o l da du l t c a tego ry w hen " ?ma le '

S ku l l p o s i t ions v a r ied a c ro s s s up ine , p rone a nd p l acemen t o n t h e r i gh t o r l e f t s i de , a nd w h i ls t t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i nt h e c ho ice o f s ku l l p o s i t ion a cco rd ing t o s e x , t h e re w a s s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex -and -age , w i th p ropo r t iona l ly m o re o l d a du l t f ema les b e ing b u r ied w i th t h e i rh ead sp o s i t ioned o n t h e r i gh t s i de ( Tab le 4 1) . T he s ma l l s amp le s i z e o f t h e o l d a du l tc a tegory s hou ld b e n o ted

B ody P os i t ion

S ex S up ine

On R igh t S ide

O n L e f t S ide

5

M

1 88

1 3

1

F

5 8

1 2

0

1

+ ?M .

1 94

1 3

1

5

+ ?F '

7 2

1 3

0

1

A du l t

T ab le 3 9

P rone

P rone

O n L e f t S ide

O n R igh t S ide

M

2 5

3

0

0

F

1 2

1

0

0

+ ?M

2 7

3

0

+ ?F

1 5

1

0

0

M idd le -aged

M

9 2

6

1

2

A du l ts

F

3 0

7

0

0

+ ?M

9 2

6

1

2

+ ?F

3 2

7

0

0

M

4 4

2

0

2

F

1

3

0

1

+ ? Iv i

4 4

2

0

2

1

4

0

1

Y oung A du l ts

O ld A du l ts

+ ?F

_

0

C h i -squa red 7 6% 6 7% 1 0% 1 2% 1 2% 4%

S ign i f ican tv a r ia t ion i nb od yp o s i t ion o nt h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h eB a th G a te c eme ter y

S ku l l P os i t ion

S ex -and -age S up ine

P rone

O n L e f t S ide

O n R igh t S ide

M

4

2

9

7

F

4

1

3

4

+ ?M

5

2

+ ?F

4

1

M idd le -aged

M

1 9

A du l ts

F

9

+ ?M

1 9

+ ?F

1 0 1 5

Y oung A du l ts

T ab le 4 1

7%

B ody P os i t ion S up ine

O ld A du l ts

5%

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nb od yp o s i t ion o n t h e b a s i s o fs e xf or t h eB a th G a te c eme tery

S ex -and -age

T ab le 4 0

C h i -squa red

M

_

1 0

7

4

4

2

2 5

2 8

3

1 3

5

2

2 5

2 8

3

1 3

0

1 2

7

,

-

5 1 3

F

1

1

2

+ ?N i

1 5

0

1 2

1 3

+ ?F

1

1

2

7

C h i -squa red 7 2% 8 9% 1% 1 0% 4% 4%

S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i ns ku l lp o s i t ion o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -ag ef or t h e B a th G a te c eme tery 9 1

h oweve r . F i ve m a le b u t n o f ema le b u r ia l s w e re d ecap i ta ted a t t h e B a th G a te c eme te ry , b u t t h is d i f f e rence w a s n o t s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t d ue t ot h e g r ea te r m a le r a t io i nt h e c eme te ry . T he p roposed c o r re la t ion b e tween d ecap i ta ted a nd p rone b u r ia l ( Ha rman e ta l . 1 981 ; P h i lpo t t , 1 99 1 :76 ) i s c l ea r ly n o t b o rne o u t a tt h is s i t e a ss i gn if ican t ly mo r e f ema le b u r ia ls w e re p rone w i th n o d ecap i ta t ion s , a nd a l d ecap i ta ted m a le s w e re b u r ied i n as up ine b ody p o s i t ion . I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t on o te r eg iona l v a r ia t ion i nt e rms o fd ecap i ta ted h ead p l a cemen t a s a l f i ve h ead s a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery w e r e p l aced a r ound t h e l e g s a nd a l l f i ve a tt h e B a th G a te c eme te ry w e r e p o s i t ioned a tt h et o p o ft h e s p ine . I n t e rm s o f l i mb a r rangemen t s , t h e r e w e r e t h ree l e g p o s i t ion s a t B a th G a te , ' s t ra igh t ' , ' c ro s sed ' , a nd ' b en t ' , a l ong w i th f u r the r s ubd iv is ion o f t h e b en t c a tego ry i n t o ' b en t ' a nd ' f l exed ' v a lue s . O u t o fa l t h e t e s t s u nde r taken ( s ing le l e g s , ' g ene ra l ' a nd ' s pec if ic ' p a i r so fl e g s ) s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i np o s i t ion ing w a s a ppa ren t o n ly f o r t h e l e f t l e g o n t h e b a s i s o fs e x -and -age ( Tab le 4 2 ) w i th s i gn if ican t ly m o re m idd le -aged m a le s h av ing b en t l e f t l e g p o s i t ion s t h an m idd le -aged f ema les w hen ` ? sexed ' c l a s s if ica t ion s w e re i n c luded . A s ide f r om t h e i n c lus ion o f ` ? sexed ' c a tego r ie s , t h i s f e a tu re i s ' o n ly j u s t ' s i gn if ican t a nyway w i th a C h is qua red r e su l t o f 5 . 48% , t h e s i gn if icance d i sappea r s w hen t h eb en tc a tego ry i ss ubd iv ided , a nd t h u st h e c onf idence t h a t c an b e i n ves ted i nt h is s i gn if icance m ay b e q ue s t ionab le . T he ' s tanda rd ' l e g p o s i t ion a t t h i s s i t e w a s ' b o th l e g s s t ra igh t ' a nd t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s e x o r s ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e s e lec t ion o f n on s tanda rd l e gp o s i t ions . F ou r a rm p o s i t ions w e re a ppa ren t a tt h i s c eme te ry , ' s t ra igh t a ts i de ' , ' a tr i gh t a ng le s ' , ' h and o n p e lv is ' a nd ' c ro s sed o ve r c he s t ' b u t t h e c ho ice o f a rm p o s i t ion e i the r i n d iv idua l ly o r i n c omb ina t ion a s g ene ra l o r s pec if ic p a ir s w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly b a sed u pon t h e s e x o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed . S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i n ' t wo l imb ' p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion s w a s o n ly a ppa r en t o n t h e b a s is o fs e x -and -age w hen t h e l ef t a rm w a s i n c luded ( l ef t a rm w i th l e f t l e g ; l e f t a rm w i th r i gh t l e g ; T ab le s 4 3 -44 ) a s w i th t h e i n c lu s ion o f ` ? sexed ' c a tego r ie s p ropo r t iona l ly m o re m idd le -aged f ema le s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th RA /S c omb ina t ion s ( l ef t a rm a t ar i gh t a ng le w i th e i the r l e g s t ra igh t ) . T he s ame t e s t f o r t h e ' g ene ra l ' l i mb p o s i t ions ( n o t s pec if ica l ly n o t ing t h e l e f t o r r i gh t s i de o ft h e b ody ) e xh ib i ted n o s i gn if icance a nd t h e s ame w a s t r ue w hen t h e b en t l e g p o s i t ion w a s s ubd iv ided i n t o b en t a nd f l exed c omponen t s . T he re w a s a l so n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s ex o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e p o s i t ion ing o f a l f o u r l i mb s i n c omb ina t ion . A t t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry a l s exed a du l t b u r ia l s w e re i n ter red i n as up ine o r p rone p o s i t ion , w i th n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween b ody p o s i t ion a nd s e x o r s e x -and -age . S ku l l p o s i t ion s w e r e n o t r e co rded a nd t h e r e w e re n o d ecap i ta t ion s . T h ree l e g p o s i t ion s w e re a ppa ren t , ' s t ra igh t ' , ' c ro s sed ' a nd ' b en t ' a nd a na ly s is w a s a l so u nde r taken i n co rpo ra t ing s ubd iv is ion o ft h e b en t c a tego ry i n to ' f l exed t o l e f t ' a nd ' f l exed t or i gh t ' . T he re w e r e s i x a rm p o s i t ion s , ' s t ra igh t a ts i de , ' f o lded a t9 0 d eg ree s ' , ' f o lded d i agona l ly o ve r a bdomen ' , ' f o lded d i agona l ly o ve r c he s t ' , ' h and o n p e lv is ' a nd ' c ro s sed o ve r l owe r a bdomen /pe lv is ' . A s w i th t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , t h e l a rge r a nge o f a rm p o s i t ions n ece ss i ta ted t h e e xc lu s ion o f af ew b u r ia l s w h ich e xh ib i ted 9 2

u n ique v a lues ( p re sen ted i n A ppend ix 9 ) . T he r e w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip a tt h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry b e tween t h e s e x o rs e x -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed a nd a ny i n d iv idua l o r c omb ina t ion s o fa rm a nd /o r l e g p o s i t ion s .

D ec i s ions r e ga rd ing t h e p o s i t ion ing o ft h e c orp se a ppea r t o h ave b een r e la ted t ot h e s e x o r s ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed t os ome d eg ree a te ach o ft h e c eme te r ie s e xcep t B u t t R oad , b u t w h i ls t t h e r e w a s s ome s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e p o s i t ion ing o f m a le a nd f ema le b od ie s a t t h e o t he r s i te s , p a r t icu la r p o s i t ion s o f b ody e l emen t s w e re n o t e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th o ne o r t h e o t he r s e x . A t t h e B a th G a te c eme te ry m o s t o f t h e s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion o n ly b ecame a ppa ren t w hen ? s exed c l a ss if i ca t ions w e r e i n c luded ; p ropo r t iona l ly m o re o l d a du l t f ema le s w e r e b u r ied i n a p rone p o s i t ion , m o re f ema le s w e r e p o s i t ioned w i th t h e i r l e f t a rm a t ar i gh t a ng le w i th e i the r l e g s t ra igh t , a nd m o re m idd le -aged m a le s h ad b en t l e f t l e g s . T he r e w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion b y s e x o rs ex -and -age i nt h e p o s i t ion ing o fp a i r s o fa rm s o r l e g s o ra l f ou r l i mb s a nd t h e o n ly r e su l t w h ich w a s f o und t o b e s i gn if ican t w i thou t t h e i n c lu s ion o f ? s exed c a tego r ie s w a s t h a t p ropor t iona l ly m o r e o l d a du l t f ema le s w e re b u r ied w i th t h e i r h ead s p l aced o n t h e r i gh t s i de . T he P oundbury c eme te ry w a s t h e o n ly s amp le f o rw h ich ' s tanda rd ' a rm , l e g a nd f ou r l imb p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion s c ou ld b e e s tab l ished . I no t he r w o rd s , t h e s exe s s ha r ed m o s t o f t h e e xh ib i ted p o s i t ions , a nd w h i ls t s i gn if ican t ly m o r e m idd le -aged m a le s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m o r e ' u nu sua l ' o r ' n on -s tanda rd ' a rm a nd f o u r l imb p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion s , t h e m a jo r i ty o f i n d iv idua ls w e re b u r ied i n a' s tanda rd ' p o s i t ion u n r e la ted t o s e x . A t t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery s i gn if ican t ly m o r e f ema le s , p a r t icu la r ly y oung a du l t f ema les , w e r e b u r ied w i th a l f ou r l i mb s s t ra igh t w h i l s t s i gn if ican t ly mo r e y oung a du l t m a les w e re b u r ied i n as im i la r m anne r b u t w i th t h e i r r i gh t a rm ' b en t ' . T he d i f f e r ence s i nl i mb p o s i t ion ing a tL ankh i l l s w e re b a sed u pon s e x -and -ag e w i thou t t h e i n c lus ion o f? s exed c l a s s if ica t ions , a nd i n deed w hen ? s exed c a tego r ie s w e re i n co rpo ra ted t h e s i gn if icanc e e xpo sed b y t h e c h i squa r ed t e s t s i n c r ea sed ( t o 0% ) .

L e f t L eg P os i t ion

S ex -and -age S t ra igh t

C rossed

B en t

M

1 7

3

3

F

5

2

0

+ ?N i i

1 8

3

3

+F

6

2

0

M idd le -aged

M

5 7

3

1 2

A du l ts

F

2 7

1

o

+ ?M

5 7

3

1 2

+ ?F

2 9

1

0

M

2 7

1

4

F

9

2

2

+ ? r ‘ A

2 7

1

4

+ ?F

1 0

2

2

Y oung A du l ts

O ld A du l ts

-

T ab le 4 2

_

C h i -squa red 4 3%

4 5% 7% 5% 3 0% 3 5%

S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nl e f t l e gp o s i t ion o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h e B a th Ga te c eme tery

L ef tA rm w i th L e f tL eg P os i t ion C omb ina t ions

S ex -and -age

C /B

C /C

C /S

S /B

S /C

S /S

M

1

1

2

0

1

1

0

1

4

1

0

7

F

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

3

+7 M

1

1

2

0

1

1

0

1

4

1

0

7

1

0

0

3

/S RA /B R 72 1 4 / / C RA Y oung A du l ts

/S HP /B HP /C HP

+7 F

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

M idd le -aged

M

2

0

5

1

0

7

0

0

1 6

6

1

1 3

A du l ts

F

0

0

7

0

0

3

0

1

4

0

0

4

+7M

2

0

5

1

0

7

0

0

1 6

6

3 1 . 1

4 -7 F

0

0

9

0

0

3

0

1

4

0

0

4

M

0

0

0

7

0

2

2

1

9

1

0

6

F

0

0

2

1

0

1

0

1

5

0

0

1

+ ?M

0

0

0

7

0

2

2

1

9

1

0

6

+ ?F

0

0

2

1

0

1

0

1

5

0

0

1

O ld A du l ts

T ab le 4 3

'

C h i -squa red 8 4%

9 5%

1%

4%

2 7% 2 7%

S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i n 'l e f ta rm w i th l e f tl eg 'p o s i t ion c omb ina t ions o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h e B a th Ga te c eme tery

L ef tA rm w i th R igh t L eg P os i t ion C omb ina t ions

S ex -and -age

C /C

C /S

S /B

S /C

S /S

M

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

3

2

0

6

F

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

3

RA /B Y oung A du l ts

PJS RA /C R

C /B

/S HP /B HP /C HP

+7M

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

3

2

0

6

+7 F

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

3

M idd le -aged

M

2

0

5

1

0

7

0

0

1 6

5

1

1 3

A du l ts

F

0

0

7

0

0

3

0

1

4

0

0

4

+7M

2

0

5

1

0

7

0

0

1 6

5

1

1 3

+7F

0

0

9

0

0

3

0

1

4

0

0

4

M

0

0

7

0

0

2

2

1

1 0

3

0

4

0

0

2

1

0

1

0

1

5

0

0

1

0

0

2

2

1

1 0

3

0

4

1

0

1 _ 0

1

5

0

0

1

O ld A du l ts

F

T ab le 4 4

+7 M

0

0

7

+7 F

0

0

2

1

4 -

C h i -squa red 5 9%

7 5 ° / 0 1 3%

5%

5 9%

S ign i f ican t v ar ia t ion i n 'l e f ta rm w i th r i gh tl eg 'p o s i t ion c omb ina t ion s o n t h eb a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h eB a th Ga te c eme tery

9 3

7 . 5

T he S e lec t ion a nd P o s i t ion ing o fG rave A r tef ac t s

a nd i n t h e s e lec t ion o f a r tef a c t c a tego r ie s ( a nd t h e i r c on s t i tu t ive t y pe s a nd m a te r ia ls ) f o r i n c lus ion i nb u r ia l s o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex a nd s ex -and -age r e la t ive t o t h e t wo s exed a du l t p opu la t ion s . E ach a r tef ac t c a tego ry i s a l so a na ly sed i n d iv idua l ly , w he re p o s s ib le , i n t e rm s o f i t s p l acemen t w i th in t h e b u r ia ls i n r e la t ion t o t h e b ody a nd t o t h e c of f in /g rave . A na ly s is o f g r ave -good s p o s i t ion ing i re spec t ive o ft y pe i st h en u nde r taken t oa s ce r ta in w he the r a ny p a r t icu la r p o s i t ion ing s t ra teg ie s w e re s t a t i s t ica l ly m o r e c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th e i the r s e x o ve ra l l . Mu l t ip le a r tef a c t d epo s i t ion i sa l so c on s ide red i nt e rms o fp r e sence , c ompo s i t ion a nd p l acemen t . F ina l ly , a t ten t ion i st ur ned t o m o r e s pe c if i c a na ly s is o f t h e p l acemen t o f a r tef ac t s i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h e c of f in a s t h e se v a r iab le s m ay r e p r e sen t d i f f e r en t s t ag e s i nt h e f u ne ra ry s e quence . We m ay i n terp r e t t h e c l o s ing o f t h e c of in l i d a s t h e e nd o f as t age i n t h e m o r tua ry r i tua l ; t h e b ody a nd i t s a ccompan imen t s a r e e nc lo sed , t h e c ho ice s h ave b een m ade . T he c off in i st h en p l aced i nt h e g r ave a nd o t he ra r tef ac t s a r e p o s i t ioned o u t s ide i t ;t h i s r e p r e sen t s a no the r s t age i nt h e r i tua l w h ich b ecome s c l o sed w hen t h e g r ave i sb ackf i l led . O fc ou r se i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t c off in s w e re p l aced i n t h e g r ave -p i t w i thou t l i d s a nd t h a t t h e p o s i t ion ing o fg ood s i n s ide /ou t s ide w a s n o t am a t te r o f s u ch c l ea r d i s t inc t ion , a nd t h e re i sa l so t h e p rob lem o f w he r e t h e a r t ef ac t s p l aced a round b od ie s w i thou t c off in s m ay f i t i n t o t h i s s chema . Ib e l ieve , h oweve r , t h a t t h e h ypo the s ised s e pa ra t ion o ft h e se s t age s i sv a l id a nd m e r i t s s p ec if ic a t t en t ion .

T he s e lec t ion a nd p o s i t ion ing o f g r ave a r tef ac t s m ay b e d i v ided i nt o t wo i n i t ia l s t age s ; t h e u se o f i t ems t o ' d re s s ' t h e b ody , a nd t h e p l acemen t o f i t em s a r ound t h e b ody . I n t e rm s o f d r e ss ing t h e b ody w e m ay h ope t o b e p r e sen ted w i th r ema in s o f c l o th ing , f oo twea r a nd i t ems o f p e r sona l a do rnmen t s uch a sb e l t s a nd j ewe l le ry . T he re w a s , h oweve r , a n a lmo s t c omp le te l a ck o ft e x t i le r ema in s f r om t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s , a nd w h i l s t s ome h obna i l s w e r e f o und t op l o t t h e o u t l ine o fb oo t s / shoe s , o t he r s w e r e l e s s c l ea r ly c on s t i tuen t s o f f o o twea r , a nd e ven i fw e p r e sume t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty d i d r e p r e sen t f oo twea r , t h ey w e r e c l ea r ly n o t a l u s ed t o p hy s ica l ly d r e s s t h e b ody . A l though t h e m a jo r i ty r e cove red f r om s exed a du l t b u r ia l s w e re f ound a tt h e ' f oo t e nd ' , s ome w e re r e co rded a tt h e s ku l l , h i p s , a rm s , h and s a nd l e g s . A t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry t h ey w e re p l aced o u t s ide t h e c off in i n 1 4g r ave s ( 2 3 p l a ced i n s ide ) , a nd e ven w hen p l aced a tt h e f oo t e nd o f b u r ia ls w i th in t h e c off in , m o s t a tb o th t h is s i te a nd t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery w e re p l aced ' a t ' ( e .g . t ot h e l ef t o f o r n ea r ) t h e f e e t a s o ppo sed t o ' o n ' t h e f e e t . A l so , t h e c l a s s if ica t ion ' o n t h e f e e t ' r e f e r s t od a ta s u ch a s ' o ve r a nd a mong f oo t b one s ' w h ich c an n o t a u toma t ica l ly b e e qua ted w i th ' wor n ' a nd d i s t inc t ion b e tween w o rn /no t w or n w a s n o t c l a r if ied i n t h e e xcava t ion r e por t s . S ome h obna i ls a t P oundbu ry w e re f ound i n s ide a w ooden b ox a c compan ied b y as p ind le -who r l , h a irp in , t e s se ra a nd b ead a nd m u s t t hu s b e c on s ide red a l ong w i th t h ese o t he r a r tef ac t s i nt e rms o f i t em s a ccompany ing t h e b ody . T h is i sa l so t r ue o f i t em s o f t h e ' p e r sona l a dor nmen t ' c a tego ry a s a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery o n ly t wo s u ch i t em s w e r e p l aced ' o n ' t h e b ody w h i l s t n i ne w e r e p l aced a r ound t h e b ody , a nd t h e re w e r e s im i la rf i gu re s a tP oundbu ry ( 4 :9 , w i th o n ly 2o ft h e se i t ems b e ing r e co rded a s ` wo rn ' ) . T he d i s t inc t ion o fi t ems u sed t o d r e s st h e b ody t h u s c an n o tb e c l ea r ly m ade h e re b a sed u pon t h e d a ta f r om t h e se c eme te r ie s .

7 . 5 .1

T he i n c lu s ion o fg r ave a r tef ac t s

Ma rked r e g iona l v a r ia t ion i n t h e p r ac t ice o f a r tef ac t d epo s i t ion w a s a ppa ren t a c ro s s t h e s e lec ted s i t e s . A t t h e B a th G a te c eme tery o n ly 2 . 78% o f g r ave s w i th a s k e le ta l r e co rd ( t o d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween b u r ia ls a nd e mp ty g r aves / ceno taph s ) c on ta ined g rave -good s , a tP oundbu ry t h i s f i gu r e w a s 8 . 66% , a t B u t t R oad 9 . 73% , a nd a t L ankh i l l s 5 6 .03% . P e r cen tage s o fs exed a du l t b u r ia l s a s soc ia ted w i th a r tef ac t s ( e xc lud ing h obna i ls ) a t e a ch c eme te ry a r e p r e sen ted i nT ab le 4 5 .

T h i s s e c t ion o f m y a na ly s is b eg in s b y i n ve s t iga t ing s t a t i s t ica l v a r ia t ion i n t h e c ho ice t od epo s i t a ny a r tef a c t s ,

A r te fac t P resence /Absence C eme tery B a th G a te

, B u t t R oad

L ankh i l ls

P oundbu ry

T ab le 4 5

S ex

P resen t

A bsen t

M

4

2 29

1 . 75

F

5

8 0

6 .25

+ ?M

4

2 37

169

+ ?F

6

9 0

6 .67

7

1 65

4 .24

F

7

1 27

5 .5 1

+ ?M

8

1 69

4 .73

+ ?F

9

1 36

6 .62

M

5 4

1 22

4 4 .26 4 0 .98

M

-

% P resen t

F

2 5

6 1

+ ?M

7 2

1 52

4 7 .37

+ ?F

4 3

1 03

4 1 .75

M

3 6

3 71

9 .70

F

4 3

4 15

1 0 .36

C oun t s a nd p ercen tage s o fs exed a du l t b ur ia l s a s soc ia ted w i th g rave a r tef ac t s ( e xc lud ing h obna i l s ) a te ach c eme te ry 9 4

T he p rov i s ion o f g r ave -good s i s f a i r ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a c ro s s t h e s e xe s a ta l t h e s i te s , a nd i n deed n o s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t v a r ia t ion i nt h e i r p r e sence w a s e xh ib i ted o n t h e b a s i s o fs e x o rs ex -and -age a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , o rt h e P oundbur y c eme te ry a s aw ho le o ri t ss ub -a rea s i ni s o la t ion . Wh i l s ta tB a th G a te p ropo r t iona l ly m o re f ema le b u r ia ls ( 5o f 7 5 :4 o f2 25 m a le b u r ia l s ) w e re a s soc ia ted w i th a r tef ac t s , t h i s d a ta i so n ly r ep r e sen ta t ive o f am ax imum o ft e n b u r ia ls a nd t h u s p rov ide s a n i n suff ic ien t s amp le s i ze f o r s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is . T h i s i sa l so t r ue o ft h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry w h ich h ou sed o n ly am ax imum o f1 7 s exed a du l tb u r ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th g ood s . T he se t wo c eme te r ie s t h u s h ad t ob e e xc luded f r om t h e s t a t is t ica l a r tef ac t a na ly s is . W i th o n ly f i ve s exed a du l t b u r ia l s a tB a th G a te a nd f ou ra tB u t t R oad ( 3f ema le :2 m a le , a nd 2 o fe ach s e x r e spec t ive ly ) b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th h obna i ls ,t h e i n c lu s ion o ft h is c a tego ry o fa r tef ac t c ou ld a l so n o tb e a na ly sed s t a t is t ica l ly f o rt h e se s i t es .

7 . 5 .2

( r ep re sen ted b y s p ind le -who r l s a nd a w eav ing t a b le t ) . M i sce l laneou s e qu ipmen t w a s e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th m a le b u r ia l s a nd t e x t i le e qu ipmen t w a s e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le b u r ia ls . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion w a s s i gn if ican t b y s ex f o r t e x t i le e qu ipmen t ( Tab le 4 6 ) , a nd f o r m isce l laneou s e qu ipmen t w hen ` ? sexed ' c a tego r ie s w e r e i n c luded ( Tab le 4 7 ) . A s t h e t ype s o f a r tef ac t s c on s t i tu t ing t h e e qu ipmen t c a tego r ie s w e re a l l e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th o ne o r t h e o t he r s e x , n o f u r the r a na ly s i s c ou ld b e u nder taken r e ga rd ing t h e i r m a te r ia l o r o the r d e sc r ip t ive f e a tu re s . F o r t h e s ame r e a son a na ly s is c ou ld n o t b e u nder taken r e ga rd ing t h e p o s i t ion ing o f m isce l laneou s a nd t e x t i le e qu ipmen t a nd t h e re w a s i n suff ic ien t d a ta t oa na lyse t h e g ene ra l e qu ipmen t c a tego ry i nt e rm s o fp o s i t ion ing b ecau se t h e s ma l l a moun t o fd a ta t h a tw a s a va i lab le w a sv e ry d i ve r se .

T he s e lec t ion a nd p o s i t ion ing o fp a r t icu la r c a tego r ie so fa r tef ac t s

T ex t i le E qu ipmen t

S ex

T he f o l low ing a r tef ac t c a tego r ie s w e r e s e lec ted f o ri n c lu s ion i ns exed a du l t b u r ia ls a tb o th t h e L ankh i l ls a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s ; A n ima l R ema ins , C o in s , E qu ipmen t , P e r sona l A do rnmen t , T o i le t r ie s , V e s se l s a nd ' Hobna i ls ' , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o fR ec rea t ion a tL ankh i l ls ( as e t o fg am ing -p iece s i n c luded i n t h e b u r ia l o f o ne y oung a du l t m a le ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ese a r tef ac t c a tego r ie s b y s ex a nd s ex -and a ge a r e d i scu s sed i nt u rn , b u t i tm u s t b e n o ted f r om t h e o u t se t t h a t w h i ls t a ppa ren t v a r ia t ion i n t h e s e lec t ion o f p ar t icu la ra r tef ac tt y pe s a cco rd ing t ot h e s e x o ft h e d ecea sed m ay c l ea r ly p rove i n s igh tf u l , t h e s amp le s i z e s f o r m o s t g ood s c a tego r ie s a r e v e ry s ma l l w h ich d u ly a f f ec t s t h e e mpha s is t h a tm ay b ep l aced u pon t h e s i gn if icance f ound .

A du l t

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

0

8 8

F

2

4 1

+ ?M

0

12

+ ?F

3

7 0

C h i -squa red 4%

T ab l e4 6 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th t e x t i le e qu ipmen t o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry

M isce l laneous E qu ipmen t

S ex A du l t

A t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery t h e r e w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s ex o r s e x -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e d epo s i t ion o fa n ima l r ema in s i nb u r ia l s ( r ep re sen ted b y d ome s t ic f ow l , s h eep a nd c a t t le r ema in s ) . T he s amp le s i z e w a s t o o s ma l l t o c on s ide r t h e s e lec t ion o f p a r t icu la r s pec ie s f o r i n c lu s ion i n m a le o r f ema le b u r ia l s a nd t o a na ly se t h e p o s i t ion ing o ft h is a r tef ac t c a tego ry w i th in t h e b u r ia l s .

P resen t

N o t P resen t

4

8 4

F

0

4 3

+ ?M

6

1 06

+ ?F

0

7 3

M

.

C h i -squa red 1 6%

T ab le 4 7 S ign if ican tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th m i sce l laneou s e qu ipmen t o n t h e b a s i s o fs e xf o r t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery

T he re w a s a l so n o s i gn if ican t s ex -ba sed v a r ia t ion i n t h e d epo s i t ion o f c o in s , a s soc ia t ion w i th c o in s o f ap a r t icu la r m a te r ia l ( c oppe r -a l loy o r s i lve r ) , o r i n t h e p o s i t ion ing o f c o in s i nt e rm s o f' g ene ra l ' p l acemen t i nr e la t ion t ot h e b ody ( e .g . f o o t e nd , r i gh t s i de ) , m o re s pec if ic p o s i t ion i nr e la t ion t o s k e le ta l e l emen t s , o r p l acemen t ' a t ' , ' o n ' , ' a bove ' o r ' b enea th ' s ke le ta l e l emen t s ; t h e mo s t c ommon c o in p o s i t ion w a s o n t h e s ku l l a nd a l s uch p l acemen t s f o r w h ich a dd i t iona l d e ta i l w a s a va i lab le w e r e ' o n ' t h e m ou th . T he re w a s a l so n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e p o s i t ion ing o fc o in s w i th in t h e g r ave b y c ompa s s p o in t o r i n s ide /ou t s ide t h e c off in ( bo th i n c lud ing a nd e xc lud ing ? i n s ide /?ou t s ide c l a ss if ica t ion s ) .

' P e r sona l a dornmen t s ' a s a g ene ra l c a tego ry w e re n o t s i gn if ican t ly s e lec ted t ob e i n c luded i nt h e b u r ia ls o fe i the r s ex a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , b u t t h e s ubd iv is ion i nt ob e l t s a nd j ewe l le ry p roduced i n te re s t ing r e su l t s . A l l b e l t s w e re e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th m a le b u r ia l s ( 4 m a le s o r 5 + ?ma le s ) , a l though t h is d i s t r ibu t ion w a s n o t s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t g i ven t h e l a rge r p ropor t ion o f m a le s i n t h e c eme t e ry . T he s e lec t ion o f j ewe l le ry f o r d epo s i t ion w a s s i gn if ican t , h oweve r , o n t h e b a s is o fs ex -and -age f o r y oung a du l t s w hen t h e ` ? sexed ' c a tegory w a s i n c luded ( Tab le 4 8 ) a s f ema le s b u t n o m a le s w i th in t h is a ge g roup w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th i t ems o fj ewe l le ry .

Wh i l s t t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e s e lec t ion o f ' e qu ipmen t ' a s ag ene ra l a r tef ac t c a tego ry f o r d epo s i t ion i n m a le a nd f ema le b u r ia ls , t h i s c a tego ry w a s s i gn if ican t ly d i s t r ibu ted w hen s ubd iv ided i nt om isce l laneou s e qu ipmen t ( r ep r e sen ted b y k n ive s , w he t s tone s a nd as t r ike -a l igh t ) , a nd o b jec t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e w o rk ing /manuf ac tu re o ft e x t i les

F ou r t y pe s o fj ewe l le ry w e re p re sen t i ns exed a du l t b u r ia ls a t t h is c eme te ry ( a rm le t s , b rooche s , f i nge r r ing s a nd n eck lace s ) a nd t h e re w a s s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e s e lec t ion o f t h ese d i f f e ren t t ypes o n t h e b a s is o f s ex w hen ` ? sexed ' c a tego r ie s w e re i n c luded ( Tab le 4 9 ) ; a rm le t sw e re 9 5

J ewe l lery

S ex -and -age Y oung A du l ts

O lde rA du l ts

T ab le 4 8

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

0

2 6

F

3

+ ?M

0

3 0

+ ?F

4

3 0

M

3

4 8

F

1

1 3

+ 7K 4

4

5 8

+ ?F

3

2 3

.

C h i -squa red 6%

2 1

, 5% 8 6% 4 2%

S ign if i can tv ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th j ewe l lery o nt h eb a s i so fs ex -and -age f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme te ry

J ewe l le ry T ypes

S ex A du l t

T ab le 4 9

A rm le t

B rooch

M

0

2

F i nge r r ing 1

F

3

0

2

1

+ ?M

0

4

1

0

+ ?F

6

0

3

1

C h i -squa red

N eck lace '

0

1% 1 %

S ign if ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th s pec if i ct y pe s o f jewe l le ty o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery

e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le b u r ia ls a nd b rooches w e re e xc lus ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th m a le b u r ia ls . T he s ex o r s ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed , h oweve r , d i d n o t s i gn if ican t ly a f f ec t t h e c ho ice o f j ewe l le ry manuf ac tu red f r om a ny p a r t icu la rt ype o f ma te r ia l / s ( coppe r -a l loy , g i l t c oppe r -a l loy , b one , i r on , s ha le , i v ory , a nd m ixed c omponen t s c omp r is ing g l a s sa nd c o ra l b ead s ) . O n ly f i nge r r ing s f r om t h e L ankh i l ls j ewe l lery a s semb lage c ou ld b e c ons ide red i nt e rms o f mo re d e ta i led d esc r ip t ion a s t h is t ype o n ly w a s s e lec ted f o r i n c lu s ion i nb o th m a le a nd f ema le g r ave s , b u t t h e n umbe r o f f i nge r r ing s w a s v ery s ma l l a nd t h e i r d esc r ip t ions ( e .g . c en t re -p iece )w e re v a r ied .

T o i le t r ies

S ex A du l t

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

1

8 6

F

4

3 9

+ ?M

3

1 09

+ ?F

4

6 9

C h i -squa red 2% 3 3%

T ab le 5 0 S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h e a s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th t o i le t r ies ( c omb s ) o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery

I nt e rms o ft h e p os i t ion ing o f i t ems o fp e r sona l a dornmen t a s ag ene ra l c a tegory i n r e la t ion t o a r ea s o f t h e b ody , s pec if ic s ke le ta l e l emen ts , a nd c ompa s s p o in t s w i th in t h e g r ave , s t a t is t ica l a na lys is c ou ld n o t b e u nder taken b ecau se t h e s ma l l s amp le s i ze w a s s p read a c ro ss t o o m any d i f f e ren t p os i t ions , t h is v a r ie ty i ni t se lf s ugges t ing t h a t t h e p l acemen t o fi t ems o fp e r sona l a do rnmen t w a s n o t as i gn if ican t f a c to r i nt h e ma rk ing -ou to fm a les a nd f ema les . T h is w a s a l so t r ue o f t h e p o s i t ion ing o f j ewe l lery a s as i ng le s ub -ca tego ry ,

T o i le t r ies

S ex

a nd s pec if ic c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e p o s i t ion ing o f b e l t s w a s r e dundan t d ue t o t h e ir e xc lus ive a s soc ia t ion w i th m a le b u r ia l s . A l l i t ems o fp e r sona l a dornmen t w e re p l aced i n s ide t h e c of f in , a nd t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt e rms o f t h e i r p l acemen t ' on ' o r ' a t ' p ar t s o ft h e b ody o n t h e b a s is o f s ex o r s ex -and -age . A s p r ev ious ly i n d ica ted , o n ly a v ery s ma l l p ropor t ion o ft h e se i t ems w e re a c tua l ly ' worn ' u pon t h e b ody a t b u r ia l , a nd t h is ' wea r ing ' o f a r tef ac t s w a s n o t p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th ma les o rf ema les .

P resen t

N o t P resen t

Y oung

M

2

2 4

A du l ts

F

0

2 4

+ ?M

2

2 8

+ ?F

0

3 4

O lde r

M

0

5 1

A du l ts

F

3

1

+ ?M

1

6 1

+ ?F

3

2 3

C h i -squa red 1 7% 1 3% 0 % 4%

T ab le 5 1 S i gn if i can t v ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th t o i le t r ie s ( c omb s ) o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o r t h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry s ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed w i th m o re f ema le s , a nd p ar t icu la r ly o l de r a du l t f ema le s , b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h i s a r tef ac t c a tego ry ( Tab le s 5 0 -51) . A l l t h e c omb s w e re m ade o f b one a nd a l w e re c ompo s i te , d oub le -s ided a nd r e c tangu la r , a s ide f r om o ne w h ich w a s c ompo s i te b u t

T o i le t r ies w e re i n c luded i n o n ly s even b u r ia ls a t t h is c eme tery , a l w e re c ombs , a nd t h e ir s e lec t ion f o r d epo s i t ion a ppea r s t o h ave b een s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t o t h e s ex a nd 9 6

p os i t ion ing a tt h e ' f oo t e nd ' o r ' e lsewhe re ' . None o ft h ese t e s t s e xh ib i ted a ny s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion b a sed u pon t h e s ex o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d eceased a nd t h e re w a s a l so n o s i gn if icance i nt h e p o s i t ion ing o fh obna i ls i n s ide /ou t s ide t h e c off in ( bo th i n c lud ing a nd e xc lud ing ' ? c la ss if ica t ions ' ) . T he d ec is ion t o p os i t ion f oo twea r o r o t he r i t ems i n co rpo ra t ing h obna i ls ' a t ' o r ' o n ' t h e b ody , h oweve r , d i d a ppea r t o b e a f f ec ted b y s ex ( Tab le 5 3 ) a nd s ex -and -age ( Tab le 5 4 ) w i th s i gn if ican t ly mo re m a le s /o lde r a du l t m a les b e ing f ound w i th h obna i ls ' o n ' t h e f e e t .

f r agmen ta ry . Whe re p os i t ions w e re k nown , a l l w e re p l aced i n s ide t h e c off in , t h e ma jo r i ty a tt h e h ead / sku l l . C ho ice s a s t ot h e t ype , ma ter ia l , a nd p os i t ion ing o fc ombs i nr e la t ion t o t h e b ody t hu s d id n o t d i f f e r s i gn if ican t ly a cco rd ing t o t h e s ex o rs ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed . At o ta l o f4 5 v esse ls w e re r e cove red f r om 3 5 s exed /?sexed a du l t g r aves ( 15 ma le :10 f ema le o r 2 2 :13 i n c lud ing ` ? sexed ' ) b u t t h e ir d i s t r ibu t ion w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t o t h e s e x o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed . S ubd iv is ion r e vea led s i x d if eren t t ypes o fv es se l s ; b eaker , f l agon , f l ask , b o t t le , j a r a nd b ow l , made o f p o t te ry o r g l a s s , b u t a ga in t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican tr e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e s ex o r s ex a nd -age o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e s e lec t ion o fp ar t icu la rt ypes o r ma te r ia ls o f v esse ls , o r c omb ina t ions o f t ype a nd m a te r ia l . T he re w a s i n suff ic ien t d a ta t o c ons ide r p o ten t ia l v a r ia t ion i nd i s tr ibu t ion o n t h e b a s is o f f u r the r d esc r ip t ion , o n ly o ne v esse l a s soc ia ted w i th a s exed a du l t b u r ia l e xh ib i ted g r aff i t i ( ma le ) , a nd t h e d a ta w a s v a s t ly r educed o nce v e sse l t ypes s uch a s b eake r w e re d i v ided i n t o ' i nden ted ' a nd ' g lobu la r ' , f o r e xamp le . O n ly o ne v esse l a s soc ia ted w i th as exed a du l t b u r ia l w a s d esc r ibed a sh av ing b een i n comp le te a t d epo s i t ion ( f ema le ) , a nd o f t h e t o ta l e i gh t v e s se ls s ugges ted t o h ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly b roken a t b u r ia l , t wo w e re a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le s , t h ree w i th a du l t s o fi n de te rm ina te s ex a nd t h ree w i th s ubadu l t s .

A t F oo t A du l t

,

O n F oo t 1 4

M

1 4

F

9

1

+ ?k i

1 9

2 0

+ ?F

1 8

3

C h i -squa red 3%

0%

T ab le 5 3 S ign if ican t v ar ia t ion i nh obna i lp os i t ion ing ' a t ' o r ' o n 't h ef ee to nt h eb a s i s o fs ex f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

S ex -and -age

H obna i ls P os i t ion ' A t ' o r' On ' t he F ee t O n F oo t

A t F oo t

A na lys is o f v esse l p o s i t ion ing r evea led n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s ex o r s ex -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e p l acemen t o fv e sse ls i nt e rms o f ' g ene ra l ' a r ea s o f t h e b ody , o r s pec if ic s ke le ta l e l emen t s , a nd a l l w e re p l aced ' a t ' ( by o r n ea r ) t h e b ody . T he re w a s a l so n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i nv esse l p os i t ion ing i nr e la t ion t oc ompa ss p o in t s , b u t t h e re w a s s i gn if icance o n t h e b a s is o f s ex f o r v esse l p o s i t ion r e la t ive t o t h e c off in ( Tab le 5 2 ) w i th mo re v es se ls a s soc ia ted w i th ma le b u r ia ls b e ing p l aced o u t s ide t h e c off in w hen ` ? sexed ' c a tego r ie s w e re i n c luded . V esse ls r e co rded a s b e ing p l aced ' up r igh t ' , ' i nver ted ' o r ' o n t h e ir s i de ' w e re o n ly p r esen t i nt h ree s exed a du l t b u r ia ls .

Y oung

M

5

A du l ts

F

6

O lde r A du l ts

1 ,

+ ?M

7

0 1

+ ?F

1 0

0

'M

5

9

F

3

0

+ 7N 4

6

1 3

+ ?F _

5

2

C h i -squa red 3 0% 2 5% 4% 7%

T ab le 5 4 S ign if ican t v ar ia t ion i nh obna i lp os i t ion ing ' a t ' o r ' o n ' t h ef ee t o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

V esse l P os i t ion i nr e la t ion t ot he C of f in

S ex

I n s ide C of in A du l t

H obna i ls P os i t ion ' A t ' o r' On 't he F ee t

S ex

O u ts ide C of in

M

5

7

F

6

1

+ ?M

9

1 0

+ ?F

8

1

A t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , t h e d epo s i t ion o f a n ima l r ema ins w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s ex o r s ex -and a ge o f t h e d ecea sed f o r t h e c eme te ry a s aw ho le , s uch d epos i t s w e re a b sen t f r om t h e ma in c eme tery a nd w e re t oo l ow i nn umbe r t o e nab le s t a t is t ica l a na lys is r e la t ing t o t h e o t he rs ub -s i tes .

C h i -squa red 6% 4%

C o in s w e re o n ly i n c luded i nb ur ia ls i n t h e m a in c eme te ry , t h ey w e re a l c oppe r -a l loy a nd w e re f a ir ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted b y s ex a nd s e x -and -age ( 10 ma le a nd 9f ema le b ur ia ls ) , w i th n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i na ny o ft h e p o s i t ion ing t e s t s . A s a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , t h e mos t c ommon c o in p o s i t ion w as ' o n ' t h e s ku l l , o r mo re s pec if ica l ly , ' o n ' t h e mou th .

T ab le 5 2 S ign if ican t v ar ia t ion i nt h ep lacemen t o fv e s se l s i n s ide /ou t s ide t he c of f in o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery

T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e a s soc ia t ion o f b u r ia ls w i th h obna i ls o n t h e b a s is o fs ex o r s ex -and -age ( 36 o f 8 8 a du l t ma les a nd 1 3 o f4 3 a du l t f ema les ) . S ix o ft h e b ur ia ls w ere a l so a s soc ia ted w i th i r on ' boo t ' p l a te s , b u t o n ly t wo w e r e s exed a du l t s , o ne m a le a nd o ne f ema le . I n t e rms o f t h e p o s i t ion ing o f h obna i ls i n r e la t ion t o t h e b ody , a na ly s is w as u nder taken r ega rd ing b o th ' g ene ra l ' a nd ' s pec if ic ' p l acemen t . I n a dd i t ion , a s t h e m a jo r i ty o f h obna i ls w e re p os i t ioned a tt h e ' f oo t e nd ' ( f rom t h e k nee s d ownwa rd s ) a na lys is a l so c en t red u pon a ny v a r ia t ion i n

T he d ec i s ion t o d epo s i t ' e qu ipmen t ' a s ag ene ra l a r tef ac t c a tegory w i th in b u r ia ls d i d a ppea r t ob e b a sed s i gn if ican t ly u pon s ex ( Tab le 5 5 ) a nd s ex -and -age ( Tab le 5 6 ) w i th in t h e c eme te ry a s aw ho le , a nd u pon s ex w i th in t h e m a in c eme te ry i n i s o la t ion ( Tab le 5 7 ) . A l l e qu ipmen t , b o th m isce l laneous ( kn ives a nd k n if e / shea r s b l ade ) a nd t e x t i le ( s p ind le -who r ls , p ins /need le s ) w a s e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le b u r ia ls . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion w a s n o t s i gn if ican t f o r t h e 9 7

m i sce l laneou s

e qu ipmen t

s ub -ca tegory

d ue

t o i t s

l ow

w e re r e p re sen ted w i th in s exed a du l t b u r ia l s ( a rm le t s , b rooche s , f i nge r r ing s , b ead s , h a i r -p in s a nd n eck lace s ) , c ons i s t ing o f f i ve d i f f e ren t ma ter ia l s ( bone , c oppe r -a l loy , j e t , s i lve r , a nd m ixed c omponen t s c omp r is ing g l a s s a nd c o ra l b eads ) , a nd n o p a r t icu la r t ype /ma te r ia l w a s s i gn if i can t ly a s soc ia ted w i th a ny s ex o r s ex -and -age c a tego ry . Mo re d e ta i led d esc r ip t ion s o ft h e j ewe l le ry w e re n o ta va i lab le i ns uff ic ien t q uan t i ty t oe nab le c ons ide ra t ion o f a ny f u r the r p o ten t ia l d i f f eren t ia t ion i n t h ose d epo s i ted i n m a le o r f ema le g rave s . A l l t h ej ewe l lery w a s p l aced i n s ide t h e c off in , i nv a r ied p o s i t ion s i nr e la t ion t op a r t s o ft h e b ody a nd c ompa s s p o in t s , a nd t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t a s soc ia t ion b e tween s ex o r s ex -and -age a nd t h e p l acemen t o fi t ems ' a t ' o r ' o n ' t h e b ody , w i th v ery f ew i t ems b e ing i d en t if ied a s ' worn ' .

f r equency o f o ccur rence , b u t w a s s i gn if ican t f o r t e x t i le e qu ipmen t f o r t h e c eme tery a s aw ho le ( Tab le 5 8 ) . T he e xc lus iv i ty o fe qu ipmen t t o o ne s e x r e nde red c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e v a r iou s c ons t i tu t ive m a te r ia ls a nd o t he r d esc r ip t ive f e a tu re s r e dundan t .

E qu ipmen t

S ex A du l t

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

0

3 7 1

F

9

4 06

C h i -squa red 0%

T ab le 5 5 S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th e qu ipmen t o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex f or t h e P oundbury c eme tery a s aw ho le

Wh i ls t m o re f ema les t han m a les ( 6 :1) w e re a s soc ia ted w i th t o i le t r ie s ( c omb s a nd o ne p a i r o ft weezer s ) , t h is d i s t r ibu t ion p a t tern w a s n o t f ound t o b e s i gn if ican t b y s ex o r s e x -and a ge f o r t h e ma in l a te c eme tery , t h e o n ly s ub -a rea i nw h ich t h is c a tego ry o fg r ave a r tef ac t w as d epos i ted i ns exed a du l t b u r ia ls . T he m a le b u r ia l c on ta ined a d eco ra ted c ompo s i te d oub le s ided b one c omb , a nd t h e s ame t ype o f c omb w a s p r esen t i nf ema le g raves . Whe re t h e p o s i t ion w a s k nown , a l t o i le t r ie s w e re p l aced i n s ide t h e c off in , mos t ly a tt h e h ead e nd / sku l l f o rb o th s exes .

E qu ipmen t

S ex P resen t

N o t P resen t

Y oung

M

0

1 4 1

A du l ts

F

5

1 73

M idd le -aged

M

0

11

A du l ts

F

1

7 8

O ld

M

A du l ts

F

.

0

9 6

3

1 25

C h i -squa red 4% , 2 3%

H obna i ls w e re r e cove red f r om 1 8 m a le a nd 1 4 f ema le b u r ia ls a t P oundbury , a nd w h i ls t m a les t e nded t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th h ighe r n umbe r s ( a ve rage 8 1) t h an f ema les ( a ve rage 4 8 ) , t h e i r i n c lu s ion /absence f r om b u r ia ls w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t o t h e s ex o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed . T he c ho ice o f p os i t ion f o r i t ems i n corpo ra t ing h obna i ls a l so w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly d i f f e ren t f o rt h e s exe s , o f a ny o ft h e a ge g roups .

1 3%

T ab le 5 6 S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ea ssoc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th e qu ipmen t o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex -and -age f or t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery a s aw ho le

S ex A du l t ,

V e ry f ew v es se ls w e re a s soc ia ted w i th s exed a du l t b u r ia l s , o n ly t h ree i nt h e e a s tern p e r iphera l c eme te ry a nd o ne i ns i t e C , r e p re sen t ing 2m a les a nd 2f ema les i nt o ta l .

E qu ipmen t P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

0

3 15

F

5

3 60

C h i -squa red 4%

T he r ema in ing ' unc las s if iab le ' g rave -good s w e re p r esen t i n s i x s exed a du l t b u r ia l s ( 3 m a les a nd 3 f ema le s ) , t h ey w e re a l o f d i f f e ren t t ypes ( f igu r ine , a t tachmen t r i ng , s t ud , b ox , d i sc a nd o b jec t ) , v a r ied m a te r ia ls ( i ron , c oppe r -a l loy , w ood a nd c ha lk ) , a nd a l p l aced i n s ide t h e c off in a tt h e h ead o r f oo te nd .

T ab le 5 7 S ign i f ican t v ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th e qu ipmen t o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex f or t h e ma in l a te c eme te ry a tP oundbury

A du l t

7 . 5 .3

T ex t i le E qu ipmen t

S ex P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

0

3 7 1

F

6

4 09

C h i -squa red

T he p os i t ion ing o fa r tef ac t s i re spec t ive o ft y pe

H obna i ls w e re n o t a ma lgama ted w i th t h e o the r t y pes o f a r tef ac t s f o r t h is p a r t o f t h e p os i t iona l a na lys is d ue t o t h e a mb iguou s c o inc iden ta l / in ten t iona l n a tu re o f t h e i r d epo s i t ion w hen f ound i n s ide t h e c of f in ( O 'Shea , 1 984 : 2 4 ) . S ta t i s t ica l a na lys is o f a l t h e o the r g r ave a r tef ac t s a s a s i ng le ' g rave -goods ' c a tego ry r evea led t ha t t h e c ho ice o f p l acemen t o f i t ems i n b u r ia ls w as n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t o t h e s e x o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d eceased a t e i the r t h e L ankh i l ls o r P oundbu ry c eme te r ies i nt e rms o f p os i t ion ing r e la t ive t ot h e b ody ( bo th g ene ra l a nd s p ec if ic ) , p o s i t ion ing a t , o n , a bove o r b enea th s ke le ta l e l emen t s , o r p l acemen t b y c ompa s s p o in t . T he a na lys is o f a r tef ac t p os i t ion ing i n s ide /ou t s ide t h e c off in i su nder taken s epa ra te ly b e low .

2%

T ab le 5 8 S ign i f ican t v ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th t e x t i le e qu ipmen t o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery a s aw ho le

A l l ' p e r sona l a dor nmen t s ' a tt h e P oundbury c eme tery w ere i t ems o fj ewe l lery a nd t h e i n c lus ion o fs uch i t ems i nb u r ia ls w as n o t s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t os ex o rs e x -and -age w i th in t h e c eme te ry a s a who le o r t h e ma in a nd e a s ter n p e r iphe ra l c eme te r ie s i ni s o la t ion . T he re w e re i n suff ic ien t d a ta t ot e s t t h e o t he r t wo s ub -s i tes . S ix d if f e ren t t ype s o f j ewe l lery 9 8

7 . 5 .4

c eme te ry , a nd t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i n t h e p rov is ion o fm a le o rf ema le b u r ia ls ( o fa ny a ge g roup ) w i th p ar t icu la r n umbe r s o f a r tef ac t s . T he r a nge o f n umbe r s w a s q u i te e ven ly s p read a c ro s s t h e s exe s a tL ankh i l l s , a nd w h i ls t f ema le s t e nded t ob e a s soc ia ted w i th h ighe r n umbe r s o f g ood s a t P oundbu ry , t h i s m ay b e e xpec ted w hen s i gn if ican t ly mo re f ema les w e re a s soc ia ted w i th m u l t ip le d epo s i t s .

T he d epo s i t ion o f mu l t ip le a r tef ac t s

T he d ec i s ion t o d epo s i t mu l t ip le a s o ppo sed t o s i ng le a r tef ac t s w i th in b u r ia ls w a s n o t s i gn if i can t ly r e la ted t o t h e s ex o r s e x -and -ag e o f t h e d ecea sed a t t h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery , b u t t h e re w a s s i gn if ican t d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n t h i s a s pec t o fa r tef ac t s e lec t ion f o r t h e P oundbury c eme te ry a s aw ho le w he re s i gn if ican t ly m o re f ema le s /y oung a du l t f ema le s w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th m u l t ip le a r tef ac t d epo s i t ion ( Tab le s 5 9 -60 ) . T he i n d iv idua l s amp le s i ze s f o r t h e P oundbu ry s ub -a rea s w e re i n suff ic ien t t o e nab le s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is o ft h i s p a t ter n o n amo r e d e ta i led l e ve l , b u t i td oe s s e em t o b e g ene ra l ly c ons is ten t a c ro s s t h e s i te s ; mu l t ip le a r tef ac t d epo s i t ion w a s e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le s ( 3 ) i n t h e e a s te rn p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry , a nd t h e r a t io o f f ema les t o m a le s w i th mu l t ip le d epo s i t s i n t h e m a in c eme tery a nd s i te C r e spec t ive ly w e re 8 : 1 a nd 3 : 1 . T he re w a s n o s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e d epo s i t ion o f s i ng le a r tef ac t si nb u r ia ls o nt h e b a s i s o fs e x o rs ex -and -ag e .

T he r e w e r e n o a ppa r en t p a t tern s i nt h e s e lec t ion o fp a r t icu la r a r tef ac tt y pe s f o r i n c lu s ion i n mu l t ip le d epo s i t s i nb u r ia ls o n t h e b a s i s o fs e x o r s e x -and -age a tt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , n o r w e re t h e re a ny p a t tern s i nt h e mu l t ip le r ep re sen ta t ion o f a ny p a r t icu la r a r tef ac t t y pe . T he s e lec t ion o fa r tef a c t t y pe s f o r i n c lu s ion i n m u l t ip le d epo s i t s w e re a l so v e ry v a r ied a c ro s s t h e s e xe s a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , b u t t h e m u l t ip le r e p resen ta t ion o f p a r t icu la r t y pe s o f a r tef ac t s d i d d i f f e r s i gn if ican t ly a c co rd ing t o s ex , a nd s ex -and -age f o r y oung a du l t s ( Tab le s6 1-62 ) . Wh i l s t t h e i n c lu s ion o f mu l t ip le v e s se l s i nm a le a nd f ema le b u r ia ls t a l l ie s w i th t h e o ve ra l l r a t io s o fm a le :f ema le v e sse l a s soc ia t ion , a nd t h e i n c lu s ion o f mu l t ip le i t em s o f m i sce l laneou s e qu ipmen t a nd b e l t s i nm a le g rave s c ou ld b e ' e xpec ted ' d ue t ot h e e xc lu s ive a s soc ia t ion o ft h e se a r tef ac t t y pe s w i th m a le b u r ia l s , t h e a s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia ls w i th m o re t h an o ne c o in a nd m o re t h an o ne i t em o fj ewe l le ry e xh ib i ted s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion f r om ' e xpec ted ' p a t ter n s . A l though t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t s e xua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt h e o ve ra l l n umbe r s o fb u r ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th j ewe l le ry a nd c o in s , o n ly f ema le b u r ia l s c on ta ined mo re t h an o ne i t em o fj ewe l le ry a nd o n ly m a le b u r ia ls c on ta ined m o re t h an o ne c o in . B o th t h e se f e a tu re s w e r e f ound t o b e s i gn if ican t a mong s t t h e y oung a du l tc a tego ry .

Whe re m u l t ip le a r tef ac t s w e re p r esen t , t h ey r a nged i n n umbe rf r om 2 -8 a t P oundbu ry a nd f r om 2 10 a t L ankh i l ls

Mu l t ip le A r te fac ts

S ex A du l t

P resen t

N o t P resen t

3

3 68

1 5

4 00

C h i -squa red 1%

T ab le 5 9 S ign i f ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e i n c lu s ion o fm u l t ip l e a r tef ac t s i nb ur ia l s o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f o r t h e P oundbury c eme te ry a s aw ho le

I nt e rm s o ft h ep o s i t ion ing o fm u l t ip le d epo s i t s , t h e r e w a s n o s i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion b y s ex o rs e x -and -age i na ny o ft h e t e s t s f o r e i the r c eme te ry ; g ene ra l a nd s pec if ic r e la t ion t o t h e b ody , p l acemen t o n , a t , a bove o rb enea th s ke le ta l e l emen t s , c ompa s s p o s i t ion , i n s ide /ou t s ide c off in , o r c l o se p rox im i ty ( ' c lump s ' ) o f a l o r s ome m u l t ip le a r tef ac t s w i th in e a ch b u r ia l ( i nc lud ing i t em s a r ranged i n p i le s , i n te r locked o r p l aced w i th in c on ta ine r s s uch a sb oxes , v e s se l s o rp ouches ) .

M u l t ip le A r te fac ts

S ex -and -age P resen t

N o t P resen t

C h i -squa red

Y oung

M

2

1 39

3%

A du l ts

F

1

1 67

M idd le -aged

K 4

0

11

A du l ts

F

1

7 8

O ld

M

1

9 5

A du l ts

F

3

1 25

2 3% 4 7% .

7 . 5 .5

T ab le 6 0 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e i n c lu s ion o fm u l t ip le a r tef ac t s i n b ur ia l s o n t h e b a s i s o f s e x -and -age f o r t h e P ound bury c eme tery a s aw ho l e

J ewe l le ry

T ab l e 6 1

T he p r ev iou s s e c t ions o f m y a r tef a c t a na ly s i s h ave c oncen t ra ted u pon t h e i n ves t iga t ion o f s ex -ba sed v a r ia t ion i n t h e c ho ice o f c e r ta in t ype s o r c a tegor ie s o f a r tef ac t s

M u l t ip les o fP ar t icu la rT ypes o fA r te fac ts

S ex

A du l t

T he p l acemen t o fa r tef ac t s i n s ide /ou t s ide t h ec of f in

V esse ls

6

3

2

1

1

0

M

0

F

3

+ ?M

0

7

4

+ ?F

5

1

1

'

M isce l laneous

C o ins

B e l ts

E qu ipmen t

.

1 '

0

2

2

0

0

C h i -squa red 4% 1%

S ign i f ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e a s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th m u l t ip le s o fp a r t icu la r t y pe s o fa r tef ac t s o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex f o rt h eL ankh i l l sc eme tery 9 9

Mu l t ip les o fP ar t icu la rT ypes o fA r te facts

S ex -and -age J ewe l lery

C o ins

V esse ls

Y oung

M

0

2

2

0

0

F

3

0

0

0

0

+ ?M

0

3

2

0

0

+ ?F

4

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

1

0

0

2

3

1

0

1

1

0

0

O lde r

M

0

2

A du l ts

F

0

1

+ ?M

0

_+ ?F

1

,

C h i -squa red 3% 1% 7 9% 4 5%

S ign if ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th mu l t ip l e s o fp ar t icu la rt y pe s o fa r tef ac t s o n t h eb a s i s o f s ex -and -age f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

a nd t h e i r c ompa ra t ive p os i t ion ing w i th in m a le a nd f ema le g raves , b u t a s o u t l ined p rev ious ly , Ib e l ieve i t i s a l so i mpor tan t t o c ons ide r t h e d epos i t ion o f a r tef ac t s i n s ide o r o u t s ide t h e c off in a sd i f f eren t s t ages i nt h e f unera ry p roce ss . A s d i f f e ren t s t ages , t h e c ho ice o f a r tef ac t s a nd t h e ir p o s i t ion ing w i th in t h e c off in m ay h ave n o d i rec t r e la t ionsh ip t o t h e c ho ice o f a r tef ac ts a nd t h e i r p o s i t ion ing o u t s ide t h e c off in ; t h e s exes may h ave b een m a rked -ou t a s ' d if f e r en t ' i n o ne s t age a nd n o t i nt h e o t her , a nd s epa ra te a na lys is o ft h e se s t ages i s t h us n eces sa ry a s d i f f e ren t ia t ion may b e ' l o s t ' w hen a l g r ave -good s a r e t r ea ted a s as i ng le g roup . T he d epos i ts a r e n o t j u s t r e la ted t o t h e c o rp se , b u t a l so t o t h e c oncern s o f t h e mourne rs , t h e a c t s o f mourn ing a nd t h e f une ra l r i t e s o f t h e mourn ing c ommun i ty . T he w r i t ing o f i d en t i ty u pon t h e c orp se i nt e rms o ft h e c ho ice o f a r tef ac t s d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e b ody i n s ide t h e c off in m ay t h u s b e v e ry d i f f e ren t t o t ho se a r tef ac ts d epos i ted a s p ar t o ft h e f i na l a c t s o ft h e mourne r s d u r ing t h e g raves ide r i tua l b ef o re t h e b u r ia l w a s ' c lo sed ' . T he f o l low ing a na lys is w a s t hu s u nde r taken i n corpo ra t ing a r tef ac t s w i th in s exed a du l t b u r ia ls o n ly w he re t h e p resence o f ac off in w a s k nown .

. S ex -and -age

T o i le t r ies -I n s ide C of f in P resen t

N o t P resen t

Y oung

M

1

2 4

A du l ts

F

0

2 4

+ ?M

2

2 6

+ 2F

0

3 4

M

0

F

A du l ts

B e l ts

E qu ipmen t

A du l ts

T ab le 6 2

O lde r

M isce l laneous

4

3 6

2

7

+ 7 rA

1

4 4

+ 2F

2

1 5

i n corpora t ing h obna i ls , a nd ' e qu ipmen t ' a nd ' p e r sona l a dornmen t ' ( a s g ene ra l c a tego r ie s ) d id n o t e xh ib i t s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ips , a nd t h e s i gn if icance f ound r e la t ing t o j ewe l le ry a nd m isce l laneou s a nd t e x t i le e qu ipmen t v an ished o nce p l acemen t s pec if ica l ly i n s ide t h e c off in w a s c ons ide red . I n deed t h e o n ly a r tef ac t c a tego ry w h ich r ema ined s i gn if ican t w a s t o i le t r ie s , a nd t h is w a s o n ly s i gn if ican t o n t h e b a s is o fs ex -and -age , w i th f ema les b u t n o m a le s o ft h e o l de r a du l t c a tegory b e ing b u r ied w i th c ombs ( Tab le 6 3) . A t P oundbu ry , o n ly t h e s e lec t ion o f ' e qu ipmen t ' f o r i n c lu s ion s p ec if ica l ly i n s id e t h e c off in w as s i gn if ican to n t h e b a s is o f s e x , f o r t h e c eme tery a s aw ho le , a nd t h e e a s tern p e r iphe ra l c eme te ry i n i s o la t ion ( Tab les 6 4 -65 ) , d ue t o i t se xc lus iv ea s soc ia t ion w i th f ema le s . N o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip w a s a ppa ren t b e tween t h e s ex o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e p os i t ion ing o f a ny a r tef ac t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e b ody o rc ompa ss p o in t s w i th in t h e c off in f o re i the ro ft h e c eme ter ies .

S ex

E qu ipmen t -I n s ide C of in P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

0

3 39

F

6

3 77

C h i -squa red A du l t

3 2%

C h i -squa red 2%

1%

T ab le 6 4 S i gn i f ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th e qu ipmen t i n s id e t h e c of f in o n t h e b as i s o fs ex f or t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery a s aw ho le

0% 1 2%

S ex

T ab le 6 3 S ign i f ican t v ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb u r ia l s w i th t o i le t r ie s ( comb s ) i n s id e t h e c of f i n o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex a nd -age f or t h eL ankh i l l s c eme tery

A du l t

E qu ipmen t -I n s ide C of in P resen t

N o t P resen t

0

1 9

3

1 0

C h i -squa red 3%

T ab le 6 5 S i gn i f ican t v ar ia t ion i nt h ea s soc ia t ion o fb ur ia l s w i th e qu ipmen t i n s id e t h e c of f in o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h e e a s tern p e r iphera lc eme ter ya tP oundbury

T he s e lec t ion o f c a tego r ies o f a r tef ac ts f o r p l acemen t s pec if ica l ly i n s id e t h e c off in a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry e xh ib i ted v e ry l i t t le s i gn if ican t a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s e x o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed . As w i th t h e a na lys i s o f a l l g rave a r tef ac t sa s as i ng le g roup , c o ins , v e sse ls , b e l t s , i t ems 1 00

.

T he d epo s i t ion o f f ood s tuf f s m ay b e c ommensu ra te w i th g r ave s ide f e a s t ing , m ea t s a nd o t he r c on sumab le s b e ing p l a ced a r ound t h e o u t s ide o f t h e c off in f o r t h e d ead t o ' p a r t ic ipa te ' i n t h e r i tua l . I n t h is c a se t h e s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip a ppa r en t b e tween m a les a nd f i nds o f v es se ls a nd a n ima l r ema ins o u t s ide t h e c off in ( Tab le s 6 7 -68 ) m ay i n d ica te t h a t t h e p ra c t ice o f g rave s ide f e a s t ing , o r a t l e a s t t h a t i n vo lv ing t h e p l acemen t o f c onsumab le s i nt h e g r ave , m ay h ave b een mo re c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e b u r ia l o f

C on s ide r a t ion o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t s o u t s id e t h e c off in s p r e sen t s u s w i th s ome i n te r e s t ing f e a tu re s . F i r s t ly , t h e re a ppea r s t o b e ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e d ec is ion t o d epo s i t g ood s o u t s ide t h e c off in a nd t h e s e x -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed a tt h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry ( Tab le 6 6 ) , t h i s a spec t o f f une ra ry r i tua l b e ing mo re c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th m a le s o f t h e o lde r a du l t c a tego ry , a nd t h e a s soc ia t ion b ecom ing s i gn if ican t w hen ' ? sexed ' c l a s s if ica t ion s a r e i n c luded . T hese f i gu re s i n c lude i t em s w h ich i n co rpo ra ted h obna i l s b ecau se t h e i r p l a cemen t o u t s ide t h e c off in d i s tance s t h em f r om t h e b ody a nd t h u s d i sen tang le s t h em f r om p o ten t ia l ly c o inc iden ta l d epo s i t s .

m a le s .

V esse ls +A n ima l R ema ins -

S ex

P os i t ion t oC of f in A r te fac tP os i t ion i nr e la t ion t ot he

S ex -and -age

C of f in

Y oung A du l ts

M

I n s ide C of in

O u ts ide C of in

9

6

F

8

5

+ ?M

1 2

6

+ ?F

1 2

6

9

7 1

O lde r

M

A du l ts

F

6

+ ?M

1 3

+ ?F

1

.

,

9 1

A du l t C h i -squa red , 9 3% 1 00%

I n s ide C of in

O u ts ide C of in

M

5

7

F

7

1

+ ?M

9

+ ?F

9

C h i -squa red 4%

1 0 _

1

_

2%

T ab le 6 7 S ign if ican t v ar ia t ion i nt h e d epo s i t ion o fv e s se l s a nd a n ima lr ema in s i n s id e / ou t s id e t h e c o ff in o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex f or t h e L ankh i l l sc eme tery

1 7% 5%

V esse ls +A n ima l R ema ins -

S ex T ab le 6 6 S ign i f ican tv ar ia t ion i nt h ep lacemen t o fa r tef ac t s i n s id e / ou t s id e t h e c of f in o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex -and -age f o r t h e L ankh i l l sc eme te ry

O u ts ide C of f in A du l t

T he s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e p l a cemen t o f g r ave -good s o u t s ide t h e c off in s a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery r e p re sen t s as epa ra te s t age i nt h e f une ra ry s equence i ss uppo r ted b y t h e d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f a r tef ac t s d epo s i ted i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h e c off in s . T he r e w a s f a r g r ea te r v a r ie ty i nt h e t y pe s o fa r tef ac t s p l aced w i th t h e b ody i n s ide t h e c off in w h ich m ay b e t a ken t o i n d ica te t h e f am i ly m embe r s /mou rne r s h e igh tened r ememb rance o ft h e d ecea sed , w he rea s t h e f a i r ly l i m i ted o r ' s tanda rd ' a r tef ac t t ype s p l aced o u t s ide t h e c off in m ay i n d ica te m o re c once rn w i th g r ave s ide r i tua l r a the r t h an t h e r emembe red i d en t i ty o f t h e c o rp se o nce t h e c off in l i d w a s c l o sed . A pa r t f r om o ne c o in a nd o ne i t em o f t e x t i le e qu ipmen t , a l l d epo s i t s o u t s ide t h e c off in s i n s exed a du l t b u r ia l s w e re v e s se ls , i t ems i n co rpo ra t ing h obna i ls , a nd a n ima l r ema ins . We a r et h u s c on s i s ten t ly p r esen ted w i th t h e d epo s i t ion o f f ood s tuf f s i n t h e f o rm o f m ea t ( dome s t ic f ow l ) , a nd o t he r c on sumab le s ( i nc lud ing e gg s e v idenced b y s he l l ) i n s ide j a r s a nd f l agon s , a nd a l so p robab ly t h e d epo s i t ion o f s hoe s , o u t s ide t h e c off in . T h i s p a t te rn o f d epo s i t ion ( e x tended t o i n c lude d epo s i t s o f j o in t s o f l amb /mu t ton a nd b ee f ) w a s a l so a ppa ren t a c ro s s m o s t o ft h e r ema in ing b u r ia ls o f i n de te rm ina te s ex w he re o b jec t s w e r e p r e sen t o u t s ide t h e c of f in , a nd f o r b u r ia l s w i th a r tef ac t s d eno ted a s ' ? ou t s ide c off in ' . I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e a r tef ac t s p l aced o u t s ide t h e c off ins a t P oundbu ry a l so c on s is ted o fv e sse l s , ' s hoe s ' a nd m ea t s ( dome s t ic f ow l , b eef a nd l amb /mu t ton ) , p e rhap s i n d ica t ing a' p a ra l le l ' s t ag e i ng r ave s ide f une ra ry r i tua l a s s e em s e v iden t a tL ankh i l l s , a l though t h is c an o n ly b e s pecu la t ive d ue t o t h e s ma l l s amp le s i ze f r om P oundbu ry .

,

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

7

6 4

F

1

3 6

+ 7M

1 0

8 1

1

6 1

+ ?F _

C h i -squa red 1 8% 3%

T ab le 6 8 S ign if ican t v a r ia t ion i nt h e d epo s i t ion o fv e s se l s a nd a n ima lr ema in s o u t s id e t h e c of in o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex f or t h eL ankh i l l sc eme tery

I tm u s t b e n o ted , h oweve r , t h a t t h e m ax imum o f e l even s e xed a du l t b u r ia ls w i th t h e se t ypes o f d epo s i t s p l aced o u t s ide t h e c of f in o n ly a c tua l ly r e p re sen t 6% o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f s exed a du l t b u r ia ls a tt h e s i te . S uch d epo s i t ion w a s t h u s n o t ac ommon o ccur rence w i th in t h e c eme te ry a sa w ho le , a nd c on sequen t ly n e i the r w a s t h e m a rk ing -ou t o ft h e s e xes i nt h i sm anne r . N e i the r s e x w a s s i gn if i can t ly m o r e c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d epo s i t ion o f' s hoe s ' o u t s ide t h e c off in .

I n s umma ry , t h e d ec is ion t o d epo s i t , s e lec t ion a nd p o s i t ion ing o f g rave a r tef a c t s a t t h e P oundbury c eme te ry e xh ib i ted v e ry l i t t le s e x -ba sed v a r ia t ion . T he d epo s i t ion o f m u l t ip le a r tef ac t s w a s s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t o f ema le s , p a r t icu la r ly o ft h e y oung a du l t c a tegory , b u t t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s ex o r s ex -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e p o s i t ion ing o f a ny i t ems w i th in t h e b u r ia l s . T he o n ly r e la t ionsh ip w i th t h e t ype o f a r tef ac t c ho sen f o r i n c lu s ion c oncerned t h e p rov i s ion o f' e qu ipmen t ' w h ich w a s e xc lus ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le s , a ga in n o tab ly o f t h e y oung a du l t c a tegory . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion 1 0 1

p a t te rn i sc e r ta in ly i n te re s t ing , p e rhap s p a r t icu la r ly i nt e rm s o f t h e s i gn if ican t a s soc ia t ion b e tween f ema le s ex a nd t h e s e lec t ion o f t e x t i le e qu ipmen t f o r d epo s i t ion i n l i gh t o f m y e a r l ie r d i scu s s ion s ; o u t o f a l l t h e a r tef ac t c a tego r ie s d epo s i ted t h i s i st h e o n ly o ne t h a t e xh ib i t s as i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip t o s e x a nd i t i s t h e m a in a s soc ia t ion w e w ou ld h ave ' e xpec ted ' b a sed u pon c ommon l i t e ra ry a nd i c onog raph ic r e p re sen ta t ion s o fw omen . H oweve r , w h i l s t i t i st emp t ing t oe mpha s ise t h is f i nd ing , t e x t i le e qu ipmen t w a s o n ly a c tua l ly p r e sen t i n 6o ft h e4 09 a du l t f ema le b u r ia ls a nd t h u s , e ven i fw e a c cep t t h is s i gn if icance b a sed u pon s uch a s ma l l s amp le s i ze , t h e m a rk ing -ou t o r r ep re sen ta t ion o f f ema le i d en t i ty i nt h i s m anne r w a s c l ea r ly n o t ac ommon o ccur rence a tt h e c eme te ry . O n ly 9 . 13 % o fa l l s exed a du l t b u r ia ls w e r e p rov ided w i th g rave -good s o fa ny d e sc r ip t ion a nd t hu st h e u se o fg r ave a r tef ac t s t om a rk -ou t s ex w a s n o t a m a jo rc oncer n o ft h e f u ne ra l a gency a tP oundbury . T he re w e re an umbe ro fs i gn if ican t d i f f e rence s i nt h e c ho ice o f a r tef ac t t y pe s f o r d epo s i t ion i n m a le a nd f ema le b u r ia ls a t t h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry . T ex t i le e qu ipmen t , c omb s a nd a rm le t s w e re e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le s , a nd m isce l laneou s e qu ipmen t a nd b rooche s w e re e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th m a le s . W i th in t h e y oung a du l t c a tego ry o n ly f ema le s w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th j ewe l lery , a nd t h e r e w a s s ome s i gn if icance i nt h e s e lec t ion o f t y pe s o f g ood s f o r i n c lu s ion i nm u l t ip le a r tef ac t d epo s i t s ; m u l t ip le j ewe l le ry d epo s i t s w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th y oung a du l t f ema le s a nd m u l t ip le c o in d epo s i t s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th y oung a du l t m a le s . I nt e rm s o f a r tef a c t p o s i t ion ing , s i gn if ican t ly mo r e o l de r a du l t m a le s h ad ' s hoe s ' p l aced ' o n ' a so ppo sed t o' a t ' t h e f e e t , a nd v e s se l s p l aced o u t s ide t h e c off in , a nd t h is l a t te r f e a tu re w a s s i gn if ican t f o r m a les i ng ene ra l w hen c omb ined w i th a n ima l r ema in s t oc ons ide r p o ten t ia l g r ave s ide f e a s t ing r i tua l . A s w i th t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , i tm ay b e a r gued t h a t t h e s ma l l s amp le s i zes f o r g r ave -good s m ake s t h e s i gn if icance o f e ach o f t h ese f e a tu re s q ue s t ionab le , b u t a s a lmo s t h a lf t h e s exed a du l t s w e re b u r ied w i th a ccompany ing a r tef ac t s , a nd m o s t o ft h e a r tef ac t c a tego r ie s e xh ib i ted s ome s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion b a sed u pon s ex o r s e x -and -age , i ti s c e r ta in ly r e a sonab le t o s ugge s t t h a t s ome th ing w a s h appen ing i n t e rms o f t h e r e p re sen ta t ion o f s ex /gende r i d en t i ty v i a t h e d epo s i t ion o f a r tef a c t s a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery .

7 . 6

T rea tmen t o ft he G rave S ur f ace

O nce t h e b ody /cof f in a nd a s soc ia ted a r tef ac t s w e r e d epo s i ted a nd t h e g r ave b ackf i l led , t h e f i na l s t age i n t h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s a cce s s ib le t o u s a r cha eo log ica l ly i s t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e g r ave s u rf ace i n t e rm s o f m a rke r s a nd f u r the r a r tef ac t d epo s i t s . U nf o r tuna te ly n o t omb s tone s w e r e r e cove red f r om a ny o f t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s , a nd n o s u rf a ce m a rke r s o t he r t h an r a i sed g r ave m ound s w e r e r e co rded f r om e i the r t h e P oundbu ry o r B a th G a te c eme te r ie s . U p r igh tt imbe rp o s t s /p lank s , s t one so rt i l e s u sed a ss u rf ace m a rke r s w e re o n ly a ppa ren t a s soc ia ted w i th f ou r s e xed a du l t b u r ia l s a tB u t t R oad ( 1f ema le a nd 3m a le s ) , a nd t wo a tL ankh i l ls ( 1m a le a nd 1? ma le ) . O n ly f i ve b u r ia l s a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery w e re a s soc ia ted w i th a r tef ac t s i n te rp r e ted a s d e l ibe ra te s u rf ace o f f e r ing s , i n ten t iona l ly i n se r ted i nt ot h e g r ave -ea r th s ub sequen t t ob ackf i l l ing , a nd o n ly t wo o ft h e se w e re b u r ia l s o fs exed a du l t s ( 1 m a le w i th

t wo p ew t e rb ow ls , a nd 1f ema le w i th ag l a ss b ow l a nd ap i le o fa s so r ted j ewe l le ry ) .

7 . 7

T he C rema t ion P roce s s

T he r i t ua l p roce s s o f c r ema t ion m ay b e s e en t o f o l low t h e s ame s t age s a st ho se o u t l ined f o r i n huma t ions ; t h e b ody a nd a s soc ia ted a r tef ac t s w i th in t h e c on ta ine r b e ing p l a ced u pon t h e p y re r a the rt h an d i rec t ly i nt ot h e g r ave . P i ece s o fb u rn t c off in n a i l s , h obna i ls a nd o t he r o b jec t s f o und a mong s t t h e a s he s a t te s t t o t h i s i d ea . O nce c o l lec ted , t h e c r ema ted r ema in s w e re u sua l ly p l aced w i th in a no the r c on ta ine r , t h e u r n , a nd t h en d epo s i ted i nt h e ' g rave ' , s ome t ime s w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f o t he r a r tef ac t s i n t h e p i t n ea r t h e ur n . I n te r e s t ing ly t h e a r tef ac t s f ound w i th in c r ema t ion p i t s ( o r i n t h e i r f i l l s ) a t t h e L ankh i l ls , P oundbury a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s c ons i s ted o f a n ima l r ema in s , p o t s /po t she rd s a nd c o in s , a sw e l l a so ne k n if e a nd a n i r on o b jec t p r e sumed t ob e t h e k n if e t a ng , t h u s b e ing s im i la rt ot h e c a tego r ie s o fo b jec t s p l aced o u t s ide t h e c off in s i nt h e i n huma t ion s . U nf o r tuna te ly n one o ft h e 3c r ema t ion s a tP oundbu ry o rt h e 7c r ema t ion s a tL ankh i l l s w e r e s e xed , a nd w h i ls t t h e 3a tB a th G a te w e re a l c l a s s if ied a sm a le t h ey w e re t oo f ew i nn umbe r t oe nab le s t a t i s t ica l i n f e rence r e ga rd ing a ny r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s e x o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e c ho ice o fc r ema t ion r a the r t h an i n huma t ion .

7 . 8

C onc lus ion

T he m a in q ue s t ions a dd re s sed b y m y a na ly s i s o f t h e b u r ia l d a ta a r e w he the r g ende r d i scou r se i sv i s ib le a ta ny o f t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s , a nd i fs o , a tw h ich s t age (s ) i n t h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s g ende r r ep r e sen ta t ion s a r e m ade . S i gn if ican t a s soc ia t ion s b e tween b u r ia l p rac t ice s a nd t h e s e xed c o rp se m ay d i s t ingu ish t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o f g ende r i d en t i t ie s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s f r om o t he r s o c ia l c a tego r ie s , a nd t h e m a rk ing -ou t o f m en a nd w omen a s d i s t inc t f r om e a ch o t he ra tp a r t icu la rs t age s i nt h e f une ra ry s e quence . Ma le a nd f ema le c a tego r ie s d o n o t a ppea rt oh ave s t ruc tu red t h e m a te r ia l t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ead a tt h e B u t t R oad a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s . A t t h e f o rme r s i te s ome d i f f e r en t ia t ion w a s a ppa r en t i nt h e p r epa ra t ion o ft h e g r ave -p i t i nt e rms o f t h e i n c lu s ion o f s t one a nd t i l e l i n ing s a nd c of f in /corp se m a rk e r s . I nc on t ra s t , s ex -ba sed d i f f e r en t ia t ion a tt h e B a th G a te c eme te ry w a s o n ly a ppa r en t i ns ome a spec t s o f b ody p o s i t ion ing , a nd t h i s d i f f e ren t ia t ion w a s l a rge ly o n ly s i gn if ican t o nce ` ? sexed ' c l a s s if ica t ion s w e r e i n c luded . T he s e x o f t h e d ecea sed t h u s d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een a s i gn if ican t o rgan is ing p r inc ip le a f f ec t ing t h e b u r ia l r i t e s o ve ra l l , a nd a l though t h e e ngende red i d en t i ty o ft h e c orp se w a s n o t e n t i r e ly o ve rw r i t ten , g ende r w a s n o t ap ar t icu la r ly v i s ib le p a r to ft h e d i scou r se p l ayed o u t w i th in e i the ro ft h e se c eme te r ie s . Ad i f f e r en t p a t te rn i se me rgen t a tt h e P oundbury c eme te ry w he r e s ex a nd /o r s e x -and -ag e w a s mo s t d i f f e ren t ia ted i nt h e p o s i t ion ing a nd p r epa ra t ion o f t h e g r ave -p i t . Wh i ls t t h e r e w a s n o s e x -ba sed d ema rca t ion o fc eme te ry a r ea s , m a le a nd f ema le c a tego r ie s w e re m a rked i n an umbe r o fo t he r a s pec t s o f b u r ia l t r ea tmen t d u r ing t h is s t age o f t h e f u ne ra ry

1 02

s equence . I n t e rm s o f g rave p o s i t ion , t h e s ex o f t h e d ecea sed s i gn if ican t ly a f f ec ted t h e p l acemen t o f b u r ia l s w i th in f u ne ra ry e nc lo su re s , a nd c ho ice s a s t o g rave -p i t a l ignmen t i nt h en o r thern p e r iphe ra lc eme te ry . I nr e la t ion t o g r av e -p i t p r epa ra t ion , s ex s i gn if ican t ly d e te rm ined g rave -p i t s i z e a nd t h e d ec i s ion t oi n c lude l i n ing m a te r ia l s . When w e t u r n t o t h e s e lec t ion a nd t ype o f c of f in a t P oundbu ry a l d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween m a le a nd f ema le b u r ia ls i sl o s t , t h e o n ly s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion a ppa r en t i nb ody c on ta inmen t w a s t h e a s soc ia t ion o fy oung a du l t m a le s w i th c o rp se -w rapp ing w h ich m u s t b e v i ewed c au t iou s ly d ue t o t h e n a tu re o ft h e e v idence . T he p o s i t ion ing o ft h e b ody d oe s a ppea r t oh ave b een u s ed t om a rk -ou t t h e s exe s i ns ome c a se s , p a r t icu la r ly t h rough t h e a s soc ia t ion o fm a le s w i th t h e mo re v a r ied a nd ' u nu sua l ' a rm p o s i t ion s , b u tt h e m a jo r i ty o fi n d iv idua ls w e r e p o s i t ioned i n a' s tanda rd ' m anne r r e ga rd le s s o f t h e i r s ex . T he r e w a s s ome d i f f e ren t ia t ion i na r tef ac t d epo s i t ion w i th f ema le s b e ing m o r e c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th m u l t ip le d epo s i t s a nd e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th ' e qu ipmen t ' , b u t t h e se f e a tu r e s o n ly r e la ted t o as ma l l p ropo r t ion o f t h e b u r ia ls a nd i ng ene ra l t h e d ec i s ion t od epo s i t , s e lec t ion , a nd p o s i t ion ing o fg r ave a r tef ac t s e xh ib i ted v e ry l i t t le s ex -ba sed v a r ia t ion . A l though g ende rr ep re sen ta t ion i s mo r e v i s ib le a t t h i s c eme te ry t h an a tB u t t R oad o rB a th G a te , i t sp l ace a sa n o rgan i s ing p r inc ip le i nt h e b u r ia l r i t es a tP oundbu ry i so n ly w eak ly s ugge s ted o ve ra l l , a nd w h i ls t g ende r d i scou r se i s a ppa r en t i n s ome a spec t s / s tage s o f t h e m or tua ry r i tua l i t s e ems t o r e p re sen t a n ' u nde rcu r r en t ' r a the r t h an t h e m a in f o cu s o ft h e s t ra t eg ie so ft h e f u ne ra l a gency . I n l i ne w i th t h e a bove c eme te r ies , t h e o ne s t age i n w h ich t h e r e a ppea r s t o b e n o s i gn if ican t c onnec t ion b e tween t h e s ex o rs e x -and -age o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e c ho ice s m ade a s t ob u r ia l t r ea tmen t a tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme tery i st h e s e lec t ion o f ab ody c on ta ine r . G ende ra ppea r s t oh ave b een m o re o fa c once r n i ne ach o ft h e o t he r s t age s i nt h e f u ne ra l p roce ss . S ex w a s an o tab le p r inc ip le i nt h es e lec t ion o fg r ave p o s i t ion w i th in t h i s c eme te ry a s m a le a nd f ema le a du l t s w e r e s pa t ia l ly s eg r ega ted i n d ea th , a l though t h i s d ema rca t ion w a s n o t e xc lu s ive a t a ny t ime . S ex -ba sed d i f f e ren t ia t ion w a s a l so a ppa ren t i nt h e p o s i t ion ing o ft h e b ody , a nd t h e re w e r e an umbe r o f s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s i n t h e c ho ice o f g r ave a r tef ac t s a nd t h e i r p o s i t ion ing w i th in m a le a nd f ema le b u r ia l s , i n c lud ing p o s s ib le i n d ica t ion s o fs ex -ba sed v a r ia t ion i ng r ave s ide f e a s t ing r i tua l . R e t u rn ing t ot h e q ue s t ions p o sed a tt h e c ommencemen t o f t h is s umma ry , g ende r r e p re sen ta t ion i sa ppa r en t a ts ome o f t h e c eme te r ie s a nd n o t a t o t he r s , a nd n o t o n ly d oe s t h e d eg ree t o w h ich g ende r d i scou r se a ppea r s t o h ave b een p l ayed o u t t h rough b u r ia l r i t e s v a ry a c ro s s t h e s i te s , b u t a l so t h es t age sd u r ing t h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s a tw h ich t h e s exe s a r e m ade v i s ib le . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f g ende r r e p r e sen ta t ions d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een a m a jo r c oncer n f o r t h e a g enc ie s d ea l ing w i th t h e d ead a tt h e B u t t R oad o r B a th G a t e c eme t e r ie s w he r e t h e e ngende red i d en t i ty o ft h e c orp se a ppea r s t oh ave b een l a rge ly o ve rw r i t ten . T he m a rk ing -ou t o f t h e s exe s f e a tu re s mo r e s t rong ly a t t h e P oundbu ry c eme t e ry , p a r t icu la r ly i n t e rm s o f g r ave p r epa ra t ion , b u t o ve ra l l g ende r s t i l l d oe s n o t a ppea r t oh ave b een t h e m a in f o cu so ft h ed i scou r se w i th in t h e c eme te ry . A tt h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry t h e s ex o ft h e d ecea sed a ppea r st oh ave b een m uch m o re o f a n i nf luenc ing f a c to r c oncer n ing b u r ia l t r ea tmen t t h an a ta ny o ft h e o t he r s i te s , a nd t h e s pa t ia l d i v i s ion o ft h e c eme te ry i nt oa r ea s a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e i n te rmen t o fm a le s 1 03

a nd f ema les a t d i f f e ren t t ime s m ay b e a r gued t o h ave r e p re sen ted g ende r i d en t i t ie s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s i nt h e mo s t n o t iceab le m anne rt ot h e c ommun i ty u t i l i s ing t h e c eme te ry .

CHAPTER 8

OVERV IE W

F ocu s ing u pon m or tua ry r i tua l t h i s s t udy h a s i n ves t iga ted t h e a ppea rance , a nd i n deed d i sappea ran ce , o fg ende r w i th in t h e h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l c on t ex t o f l a te R oman B r i ta in . I th a s b een a r gued t h a t w e c an n o t e xcava te g ende r a s m a te r ia l i ty , t h a t t h e re i sn o o ne t r ue r e p re sen ta t ion o f g ende r , o r m en a nd w omen a s e ngende red c a tego r ie s , m an if es t i n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . R a the r , w e a r e p re sen ted w i th a s e r ie s o f p r ac t ice s a nd c ons t ruc ted i mage s a nd t h is s t udy h a s e xp lo red t h e w ay s i nw h ich g ende r a ppea r s t ou s i n an umbe ro fd i f f e ren tg u ise s . T h roughou t t h is w o rk i th a s b een c on s i s ten t ly e mpha s i sed t h a t b u r ia l p r ac t ice m u s t b e s e en a s s t ra teg ic , t h a t f une ra l s w r i te ap a r t icu la ro rde r i n to b e ing v i at h e a c t ive c on s t ruc t ion o f i d en t i t ies a nd r e la t ionsh ip s w i th in t h e b u r ia l d oma in . Wha t w e h ave a cce s st oa r chaeo log ica l ly a r e r e p re sen ta t ion s c r ea ted b y t h e f une ra l a gency a s p a r t o ft h e o n -go ing s oc ia l d i scou r se w i th in t h e c ommun i ty . G ende r a ppea r s t o h ave b een o ve r t ly e mpha s i sed i nR oman s o c ie ty ; w e a r e d ea l ing w i th a n a cknow ledged p a t r ia rchy i n w h ich c l ea r s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd t h e ' i dea l ' i mage o fR oman w omanhood w e r e e mbedded i n s o c ia l c ond i t ion s a nd l aw , a r t icu la ted i nv a r iou s m ed ia s uch a s e p i taph s a nd a r t , a nd e xpounded c on s is ten t ly i n l i t e ra tu re . A s g ende r i d ea l s , r o le s a nd a r rangemen t s a r e s o c l ea r ly e mbedded i n t h e s oc ia l d i scou r se o fR oman s o c ie ty i ti sp e rhap s s u rp r i s ing t of i nd a l a ck o fe xp l ic i t a nd d e ta i led a r chaeo log ica l e nqu i ry i nt ot h e a ppea rance o f g ende r d i scou r se w i th in t h e b u r ia l d oma in . U s ing t h e s e x o ft h e s ke le ton a s ag u id ing p o in t t h is s t udy h a s i n ves t iga ted t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h e e v iden t R oman c oncer n w i th g ende r r e p r e sen ta t ion m ay h ave b een p l ayed o u t t h rough t h e f une ra ry p rac t ice s o f t h e p e r iod i n t h e p rov ince so fs ou ther nB r i ta in . T h i s i n ve s t iga t ion i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan td ue t ot h e l a ck o f c on tempo ra ry d ocumen ta ry s ou rce s r e ga rd ing a t t i tude s t owa rd s d ea th a nd b u r ia l i n R oman B r i ta in . I t i s a l so i mpo r tan t d ue t o t h e t e ndency i n r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re f o r l a rge f o u r th c en tu ry u rban b u r ia l s i te s s i tua ted a l ong s ide a pp roach r oad s t ot h e t own s t ob e l umped t o ge the r a s m an if e s ta t ion s o ft h e s ame ' managed ' c eme te ry p henomenon . Mo s t s t ud ie s o ft h e se s i te s h ave c oncen t ra ted u pon t h ee l uc ida t ion o fs pec if ic b u r ia l c ha rac te r i s t ic s s uch a s p a t te rn s o f g r ave o r ien ta t ion o r t h e c ompo s i t ion o f g r ave g ood s a s semb lage s a nd h ave e mpha s ised a n a ppa ren t t e ndency t owa rd s h omogene i ty o r ' s tanda rd i sa t ion ' i n s u ch f e a tu re s a c ro s s t h ese c eme te r ie s . T h is p a t tern h a s b een i n terp re ted i n t wo m a in w ay s : f i r s t ly , i n t e rms o f t h e r e l ig iou s b e l ief s o f t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e i r f am i l ie s /mour ne r s , i . e . e v idence f o r a dhe rence t o t h e C h r i s t ian f a i th o r p agan d enom ina t ion s ; s e cond ly , i nt e rms o ft h e i mpo s i t ion o f' c on t ro l ' o ve r c eme te ry o rgan isa t ion b y ab u reauc ra t ic e n t i ty e nf o r c ing ' o rde r ' a nd ' s tanda rd isa t ion ' b o th a bove a nd b e low t h e g round . T he se c eme te r ie s h ave t hu s b een g rouped t oge the r u nde r ' r e l ig iou s ' o r ' b u r eauc ra t ic ' i n terp r e ta t ion s ; t h e a ppa r en t ly u n if o rm n a tu re o f t h e i r b u r ia l p rac t ice s i n t e rm s o f e x tended s up ine i n huma t ion s c on ta ined w i th in n a i led t imbe r c off in s a nd

a r ranged i n o rde r ly r ow s /p lo t s w i th a r e la t ive d ea r th o f a ccompan imen t s h a s l e ad t o an o tab le l a ck o fc on s ide ra t ion o f t h e p o ten t ia l ly v a ry ing s t ra teg ies i mp lemen ted t h rough b u r ia lr i t e s a te ach i n d iv idua l c eme te ry . T ak ing g ende r a s a p o ten t ia l ly s i gn if ican t o rgan is ing p r inc ip le o f b u r ia l r i t e s m y s t udy h a s c l ea r ly e xpo sed t h e e x i s tence o f v a r ia t ion i nb u r ia l s t ra teg ie s a c ro s s as e lec t ion o ft h e se c eme te r ie s . G ende r d i scou r se i sv i s ib le a ts ome o f t h e c eme te r ie s a nd n o t a to t he r s . Whe r e a ppa ren t , g ende r i s m ade v i s ib le t o v a ry ing d eg ree s , i nd i f f e r en t w ay s , a nd a t d if e ren t s t age s i n t h e f une ra ry r i tua l . A l though t h e se c eme te r ie s m ay i n i t ia l ly a ppea r t o b e r e la t ive ly u n if orm i n t e rm s o f b u r ia l c ha rac te r i s t ic s , mo re d e ta i led e xam ina t ion h a s r e vea led t h a t e a ch s i te e xh ib i t s d i f f e r ences i nu nde r ly ing s t ra teg ie s . My s t udy h a s a rgued t h a t w e m us t p ay a t ten t ion t o t h e v a ry ing s t ra teg ie s i mp lemen ted i n d i f f e ren t u r ban c eme te ry c on tex t s . T he a genc ie s o pe ra t iona l i n t e rm s o f c eme te ry m anagemen t a t t h e B u t t R oad a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly c oncer n ed w i th t h e r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e s ex /gende r o f t h e d ead , a tt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry t h e s exes w e re m a rked o u t i ns ome a spec t s o fg rave t r ea tmen t , a nd a tt h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry g ende r a ppea r s t o h ave b een m uch mo re o f a m a jo r c oncern , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e p o s i t ion ing o f b u r ia ls , a s t ra tegy w h ich w ou ld h ave p r e sen ted c on s t ruc ted g ende r i d en t i t ie s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s i n p e rhap s t h e m os t o bv iou s m anne rt ot h ec ommun i ty u t i l i s ing t h i s c eme te ry . H av ing c l a r if ied t h e p l ace o fg ende ra s av a ry ing o rgan is ing p r inc ip le o fb u r ia l r i t e s a nd t h e i mp lemen ta t ion o fd i f f e r ing s t ra t eg ic a genda s t h rough m o r tua ry r i tua l a t t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s , my s t udy h a s r a ised a n umbe r o f r e la ted i mpor tan t q ue s t ion s . F i r s t ly , c an w e s e e t h e o pe ra t ion o f d if e r en t l e ve l s o f a gency w i th in t h ese c eme te r ie s? S econd ly , i f ,a si n d ica ted b y t h e b u r ia l d a ta , g ende r w a s n o t t h e s p ec if ic /ma in f o cu s o f t h e c on s t ruc t ions o f t h e f u ne ra l a genc ie s o ve ra l l a tt h e B u t t R oad , B a th G a te a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s , i st h e r e e v idence p er ta in ing t o a n a l te rna t ive f i e ld o f d i scou r se? F i na l ly , w hy i s t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e e ngende r ed b ody s o m a rked ly d i f f e ren t a t L ank i l ls i n c ompa r i son t ot h eo t he rc eme te r ie s? E a ch o ft h e se q ue s t ion s i sn ow a dd r e s sed i nt u rn .

8 . 1

T he Work ing o fA gency a tD if f eren t L eve l s w i th in t he C eme ter ie s

O ne m a jo r c oncer n o f t h is w o rk h a s b een t h e e l uc ida t ion o fj u s t w hom w e a r e l o ok ing a t w hen s t udy ing m o r tua ry d a ta a nd i th a s b een e s tab l ished t h a t w e a r e f a ced w i th t h e c ho ice s a nd a c t ions o f t h e f u ne ra l a gency , t h e r e p re sen ta t ion s c on s t ruc ted a t t h e s p ec if ic m omen t / s o f b u r ia l . D iscu s s ion o fh e te rogeneou s c eme te ry d i scou r se h a s e s tab l i shed t h a t a g ency m ay o pe ra te o n m u l t ip le l e ve ls w i th in a ny b u r ia l d oma in a nd w e a r e t h u s p r e sen ted w i th t h e o ppor tun i ty t o i n ve s t iga te n o t o n ly t h e v a ry ing s t ra teg ie s 1 05

i mp lemen ted b y t h e f u ne ra l o rgan ise r s i nd if eren t c eme te ry c on tex t s , b u t a l so t h e k i nd s o fa gency t h a t m ay h ave b een o pe ra t iona l a nd t h e i r r e la t ive s t ra teg ie s w i th in i nd iv idua l c eme tery c on tex t s . T he a ppa ren t ' managed ' n a tu r e o f t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s m ay i n d ica te s ome d eg ree o f of i c ia l c on t ro l o ve r f u ne ra l o rgan i sa t ion , p ar t icu la r ly s uch a s pec t s a s t h e a loca t ion o f b u r ia l a r ea s o r p l o t s , a nd t h e o rde r , a r rangemen t a nd a l ignmen t o f g rave s ( Thoma s , 1 98 1) . I f t h i s a ppa ra tus t o ok r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r o rgan i s ing t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ead w i th in t h e c eme te ry i nt e rm s o fg r ave p o s i t ion a nd p r epa ra t ion t h i s m ay e v idence d i f f e r en t k i nd s o f r e p re sen ta t ion s t h an t h o se o f t h e a gency d ea l ing d i rec t ly w i th t h e c orp se i t s e lf . T he w ishe s a nd d e s i re s o f t h e m ou rne r s t owa rd s t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e i r e xp re s s ion i n f u ne ra ry t r ea tmen t m ay e xh ib i t av e ry d i f f e ren t s t ra teg ic a g enda t o t h e a c t ion s o f a n o ff ic ia l e n t i ty p o ten t ia l ly m o r e c once rned w i th o ve ra l l c eme tery o rgan isa t ion . I t i s r e a sonab le t o p ropo se t h a t t h e ' r ememb rance ' o f t h e d ecea sed 's i d en t i ty m ay b e m o re l i ke ly t o b e e xp re s sed i n t h ea c t iv i t ie s u nde r taken b yt h e f am i ly m embe r s /mou rne r s i n t h e e a r l ie r s t age s o ft h e f u ne ra l r i t e . We m ay t h u s f i nd m o re s t a t i s t ica l v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e s e xed c o rp se i n t e rm s o ft h e s e lec t ion o fb ody c on ta ine r s , t h e p os i t ion ing o f t h e b ody a nd t h e d epo s i t ion o fa r tef ac t s w i th in t h e c off in i n c ompa r ison t ot h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e s e xed b u r ia l w i th in t h e c eme te ry i t se lf . A na ly s is o ft h e mor tua ry d a ta f r om m y s e lec ted c eme te r ie s , h oweve r , d i d n o t g ene ra l ly s uppor t t h i s h ypo the s is . A t t h e B u t t R oad c eme tery t h e s exe s w e re n o t t r ea ted p a r t icu la r ly d if e ren t ly i na ny s t age s o ft h e f u ne ra ry p roce ss . A t t h e B a th G a te c eme te ry t h e o n ly s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e s e xed c orp se w a s i nt h e p o s i t ion ing o f t h e b ody , w h ich m ay r e la te t o t h e d i rec t a c t ion s u pon t h e b ody b y f am i ly m embe r s /mou rne r s , b u t t h e l a ck o f s ex b a sed d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt h e o t he r a spec t s o fb u r ia l t r ea tmen t c o r r e spond s w i th t h e l a ck o fd i f f e ren t ia t ion i ng r ave p o s i t ion a nd p r epa ra t ion . A t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , a s ide f r om t h e s e lec t ion o fb ody c on ta ine r s , t h e re i ss ome v a r ia t ion i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e s e xed c o rp se i n a l s t age s o f t h e f u ne ra ry p roce s s . I ti sn o tewor thy t h a t t h e m o s t s e x -ba sed d i f f e r en t ia t ion a t P oundbu ry w a s a c tua l ly a ppa ren t i n t h e p o s i t ion ing a nd p r epa ra t ion o f t h e g r ave -p i t s , p e rhap s t h e p a r t o f t h e p roce s s m o r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een u nde r taken b y ' o ff ic ia l u nder take r s ' r a the r t h an m ou rne r s . S pa t ia l d i s t inc t ion so fb u r ia l c ha rac te r i s t ic s , s uch a sc l ea r ly d i f f e r en t c ho ice s i nr e la t ion t o g r ave -p i t a l ignmen t s , a r e d i scern ib le , h oweve r , w hen t h e m a in a nd p e r iphe ra l c eme te r ie s a r e c ompa red , d e sp i te t h e c on tempo rane i ty o f t h e se c eme te ry a r ea s . P e rhap s t h e se f e a tu re s i n d ica te t h e v a ry ing s t ra teg ie s o f f u ne ra l a genc ie s a c t ive i n t h e d i f f e ren t a r ea s o f t h e P oundbu ry c eme tery . A t L ankh i l ls t h e e ngende red i d en t i ty o ft h e c orp se a ppea r s t oh ave b een o fm o s t i mpor t i nt e rms o f r e p re sen ta t ion i n b u r ia l . G ende r r e p r e sen ta t ion s a r e a ppa ren t b o th i nt h e a loca t ion o fg r ave p o s i t ion a nd i nt h e p o s i t ion ing o ft h e b ody a nd t h e p rov is ion o fa ccompany ing a r tef ac t s . I ns umma ry t h e ref o re , w he re g ende r d i scou r se i s v i s ib le w i th in t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s , p a r t icu la r ly a t t h e L ankh i l ls a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s , i ta ppea r s i nt h e s t age s o ft h e f u ne ra ry r i tua l p ropo sed t ob e u nder taken b y b o th t h e ' o ff ic ia l ' a ppa ra tu s a nd t h e f am i ly /mou rne r s .

0. 4

A l terna t ive F i e lds o fD i scour se

T he b u r ia l d a ta h ave i n d ica ted t h a t g ende r d i scou r se w a s n o t o ve r t ly p l ayed o u t w i th in t h e B u t t R oad , B a th G a te a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s . We mu s t t h u s s e ek a n a l ter na t ive f o cu s o fs t ra tegy . Wha t k i nd s o fs oc ia l c a tego r ie s a r e b e ing c on s t ruc t ed t o o ve rw r i te t h e e ngende red i d en t i ty o f t h e c orp se? I sg ende r b e ing o ve rw r i t ten b y b roade r i d en t i t ie s s u ch a s s t a tu s o r f am i ly r e la t ionsh ip s? C ou ld t h e ' o rde r ' e s tab l i shed i n t h e c eme te r ie s b e a n e xp r es s ion o f c i v ic p r ide?

8 . 2 .1

C on s t ruc t ion o fs t a tu s i d en t i t ies

T he m ean s b y w h ich s t a tu s m ay b e d eno ted t h rough b u r ia l a r e v a r ied b o th g eog raph ica l ly a nd c h rono log ica l ly a nd i t h a s b een d emon s t ra ted t h a t o u r i d en t if ica t ion a nd i n terp re ta t ion o f' ma rke r s ' i sf r augh t w i th d i ff icu l t ie s . A f te r e x tens ive s u rvey o f R omano -Br i t i sh b u r ia l p r a c t ice s , h oweve r , P h i lpo t t ( 199 1 : 2 28 -232 ) h a s a r gued t h a t s t a tu s i n s u ch b u r ia l s a ppea r s t o h ave b een d eno ted i n f o u r m a in w ay s ; t h e q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o f g r ave f ur n i tu r e , t h e s pec ia l m a rk ing o f g r ave s ( mau so lea , d i t ched a nd h edged e nc lo su re s , t i mbe r s t ruc tu r e s , i n sc r ibed s t ones , t i mbe r v au l t s a nd s t ep -g rave s ) , s pec ia l c on ta ine r s s uch a s l e ad l ined o r s t one c of f in s , a nd s p ec ia l t r ea tmen t o f t h e b ody s u ch a s t h e p r ov i s ion o f p l a s te r -pack ing . T he f i r s t o f t h e se ' h igh s t a tu s r i t e s ' , t h e d epo s i t ion o f g r ave f u r n i tu re , i sw ide ly a cknow ledged t o h ave g r adua l ly d ec l ined d u r ing t h e t h i rd c en tu ry AD a nd P h i lpo t t a r gue s t h a t t h e o t he r r i t e s g a ined i n c rea s ing i mpo r tance a s m eans o f s t a tu s e xp re s s ion i n t h e l a t e R omano -Br i t ish u rban c eme te r ie s . T h i s p ropo sa l a ppea r s t ob e s uppo r ted b y t h e l a ck o f f u rn ished g r ave s a t t h e B a th G a te , B u t t R oad a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s , b u t n o t a tL ankh i l ls , w he re t h e d ec i s ion t of u rn i sh ah igh p ropo r t ion o f t h e g r ave s c on t inued a l ong s ide t h e p rov is ion o f o t he r f e a tu r e s s u ch a s s t ep -g rave s a nd d i tched e nc lo su re s . T ur n ing t ot h e o t he r m ean s o f s t a tu s e xp re s s ion , t h e B a th G a te c eme te ry r e vea led l i t t le o r n o e v idence o f s u rf a ce m a rke r s , f u ne ra ry s t ruc tu r e s o r p l a s te r -pack ing , a nd w h i ls t t h e re w e r e s ome s t one c of f in s , t h e c l o se p rox im i ty o f t h e q uar ry m ake s t h e i r e xpen se a nd r e la t ion t os t a tus l e s s c l ea r . I fw e a c cep t P h i lpo t t 's p ropo sa l s t h e ref o r e , t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f s t a tu s i d en t i t ie s , a nd i n deed t h e o ve rw r i t ing o f g ende r w i th s t a tu s , d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een a f e a tu re a tt h is s i te . A t t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry w e a r e p r e sen ted w i th m o r e o f a' m ixed b ag ' . W i th n o s t one c off in s a nd o n ly t wo c off in s w i th l e ad l in ing s f r om t h e c eme te ry t h e u s e o f ' s pec ia l ' c on ta ine r s i sh a rd ly v i s ib le , b u t af ew b u r ia l s w e re p l a s te r -packed , a nd w h i l s t t h e c eme te ry l a cked m au so lea o r o t he r f o rm s o fe nc lo su r e s , e v idence f o r t imbe r s t ruc tu r e s o n t h e g r ave s u rf ace , a nd t i mbe r v au l t s , a r e a ppa ren t , a l be i t i n s ma l l n umbe r s . O ve ra l l t h e r e i sn o t ag r ea t d ea l o fe v idence f o rt h eo ve r td i sp lay o fs o c ia l s t a tu s a mong s t t h ese b u r ia ls . Mo re e v idence f o r s o c ia l d i sp lay s e ems a ppa ren t a t t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry w he r e m au so lea , d i tched e nc lo su re s , p l a s te r /gyp sum p ack ing a nd ' s pec ia l ' b ody c on ta ine r s a r e a l f e a tu re s o ft h e c eme te ry . I n deed G reen ( 1 982 : 7 1 -72 ) h a s o u t l ined a ' h ie ra rchy ' o f c on ta ine r t y pe s a t P oundbu ry r a ng ing f r om s imp le w ooden c off in s t os ub s tan t ia l a nd l e ad l i ned w ooden c off ins , a nd s t one c off ins s ou rced f r om

1 06

v a r iou s l o ca t ion s , a nd t h e l a t te r t wo c on ta ine r t y pe s e xh ib i ted n o tab le a s soc ia t ion w i th m au so lea . B a sed u pon t h i s e v idence i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s t a tu s p l ayed a l a rge r p a r t i nt h e s oc ia l d i scou r se a tt h i s c eme tery t h an a tB u t t R oad a nd B a th G a te . D i rec t c ompa r ison o f t h e s i te s , h oweve r , a s sumes t h a t s t a tu s w ou ld h ave b een e xp re s sed / rep r e sen ted i n as im i la r m anne r a te ach c eme te ry . T h i s r e inf o r ce s t h e i d ea o f t h e se l a rge u rban c eme te r ie s a s ' a p henomenon ' w h i l s t my a na lys i s o f g ende r c on s t ruc t ion h a s c l ea r ly e xpo sed d i f f e r ence s i ns t ra teg ic p rac t ice sa c ro s st h e s i t e s . I n l i gh t o f P h i lpo t t 's a rgumen t s , i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e p o t en t ia l c on s t ruc t ion o fs t a tu s i d en t i t ie s a tt h e L ankh i l l s s i te i se x t reme ly d i ff icu l t . S t ep -g rave s a nd h edged e nc lo su re s a r e a ppa ren t a l ong s ide t h e d epo s i t ion o fg r ave f u rn i tu re , t h e l a t t e ra ppa ren t ly b e ing n o l o nge r amode o fs t a tu s e xp r e s s ion i nt h e ' ma in s t r eam ' o fl a te R omano -B r i t ish b u r ia l p r ac t ice s . Wha t c an b e s a id o f t h is c eme te ry , h oweve r , i st h a t t h e d epo s i t ion o fa r tef ac t t y pe s w a s s i gn if ican t ly r e la ted t ot h e s e x a nd /o r s e x -and -age o f t h e d ecea sed , a nd t h a t t h e s e lec t ion o f g r ave p o s i t ion w i th in t h e c eme te ry w a s b a sed u pon t h e s e x o ft h e d ecea sed ; s t a tu s d oe s n o t a ppea rt oh ave o ve rw r it ten g ende ri d en t i t ie s .

8 . 2 .2

C on s t ruc t ion o ff am i ly i d en t i t ie s

T he o ve rw r i t ing o f g ende r b y t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f f am i ly i d en t i t ies m ay b e ap o s s ib i l i ty a tt h e B u t t R oad , P oundbu ry a nd B a th G a te c eme te r ie s . I n t e rm s o f b u r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion , m en , w omen a nd c h i ld ren a t e ach o f t h e se s i t e s w e re t h o rough ly s pa t ia l ly m ixed a nd t h i s m ixed p a t ter n i s f r equen t ly t a ken t oi n d ica te b u r ia l i nf am i ly g roup s . Wh i ls t t h e b u r ia l s a tt h e B a th G a te c eme tery w e r e c ompa ra t ive ly l e s s ' we l l -o rde red ' a nd s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion sh ip s w e r e d i ff icu l t t o a s ce r ta in d ue t o t h e h omogeneou s n a tu re o f t h e s o i l , t h e re i s c on s ide rab le e v idence f o r h o r izon ta l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween g r ave s a tt h e o t he rt wo s i te s . Many o f t h e g r ave s a r e e ven ly s paced w i th l i t t le i n te r cu t t ing , a r ranged o n s im i la r a l ignmen t s i nr ow s /p lo t s p l aced s i de b y s i de , e nd t o e nd , o r i n c l u s te r s , a nd m en , w omen a nd c h i ld r en a r e a l l p re sen t w i th in t h e se r ow s /p lo t s . T he r e i s a ppa ren t c on t inu i ty i nt h e u se o fb u r ia l p l o t s f r om P e r iod 1 P ha se 3t oP e r iod 2a tt h e B u t t R oad c eme tery a nd t h e u s e o f t i mbe r v au l t s a nd t h e c omp lex o f s u r round ing b u r ia ls h a s b een t a ken t or e p r e sen t f am i ly g roup ing s , p ar t icu la r ly d ue t o t h e a s soc ia ted c oncen t ra t ion o fn eona te b u r ia l s f o rw hom t h e d ec is ion t ob u ry w i th in t h e v au l t c omp lex r a the r t h an o n t h e p a ren t 's p roper ty h a s b een s ugge s ted t o" i nd ica te t h e c ho ice o f o ne f am i ly" ( C rummy a nd C ro ssan , 1 993 : 18 ) . S ome g r ave s s i tua ted c l o se t o ge the r w i th in " we l l -manag ed r a nk s" a l so e xh ib i t c on s is tency i no t he r b u r ia l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s s uch a sa r t ef ac t d epo s i t ion ( e .g . c ook ing p o t w i th s hoe s , o r , ap o t p l aced o u t s ide t h e c off in w i th o ne i t em o fj ewe l lery p l aced i n s ide ) , a l ong w i th s im i la r g r ave -p i t a l ignmen t s a nd b ody o r ien ta t ion , w h ich h ave b een t a ken t o i n d ica t e f am i l ia l c ho ice ( Crummy a nd C ro s san , 1 993 : 5 1) . S im i la r p a t ter n s h ave a l so b een s ugge s ted i n r e la t ion t o t h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry w i th c l u s te r s o fg r ave s s ha r ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s s uch a s l e ad l ined c off in s . T he re i s , h oweve r , an o tab le l a ck o f ' f am i ly s ized ' c l u s te r s a tt h e P oundbu ry c eme te ry , a nd t h e a ge s t ruc tu re s o fb u r ia l s w i th in t h e m au so lea a r e n o t t y p ica l o fn uc lea r f am i ly g roup s , b o th o fw h ich m ay a r gue a ga in s t t h i s i n terp re ta t ion (Woodwa rd , 1 993 : 2 35 ) .

I n t e rm s o f g ene t ic af in i ty , i n ves t iga t ion s o f f am i ly r e la t ion sh ip s h ave b een l a rge ly b a sed u pon m e t r ic a nd n on m e t r ic s ke le ta l t r a i t s a nd t h e re i s c on s ide rab le l i t e ra tu re a s se s s ing t h e v a lue o f s uch i n d ica to r s . T he p r e sence o f c e r ta in t r a i t s , s uch a s t h e t e n i n ca b one s a tt h e B a th G a te c eme te ry , a r e i n adequa te i n d ica to r s o f f am i l ia l a ff in i ty i n i s o la t ion a nd s o c omb ina t ions o f t r a i t s , a l ong w i th m o r e u nu sua l c ongen i ta l a noma l ie s a r e r equ i red , b u t e ven s u ch c omb ina t ions m ay o n ly p rov ide t e n ta t ive r e su l t s ( Fe l l , 1 956 ; B enne t t , 1 973 ; T u rke l , 1 989 ; B ro thwe l l , 1 963) . A t P oundbu ry s ke le ta l t r a i t s s uch a s t h e f o ramen o f H u schke a nd t o r i o ft h e p a la te a nd m and ib le , c ommon ly b e l ieved t o ' t un ' i n f am i l ies , r e por ted ly h ad a n o tab ly n on random d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e c eme te ry ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 70 ) . A t t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry s ke le tons m an if e s t ing s uch v a r ian t s a s d oub le s up rao rb i ta l f o ramen , m e top ic s u tu re , c o rona l s u tu re b one , e p ip te r ic b one , a s te r ion ic b one , i n ca b one , s a c ra l l umba r i sa t ion a nd s p ina b i f ida o ccu l ta w e re a l so f ound t oc l u s te r i nt og roup ing s p r ev iou s ly h ypo the s ised a s f am i ly g roup s b y o t he r m eans ( P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 6 5 ) . T h i s t y pe o f a pp roach , h oweve r , a s sume s t h a t s uch t r a i t s a r e p r ima r i ly g ene t ica l ly c on t ro l led d e sp i te t h e re b e ing a g ene ra l l a ck o fk now ledge a bou t c ommon i n he r i tab le t r a i t s , p a r t icu la r ly i nt e rm s o ft h e i r s u scep t ib i l i ty t ot h e e f f ec t s o f s uch f a c to r s a se nv i ronmen t , d i e t , b i omechan ica l s t re ss , a ge a nd s e x ( Bu ik s t ra , 1 972 ; P i n te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 1 46 , 6 5 ; B enne t t , 1 965 ; E l -Na j ja r a nd D aw son , 1 977 ; S aunde r s , 1 989 ; C o r rucc in i , 1 974 ; F innegan , 1 978 ) .

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V a r ia t ion s i nd en ta l morpho logy a ppea r t ob e mo r e r e l iab le f o r s t ud ie s o fr e la tedne s s a s m any h ave b een d emon s t ra ted t o b e u nde r d i rec t g ene t ic c on t ro l ( Payn te r a nd G ra ing e r , 1 96 1 ; H ammond e ta l . , 1 975 ; B e r ry , 1 978 ; B rook , 1 984 ) . A t P oundbu ry t h e o ccu r rence o f r e duced a nd m is s ing t e e th ( h ypodon t ia o ra gene s is ) , e n la rged a nd s upernume ra ry t e e th , a nd i n vag ina ted i n c i so r s ( i nc lud ing s hove l shaped a nd p a la to -g ing iva l g roove s ) h ave b een t a ken t os ugge s t as t rong g ene t ic r e la t ion sh ip w i th in t h e p opu la t ion w h ich s uppor t s t h e i d ea o f t h e c eme tery b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l o ca l c ommun i ty o fl a te R oman D o rche s te rt h roughou t t h e g r ea te r p a r t o f i t s u se ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 68 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f d en ta l a noma l ie s , p a r t icu la r ly h ypodon t ia , i sn o tab le a s m any a f ec ted i n d iv idua ls a r e b u r ied c l o se t oge the r i nt h e s ame o r a d jacen t r ow s , a nd t h e g ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o f g ene t ic t r a i t s a tt h e s i te h a s b een t a ken t o s t rong ly i n d ica te b u r ia l o f f am i l ie s i nt h e s ame p ar t o f t h e c eme t e ry , o f t en w i th r ow s b e ing s p l i t i n t o f am i ly p l o t s . I n a dd i t ion , Mo l le son ( 1993 : 1 46 ) a rgue s t h a t i tw ou ld b e s u rp r is ing i f t h e i n d iv idua l s b u r ied i n a nd a r ound m auso leum R 3 w e re u n re la ted d ue t ot h e i rs im i la rd en ta l c r owd ing a nd s ku l l b one s hape , n o tab ly p ronounced j aw ( gon ia l ) a ng le s , a nd t a l l a nd r obu s t p hy s iques w h ich w ou ld h ave b een ' o u t s tand ing ' w i th in t h e c ommun i ty . T he p r e sence o f c e r ta in d i sea se s h a s a l so b een t a ken t o s uppor t f am i ly g roup ing a tt h e B u t t R oad a nd P oundbu ry c eme te r ie s . A t t h e f o rme r s i te f am i ly g roup s d educed f r om s t ra t ig raph ic a nd o t he r b u r ia l e v idence w h ich e xh ib i ted s ome o f t h e m e t r ic a nd c ongen i ta l v a r ian t s w e re a l so o b se rved t oh ave c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a nd /o r e name l h ypop la s ia . O n t h is b a s is i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h a t t h e r e m ay h ave b een s ome th ing ' d if f e ren t ' i nt h e d i e t s o r l i f es ty le s o ft h e se ' f am i l ie s ' ( P in te r -Be l low s , 1 993 : 9 1) , b u t t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f d educ t ion s b a sed u pon t h e se f e a tu re s h a s a l r eady b een q ue s t ioned i nC hap te r F i ve . A t P oundbury , t h e c l u s te r ing o f

s i x i n d iv idua l s i n t h e s ou thern p ar t o f t h e m a in c eme te ry w ho a l e xh ib i ted s i gn s o f e r o s ive b one d i sea se h a s b een a r gued t o s t rong ly s ugge s t as i ng le f am i ly t h a t w a s p a r t icu la r ly s u scep t ib le , a nd e x ten s ive p e r io s t i t i s o n t h e l o ng b one s o fa d jacen t g r ave s h ave a l so b een t a ken t oi n d ica te a f am i ly a s soc ia t ion ( Mo l le son , 1 993 : 1 94 , 1 88 ) . C lea r ly f u r the r w o rk i s n ece ssa ry t o g a in mo r e d e ta i led k now ledge c oncern ing s ke le ta l ly r e p re sen ted g ene t ic t r a i t s , b u t i mp roved a pp roache s c ou ld p rove e x t reme ly u sef u l f o r a r cha eo log ica l s oc ia l i n terp re ta t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i f t h e i d en t i t ie s b e ing c r ea ted b y t h e f une ra l a gency a ppea r t o b e f am i ly -ba sed a sp e rhap s i n d ica ted b y d i sc re te b u r ia l c l u s te r s o f m ixed a ge a nd s ex c a tego r ie s . DNA a na ly s i s o f f o s s i l h uman t i s sue i ss t i l l i ni t s i n f ancy , b u t r e cen t r e sea rch h a s p roduced s ome p rom is ing r e su l t s . S amp le s o ft wen ty -n ine s k e le ton s f r om t h e v au l t c omp lex a tt h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry w e r e t e s ted b y V oong ( 2000 ) t o a s cer ta in w he the r t h e e xcava to r 's p ropo sa l s o ff am i ly g roup ing s b a sed u pon g rave p o s i t ion , a l ignmen t a nd s t ra t ig raphy w e re b or ne o u t . Ar a r e t i s sue t y pe ( DR 10 ) w a s f ound i nf ou ro ft h e s amp le s m ak ing t h em ' mo s t u n l ike ly t o b e u n r e la ted ' , a l though t h is t e chn ique i sb a sed u pon t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e f r equency o f DR t y pes i na nc ien t p opu la t ion s i st h e s ame a s t h a t i n m oder n p opu la t ion s , a ppa ren t ly " a b i g a s sump t ion" a s f r equenc ie s a r e l i ke ly t od i f f e r ( Voong , 2 000 : 2 16 ) . O ne o f t h e s t ronges t r e la t ion sh ip s e xh ib i ted w a s b e tween t wo a d jacen t m a le b u r ia ls , b e l ieved t ob e f a the r a nd s on . V oong c onc lude s t h a t h e i s" conv inced t h a t s ome , i fn o t a l , o ft h e s ke le ton s w i th in t h e v au l t c omp lex . . a r e i n ter re la ted" ( 2000 : 29 ) . A s p r ev iou s ly m en t ioned , P CR t e chn ique s t o a mp l if y DNA a r e ar e la t ive ly r e cen t d eve lopmen t a nd h ave n o t y e t b een w ide ly a pp l ied t o a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l , b u t c l ea r ly t h e r e i ss cope f o rm uch , q u i te p o s s ib ly f r u i tf u l , f u tu r e r e sea r ch . A ga in w e a r e f a ced w i th w ha t a ppea r s t o b e as t a rk ly d i f f e r ing s t ra tegy a tt h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry w he re o n ly o ne ' f am i ly ' g roup ing o f b u r ia ls h a s b een i n d ica ted b y t h e e xcava to r ; ag roup o f s e ven a du l t s ( f ou r f ema le s a nd t h ree m a le s ) a nd t wo c h i ld ren f r om t h e g u l ly F 6 . T hu s f a r t h e re h a s b een a s e r iou s l a ck o f s ke le ta l a na ly s is u nde r taken o n t h e L ankh i l l s p opu la t ion m ean ing t h a t g ene t ic a ff in i t ies c an n o t b e d i scu ssed , b u t t h e s ex -ba sed s pa t ia l d ema r ca t ion o f t h e c eme tery a nd t h e p ropo sed g roup ing s o f s ame sex b u r ia l s i n d ica te t h a t t h e n uc lea r f am i ly w a s n o t a n i mpo r tan t f e a tu r e a f f ec t ing t h e o rgan isa t ion o f t h e c eme te ry ; " had i t b een s i gn if ican t . . ( t he c eme tery ) w ou ld h ave s hown a n o ve r -a l l s c a t te r o fm a le , f ema le a nd c h i ld g r ave s , p e rhap s i n t h o rough ly m ixed c l u s te r s ( a s a t t h e o t he r s i te s ) , a nd n o t d i sc re t e g roup s o f m en a nd w omen" ( C la rke , 1 979 : 1 90 ) . A s C la rke s ugge s t s , t h e s epa ra te b u r ia l o fg roup s o f m a le s a nd f ema le s m ay i n d ica te t h e i nf luence o fb u r ia l c l ub s , t r ade a s soc ia t ion s o r o t he r s im i la r s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion s , b u t t h e p r e sence o fc h i ld ren w i th in t h e se g roup ing s d oe s n o t s e em c on s is t en t w i th t h e se i d ea s . I ft h e c h i ld r en b u r ied w i th a du l t m a le s w e re b oy s , a nd t h o se b u r ied w i th a du l t f ema le s w e r e g i r l s , w e c ou ld b e w i tne s s ing r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e f am i ly i n aw ide rs e n se , b u tt h e s ex /gende ro ft h e d ecea sed , a tl e a s t f o r t h e a du l t s , w a s c l ea r ly t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f a c to r a f f ec t ing t h e s e lec t ion o fg r ave p o s i t ion w i th in t h is c eme te ry .

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8 . 2 .3

E xp re s s ion o fc i v ic i d en t i ty

We h ave s e en d i f f e r ence s i n f u ne ra ry s t ra teg ie s i mp lemen ted b y t h o se w ho ' managed ' i n t h e s e lec ted c eme te r ie s i n t e rm s o f g ende r , s t a tu s a nd f am i ly r e p re sen ta t ion , b u t t h e c ommona l i ty o f ' o rde r ed ' c eme t er y l a you t r e qu i re s c on s ide ra t ion . O rgan isa t ion i n t o n ea t r ow s /co lumns o fs im i la r ly -a l igned b u r ia ls i sm a rked a te ach o ft h e s i t e s e xcep t B a th G a te w he r e t h e l a you t i sc onf u sed b y i n ten se c eme te ry u s e a nd l a ck o fk nown h o r izon ta l a nd v er t ica l r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween g r ave s . I f w e a ccep t t h a t s ome f o rm o fo ff ic ia l e n t i ty t ook r e spons ib i l i ty f o r c eme te ry l a you t a nd o rgan isa t ion , w ha t s t ra teg ic b enef i t w a s t h e re i n t h i s t y pe o f b u r ia l a r rangemen t? Wha t i s b e ing c ommun ica ted t h rough t h is a spec t o fr i tua l? T h i s q ue s t ion c an n o t b e f u l ly a dd re s sed h e r e a s i ti n vo lve s d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o f t h e e me rgence o f t h e m anaged c eme te r ie s w i th in t h e c on tex t o f c on t inu i ty a nd c hange i n b u r ia l p r ac t ice s t h roughou t t h e c ou r se o f t h e R oman p e r iod i n B r i ta in . Wha t c an b e s a id , h oweve r , i st h a t t h e a loca t ion o f t h e se c on s ide rab le a r ea s o fe x t ra -mu ra l l a nd a nd t h e e v iden t c a re t a ken i nt h e a r rangemen t o f b u r ia ls u pon t h a t l a nd i s c onsonan t w i th a f u nc t ion ing c en t ra l a u tho r i ty w i th in t h e t own s d u r ing t h e f our th c en tu ry ( E smonde C lea ry , 1 989 : 8 0 ) . I tc ou ld s imp ly b e t h e c a se t h a t t h e re w a s an eed t o f i nd s pace f o r i n huma t ion b u r ia ls o u t s ide t h e l a te t own s ( Ph i lpo t t , 1 992 : 2 26 -7 ) a nd t h a t o rgan isa t ion i nt o o r de r ly r ow s w a s m e r e ly a f u nc t ion o f s pace -u se e ff ic iency . T he i n corpo ra t ion o f t h e se b u r ia l a r ea s i nt o t h e t own s ubu rb s , h oweve r , a l ong w i th t h e s im i la r o rgan isa t ion o f ' s pace f o r t h e d ead ' a nd ' s pace f o r t h e l i v ing ' i nt e rm s o f ' g r id l ike ' l a you t s s ugge s t s s ome th ing mo r e . Mo l le son ( 1 992 : 5 4 ) p ropo se s t h a t t h e a rangemen t o f b u r ia ls i n n ea t r ow s m ay h ave b een a n e x ten s ion o f t h e r e c t i l inea r l a you t o f t h e s t ree t s i n at y p ica l R omano -B r i t ish t own , D oe s t h i s e x ten s ion o ft own p l ann ing i nt ot h e b u r ia l d oma in r e p re sen t a n e xp re s s ion o f c i v ic p r ide? A n i mage c on s t ruc ted t o p romo te c i v ic f e e l ing ? O r w e re t h e se b u r ia l a r ea s s o d e s igned m e re ly i n a c co rdance w i th c ur ren t a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le s , t o' f i t i n ' w i th t h e ir p l ace i nt h e s ubu rb s? E smonde C lea ry ( 1 993) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e r o le o ft h e u rban c en t re i n f o u r th c en tu ry B r i ta in h ad c hanged w i th i n c rea s ing e mpha s is b e ing p l a ced u pon t h e i r a dm in i s t ra t ive f u nc t ion s . P e rhap s t h en w ha t w e a r e s e e ing i nt h is c ho ice o fc eme te ry p a t te rn i s t h e u se o f b u r ia l b y b u reauc ra t ic a genc ie s t o r e inf o r ce t h e i mage o f t h e s t a te a s af u nc t iona l a ppa ra tu s w i th in t h e i n c rea s ing ly a u tonomou sp rov inces ( Ca sa H a t ton , 1 999 ) .

8 . 3

T he E ngendered B ody a tt h e L ankh i l l s C eme tery

C on s ide ra t ion o f t h e f o u r l a rge u rban c eme t e r ie s h a s r e vea led t h a t o n ly a tL ankh i l ls d oe s t h e s e x o ft h e d ecea sed a ppea rt oh ave s i gn if ican t ly s t ruc tu r ed t h e m a te r ia l t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ead . H e re t h e f u ne ra l a gency m a rked -ou t m a le a nd f ema le b u r ia l s a s d i s t inc t t h rough a s pec t s o f b ody p o s i t ion ing , s e lec t ion a nd p o s i t ion ing o fg r ave a r tef ac t s , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t h rough t h e s ex -ba sed d ema rca t ion o f b u r ia l a r ea s . Why t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e e ngende red b ody a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry d i f f e r s s o n o tab ly f r om t h a t u nde r taken a tt h e r e s t o ft h e s i t es i s ap erp lex ing q ue s t ion , w i th n o e a sy a nswe r . S ome g ene ra l f e a tu re s c an b e i d en t if ied a s n o t h av ing l a in b eh ind t h is d i f f e rence b ecau se o ft h e i r c ommon

r e levance t o e a ch o f t h e c eme te r ie s ; a l l t h e s i te s a r e e x t ramu ra l c eme te r ie s a s soc ia ted w i th l a te R omano -B r i t ish u rban c on tex t s , t h ey a r e a l l o f s im i la r d a te s pann ing t h e f ou r th c en tu ry AD , a nd t h e i d ea o f' p rov inc ia l ' v a r ia t ion i s n o t s uppor ted b ecau se t h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry ( e xh ib i t ing t h e m o s t m a rked s ex -ba sed d i f f e ren t ia t ion ) a nd t h e B u t t R oad c eme te ry ( e xh ib i t ing t h e l e a s t ) a r e b o th s i tua ted w i th in t h e s ame p rov ince , Max ima C ae sa r ien s i s . B u r ia l p r ac t ice a t L ankh i l ls s t and s o u t f r om t h e o t he r s e lec ted c eme te r ie s n o tab ly i nt h e s pa t ia l d ema rca t ion o ft h e s i te o n t h e b a s i s o f s ex , a nd t h e c on t inued d epo s i t ion o f a h i gh p ropor t ion o f g rave -good s t h roughou t t h e f our th c en tu ry . A l so , b u r ia l p rac t ice s a tt h i s s i te a ppea r t o h ave c hanged s omewha t a round AD 3 50 i nt h a t p r io r t ot h i s d a te t h e a r ea w e s t o fd i tch F 12 w a s u sed p r edom inan t ly f o r t h e i n termen t o f m a les a nd a f t e r t h is d a te m a in ly f o r t h e i n te rmen t o ff ema le s ; s pa t ia l ' s eg rega t ion ' o ft h e s exe s d i d n o t c ea se w i th in t h e c eme te ry b u t t h e a r ea s d eemed a pp rop r ia t e f o r t h e i n te rmen t o f t h e m a jo r i ty o f e a ch s ex a l te r ed . A t a r ound t h e s ame d a te t h e r e w a s a l so ad ec rea se i nt h e d epo s i t ion o fh obna i l s , a n i n c r ea se i nt h e d epo s i t ion o f c o in s , p a r t icu la r ly mu l t ip le c o in d epo s i t s , a nd t h e a ppea rance o f c omb s i n b u r ia l s ( C la rke , 1 979 ; P h i lpo t t , 1 99 1) . A r e a son f o r t h is c hange i n p ra c t ice d u r ing t h e m idd le o f t h e f ou r th c en tu ry r ema in s u nc lea r . C u r ren t k now ledg e i mp l ies t h a t n o th ing ' e xcep t iona l ' o ccu r red w i th in t h e t own a round t h i s d a te . T he l a t te r h a lf o f t h e c en tu ry s aw t h e c es sa t ion o ft own d eve lopmen t , w i th s ome m od if i ca t ion o fo ld r a the rt h an b u i ld ing o fn ew t own h ou ses , a nd t h e s t a r t o f t h e d ecay o f t h e s t r ee t s y s tem , b u t d a t ing t h e se c hange s i s p rob lema t ic a nd AD 3 50 m ay b e t oo e a r ly a s as t a r t ing p o in t f o r t h i s s e em ing d ec l ine ( He len R eece , p e r s . c o rn . ) . C la rke ( 1979 ) s ugge s t s t h e a r r iva l o f ' f o re igne r s ' , p e rhap s t o o ve r see t h e o pe ra t ion o f af u l l ing m i l l m anuf ac tu r ing c l o th f o r t h e e mp i r e , a s e xp lana to ry o f c hange s i n b u r ia l p r ac t ice a l ong w i th t h e s uppo sed i d en t i f ica t ion o f ' Ge rman ic ' b u r ia l s a t t h e L ankh i l l s s i te . T he se ' c ha rac te r is t ic s ' , h oweve r , a r e o n ly p r e sen t i n a r e la t ive ly s ma l l n umbe r o fg rave s , a nd t h e m any p rob lem s i n he r en t i nt h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fi n t ru s ive b u r ia l s h ave b een l u c id ly o u t l ined b y P h i lpo t t ( 199 1) a nd B a ldw in ( 1985 ) , a mong s t o t he r s , w i th s pec if ic r e f e r ence t o t h e c eme te ry a t L ankh i l l s . S im i la r p a t tern s o fc hange i nb u r ia l p rac t ice a r e n o t a ppa r en t a tt h e o t he r c eme te r ie s a nd t h u s w e s e em t ob e r e p re sen ted w i th l o ca l ised r i t e s s p ec if ic t o t h e u rban c ommun i ty u t i l is ing a t l e a s t t h i s p a r t o f t h e n o r the rn c eme te ry o f V en ta B e lgarum . We c an t h u s n o t o n ly s e e r e g iona l d i f f e rence s i ns t ra teg ic p rac t ice a c ro s s t h e d i f f e ren t s i te s , a nd i n d i f f e ren t a r ea s o f t h e s ame s i te w hen o ne c ompa re s s ome r i te s i nt h e m a in a nd p e r iphe ra l c eme te r ie s a tP oundbu ry , b u t a tL ankh i l ls w e c an a l so s e e c hange s i n b u r ia l s t ra teg ie s o ve r t ime w i th in t h e s ame c eme te ry . T he b road f u s ion a ppa r en t i n l a te R omano -Br i t ish b u r ia l p ra c t ice s c l ea r ly d id n o t o b scu r e a l r e g iona l ised r i t e s , o r p e rhap s t h e e xp re s s ion o f r eg iona l i sed i d en t i ty t h rough b u r ia l d e term ined b y l o ca l c u s tom .

l a t te r , t h e s amp le s i ze w a s t oo s ma l l t o e nab le d e ta i led s t a t i s t ica l t e s t s . I nt e rm s o ft h e a bove d i scu s s ion , h oweve r , i ti sw o r thwh i le c on s ide r ing w he the rt h e t wo ma in p o in t s o f d if e rence b e tween L ankh i l ls a nd t h e r e s t o ft h e c eme te r ie s , i . e . t h e h i gh p ropor t ion o fa r tef ac t d epo s i t ion a nd i t s r e la t ion t o s ex , a nd t h e s e x -ba sed s pa t ia l d ema rca t ion o f t h e s i te , a ppea r t o b e c a r r ied o ve r i n t o t h e b u r ia l s t ra teg ie s a t V ic to r ia R oad a nd H yde S t ree t . T he d epo s i t ion o fa r tef ac t s i n g rave s l o ca ted i n t h e se p a r t s o f t h e c eme t e ry i s i n te re s t ing . A sT ab le 6 9 i lu s t ra te s , t h ep e r cen tage o fb u r ia ls a tV ic to r ia R oad a nd H yde S t ree t p rov ided w i th f ur n ish ing w a s n o tab ly l e s s t h an a tt h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry , p e rhaps d eno t ing af u r the r c hange i nb u r ia l s t ra tegy t owa rd s t h e l a te f ou r th -ea r ly f i f th c en tu ry , amove t owa rd s t h e ' ma in s t r eam ' R omano -B r i t i sh b u r ia l p rac t ice s . T he p e r cen tage s o fg r ave s w i th f u rn i sh ing a r e , h oweve r , s t i l l c on s ide rab ly h ighe r t h an a ta ny o ft h e o t he r c eme te r ie s s ugge s t ing s ome c on t inua t ion o fl o ca l ised r i t e s . T he r e a l so a ppea r s t oh ave b een ac hange i n t h e d epo s i t ion o f a r tef ac t s i n r e la t ion t o s ex ; i n t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry a s l igh t ly h ighe r p e r cen tage o f a du l t m a le b u r ia ls ( 4 4% ) t h an f ema le b u r ia ls ( 4 1% ) w e re a s soc ia ted w i th g r ave -good s , w he r ea s a tb o th t h e V ic to r ia R oad a nd H yde S t ree t s i te s t h i s s i tua t ion w a s r eve r sed w i th ac on s ide rab ly h i ghe r p e rcen tage o ff ema le s b e ing p rov ided w i th a r tef ac t s ( 20% :3% a tV ic to r ia R oad a nd 1 3 % :8% a t H yde S t ree t ) . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion w a s f o und t o h ave a s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e s ex o ft h e d ecea sed a tV ic to r ia R oad ( Tab le 7 0 ) , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fg ende r i d en t i ty t h rough a r tef ac t d epo s i t ion w a s s t i l l as i gn if ican t p a r to ft h e b u r ia l s t ra tegy i mp lemen ted w i th in t h is o t he ra r ea o fW inches te r 's n o r ther nc eme tery .

T o ta l

G raves w i th

G raves

A r te fac ts

P e rcen tage

4 68

1 3

2 . 70

B u t tR oad

6 99

6 8

8 . 87

P oundbu ry

1 258

1 09

L ankh i l ls

4 48

2 5 1

3 5 .9 1

B a th G a te

'

7 . 97

H yde S t ree t

2 9

5

1 4 .7 1

V i c to r ia R oad

12

1 8

1 3 .85

T ab le 6 9 P e rcen tage s o f t h e t o ta l n umber o f g ra ve s a s soc ia ted w i th g rave f u rn i sh ing a te ach c eme tery

A r te fac tP resence

S ex A du l t

P resen t

N o t P resen t

M

1

2 9

F

5

2 0

+ ?M

2

2 9

+ ?F _

5

2 0

C h i -squa red 5 % 1 3%

T ab l e 7 0 S ign i f ican t v a r ia t ion i n t h e p rov i s ion o fg ra ve f urn i sh ing ( e xc lud ing h obna i l s ) o n t h e b a s i s o fs ex a t t h e V i c tor ia R oad s i te

T o f u r the r e xp lo re t h e i d ea o f d i f f e ren t ia l l o ca l i sed b u r ia l r i t e s u nder taken b y t h e u rban c ommun i ty o f R oman W inche s te r Ih ad i n tended t o a na ly se t h e b u r ia l d a ta f r om V ic to r ia R oad a nd H yde S t r ee t , r e p re sen t ing ' l a te e x t en s ion s ' t ot h e n or the rn c eme te ry , b u t w i th o n ly f i f ty -f ive s e xed a du l t b u r ia ls ( 30 m a le s a nd 2 5 f ema le s ) f r om t h e f o rme r s i te a nd t wen ty ( 12 m a le s a nd 8 f ema le s ) f r om t h e

When w e t u rn o u r a t ten t ion t ot h e s pa t ia l l a you t o fV ic to r ia R oad , a nd s pec if ica l ly t h e s e cond b u r ia l p e r iod d a ted c .3 50 3 90 AD ( F igu r e 3 0 ) , w e s e e t h e o rgan i sa t ion o fb u r ia l s i nt o 1 09

1 1 1 Ma le A du l t F ema le A du l t 1 1 1S ubadu l t

LI I nde term ina te

4 . 4 0, i • 2 • 4 • i t • ° ' •

2

a

F ig . 3 0

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

0

1 0m

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys ex a tt h e V i c tor ia R oad s i te f r om t h es e cond b ur ia lp er iod ( Adap ted f r om ap l an p rov ided b yt h e W inches te r Mu seum s S e rv ice )

II Ma le A du l t 1 11 F ema le A du l t 11 1S ubadu l t

r i Indeterminate

S c .

2

F ig . 3 1

1

0

1

2

3

•

5

1 0m

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ur ia l sb ys ex a tt h e V i c tor ia R oad s i te f r om t h et h ird b ur ia lp e r iod ( Adap ted f r om ap l an p rov ided b yt h e W inche s te r Mu seum s S erv ice ) 10

P oundbu ry , B u t t R oad , a nd i n deed t h e e a s ter n c eme te ry a t V en ta B e lga rum ( He len R eece , p e r s . c om . ) a r e f r equen t ly h a i led a s C h r is t ian c eme te r ie s , a nd t h e L ankh i l l s c eme te ry w ou ld s u i t a' p agan ' c l a s s if ica t ion . I nl i gh t o ft h e p rob lem s r a i sed w i th r e l iance u pon t h e se p a r t icu la r f e a tu re s a s e v idence o f C h r i s t ian i ty , h oweve r , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s u ch i n terp re ta t ion s m ay b e m i sp laced . T he p r e sence o f l a rge p ropo r t ion s o fg r ave -good s a tL ankh i l ls , i . e . t h e m a in r e a son b eh ind t h e c ommon p agan c a tego r i sa t ion , h a s b een a r gued n o t t o n ece s sa r i ly i n d ica te p agan ism ( e .g . S a lway , 1 98 1) . C lea r ly ' s ome th ing ' w a s g o ing o n i nW inche s te r d u r ing t h e f ou r th c en tu ry t h a t i nf luenced t h e s t ruc tu re o f b u r ia l p rac t ice s i nr e la t ion t ot h e s ex o ft h e d ecea sed , a nd i tm ay b e a r gued t h a t t h is ' s ome th ing ' c ou ld e qua te w i th t h e r i se o f C h r i s t ian i ty a round t h i s d a te . C h r i s t ian i ty m ay d i v ide a c ommun i ty o n g ende r l i ne s .

o rde r ed c o lumn s a nd r ow s w i th w e s t -ea s t a l ignmen t s , a s a t t h e L ankh i l ls c eme te ry , i n d ica t ing a c on t inua t ion o f c eme te ry m anagemen t . Wh i ls t t h e n umbe r o f g raves a nd t h e e xcava ted a r ea a r e a dm i t ted ly m uch s ma l le r t h e re d oe s n o t a ppea r t o b e a ny s ex -ba sed s eg rega t ion o ft h e b u r ia l s . T he re i s , h oweve r , ac l ea r c l u s te r ing o fc h i ld r en a s d i s t inc t f r om t h e a du l t s w h ich r e inf o rce s t h e i d ea t h a t t h e a gency u nde r tak ing t h e f une ra ry r i tua l i nt e rms o f g r ave p o s i t ion w a s n o t c oncerned w i th t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f f am i ly i d en t i ty i nd ea th . I n t h e t h i rd b u r ia l p e r iod a t V ic to r ia R oad , c .3 90 -e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry ( F igu re 3 1) ,t h e re w a s ab r eakdown i nt h e o rde r a nd r e gu la r i ty o f b u r ia ls , a l ignmen t s w e r e v a r ied a nd t h e s e xe s a nd a ge s w e re v e ry m ixed . T he se f a c to r s , a l ong w i th t h e s h if ti nb u r ia l c l o se r t ot h e t own w a l ls m ay i n d ica te t h a t t h e a gency m anag ing c eme te ry o rgan i sa t ion l o o sened o r l o s t i t sf o rme rc on t ro l .

T o c l a r if y t h is h ypo the s is , w h i l s t C h r is t ian i ty r e ga rded m en a nd w omen ( r ich a nd p oo r , s l ave a nd f r ee ) a s e qua l i nt h e e ye s o f G od , t h e r i tua l a nd a dm in is t ra t ion o f t h e e a r ly C h r is t ian c hu rch b ecame ama le p r e se rve a s ar e su l t o f S t . P au l 's m i sogyny a nd t h e p r eva i l ing m o re s o f t h e M idd le E a s t w he re C h r i s t ian i ty o r ig ina ted ( A l la son Jone s , p e r s . c or n . ) , a nd t h e r e a r e e xp l ic i tr e f e r ence st ot h e s upe r io r i ty a nd p r e -em inen t p o s i t ion o f t h e m a le s ex . T h i s c on t ra s t s w i th w omen 's k nown h ono r if ic o ccupa t ion s a sp ub l ic p r ie s te sse s i nr e ga rd t oa l terna t ive r e l ig ion s , a nd D iodo ra o fC o rb r idge m ay b e c i ted a sa n e xamp le o ft h e o ccupa t ion o fs u ch ar o le w i th in R oman B r i ta in . A s i n t ima ted i nC hap te r T h ree , t h e c oup l ing o ft h e se f a c to r s w i th t h e s c r ip tu ra l e ncou ragemen t o f t h e s i l enc ing o f w omen 's p ub l ic v o ice s m ay p rov ide a n i n d ica t ion o f u nde r ly ing s o c ia l t e n s ion c once rn ing t h e ' p rope r ' p l ace o f w omen w h ich m ay h ave b een r e levan t t ot h e g row th o fC h r i s t ian i ty i nt h e B r i t ish p rov ince s a sw e l l a sI t a ly . P e rhap s t h en t h e s pa t ia l s eg rega t ion o ft h e s exes i n d ea th m ay b e v i ewed a s ar e spon se t ot h is t e n s ion , a sp a r t o f t h e g ende r d i scou r se w i th in t h e s o c ie ty r e la ted t ot h e ' n ew ' g row th o fC h r is t ian i ty d u r ing t h e f ou r th c en tu ry .

Why w a s t h e c ommun i ty b u r ied i nt h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery e ngende r ed i n d ea th b y t h e a l loca t ion o f g r ave p o s i t ion? T he s pa t ia l s eg rega t ion o fm a le a nd f ema le b od ie s , a l though n o t e xc lu s ive , c l ea r ly ' w ro te ap a r t icu la r o rde r i n to b e ing ' , a n o rde rw h ich w e m u s t r e ga rd a s ac r ea ted i mage o fg ende r a r rangemen t s r a the r t h an a r ef lec t ion o f s oc ia l f o rm . Wha t c ou ld b e t h e r e a son f o r , o r t h e s t ra teg ic b enef i t o f , t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fs uch as t age se t t ing o fd i f f e rence? T h is i sa n e x t r eme ly i n t r igu ing q ue s t ion w h ich b yn om ean s h a s s imp le r e so lve . 1i n i t ia l ly b egan c on temp la t ion o f t h is i s sue i nr e la t ion t o C la rke 's ( 1979 ) i n t ima t ion s o ft h e p o t en t ia l m i l i ta ry n a tu re o f t h e c eme te ry , b a sed u pon t h e o ccu r r ence o f s o -ca l led ' m i l i ta ry ' p a rapher na l ia s uch a s b e l t s a nd c ro s s -bow b rooche s , a nd t h e l a rge r r a t io o fm a le :f ema le i n te rmen t s . I f c oncer n r ega rd ing r e p re sen ta t ion o f m i l i ta ry i d en t i ty s t ruc tu r ed t h e a c t ion s o f t h e f u ne ra l a g ency , t h en w omen m ay h ave b een s epa ra ted a td ea th d ue t o t h e i r i n ab i l i ty t o p a r t ic ipa te i nt h is s phe re o fl i f e . H oweve r , t h e p r e sence o f m i l i ta ry p a rapherna l ia w a s a c tua l ly m eag r e a c ro s s t h e s i te , c r o s s -bow b rooche s a r e n ow w ide ly v i ewed a s b e ing " ne i the r s pec if ica l ly m i l i ta ry n o r n ece s sa r i ly o ff ic ia l i n c ha rac te r , b e ing w or n b y w omen a nd w ide ly c op ied" ( Ph i lpo t t , 1 99 1 : 2 29 ) , a nd t h e p roc la imed m i l i ta ry c ha rac te r o ft h e B a th G a te c eme te ry w he r e t h e m a le :f ema le r a t io w a s e ven m o r e d i spa ra te d i d n o t m an if e s t i n s ex -ba sed s e g rega t ion a td ea th .

O ff ic ia l s uppor t f o r C h r is t ian i ty i n t e rm s o f t h e c on so l ida t ion o ft h e C hu rch i nR oman B r i ta in w i th t h e e d ic t o f C on s tan t ine i n AD 3 13 , h a s a l so b een a r gued t o h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t h e p a r t ia l e r o s ion o f t r ad i t iona l R oman v a lue s b y t h e p l ac ing o f e mpha s is u pon d evo t ion t o t h e C hu r ch r a the r t h an t h e f am i l ia s . P e rhap s t h is i s w hy L ankh i l ls i st h e o n ly c eme te ry f r om m y s e lec t ion w h ich d oe s n o t e mpha s ise b u r ia l b y f am i ly g roup . I ti si n te r e s t ing t o n o te t h a t w h i ls t t h e mour n ing o f p a r tne r s a nd c h i ld r en c on t inue s t ob e r e p re sen ted o n C h r is t ian t omb s tone s o ft h e f o u r th -f if th c en tu r ie s , i n d ica t ing t h a tt h e f am i ly u n i tw a s s t i l l i mpor tan t , t h e f a c t t h a t , u n l ike p r e -Ch r is t ian g r ave s tone s , p rof e s s ion s , o f f ice s / t i t le s e t c . a r e n o t n orma l ly m en t ioned b u t r a the r t h e n ame , a ge a nd s ome r e f e rence t ot h e C hu r ch o r h av ing b een b ap t i sed a r e n o ted , m ay i n d ica te a s h if t i n a leg iance t o a nd i d en t if ica t ion w i th t h e C hu r ch a s t h e c ommun i ty o f g r ea te s t i mpor tance ( Mau reen C a r ro l l , p e r s . c o rn . ) . A lso , i n c on t ra s t t o s ome b u r ia ls e xh ib i t ing t h e t r ad i t iona l ly a r gued ' Ch r i s t ian ' f e a tu r e s w i th in t h e m a in l a te c eme tery a tP oundbu ry w h ich c l ea r ly p r e -da te t h e e d ic t o f C on s tan t ine , t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e s exua l ly s eg rega ted c eme te ry a t L ankh i l ls o ccu r red c . 3 10 AD , p o ten t ia l ly p r ec ise ly t h e ' c o r r ec t ' d a te .

H av ing t h u s d i spen sed w i th t h is n o t ion Ic an o n ly o f f e r o ne a l ter na t ive s ugge s t ion a st ow hy s e x -ba sed d ema rca t ion m ay h ave o ccu r r ed i n t h e c eme te ry d u r ing t h e f ou r th c en tu ry . T h is r e la te st ot h e c on s t ruc t ion o fr e l ig iou s i d en t i ty t h rough b u r ia l p rac t ice , a nd m o re s pec if ica l ly , t h e p o ten t ia l c on s t ruc t ion o fC h r is t ian i d en t i ty ( 1 ) . Ih ave a l r eady s t a ted i n t h e i n t roduc t ion t o t h i s w o rk t h a t Ib y n o m eans a t temp t t o d eny R omano -B r i t ish b u r ia l p rac t ice s t h e i r r e l ig iou s c omponen t , b u t t h a t It a ke i s sue w i th t h e p a r t icu la rf ea ture s u pon w h ich t h e d i s t inc t ion o fr e l ig iou s a dhe rence i sb a sed . F o l low ing t h e ' u sua l ' f e a tu re s c u r r en t ly t a ken t o r e p re sen t C h r i s t ian i ty i n mo r tua ry c on tex t s , w e s t -ea s t o r ien ta t ion , s up ine e x tended b ody p o s i t ion , p l a s te r b u r ia l , l a ck o f i n te r cu t t ing a nd d ea r th o f g r ave a ccompan imen t s , t h e

We igh ted a ga in s t t h i s t e n ta t ive h ypo the s i s , h oweve r , i s t h ec omp le te l a ck o f o ver t C h r i s t ian s ymbo l i sm f r om t h e

( i ) Ia m g r a tef u l t oJ ohn B a r re t tf o rd i scu s s ing t h i s i s sue w i th m e . I ll

c eme te ry i t s e lf , a nd i n deed o n ly t wo p o ten t ia l ly s i gn if ican t i t ems h ave b een r e cove r ed f r om V en ta B e lga rum a s aw ho le ; at i l e i n c ised w i th ap o s s ib le C h i -Rho s ymbo l f r om t h e t own c en t r e , w h ich m ay a l terna t ive ly b e a n u nconque red s un s ymbo l , a nd a m a son ry s t ruc tu re f r om n ea r t h e e a s tern c eme te ry w h ich m ay h ave b een a f r ee s tand ing b ap t isma l t a nk , o r a l te rna t ive ly , ap l unge b a th ( He len R eece , p e r s . c o rn . ) . O the r w a te r t a nk s h ave b een r e cove r ed f r om t h e v i c in i ty o fa s sumed C h r i s t ian c hu rche s , s u ch a sa tI l che s te r , b u t n o s u ch b u i ld ing h a s b een l o ca ted i n W inches te r , a l though a dm i t ted ly t h e r e levan t a r ea w a s l a rge ly d i s tu rbed b y ar a i lway c u t t ing a nd t e r rac ing i nt h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry . I ta l so w a r ran t s n o te t h a t l a ck o fo ver t C h r is t ian s ymbo l ism h a s n o t l e d t o ar e f ra in i nt h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f m any o t he r c eme te r ie s a s C h r is t ian b a sed u pon t h e m o r e t r ad i t iona l ' ma rke r s ' . Wha t i sc l ea r i st h a t t h e s ex o f t h e d ecea sed w a s am a jo r o rgan i s ing p r inc ip le i nt h e s t ruc tu re o fb u r ia l p rac t ice s a tt h e L ankh i l l s c eme tery d u r ing t h e f ou r th c en tury . T he e v iden t e mpha s i s p l aced u pon g ende r i n R oman s oc ie ty i sp l ayed o u t t h rough t h e d i scou r se i n t h is c eme te ry b y t h e d i s t inc t m a rk ing -ou t o f t h e s e xed b ody ; r e p re sen ta t ion o f g ende r i d en t i t ie s a nd a r rangemen t s i st r an sc r ibed u pon t h e d ead . B od ie s w e r e e ng ende r ed i n d ea th i n am anne r t h a t w ou ld h ave m ade ac l ea r s t a temen t t ot h e c ommun i ty u t i l is ing t h e c eme te ry i nt h e s ubu rb s o ft h e ir t own . We c an o n ly h ope t h a t t h e k i nd o fs t a temen t b e ing m ade m ay b ecome c l ea re r t ou sw i th f u r the rr e cove r ie s a nd r e sea rch .

11 2

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A bbrev ia t ions A JAH A JP A JPA ARC B AR C AR CBA C IL C SSH I LS J ADA J A MA J AS J CD J DR I FS JHE J RAS J RS MSAA PDNHAS R IB RRCSAL S ign s

Ame r ican J ou rna l o fA nc ien tH i s to ry Ame r ican J ou rna l o fP h i lo logy Ame r ican J our na lo fP hys ica l A n th ropo logy A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew f r om C amb r idge B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t C o lche s te rA rchaeo log ica l R epor t C ounc i l f o rB r i t ish A r chaeo logy C orpu sI n sc r ip t ionum L a t ina rum . B e r l in , 1 863 C ompa ra t ive S tud ie s i nS oc ie ty a nd H i s to ry : A n I n terna t iona l Q ua r te r ly I n sc r ip t ione sL a t inae S e lec tae . H . D e s sau , B e r l in , 1 892 19 16 J our na lo ft h e Ame r ican D en ta l A s soc ia t ion J our na l o ft h e Ame r ican Med ica l A s soc ia t ion J ou rna l o fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience J ou rna l o fC h ron ic D isea se s J ou rna l o fD en ta l R e sea rch J our na l o fF o r en s ic S c ience s J ou rna l o fH uman E vo lu t ion J ou rna l o ft h e R oya l A n th ropo log ica l S oc ie ty J ou rna l o fR oman S t ud ie s Memo i r s f o rt h eS oc ie ty f o r Ame r ican A rchaeo logy P roceed ing so ft h e D o r se tN a tu ra l H is to ry a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty T he R oman I n sc r ip t ion s o fB r i ta in R epo r t s o ft h e R e sea rch C omm i t tee o ft h e S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie so fL ondon S ign s : J ou rna l o f Women i nC u l tu re a nd S oc ie ty

m f

m ic rof iche

A be rc romb ie ,N . , H i l l , S . , T u rne r , B .S . 1 980 T he D om inan t I d eo logy T he s i s . G eo rge A l len & U nw in L td . , L ondon . A h lqv i s t , J . , D am s ten , 0 . 1 969 " A m od if ica t ion o f K e r ley 's m e thod f o rt h em ic ro scop ic d e te rm ina t ion o f a g e i nh uman b one" . I nJ FS 1 4 : 2 05 -212 . A l la son Jone s , L . 1 989 W omen i nR oman B r i ta in . B r i t ish Mu seum P ub l ica t ions L td . , L ondon . A l la son Jone s , L . 1 994 " The A c t re s s a nd t h e B i shop : E v idence f o r Wo rk ing Women i nR oman B r i ta in" . I n A . D evonsh i re a nd B . Wood ( e d s . ) W omen i n I ndu s try a nd T echno logy : f rom p reh i s to ry t o t h e p re sen t d ay . P roceed ing s f r om t h e 1 994 WHA M c onf e rence , Mu seum o fL ondon . 6 7 -75 . Amb ro se , S .H . , D eN i ro , M .J . 1 986 " Recon s t ruc t ion o f A f r ican h uman d i e t u s ing b one c o l lagen c a rbon a nd n i t rogen i s o tope r a t io s" . I n N a tu re 3 19 : 3 2 1-324 . A nde r son , J . E . 1 968 " Ske le ta l " anoma l ie s" a s g ene t ic i n d ica to r s" . I nB ro thwe l l ( ed . ) 1 968 : 1 35 147 . A nge l , J . L . 1 964 " O s teopo ro s is : t h a la s sem ia ?" I nA JPA 2 2 : 3 69 -374 . A nge l , J . L . 1 969 " The b a se s o f p a laeodemog raphy" . I n A JPA 3 0 : 4 27 -437 . A nge l , J . L . 1 97 1 T he P eop le o f L erna : A na ly s i s o f a P reh i s to r ic A egean P opu la t ion . Ame r ican S choo l o f C la ss ic S tud ie s a t A thens , Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , Wa sh ing ton . A nge l , J . L . 1 975 " Pa laeoeco logy , p a laeodemog raphy a nd h ea l th" . I nP o lga r( e d . ) 1 975 : 1 67 190 . A nge l ,J . L . 1 984 " Hea l th a s ac r uc ia l f a c to ri nt h ec hange s

f r om h un t ing t o d eve loped f a rm ing i n t h e e a s ter n Med i te r ranean" . I n C ohen a nd A rme lago s ( e d s . ) 1 984 : 5 1 -74 . A rdene r , E . 1 975 " Be l ief a nd t h e p rob lem o fw omen" . I n S . A rdene r ( ed . ) P erce iv ing W omen . J ohn W i ley & S on s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 27 . A rdene r , S .( e d . ) 1 993 " I n t roduc t ion : T he n a tu re o fw omen i n s oc ie ty" . I n D ef in ing F ema le s : T he N a tu re o f W omen i nS oc ie ty . B e rg P ub l i she r s L td . , P rov idence . 1 33 . A rme lago s , G .J . , J acob s , K .H . , Ma r t in , D .L . 1 98 1 " Dea th a nd d emog raphy i np r eh is to r ic S udane se N ub ia" . I n H umph rey s a nd K ing ( ed s . ) 1 981 : 3-57 . A rme lago s , G . J . , B ren ton , B . , A lcor n , M . , Ma r t in , D . , V an G e rven , D .P . 1 989 " Fac to r s a f ec t ing e l emen ta l i s o top ic v a r ia t ion i np r eh is to r ic h uman s ke le ton s" . I n P r ice ( e d . ) 1 989 : 2 30 -244 . A rno ld , B . 1 991 " The d epo sed P r inces s o fV ix : T he n eed f o r a n e ngende red E u ropean p r eh is to ry" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s( ed s . ) 1 99 1 : 3 66 -374 . A rno ld , K . , G i lch r is t , R . , G rave s , P . , T ay lo r , S . 1 988 "Women a nd a r chaeo logy" . I n ARC 7( 1 ) : 2 -8 . A tk in son , J .M . 1 982 " An th ropo logy" ( Rev iew E s say ) . I n S ign s 8( 2 ) : 2 36 -258 . A uf de rhe ide , A .C . 1 989 " Chem ica l a na ly s is o f s k e le ta l r ema in s" . I n I 5 can a nd K ennedy ( e d s . ) 1 989 : 2 37 2 60 . B abcock , C .L . 1 965 " The e a r ly c a ree r o fF u lv ia" . I n A JP 8 6 : 1 32 . B a i l i t , H .L . , H un t , E .E . Jr . 1 964 " The s ex ing o fc h i ld ren 's 13

s k e le tons

f r om

t e e th

a l one

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i t s

I n jury . A kadem isk F o r lag , D enma rk .

g ene t ic

i mp l ica t ions" . I n A JPA 2 2 : 1 7 1173 . B ake r , F . , T homa s , J .( ed s . ) 1 990 W r i t ing t h e P a s t i nt h e P re sen t . S t . D av id 's U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , L ampe te r . B a ldw in , R . 1 985 " I n t rus ive b u r ia l g roups i n t h e l a te R omano -Br i t ish c eme tery a t L ankh i l ls" . I n O xf ord J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 4( 1 ) : 9 3 104 . B a l sdon , J . P .V .D . 1 962 R oman Women : T he ir h i s tory a nd h ab i t s . T he B od ley H ead L td . , L ondon . B a lsdon , J . P .V .D . 1 969 L if e a nd L e i sure i nA nc ien t R ome . T he B od ley H ead L td . , L ondon . B a r re t t , A .A . 1 978 " Know ledge o ft h e l i t e ra ry c l a ss ics i n R oman B r i ta in" . I n B r i tann ia 9 : 3 07 -313 . B a r re t t , J . C . 1 987 " Con tex tua l a r chaeo logy" . I n A n t iqu i ty 6 1 ( 2 33) : 4 68 -473 . B a r re t t , J . C . 1 988 " F ie ld s o f d i scou r se : R econs t i tu t ing a s oc ia l a r chaeo logy" . I n C r i t ique o fA n thropo logy 7 ( 3 ) : 5 16 . B a r re t t , J . C . 1 994 F ragmen t s f rom A n t iqu i ty : A n A rchaeo logy o fS oc ia lL if e i nB r i ta in , 2 900 -1200 BC . B lackwe l l P ub l ishe r s , O xfo rd . B a s s , W .M . 1 987 " Fo rens ic a n th ropo logy : T he Ame r ican e xpe r ience" . I n B odd ing ton e ta l . ( ed s . ) 1 987 : 2 24 2 39 . B a s se t t , S .( e d . ) 1 992 D ea th i n T own s : U rban R espon se s t o t h e D y ing a nd t h e D ead , 1 00 -1600 . L e ices te r U n ive r s i ty P re s s , L e ices te r . B ea t t ie , 0 . 1 981 " An a s sessmen t o f x ray e ne rgy s pec t ro scopy a nd b one t r ace e l emen t a na ly s is f o r t h e d e term ina t ion o f s ex f r om f r agmen ta ry h uman s ke le ton s" . I n C anad ian J ourna l o fA n thropo logy 2 ( 2 ) : 2 05 -215 . B eaudry , M .C . , C ook , L . J . , Mrozowsk i , S .A . 1 99 1 " A r tef ac t s a nd a c t ive v o ices : Ma te r ia l c u l tu re a s s oc ia l d i scour se" . I n McGu ire a nd P ayn te r ( ed s .)

B er ry , A .C . 1 978 " An thropo log ica l a nd f am i ly s t ud ie s o n m ino r v a r ian t s o ft h e d en ta l c r owns" . I n B u t le r a nd J oy sey ( e d s . ) 1 978 : 8 1 -98 . B er ry , R . J . , B er ry , A .C . 1 967 " Ep igene t ic v a r ia t ion i nt h e h uman c r an ium" . I n J ourna l o fA na tomy 1 0 1 : 3 6 13 79 . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 962 " A rchaeo logy a s a n th ropo logy" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 8 : 2 17 -225 . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 965 " A rchaeo log ica l s y s tema t ic s a nd t h e s t udy o fc u l tu re p roces s" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 1 : 2 03 -210 . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 971 "Mo r tua ry p rac t ice s : T he i r s t udy a nd t h e ir p o ten t ia l" . I nB rown ( e d . ) 1 971: 6 -29 . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 972 A n A rchaeo log ica l P e r spec t ive . S em ina rP res s , N ew Y o rk . 2 0 -32 . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 987 " Da ta , r e la t iv ism , a nd a r chaeo log ica l s c ience" . I n Man 2 2 : 3 9 1-404 . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 989 D eba t ing A rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P r e ss , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . B inf o rd , L .R . , Wha l lon , R . , H a rd in , M . 1 970 MSAA a t H a tcher y W e s t2 4 , U tah . B inf o rd , S .R . , B inf o rd , L .R . ( e ds .) 1 968 N ew P e r spec t ive s i n A rchaeo logy . A ld ine P ub l ish ing C ompany , C h icago . 5 32 . B i r ley , A . 1 980 T he P eop le o fR oman B r i ta in . U n ive r s i ty o fC a l if orn ia P re s s , L os A nge les . B lack , E .W . 1 986 " Romano -B r i t ish b u r ia l c u s tom s a nd r e l ig iou s b e l ief s i n s ou th -ea s t E ng land" . I n A rchaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 43 : 2 0 1-239 . B lack , T .K . 1 978a " Sexua l d imorph ism i nt h e t o o th -c rown d i ame te r s o ft h e d ec iduous t e e th" . I n A JPA 4 8 : 7 7 8 2

1 99 1 : 1 50 19 1 . B eechey , V . 1 978 "Women a nd p roduc t ion : A c r i t ica l a na ly s is o f s ome s oc io log ica l t h eo r ie s o f w omen 's w o rk" . I n A . K ohn a nd A -M . Wo lpe ( e d s . ) F em in i sm a nd Ma ter ia l i sm : Women a nd mod e s o fp roduc t ion . R ou t ledge & K egan P au l , L ondon . 1 55 197 . B e l l , L .S . 1 990 " Pa laeopa tho logy a nd d i agenes is : A n S EM e va lua t ion o f s t ruc tu ra l c hanges u s ing b acksca t te red e l ec t ron i mag ing" . I n J AS 1 7 : 8 5 -102 . B em , S .L . 1 993 T he L ense s o fG end er : T ran sf orm ing t h e

B lack , T .K . 1 978b " A n ew m e thod f o r a s ses s ing t h e s ex o f f r agmen ta ry s ke le ta l r ema ins : F emo ra l s haf t c i r cumf e rence" . I n AJPA 4 8 : 2 27 -231 . B lackwood , E . 1 984 " Sexua l i ty a nd g ende r i n c e r ta in N a t ive Amer ican t r ibe s : T he c a se o f c r os s -gende r f ema le s" . I n S ign s 1 0 : 2 7 -42 . B lake ly , R .L . ( ed . ) 1 977 B iocu l tura l Adap ta t ion i n P reh i s tor ic Ame r ica . S ou thern A n th ropo log ica l S oc ie ty P roceed ing s 1 . T he U n ive r s i ty o f G eo rg ia P r e s s , A thens . 4 5 -66 . B lake ly , R .L . 1 989 " Bone s t ron t ium i n p regnan t a nd l a c ta t ing f ema les f r om a r chaeo log ica l s amp les" . I n

d eba te o n s exua l e qua l i ty . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P ress , L ondon . B ende r , B . 1 985a " Emergen t t r iba l f o rma t ions i n t h e Ame r ican m id -con t inen t" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 0 : 5 2 -62 . B ende r , B . 1 985b " P reh is tor ic d eve lopmen t s i n t h e

A JPA 8 0 : 1 73 185 . B lake ly , R .L . , B eck , L .A . 1 981 " T race e l emen t s , n u t r i t iona l s t a tu s , a nd s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion a tE towah , G eo rg ia" . I n A nna l s o ft h e N ew Y ork A cad emy o f S c ience s3 76 : 4 17 -431 . B loch , M . 1 977 " The d i sconnec t ion b e tween r a nk a nd

Ame r ican m id -con t inen t a nd i n B r i t tany , n or thwes t F rance" . I n T .D . P r ice a nd J .A . B rown ( ed s . )

p owe r a s ap roces s : A n o u t l ine o ft h e d eve lopmen t o f k i ngdoms i n c en t ra l Madaga sca r" . I n F r iedman a nd R ow land s ( e ds . ) 1 977 : 3 03 -340 . B loch , M . 1 986 F rom B le s s ing t o V i o lence : H i s to ry a nd i d eo logy i n t h e c i rcumc i s ion r i tua l o f t h e Mer ina o f Madaga scar . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e ss , C amb r idge . B ocque t -Appe l , J -P . 1 985 " Once u pon a t ime : P a laeodemog raphy" . I n H e r rmann ( ed . ) I nnova t ive T rend si nP reh i s tor ic A n thropo log y . G o t t ingen . 1 27 1 38 . C i ted i n Mo l le son , 1 993 . B ocque t -Appe l , J -P . , Mas se t , C . 1 985 "Ma t te r s o f momen t" . I n JHE 1 4 : 1 07 111 . B odd ing ton , A . , G a r land , A .N . , J anaway , R .C . ( e ds . ) 1 987

P reh i s tor ic Hun ter -Ga therer s : T he e mergence o f c u l tura l c omp lex i ty . A cadem ic P res s , O r lando . 2 15 7 . B ened ic t , B . 1 972 " Soc ia l r egu la t ion o f f e r t i l i ty" . I n H ar r ison a nd B oyce ( eds .) 1 972 : 7 3-89 . B enne t t , K . 1 965 " The e t io logy a nd g ene t ics o f w o rm ian b one s" . I n A JPA 2 3 : 2 55 -260 . B enne t t , K . 1 973 " On t h e e s t ima t ion o fs ome d emog raph ic c ha rac te r is t ics o f ap reh is to r ic p opu la t ion f r om t h e Ame r ican s ou thwes t" . I n A JPA 3 9 : 2 23-231 . B enn ike , P . 1 985 P a laeopa tho logy o f Dan i sh S ke le ton s : AC ompara t ive S tudy o f D emog raphy , D i sea se a nd 14

D ea th , D ecay a nd R econ s t ruc t ion : A pproache s t o A rchaeo logy a nd F oren s ic S c ience . Manches te r U n ive r s i ty P ress , Manches te r . B ogue , D .J . 1 969 P r inc ip les o fD emography . W i ley , N ew Y o rk . B ouche r , B . J . 1 957 " Sex d i f f e rences i nt h e f o e ta l p e lv is" . I n A JPA 1 5 : 5 8 1-600 . B oughne r , R .F . , G oeh r ing , J . E . 1 990 " Egyp t ian m ona s t ic ism ( s e lec ted p apy r i )" . I n V .L . W imbush ( e d . )A sce t ic B eha v iour i nG reco -Roman A n t iqu i ty : A S ourcebook . T he I n s t i tu te f o r A n t iqu i ty a nd C h r is t ian i ty , F or t res s P res s , M inneapo l is . 4 56 -463 . B ou rd ieu , P . 1 977 O u t l ine o f a T heory o f P rac t ice . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss ,C amb r idge . B ou rd ieu , P . 1 979 " Symbo l ic p owe r" . I n C r i t ique o f

B ro thwe l l , D . 1 989 " The r e la t ion sh ip o f t oo th w ea r t o a ge ing" . I n I 5 can ( ed . ) 1 989 : 3 03 -316 . B ro thwe l l , D .R . , B ro thwe l l , P . 1 969 F ood i nA n t iqu i ty : A S urvey o ft h e D ie t o fE ar ly P eop le s . A nc ien tP eop le s a nd P lace s6 6 . T hame s a nd H ud son , L ondon . B ro thwe l l , D . , H igg s , E . ( ed s . ) 1 969 S c ience i n A rchaeo logy : A S urvey o f P rog re ss a nd R e sea rch . T hame s a nd Hud son , L ondon . B rown , A .B . , B lake ly , R .L . 1 985 " B iocu l tu ra l a dap ta t ion a s r e f lec ted i n t r ace e l emen t d i s t r ibu t ion" . I n JHE 1 4 : 4 6 1-468 . B rown , J .A . ( e d . ) 1 971 " I n t roduc t ion" a nd " The d imens ions o f s t a tus i n b u r ia ls a t S p i ro" . I n A pproache s t o t h e S oc ia l D imen s ion s o f Mor tua ry P rac t ice s . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 ( 3 ) ; MSAA 2 5 : 1 5 , 9 2 112 . B rown , J .A . 1 979 " Charne l h ouses a nd mo r tua ry c r yp t s : D isposa l o f t h e d ead i n t h e M idd le Wood land p e r iod" . I nB rose a nd G rebe r( ed s . ) 1 979 : 2 11-219 . B rown , J .A . 1 981 " The s ea rch f o r r ank i n p r eh is to r ic b u r ia ls" . I nC hapman e ta l . ( e ds .) 1 981 : 2 5 -37 . B ru sh , K .A . 1 988 " Gende ra nd mor tua ry a na lys is i np agan A ng lo -Saxon a r chaeo logy" . I n ARC 7( 1 ) : 7 6 -89 . B u ik s t ra , J . E . 1 972 H opewe l l i n t h e L ower I l l ino i s R ive r V a l ley : A R eg iona l A pproach t o t h e S t ud y o f B io log ica l V ar iab i l i ty a nd P reh i s tor ic Mor tua ry

A n thropo log y 1 3 : 7 7 -85 . B owman , A .K . , T homa s , J .D . 1 987 " New t e x t s f r om V indo landa" . I n B r i tann ia 1 8 : 1 25 142 . B oyd , W .C . , B oyd , L .G . 1 937 " B lood g roup ing t e s t s o n 3 00 mumm ies" . I n J ourna lo fI mmuno logy 3 2 : 3 07 3 19 . B rad ley , K .R . 1 991 D i scover ing t h e R oman F am i ly : S t ud ie s i nR oman S oc ia l H i s tory . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e ss , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . B ra i thwa i te , M . 1 982 " Deco ra t ion a s r i tua l s ymbo l : A t h eo re t ica l p roposa l a nd a n e t hnog raph ic s t udy i n s ou thern S udan" . I nH odde r( ed . ) 1 982a : 8 0 -88 . B ra i thwa i te , M . 1 984 " R i tua l a nd p re s t ige i n t h e p r eh is to ry o f We ssex c . 2200 1400BC : A n ew d imens ion t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence" . I nM i l ler

A c t iv i ty . P hD T hes is , D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago . B u ik s t ra , J . E . 1 981 "Mor tua ry p rac t ice s , p a laeodemog raphy a nd p a laeopa tho logy : A c a se s t udy f r om t h e K o s te r s i te ( I l l ino is )" . I nC hapman e ta l . ( e ds . ) 1 98 1 : 1 23 1 32 . B u ik s t ra , J . E . 1 984 " The l owe r I l ino is R ive r r e g ion : A

a nd T i l ley ( ed s . ) 1 984 : 9 3 110 . B raun , D .P . 1 979 " I l l ino is H opewe l l b u r ia l p rac t ice s a nd s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion : A r e exam ina t ion o f t h e K lunk G ibson Mound g roup" . I n B ro se a nd G rebe r ( ed s .) 1 979 : 6 6 -79 . B renne r , E .M . 1 988 " Soc iopo l i t ica l i mp l ica t ions o f m or tua ry r i tua l r ema ins i n 1 7t hCen tu ry n a t ive s ou thern N ew E ng land" . I n L eone a nd P o t te r ( eds .) 1 988 : 1 47 -18 1 . B r idge s , P .S . 1 987 O s teo log ica l C orre la te s o fP reh i s tor ic A c t iv i t ie s . P ape r p re sen ted a tt h e a nnua l m ee t ing o f t h e Ame r ican A n th ropo log ica l A s soc ia t ion . C i ted i n C ohen a nd B enne t t , 1 993 . B r idge s , P .S . 1 994 " Ve r teb ra l a r th r i t is a nd p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ies i n t h e p reh is to r ic s ou thea s te rn U n i ted S t a tes" . I n AJPA 9 3 : 8 3 -93 . B rook , A .H . 1 984 " A u n if y ing e t io log ica l e xp lana t ion f o r a noma l ies o f h uman t oo th n umbe r a nd s i ze" . I n A rch ive s o fO ra lB io logy 2 9 : 3 73 -378 . B rook s , S .T . 1 955 " Ske le ta l a ge a td ea th : T he r e l iab i l i ty o f

p r eh is to r ic c on tex t f o r t h e s t udy o f a nc ien t d i e t a nd h ea l th" . I nC ohen a nd A rme lagos ( e ds . ) 1 984 : 2 17 2 36 . B u iks t ra , J . E . , M ie lke , J .H . 1 985 " Demography , d i e t a nd h ea l th" . I n G i lbe r t a nd M ie lke ( e d s .) 1 985 : 3 59 4 22 . B u ik s t ra , J . E . , F rankenbe rg , S . , L amber t , J .B . , X ue , L . 1 989 "Mu l t ip le e l emen t s : Mu l t ip le e xpec ta t ions" . I n P r ice ( e d . ) 1 989 : 1 55 -2 10 . B ur nham , B .C . , K ing sbury , J . ( ed s . ) 1 979 S pace , H ierarchy a nd S oc ie ty : I n terd i sc ip l inary S tud ie s i n S oc ia lA rea A na ly s i s . B AR I n terna t iona l S e r ies 5 9 . B u sh , H . , Z ve leb i l , M . ( ed s . ) 1 991 " Pa tho logy a nd h ea l th i np a s t s oc ie t ies : A n i n t roduc t ion" . I n H ea l th i nP a s t S oc ie t ie s : B iocu l tura l I n terpre ta t ion s o f H uman S ke le ta l R ema in s i n A rchaeo log ica l C on tex t s . B AR B u t le r ,

c r an ia l a nd p ub ic a ge i n d ica to r s" . I n A JPA 1 3 : 5 67 5 90 . B rose , D .S . , G rebe r , N . ( e d s . ) 1 979 H opewe l l A rchaeo logy : T he C h i l ico the C onf erence . T he K en t S t a te U n ive r s i ty P res s , O h io . B ro thwe l l , D .R . 1 963 D igg ing u p B one s : T he E xcava t ion , T rea tmen t a nd S tudy o f H uman S ke le ta l R ema ins . T rus tee s o f t h e B r i t ish Mu seum ( Na tu ra l H is to ry ) , L ondon . B ro thwe l l , D .R . ( ed .) 1 968 T he S ke le ta lB io logy o fE a r l ier H uman P opu la t ions . S ympo s ia o ft h e S oc ie ty f o r t h e S t udy o fH uman B io logy V I I I . P e rgamon P r ess L td . , O xf o rd . 1 49 172 . B ro thwe l l , D .R . 1 986 T he B ogman a nd t h eA rchaeo logy o f P eop le . B r i t ish Museum P ub l ica t ions L td . , L ondon .

I n te rna t iona l S e r ies 5 67 : 3 -9 . P .M . , J oy sey , K .A . ( ed s .) 1 978 D eve lopmen t , F unc t ion a nd E vo lu t ion o f T ee th . A cadem ic P ress I n c . ( London ) L td . , L ondon .

C a l lende r , C . , K ochems , L .M . 1 983 " The Nor th Ame r ican B e rdache" . I n C urren tA n thropo logy 2 4 : 4 43 -470 . C an ta re l la , E . 1 987 P andora ' s Daugh ter s : T he r o le a nd s t a tus o fw omen i nG reek a nd R oman A n t iqu i ty . T he J ohn s H opk in s U n ive r s i ty P res s , B a l t imo re . C ap lan , P . ( ed .) 1 987 T he C u l tura l C ons t ruc t ion o f S exua l i ty . T av is tock P ub l ica t ions , L ondon . 1 30 . C ap lan , P . , B u jra , J .M . ( e ds .) 1 978 Women U n i ted , W omen D iv id ed : C ross -cu l tura l P er spec t ives o n F ema le S o l ida r i ty . T av is tock P ub l ica t ions L td . , L ondon . C a rcop ino , J . 1 964 Da i ly L if e i nA nc ien t R ome : T he P eop le a nd t h e C i ty a t t h e H e igh t o f t h e Emp ire . P engu in 15

B ook s L td . , H armond swor th . C a r lson , D .S . , A rme lago s , G .J . , v an G e rven , D .P . 1 974 " Fac tor s i n f luenc ing t h e e t io logy o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia i n p reh i s to r ic Nub ia" . I n JHE 3 : 4 05 -410 . C arne iro , R .L . 1 968 " Cu l tu ra l a dap ta t ion" . I n D .L . S i l ls ( ed . ) I n terna t iona l E ncyc lopaed ia o f t h e S oc ia l S c ience s 3 . T he Macm i l lan C ompany a nd T he F ree P res s , N ew Y o rk . 5 51-554 . C ar ne iro , R .L . 1 970 " A t h eo ry o ft h e o r ig in o ft h e s t a te" . I n S c ience 1 69 : 7 33-738 . C arp , T . 1 981 " Two m a t rons o f t h e l a te R epub l ic" . I n F o ley ( ed .) 1 98 1 : 3 43-354 . C a sa H a t ton , R . 1 999 T he C eme ter ie s i n R oman B r i ta in : E v id ence f or managemen t a nd r e la ted s oc ia l i mp l ica t ion s , w i th p ar t icu la r r ef erence t o t h e l a te R oman p er iod . P hD T hes i s , D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is tory , Un ive r s i ty o fS heff ie ld . C a ss idy ,

C .M .

1 980

" Ben ign

n eg lec t

a nd

p owe r : Ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd g ende r i n t h e Magda len ian" . I nG e ro a nd C onkey ( ed s .) 1 99 1 : 5 7 9 2 C onkey , M .W . 1 991b " Does i t m ake a d i f f e rence? F em in is t t h ink ing a nd a r chaeo log ies o f g ende r" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( eds .) 1 99 1 : 2 4 -33 . C onkey , M .W . , G e ro , J .M . 1 991 " Ten s ions , p lu ra l i t ie s , a nd

t odd le r

m a lnu t r i t ion" . I n G reene a nd J ohn s ton ( e ds .) 1 980 : 1 09 139 . C hapman , R . 1 977 " Bu r ia l p rac t ices : A n a r ea o f m u tua l i n te re s t" . I n M . S pr igg s ( ed . ) A rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy : A rea s o f Mu tua l I n teres t . B AR S upp lemen ta ry S e r ies 1 9 : 1 9 -34 . C hapman , R . , K innes , I . , R and sbo rg , K . ( ed s . ) 1 98 1 T he A rchaeo logy o fD ea th . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r es s , C amb r idge . C hapman , R . , R andsbo rg , K . 1 981 " App roache s t o t h e a r chaeo logy o f d ea th" . I n C hapman e t a l . ( e d s . ) 1 98 1 : 1 24 . C laa sen , C . ( ed .) 1 992 E xp lor ing G end er t h rough A rchaeo log y : S e lec ted P aper sf rom t h e 1 991 B oone C onf erence . Monog raphs i n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 1 . C la rk ,

C la rk , C la rk , C la rk ,

C la rk ,

( e d . ) 1 993 : 2 73-296 . C ohen , M .N . , A rme lagos , G .J . ( eds .) 1 984 P a laeopa tho logy a t t he O r ig in s o f A g r icu l ture . A cadem ic P ress , I n c . , ( London ) L td . , L ondon . 5 85 6 0 1 C o l l ingwood , R .G . , Wr igh t , R .P . 1 965 R IB . I . I n sc r ip t ions o nS t one . C la rendon P ress , O xf o rd . C ondon , K . , C ha r le s , D .K . , C heverud , J .M . , B u ik s t ra , J . E . 1 986 " Cemen tum a nnu la t ion a nd a ge d e term ina t ion i nH omo s ap ien s . I . E s t ima tes a nd A ccu racy" . I n A JPA 7 1 : 3 21-330 . C ondon , K . , R o se , J .C . 1 992 " I n ter too th a nd i n t ra too th v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e o ccur rence o f e name l d ef ec t s" . I n G oodman a nd C apa sso ( eds .) 1 992 : 6 1-77 . C onkey , M .W . 1 991a " Con tex ts o f a c t ion , c on tex t s f o r

e ngende r ing a r chaeo logy : A n i n t roduc t ion t o w omen a nd p r eh is to ry" . I n G e ro a nd C onkey ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 3 30 . C onkey , M .W . , S pec to r , J . 1 984 " A rchaeo logy a nd t h e s t udy o fg ende r" . I nM .B . S ch if f e r ( e d . ) A d vance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry V o l . 7 .A cadem ic P r es s , I n c . , O r lando . 1 38 . C ook , C . , R owbo tham , T .C . 1 968 " Den ta l R epo r t" . I n Wenham ( ed . ) 1 968 : 1 79 -209 . C ook , D .C . 1 981 "Mor ta l i ty , a ge s t ruc tu re a nd s t a tu s i nt h e i n terp re ta t ion o f s t ress i n d ica tor s i n p r eh is to r ic s k e le ton s : A d en ta l e xamp le f r om t h e l owe r I l ino is V a l ley" . I n C hapman e ta l . ( ed s . ) 1 981 : 1 3 3 144 . C o rb ie r , M . 1 99 1 " D ivo rce a nd a dop t ion a s R oman f am i l ia l s t ra teg ies" . I n R awson ( e d . ) 1 99 1 : 4 7 -78 . C or rucc in i , R .S . 1 974 " An e xam ina t ion o ft h e m ean ing o f c r an ia l d i sc re te t r a i t s f o r h uman s ke le ta l b i o log ica l s t ud ie s" . I n A JPA 4 0 : 4 25 -446 .

P reh is tory P res s , W iscons in . G .A . 1 969 " A p re l im ina ry a na lys is o fb u r ia l c l u s te r s a t t h e G ra s shoppe r s i te , E a s t C en t ra l A r izona" . I n T he K iva 3 5 ( 2 ) . J ourna l o f t h e A r izona A rchaeo log ica l a nd H is to r ica l S oc ie ty . 5 7 -86 . G . 1 981 " Roman w omen" . I n G reece a nd R ome 2 8 : 1 93-212 . G . 1 989 Women i nt h e A nc ien t Wor ld . G reece a nd R ome : N ew S urvey s i nt h eC las s ic s2 1 . G . 1 993 W omen i n L a te A n t iqu i ty : P agan a nd C hr i s t ian L if e s ty le s . O xf o rd U n iver s i ty P res s I n c . , N ew Y o rk . J . E . , B lake , M . 1 993 " The p owe r o f p re s t ige : C ompe t i t ive g ene ro s i ty a nd t h e e me rgence o f r a nk s oc ie t ies i n l ow land Mesoamer ica" . I n E .M . B rumf ie l a nd J .W . F ox ( ed s .) F ac t iona l C ompe t i t ion a nd P o l i t ica l D eve lopmen t i n t h e N ew W or ld . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P ress , C amb r idge . 1 7 -30 .

( Pape r i nP reuce l a nd H odde r( ed s . ) 1 996 : 2 58 -28 1) . C la rke , D .L . ( ed . ) 1 977 " Spa t ia l i n f o rma t ion i n a r chaeo logy" . I n S pa t ia l A rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re ss , N ew Y o rk . 1 32 . C la rke , D .L . 1 978 [ 1 968 ] A na ly t ica l A rchaeo logy . ( Rev ised e d . B . C hapman ) . Me thuen & C o . L td . , L ondon . C la rke , G . ( e d .) 1 979 T he R oman C eme tery a tL ankh i l l s . W inche s ter S tud ie s 3( 2 ) : P re -Roman a nd R oman W inche s ter . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss , O xf o rd .

C o sseddu , G .G . , F lo r is , G . , Vo ra , G . 1 979 " Sex a nd s i ze d i f f e rence s i n t h e m ino r n on -me t r ica l c r an ia l v a r ian t s" . I n JHE 8 : 6 85 -692 . C o s ta , R .L . 1 986 " De term ina t ion o fa ge a td ea th : D en t i t ion a na ly s is" . I n M .R . Z immerman a nd J . L . A nge l ( e d s . ) Da t ing a nd A ge D e term ina t ion o f B io log ica l Ma te r ia l . C room H e lm , L ondon . 2 48 -269 . C owe l l , F .R . 1 961 E veryday L if e i nA nc ien t R ome . B .T . B a t sf ord L td . , L ondon . C rook , J .A . 1 970 L aw a nd We o f R ome . T hame s & H ud son , L ondon . ( 2 'd e d i t ion ) . C rook , J .A . 1 992 "Women i n R oman s ucces s ion" . I n R aw son ( e d . ) 1 992 : 5 8 -82 . C rummy , N . ( e d . ) 1 983 T he R oman Sma l l F ind s f rom E xcava t ion s i nC o lches ter 1 971-9 . C AR 2 .C o lches te r A rchaeo log ica l T ru s t L td . C rummy , N . , C ro ssan , C . 1 993 " Excava t ions a tB u t t R oad 1 976 -79 , 1 986 , a nd 1 988" . I n C rummy e ta l . 1 993 : 4 163 . C rummy , N . , C rummy , P . , C ros san , C . ( ed s . ) 1 993 E xca va t ion s o f R oman a nd L a ter C eme ter ie s , C hu rche s a nd Mona s t ic S i te s i nC o lche s te r , 1 971 -88 . C AR 9 . C o lches te rA rchaeo log ica l T ru s t L td . C rummy , P . 1 990 " A R oman c hu rch i n C o lches te r " . I n C u r ren tA rchaeo logy 1 20 : 4 06 -408 .

C ohen , A .P . 1 994 S e lf C onsc iousne s s : A n a l te rna t ive a n thropo logy o fi d en t i ty . R ou t ledge , L ondon . C ohen , M .N . , B enne t t , S . 1 993 " Ske le ta l e v idence f o r s ex r o le s a nd g ende rh i e ra rch ies i np r eh is tory" . I n M i l le r 16

C rummy , P . I 993a " Excava t ion s a nd o b se rva t ion s i nt h e g round s o fS t . J ohn 's A bbey , 1 971-85" . I n C rummy e ta l . ( e d s . ) 1 993 : 2 03 -221 . C rummy , P . 1 993b " Excava t ion s a t Ma ldon R oad , 1 97 1" . I n C rummy e ta l . ( e d s . ) 1 993 : 2 36 -244 . C ruwy s , E . 1 989 " Too th w ea r a nd t h e a r chaeo log i s t : T he r o le o fh uman t o o th w ea r i na r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch" . I nR obe r t se ta l . ( e d s . ) 1 989 : 1 5 1166 . C u l le r , J . 1 976 S au s sure . F on tana ,G la sgow . C u r rey , J .D . 1 964 " Some e f f ec t s o f a g e ing i n h uman H ave r s ian s y s tem s" . I n J ourna l o fA na tomy 9 8 ( 1 ) : 6 9 -75 . C ybu l sk i , J . S . 1 977 " Cr ib ra o rb i ta l ia , ap o s s ib le s i gn o f a na em ia i n e a r ly h i s to r ic n a t ive p opu la t ion s o f t h e B r i t i sh C o lomb ian c oa s t" . I n A JPA 4 7 : 3 1-40 . D ah l , W . , Ma t thew s , K . , M id thun , J . , S ap in , P . 1 98 1 - M u she r 's K nee ' a nd ' Hooke r 's E lbow ' i n t h e A r c t ic" . I n T he N ew E ng land J ourna l o f Med ic ine 3 04 : 7 37 . D ah lbe rg , F . ( e d . ) 1 981 W oman t h e G a the re r . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew H aven . D amm , C . 1 99 1 " F rom b u r ia l s t og ende r r o le s : P rob lem s a nd p o ten t ia l s i n a r chaeo logy" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( ed s . ) 1 99 1 : 1 30 135 . D anf o r th , M .E . , G i l iber t i , J .A . 1 992 " Pa t te rn s o fi n te r - a nd i n t raob se rve r e r ro r i n t h e m ic ro scop ic s co r ing o f l i nea r e name l h ypop la s ia" . I n G oodman a nd C apa s so ( e d s . ) 1 992 : 5 1-60 . D av ie s , S .M . , S t acey , L .C . , Woodwa rd , P . J . 1 985 " Excava t ion s a t A l ing ton A venue , F o rd ing ton , D o r che s t e r 1 984 /5 . I n te r im R epor t" . I n PDNHAS 1 07 : 1 0 1110 . D e Jong , G .F . 1 972 " Pa t te rn s o f h uman f e r t i l i ty a nd m or ta l i ty" . I nH a r r ison a nd B oyce ( e d s . ) 1 972 : 3 2 5 6 . D em i r j ian , A . , G o ld s te in , H . , T anne r , J .M . 1 973 " A n ew s y s tem o fd en ta l a ge a s se s smen t" . I nH uman B io logy 4 5 ( 2 ) : 2 11-227 . D enn ison , J . 1 979 " C i t ra te e s t ima t ion a s am ean s o f d e te rm in ing t h e s e x o f h uman s ke le ta l m a te r ia l" . I n A rchaeo logy a nd P hy s ica l A n th ropo lo gy i nO cean ia 1 4( 2 ) : 1 36 143 . D eV i to , C . , S aunde r s , S .R . 1 990 " A d i sc r im inan t f u nc t ion a na ly s i so fd ec iduous t e e th t od e term ine s e x" . I n J FS 3 5 ( 4 ) : 8 45 -858 . D ex t e r H oyo s , B . 1 994 " I n sc r ip t ion s , g r af f i t i a nd l i t e racy a t P ompe i i" . I n J . P . D e s C oeud re s ( e d . ) P ompe i i R ev i s i ted : T he We a nd D ea th o f aR oman T own . Med i ta r ch , U n ive r s i ty o fS ydney , A u s t ra l ia . 5 8 -65 . D iBenna rdo , R . , T ay lo r , J .V . 1 979 " Sex a s se s smen t o ft h e f emu r : At e s t o f an ew m e thod" . I n A JPA 5 0 : 6 35 6 57 . D ick ison , S .K . 1 973 " Abor t ion i na n t iqu i ty" . I n A re thu sa 6 : 1 59 166 . D iLeona rdo , M . ( e d . ) 1 99 1 " I n t roduc t ion : G ende r , c u l tu re a nd p o l i t ica l e conomy" . I nG end e ra tt h e C ro s sroad s o fK now ledge : F em in i s t A n th ropo logy i n t h e P o s t m od e rn E ra . U n ive r s i ty o f C a l if orn ia P r e s s , L o s A ng e le s . 1 48 . D i t ch , L .E . , R o se , J .C . 1 972 " A m u l t iva r ia te d en ta l s ex ing t e chn ique" . I n A JPA 3 7 : 6 1-64 . D ixon , S . 1 985 " Po lyb iu so n R oman w omen a nd p roper ty" . I n A JP 1 06 : 1 47 170 . D ixon , S . 1 988 T he R oman Mo the r . C room H e lm L td . , B eckenham , K en t .

D obney , K . , G oodman , A . 1 991 " Ep idem io log ica l s t ud ie s o f d en ta l e name l h ypop la s ia s i n Mex ico a nd B radf o rd : T he i r r e levance t o a r chaeo log ica l s ke le ta l s t ud ie s" . I nB u sh a nd Z ve leb i l ( ed s . ) 1 99 1 : 8 1 100 . D ob r e s , M -A . 1 988 " Fem in is t a r chaeo logy a nd i n qu i r ie s i n to g ende r r e la t ion s : S ome t h ough t s o n u n ive r sa ls , o r ig in s t o r ie s , a nd a l terna t ing p a rad igms" . I n ARC 7 ( 1 ) : 3 0 -44 . D u tou r , 0 . 1 986 " En thesopa th ie s ( l e s ion s o f m u scu la r i n ser t ion s ) a si n d ica to r s o ft h e a c t iv i t ie s o fN eo l i th ic S aha ran p opu la t ion s" . I n A JPA 7 1 : 2 2 1-224 . E a r le , T . ( e d . ) 1 99 1 C h ief dom s , P ower , E conomy a nd I d eo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . E dwa rd , J . B . , B enf e r , R .A . 1 993 " The e f f ec t s o fd i agene s is o n t h e P a loma s ke le ta l m a te r ia l" . I n S andf o rd ( e d . ) 1 993 : 1 83 -268 . E dynak , G .J . 1 976 " L if e -s ty le s f r om s ke le ta l m a te r ia l : A Med ieva l Y ugo s lav e xamp le" . I n G .E . F r ied lande r ( e d . ) T he Mea su re s o f Man : Me thodo log ie s i n B io log ica lA n thropo logy . 4 08 -432 . E h renbe rg , M . 1 989 W omen i n P reh i s tory . B r i t ish Mu seum P ub l ica t ions L td . , L ondon . E i sne r , W .R . 1 99 1 " The c onsequence s o f g ende r b i a s i n m o r tua ry a na ly s is : A c a se s t udy" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 3 52 -357 . E l -Na j ja r , M . , D aw son , G . 1 977 " The e f f ec t o f a r t if ic ia l c r an ia l d ef o rma t ion o n t h e i n c idence o f w orm ian b one s i nt h e l ambdo ida l s u tu r e" . I n A JPA 4 6 : 1 55 1 60 . E l -Na j ja r , M .Y . , R yan , D .J . , T u rne r , C .G . I I . , L ozof f , B . 1 976 " The e t io logy o f p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s a mong t h e p r eh i s to r ic a nd A na saz i I n d ians o f s ou thwe s tern U n i ted S t a te s" . I n A JPA 4 4 : 4 77 -487 . Eme ry , G .T . 1 963 " Den ta l p a tho logy a nd a r chaeo logy" . I n A n t iqu i ty 3 7 : 2 74 -28 1 . E nge ls , D . 1 980 " The p rob lem o fi n f an t ic ide i nt h e G reco R oman w o r ld" . I n C la ss ica lP h i lo logy 7 5 : 12 120 . E nge l s tad , E . 1 99 1 " Image s o f p owe r a nd c on t rad ic t ion : F em in is tt h eory a nd p o s t -p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy" . I n A n t iqu i ty 6 5 ( 246 ) : 5 02 -514 . E nwonwu , C .D . 1 973 " I nf luence o f s oc io -econom ic c ond i t ion s o n d en ta l d eve lopmen t i n N ige r ian c h i ld ren" . I nA rch ive s o fO ra lB io logy 1 8 : 9 5 107 . E smonde C lea ry , A .S . 1 987 E x t ra -mura l A rea s o f R omano -B r i t i sh T own s . B AR B r i t ish S e r ie s 1 69 . E smonde C lea ry , A .S . 1 989 T he E nd ing o fR oman B r i ta in . B .T . B a t sf o rd L td . , L ondon . E smonde C lea ry , A .S . 1 992 " Town a nd C oun t ry i nR oman B r i ta in?" . I nB a s se t t( e d . ) 1 992 : 2 8 -42 . E van s -Grubb s , J . 1 989 " Abduc t ion m a r r iage i na n t iqu i ty : A l aw o f C on s tan t ine ( CTh I X .24 .1) a nd i t s S oc ia l C on tex t" . I n J RS 7 9 : 5 9 -83 . E yben , E . 1 980 " Fam i ly p l ann ing i n G raeco -Roman a n t iqu i ty" . I n A nc ien tS oc ie ty 1 : 5 82 . E z ra -Cohn , H .E . , C ook , S .F . 1 96 1 " B lood typ ing c ompa c t h uman b one t i s sue" . I n N a tu re 1 9 1 : 1 267 1268 . F an tham , E . , P ee t F o ley , H . , B oyme l K ampen , N . , P ome roy , S .B . , S hap i ro , H .A . 1 994 W omen i nt h e C la s s ica l W or ld : I mage a nd T ex t . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . F a rwe l l , D .E . 1 993 " The A r chaeo logy" . I n F a rwe l l a nd Mo l le son ( e d s . ) 1 993 : 1 4 -74 . F a rwe l l , D .E . , Mo l le son , T . I . ( e d s . ) 1 993 E xcava t ion s a t P oundbury 1 966 -80 V o lume I : T he C eme te r ie s . D o r se t N a tu ra l H i s to ry a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty , 17

G a rn ,

S .M . , R ohmann , C .G . 1 964 " Compac t b one d ef ic iency i n p ro te in -ca lo r ie ma lnu t r i t ion" . I n S c ience 1 45 : 1 444 . G a tens , M . 1 996 T he I mag inary B od y . R ou t ledge , L ondon . G e ide l , R .A . 1 982 " T race e l emen t s t ud ie s f o r M iss i s s ipp ian s ke le ta l r ema in s : F ind ing s f r om n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na lys is" . I n MASCA J ourna l 2 ( 1 ) . Mu seum A pp l ied S c ience C en te r f o r A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia . 1 3 16 . G enoves , S . 1 969a " Sex d e term ina t ion i ne a r l ie r m an" . I n B ro thwe l l a nd H igg s( ed s . ) 1 969 : 4 29 -439 . G enoves , S . 1 969b " E s t ima t ion o fa ge a nd m or ta l i ty" . I n B ro thwe l l a nd H igg s ( ed s . ) 1 969 : 4 40 -452 . G e ro , J .M . 1 985 " Soc io -po l i t ics a nd t h e w omen -a t -home i d eo logy" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 0 : 3 42 -350 . G e ro , J .M . , C onkey , M .W . ( ed s .) 1 991 E ngend er ing A rchaeo logy : Women a nd P reh i s tory . B a s i l B lackwe l l L td . , O xf o rd . G ibb s , L . 1 987 " Iden t if y ing g ende r r ep re sen ta t ion i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd : A c on tex tua l s t udy" . I n H odde r( e d . ) 1 987 : 7 9 -89 . G iddens , A . 1 976 N ew R u le s o fS oc io log ica l Me thod : A p o s i t ive c r i t ique o f i n terpre ta t ive s oc io log ie s . H u tch in son , L ondon . G iddens , A . 1 979 C en t ra l P rob lems i n S oc ia l T heory : A c t ion , S t ruc ture a nd C on t rad ic t ion i n S oc ia l A na ly s i s . T he Macm i l lan P re s s L td . , L ondon . G idden s , A . 1 984 T he C on s t i tu t ion o fS oc ie ty : O u t l ine o f t h e T heory o fS t ruc tura t ion . P o l i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . G i lber t , B .M . , McKern , T .W . 1 973 " A me thod f o r a ge ing t h e o sp ub is" . I n A JPA 3 8 : 3 1 -38 . G i lber t , R . I .Jr . , M ie lke , J .H . ( e ds . ) 1 985 T he A na ly s i s o f P reh i s tor ic D ie t s . A cadem ic P re s s , I n c . , C a l if or n ia . G i lbey , BE . , L ub ran , M . 1 952 " B lood g roup s o f s ou th Ame r ican I nd ian mumm ie s" . I n Man 5 2 : 15 117 . G i lbey , B .E . , L ub ran , M . 1 953 " The ABO a nd R h b l ood g roup a n t igens i np re -Dyna s t ic E gyp t ian m umm ie s" . I n Man 5 3 : 2 3 . G i lch r is t , R . 1 99 1 "Women 's a r chaeo logy? P o l i t ica l f em in ism , g ende r t h eory a nd h i s tor ica l r e v is ion ism" . I n A n t iqu i ty 6 5 : 4 95 -501 . G i le s , E . 1 970 " D iscr im inan t f u nc t ion s ex ing o ft h e h uman s ke le ton" . I nS t ewar t ( ed . ) 1 970 : 9 9 109 . G i lman , A . 1 98 1 " The d eve lopmen t o fs oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion i nB ronze A ge E u rope" . I nC urren tA n thropo logy 2 2 : 1 8 . G luckmann , M . 1 937 "Mor tua ry c u s toms a nd t h e b e l ief i n s u rv iva l a f t e r d ea th a mong t h e s ou th -ea s ter n B an tu" . I n B an tu S tud ie s 1 : 17 136 . G ode l ie r , M . 1 982 " The i d ea l i nt h e r ea l" . I n R . S amue l a nd G .S . J ones ( eds .) C u l ture , I d eo logy a nd P o l i t ic s : E s say s f or E r ic Hobsbc rwm . R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l , L ondon . 1 2 -38 . G o ld s te in , L . 1 976 S pa t ia l S t ruc ture a nd S oc ia l O rgan i sa t ion : R eg iona l Man if e s ta t ion s o f M i s s i s s ipp ian S oc ie ty . P hD T hes is , No r thwes tern U n ive r s i ty , I l ino is . G o ld s te in , L . 1 981 " One -d imen s iona l a r chaeo logy a nd mu l t i -d imens iona l p eop le : S pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd mo r tua ry a na lys is" . I n C hapman e ta l . ( e d s . ) 1 98 1 : 5 3 -70 . G oodenough , W .H . 1 965 " Re th ink ing ' s ta tus ' a nd ' r o le ' : T owa rd a g ene ra l mode l o ft h e c u l tu ra l o rgan isa t ion o f s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ips" . I n M . B an ton ( ed . ) T he R e l evance o f Mod e l sf or S oc ia lA n thropo logy . A .S .A .

Monog raph S e r ie s 1 , D o rche s te r . F azeka s , I . Gy . , K ö sa , F . 1 978 F oren s ic F e ta l O s teo logy . A kadem ia i K iado , B udapes t . F e l l , C . 1 956 " Roman b u r ia ls f ound a t A rbury R oad , C ambr idge , 1 952" . I n P roceed ing s o f t h e C ambr idge A n t iqu i t ie sS oc ie ty 4 9 : 1 3 -23 . F i n ley , M . I . ( e d .) 1 968 " The s i len t w omen o fR ome" . I n A spec t s o fA n t iqu i ty : D i scover ie s a nd C on trover s ie s . C ha t to & W indu s , L ondon . 1 29 -142 . F i nnegan , M . 1 978 " Non -me t r ic v a r ia t ion o f t h e i n f rac ran ia l s ke le ton" . I n J ourna l o fA na tomy 1 25 : 2 3 -37 . F l annery , K .V . 1 972 " The c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion o f c i v i l isa t ions" . I n A nnua l R ev iew o f E co logy a nd S y s tema t ic s 3 : 3 99 -426 . F l annery , K .V . , W in te r , M .C . 1 976 " Ana lys ing h ou seho ld a c t iv i t ies" . I n K .V . F lannery ( ed . ) T he E ar ly Me soamer ican V i l lage . A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Y o rk . 3 4 -47 . F o ley , H .P . ( ed . ) 1 98 1 R ef l ec t ion s o fW omen i nA n t iqu i ty . G o rdon a nd B reach , S c ience P ub l ishe r s , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . F oucau l t , M . 1 980 " T ru th a nd P owe r" . I nC . G o rdon ( e d .) P ower /Know ledge . T he H a rves te r P re s s , B r igh ton . 1 09 133 . F oucau l t , M . 1 981 T he H i s to ry o fS exua l i ty . V o l . I :A n I n troduc t ion . P engu in , H armond swor th . ( T ran s . R . H u r ley ) . F oucau l t , M . 1 988 " Techno log ie s o f t h e s e lf ' . I n L . Ma r t in , H . G u tman a nd P .H u t ton ( e ds .) T echno log ie s o ft h eS e lf T av is tock P ub l ica t ion s , L ondon . 1 6 -49 . F r ied , M .H . 1 967 T he E vo lu t ion o f P o l i t ica l S oc ie ty . R andom H ou se ,N ew Y o rk . F r ied l , E . 1 975 Women a nd Men : A n A n thropo log i s t ' s V i ew . H o l t , R inehar t a nd W in s ton ,N ew Y o rk . F r iedman , J . , R ow land s , M .J . ( ed s .) 1 977 T he E vo lu t ion o f S oc ia lS y s tems . G e ra ld D uckwor th , L ondon . F ro s t , H .M . 1 969 " Te t racyc l ine -ba sed h i s to log ica l a na ly s is o f b one r emode l l ing" . I n C a lc i f ied T i s sue R e search 3 : 2 11-237 . G a i ley , C .W . 1 987 " Evo lu t ionary p e r spec t ives o n g ende r h i e ra rchy" . I n B .B . H ess a nd M .M . F e ree ( e d s . ) A na ly z ing G end e r : A h andbook o f s oc ia l s c ience r e search . S age P ub l ica t ions , L ondon . 3 2 -67 . G a rdne r , J . F . 1 986 W omen i n R oman L aw a nd S oc ie ty . C room H e lm L td . , B eckenham , K en t . G a rdne r , J F . , W iedemann , T . 1 99 1 T he R oman H ou seho ld : AS ourcebook . R ou t ledge , L ondon . G a r l ick , J .D . 1 969 " Bu r ied b one : T he e xper imen ta l a pp roach i nt h e s t udy o f n i t rogen c on ten t a nd b lood g roup a c t iv i ty" . I nB ro thwe l l a nd H igg s ( e ds .) 1 969 : 5 03 -512 . G ar n , S .M . , C o le , P .E . , Wa inw r igh t , R .L . , G u i re , K .E . 1 977 " Sex d i scr im ina tory e f f ec t iveness u s ing c omb ina t ion s o fp ermanen tt e e th" . I n JDR 5 6 : 6 97 . G a rn , S .M . , L ew is , A .B . , K osk i , K . 1 958 " The s ex d if e rence i nt oo th c a lc if ica t ion" . I n JDR 3 7 : 5 6 15 67 . G a rn ,

S .M . , L ew is , A .B . , P o lacheck , D .L . 1 959 " Va r iab i l i ty o f t o o th f o rma t ion" . I n J DR 3 8 ( 1 ) : 1 35 -148 . G a rn , S .M . , N agy , J .M . , S andusky , S .T . 1 972 " D if f e ren t ia l s exua l d imorph ism i n b one d i ame ter s o f s ub jec t s o f E u ropean a nd A f r ican a nces t ry" . I n A JPA 3 7 : 1 27 1 29 . 18

Monog raphs

1 . T av i s tock

P ub l ica t ions

R i tua l s : Y ou th S ub -cu l ture s i n P os t - War B r i ta in . H u tch inson C o . ( Pub l ishe r s ) L td . , L ondon . H a l le t t , J . P . 1 977 " Peru s inae g randes a nd t h e c hang ing i mage o fA ugus tu s" . I n A JAH 2 : 1 51-171 . H a l le t t , J . P . 1 984 F a ther s a nd Daugh ter s i n R oman S oc ie ty : W omen a nd t h e E l i te F am i ly . P r ince ton

L im i ted ,

L ondon . 1 24 . G oodman , A .H . 1 991 " Hea l th , a dap ta t ion , ma ladap ta t ion i n p a s t s oc ie t ies" . I n B u sh

a nd a nd

Z ve leb i l ( ed s . ) 1 99 1 : 3 1-38 . G oodman , A .H . , A rme lagos , G .J . , R o se , J . C . 1 985 " The c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f e name l h ypop la s ia s f r om p r eh is to r ic D ick son Mounds p opu la t ions" . I n A JPA 6 5 : 2 59 -266 . G oodman , A .H . , C apas so , L .L . ( ed s . ) 1 992 R ecen t C on tr ibu t ion s t o t h e S tudy o f E name l a nd D eve lopmen ta l D ef ec t s . J ourna l o f P a leopa tho logy Monog raph ic P ub l ica t ions 2 . A ssoc iaz ione

U n ive r s i ty P ress ,N ew J e r sey . H ammond , N . , P re t ty , K . , S au l , F .P . 1 975 " A C la s s ic Maya f am i ly t omb" . I n W or ld A rchaeo logy 7 : 5 7 7 0 . H an iha ra , K . 1 978 " D if f e rences i n s exua l d imorph ism i n d en ta l morpho logy a mong s eve ra l h uman p opu la t ion s" . I n B u t le r a nd J oy sey ( ed s . ) 1 978 : 1 27 -133 . H a rman , M . , Mo l leson , T . 1 . , P r ice , J . L . 1 98 1 " Bur ia ls , b od ie s a nd b ehead ing s i nR omano -Br i t ish a nd A ng lo S axon c eme te r ies" . I nB u l le t in o ft h e B r i t i sh Mu seum o fN a tura lH i s tory ( Geo l .) 3 5 ( 3 ) : 1 45 188 . H ar r is , W .V . 1 982 " The t h eo re t ica l p o ss ib i l i ty o fe x tens ive

A n t ropo log ica A b ruzzese , C h ie t i , I t a ly . Goodman , A .H . , L a i b, J . , A rme lagos , G .J . , R o se , J .C . 1 984 " Hea l th c hange s a t D ick son Mound s , I l ino is ( A .D . 9 50 1300 )" . I n C ohen a nd A rme lagos ( e d s . ) 1 984 : 2 71-305 . G oodman , A .H . , Ma r t in , D .L . , K le in , C .P . , P ee le , M .S . ,

i n f an t ic ide i nt h e G raeco -Roman w o r ld" . I nC la s s ica l Q uar te r ly 3 2 : 14 116 . H a r r i son , G .A . , B oyce , A .J . ( e d s . ) 1 972 T he S t ruc ture o f H uman P opu la t ion s . C la rendon P re s s , O xf o rd .

C ru se , N .A . , McEwen , L .R . , S aeed , A . , R ob inson , B .M . 1 992 " C lu s te r b and s , W i lson b and s a nd p i t p a tche s : H is to log ica l a nd e name l s u rf ace i n d ica to r s o f s t re ss i n t h e B lack Me sa A na saz i p opu la t ion" . I n G oodman a nd C apa sso ( e d s . ) 1 992 : 15 -127 .

H a r t H ansen , J . P . , Me ldgaa rd , J . , No rdqv is t , J . 1 99 1 T he G reen land Mumm ie s . T he T ru s tee s o f t h e B r i t ish Mu seum , L ondon . H a s ted , R . 1 985 "Mo the r s o f i n ven t ion" . I n T roub le a nd S t r if e 7 : 1 7 -25 . H a tch , J .W . 1 976 S ta tu s i nD ea th : P r inc ip le s o fR ank ing i n D a l la s C u l ture Mor tua ry R ema in s . P hD T he s is ,

G oodman , A .H . , R o se , J . C . 1 99 1 " Den ta l e name l h ypop la s ia s a s i n d ica to r s o f n u t r i t iona l s t a tu s" . I n K e l ley a nd L a r sen ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 2 79 -293 . G oody , J . 1 962 D ea th , P roper ty a nd t h e A nce s tor s : A S tudy o f Mor tuary C u s toms o ft h e L aDagaa o f W e s t A f r ica . T av is tock P ub l ica t ions , L ondon . G ram sc i , A . 1 97 1 S e lec t ions f rom t h e P r i son N o tebook s . L aw rence & W isha r t , L ondon . ( e d . a nd t r ans . Q . H oa re a nd G .N . Sm i th ) . G raue r , Al . 1 99 1 " Pa t terns o f l i f e a nd d ea th : T he p a laeodemog raphy o f Med ieva l Y o rk" . I n B ush a nd Z ve leb i l ( ed s . ) 1 991 : 6 7 -80 . G rebe r , N . 1 979 " A c ompa ra t ive s t udy o fs i te morpho logy a nd b ur ia l p a t te rns a tE dw in H a rne ss Mound a nd S e ip Mounds Ia nd 2 " . I n B rose a nd G reber ( e d s . ) 1 979 : 2 7 -38 . G reen , C .J .S . 1 977 " The s i gn if icance o fp l a s te r b u r ia ls f o r t h e r e cogn i t ion o f C hr is t ian c eme ter ies" . I n R eece ( ed .) 1 977 p .p . 4 6 -53 . G reen , C .S . 1 982 " The c eme tery o f aR omano -Br i t ish c ommun i ty a t P oundbury , D or che s te r , D or se t" . I n P ea rce ( e d .) 1 982 : 6I76 . G reene , L .S . , J ohn s ton , F .E . ( e ds . ) 1 980 S oc ia l a nd B io log ica l P red ic tor s o fN u tr i t iona l S ta tu s , P hy s ica l G row th a nd N euro log ica l D eve lopmen t . A cadem ic P ress , I n c . , New Y o rk . G rübe r , J .W . 1 971 " Pa t ter n ing i n d ea th i n ap r eh is to r ic v i l lage i n P ennsy lvan ia" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 ( 1 ) : 6 4 -76 . G uag l ia rdo , M .F . 1 982 " Too th c r own s i ze d i f f e rence s b e tween a ge g roup s : A p o ss ib le n ew i n d ica to r o f s t ress i ns ke le ta l s amp les" . I n A JPA 5 8 : 3 83 -389 . Gu ss le r , J . 1 987 " Cu l tu re , c ommun i ty , a nd t h e c ou r se o f i n f an t f e ed ing " . I n F .E . J ohn s ton ( e d . ) N u tr i t iona l A n thropo logy . A lan R . L i ss , I n c . , N ew Yo rk . 1 55 1 72 . Gu s ta f son , G . 1 966 F oren s ic Odon to logy . S t ap le s P ress , L ondon . H a l l , AT . 1 945 " AR oman w a l led c eme tery a tC o lches te r" . I nA rchaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 0 1 : 6 8 -90 . H a l l , S . , J e f f e r son , T . ( e d s . ) 1 975 R e s i s tance t h rough

P enn sy lvan ia S t a te U n ive r s i ty . H a tch , J .W . , G e ide l , R .A . 1 983 " T rac ing s t a tu s a nd d i e t i n p r eh i s to r ic T enne ssee" . I n A rchaeo logy 3 6 ( 1 ) : 5 6 5 9 . H av i land , W .A . 1 967 " S ta tu re a t T ika l , G ua tema la : I mp l ica t ion s f o ra nc ien t Maya d emog raphy a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 2 : 3 16 -325 . H awke s , C .F .C . , H u l l , M .R . 1 947 C amu lodunum : F ir s t R epor t o n t h e E xcava t ion s a t C o lches ter 1 930 -1939 . RRCSAL 1 4 . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s , L ondon . H ayden , B . 1 992 " Obse rv ing p reh is to r ic w omen" . I n C laa sen ( e d . ) 1 992 : 3 3 -47 . H ay s -G i lp in , K . , Wh i t ley , D .S . ( ed s .) 1 998 " In t roduc t ion" . I n R ead er i n G end er A rchaeo logy . R ou t ledge , L ondon . 3 10 . H e izer , R .F . 1 960 " Phy s ica l a na ly s i s o f h ab i ta t ion r e s idue s" . I n R .F . H e ize r a nd S .F . C ook ( e ds .) T he A pp l ica t ion o fQ uan t i ta t ive Me thod s i nA rchaeo logy . V ik ing F und P ub l ica t ion s i n A n th ropo logy 2 8 . Wenne r -Gren F ounda t ion f o r A n th ropo log ica l R e sea rch , I n c . , T av is tock P ub l ica t ion s , L ondon . 9 3 1 24 . H e lmu th , H . 1 968 " E in ige Ma sse d es p roce ssus m as t iodeus b e im Menschen u nd s e ine B edeu tung f u r d i e G esch lech t sbes t immung " . Z e i t schr if t f ur Morpho log ie u nd A n thropo log ie 6 0 : 7 5 -84 . C i ted i n B u ik s t ra a nd M ie lke , 1 985 . H ende r son , J . 1 987 " Fac to r s d e term in ing t h e s t a te o f p r ese rva t ion o fh uman r ema ins" . I n B odd ing ton e t a l . ( ed s . ) 1 987 : 4 3 -54 . H ende r son , P . 1 989 " Pagan S axon c eme te r ie s : As t udy o f t h e p rob lem s o f s ex ing b y g rave g ood s a nd b one s" . I n R obe r t s e ta l . ( e ds . ) 1 989 : 7 7 -83 . H e r tz , R . 1 960 [ 1 907 ] D ea th a nd t h e R igh t H and . T he U n ive r s i ty P r es s , A be rdeen . 19

H i l l , J .N . 1 970a B roken K P ueb lo : P reh i s tor ic S oc ia l O rgan i sa t ion i n t h e Amer ican S ou thwe s t . A n th ropo log ica l P ape r s o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o f A r izona 1 8 . U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P ress , T ucson . H i l l , J .N . 1 970b " P reh is to r ic s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i n t h e Ame r ican s ou thwes t : T heo ry a nd m e thod" . I n L ongac re ( ed . ) 1 970b : 1 -58 . H i l l , J .N . 1 971 " A p reh i s to r ic c ommun i ty i n e a s tern A r izona" . I n J .D ee tz ( e d . ) Man ' s I mpr in tf rom t h e P a s t . L i t t le , B rown a nd C ompany ( I nc . ) , B o s ton . 3 23-343 . H i l lson , S . 1 986 T ee th . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . H i l lson , S . 1 989 " Tee th : S ome c u r ren t d eve lopmen t s i n

H opk in s , K . 1 983 D ea th a nd R enewa l : S oc io log ica l S tud ie s i n R oman H i s tory 2 . U n ive r s i ty P res s , C amb r idge . H ube r , N .M . 1 968 " The p rob lem o f s t a tu re i n c rea se : L ook ing f r om t h e p a s t t ot h e p resen t" . I n B ro thwe l l ( e d . ) 1 968 : 6 7 -102 . H u l l , M .R . 1 958 R oman C o lche s ter . RRCSAL 2 0 . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P res s , L ondon . H umph reys , S .C . 1 993 T he F am i ly , W omen a nd D ea th : C ompa ra t ive S tud ie s . Un ive r s i ty o f M ich igan P r e s s , M ich igan . ( 2" e d i t ion ) . H umph rey s , S .C . , K ing , H . ( ed s . ) 1 981 Mor ta l i ty a nd I mmor ta l i ty : T he a n thropo logy a nd a rchaeo log y o f D ea th . A cadem ic P ress I n c . , L ondon . H un t , E .E . , G le se r , I . 1 955 " The e s t ima t ion o fa ge a nd s e x o fp r eado le scen t c h i ld ren f r om b one s a nd t e e th" . I n A JPA 1 3 : 4 79 -487 .

r e sea rch" . I nR ober t s e ta l . ( ed s . ) 1 989 : 1 29 150 . H i l lson , S . 1 996 D en ta l A n thropo logy . U n ive r s i ty P ress , C amb r idge . H odde r , I . ( e d . ) r e ac t ionary

1 982a v i ew" .

" Theo re t ica l I n S ymbo l ic

a r chaeo logy : A a nd S t ruc tura l

H un t ing ton , R . , Me tca lf , P . 1 979 C e lebra t ion s o fD ea th . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . H u rcombe , L . 1 995 " Ou r own e ngende red s pec ies" . I n A n t iqu i ty 6 9 : 8 7 -100 . H uss -Ashmo re , R . , G oodman , A .H . , A rme lago s , G .J . 1 982 " Nu t r i t iona l i n f e rence f r om p a leopa tho logy" . I nM .B . S ch if f e r ( ed . ) Ad vance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory V o l . 5 . A cadem ic P re ss , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . 3 95 -474 . I ngo ld , T . 1 986 T he A ppropr ia t ion o fN a ture : E s say s o n H uman E co logy a nd S oc ia l R e la t ion s . Manche s te r U n ive r s i ty P res s , Manches te r . I r e land , S . 1 986 R oman B r i ta in : A S ourcebook . C room H e lm L td . , B eckenham , K en t . l s can , M .Y . 1 985 " O s teome t r ic a na ly s is o f s e xua l d imorph i sm i nt h e s t erna l e nd o ft h e r i b" . I n J FS 3 0 ( 4 ) : 1 090 1099 . I s can , M .Y . ( e d . ) 1 989 A ge Marker s i n t h e H uman S ke le ton . C ha r les C T homa s , I l ino i s . ' s can , MY . , K ennedy , K .A .R . ( eds . ) 1 989 R econ s t ruc t ion o f L i f e f rom t h e S ke le ton . W i ley -L iss , I n c . , N ew Y o rk .

A rchaeo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P ress , C amb r idge . 1 16 . H odde r , I . 1 982b " The i d en t if ica t ion a nd i n terp re ta t ion o f r a nk ing i n p reh is tory : A c on tex tua l p e r spec t ive" . I n C . R enf rew a nd S .S hennan ( ed s . ) R ank ing , R e source a nd E xchange : A spec t s o ft h e A rchaeo logy o fE ar ly E uropean S oc ie ty . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . 1 50 154 . H odder , I . 1 982c T he P re sen t P a s t : A n i n t roduc t ion t o a n thropo logy f or a rchaeo log i s t s . B .T . B a t sf o rd L td . , L ondon . H odde r , I . 1 985 " Po s tp roce s sua l a r chaeo logy" . I n S ch if f e r ( e d . ) 1 985 : 1 26 . H odde r , I . 1 986 R ead ing t h e P a s t : C ur ren tA pproache s t o i n terpre ta t ion i nA rchaeo logy . C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . H odde r , I .( e d . ) 1 987 " The c on tex tua l a na lys is o fs ymbo l ic m ean ing s" . I n T he A rchaeo logy o f C on tex tua l Mean ing s . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P res s , C amb r idge . 1 10 . H odde r , I .( e d . ) 1 989 " Pos t -modern ism , p o s t s t ruc tu ra l ism a nd p o s t -p roces sua l a r chaeo logy" . I n T he Mean ing s o f T h ing s : Ma te r ia l C u l ture a nd S ymbo l ic E xpre s s ions . U nw in H yman L td . , L ondon . 6 4 -78 . H odde r , I . 1 99 1 " Gende rr e p re sen ta t ion a nd s oc ia l r e a l i ty" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 1 16 .

I s can , MY . , M i l le r -Sha iv i tz , P . 1 984 " De term ina t ion o f s e x f r om t h et i b ia" . I n A JPA 6 4 : 5 3-57 . J a cke s , M . 1 992 " Pa leodemog raphy : P rob lems a nd t e chn iques" . I n S aunde r s a nd K a tzenbe rg ( e d s . ) 1 992 : 1 89 -224 . J a ck son , T .L . 1 99 1 " Pound ing a corn : Women 's p roduc t ion a ss o c ia l a nd e conom ic f o cu s" . I n G e ro a nd C onkey ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 3 0 1-325 . J anssens , P .A . 1 970 P a laeopa tho logy : D i sea se s a nd I n jur ie s o fP reh i s tor ic Man . J ohn B ake r ( Pub l ishe r s ) L td . , L ondon . J i t , I . ,J h ingan , V . , K u lkarn i , M . 1 980 " Sex ing t h e h uman s t er num" . I n A JPA 5 3 : 2 17 -224 .

H odde r , I . 1 997 " Commen ta ry : T he g ende r s c reen" . I nJ . Moo re a nd E . S co t t ( e d s . ) I nv i s ib le P eop le a nd P roce s se s : W r i t ing g end er a nd c h i ldhood i n to E uropean a rchaeo logy . L e ice s te r U n ive r s i ty P re ss , L ondon . 7 5 -78 . H odson , F .R . 1 977 " Quan t if y ing H a l ls ta t t : S ome i n i t ia l r e su l ts" . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 2 ( 1 ) : 3 94 -4 12 . H od son , F .R . 1 979 " I nf er r ing s t a tu s f r om b u r ia ls i n I r on A ge E u rope : S ome r e cen t a t temp t s" . I nB urnham a nd K ing sbury ( e d s . ) 1 979 : 2 3 -30 . H of fman , J .M . 1 979 " Age e s t ima t ions f r om d i aphysea l l e ng ths : Two mon th s t o t we lve y ea r s" . I n J FS 2 4 : 4 6 1-469 .

J ohnson , S . 1 980 L a ter R oman B r i ta in . R ou t ledge & K egan P au l L td . , L ondon . J o low icz , H .F . 1 972 H i s tor ica l I n troduc t ion t ot h eS t udy o f R oman L aw . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P res s , L ondon . ( 3r d e d i t ion ) . J one s , R . 1 975 " The R omano -Br i t ish f a rms tead a nd i t s c eme tery a t L ynch F a rm , n r P e te rbo rough" . I n N o r than t sA rchaeo l . 1 0 : 9 4 137 . J one s , R . 1 977 " A q uan t i ta t ive a pp roach t oR oman b u r ia l" . I n R eece ( e d . ) 1 977 : 2 0 -25 . J ones , R . 1 991 B r i ta in i n t h e R oman P er iod : R ecen t T r end s . J .R . C o l l is P ub l ica t ion s , U n ive r s i ty o f S heff ie ld .

H o lmwood , J . , S t ewar t , A . 1 99 1 E xp lana t ion a nd S oc ia l T heory . Macm i l lan , L ondon . H ope , V .M . 1 997 "Wo rd s a nd p i c tu res : I n terp re ta t ion o f R omano -Br i t ish t ombs tones" . I n B r i tann ia 2 8 : 2 45 2 58 . H opk in s , K . 1 966 " Con t racep t ion i nt h e R oman Emp i re" . I n C SSH : 1 24 -151 . 1 20

K je dbye -B idd le , B . 1 992 " D ispe r sa l o r c oncen t ra t ion : T he d i spo sa l o ft h e W inches te r d ead o ve r2 000 y ea r s" . I n B a s se t t( ed . ) 1 992 : 2 10 -247 . K lep inge r , L .L . 1 984 " Nu t r i t iona l a s se ssmen t f r om b one" . I n A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 1 3 : 7 5 -96 . K lep inge r , L .L . , K uhn , J .K . , W i l l iams , W .S . 1 986 " An e l emen ta l a na ly s is o fa r chaeo log ica l b one f r om S i c i ly a s at e s t o f p red ic tab i l i ty o f d i agene t ic c hange" . I n A JPA 7 0 : 3 25 -331 . K ösa , F . 1 989 " Age e s t ima t ion f r om t h e f e ta l s ke le ton" . I n 4 can ( ed . ) 1 989 : 2 1-54 . K o sko , B . 1 993 F uz zy T h ink ing . H ype r ion , N ew Y o rk . K r is t iansen , K . 1 984 " Ideo logy a nd ma te r ia l c u l tu re : A n a r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive" . I n S p r igg s ( ed . ) 1 984 : 7 2 100 . K rogman , W .M . 1 962 T he H uman S ke le ton i n F oren s ic Med ic ine . C ha r le s CT homa s , I l ino is . L aFon ta ine , J . S . 1 978 S ex a nd A ge a s P r inc ip le s o fS oc ia l D if f eren t ia t ion . A cadem ic P ress I n c . ( London ) L td . ,

J owsey , J . 1 960 " Age c hange s i n h uman b one" . I n C l in ica lO r thopaed ic s 1 7 : 2 10 -217 . J urma in , R .D . 1 977 " S t res s a nd e t io logy o fO s teoar th r i t is" . I n A JPA 4 6 : 3 53 -366 . K a tz , D . , S uchey , J .M . 1 986 " Age d e term ina t ion o f t h e ma le o sp ub i s" . I n A JPA 6 9 : 4 27 -435 . K a tz , D . , S uchey , J .M . 1 989 " Race d i f f e rences i n p ub ic s ymphy sea l a ge ing p a t tern s i n t h e m a le" . I n A JPA 8 0 : 1 67 172 . K au r , H . , J i t , I . 1 990 " Age e s t ima t ion f r om c or t ica l i n dex o ft h e h uman c l av ic le i nn o r thwes t I nd ian s" . I n A JPA 8 3 : 2 97 -305 . K een , J .A . 1 950 " A s t udy o ft h e d i f f e rence b e tween ma le a nd f ema le s ku l ls" . I n AJPA 8 : 6 5 -78 . K ehoe , A .B . 1 999 " A r e sor t t o s ub t le r c on t r ivances" . I n Swee ly ( e d . ) 1 999 : 1 7 -29 . K e l ley , M .A . 1 978 " Phen ice 's v i sua l s ex ing t e chn ique f o r t h e o s p ub is : Ac r i t ique" . I n A JPA 4 8 : 1 2 1122 . K e l ley , M .A . , L a r sen , C .S . ( eds .) 1 99 1 Ad vance s i nD en ta l A n thropo logy . J ohn W i ley -L iss & S ons I n c . , N ew Y o rk . K e l lg ren , J .H . , L aw rence , J . S . 1 958 " Os teo -ar th r i t is a nd d i sk d egene ra t ion i na n u rban p opu la t ion" . I n A nna l s o ft h eR heuma t ic D i sea se s 1 7 : 3 88 -397 . K enda l l , G . 1 972 " A s t udy o fg rave -o r ien ta t ion i ns eve ra l R oman a nd p o s t -Roman c eme te r ies f r om s ou thern B r i ta in" . I n A rchaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 39 : 1 0 1123 . K ennedy , G .E . 1 986 " The r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a ud i tory e xos to se s a nd c o ld w a te r : Al a t i tud ina l a na lys is" . I n A JPA 7 1 : 4 01-4 15 . K ennedy , K .A .R . 1 989 " Ske le ta l m a rker s o fo ccupa t iona l s t res s" . I n4 can a nd K ennedy ( ed s . ) 1 989 : 1 29 160 . K en t , S . 1 995 " Does s eden ta r iza t ion p romo te g ende r i n equa l i ty? A C a se S tudy f o rt h e K a laha r i" . I n J RAS 1 : 5 13 -536 . K en t , S . 1 999 " Ega l i ta r ian ism , e qua l i ty , a nd e qu i tab le p owe r" . I n Swee ly ( ed .) 1 999 : 3 0 -48 . K eohane , NO . , R osa ldo , M .Z . , G e lp i , B .C . ( e ds .) 1 982 F em in i s t T heory : A C r i t ique o f I d eo logy . T he H a rves te rP re s s L im i ted , B r igh ton . K e r ley , E .R . 1 965 " The m ic roscop ic d e te rm ina t ion o fa ge nh uman b one" . I n A JPA 2 3 : 1 49 -164 . K er ley , E .R . 1 970 " E s t ima t ion o fs ke le ta l a ge : Af t e r a bou t a ge 3 0" . I n S t ewa r t( ed . ) 1 970 : 5 7 -70 . K er ley , E .R . 1 976 " Fo rens ic a n th ropo logy a nd c r ime s i n vo lv ing c h i ld ren" . I n J FS 2 1 : 33 -339 . K e r ley , E .R . , U be lake r , D .H . 1 978 " Rev is ions i n t h e

L ondon . L a l lo , J .W . , A rme lago s , G .J . , Men sf o r th , R .P . 1 977 " The r o le o fd i e t , d i sea se , a nd p hy s io logy i n t h e o r ig in o f p o ro t ic h ypero s to s is" . I n Human B io logy 4 9 ( 1 ) : 4 71-483 . L amber t , J . B . , S impson , S .V . , S zpuna r , C .B . , B u iks t ra , J . E . 1 985 " Bone d i agenes is a nd d i e ta ry a na lys is" . I n JHE 1 4 : 4 77 -482 . L amber t , J .B . , S zpuna r , C .B . , B u ik s t ra , J . E . 1 979 " Chem ica l a na lys is o f e xcava ted h uman b one f r om M idd le a nd L a te Wood land s i tes" . I n A rchaeome e 2 1 : 15 129 . L amphe re , L . 1 977 " An th ropo logy" ( Rev iew E ssay ) . I n S igns 2( 3 ) : 6 12 -627 . L aqueu r , T . 1 990 Mak ing s ex : B od y a nd G end er f rom t h e G reek s t o F reud . H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty P res s , Ma s sachuse t t s . L a r sen , C .S . 1 983 " Behav iou ra l i mp l ica t ions o ft empo ra l c hange i nc a r iogenes is" . I n J AS 1 0 : 1 8 . L a r sen , C .S . , S hav i t , R . , G r iff in , M .C . 1 99 1 " Den ta l c a r ie s e v idence f o r d i e ta ry c hange : A n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t" . I n K e l ley a nd L a r sen ( ed s .) 1 99 1 : 1 79 2 02 . L a r son , L .H .Jr . 1 97 1 " A rchaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ions f o r s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion a tt h e E towah S i te , G eo rg ia" . I n B rown ( e d .) 1 971 : 5 8 -67 . L a t t imo re , R . 1 942 T heme s i nG reek a nd L a t in E p i taphs . U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino is P ress , U rbana . L augh l in , W .S . 1 968 " Hun t ing : A n i n teg ra t ing b i obehav io r s y s tem a nd i t s e vo lu t iona ry i mpor tance" . I n L ee a nd D eVo re ( eds . ) 1 968 : 3 04 -320 . L each , E .R . 1 973 " Conc lud ing a dd ress" . I n R enf rew ( e d . ) 1 973 : 7 6 1-77 1 . L each , E . 1 976 C u l ture a nd C ommun ica t ion : T he L og ic b y w h ich S ymbo l s a re C onnec ted . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P res s , C amb r idge . L ech t ig , A . , D e lgado , H . , L a sky , R .E . , K le in , RE . , E ng le , P .L . , Y a rborough , C . , H ab ich t , J P . 1 975 "Ma terna l

m ic roscop ic m e thod o f e s t ima t ing a ge a t d ea th i n h uman c or t ica l b one" . I n A JPA 4 9 : 5 45-546 . K es s le r , S . J . , McKenna , W . 1 978 G end er : A n E thnome thodo log ica lA pproach . J ohn W i ley & S ons , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . K iese r ,J .A . , G roenve ld , H .T . , P res ton , C .B . 1 985 " Pa t ter n s o f d en ta l w ea r i nt h e L engua I nd ians o f P a raguay" . I n A JPA 6 6 : 2 1-29 . K ing , T .F . 1 970 T he D ead a t T i buron : Mor tuary C u s toms a nd S oc ia l O rgan i sa t ion o n N or thern S an F ranc i sco B ay . Nor thwes ter nC a l iforn ia A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty O cca s iona l P ape r2 ,C a l if or n ia . K ing , T .F . 1 976 P o l i t ica l D if f eren t ia t ion a mong H un ter G a therer s : A n A rchaeo log ica l T e s t . P hD T he s is , U n ive r s i ty o fC a l iforn ia , R ive r s ide . K ing , T .F . 1 978 " Don ' tt h a t b ea t t h e b and? Nonega l i ta r ian p o l i t ica l o rgan isa t ion i n p r eh is to r ic c en t ra l C a l if o rn ia" . I nR edman e ta l . ( e d s . ) 1 978 : 2 25 -248 .

n u t r i t ion a nd f e ta l g row th i n d eve lop ing s oc ie t ie s" . I n Amer ican J ourna l o fD i sea se s o f C h i ld ren 1 29 : 4 34 -437 . L ee , P . , R ooney , P . J . , S tu r rock , R .D . , K ennedy , A .D . , D ick , W .C . 1 974 " The e t io logy a nd p a thogene s is o f o s teoa r th r i t is : A r ev iew" . I n S em ina r s i n A r thr i t i s a nd R heuma t i sm 3( 3 ) : 1 89 -218 . L ee , R .B . , D eVo re , I .( e ds . ) 1 968 " P rob lems i nt h e s t udy o f 1 2 1

h un te r s a nd g a the rer s" . I n Man t h e Hun ter . A ld ine P ub l ish ing C ompany , C h icago . 3 12 . L eech , R . 1 981 " The e xcava t ion o f aR omano -Br i t ish f a rms tead a nd c eme tery o n B rad ley H i l l , S ome r ton , S ome r se t" . I n B r i tann ia 1 2 : 1 77 -252 . L e fkow i tz , M .R . 1 983 " Inf luen t ia l w omen" . I n A . C ame ron a nd A . K uhr t ( eds .) I mage s o f Women i n A n t iqu i ty . C room H e lm L td . , B eckenham , K en t . 4 9 6 4 . L efkow i tz , M .R . , F an t , M .B . 1 982 W omen ' s L if e i nG reece a nd R ome : A S ourcebook i n t r an s la t ion . G e ra ld D uckwo r th & C o . L td . , L ondon . L eone , M .P . 1 973 " A rcheo logy a s t h e s c ience o f t e chno logy : Mormon t own p l an s a nd f e nces" . I n C .L . R edman ( ed . ) R e search a nd T heory i n C urren t A rcheo logy . J ohn W i ley & S ons , I n c . , N ew Y ork . 1 25 150 . L eone , M .P . 1 978 " T ime i n Ame r ican a r chaeo logy" . I n R edman e ta l . ( ed s . ) 1 978 : 2 5 -36 . L eone , M .P . 1 982 " Some o p in ion s a bou tr e cover ing m ind" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 7 ( 1 ) : 7 42 -760 . L eone , M .P . 1 984 " I n terp re t ing i d eo logy i n h i s to r ica l a r chaeo logy : U s ing t h e r u le s o f p e r spec t ive i n t h e W i l l iam P aca G a rden i n Annapo l is , Ma ry land" . I n M i l le ra nd T i l ley ( e ds .) 1 984 : 2 5 -35 . L eone , M .P . , P o t te r , P .B . J r . ( ed s . ) 1 988 T he R ecover y o f Mean ing : H i s tor ica l A rchaeo logy i n t h e E a s tern U n i ted S ta te s . Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu t ion P ress , Wa sh ing ton . L e ro i -Gou rhan , A . 1 965 P reh i s to i re d e I' A r tO cc id en ta l . Mazenod P re ss , P a r is . L e ro i -Gou rhan , A . 1 968 T he A r t o fP reh i s tor ic Man i n W es tern E urope . T hames a nd H ud son L td . , L ondon . L ev i -S t rau s s , C . 1 963 S t ruc tura l A n thropo logy . B a s ic B ook s , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . L evy , J . E . 1 999 " Gende r , p owe r a nd h e te ra rchy i nm idd le l e ve l s oc ie t ies" . I n Swee ly ( e d . ) 1 999 : 6 2 -78 . L ive r s idge , J . 1 976 E ve ryday L if e i n t h e R oman Emp i re . B .T . B a t sf o rd L td . , L ondon . L ongac re , W .A . 1 970a A rchaeo logy a s A n thropo logy : A C a se S tud y . A n th ropo log ica l P ape r s o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona 1 7 , T uc son . L ongac re , W .A . 1 970b ( ed . ) " A h i s to r ica l r e v iew" . I n R econs truc t ing P reh i s tor ic P ueb lo S oc ie t ie s , S choo l o f Ame r ican R esea rch A dvanced S em ina r S e r ies , U n iver s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re ss , A lbuque rque . 1 10 . L o th , S .R . , I 5 can , M .Y . 1 989 "Morpho log ica l a s se ssmen t o f a ge i n t h e a du l t : T he t h o rac ic r eg ion" . I n I 5 can ( e d . ) 1 989 : 1 05 135 . L ove joy , C .O . , H e ip le , K .G . 1 981 " The a na ly s is o f f r ac tu res i n s ke le ta l p opu la t ions w i th a n e xamp le f r om t h e L ibben S i te , O t tawa C oun ty , O h io" . I n

s pace" .

I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( eds . ) 1 99 1 :

1 08 -

14 . MacCormack , C . S t ra thern , M. ( e. c i s . ) 1 980 N a ture , C u l ture a nd G end e r . Cam br id ge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C ambr idge . MacDona ld , J . 1 977 “ pa gan r e l ig ions a nd b u r ia l p r ac t ice s i nR oman B r i ta in" . I nR eece ( e d . ) 1 977 : 3 5 -38 . MacDona ld , J . L . 1 979 " Re l ig ion" . I n C la rke ( e d . ) 1 979 : 4 04 -433 . MacFa r lane , A . 1 98 1 " Dea th a nd d emog raph ic t r ans i t ion : A n o te o n E ng l ish e v idence o n d ea th 1 500 1 750" . I n H umph rey s a nd K ing ( ed s .) 1 981 : 2 49 2 59 . MacK innon , C .A . 1 982 " Fem in ism , Ma rx ism , m e thod a nd t h e s t a te : A n a genda f o rt h eory" . I n K eohane e t a l . ( ed s . ) 1 982 : 1 30 . Mac Mu l len , R . 1 980 "Women i n p ub l ic i n t h e R oman Emp i re" . I n H i s tor ia 2 4 : 2 08 -218 . Map les , W .R . 1 978 " An i mp roved t e chn ique u s ing d en ta l h i s to logy f o r e s t ima t ion o f a du l t a ge" . I n J FS 2 3 : 7 64 -770 . Ma rks , M .K . 1 992 " Deve lopmen ta l d en ta l e name l d ef ec t s : A n S EM a na ly s is" . I n G oodman a nd C apa sso ( e d s . ) 1 992 : 7 9 -90 . Ma r sha l l , A .S . 1 974 R oman S oc ia l R e la t ion s : 5 0 BC . t o A .D . 2 84 . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s , L td . , L ondon . Ma r sha l l , A .S . 1 975 " Roman w omen a nd t h e p rov inces" . I n A nc ien tS oc ie ty 6 : 1 09 127 . Mar t in , D .L . , A rme lagos , G .J . 1 979 "Morphome t r ic s o f c ompac t b one : A n e xamp le f r om S udanese N ub ia" . I n A JPA 5 1 : 5 7 1-578 . Ma r t in , DL . , G oodman , A .H . , A rme lagos , G .J . 1 985 " Ske le ta l p a tho log ies a s i n d ica to r s o f q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o fd i e t" . I nG i lber t a nd M ie lke ( e d s . ) 1 985 : 2 27 -279 . Ma r t in , M .K . , V oo rh ie s , B . 1 975 F ema le o ft h e S pec ie s . C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P res s ,N ew Y o rk . Mar tore l l , R . 1 980 " I n ter re la t ion sh ip s b e tween d i e t , i n f ec t ious d i sea se a nd n u t r i t iona l s t a tu s" . I n G reene a nd J ohns ton ( e d s . ) 1 980 : 8 1 106 . Mar to re l l , R . 1 989 " Body s i ze , a dap ta t ion a nd f unc t ion" . I nH uman O rgan i sa t ion 4 8 : 1 5 -20 . Ma rx , K . , E nge ls , F . 1 970 T he G erman I d eo logy . I n te rna t iona l P ub l i she r s , N ew Y o rk . ( ed . C . A r thu r ) . Ma t th ia s son , C . J . ( e d . ) 1 974 Many S i s ter s : W omen i n C ro ss -Cu l tura l P er spec t ive . T he F ree P re s s , N ew Y o rk . Mayha l l , J . T . 1 992 " Techn ique s f o r t h e s t udy o f morpho logy" . 1 992 : 5 9 -78 .

I n S aunde r s a nd K a tzenbe rg ( e ds . )

May s ,

S . 1 993 " I nf an t ic ide i n R oman B r i ta in" . I n A n t iqu i ty 6 7 : 8 83 -888 . McCaf f er ty , G .G . , McCaf f er ty , S .D . 1 999 " The

A JPA 5 5 : 5 29 -54 1 . L ove joy , C .O . , Me ind l , R .S . , Men sf or th , R .P . , B a r ton , T . J . 1 985 "Mu l t if ac to r ia l d e te rm ina t ion o fs ke le ta l a ge a t d ea th : Am e thod a nd b l ind t e s t o f i t s a ccu racy" . I n A JPA 6 8 : 1 14 .

m e tamorpho s is o f X och ique tza l : A w indow o n w omanhood i np r e - a nd p o s t - c onques t Mex ico" . I n Swee ly ( ed .) 1 999 : 1 03125 . McCaf f e r ty , S .D . , McCaf f er ty , G .G . 1 988 " Powe rf u l w omen a nd t h e my th o f m a le d om inance i n A z tec s oc ie ty" . I n ARC 7( 1 ) : 4 5 -59 . McCaf f er ty , S .D . , McCaf f er ty , G .G . 1 994 " Engende r ing T omb 7 a t Mon te A lbän" . I n C u rren t

L ove l l , N .C . 1 994 " Sp ina l a r th r i t is a nd p hy s ica l s t re ss a t B ronze Age H a rappa" . I n A JPA 9 3 : 1 49 164 . L ukacs , J .R . 1 989 " Den ta l p a leopa tho logy : Me thod s f o r r e cons t ruc t ing d i e tary p a t ter n s" . I n 1 5 can a nd K ennedy ( e d s .) 1 989 : 2 6 1-286 . L un t , D .A . 1 978 "Mo la r a t t r i t ion i n Med ieva l D ane s" . I n B u t le ra nd J oysey ( ed s . ) 1 978 : 4 65 -482 . L yons , D . 1 991 " The c ons t ruc t ion o f g ende r , t ime a nd

A n thropo log y 3 5 : 1 43-166 . McGu ire , R .H . 1 988 " D ia logue s w i th t h e d ead : I d eo logy a nd t h e c eme te ry" . I n L eone a nd P o t te r ( e ds .) 1 988 : 4 35 -480 . 1 22

McGu i re , R .H . 1 992 D ea th , S oc ie ty a nd I d eo logy i n a H ohokam C ommun i ty . I n ve s t iga t ions i n Ame r ican A rchaeo logy S e r ies , We s tv iew P re ss , I n c . , C o lo rado . McGu i re , R .H . , P ayn te r , R . ( ed s . ) 1 991 T he A rchaeo logy o f I nequa l i ty . B a s i l B lackwe l l L td . , O xf o rd . McHen ry , H .M . , S chu lz , P .D . 1 976 " The a s soc ia t ion b e tween H a r r is l i ne s a nd e name l h ypop la s ia i n p r eh is tor ic C a l if orn ia I nd ian s" . I n A JPA 4 4 : 5 07 5 09 . McKeown , T . 1 988 T he O r ig in s o f H uman D i sea se . B lackwe l l P ub l ishe r s L td . , O xf o rd . McKe rn , T .W . , S t ewar t , T .D . 1 957 S ke le ta l A ge C hange s i n Y oung Amer ican Ma le s : A na ly sed f rom t h e s t andpo in t o f a ge i d en t i f ica t ion . E nv i ronmen ta l P ro tec t ion R e sea rch D iv is ion , T echn ica l R epor t E P 4 5 . H eadqua r te r s Q ua r t erma s te r R esea rch & D eve lopmen t C ommand C en t re , U S A rmy , N a t ick , Ma s sachuse t t s . P ro jec t R ef e rence AE7D . McKe rn , T .W . 1 970 " Es t ima t ion o f s ke le ta l a ge : F rom p ube r ty t o a bou t 3 0 y ea r s o f a ge" . I n S t ewa r t ( ed . ) 1 970 : 4 1-56 . McNama ra , J .A . 1 987 "Ma t res p a t r iae /Ma t re s e cc les iae : Women o ft h e R oman Emp i re" . I nR . B r iden tha l , C . K oonz a nd S . S tua rd ( e d s . ) B ecom ing V i s ib le : W omen i n E uropean H i s tory . H ough ton M if f l in C ompany , B o s ton . ( 2n d e d i t ion ) . 1 07 129 . Mc Wh ir r , A .D . 1 973 " C i rence s te r , 1 969 1972 : N in th i n te r im r epor t" . I n T he A n t iqua r ie s J ourna l 5 3 : 1 9 1-218 . Mc Wh ir r , A . , V ine r , L . , We l ls , C . ( ed s .) 1 982 R omano B r i t i sh C eme ter ie s a t C i rence s ter . C irence s te r E xca va t ions I . C irences te r E xcava t ion C omm i t tee , C i rences te r . Me ind l , R .S . , L ove joy , C .O . , Men sf o r th , R .P . , C a r lo s , L .D . 1 985 " Accu racy a nd d i rec t ion o r e r ro r i nt h e s ex ing o ft h e s ke le ton : I mp l ica t ion s f o r p a leodemog raphy" . I n A JPA 6 8 : 7 9 -85 . Me rbs , C .F . 1 983 P a t tern s o fA c t iv i ty -Induced P a tho logy i n a C anad ian I nu i t P opu la t ion . A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f C anada P ape r 19 . N a t iona l Museum o f Man Me rcury S e r ie s , O t towa . Me rb s , C .F . 1 989 " T rauma" . I n I s can a nd K ennedy ( ed s . ) 1 989 : 1 61187 . Me rchan t , V .L . , Ube lake r , D .H . 1 977 " Ske le ta l g row th o f t h e P ro toh is to r ic A nka ra" . I n A JPA 4 6 : 6 1-72 . M i le s , A .E .W . 1 962 " Asse ssmen t o f t h e a ge s o f a p opu la t ion o f A ng lo -Saxon s f r om t h e i r d en t i t ion s" . I nP roceed ing s o ft h e R oya l S oc ie ty o f Med ic ine 5 5 : 81-886 . M i le s , A .E .W . 1 978 " Tee th a s i n d ica to r s o f a ge i n man" . I nB u t ler a nd J oy sey ( ed s . ) 1 978 : 4 55 -464 . M i le s , A .E .W . 1 989 A n E ar ly C hr i s t ian C hape la nd B ur ia l G round o n t h e i s le o f E nsay , O u ter H ebr id e s , S co t land w i th a s t udy o ft h e s ke le ta l r ema in s . B AR B r i t ish S er ies 2 12 . M i l iband , R . 1 977 Marx i sm a nd P o l i t ic s . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s , O xf o rd . 5 3 -54 . M i l le r , B .D . ( ed . ) 1 993 S ex a nd G ender H ie rarch ie s . C amb r idge U n iver s i ty P res s , C amb r idge . M i l le r , D . 1 983 " TH INGS a i n ' t w ha t t h ey u sed t ob e" . I n R oya lA n thropo log ica lI n s t i tu te N ew s 5 9 : 5 -7 . M i l le r , D . ( e d .) 1 986 " The l i m i t s o f d om inance" . I n C ompara t ive S tud ies i nt h e D eve lopmen t o fC omp lex S oc ie t ies . Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l C ong ress , A l len a nd U nw in , L ondon .

M i l le r , D . , R ow land s , M . , T i l ley , C . ( ed s . ) 1 989 D om ina t ion a nd R e s i s tance . U nw in H yman L td . , L ondon . M i l le r , D . , T i l ley , C . ( ed s . ) 1 984 " Ideo logy , p owe r a nd p r eh i s tory : A n i n t roduc t ion" a nd " Ideo logy , p owe r a nd l o ng term s oc ia l c hange" . I n I d eo logy , P ower a nd P reh i s tory . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . 1 15 , 1 47 -152 . M i l le t t , K . 1 971 S exua lP o l i t ic s . G ranada P ub l ish ing L td . , L ondon . 2nd e d . M i l ls , J .M . 1 993 " The C of f ins" . I nF a rwe l l a nd Mo l le son ( e d s . ) 1 993 : 14 -134 . M i lne r , G .R . , L a r sen , C .S . 1 99 1 " Tee th a s a r tef ac t s o f h uman b ehav iou r : I n ten t iona l mu t i la t ion a nd a cc iden ta l mod if ica t ion" . I nK e l ley a nd L a r sen ( e ds . ) 1 99 1 : 3 57 -378 . M i l ton , K . 1 979 "Ma le b i a s i na n th ropo logy" . I n Man 1 4 ( n .s . ) : 4 0 -54 . Mo l leson , T . 1 981 " The a r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy o f d ea th : Wha t t h e b one s t e l l u s" . I n Humph reys a nd K ing ( e ds . ) 1 98 1 : 1 5 -32 . Mo l le son , T . 1 989 " Seed p repa ra t ion i n t h e Meso l i th ic : T he o s teo log ica l e v idence" . I n A n t iqu i ty 6 3 : 3 56 3 62 . Mo l le son , T . 1 992 "Mor ta l i ty p a t terns i n t h e R omano B r i t i sh c eme te ry a t P oundbu ry C amp n ea r D o rche s te r" . I n B a sse t t ( e d .) 1 992 : 4 3-55 . Mo l leson , T . I . 1 993 " The H uman R ema ins" . I n F a rwe l l a nd Mo l le son ( e d s . ) 1 993 : 1 4 1-214 ; mf A 2 -6 . Mo l le son , T . I . , C ohen , P . 1 990 " The p rog ress ion o fd en ta l a t t r i t ion s t age s u s ed f o r a ge a s sessmen t" . I n J AS 1 7 : 3 63 -37 1 . Mo l le son , T . , C ox , M . 1 993 T he S p i ta l f ie ld s P ro jec t V o l . 2 - T he A n th ropo log y : T he M idd l ing S or t . CBA R e sea rch R epor t 8 6 . Moogk , S . 1 991 " The c ons t ruc t ion o f" woman" i nt h eN uu c hah -nu l th g i r l s ' p uber ty c e remony i n 1 9 10" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 1 03 -107 . Moo re , H .L . 1 982 " The i n terp re ta t ion o fs pa t ia l p a t tern ing i ns e t t lemen t r e s idue s" . I n H odde r ( ed . ) 1 982a : 7 4 7 9 Moo re , H .L . 1 988 F em in i sm a nd A n thropo log y . P o l i ty P r es s , C amb r idge . Moo re , H .L . 1 991 " Ep i logue" . I n G e ro a nd C onkey ( ed s . ) 1 991 : 4 07 -411 . Moo re , H .L . 1 996 S pace , T ex t a nd G end er : A n A n thropo log ica l S tudy o f t h e Marakwe t o f K enya . T he G u i lf o rd P re s s , L ondon . Moo re , W . J . , C o rbe t t , M .E . 1 973 " The d i s t r ibu t ion o f d en ta l c a r ie s i n a nc ien t B r i t ish p opu la t ions : I l I r on A ge , R omano -Br i t ish a nd Med ieva l p e r iod s" . I n C ar ie sR e search 7 : 1 39 153 . Moor rees , C .F . , F ann ing , E .A . , H un t , E .E . Jr . 1 963a " Fo rma t ion a nd r e sorp t ion o ft h ree d ec iduous t e e th i n c h i ld ren" . I n A JPA 2 1 : 2 05 -213 . Moor ree s , C .F . , F ann ing , E .A . , H un t , E .E .Jr . 1 963b " Age v a r ia t ion o f f o rma t ion s t ages f o r t e n p e rmanen t t e e th" , I n JDR 4 2 : 1 490 1502 . Moor ree s , C .F .A . , T homsen , S .O . , J ensen , E . , Y en , P .K J . 1 957 "Me s iod is ta l c rown d i ame te r s o ft h e d ec iduous a nd p ermanen t t e e th i n i n d iv idua ls" . I n JDR 3 6 : 3 9 -47 . N e lson , S .M . 1 993 " Gende r h i era rchy a nd t h e q ueens o f S i l la" . I nM i l le r( ed . ) 1 993 : 2 97 -373 . N e lson , S .M . 1 997 G ender i n A rchaeo logy : A na ly s ing P ower a nd P re s t ige . A l ta M ira P ress , S age 1 23

P ub l ica t ion s , C a l if o rn ia . N e lson , S .M . 1 999 " Re th ink ing g ende r a nd p owe r" . I n Swee ly ( ed . ) 1 999 : 1 85 189 . N ib le t t , R . 1 985 S heepen : A n e ar ly R oman i ndu s t r ia l s i te a tC amu lodunum . CBA R e sea rch R epor t 5 7 . No rdb ladh , J . , Y a tes , T . 1 990 " Th is p e rf ec t b ody , t h is v i rg in t e x t : b e tween s ex a nd g ende r i na r chaeo logy" . I n I .B ap ty a nd T . Y a tes ( e d s . ) A rchaeo logy a f t e r S t ruc tura l i sm : P o s t -s t ruc tura l i sm a nd t h ep rac t ice o f

P ea rce , S .M . 1 982 T he E ar ly C hurch i n W e s tern B r i ta in a nd I r e land . B AR B r i t ish S e r ie s 1 02 . P eeb les , C .S . 1 97 1 "Moundv i l le a nd s u r round ing s i tes : S ome s t ruc tu ra l c ons ide ra t ion s o f mor tua ry p r ac t ice s I " . I n B rown ( e d . ) 1 971 : 6 8 -9 1 . P eeb le s , C .S . 1 974 Moundv i l le : T he O rgan i sa t ion o f aP reh i s tor ic C ommun i ty a nd C u l ture . P hD T hes i s , D epa r tmen t o f A n thropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia , S an ta B a rba ra . P eeb les , C .S . , K u s , S .M . 1 977 " Some a r chaeo log ica l

a rchaeo logy . R ou t ledge , L ondon . 2 22 -237 . O 'Br ien , M . 1 982 " Fem in is t t h eory a nd d i a lec t ica l l o g ic" . I n K eohane e ta l . ( e d s . ) 1 982 : 9 9 112 . O ke ly , J . 1 979 " An a n th ropo log ica l c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e

c or re la te s o f r anked s oc ie t ie s" . A n t iqu i ty 4 2 ( 3 ) : 4 2 1-448 .

I n

Ame r ican

P e rz ig ian , A .J . 1 977 " Tee th a s t o o ls f o r p r eh is tor ic s t ud ie s" . I n B lake ly ( ed .) 1 977 : 1 0 1114 . P e te r sen , W . 1 975 " A d emog raphe r 's v i ew o f p r eh i s to r ic d emog raphy" . I n C urren t A n thropo logy 1 6 ( 2 ) : 2 27 -237 . P hen ice , T .W . 1 969 " A n ew ly d eve loped v i sua l m e thod o f s ex ing t h e o s p ub is" . I n AJPA 3 0 : 2 97 -30 1 . P h i lpo t t , R . 1 991 B ur ia l P rac t ice s i n R oman B r i ta in : A s urvey o fg rave t r ea tmen t a nd f urn i sh ing A .D . 4 3 4 10 . B AR B r i t ish S e r ies 2 19 . P i erpo in t , S . J . 1 979 "Who 's who i nt h e n or thern B r i t ish B ronze A ge" . I n B ur nham a nd K ing sbu ry ( e d s .) 1 979 : 3 1-45 . P in te r -Be l lows , S . 1 993 " The H uman S ke le ton s" . I n C rummy e ta l . ( e ds . ) 1 993 : 7 8 ; 6 2 -92 ; mf 9 72 -988 .

h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy o f a n e t hn ic g roup" . I n B u rnham a nd K ing sbu ry ( ed s .) 1 979 : 8 1-92 . O r tne r , S .B . , Wh i tehead , H . ( ed s . ) 1 981 " I n t roduc t ion : A ccoun t ing f o r s exua l m ean ing s" . I n S exua l Mean ing s : T he C u l tura l C ons t ruc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty . C amb r idge U n iver s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . 1 27 . O 'Shea , J .M . 1 981 " Soc ia l c onf igu ra t ions a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l s t udy o f mor tua ry p rac t ices : A c a se s t udy" . I n C hapman e ta l . ( e d s .) 1 981 : 3 9 -52 . O 'Shea , J .M . 1 984 Mor tua ry V a r iab i l i ty : A n A rchaeo log ica l I n ve s t iga t ion . A cadem ic P re ss I n c . , O r lando . Ows ley , D .W . , J an tz , R .L . 1 983 " Forma t ion o f t h e p ermanen t d en t i t ion i n A nka ra I nd ians : T im ing d i f f e rences t h a t a f f ec t d en ta l a ge a s ses smen t s" . I n A JPA 6 1 : 4 67 -47 1 . Ows ley , D .W . , Webb , R .S . 1 983 "M isc la ss if i ca t ion p robab i l i ty o fd en ta l d i scr im ina t ion f unc t ions f o r s e x d e term ina t ion" . I n J FS 2 8 : 1 8 1185 . O xna rd , C .E . 1 987 F o ss i l s , T ee th a nd S ex . U n ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton P re s s , S ea t t le . P ade r , E J . 1 982 S ymbo l i sm , S oc ia l R e la t ions a nd t h e I n terpre ta t ion o f Mor tua ry R ema in s . B AR I n terna t iona l S e r ie s 1 30 . P a rke r P ea r son , M . 1 982 "Mor tua ry p rac t ice s , s oc ie ty a nd i d eo logy : A n e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t udy" . I n H odde r ( e d .) 1 982a : 9 9 113 .

P o lga r , S . ( e d . ) 1 975 P opu la t ion , E co logy a nd S oc ia l E vo lu t ion . Mou ton & C o . , T he H ague . P ome roy , S .B . 1 975 G odd esse s , W hore s , W ive s , a nd S la ve s : W omen i n C la ss ica l A n t iqu i ty . R obe r t H a le &C ompany , L ondon . P ome roy , S .B . 1 976 " The r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e m ar r ied w oman t o h e r b l ood r e la t ive s i nR ome" . I nA nc ien t S oc ie ty 7 : 2 15 -227 . P ome roy , S .B . 1 981 "Women i n R oman E gyp t ( A p r e l im ina ry s t udy b a sed o n p apy r i )" . I n F o ley ( ed .) 1 981 : 3 03-322 . P owe l l , M .L . 1 988 S ta tu s a nd H ea l th i n P reh i s to ry : A C a se S tud y o ft h e Mound v i l le C h ief dom . Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu t ion P res s , Wa sh ing ton . P reuce l , R . , H odde r , I . ( eds . ) 1 996 C on temporary A rchaeo logy i n T heory . B lackwe l l P ub l ishe r s L td . , O xf o rd . P r ice , T .D . ( e d .) 1 989 " Bones , c hem is t ry a nd t h e h uman p a s t" . I nT he C hem i s try o fP reh i s tor ic H uman B one . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P res s , C amb r idge . 1 9 . P r ice , T .D . , S choen inge r , M .J . , A rme lagos , G . J . 1 985 " Bone c hem is t ry a nd p as t b ehav iou r : A n o ve rv iew" . I n JHE 1 4 : 4 19 -447 . P u rce l l , N . 1 986 " L iv ia a nd t h e w omanhood o fR ome" . I n P roceed ing s o ft h e C ambr idge P h i lo log ica l S oc ie ty 3 2 : 7 8 105 . R adc l if f e -B rown , A .R . 1 922 T he A ndaman I s land e r s . T he F ree P res s , I l ino is . ( 3"1e d i t ion 1 948 ) . R ado sev ich , S .C . 1 993 " The s i x d ead ly s i ns o f t r ace e l emen t a na lys is : Ac ase s t udy o fw ishfu l t h ink ing i n s c ience" . I n S andf o rd ( ed . ) 1 993 : 2 69 -332 .

P a rke r P ea r son , M . 1 984a " Soc ia l c hange , i d eo logy a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd" . I n S p r igg s ( e d . ) 1 984 : 5 9 7 1 P a rke r P ea r son , M . 1 984b " Econom ic a nd i d eo log ica l c hange : C yc l ica l g row th i nt h e p re s ta te s oc ie t ies o f J u t land" . I nM i l le ra nd T i l ley ( ed s .) 1 984 : 6 9 -92 . P a te , D . , B rown , K .A . 1 985 " S tab i l i ty o f b one s t ron t ium i nt h e g eochem ica l e nv ironmen t" . I n JHE 1 4 : 4 83 4 91 . P a te , F .D . , H ut ton , J . T . 1 988 " The u se o f s o i l c hem is t ry d a ta t o a dd re s s p os t -mor tem d i agene s is i n b one m ine ra l" . I n J AS 1 5( 6 ) : 7 29 -739 . P a t r ik , L .E . 1 985 " I s t h e re a n a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd?" I n S ch if f e r( ed .) 1 985 : 2 7 -62 . P ayn te r , K .J . , G ra inge r , R .M . 1 96 1 " I nf luence o fn u t r i t ion a nd g ene t ics o n morpho logy a nd c a r ies s u scep t ib i l i ty" . I n J A MA 1 77 ( 5 ) : 3 06 -309 . P ayn te r , R . , McGu ire , RH . 1 991 " The a r chaeo logy o f i n equa l i ty : Ma te r ia l c u l tu re , d om ina t ion a nd r e s is tance" . I n McGu ire a nd P ayn te r ( ed s . ) 1 99 1 : 1 27 .

R and sbo rg , K . 1 975 " Popu la t ion a nd s oc ia l v a r ia t ion i n e a r ly B ronze A ge D enma rk : As y s tema t ic a pp roach" . I nP o lga r( ed .) 1 975 : 1 39 166 . R app , R . 1 977 " Gende r a nd c l a s s : A n a r chaeo logy o f k now ledge c oncer n ing t h e o r ig in o f t h e s t a te" . I n D ia lec t ica lA n thropo logy 2 : 3 09 -316 . R app , R . 1 979 " An thropo logy" ( Rev iew E s say ) . I n S igns

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7 6 102 . R oh r l ich -Leav i t t , R . ( e d . ) 1 975 W omen C ro ss -Cu l tura l ly : C hange a nd C ha l lenge . Mou ton & C o . , T he H ague . R oh r l ich -Leav i t t , R . 1 977 "Women i n t r ans i t ion : C re te a nd S ume r" . I n R . B r iden tha l a nd C . K oonz ( ed s . ) B ecom ing V i s ib le : Women i n E uropean H i s tory . H ough ton M if f l in C ompany , B os ton . 3 6 -59 . R o sa ldo , M . 1 980 " The u se a nd a buse o f a n th ropo logy : R ef l ec t ion s o n f em in ism a nd c ro s s -cu l tu ra l u nde r s tand ing" . I n S igns 5( 3 ) : 3 89 -417 . R osa ldo , M . , L amphe re , L . ( ed s . ) 1 974 Woman , C u l ture , a nd S oc ie ty . S t anf o rd U n ive r s i ty P ress , C a l if orn ia . R o se , J . C . 1 980 " S t res s a nd d en ta l d eve lopmen t : A n e xpe r imen ta l p a laeopa tho log ica l mode l" . I n A JPA 5 2 : 2 72 . R o se , J .C . , B oyd , L .F . , C ondon , K .W . 1 98 1 " Ename l m ic rodef ec t s a nd s ub -adu l t i n f ec t ions" . I n A JPA 5 4 : 2 70 . R o se , J . C . , C ondon , K .W . , G oodman , A .H . 1 985 " D ie t a nd d en t i t ion : D eve lopmen ta l d i s tu rbances" . I n G i lber t a nd M ie lke ( ed s . ) 1 985 : 2 81-305 . R o thsch i ld , N .A . 1 979 "Mo r tua ry b ehav iou r a nd s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a tI n d ian K no l l a nd D ick son Mound s" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 4 ( 1 ) : 6 58 -675 . R ow land son , J .( ed . ) 1 998 Women a nd S oc ie ty i n G reek a nd R oman E g yp t : A s ourcebook . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P res s , C amb r idge . S ah l in s , M .D . 1 958 S oc ia l S t ra t i f ica t ion i n P o lyne s ia . U n ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton P res s , S ea t t le . S ah l ins , M .D . 1 981 H i s tor ica l Me taphor s a nd My th ica l R ea l i t ie s . U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan P res s , A nn A rbo r , M ich igan . S a i le r , R .P . , S haw , B .D . 1 984 " Tombs tone s a nd R oman f am i ly r e la t ion s i n t h e p r inc ipa te : C iv i l ians , s o ld ie r s a nd s l aves" . I n J RS 7 4 : 1 24 146 . S a lway , P . 1 981 R oman B r i ta in . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss , O xf o rd . S amson , C . , B ran igan , K . 1 987 " A n ew m e thod o f e s t ima t ing a ge a t d ea th f r om f r agmen tary a nd w ea the red b one" . I n B odd ing ton e ta l . ( e d s .) 1 987 : 1 0 1108 . S amson , R . 1 988 " Supe rwomen , w onderwomen , g r ea t w omen , a nd r e a l w omen" . I n ARC 7( 1 ) : 6 0 -66 . S ande r s , W .T . , Webs te r , D . 1 978 " Un i l inea l ism , mu l t i l inea l ism a nd t h e e vo lu t ion o f c omp lex s oc ie t ie s" . I n R edman e ta t . ( ed s . ) 1 978 : 2 49 -302 . S andf o rd , M .K . ( e d .) 1 993 " Unde r s tand ing t h e b iogen ic d i agene t ic c on t inuum : I n terp re t ing e l emen ta l c oncen t ra t ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l b one" . I n I n ve s t iga t ion s o fA nc ien t Human T i ssue : C hem ica l A na ly se s i n A n thropo logy . F ood a nd N u t r i t ion i n H is to ry a nd A n th ropo logy 1 0 . G o rdon a nd B reach S c ience P ub l ishe r s , P enn sy lvan ia . 3 -57 . S and ison , A .T . 1 968 " Pa tho log ica l c hanges i n t h e s ke le tons o f e a r l ie r p opu la t ions d ue t o a cqu i red d i sea se , a nd d i ff icu l t ies i n t h e i r i n terp re ta t ion" . I n B ro thwe l l ( ed . ) 1 968 : 2 05 -243 . S aunde r s , S .R . 1 989 " Nonme t r ic s ke le ta l v a r ia t ion" . I n I s can a nd K ennedy ( ed s .) 1 989 : 9 5 108 . S aunde r s , S .R . 1 992 " Subadu l t s ke le tons a nd g row th r e la ted s t ud ie s" . I n S aunde r s a nd K a tzenbe rg ( e d s . ) 1 992 : 1 20 . S aunde r s , S .R . , K a tzenbe rg , M .A . ( eds . ) 1 992 S ke le ta l B io log y o fP a s t P eop le s : R e search Me thod s . W i ley L i ss , I n c . , N ew Y o rk .

4( 3 ) : 4 97 -513 . R a thbun , T .A . 1 984 " Ske le ta l p a tho logy f r om t h e P a leo l i th ic t h rough t h e m e ta l a ges i n I r an a nd I r aq" . I n C ohen a nd A rme lago s ( e d s . ) 1 984 : 1 37 -168 . R a th je , W .L . 1 969 " Soc io -po l i t ica l i mp l ica t ion s o fl ow land Maya b u r ia ls : Me thodo logy a nd t e n ta t ive h ypo theses" . I n Wor ld A rchaeo log y 1 : 3 59 -374 . R a th je , W .L . 1 973 "Mode ls f o r mob i le Maya : Av a r ie ty o f c on s t ra in t s" . I n R enf rew ( e d . ) 1 973 : 7 31-757 . R a th je , W .L . 1 979 "Modern m a te r ia l c u l tu re s t ud ies" . I n M .B . S ch if f e r ( ed .) A d vance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory V o l . 2 . A cadem ic P ress , N ew Y o rk . 1 37 . R aw son , B . ( e d . ) 1 991 Mar r iage , D ivorce , a nd C h i ld ren i n A nc ien t R ome . O xf ord U n ive r s i ty P res s I nc . , N ew Y o rk . 1 30 . R awson , B . ( ed . ) 1 992 " The R oman f am i ly" . I n T he F am i ly i n A nc ien t R ome : N ew P er spec t ive s . R ou t ledge , L ondon . 1 57 . R aybou ld , M .E . 1 999 A S tud y o fI n sc r ibed Ma ter ia lf rom R oman B r i ta in : A n i n qu i ry i n to s ome a spec t s o f l i t e ra cy i n R omano -Br i t i sh s oc ie ty . B AR B r i t ish S e r ie s 2 81 : 9 4 125 . R edman , C .L . , B erman , M .J . , C ur t in , E .V . , L anghorne , W .T .J r . , V er sagg i , N .M . , Wanse r , J .C . ( e d s .) 1 978 S oc ia lA rchaeo logy : B eyond S ub s i s tence a nd Da t ing . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . R eece , R . ( e d . ) 1 977 B ur ia l i n t h e R oman W or ld . CBA R esea rch R epor t2 2 . R e i te r , R .R . ( ed .) 1 975 T owa rd a n A n thropo logy o f W omen . Mon th ly R ev iew P r es s , N ew Y o rk . R enf rew , C . 1 969 " T rade a nd c u l tu re p roces s i nE u ropean p r eh is to ry" . I n C urren tA n thropo log y 1 0 : 1 5 1160 . R enf rew , C . 1 972 T he Emergence o fC iv i l i sa t ion . Me thuen &C o . , L ondon . R enf rew , C . ( e d .) 1 973 "Monumen t s , mob i l isa t ion a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i n N eo l i th ic Wes sex" . I n T he E xp lana t ion o f C u l tu re C hange : Mod e l s i n P reh i s to ry . G e ra ld D uckwor th & C o . L td . , L ondon . 5 39 -558 . R enf rew , C . 1 974 " Beyond a s ub s is tence e conomy : T he E vo lu t ion o f S oc ia l O rgan isa t ion i n P reh is to r ic E u rope" . I n C .B . Moo re ( e d . ) R econs truc t ing C omp lex S oc ie t ie s : A n A rchaeo log ica l C o l loqu ium . S upp lemen t t ot h e B u l le t in o ft h e Ame r ican S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R esea rch No . 2 0 , Ma ssachuse t t s . 6 9 -95 . R ich l in , A . 1 981 " App roache s t ot h e s ou rces o n a du l tery a t R ome" . I n F o ley ( ed .) 1 981 : 3 79 -404 . R obb ins , L .M . 1 977 " The s t o ry o f l i f e r evea led b y t h e d ead" . I n B lake ly ( ed . ) 1 977 : 1 0 -26 . R obe r ts , C .A . , L ee , F . , B in t l if f , J . ( ed s . ) 1 989 B ur ia l A rchaeo logy C ur ren t R e search , Me thod s a nd Deve lopmen t s . B AR B r i t i sh S e r ie s 2 11 . R ober ts , C . , Manches te r , K . 1 995 T he A rchaeo logy o f D i sea se . S u t ton P ub l ish ing L im i ted , C orne l l U n ive r s i ty P ress ,N ew Y o rk . ( 2 "d e d i t ion ) . R obey , D . 1 973 S t ruc tura l i sm : A n I n t roduc t ion . C la rendon P res s , O xf o rd . R odwe l l , K .A . 1 988 T he P reh i s tor ic a nd R oman S e t t lemen t a t K e lvedon , E ssex . C he lmsfo rd A rchaeo log ica l T ru s t &C ounc i l f o rB r i t ish A r chaeo logy , L ondon . R oge r s , S .C . 1 978 "Woman 's p l ace : Ac r i t ica l r ev iew o f a n th ropo log ica l t h eo ry" . I n C SSH 2 0 ( 1 ) : 1 23 -162 . R oh r l ich , R . 1 980 " S ta te f o rma t ion i n S ume r a nd t h e s ub juga t ion o f w omen" . I n F em in i s t S tud ies 6( 1 ) : 1 25

S au ssu re , F . 1 960 C our se i n G enera l L ingu i s t ic s . P e te r Owen L im i ted , L ondon . ( T ran s . W . B a sk in ) . S axe , A .A . 1 970 S oc ia lD imens ions o f Mor tuary P rac t ices , P hD T hes is , U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan . S axe , A .A . 1 97 1 " Soc ia l d imens ions o f mor tua ry p rac t ices i n aMe so l i th ic p opu la t ion f r om Wad i H a if a , S udan" . I n B rown ( ed .) 1 971 : 3 9 -57 . S chepe r -Hughes , N . 1 983 " The p rob lem o f b i a s i n a nd rocen t r ic f em in is t a n th ropo logy" . I n W omen ' s S tud ie s 1 0 : 1 09 116 . S ch if f e r , M .B . ( e d . ) 1 985 Advance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory V o l . 8 . A cadem ic P res s , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . S choen inger , M .J . 1 979 " D ie t a nd s t a tus a tC ha lca tz ingo : S ome e mp i r ica l a nd t e chn ica l a spec t s o f s t ron t ium a na lys is" . I n A JPA 5 1 : 2 95 -309 . S chou r , I . , Ma ss le r , M . 1 941 " The d eve lopmen t o f t h e h uman d en t i t ion" . I n J ADA 2 8 : 1531160 . S ch ranz , D . 1 959 " Age d e term ina t ion f r om t h e i n terna l s t ruc tu re o ft h e h ume ru s" . I n A JPA 1 7 : 2 73-277 . S chuck , V . 1 974 " A s ympo s ium : Ma scu l ine b l inde r s i nt h e s oc ia l s c iences" . I n S oc ia lS c ience Q ua r ter ly 5 5 ( 3 ) : 5 63 -585 . S chu l te rE l l is , F .P . , S chm id t , D .J . , H ayek , L .A . , C ra ig , J . 1 983 " De term ina t ion o f s ex w i th a d i sc r im inan t f u nc t ion a na lys is o f n ew p e lv ic b one m ea su remen ts : P ar t 1 " . I n J FS28 ( 1 ) : 1 69 180 . S chu l te rE l l is , F .P . , H ayek , L .A . , S chm id t , D .J . 1 983 " De term ina t ion o f s ex w i th a d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na lys is o fn ew p e lv ic b one m ea su remen t s : P a r t I " . I n J FS 3 0 : 1 78 185 . S chu lz , F . 1 951 C la s s ica l R oman L aw . T he C la rendon P res s , O xf o rd .

S hennan , S . 1 975 " The s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion a t B ranc" . I n A n t iqu i ty 4 9 : 2 79 -288 . S hennan , S . 1 982 " Ideo logy , c hange a nd t h e E u ropean e a r ly B ronze Age" . I n H odde r ( e d .) 1 982a : 1 55 1 6 1 . S hennan , S . 1 988 Q uan t if y ing A rchaeo logy . E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re ss , E d inbu rgh , S hepha rd , J . F . 1 979 " The s oc ia l i d en t i ty o ft h e i n d iv idua l i ni s o la ted b ar row s a nd b ar row c eme ter ies i nA ng lo S axon E ng land" . I n B urnham a nd K ing sbury ( ed s . ) 1 979 : 4 7 -79 . S h imm in , D . 1 993 " Excava t ions a t No 4 2 C rouch S t ree t , C o lche s te r , 1 988" . I n C rummy e t a l . ( eds . ) 1 993 : 2 45 -256 . S i l len , A . , S m i th , P . 1 984 "Wean ing p a t terns a r e r ef lec ted i ns t ron t ium -ca lc ium r a t ios o fj uven i le s ke le ton s" . I n J AS 1 : 2 37 -245 . S i lve rb la t t , I . 1 99 1 " I n terpre t ing w omen i n s t a tes : N ew f em in i s te thnoh is to r ies" . 1 40 17 1 .

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S ingh , I i . , G unbe rg , D .L . 1 970 " E s t ima t ion o fa ge a td ea th i nh uman ma les f r om q uan t i ta t ive h i s to logy o f b one f r agmen t s" . I n A JPA 3 3 : 3 73-381 . S locum , S . 1 975 "Woman t h e g a the re r : Ma le b i a s i n a n thropo logy" . I n R e i te r( e d . ) 1 975 : 3 6 -50 . Sm i th , P . , K ah i la , G . 1 992 " Iden t if ica t ion o fi n f an t ic ide i n a r chaeo log ica l s i tes : A c a se s t udy f r om t h e l a te R omanea r ly B yzan t ine p e r iod s a tA shke l ton , I s rae l" . I n J AS 1 9 ( 1 ) : 6 67 -675 . S ognnaes , R .F . 1 956 " H is to log ica l e v idence o f d eve lopmen ta l l e s ions i n t e e th o r ig ina t ing f r om P a laeo l i th ic , p reh is tor ic a nd a nc ien t m an" . I n Ame r ican J ourna lo fP a tho logy 3 2 : 5 47 -567 . S o rensen , M .L .S . 1 987 "Ma te r ia l o rde r a nd c u l tu ra l c l a s s if ica t ion : T he r o le o f b ronze o b jec t s i n t h e t r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t o I r on A ge i n S cand inav ia" . I nH odde r( e d . ) 1 987 : 9 0 -10 1 . S o r en sen , M .L . 1 988 " I s t h er e af em in is t c on t r ibu t ion t o a r chaeo logy?" I n ARC 7( 1 ) : 9 20 . S o ren sen , M .L . 1 99 1 " The c ons t ruc t ion o fg ende r t h rough a ppea rance" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 1 2 1129 .

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S o r en sen , M .L .S . 2 000 G end er A rchaeo logy . P o l i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . S o rg , M .H . , A nd rew s , R .P . , l s can , M .Y . 1 989 " Rad iog raph ic a ge ing o f t h e a du l t" . I n I s can ( e d . ) 1 989 : 1 69 193 .

E vo lu t ionary P e r spec t ive . R andom H ouse o fC anada L td . , T o ron to . (2 nd e d i t ion 1 971) S e rv ice , E .R . 1 975 O r ig ins o ft h e S ta te a nd C iv i l i sa t ion . W .W . Nor ton & C ompany , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . S hank s , M . , T i l ley , C . 1 982 " I deo logy , s ymbo l ic p owe r

S pa rey -Green , C . 1 982 " The c eme te ry o f aR omano -Br i t ish c ommun i ty a t P oundbu ry , D o r ches te r , D o r se t" . I n P ea r ce ( e d .) 1 982 : 6 1-76 , S pa rey -Gr een , C . , P a te r son , M . , B iek , L . 1 982 " The

a nd r i tua l c ommun ica t ion : A r e in terp re ta t ion o f N eo l i th ic mor tua ry p rac t ices" . I n H odde r ( e d . ) 1 982a : 1 29 154 . S hank s , M . , T i l ley , C . 1 987a S oc ia l T heory a nd A rchaeo log y . P o l i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . S hank s , M . , T i l ley , C . 1 987b R e -cons t ruc t ing A rchaeo logy : T heo ry a nd P rac t ice . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . S haw , I 3 .D . 1 984a " La t in f une ra ry e p ig raphy a nd f am i ly l i f e i nt h e l a te r R oman Emp i re" . I nH i s tor ia 3 3 : 4 57 4 90 .

R omano -Br i t ish c eme tery a t t h e s i te o f t h e C rown B u i ld ing s , D o rches te r" . I n PDNHAS 1 03 : 6 7 100 . S pa rey -Gr een , C . 1 987 E xca va t ion s a t P oundbury , D o rche s ter , D or se t 1 966 -1982 : V o lume I : T he S e t t lemen t s . DNHAS Monog raph S e r ies 7 . S pec to r , J .D . 1 991 "Wha t t h is a w l m eans : T owa rd a f em in i s t a r chaeo logy" . I n G e ro a nd C onkey ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 3 88 -406 . S pence r - Wood , S .M . 1 99 1 " Towa rd a f em in is t h i s to r ica l a r chaeo logy o ft h e c ons t ruc t ion o fg ende r" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l lows ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 2 34 -244 . S pence r - Wood , S .M . 1 999 " Gende r ing p owe r" . I n S wee ly ( e d . ) 1 999 : 1 75 183 . S p r igg s , M . ( e d .) 1 984 Marx i s t P er spec t ive s i n

S haw , B .D . 1 984b " The a ge o f R oman g i r ls a tm ar r iage : S ome r e con s ide ra t ions" . I n J RS 7 7 : 2 8 -44 . S he l ton , J .A . 1 988 A s t h e R oman s D id : AS ourcebook i n R oman S oc ia l H i s tory . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , I n c . , O xfo rd . 1 26

A rchaeo logy .

C amb r idge

U n ive r s i ty

s k e le ton s" . I n J FS 2 2 : 1 4 1144 . S wed lund , A .C . , A rme lago s , G .J . 1 976 D emog raph ic A n thropo logy . Wm . C . B rown C ompany P ub l ishe r s ,

P re ss ,

C ambr idge . S t . H oyme , L .E . , I s can , M .Y . 1 989 " De te rm ina t ion o fs ex a nd r a ce : A ccu racy a nd a s sump t ions" . I n I s can a nd K ennedy ( e d s . ) 1 989 : 5 3 -89 . S t ee le , D .G . 1 976 " The e s t ima t ion o fs ex o n t h e b a s i s o f t h et a lu sa nd c a lcaneus" . I n AJPA 4 5 : 5 8 1-588 . S t e inbock , R .T . 1 976 P a leopa tho log ica l D iagno s i s a nd I n terpre ta t ion : B one D i sea se s i n A nc ien t Human P opu la t ion s . C ha r le s CT homa s P ub l ishe r , I l ino i s . S t ewa rd , J .H . 1 955 T heory o f C u l ture C hange : t h e m e thodo log y o f mu l t i l inea r e vo lu t ion . U n ive r s i ty o f I l ino is P re s s , U rbana . ( 2n d e d i t ion 1 973) . S t ewa r t , T .D . 1 957 " D is tor t ion o f t h e p ub ic s ymphy sea l s u rf ace i n f ema le s a nd i t s e f f ec t o n a ge

D ubuque , I owa . S wee ly , T .L . ( ed . ) 1 999 " I n t roduc t ion" a nd " Gende r , s pace , p eop le a nd p owe r a t C e ren , E l S a lvado r" . I n Man if e s t ing P ower : G end er a nd t h e I n terpre ta t ion o f P ower i n A rchaeo logy . R ou t ledge , L ondon . 1 14 , 1 55 171 . S yme , R . 1 939 T he R oman R evo lu t ion . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s , O xf o rd . T a in te r , J .A . 1 973 " The s oc ia l c or re la te s o f mor tua ry p a t tern ing a t K a iak° , N or th K ona , H awa i i" . I n A rchaeo logy a nd P hy s ica l A n thropo logy i n O cean ia V I I I . N or thwes ter nU n ive r s i ty , I l ino is . T a in te r , J .A . 1 975a T he A rchaeo log ica l S tud y o fS oc ia l C hange : W ood land sS y s tems i nW e s t -Cen tra lI l ino i s . P hD T he s is , Nor thwe s tern U n ive r s i ty , I l ino is . T a in te r , J .A . 1 975b " Soc ia l i n f erence a nd mor tua ry p rac t ice s : A n e xpe r imen t i nn ume r ica l c l ass if ica t ion" . I n W or ld A rchaeo logy 7 : 1 15 . T a in te r , J .A . 1 977 "Mode l l ing c hange i np r eh is to r ic s oc ia l

d e term ina t ion" . I n A JPA 1 5 : 9 18 . S t ewa r t , T .D . 1 962 " Commen t s o n t h e r e a sses smen t o ft h e I nd ian Kno l l s ke le tons" . I n A JPA 2 0 : 1 43 148 . S t ewar t , T .D . 1 968 " Iden t if ica t ion b y t h e s ke le ta l s t ruc ture s" . I n F .E . C amp s ( ed . ) G radwoh l ' s L ega l Med ic ine . J ohn Wr igh t & S ons L td . , B r i s to l . 1 09 1 35 . S t ewa r t , T .D . 1 969 " The e f f ec t s o fp a tho logy o n s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s" . I n A JPA 3 0 : 4 43-449 . S t ewa r t , T .D . ( e d .) 1 970 P e r sona l I d en t if ica t ion i n Ma ss D i sa s ter s . Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu te , Wa sh ing ton . S t ewa r t , T .D . 1 979 E ssen t ia l s o fF oren s ic A n thropo logy : E spec ia l ly a s D eve loped i nt h e U n i ted S ta te s . C ha r les CT homa s , I l ino is . S t icke l , E .G . 1 968 S ta tu s D if f e ren t ia t ion s a t t h e R incon S i te . A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey A nnua l R epo r t , D epar tmen t o f A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f

s y s tems" . I nL .R . B info rd ( ed . ) F or T heory B u i ld ing i n A rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re ss , N ew Y o rk . 3 27 3 51 T a in te r , J .A . 1 978 "Mor tua ry p rac t ice s a nd t h e s t udy o f p r eh is tor ic s oc ia l s y s tems" . I n M .B . S ch if f er ( ed . ) Ad vance s i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry Vo l . I .A cadem ic P re ss , N ew Y o rk . 1 05 141 . T a in te r , J .A . 1 980 " Behav iou r a nd s t a tu s i n a m idd le w ood land mor tua ry p opu la t ion f r om t h e I l ino is V a l ley" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 ( 1 ) : 3 08 -313 . T a in te r , J .A . , C o rdy , R .H . 1 977 " An a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is o f s oc ia l r a nk ing a nd r e s idence g roup s i n

C a l if orn ia , L o s A nge le s . S t in i , W .A . 1 969 " Nu t r i t iona l s t res s a nd g row th : S ex d i f f e rence s i n a dap t ive r e sponse" . I n A JPA 3 1 :

p r eh is to r ic H awa i i" . I n W or ld A rchaeo logy 9 : 9 5 12 . T ay lo r , S . 1 990 " Bro the r s ' i n a rms? F em in ism , p os t s t ruc tu ra l ism , a nd t h e r i se o fc i v i l isa t ion" . I n B ake r a nd T homa s ( ed s . ) 1 990 : 3 2 -4 1 . T h ieme , F .P . , Or t en , C .M . 1 957 " The u n re l iab i l i ty o fb l ood t y p ing a ged b one" . I n A JPA 1 5 : 3 87 -397 . T homa s , C . 1 981 C hr i s t ian i ty i nR oman B r i ta in t o AD 5 00 . B .T . B a t sf o rd L td . , L ondon . T homa s , J . 1 990 " A rchaeo logy a nd t h e n o t ion o f i d eo logy" . I n B ake r a nd T homa s ( eds . ) 1 990 : 6 36 8 . T hompson , D .D . 1 979 " The c o re t e chn ique i n t h e d e term ina t ion o fa ge a td ea th i n s ke le tons" . I nJ FS 2 4 : 9 02 -9 15 . T i l ley , C . 1 982 " Soc ia l f o rma t ion , s oc ia l s t ruc tu res a nd s oc ia l c hange" . I n H odde r( e d . ) 1 982a : 2 6 -38 . T i l ley , C . 1 984 " I deo logy a nd t h e l e g i t ima t ion o fp owe r i n t h e m idd le N eo l i th ic o fs ou ther n Sweden" . I n M i l le r a nd T i l ley ( eds . ) 1 984 : 11146 . T oynbee , J . , Wa rd P e rk in s , J . 1 956 T he S hr ine o fS t . P e ter a nd t h e V a t ican E xca va t ion s . L ongmans , G reen a nd C o . L td . , L ondon . T regg ia r i , S . 1 976 " Job s f o r w omen" . I n A JAH 1 :7 6 1 04 . T regg ia r i , S . 1 98 1 " Concub inae" . I nP aper s o ft h e B r i t i sh S choo la tR ome 4 4 , L ondon . 5 9 -81 . T regg ia r i , S . 1 99 1 " D ivo rce R oman s t y le : H ow e a sy a nd h ow f r equen t w a s i t ?" I n R awson ( e d .) 1 991 : 3 14 6 . T roco l l i , R . 1 999 "Women l e ader s i n n a t ive n or th

4 17 -426 . S t in i , W .A . 1 985 " Grow th r a te s a nd s exua l d imo rph ism i n e vo lu t ionary p e r spec t ive" . I n G i lber t a nd M ie lke ( e d s . ) 1 985 : 1 9 1-226 . S t ir land , A . 1 986 H uman B one s i n A rchaeo logy . S h i re P ub l ica t ions L td . , P r ince s R isborough , B uck inghamsh i re . S tou t , S .D . 1 989 " The u se o f b one h i s to logy t o e s t ima te a ge a td ea th" . I nI s can ( e d .) 1 989 : 1 95 -207 . S tou t , S .D . , P a ine , R .R . 1 992 " Br ief c ommun ica t ion : H is to log ica l a ge e s t ima t ion u s ing r i b a nd c l av ic le" . I n A JPA 8 7 : 11-115 . S tou t , S .D . , T e i te lbaum , S .L . 1 976 " H is tomorphome t r ic d e term ina t ion o f f o rma t ion r a te s o f a r chaeo log ica l b one" . I n C a lc i f ied T i s sue R e search 2 1 : 1 63 169 . S tuar t - Macadam , P . 1 985 " Po ro t ic h ype ros to s is : R ep re sen ta t ive o f ac h i ldhood c ond i t ion" . I n A JPA 6 6 : 3 9 1-398 . S tua r t -Macadam , P . 1 987 " A r a d iog raph ic s t udy o fp o ro t ic h ype ros tos is" . I n A JPA 7 4 : 5 11-520 . S tuar t - Macadam , P . 1 989 " Nu t r i t iona l d ef ic iency d i sea se s : A s u rvey o f s curvy , , r i cke t s a nd i r on -def ic iency a naem ia" . I nI s can a nd K ennedy ( ed s . ) 1 989 : 3 9 -47 . S t uar t - Macadam , P . 1 992 " Po ro t ic h ype ros to s is : A n ew p e r spec t ive" . I n AJPA 8 7 : 3 9 -47 . S uchey , J .M . , W ise ley , D .V . , G reen , R .F . , N oguch i , T .T . 1 979 " Ana ly s is o fd or sa l p i t t ing i nt h e o s p ub is i na n e x tens ive s amp le o f modern Ame r ican f ema les" . I n A JPA 5 1 : 5 17 -523 . S und ick , R . I . 1 977 " Age a nd s ex d e term ina t ion o fs ubadu l t 1 27

Ame r ican s oc ie t ies : i nv is ib le w omen o f p owe r " .

I n

Swee ly ( e d . ) 1 999 : 4 9 -61 . T ro t te r , M . 1 970 " E s t ima t ion o f s t a tu re f r om i n tac t l o ng l i mb b one s" . I n S t ewa r t( ed . ) 1 970 : 7 1-83 . T ro t te r , M . , G le se r , G .C . 1 952 " Es t ima t ion o fs t a tu re f r om l o ng -bone s o f Ame r ican w h i tes a nd n eg roe s" . I n A JPA 1 0 : 4 63 -514 . T ro t te r , M . , G lese r , G .C . 1 958 " A r e -eva lua t ion o f e s t ima t ion o f s t a tu re b a sed o n m ea su remen t s o f s t a tu re t a ken d u r ing l i f e a nd o f l o ng b one s a f t e r d ea th" . I n A JPA 1 6 : 7 9 123 . T u rke l , S . J . 1 989 " Congen i ta l a bnorma l i t ies i n s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s" . I n I s can a nd K ennedy ( e ds . ) 1 989 : 1 09 -127 . T urne r , C .G . I I . 1 978 " Den ta l c a r ie s a nd e a r ly E cuado r ian a g r icu l tu re" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 ( 1 ) : 6 94 6 97 . U be lake r , D .H . 1 974 " Recon s t ruc t ion o f d emog raph ic p rof i le s f r om o s sua ry s ke le ta l s amp les : A c a se s t udy f r om t h e T idewa te r P o tomac" . S m i th son ian C on t r ibu t ion s t oA n thropo logy 1 8 , Wa sh ing ton . U be lake r , D .H . 1 978 H uman S ke le ta l R ema ins : E xcava t ion , A na ly s i s , I n terpre ta t ion . Manua ls o n A rchaeo logy 2 , T a raxacum , Wa sh ing ton D .C . ( Rev ised e d . 1 984 ) . U be lake r , D .H . 1 989 " The e s t ima t ion o fa ge a td ea th f r om i mma tu re h uman b one" . I n I s can ( e d . ) 1 989 : 57 0 . U cko , P . J . 1 969 " E thnog raphy a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n terp re ta t ion o f f unerary r ema ins" . I n W or ld A rchaeo log y 1 :2 62 -277 . U cko , P . J . , R o senf e ld , A . ( ed s .) 1 967 " Le ro i -Gou rhan" . I n P a laeo l i th ic C a ve A r t . Wo r ld U n ive r s i ty L ib ra ry , We idenf e ld a nd N ico lson , L ondon . 1 95 -22 1 . V an d e V e lde , P . 1 979 " The s oc ia l a n th ropo logy o f a N eo l i th ic c eme te ry i nt h e N e the r lands" . I n C ur ren t A n thropo logy 2 0 ( 1 ) : 3 7 -58 . V an G ennep , A . 1 960 [ 1 908 ] T he R i te s o f P a s sage . R ou t ledge & K egan P au l L td . , L ondon . ( T ran s . M .B . V izedom a nd G .L . C af f ee ) . 1 46 165 . V ine r , L . , L eech , R . 1 982 " Ba th G a te C eme tery , 1 969 1 976" . I n Mc Wh ir re ta l . ( eds . ) 1 982 : 6 9 111 . V oong , C .P . 2 000 A S tud y o f DNA e x t rac ted f rom 3 " C en tury R omano -Br i ton S ke l e ta l R ema ins . P hD T he s i s , U n iver s i ty o fE ssex . Wacher , J . 1 978 R oman B r i ta in . J .M . D en t & S ons L td . , L ondon . Wae lkens , M . 1 977 " Ph ryg ian v o t ives a nd t ombs tones a s s ources o f t h e s oc ia l a nd e conom ic l i f e i n R oman a n t iqu i ty" . I n A nc ien tS oc ie ty 8 : 2 77 -293 . Wa lde , D . , W i l low s , D .N . ( eds . ) 1 991 T he A rchaeo logy o f G ender : P roceed ing s o f t h e T wen ty -Second A nnua l C hacmoo l C onf erence o f t h e A rchaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion o ft h e U n iver s i ty o fC a lgary , C a lgary . Wa ld ron , H .A . 1 981 " Pos tmor tem a b sorp t ion o f l e ad b y t h e s ke le ton" . I n A JPA 5 5 : 3 95 -398 . Wa lke r , P .L . , D ean , G . , S hap iro , P . 1 99 1 " Es t ima t ing a ge f r om t oo th w ea r i n a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ions" . I n K e l ley a nd L a r sen ( eds . ) 1 991: 1 69 -178 . Wa lke r , R .A . , L ove joy , C .O . 1 985 " Rad iog raph ic c hanges

( e d . ) 1 991 : 1 9 1-227 . Wa l lman , S . 1 978 " The e p is temo log ie s o f s ex" . I n L . T ige r a nd H .T . F ow le r ( eds . ) F ema le H ierarch ie s . B e resf o rd B ook S e rv ice , C h icago . Wa rw ick , R . 1 968 " The s k e le ta l r ema in s" . I n Wenham ( e d . ) 1 968 : 13 171 . Wa shburn , S .L . 1 948 " Sex d i f f e rences i nt h e p ub ic b one" . I n A JPA 6 : 1 99 -208 . Wa shburn , S .L . , L anca s te r , C .S . 1 968 " The e vo lu t ion o f h un t ing" . I nL ee a nd D eVo re ( e d s . ) 1 968 : 2 93 -303 . Wa t son , P . J . , K ennedy , M .C . 1 99 1 " The d eve lopmen t o f h or t icu l tu re i n t h e e a s tern Wood land s o f N or th Ame r ica : Women 's r o le" . I n G e ro a nd C onkey ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 2 55 -275 . Wa t t s , D . 1 991 C hr i s t ian s a nd P agan s i nR oman B r i ta in . R ou t ledge , L ondon . Wa t t s , D . 1 993 " An a s se ssmen t o f t h e e v idence f o r C h r is t ian i ty a tt h e B u t t R oad s i te" . I n C rummy e ta l . ( e d s . ) 1 993 : 1 92 -202 . Weave r , D .S . 1 980 " Sex d i f f e rence s i nt h e i l a o f ak nown s e x a nd a ge s amp le o ff e ta l a nd i n f an t s ke le ton s" . I n A JPA 5 2 : 1 9 1195 . Webb , S . 1 989 P reh i s tor ic S t res s i nA u s t ra l ian A bor ig ine s : A P a laeopa tho log ica l S tud y o f aH un te r -Ga there r P opu la t ion . B AR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 4 90 . Webb , S . 1 995 P a laeopa tho logy o fA bo r ig ina lA u s t ra l ian s : H ea l th a nd D i sea se A cro s s a H un ter -Ga therer C on t inen t . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e ss , C amb r idge . Wedgewood , C .H . 1 927 " Dea th a nd s t a tu s i n Me lane s ia" . I n R oya l A n thropo log ica l I n s t i tu te o f G rea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land J ourna l 5 7 : 3 77 -397 . We is s , K .M . 1 972 " On t h e s y s tema t ic b i a s i n s k e le ta l s e x ing" . I n A JPA 3 7 : 2 39 -249 . We is s , K .M . 1 973 " Demog raph ic mode l s f o r a n th ropo logy" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 ( 1 ) ; MSAA 2 7 : 1 78 . We is s , K .M . 1 975 " Demog raph ic d i s tu rbance a nd t h e u s e o f l i f e t a b les i n a n th ropo logy" . I n A .C . S wed lund ( e d . ) P opu la t ion S tud ie s i n A rchaeo logy a nd B io log ica lA n thropo logy : AS ympo s ium . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 0 ( 2 ) ; MSAA 3 0 : 4 6 -56 . We l ls , C . 1 964 B one s , B od ie s a nd D i sea se - E v idence o f D i sea se a nd A bnorma l i ty i n E ar ly Man . A nc ien t P eop le s a nd P lace s S e r ies 3 7 . T hames a nd H ud son , L ondon . We l ls , C . 1 967 "Weaver , t a i lo r o r s hoemake r? A n o s teo log ica l d e tec t ive s t o ry" . I n Med ica l a nd B io log ica lI l lus t ra t ion 1 7 : 3 9 -47 . We l l s , C . 1 982 " The h uman b u r ia ls" . I n Mc Wh i r r e ta l . ( ed s .) 1 982 : 1 35 -202 . Wenham , L .P . ( ed . ) 1 968 T he R omano -Br i t i sh C eme te ry a t T ren tho lme D r ive , Y ork . M in is t ry o f P ub l ic B u i ld ing s a nd Wo rk s A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s 5 . H e r Ma jes ty 's S t a t iona ry Off ice , L ondon . Wes tko t t , M . 1 979 " Fem in is t c r i t ic ism o f t h e s oc ia l s c iences" . I n H arvard E duca t iona l R ev iew 4 9 ( 1 ) : 4 22 -430 . Whee ler , R .E .M . 1 929 " A R oman p ipe -bu r ia l f r om C ae r leon , Monmou thsh i re" . I n A n t iquar ies J ourna l 9( 1 ) : 1 7 . Whe lan , M .K . 1 991a " Gender a nd h i s tor ica l a r chaeo logy : E a s tern D ako ta p a t terns i nt h e 1 9t h C en tury" . I nD .J . S e if er t ( ed .) G end er i n H i s tor ica l A rchaeo logy . H i s tor ica lA rchaeo logy 2 5 ( 4 ) : 1 7 -32 . Whe lan , M .K . 1 991b " Gender a nd a r chaeo logy : Mor tua ry

i nt h e c l av ic le a nd p rox ima l f emu ra nd t h e i ru se i nt h e d e term ina t ion o f s ke le ta l a ge a t d ea th" . I n A JPA 6 8 : 6 7 -78 . Wa l lace -Had r i l l , A . 1 99 1 " Houses a nd h ouseho lds : S amp l ing P ompe i i a nd H ercu laneum" . I n R awson 1 28

s t ud ies a nd t h e s ea rch f o r t h e o r ig in s o f g ende r d if e ren t ia t ion" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s( ed s .) 1 99 1 : 3 58 -365 . Wh i te , W .J . ( ed . ) 1 988 S ke le ta l R ema in s f rom t h e C eme tery o fS t . N icho la s S hamb le s , C i ty o fL ondon . T he Museum o f L ondon a nd t h e L ondon a nd M idd le sex A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty . 2 8 -70 . W iedemann , T . 1 989 Adu l t s a nd C h i ld ren i n t h e R oman Emp i re . R ou t ledge , L ondon . W i ld , J . P . 1 983 " Tex t i le f r agmen t s f r om t h e l a te r B u t t R oad c eme te ry ( 4297 -4305 )" . I n N . C rummy ( e d . ) 1 983 : 1 47 148 . W i l l , E .L . 1 979 "Women i nP ompe i i" . I nA rchaeo logy 3 2 : 3 4 -43 . W i l l iam s , G . 1 958 " Some a spec ts o f R oman ma r r iage c e remon ies a nd i d ea ls" . I n J RS 4 8 : 1 6 -29 . W i lson , D .R . 1 968 " An e a r ly C h r is t ian c eme tery a t A nca s te r" . I n M .W . B a r ley a nd R .P .C . H anson ( e d s .) C hr i s t ian i ty i nB r i ta in , 3 00 -700 AD . L e ice s te r U n ive r s i ty P re s s , L e ices te r . 1 97 199 . W ing , E .S . , B rown , A .B . ( ed s .) 1 979 " Human s ke le ta l r ema ins" . I n P a leonu t r i t ion : Me thod a nd T heory i n P reh i s tor ic F oodway s . A cadem ic P re ss , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . 7 3 -91 . W in te r s , H .D . 1 968 " Va lue s y s tems a nd t r ade c yc les o f t h e l a te A r cha ic i n t h e M idwe s t" . I n B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd ( eds . ) 1 968 : 1 75 -22 1 . W i re , W . ( 1804 1857 ) T he J ourna l o f W i l l iam W i re . C i rcu la t ing c opy , C o lches te ra nd E s sex Mu seum . Wo lf , E . 1 990 " D i s t ingu ished l e c tu re : F ac ing p owe r —O ld i n s igh ts , n ew q ue s t ions" . I n Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 9 2 ( 1 ) : 5 86 -596 . Woodwa rd , A .B . 1 993 " D iscu ss ion" . I n F a rwe l l a nd Mo l le son ( ed s . ) 1 993 : 2 15-239 . Wr igh t , H .T . 1 978 " Towa rd a n e xp lana t ion o ft h e o r ig in o f t h e s t a te" . I n R edman e ta l . ( e ds . ) 1 978 : 4 9 -68 . Wr igh t , R .P . 1 991 "Women 's l a bo ra nd p o t te ry p roduc t ion i n p r eh is tory" . I n G e ro a nd C onkey ( e d s . ) 1 99 1 : 1 94 -223 . Wr igh t , R .P . ( ed .) 1 996 " I n t roduc t ion : G ende red w ays o f k now ing i n a r chaeo logy" . I n G end er a nd A rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o f P ennsy lvan ia P res s , P h i lade lph ia . 1 19 . Wy l ie , A . 1 991a " Gende r t h eo ry a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd : Why i st h e re n o a r chaeo logy o fg ende r?" I n G e ro a nd C onkey ( eds . ) 1 99 1 : 3 1-54 . Wy l ie , A . 1 991b " Fem in is t c r i t iques a nd a r chaeo log ica l c ha l lenges" . I n Wa lde a nd W i l low s ( ed s .) 1 99 1 : 1 7 -23 . Wy l ie , A . 1 992a " The i n terp lay o f e v iden t ia l c on s t ra in t s a nd p o l i t ica l i n te re s t s : r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch o ng ende r" . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 7 : 1 5 -35 . Wy l ie , A . 1 992b " Fem in is t t h eo r ies o fs oc ia l p owe r : S ome i mp l ica t ions f o r a p roce ssua l a r chaeo logy" . I n N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 2 5 ( 1 ) : 5 1-68 . Z ih lman , A .L . 1 978 "Women i n e vo lu t ion , P a r t I : S ub s is tence a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion a mong e a r ly h om in id s" . I n S ign s 4( 1 ) : 4 -20 . Z ih lman , A .L . 1 981 "Women a s t h e s hape r s o ft h e h uman a dap ta t ion" . I n D ah lbe rg ( e d . ) 1 981 : 7 5 120 .

1 29

APPEND ICES

APPEND IX 1

-

C eme tery D e ta i ls

r S i te : ' B u t tR oad L oca t ion : ' C o lche s te r C oun ty : t E s se x P e r iod : ' L a te R oman Re fe rence De ta i ls : C r umm y ,N . , r umm y ,P . ,C r o s son ,C .( e d s . )1 993 E xcava t ion so fR oman a nd L a te rC eme te r ie s ,C hu rche sa nd M ona s t ic S i t e si nC o lche s te r ,1 97 1 -88 . C o lche s te r A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t9 .C o lche s te rA r chaeo log ica lT r u s t L t d .

C eme tery D e ta i l sF orm

APPEND IX 2

-

S ec t ion D e ta i l s

S ec t ion Name : ' E a s te rn P e r iphe ra lc eme te r y S i te Re f :

I F L J

C eme te r y Name : I P oundbu r y

S ec t ion D e ta i l sF orm

1 3 1

APPEND IX 3

-

C rema t ion D e ta i l s

G r eve N u e rb er 7 7 0 1

E l

C eme te ry N ame : ( S ee ce r im

S ec t i on H am : N om e ie l yA r e a

S i te R at

C r a te : l A D3 % )3 9 0

pr— E

D ud R e l .

b u r ia lP e r iod , P r— C ond i t ion : I D a t ued

E e reev e rb an : I F t . d ye x ca va t ed A9e : r < 3 57 ,—

S ea : f o rm e

E l

A ge C r i te r ion : l a d ‘ i l

A t t i e: & Ace t ic& 1 l nw i n U rn I d e ten i d /Wa re c ! b l ac kB u rn i s h e d

Um T ype : r o—

U rn D ee : 1 A D c2 7 0 . 10 0

U rn H e i : F . P o on : 1 , deb ov e

U rn L i d : U rn P inC r O ln in t :

I T d e I L K : 1Woe v r ah , y ou nd whe n

P re E v idence : ( G i a . ee a r rh s t e a d ye . p o t e dt oh e a r

p a

C oal s Ev i d e i b ee , J tn a i l sp i e ce di nu mw i t hc e r n a re d A raoc i r i ted i h emon sO S ab ad i np i rn e x tt oun Me lan ie

e i t Me rme n* l ew b . .. » ,

L em» i ce r 3 c

Week

—

L i n ing Ma te r ia l s : r7 t r.

—

1 2 1 77-

O t te t t i,

-

P i t D esc r ip t ion : i o o ao : J ere u d e :t cb a te

P i tS hape : R eo r in gu.

f H • „ , =E l

D

l i n ing P os i t ion . , ' R ove de p >u n d

r F >

e t , : ; wound . un

I n te rsec t ion : N u tl i t a ve k t U r t S eded B Y : 7

—

r

r -

1

A dd i t iona lt r i le e r n emom N e o n + ,o n e ao e na m ou n to tc r e am ie db o re ; d e i c e d Ac n

C rema t ion D e ta i l sF orm t h e p y re b e ing p o s i t ioned i n /ove r t h e p i t o r e l sewhe re , a nd e v idence f o rt h e b ody h av ing b een c on ta ined w i th in ac off in f o rc r ema t ion .

E n t r ies u n ique t o t h e C rema t ion D e ta i l s f o rm c oncern t h e p l acemen t o f c r ema ted r ema ins w i th in t h e p i t o r u rn , d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e u rn i t se lf , e v idence ( s uch a ss co rch ing ) f o r

APPEND IX 4

-

E nc lo sure D e ta i ls

Enc le t tee Re f : F A M-

E nc iosu re T ype : ' Mau so leum

- -

C em e ter yN ame : ' Spec im en

3

3

Sec t ion Name ' Ceme te r y Nee

S i te R ef 1 XYZ

G r id Re t : I

C ons t ruc t ion l i de te t iet ' S tone . m o r ta ra nd p l a s te rw a r t s

O r ien ta t ion :

S hape P lan : I R ec ta nou la,

A re a : r " 4 . 5 i77 . 5-m --

E n t rance : ' Ea s t s i de

B u r ia lO a tes : 1 AD 3 10 •37DP 30 Add i t iona l I n fo rma t ion : ' F o rmed aP a 'a f e lp a uw i th M 1 4

E nc losure D e ta i l s F orm m auso lea , p l an a nd d imens ions , o r ien ta t ion ( p resen ted i n d eg rees f o r m auso lea a tt h e P oundbu ry c eme tery ) , t h e s i de i n w h ich t h e e n t rance w a s p l aced , a nd t h e d a te s o f a s soc ia ted b ur ia ls .

T h is f o rm p rov ides b a s ic d esc r ip t ions o fe nc lo su re s t h a t a r e r e f erenced f r om t h e G rave D e ta i l s f o rm i n r e la t ion t o s pec if ic g r aves . P re sen ted h e re a r e t h e t ypes o fe nc lo su re s ( mauso lea , h edged a nd d i tched ) , c ons t ruc t ion m a te r ia l f o r 1 32

APPEND IX 5

E xamp le so ft h eT erm ino logy A pp l ied t ot h eB u t tR oad S ke le ta lP o s i t ion ing

A rm ss t ra igh ta ts i de s L eg se x tended

A rm ss t ra igh ta ts i de s L eg sf l exed t or i gh ta tk nee s

R igh ta rm f o lded d i agona l ly o ve r a bdomen L ef ta rm s t ra igh ta ts i d e

H and so np e lv i s

1 33

R igh ta rm f o lded d i agona l ly o ve r a bdomen L ef ta rm f o lded d i agona l ly o ve r c he s t

A rm sf o ld ed a t9 0d eg r ee s

R igh ta rm f o lded a t9 0d eg r ee s L ef ta rm s t ra igh ta ts i d e

A rm sb en ta te l bow sw i th h and so n l owe rr i bcage

1 34

A rm sc r o s sed o ve rl owe ra bdomen

A rm sc r o s sed o ve rp e lv is

( P lans r ep roducedf rom m ic rof i che ; C rummy e ta l . , 1 993 : 3 06 -971 )

APPEND IX 6

-

C omponen t s D e ta i l s

er n e Swed e :1 2 0 0 1 C e i lect i v e rS FN o :

U eda" Neer I S p e ci nen

i s r bl AC92 4 14 11 , e4

T ype ! C om e rp een

1 1

I l a te r ia kI C appev e l o y

D escep l ien :1

Ul m :

D ecr i eNee 1 R eyea se e n db e ve l ed

Care Dee 1

NU M. /O p1 2d emehe ed ed ex i tt e a ch )

S FN o :I A C9 0 119 1 1

Se ldom 1 I f t*C 4 491 10 1 1K

0

0

C omponen t sD e ta i l sF orm

T he o n ly u n ique e n t ry i nt h e C omponen t s D e ta i l s f o rm i s A t tached B yw h ich s t a te st h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h em a in

1 35

a r tef ac t a nd i t s c omponen t s w he r e a pp rop r ia te , s uch a s , a t tached b y as u spen s ion l o op o rp i e rced f o rs u spens ion .

APPEND IX 7

-

T ex t i le R ema ins

r G rave N umbe r : 1 2 0 0 1 Te x t i le s R e f:

C eme te ry N ame :

I S p e cnen

E T X 2 1 18 1 C )

3

Weave : 1 P lam Weave

Ma te r ia l : 1 F la k S pun : 1 Weak Z . spun

C oun t : 1 2 15 p e rc m ,2 0p e rc m

D esc r ip t ion : 1 Med ium . f ine S ugges ted G a rmen t : 1 7C l oak P os i t ion/A t tached t o : 1 B rop ch

1 S EG2 17 1

T ex t i l e R ema in s F o rm

APPEND IX 8

A rm p o s i t ion v a lue s e xc luded f r om t he ma in a na ly s i so rs ub sumed w i th in s imp l if ied d a ta v a lue s f o r t he P oundbury C eme tery

V a lue se xc luded f r om t he P oundbury m a in a rm p o s i t ion a na ly s i s •

F l exed s l igh t ly t or i gh t / lef ta te l bow

• •

F l exed t or i gh t F l exed t or i gh t / lef ta te l bow w i th h and f o lded o n l ow e r c he s t

•

S l igh t ly f l exed

•

F l exed a way f r om b ody a ts hou lde ra nd f o lded b ack o n i t s e lf

•

F l exed s l igh t ly t or i gh t / lef t

•

E x tended f o rwa rd s

•

H and b enea th p e lv i s

• •

H and b enea th h i p s F l exed w i th h and i nf r on t o fa bdomen ( bu r ia l o n r i gh t s i de )

•

B enea th t o r so ( bu r ia lo n l e f ts i de )

•

A ts i de , c on t rac ted b a ck o n i t s e lf

V a lue s s ub sumed w i th in t he s imp l if ied a na ly t ica l c a tegor ie s f o r P oundbury H and o np e lv i s / lower a bdomen • H and o n p e lv i s • •

H and o n l owe ra bdomen H and f o lded o n l owe ra bdomen

• • •

H and f o lded o n a bdomen O n l owe ra bdomen F l exed w i th h and i nf r on to fa bdomen

•

F l exed t or i gh t / lef ta te l bow w i th h and o n p e lv is 1 36

•

S t ra igh ta ts i de w i th h and o n l owe ra bdomen

• •

H and o nt h igh F l exed s l igh t ly t or i gh t / lef ta te l bow w i th h and o n l owe ra bdomen

•

F l exed a c ro s s p e lv i s

F o ld ed o ve ra bdomen / s tomach • F o lded d i agona l ly o ve ra bdomen • F o lded d i agona l ly o ve rs t omach • F o lded o ve ra bdomen • F o lded a c ro s s l owe rb ody • •

F l exed o ve ra bdomen F o lded d i agona l ly a c ro s s b ody f r om s hou lde r

•

F l exed o ve rs t omach

C ro s sed o ve rp e lv i s /abdomen • C ro s sed o ve ra bdomen •

C ros sed o ve rs t omach

• •

Wr is t s c r o s sed o ve ra bdomen Wr i s t sc r o s sed o ve r l owe ra bdomen

•

Wr i s t sc r o s sed u nde rp e lv i s( bu r ia l p rone )

•

Wr is t sc r o s sed o np e lv i s

•

C ro s sed a t9 0 d eg r ee s

• •

H and s c r o s sed o n l owe rp a r to ft r unk F o lded o ve rs t omach w i th w r i s t sc ro s sed

F o ld ed a t9 0d eg ree s •

F o lded a t9 0d eg r ee s w i th h and s m ee t ing b enea th a bdomen

APPEND IX 9

A rm p o s i t ion v a lue se xc luded f r om t he ma in a na ly s i s o ft he B u t t R oad c eme tery

V a lue s e xc luded f r om t he B u t t R oad a rm p o s i t ion a na ly s i s : • •

B en ta te l bow w i th h and o n l owe rr i bcage B en tt ol e f ta te l bow w i th h and n ea rc h in / shou lde r

•

D oub led o ve rw i th h and p r e sumab ly u nde rh ead

•

D oub led o ve rw i th h and n ea rr i gh t s hou lde r

•

F o rea rm b enea th b ody w i th h and u nde rp e lv i s

• •

F o rea rm f o lded u pwa rd s S l igh t ly t w i s ted s oe l bow r a i sed

1 37