The Roman Survey of Britain 9781841713489, 9781407320007

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Part One: Introduction
Part Two: Alignment Angles of Certain Roman Roads and Centurial Limites
Part Three: Ancient Cartography, Roman Surveying, and the Roman Map of Britain
Part Four: Planning the Province
Part Five: Centuriation
Part Six: Euclidian Geography in the Landscape: The Mickle Ditch at Manchester
Part Seven: The Frontier Walls
Part Eight: A New Criterion for Roman Roads
Part Nine: General Discussion
Appendices
References

Citation preview

The Roman Survey of Britain

Michael J. Ferrar and Alan Richardson

BAR British Series 359 2003

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR British Series 359

The Roman Survey of Britain © The authors individually and the Publisher 2003 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841713489 paperback ISBN 9781407320007 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841713489 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2003. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

T o P rof e sso rO swa ld D i lke , s cho la ra nd g en t leman

CONTENTS

P ref ace 1 I n t roduc t ion . 2

T he a ng le so fa l ignmen to fs ome R oman r oad sa nd c en tu r ia ll i m i te s .

3

Anc ien tc a r tog raphy , R oman s u rvey ing a nd t h eR oman m ap o fB r i ta in .

4

P lann ing t h ep rov ince .

5

C en tu r ia t ion .

6

E uc l id ian g eome try i nt h e l a nd scape : t h e M ick le D i tch a t Manche s te r .

7 T l he F ron t ie r Wa ls . 8 An ew c r i te r ion f o rR oman r oad s . 9

G ene ra ld i scu ss ion .

1 0 A ppend ice s . 11 R ef e rence s .

PREFACE

T he t i t le o ft h i s w o rk m ake s ab o ld c l a im ; t h a t t h e R oman s s u rveyed B r i ta in a nd , b y i mp l ica t ion , p robab ly m o s t o f t h e i r l e mp i r e . We s e to u tt h ee v idence i nt h ef o low ing p age s . f T he e f o r tp u t i n to t h i s s t udy h a s o ccup ied u s o ve r s eve ra l y ea r s a nd s ome f i nd ing s h ave a l ready b een p ub l i shed . We w ou ld red t t h ave p ref er oh ave p ub l i shed t h e r e s t i n af ew s ucc inc t p ape r s b u t r eg re tab ly , t h e B r i t ish a cadem ic e s tab l i shmen t , a pa r t f r om af ew e xcep t iona li n d iv idua l s ,h a s f i rm ly c l o sed i t sm ind t oe ven c on s ide r ing t h ee v idence f o rs u rvey s a nd c en tu r ia t ion i n l B r i ta in . T he r e a son s a r e n o t h a rd t of i nd ; t h e b a s ic a spec t s o fs u rvey ing r equ i re as ma l g ra sp o fs imp le m a thema t ics w i th w h ich m any a r chaeo log i s t s a r e n o tc omf o r tab le . T h i s h a s i n duced s eve ra l o ft h o se w ho s e rve a sr e f e ree s t ol e a rned j ou rna ls t o p reven tt h er e po r t ing o fa ny u nwe lcome d a ta a nd o b serva t ion s . T he p rob lem h a sb een c ompounded b yt h ef a c tt h a t much o ft h e e v idence h a s r e qu i r ed a n i n t ima te k now ledge o ft h eh i s to ry a nd g eog raphy o fp a r t icu la ra r ea s o ft h e c oun t ry , w h ich i st e d iou s l t ot h o se u nf am i l ia rw i th t h ea r ea s i nq ue s t ion . D e sp i te t h e se s e t -back s , w eh ave c on t inued t oc o lec tt h ee v idence a nd n ow h ave s uch ab ody o fd a ta , t oge the r w i th ap l au s ib le t h eo re t ica l o u t l ine o ft h e s t ruc tu re o ft h e R oman s u rvey , t h a t i t mu s t b e p u t b ef o re aw ide ra ud ience . I t is i n s t ruc t ive t oc on s ide rh ow e ach o fu s , t hough f i r s tw o rk ing s epa ra te ly , c ame i n dependen t ly t ot h e s ame c onc lu s ion . MJF t i s an a r ch i tec tw i th a ni n te re s ti nm e t ro logy a nd e xpe r ience o fs u rvey ing . H er e a l ised i n tu i t ive ly t h a tt h eg eome t r ic p a ter n st h a t c ou ld b e d e tec ted i nt h e moder nm ap o fR oman B r i ta in , c ou ld n o tb ee xp la ined o the rt h an b y t h eR oman s h av ing s urveyed t h e i s land . H e r e cogn i sed t h e m a jo r g r id l i ne s a nd g r a sped t h e m a thema t ica l c on sequence s o ft h e w ay t h ey w e re u sed . AR h a s a s c ience b ackg round ( v e te r ina ry m ed ic ine ) a nd r e sea r ch e xpe r ience . H e d eve loped a ni n te re s ti nR oman r oad sa nd c en tu r ia t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i nC umbe r land a nd t h e Manche s te ra r ea a nd f r om as t udy o fp u ta t ive R oman s u rvey l i ne s i nt h en o r th o fE ng land , r e ached t h e q u i te u nexpec ted b u tu navo idab le c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e r oad a l ignmen t s i nC umbe r land c ou ld o n ly b e e xp la ined o n t t h e b a s i s o f a ve ry a ccu ra te s u rvey . H e i d en t if ied g r id a nd s u rvey l i ne s t h a t n ea t ly f i ted w i th MJF 's o u t l ine s cheme f o r s ou ther nE ng land . We " me t" , a si tw e re , a tC he s te r . We n ow p r e sen t as yn thes is o fo u rs epa ra te s t ud ie s ; t h e t e x t i s by AR a nd t h e F igu re sb y MJF . I ti s ap l ea su re t oa cknow ledge t h e h e lp o ft ho se w ho h ave p rov ided u s w i th c r i t ic ism a nd e ncou ragemen t d u r ing t h is s t udy . so T he l a te P rof es r D i lke w a s a lway s as ou rce o fa dv ice a nd e ncou ragemen t a nd h i s m e t icu lou s s cho la r sh ip w a s e ve r a to u r l d i spo sa l . H is w if e , Ma rga re t , h a s c on t inued h e r i n te res t i no u r w o rk . O the r f r iend s , mo s t n o tab ly M r R icha rd B e lhou se , D r G race S imp son a nd t h el a te Mr T om W i the rby ,h e lped i no t he rw ay s .

r t M ichae l JF e ra r , T he Wh i te H ou se C o tage , 2 84 ,U ppe rE a s te rn G reen L ane , C oven t ry CV5 7 PX . A lan R icha rd son , 1 6 ,T ho rpe F i e ld , S ockb r idge ,P en r i th , C umb r ia , CA 10 2 JN . O c tobe r2 003

1

PART ONE I NTRODUCT ION

I n a nc ien t t ime s c onque red p eop le s o f t en h ad t oe ndu re t h e h um i l ia t ion o f as u rvey i mpo sed b y t h e o ccupy ing p owe r . T h i s c ou ld i n vo lve a c tua ly m ea su r ing t h e l a nd . " Iw i l g i ve y ou T egea . ," t h eD e lph ic o r ac le t o ld t h eL acedaemon ian s ," .and h e r l l . . . . . f a i r p l a in t om ea su re o u t w i th t h e l i ne ." ( De S e l incou r t 1 972 , 6 6 ) . A f te r t h e I on ian r evo l t t h e P e r s ian s r e su rveyed t h e G reek l a nd s i np ara sang s , t h e P e r s ian m ea su re , t o e mpha s i se t h e G reek s e rv i tude ( De S e l incou r t 1 972 , 4 02 ) a nd i ti s w e l l d ocumen ted t h a tt h eR oman ss u rveyed c onque red t e r i to ry . r I nt h i s r e po r tw es e to u t ab ody o fe v idence t h a tf o r ced u st oc onc lude t h a tt h e R oman s d i d i nf a c t s u rvey B r i ta in , a nd m ake a n a ccu ra te m ap f u rn ished w i th ag r id v e ry s im i la r t ot h a t o ft h e mode rn O rdnance S u rvey . T he r e a son s f o r b e l iev ing t h i s mu s t h ave h appened w e re g i ven b yD av ie s ( 1998 ) w ho c onc luded , " .Roman r oad d es igne r s w ou ld h ave u sed d ead r e ckon ing , b o th . t op rov ide t h e r equ i red b ea r ing a nd i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e . land scape . th i s i n f o rma t ion w ou ld h ave b een u sed t op rov ide . . . . . map s , o ft r ue s ca le ( ou ri t a l ic s )f r om w h ich r oad a l ignmen t s w ou ld h ave b een d e s igned ." Ou r e v idence h a s c ome ma in ly f r om t h e d i spo s i t ion o fR oman r oad a l ignmen t s a nd c en tu r ia l l i m i te s a nd f r om t h e r e la t ive g eome t r ic p o s i t ion s o f f o r t s a nd t own s . T he s t udy h a s r equ i red a g rea t m any o b se rva t ion s a nd i n vo lved s c a le d r aw ing , t r igonome t ry a nd s ome s imp le s t a t is t ic s . B u tt h i s r a the r s c ien t if ic a pp roach w a s m ade w i thou t f o rge t ing t h e h i s to r ica l c on tex t t o ft h eR oman i n va s ion a nd s e t lemen t , o rt h ew r i t ing so fe a r l ie rG r eek g eog raphe r s s uch a sE ra to s thene sa nd D iodo ru s S i cu lu s , t o rl a te ro ne s l i ke Ma r inu s o fT y re a nd C laud iu s P to lemy . W i th s uch am ix tu re o fc a r tog raphy , h i s to ry a nd m a thema t ic s , i th a s r equ i red a ne f o r tt oa vo id ac i r cu la ra rgumen t . f O u r m e thod s h ave c en t red o n s c a le d raw ing ; MJF b e ing ap rof es l i nt h a t d i sc ip l ine , a nd t h e c ompu te r s p read shee t . T o siona a vo id c l u te r ing t h e t h e s is , w e h ave n o t a temp ted t o s umma r ise c omp le te ly t h e l i t e ra tu r e o n a nc ien t m ap -mak ing n o r t o t t s pecu la te mo r ew ide ly t h an o u rc onc lu s ion s w i l s t r ic t ly a low . We h ave r a the rc on s t ruc ted as equence o fa rgumen tt h a ts how s l l w hy t h ea ng le st h a tc e r ta in r oad sm ake t ot h ec a rd ina lp o in t so ft h ec ompas n d ica te t h ee x is tence o f aR oman m ap w i th ag r id . s i We h ave t h en s ugge s ted h ow t h e s u rvey w a s p robab ly c a r ied o u t a nd t h e map u sed t o p l an t h e p rov ince . We s t res h e r s t r e l ig iou s d imen s ion f o r t h e s imp le r e a son i tf o rced i t se lf u pon u s . T he l a te r s e c t ion s r e po r t f u r the r f i nd ing s o n c en tu r ia t ion i n B r i ta in a nd s ugge s tt h a t t h e s u rvey e x tended t ot h e S co t i sh L ow land s a nd w a s u sed i nt h e p l ann ing o fb o th t h e H ad r ian ic a nd t An ton ine f r on t ie r s . F ina ly ,w es ha ld i scu ss o u rf i nd ing sa nd m ake s ugge s t ion s f o rf u r the rr e sea r ch . l l We h ave t r ied t om ake t h e t e x tr e adab le b y s epa ra t ing much o ft h er aw d a ta a nd i t sm a thema t ica l t r ea tmen t t ot h e a ppend ice s . T h i s w i l e nab le o u r r e su l t s t o b e c hecked b y t h o se w ho w i sh t o e xam ine t h e d a ta f o r t h em se lve s . T h roughou t t h e t e x t , l w he reve r w e h ave r e f er of e t a nd m i le s , t h e R oman d imen s ion i si n tended , t h e R oman f oo t , t h ep e s m one ta l i s o f 1 .65 red t e i n che s a nd t h e m i le o f5 , 000 R oman f e t . T he a c tu s w a s 1 20 R oman f e ta nd t y p ica ly ac en tur ia w a s a n a r ea 2 0a c tu ss qua re . e e l We s ha l , h oweve r , a l so u se t h e t e rm c en tur ia t om ean al i nea r m ea su re o f2 0 a c tu s . T h is i sn o t i d ea l , b u tt h e f r equency w i th l t h i sd imen s ion o ccu r si nt h el a nd scape i s such t h a ti ft h et e rm c en tur iae i s no tu sed w i th t h eq ua l if i ca t ion h e re s t a ted , an ew o ne mu s tb ei n ven ted .

** *

2

PART TWO AL IGN MENT ANGLES OF CERTA IN RO MAN ROADS AND CENTUR IAL L IM ITES

T he s i gn if icance o fc er ta in a ng le s T he m a jo rc l ue sp o in t ing t o aR oman s u rvey o fB r i ta in c an b e f ound i nt h e a ng le s t h a tm any R oman r oad a l ignmen t sm ake t o t t h ec a rd ina lp o in t so ft h ec ompa ss . T hey h ave c e r ta in c ha rac te r is t ic st h a tr equ i r e al i t le i n i t ia le xp lana t ion . Whe rea s w e a r e f am i l ia r w i th m ea su r ing a ng le s i n d eg ree s , 3 60 ° t o a ci r c le a nd 9 0 ° t o a qua r te r c i r c le ( r igh t -ang le ) , t h e sed t s ed i a nc ien t se xp res h e s ame i d ea w i th r e f e rence t o ar i gh t -ang led t r iang le , w i th t h e a ng le e xp res nt e rm s o ft h e p ropo r t ion o ft h e l e ng th o ppo s i te t h e a ng le t ot h a ta l ong t h e s i de . T hu s , t h e a ng le m ade b y t h e d i agona l o f as qua re t oo ne s i de w a s 1 / 1 . T he mo s t f am i l ia r r i gh t -ang led t r iang le h a s s i de s i n t h e p ropo r t ion 3 : 4 :5 . T he l o ng s i de ( 5 ) f a c ing t h e r i gh t -ang le i st h e s ed i h ypo tenuse . T he t wo o t he ra ng le sm ay b ee xp res nt e rm so ft h er a t io o ft h es i de s o ft h et r iang le . T h i s i sb a s ic t r igonome t ry . I nF igu r e 2 . 1 w h ich s how s a3 : 4 :5 r a t io s i ded t r iang le ,t h e T angen to fa ng le bi st h e o ppo s i te o ve rt h ea d jacen t , 3 /4 ; t h eS ine i s t h e o ppo s i te o ve rt h e h ypo tenu se , 3 / 5 a nd t h e C o s ine i st h e a d jacen t o ve r t h e h ypo tenu se , 4 / 5 . When ac ap i ta l " A" i sp l aced b ef o re t h e t e rm , i te xp res s t h e v a lue o fa n a ng le w ho se r a t io i sk nown , t hu s ,A tan , A s in , A co s . F o re xamp le A tan 1 / 1 i s4 5° se a nd i s found i nt h et r iang le t h a tm ake sh a lf as qua re . We s ha l s peak o ft h eA tan f r equen t ly i nt h i sw o rk . l T h i s s y s tem h ad c e r ta in v e ry p rac t ica l a dvan tage s b ecau se s e t ing o u t a ng led l i ne s o ve r l o ng d i s tance s i sn o to r iou s ly p rone t o t e ro ra nd w o rk ing i nd eg ree s ,a sd one t o day ,r equ i re sv e ry a ccu ra te mode rn i n s t rumen t s . W i th t h eb a s ic e qu ipmen ta va i lab le i n r t h ef i e ld t ot h eR oman s ,n ame ly m ea su r ing r o ad sa nd t h ec r os t af rg roma ,t h eb e s tw ay w a st om ake r i gh t -ang led t r iang le s s s f, o w i th s i de s i ns imp le w ho le n umbe rp ropo r t ion s . T h i sr educed t h e n umbe ro fa ng le s t h a t c ou ld b e c onven ien t ly u sed b u t i td id e n su re r e l iab i l i ty a nd s imp l ic i ty f o rp a r t ly t r a ined a s i s tan t s . s T he se r i gh t -ang led t r iang le s w i th s i de s i nw ho le n umber r a t io s t h u s h ave a ng le s w i th T angen t s , S ine s a nd C os ine s t h a t a r e f r ac t ion s w i th w ho le n umbe r s a bove a nd b e low t h e l i ne , l i ke 2 / 3 o r 3 / 8 . S uch f r ac t ion s a r e c a led r a t iona lf rac t ion s . T he l a nc ien t G reek sd e te rm ined a l t h is a nd t h eR oman s w e r eq u i te f am i l ia rw i th i t( Hea th 1 921) . S o , whe reve ri nt h e l a nd scape w e l f i nd m an -made f e a tu re s , l i ke r oad s , t h a tr e la te t oe ach o t he r o rt ot h e c a rd ina lp o in t s o ft h e c ompas y a ng le s w i th T angen t s , s b S ine s a nd C o s ine s t h a ta r e r a t iona l f r ac t ion s , w e m ay s u spec tt h a t t h ey r e su l t f r om s ome s omebody w o rk ing w i th r i gh t -ang led t r iang le sw ho se s i de sa r ei nw ho le n umbe rr a t ios .

F os s Way T he mo s ts t r ik ing R oman r oad i ns ou ther nB r i ta in i s th eF os . P rev iou sr e sea rche r sh ave s hown i tt ob ec l ea r ly l a id o u to n s Way as t ra igh t l i ne b e tween I l che s te r a nd L inco ln , b u t c l o se e xam ina t ion o ft h e m ap r e vea l s t h a t i t comp r i se s s eve ra l s ma l s ub l a l ignmen t s t h a tc onnec ta ta l ignmen tn od e s . T he i n c l ina t ion o fi t s m ean l i ne t ot h e c a rd ina l p o in t s o ft h e c ompas sa bou t 3 0 s i d eg ree s Eo f OS g r id N ,b u tt h e a ng le c anno tb ed e te rm ined w i th c omp le te a ccu racy b yr u le ra nd p ro t rac to rb ecau se w ed on o t k now f o r c e r ta in w he re t h e m ean l i ne 's p rec i se c ou r se i s .T h i s i sa n i mpo r tan tc on s ide ra t ion b ecau se t h e a ng le w a s c ho sen f o r g ood r e ason , b u t , u n les ea su red v e ry a ccu ra te ly , w e c anno t d r aw a ny f i rm c onc lu s ion s a bou t i t . T o d ef ine t h e l i ne s m t r igonome t r ica ly f r om i t se nd p o in t s p r e suppo se s t h a tw e k now e xac t ly w he re t h e s u rveyo r s ' e nd p o in t s a c tua ly w e re ; b u t w e l l d o n o t . We h ave ,h oweve r , t h e a l ignmen tn ode s a nd t h e se a low t h e a ng le t ob e d ef ined b y t h em a thema t ica lm e thod k nown a s l l i near r eg res , w ho se b a s is i s exp la ined b r ief ly a tt h ee nd o ft h i ss e c t ion . sion F rom t h e OS 1 : 25 .000 m ap s , 3 7 a l ignmen tn ode s o n t h e F os e re i d en t if ied , t o ge the rw i th t wo e nd s c ho sen a tL inco ln s Way w c a thed r a l a nd A xm in s te r . S t ra igh t r o ad s e c t ion s m ee t ing b y c u rve s w e re p ro jec ted o n t h e m ap a nd t h e i r i n te r sec t ion t a ken a s t h e a l ignmen t n ode . T he se a r e l i s ted i nA ppend ix 1 .T he d a ta w e r e e n te red o n to ac ompu te r s p read shee t a nd t h e c or la t ion re c oeff ic ien t f ound t ob e 1 . 0 a nd t h e s l ope t ob e 0 . 6 . T h is m ean s t h a t t h e p o in t s a r e a c tua ly o n , o r e ven ly s c a te red a bou t , a l t s t ra igh t l i ne i n c l ined E of O S g r id N b y a n a ng le w ho se t a ngen t i s0 . 6 , o r3 / 5 . I nd eg ree s , t h e a ng le i s3 0 .96 ° . T h i s f i gu re i s w i thou t a ny o bv iou s s i gn if i cance , w he rea s t h e T angen t i se l oquen t o ft h e l i ne 's g eome t ry . T he F os 's m ean l i ne i st h e s Way h ypo tenu se o f ar i gh t -ang led t r iang le w ho se o t he rs i de s a r e i nt h e r a t io 3 : 5 . S ee F igu re 2 . 2 . T h i s i sv i r tua ly t h e s ame a ng le a s l t h a t s en a tF lo r ence b e tween t h e n e ighbou r ing c en tu r ia t ion a nd t h ek ard o m ax imu so ft h e c i ty , a so b se rved b y H a rd ie ( 1965 ) e ( J . P e te r son p e r sona l . c ommun ica t ion . ) . T he c o inc idence i s si gn if i can t . I ns e t ing o u tt h eF os i ne ,R oman e ng inee r sa ppea rt oh ave m ade at r i ang le w ho se o t he rs i de s ( i nt h ep ropo r t ion 3 : 5 ) t s Way l w e re a l igned a long t h ec a rd ina lp o in t so ft h e moder nO S g r id . T hey c ou ld d ef ine NS a nd EW l i ne sb yr e f e rence t ot h es un 's p a th a c ros h es ky ,b u tt ou se t h ep rec i se a ng le A tan 3 / 5 t oc onnec tt wo d i s tan tp o in t s , t h ey mu s th ave k nown a tt h eo u t se tt h e s t l o ca t ion s o fe ach e nd o ft h eh ypo tenu se . I nr e a l i ty , t h e s i te sw e re p robab ly d ef ined b yt h e l i ne a nd d id n o te x i s tp r io rt ot h el i ne

3

T angen t o fa ng le a t' b (e g ) o ppos i te 3 e qua ls o r — a d jacen t 4

F ig 2 . 1 ( l ef t ) : B as ic t r igonome try

F ig .2 .2 ( be low ) : T he mean l i ne o ft he F os s Way f orm ing t he h ypo tenuse o f a3 :5 r igh ta ng led t r iang le

c r )

9 0° o r RIh t a n l e( a d jacen t 4u n its T HE

3 :4 5

R AT IO S IDED T R IANGLE

L INDUN 1 1 46 -1 05-8 CENTUR IAE 1 9 KMor 2

3

DE VA

C 15 .1 .98 . 12E 3 65 .98N

I DUNUM V ERNFM P T tim

R A TAE

E N ONA E S r

C HESTERTON

DORNe

, c

r7 , j7

Bau RT ON OR IN IU

H TE

L ONE ) ;N IUM

WALLS AQU

E SUL IS AMERTON

•V ENTA L IND IN IS 1 ,0 s 3 52 C OE 1 22 4 5N 1 00 .0 I SCA ‘

4

b e ing s e to u t . B u tt h ei n te rven ing c oun t ry mu s th ave b een s u rveyed a nd t h er e su l t ing p l an mu s th ave e nab led t h er oad p l anne r s t om a rk u pon i tal i ne t h a tw a s t h e h ypo tenu se o f ar i gh t -ang led t r iang le . I ti s ea s ie s tt oi mag ine t h i s a s al i ne r unn ing a c ros s a g r id o fs qua re s a nd c u t ing t h rough e ve ry t h i rd a nd f i f th i n te r sec t ion . S ee F igu re 2 . 3 . T he i mpo r tan t p o in t i st h a t t h e a ng le i s t r e la ted t o O S g r id N , a mode rn c ar tog raphe r 's c on t r ivance , p robab ly b ecau se i n G louce s te r sh i re a nd W i l t sh i re t r ue N , d e te rm ined b y t h e m e thod s o ft h e a g r imen sore s , s o la r o r s t e la r o b se rva t ion , i sv i r tua ly t h e s ame a s O S g r id N . T h i s i sa l l c r uc ia ly i mpo r tan tm a te rt ow h ich w es ha lr e tu rn . l t l

S tane S tree t T h is r o ad h a s b een much s t ud ied b ecau se i t s f i r s t a l ignmen t f r om L ondon B r idge t o Ewe l i nS ur sa ccu ra te ly a l igned o n l rey i C h iche s te r ,w h ich i te ven tua ly r e ache sa f te rs eve ra ld ev ia t ion s . T he R oman b r idge o ve rt h eT hame s l a yj u s te a s to ft h ep r e sen t l s t ruc tu re a ta bou t O S 5 32 .85E 1 80 .30N , w h i le t h e r o ad a l ignmen t n ode j u s t e a s t o fC h iche s te r 's e a s t g a te i sa t OS 4 86 .45E 1 04 .78N . T he se g r id r e f e rence sw e re e n te red o n to ac ompu te rs p read shee ta nd t h e d i f e rence s i ne a s t ing s( e )a nd n o r th ing s( n ) f b e tween e ach e nd f ound b y s ub t rac t ion . S ince t h e a l ignmen tw a st h eh ypo tenu se o f ar i gh t -ang led t r i ang le ,w he re ea nd nw e re t h e o t he r s i de s ,A lan e / n g ave i t s a ng le t o OS g r id N a nd t h e P y thago rean t h eo rem g ave t h e l e ng th . T he i n te rven ing d i s tances a r e t h e r ef o re 4 6 .40 km . EW a nd 7 5 .52 km NS , g i v ing a n a l ignmen t T an 4 6 .40 /7 5 .52 = 0. 614 , v i r tua ly 0 . 6 . T h is i s th e s ame l a ng le a st h eF os 's ,b u tW o f Sa so ppo sed t oE of N . T he h ypo tenu se ( r oad a l ignmen t ) i s8 8 .6 km . S ee F igu re 2 . 4 . s Way

C er ta in r oad si n NW E ng land F ou rr o ad si n NW E ng land ,d e ta i led i nT ab le 2 . 1 ,f u r the ri s t ra te t h ep o in t ;K ing S t ree t ,C he sh i re ,i s al igned A lan 3 / 5 W o fN ; lu R ibche s te r —S l a idbum ,A lan 3 / 5 E of N ; Manche s te r —C a s t le S haw ,A lan 4 / 5 No fE ;M idd lew ich —Wo r le s ton ,A lan 2 / 5 W o f S . T ab le 2 . 1 I nc l ina t ion t o OS g r id N or th o fs ome R oman r oad s i nt he NW c oun t ie s .

R oad

K ing S t ree t ,C he sh i re R ibche s te r -S l a idbum Man che s te r —C a s t le S haw M idd lew ich -Wo r le s ton

T angen t

B e tween

3 6 1 .20E 3 86 .35N 3 49 .40N 3 63 .45E 4 40 .10N 4 52 .55N 3 84 .70E 3 97 .89N 4 09 .76N 3 70 .55E 3 66 .00N 3 56 .17N

—3 83 .20E

0 . 6

3 / 5

—3 71 .25E

0 . 6

3 / 5

—3 99 .85E

0 . 8

4 / 5

—3 66 .60E

0 . 4

2 / 5

I l k ley t oA de l T he r o ad f r om t h e f o r t a tI l k ley t oA de l , n o r th o fL eed s , p rov ide s a no the re xamp le t o ge the rw i th e v idence a bou t t h e n a tu re o f t h e s u rvey g r id . T he I l k ley f o r t s t and s s ou th o ft h e Wha rf e a t OS 4 11 .6E 4 48 .00N . T he r o ad l e av ing i tf o rA de l m ay b e t r aced s ou th -ea s twa rd s a l ong C owpa s tu re R oad a nd t h en a l ong t h e e dge o fI l k ley Moo r a st h eE bor W ay , w ho se m a ss ive k e rb s a nd m e ta l ing p roc la im aR oman o r ig in . T he l i ne g i ven b yP e rc iva lR os 1918 ) i s almo s tc e r ta in ly n o tc or tA tY eadon i t s l i ne i s l s ( rec m a rked b yS t ree tL ane a nd a tC o ld Harbour ( OS 4 22 .25E 4 44 .55N ) t h e l i ne s h if t s c l ea r ly t owa rd sA de l . O fc ou r se o ne c anno t b e c e r ta in a bou t t h e p rec ise l o ca t ion o f t h e n ode b u t u s ing a s p read shee t t o c onve r t km . t o R oman u n i t s , a s s hown i n Append ice s 2a nd 3 ,t h i sa l ignmen tw a s f ound t ob et h e h ypo tenu se o f at r i ang le w ho se o t he rs i de sa r e c o inc iden tw i th t h e OS g r id l i ne s . Mo reove r ,t h e i r l e ng ths a pp rox ima ted c l o se ly w ho le n umbe r s o fs t anda rd R oman a g r imen so r ia l u n i t s , 1 0 .4 ( NS ) a nd 1 5 .0 ( EW )c en tur iae . T he a l ignmen ta ng le o ft h i sr oad s e c t ion i s th u sA lan 2 / 3 So fW . I ti s ve ry s i gn if ican tt h a tt h ed imen s ion s o fo t he rs i de so ft h et r iang le a ppea rt ob ei ns t anda rd a g r imen so r ia lu n i t s f o ri ts ugge s t st h a tt h er o ad w a sp l anned w i th ag r id o f s uch d imen s ion s . S ee F igu re 2 . 5 .

L ow B orrowbr idge t oC ar l i s le R oman R oad S im i la rf e a tu r e sc an b ed e tec ted i nt h e l a yo u to fR oman r o ad st h a ta r en o ts t ra igh tt h roughou tt h e i rc ou r se s . T h i s i s we l l i s t ra ted b yt h er o ad b e tween t h ef o r ta tL ow B or r idge , i nt h e u ppe rL une v a ley o f We s tmo r land , a nd C a r l i s le . T h i s4 0 lu rowb l m i le r ou te d e sc r ibed P e r c iva l R os 1920 ) i s no ts t ra igh tl i ke t h eF o ss Way b u th a st wo m a in a l ignmen t s ,o ne r unn ing d ue s (

5

9

L I NDUM

F ig 2 . 3( l ef t ) T he mean l i ne o ft he F os s Way I n r e lat ion t o a2 0c en tur iae g r id

3

2 0C EN TU I A E S QU ARES

R A TAE

5

E NONAE '

1 0

2 C 0 c . J 1

3

D ORN

5

5

1 0 0cN

C ' O R IN IUM

OLD LONDON B R LDGE OS G R ID N ORTH 6 5 .35 CENTUR IAE

5

A OUAE S UL IS MERTON ABBEY

V U C Or

r i ver

w and te

L

I NI S

EWEU -

t i z t -

b rockham w arren + 700f t

r

D

r i ver m o le

r ?

to

l e i th h i l l + 800 f t (

O CK LEY 4£"/ 1

1

< c /

A LFOLDEAN

cy t

r i ver a run

F ig 2 .4 ( r igh t ) S tane S tree t ,S ussex , mean a l ignment 3 /5 W o fS

H AS H AM

s ou th ' s d owns

CH ICHESTER

6

n o r th f r om L ow B or r idge t oR eag i l a nd as e cond f r om t h ence t oC a r l i s le . E ach h a s s ub -a l ignmen t si nt h em idd le t h a tt a ke rowb l t h ea c tua lr o ad c ou r se w e s twa rd sb ef o re r ega in ing t h eo r ig ina l l i ne . U s ing t r igonome t ry a nd s c a le d raw ing , t h e T angen t o ft h e a ng le m ade b y e ach s epa ra te s ub -a l ignmen t t o OS g r id N , a nd i t s l e ng th , w e r ed e te rm ined a ss t a ted a bove f r om t h e n ode s i d en t if ied o n t h e O S ( 1 :25 ,000 ) m ap . T he m a in a l ignmen t s a r e s hown i nF igu r e2 . 6a nd t h es ub -a l ignmen t sl i s ted i nT ab le 2 . 2 . T he i r OS r e f e rence sa r eg iven i nA ppend ix 4 .

T ab le 2 . 2 A l ignmen t n ode sb e tween L ow B orrowbr idge a nd C ar l i s le

R . m i l e s

T angen t -f rac t ion

A l ignmen to ne L .B or r idge rowb R ound thwa i te N th H owenook P ike Ewe C lo se

2 . 0 4 . 0 2 . 5

. 02 0 0 . 19 0 . 29

1 / 50 1 / 5 3 / 10

A l ignmen tt wo R eag i l l G i l shaugh l in Wood B rougham Wh i te O xF a rm

2 . 3 5 . 4 4 . 0 2 . 7

. 04 0 0 . 49 0 . 7 1 1 . 05

1 / 25 1 / 2 7 / 10 / 1 1

I ng lewood C o tage t

7 . 9

0 . 25

1 / 4

H igh H e ske t

0 . 8

0 . 47

1 / 2 ?

S ca le sceugh C a r le ton G a low sH i l l l

4 . 0 3 . 0

0 . 52

1 / 2 ?

1 . 5

0 . 64 0 . 87

1 6 /25 9 / 10

C a r l i s le c a thed ra l

. 1 1

. 15 1

8 / 7

A l ignmen t 1 , fr om L ow B or r idge f o r tt oR eag i l G range , r un s n o r thwa rd s a l ong t h eO S g r id m e r id ian . T he f i r s t s e c t ion i s rowb l n ow l o s t b enea th t h e mo to rway b u t i t s l i ne r un s ( A tan 1 / 50 E ) t oj u s t n o r th o fR ound thwa i te w he re , t oa vo id O r ton S ca r , i t s w ing sw e s twa rd ( A tan 1 5 ) ,t oj u s tw e s to fH oweknowe P ike . I tt h en t u rn st or ega in t h em e r id ian a t Ewe C lo se . T he se t wo s ub a l ignmen t sm ee ta t3 59 .90E 5 10 .07N ,t h ough t h e c au seway s m ee tb y ac u rve . F rom Ewe C lo se , t h er oad b ea r sA tan 1 / 25 , v e ry s l igh t ly w e s t t oR eag i l w he re i tj o in s t h e s e cond m a in a l ignmen t ( 2 ) . T he m ean v a lue o ft h e e a s t ing s o ft h e p o in t s a bou t t h e l m e r id ian i s3 60 .96E . N ow t h e s h if t t oa l ignmen t 2a tR eag i l i sn o t u pon ah i l top o ra ny p o in t o fv an tage f r om w h ich ab eacon f i re m igh t b e s en . l l e O n t h ec on t ra ry , i ti si nt h e s ha low v a ley o ft h e L ow Wood B eck w he re t h e v i ew t ot h e n o r th i sb locked b y r s ing g round . l l i P en r i th B eacon F e l , ap re sumed s u rvey ing p o in t f o rt h i s r o ad , c anno t b e s en u n t i l o ne i sf u r the r n o r th . T he re i sn o o bv iou s l e t o pog raph ica lr e a son w hy t h i ss po tw a sc ho sen f o r as h if to fa l ignmen t . T he s e cond a l ignmen tl e ad so fa tA tan 1 / 2 W o fNa nd f r un s f o rs ome f i ve m i le s ( T he S t ree t )t oG i l shaugh l in Wood w he re t h er oad s w ing s f u r the rw e s tt oB rougham . T he reaf te r , r oad c urve sw e s to fB eacon F e l ,s t ra igh ten so u ta nd p as ld P en r i th f o r t , m ake sf o rH igh H e ske tw he re i tf a l s i na ga in w i th t h e l sing O l a l ignmen t o ft h e S t ree t . F rom H igh H e ske t t oC a r le ton t h e r oad mo re o r l e s h o ld s t oa l ignmen t 2b u t a tG a low s H i l ,j u s t s l l s ou th o fC a r l is le , i ta ga in s h if t sw e s twa rd t ot h ec i ty , l e av ing a l ignmen t 2t op as ot h ee a s t . s t B ecau se f o r much o ft h ew ay f r om G i l shaugh l in Wood t oH igh H e ske tt h er oad r un sw e lt ow es to fa l ignmen t2 ,o ne c anno tb e l q u i te s u re w he the r i tw a s i n ten t iona ly r e la ted t ot h a t a l ignmen t . T o r e so lve t h is w e a ga in r e so r ted t ol i nea r r eg res n t h e l sion o a l ignmen t n ode s b e tween R eag i l a nd C a r l is le . T he c or la t ion c oeff ic ien t f o r a l t h e n ode s p roved t ob e 0 . 99 , v i r tua ly a l re l l s t ra igh t l i ne a nd t h ep robab i l i ty t a b le s g ave av a lue o f p =

c D

—•

0

c r

( C D T j

t . . • . ) 5 t . 1 1 ' 9 S ZL

0

g

zo o

H l t dad d OH 1 .3 1d

( 1 )

‘ 2 4 % 4 3 1 , , t ‘

6 4

l c ommand ing f i ne v i ew s i na l d i rec t ion s b u t a hou s ing d eve lopmen t h a s n ow o b scured t h e se , t h ough t h eF ir th o f l l F or th a nd t h eP en t land H i l sa re s t i lv i s ib le . I t sl o ca t ion , b y am od ern t r ig p o in t , i s qu i te s i gn if ican ta nd c on s i s ten t w i th i t s mark ing aR oman s urvey p o in t . rick T he C ar s tone i s 43 .9 ( 44 ) m i le s w e s t a nd 2 09 .6 ( 2 10 ) m i le s n o r th o fC he s te r , a nd 3 60 .2 ( 360 ) m i le s n o r th a nd l 2 43 .9 ( 244 ) m i le s w e s t o fC an t ium P rom . I ti sa l so 7 4 .9 ( 75 ) m i le s n o r th o ft h e m ean l i ne o fH ad r ian 's Wa l ( s ee rick b e low ) . O n t h e E ra to s thene s mode l , t h i s d i s tance i s1 °a nd f r om C an t ium P rom t h e C ar s tone i s 4 4 / 5 °N . S ee T ab le 7 . 2 .

T ab le 7 . 2 D i s tance s o fC arr ick s tone a nd Hadr ian 's Wa l f r om C an t ium P rom l

S i te

C an t ium P rom l H ad r ian 's Wa l rick C ar s tone

OS g r id r ef erence

D i s tance fr om C an t ium P rom

6 36 .10E 1 43 .30N Mean 5 65 .12N 2 75 .47E 6 76 .10N

w e s t

n or th

2 43 .9 m i les

2 85 .26 m i le s 3 60 .20 m i le s

l rick N Sd i s tance f r om H ad r ian ' s Wa lt oC ar s tone

7 4 .94 m i le s

T he t r ue c en t re o ft h e g r id c ou ld b e t h e w e l l a t Mu i rhead F a rm , w h ich r a i se s t h e p os sib i l i ty o fa n a nc ien t s h r ine , p e rhap s t h a t o ft h e p re s id ing d e i ty o ft h e Wa l l a nd p os sib ly t h e Med io N eme ton o ft h e R avenna C o smog raphy ( MacDona ld 1 934 , 1 89 ) . T he w e l l i sa tt h e t o p o f av e ry w e t f i e ld ( mu i r ) a nd t h e f a rme rr emembe r s i ta s as t one l i ned w e l ln ow l o s ti nt h eu nde rg row th o f an ew p l an ta t ion . I t s l o ca t ion o nt h en o r the rn s l ope w ou ld p r ec lude i t su se a s as u rvey ing p o in t , wh ich w ou ld h ave b een b e t te rp l aced o n t h e h i l l top a to ne s t anda rd s u rvey ing u n i t ( 20 a c tu s ) s ou thwa rd s . I t is ,o fc ou r se ,p o ss ib le t h a tt h ew e l lh a sn oc onnec t ion w i th t h eC ar rick s tone . T he s pac ing o ft h e s even f o r t sb e tween O ld K i lpa t r ick a nd K i rk in t i loch s t rong ly s ugge s t st h a tt h ey w e re i n tended t o b e f i ve c en tur iae a pa r t ( Tab le 7 . 1 , c o lumn 4 ) . T h i s , t oge the rw i th t h eo the re v idence , s ugge s t s t h a tt h e g round o ve r l rick w h ich t h ew a lw a sb u i l tw a sf i r s ts u rveyed f r om ad a tum p o in t( Car s tone )r e la ted t ot h eR oman " na t iona l" g r id .

Hadr ian 's Wa l l T he O S r e f e rence s o ft h e H ad r ian 's Wa l l f o r t s a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 7 . 3 , t oge the r w i th t h e d i s tance s o fe ach f r om e i the re nd . T he i n te r -f o r td i s tance sa r ea l so g i ven . T he m ean n o r th ing o ft h e f o r t s i s OS 5 65 .12N ; 2 85 .3 m i le s n o r th o f C an t ium P rom a nd 1 34 .5 m i le s n o r th o f C he s te r . I ti sl i ke ly t h e R oman s i n tended t h e m ean EW l i ne t ob e 1 35 m i le s n o r th o fC he s te r a nd 2 85 m i le s f r om C an t ium P rom . T he 1 35 -m i le d i s tance i s 14 / 5° ( E ra to s thene s ) n o r th o fC he s te ra nd 34 / 5° n o r th o fC an t ium P rom . S ee F igu r e 7 . 2 .

T he m ean e a s t ing o ft h ef o r t s i s OS 3 75 .94E . T h is i s1 75 .94 ( s ay 1 76 .0 )m i le sw e s to fC an t ium P rom a nd 2 4 .1 ( s ay 2 4 ) m i le s e a s t o fC he s te r . T he s um o ft h e EW d i s tance s ( t he C an t ium P rom t o C he s te r d imen s ion ) i s2 00 m i le s ( 176 + 2 4 =2 00 ) . T he c en t re d a tum i st h e ref o re OS 3 75 .94E 5 65 .11N . I n m i le s , t h e i n c l ina t ion f r om C an t ium P rom i sA tan 1 76 /285 , o r0 . 61 . T h is i sv e ry c l o se t o3 / 5 ( 0 .6 ) . T he n ea re s t f o r t i s H ou se s tead s ( OS 3 78 .96E ) , w h ich i se xac t ly 2 87 .8 m i le s ( 599 .3 c en tur iae ) n o r th a nd 1 73 .9 m i le s ( 362 .2 c en tur iae ) w e s t o fC an t ium P rom . I t bea r s A tan 1 73 .9 /2 87 .8 = 0 . 6 , o r 3 / 5 W o fN f r om C an t ium P rom . T ab le 7 . 3 s how s t h a t B ownes se xac t ly 8 0 .0 s i c en tur iae w e s t o fH ou se s tead s a nd Wa lsend i se xac t ly 7 2 c en tur iae e a s t . A no the r 8c en tur iae e a s t s t and s S ou th l S h ie ld s f o r t . I t mo re t h an l i ke ly , t h e ref o re , t h a t H ou se s tead s s t and s a t , o r v e ry c l o se t o , t h e c en t re d a tum f o r t h e w ho le w a l . l

6 5

ä — 4- r — , 3 6 0W i !

i -

— 8

I

. I

T-11 I . , , ! . ! I ! -t i ! , --/ -t ; 1I i r ! ii 1 , r -i -i -

T .

ä -

1

T IVM S ,MV IXGVH

+ A8

g

, .

TA

2

-- -4 -1 -rI i i i ii 1 I- i T —T -i 1 i i

— g

--

ji

6 6

.:

-

. 2 , ,. _ +_ A

g i.

T ab le 7 .3 EW d is tances o ff or ts o fH adr ian 's Wa lf o r t sf r om b o th e nd s l D is tance si nc en tur iae : who le n umbe r si nb o ld t ype

F or t

G r id r e f erence s

D imen s ion si nc en tur iae Wt oE

B ownes s D rumbu rgh B u rgh b y S and s S t anw ix C a s t le s t ead s B i rdo swa ld C a rvo r an G t . C he s te r s Hou se s t ead s C ar rough rawbo C he s te r s H a l ton C h e s te r s R udche s te r B enwe l l N ewca s t le Wa l send l Mean s

3 22 .25 3 26 .50 32 .90 3 3 40 .22 3 51 .70 3 6 1 .56 3 66 .53 3 70 .37 3 78 .96 3 85 .90 3 9 1 . 17 3 99 .72 4 11 .25 4 21 .56 4 25 .07 4 30 .06

5 62 .68 59 .83 5 59 .15 5 57 .14 5 5 63 .46 5 66 .28 5 65 .72 5 66 .78 5 68 .81 5 71 .18 5 70 .17 5 68 .47 5 67 .56 5 64 .78 5 63 .84 5 66 .06

3 75 .98

5 65 .12

Et oW

6 .0 1 5 .0 2 5 .3 4 1 .5 5 .3 5 62 .3 67 .7 79 .8 89 .6 97 .0 109 . 1 1 25 .3 1 39 .8 144 .7 151 .8

I n ter -f or td i s tance s

15 1 .8 1 45 .8 1 36 .8 1 26 .5 .3 10 9 6 .4 8 9 .4 8 4 .0 7 1 .9 6 2 .2 5 4 .7 4 2 .7 2 6 .5 1 2 .0 7 . 0

6 . 0 9 . 0 1 0 .3 1 6 .2 1 3 .9 7 . 0 5 . 4 1 2 .1 9 . 8 7 . 4 1 2 .0 1 6 .2 1 4 .5 4 . 9 7 . 0

T he w e s te rnmo s t f o r t , B ownes s i s2 12 .4 m i le s w e s t o fC an t ium P rom a nd 1 33 m i le s n or th o fC he s te r . Wa l l send i s 1 39 .4 m i le s w e s t o fC an t ium P rom a nd 6 0 .5 m i le s e a s t o fC he s te r . F rom t h e se d a ta , t h e Wa l l 's EW d imen s ion i s 7 2 .98 ( 7 3 )m i le s , o r3 435 a c tu s , o r 1 51 .8 c en tur iae . F rom t h eC he s te rd a tum i ti se xac t ly 7 3 m i le s , 3 04 1 .66 a c tu so r 1 52 .0 c en tur iae . T he d i sc repancy i s neg l ig ib le .

I n terre la t ionsh ip o ft he w a l l s T ab le 7 . 4 s how st h ed i s tance s f r om C an t ium P rom a nd C he s te rt ot h ec en t re d a tum p o in to fH ad r ian 's Wa l l a nd t h e C ar rick s tone . T he C ar rick s tone i s7 5 m i le s n or th o ft h e c en t re d a tum p o in t o fH ad r ian 's W a nd 6 7 .9 ( 68 )m i le s t o t h ee a s t . I ti s th e ref o re A lan 1 / 10 W o fN ( 75 /68 = 1 . 1) . T ab le 7 . 4 D i s tance s b e tween t he C arr ick s tone ( C )a nd t he c en tre d a tum o f Hadr ian 's Wa l( H ) l ( I nm i le sf r om C he s te ra nd C an t ium P ro m )

Nor th

C an t ium P rom D if rence s fe

2 85 .3

C he s t e r

1 34 .5

Mean s

3 60 .2

1 76 .0

7 4 .9

D if rence s fe D if rence s fe

E as ta nd W e s t

2 09 .6

2 4 .0

7 5 .1 1 50 .8

2 43 .9 6 7 .9 4 3 .9 6 7 .9

1 50 .6

2 00 .0

7 5 .0

2 00 .0 67 . 9

D i scus sion I n t h e s i t ing a nd l a y o u t o fs uch i mpor tan t m i l i ta ry s t ruc tu re s a s f r on t ie r w a l l s o ne w ou ld n o t e xpec t t od e tec t a p e rve r se a dd ic t ion t os a c r ed g eome t ry c u t t ing a c ros s t h e i mpe ra t ive s o fd ef ence . No rd ow e . N eve r the les s, t h e r e a r e 6 7

c e r ta in f e a tu re s i nb o th d ef en s ive s y s tem s t h a t s e em a l l o f ap i ece w i th w ha t w e h ave d i scove r ed e l sewhe re . T he m ean EW l i ne o ft h e A n ton ine Wa l l i s7 5 m i le s ( 1 ° E ra to s thene s ) n o r th o ft h e m ean l i ne o fH ad r ian 's Wa l l , a nd H ou se s tead s s t and s A lan 3 / 5 W o fNf r om C an t ium P rom . T he m id EW p o in t o fH ad r ian 's Wa l l i s1 76 .0 m i le s f r om C an t ium P rom a nd 2 4 .0 m i le s f r om C he s te r . I n t e rm s o fl a t i tude s o n t h e mode l o fE ra to s thene s , t h e m ean l a t i tude o fH ad r ian 's Wa li s 34 / 5° n o r th a nd t h eA n ton ine Wa l 44 / 5° n o r th o fC an t ium P rom . T he w ho le p i c tu re l l i s con s i s ten tw i th t h em ap g r id h av ing b een u sed i np l ann ing t h ef r on t ie r s .

****

6 8

PART E IGHT A NE W CR ITER ION FOR RO MAN ROADS T he p ropo sed R oman g r id m ay b e d rawn u pon t h e O rdnance S u rvey m ap u s ing t h e e a s t ing s a nd n o r th ing s a t1 0o r2 0 R oman m i le i n te rva l sf r om C an t ium P rom a ss hown i nA ppend ix 1 0 . O n t h e 1 : 25 .000 m ap , o ne m i le i s5 9 .2 mm , o ne c en tur ia ( 2 ,400 f e t ) i s 28 .4 mm . I ti s almo s tc e r ta in t h a tf u r the rs t ud ie so ft h eR oman B r i t i sh l a nd scape m ade w i th am ap b ea r ing t h i sg r id w i l e l r evea lh i the r to u n su spec ted R oman f e a tu re s a nd s hed n ew l i gh to n r e cogn ised o ne s . F o re xamp le , r oad l i ne s t h a ta r e s u spec ted o fb e ing R oman b u tf o rw h ich t h e re i s sl igh ts uppor t ing e v idence . T h ree e xamp le sf r om C umbe r land i s t ra te t h ep o in t . lu

R oman R oad s a tC ar l i s le T h ree m a jo rr oad s a pp roach ing t h e R oman c i ty a r e a l igned o n t h e c a rd ina l p o in t s o ft h e c ompas ommon R oman p rac t ice s, ac d e r ived f r om G reek p receden t s( D i Ike 1 971 , 8 6 -87 ) . F rom t h eN or th : S co t land R oad , w ho se R oman p recu r so rr a n a bou t 5 0 m e t re s w e s to ft h e modem r oad ( Hogg 1 952 , C a ruanna a nd C ou l s ton 1 987 ) . l F rom t h e W e s t : B u rgh R oad ,p robab ly o ve r ly ing t h el a s ts e c t ion o ft h eR oman r o ad f r om t h eK i rkb r ide f o r t( Be lhou se 1 982 ) . F rom t h eE a s t : Wa rw ick R oad . F rom t h eS ou th : B o t che rga te e n te r st h eR oman c i ty a ta na ng le b ecau se t h el i ne d ue s ou th i s occup ied b yt h eR ive rC a ldew . T he p ro jec ted a l ignmen t so ft h e se r oad sm ee ta t OS 3 99 .4E 5 58 .8N , ap o in tj u s t SW o ft h ec a thed ra l . S ee F igu re 8 . 1 .

l C a s tr igg t oC a s t le s tead s o n Hadr ian 's Wa l( App leby S tree t ) l l T he re i s a p u ta t ive 3 0 -m i le R oman r oad a l ong t h ee a s te rn s i de o ft h eE den v a ley , a ppa ren t ly c onnec t ing C a s t le s tead s Wa lf o r t ( OS 3 51 .50E 5 63 .50N ) w i th t h e B rougham —B rough r oad ( A66 ) a tC a s t r igg ( OS 3 68 .15E 5 21 .55N ) ( R icha rd son 1 984 ) . T he c l ue st oi t sR oman o r ig in a r ef ew b u ts i gn if ican t . I t sm ean c ou r se i sA tan 2 / 5 W o fN .

D a l s ton t oH ay ton Ano the r p u t a t ive R oman r ou te r un s s ou th o f C a r l i s le , b e tween D a l s ton a nd H ay ton , p a r t o f i ta l ong t h e N ewb igg in R oad men t ioned i nr e spec to ft h e I ng lewood c en tu r ia t ion . I th a s l o ng p uzz led l o ca la n t iqua r ian sb u ta lway sd ef ied e xp lana t ion . I th a s l f ou r s t r a igh t a l ignmen t s b e tween P ow B ank a nd L ow G e l t B r idge a nd e ach n ode f i t s t h e NSE W g r id t h a t i n c lude s Wa l K nowe . T he a l ignmen t st h e ref o re s ub tend a ng le sw i th t a ngen t s o fr a t iona lf r ac t ion s t ot h e g r id . S ee F igu re 8 . 2 , w h ich s how s a l r e con s t ruc ted R oman m ap o ft h eC a r l i s le d i s t r ic t . I nd e ta i l ,t h ea l ignmen t sa r ea sf o low s . 1 .

2 . 3 .

4 .

3 F rom G reen L ane , P ow B ank ( 38 .49E 5 50 .15N ) , a tt h e n o r ther n e nd o fa n I ng lewood l i me s , t h e moder nr oad 339 l r un st oO ak D ene ( .75E 5 50 .95N ) ,3 0a c tu s( 20 x 1. 5 ) w es ta nd 1 80 a c tu s( 20 x9 )s ou th o f Wa lK nowe . I ti s a l igned A tan 3 / 5 No fE . l I t th en b ecome sN ewb igg in R oad d ue e a s tf o ra lmo s t 1 00 a c tus , ( 20 x5 )t oN ewb igg in H a l ( 343 .42E 51 .00N ) . s ed t T he l i ne t h en s h if t s A tan 3 / 4 No f Ea l ong t h e l i ne o f ap re -mo to rway r oad t h a t c ros h e R oman C a r l is le B rougham r oad ( A6 ) a nd t h en c l o se ly a ccompan ie s t h e r oad t h rough C umwh in ton t o We the ra l A bbey , w he r e i t se l c ros s t h e R . E den b y a n a nc ien t f o rd . I t th en g oe s a l ong t h e m a in s t ree t o fG rea t C o rby , much o fi tah o low l 334 w ay , a nd a t t h e e nd o f t h a t v i lage b y as ho r t d i su sed l a ne t o af oo tpa th t o ah am le t ( .46E 5 55 .22N ) s i gn if ican t ly n amed B roadwa th ( b road f o rd ) i n1 285 ( A rm s t rong e ta l , u nda ted , 1 6 1) . B roadwa th i s6 0a c tu s( 20 l x3 )s ou th ,a nd 2 20 a c tu s ( 20 x 1 )e a s t ,o f Wa l K nowe . T he l i ne t h en s h if t s a ga in , ( A tan 6 / 5 No fE ) a l ong t h e r oad t oH ow S t ree t ( 349 .90E 57 .00N ) t e na c tu s s ou th o f l Wa l K nowe . T he re i s ao ne -km . g ap a c ro ss t h e f i e ld s b ef o re H ay ton , b eyond w h ich t h e l i ne c o inc ides w i th t h e l r oad t o L ow G e l t B r idge , 3 20 a c tu s ( 20 x 1 6 ) c en tur iae e a s t a nd 2 . 5 c en tur iae n o r th o f Wa l K nowe . T he l a l ignmen t m ay t h en b e p ro jec ted t ot h e S tanega te NW o fB ramp ton a nd t ot h e Wa l a tH ay tonga te ( 355 .40E 5 64 .60N ) a bove L ane rco s t B r idge . Hay tonga te w a s f o rme r ly A ik ton G a te , s o t h e h i n t o f ar o ad t o H ay ton i s s a l u nf ounded ( A rm s t rong e t a l u nda ted ) , u n les t s ome r emo te p e r iod i tf o lowed t h e r ou te g i ven h e re t o N ewb igg in R oad a nd t h en a l ong n o r th ing 5 50 .95 t oA ik ton , n ea rT hu r sby .

A lmo s tt h ew ho le d i s tance f r om P ow B ank t oL ow G e l tB r idge c o inc ide sw i th , o ri s shadowed c l o se ly b y , moder nr oad . T he o n ly g ap sa r e af i e ld a t We the ra la nd t h eo ne km . b e tween T opp in C a s t le a nd H ay ton v i lage . T he r ou te i ss hown o n l H odgk in son a nd D ona ld ' sm ap ( c irca 1 775 ) w he re t h e c en t ra lp a r to fN ewb igg in R oad w a sm is , t h ough e ach e nd i s shown . sing T he s ame m ap s how st h er oad f r om G rea tC o rby t oB roadwa th f o low ing w ha ti sn ow t h ef oo tpa th . A no the rm ap o f1 704 l i n d ica te st h a tb e tween t h eH ay ton b ounda ry a nd How S t ree t , i th ad a l ready f o rmed t h eb a se l i ne f o re nc lo su res ( G raham 1 907 ) . I ns umma ry ,t h i su ndoub ted ly v e ry o l dr ou te n ea t ly f i t s t h eg r id , s h if t ing a l ignmen ta ti t sc en tur ia i n te r sec t ion sb u to t he rw ise i s l a rge ly d evo id o ft h e u sua lc l ue st o aR oman o r ig in .

6 9

F ig 8 . 1 R oman r oads o n t he c ard ina lp o in t s a pproach ing C ar l i s le ( The a pp roach f r om t h es ou th w a sc omp rom ised b yt h eR ive rP e t te r i l .) ( No te t h ea l ig nmen ti n c l ina t ions o ft h er oad t ot h es ou th )

7 0

._ -

t ßX

G e- N !

_ __

r-

. ._. _

N

\

• 1 • •

L OW GELT _

C C

7

› e/

i i l

, • o a \, ,

\

I J I J W

\

I l .I l )

%

2

i . 1 ,

1

I

I

NI

0

r w e w 3

I 1

'

-

c r 4

/ 1

i 1 \

y / /

,. ,

. ‘

. 4 -

\ ‘

. ."

--\ e . -:-

91 27 , , --,

\ ‘ . . • .et, 1 . 2) • ) 1 , „ \ e ' .1

,

. , -

•

a i x

c v _ -

\ ‘• \‘ a l \

.

t i ,

\, . „ x i \ \ . , \

N .

,

4Z

4 ' \ \

_ J

.

Z t

. . (7 . ,, , '

I A

\• • .

. -— . ,

..

. -

. x .

/ 7

, ' ,

.

i .

i

. ,•

._

-.. . --

-

_ __ _ _ ,

/ 41

7 1

u, z.

_

! 8-

PART N INE GENERAL D ISCUSSION

sa I t is fi r s tn eces ry t oc ons ide rt h ea ccu racy o fo u rm e thod s . T he d a ta w eh ave u sed m ay b e v e r if ied f r om t h e OS m ap s a nd a n l i mpa r t ia l w o rke r r e pea t ing o u r s t ud ie s w i l o b ta in s im i la r r e su l t s , t h ough h e m ay d i spu te o u r c onc lu s ion s . T he OS g r id s ed a r e f e r ences h ave b een e xp res sf i ve d i g i tv a lue sf r om t h eO Sb a se l i ne ss uch t h a tt h ef i f th d ig i td ef ine st e n so fm e t re s . G iven l t h e v a r iab le s i n he ren t i n s u rvey s a nd m ap -mak ing , e spec ia ly w i th r o ad s b e ing s hown many t ime s w ide r t h an t h ey c ou ld sib p os ly b e , e ve ry v a lue s hou ld b eu nde r s tood t ob e ab e s te s t ima te a nd n o th ing mo re . Mo reove r , a ny R oman s u rvey w ou ld b e s ub jec tt os ome v a r ia t ion . We h ave p u t f o rwa rd e v idence a nd a r gumen t s , w h ich e ven i ft h ey d o n o t c onv ince t h e r e ade r , a tl e a s t f o rm t h e b a s is o fa l h ypo the s is t h a t m ay b e t e s ted b y f u tu re o b serva t ion s . We b e l ieve t h a t f u r the r s t udy w i l r evea l t h a t much o f B r i ta in w a s s u rveyed a nd p l anned a cco rd ing t ot h eo u t l ine sg i ven h e re . T o s umma r ise t h e a r gumen t , t h e m ean l i ne s o fc e r ta in R oman r oad s i nt h e e a s t a nd t h e w e s t o ft h e c oun t ry a r e a l igned t o OS g r id N , n o t t h e l o ca l t r ue N , b y a ng le s w i th t a ngen t s o fs imp le r a t iona l f r ac t ion s . T he ref o re t h e g round mu s t f i r s t h ave b een s u rveyed a nd as c a le m ap d rawn w i th ag r id o r ien ta ted l i ke t h e O S g r id . R oad s w e r e a l igned s o t h a t t h ey t e nd ed t or un f r om o ne g r id l ine i n te r sec t ion t oa no the r , t h u s f o rm ing h ypo tenu se s t or i gh t -ang led t r i ang le s w ho se n on -hypo tenu se s i des a r e i n w ho le n umbe rr a t io s . T he R oman s a lmo s t c e r ta in ly b egan s u rvey ing B r i ta in i mmed ia te ly a f te r c om ing a sho re . T hey c ame p r imed w i th t h e l a te s t l l l a cadem ic w o rk s a sw e l a sw i th l o ca l i n te l igence f r om s p ie s a nd t r ade r s . T hey w e re f u ly c onve r san t w i th t h e t e chn ique s o f s Way w m ap -mak ing a nd t h e i r f i r s t o b jec t ive w a s t o e s tab l ish s u rvey b a se l i ne s i nt h e s ou th . T he F os a s p robab ly l a id o u t i mmed ia te ly a f te rt h ee s tab l ishmen to ft h em id l o ng i tude a nd t h en m ay h ave s e rved a s ad a tum l i ne f o rt h ed i s t r ic t s i tt r ave r sed . rido sa T he r eaf te r , t h e s u rvey c ou ld h ave b een e x tended i nc or r s a l ong o the r l i ne s o fc ommun ica t ion , i f neces ry s k i r t ing l a rge u p land a r ea s , b u t i nt ime c ove r ing t h e w ho le c oun t ry . T he s ame m ap w a s u sed t op l an c en tu r ia t ion s y s tem s w he re t h e l i m i te s w e re a l igned t ot a ke a ccoun to fl a nd r e l ief ,t h ough p robab ly s e to u tf r om t h e ma in r o ad s . re B u t t h e m ap , w i th i t s NSE W g r id , a ppea r s t oh ave b een u sed b y p l anne r s i n aw ay t h a t m igh t s t r ike u s a sb i zar , b u t wh ich u ndoub ted ly c onf o rmed t ot h e P y thago rean v i ew o ft h e w o r ld . T h i s w a s t od i spo se t own s a nd f o r t s i ns uch aw ay t h a t t h ey l l r e la ted s pa t ia ly t oe ach o t he rb y c e r ta in t r iang le s , e spec ia ly t h e 3 / 5 r i gh t a ng led t r i ang le , a nd a tt h e s ame t ime w e re s epa ra ted b y d i s tance s t h a t w e re mu l t ip le s o fs qua re s o n t h e h ypo tenu se s o fs uch t r iang le s . I ndeed t h e re i sr e a son t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e p l anne r s w en t s of a ra st os upe r impo se u pon t h e s u rveyo r s ' NSE W m ap g r id , o the rg r id s t h a tw e re a ng led A tan 3 / 5 t oi t .I ns o d o ing t h ey w e re p robab ly e xe r c i s ing ap r ie s t ly f unc t ion t oe n su re t h a tt h eo u t come w a sp l ea s ing t ot h eg od s . e A t f i r s t s i gh tt h e i n i t ia l s u rvey w ou ld s em t ob e as t upendou s t a sk b u t i tw ou ld h ave m e re ly e n ta i led k nock ing i np o s t s a l ong l l i ne s c a ref u ly s e t o u t w i th g romae a nd s und ia l s . T he w ho le s u rvey s ou th o fH umbe r Me r sey l i ne c ou ld h ave b een d one i n mon th s , g i ven a dequa te m anpowe r , a nd t h e re i s no tt h e s l igh te s tr e a son f o rd oub t ing t h eR oman c apac i ty t od o i t .C ompa red t o f t h el a bou ra bou tt ob ee xpended i nr oad a nd f o r tc on s t ruc t ion , t h ee f o r tw a st r iv ia l . I t is l i ke ly t h a tt h eo r ig ina l R oman m ap w a s m ade i ns e c t ion s , a l though am ap o ft h e w ho le p rov ince m ay h ave b een p repa red a ts ome p o in t . Whe the rt h e se w e re o np apy ru so rs ome o the rm ed ium c anno tb e k nown , b u tc e r ta in ly t h ey mu s th ave p e r i shed rup w i th in af ew h und red y ea r s . S ome m ay h ave b een c op ied a nd s u rv ived , p e rhap s s ad ly c or ted , i n to t h e m ed iaeva l p e r iod . ccu C e r ta in ly , B ede k new t h a t t h e e a r th w a s s phe r ica l a nd a ppea red t oh ave h ad f a i r ly a ra te i d ea s a bou t i t s s u rf ace ( Beaz ley , u nda ted ) . S ince h e n eve r l e f t t h e n o r th o fE ng land h i s k now ledge mu s t h ave b een d e r ived f r om t h e f i ne mona s t ic l i b ra r ie s a t r Wea rmou th a nd J a row w he re h e s pen t h i s d ay s ( Maye r -Ha r t ing 1 977 , 4 0 ) . I ti sh i gh ly p robab le t h a t s uch l i b ra r ie s r e ta ined l c op ie s o fm ap s a s w e l a s a nc ien t g eog raph ic t e x t s . O ne w onde r s whe the r t h e D oom sday o ff ic ia l s h ad s ome s o r t o fm ap t o s w h and b ecau se t h ey f r equen t ly d e sc r ibed f e a tu re s i nt e rm s o fl e ng th a nd b r ead th i n aw ay t h a t i s m ean ing les i thou t s ome s o r t t o fs ke tch o rs ome n o t ion o fo r ien ta t ion . A ne nqu i ry i n to t h is m a te rm igh ty i e ld i n te re s t ing r e su l t s . We s u spec tt h a tt h e s e c t iona l m ap o fB r i ta in w a s a va i lab le t oP to lemy b u t t h e c o -o rd ina te s t h a t h e a b s t rac ted f r om i tb ecame rib rup l l h or ly c or ted i nt h e f o low ing m i lenn ium . l ti s simp ly n o tb e l ievab le t h a t t h eR oman sp l anned a nd g over ned B r i ta in w i th t n o th ing b e te rt h an t h em ap k nown t ou sf r om t h em ed iaeva lc opy o fh i sw o rk . T he s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e 1 7 a c tu s c en tur ia w a s c u s toma ry i nt h e s ou th o fB r i ta in , t h ough b a sed o n d a ta t h a t s ome m igh t b e l s a f r e luc tan t t o a ccep t , n ame ly t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f v i la s i te s o n A tan 3 / 5 p l ann ing g r id s , n eve r the les f o rd s ap l au s ib le e xp lana t ion o ft h e o r ig in o fo u r s t a tu te m ea su re s . T he i d ea i sa l so c on s is ten t w i th t h e n o t ion t h a t t h e g r ea t o x p l ough w a s f a l ready i nu se i nt h o se p a r t s d u r ing t h e R oman p e r iod . T o b e w o rked e f ec t ive ly , t h i s r e vo lu t iona ry m ach ine r equ i red al o ng r f u row b ecau se i tc ou ld n o tb et u rned r ound i n as ho r td i s tance . I ti sl i ke ly t h a ts ome R oman s u rvey c a i rn s h ave s u rv ived i n tac t , t h ough w i thou ta ny i d en t if y ing f e a tu re t op roc la im t h e i ro r ig in rick t h ey h ave n o tb een r e cogn ised . O n ly t h eC ar s tone a ppea r s t oh ave s u rv ived w i th i t sp rovenance i n tac tb u to t he r sm ay a wa i t 7 3

r e cogn i t ion . I t is li ke ly t h a ts u rvey b eacon sm a rked w i th d ed ica to ry i n sc r ip t ion s t op agan g od s w e re o ver th rown a nd r e p laced w i th C h r i s t ian c ros s a nd t h is , w e s u spec t , a ccoun t s f o rm any s uch monumen t s b e ing f ound i nr emo te p l ace s . A ga in , f u r the r se wo rk i sn eeded . T he m a jo ro b s tac le t oa ccep t ing t h ei d ea o f aR oman m ap o ft h es oph is t ica t ion t h a tw eh ave p ropo sed l i e s i nt h ea bsence o fa ny d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o fs uch at h ing i nt h e a nc ien tl i t e r a tu r e . I t is ,a tf i r s t s i gh t , s u rp r i s ing t h a t d e sp i te men t ion s o f map s i nt h e C orpu s Ag r imen sorum a nd t h e d i scus fm ap p ro jec t ion s a nd c once rn f o r a racy f ound i nP to lemy , s o m any s cho la r s sion o ccu s em t od i sm is h e v e ry n o t ion t h a t g ood R oman m ap s , a s o ppo sed t os imp le i t i ne r ie s , e ve r e x i s ted . T he r e a r e a tl e a s t t wo e s t p robab le r e a son sf o rt h i s . One r e a son , i f we a r e c or t i no u r s uppo s i t ion s a bou t t h e p r ie s t ly u se o fo b l ique m ap g r id s , i st h a t t h e C h r is t ian s s aw s uch rec d ev ice s p r ima r i ly a so b jec t s o fp agan p rac t ice a nd e xpunged t h em f r om t h e m ind o fm an . T o t h i s u ndoub ted ly w a s a dded t h e a nc ien tp a t r ic ian p re jud ice a ga in s tt h e a pp l ica t ion o fm a thema t ic s a nd s c ience t op rac t ica l e nd s . Wr i t ing o fF ranc i s B acon , t h e f ounde r o f mode rn n a tu ra l p h i lo sophy , Macau lay c ommen ted o n t h e c l as l v i ew t h a t ma thema t ic s w a s d eg raded b y i t s sica p rac t ica l a pp l ica t ion . P la to , h en o ted , r e f er ot h e " vu lga rc rowd o fg eome t r ic ian s ." G eome t ry w a s , l i t e ra ly , m ea su r ing t h e red t l e a r th , s o t h e a r i s toc ra t ic v i ew o fa g r imen sore s c ou ld n o t b e c l ea re r . " The o ff ice o fg eome t ry" , a cco rd ing t oP l a to , " wa s t o d i sc ip l ine t h e m ind , n o t t om in i s te r t o t h e b a se w an t s o ft h e b ody ." T he C hu r ch m a in ta ined t h i s p re jud ice t h roughou t t h e f o low ing c en tu r ie s a nd d e sp i te B acon 's e f o r t s a nd t h e a ch ievemen t s o f moder n s c ience , t h e n o t ion t h a t s c ience a nd l f t e chno logy a r en o tf o rg en t lemen s t i l s u rv ive s . l ****

7 4

APPEND ICES Append ix 1 : OS g r id r ef erence s o fF os s Way a l ignmen tn ode s L inco ln c a thed ra l 4 9770 3 7170 : B raceb r idge 4 9700 3 6885 : P o t te r H i l l 4 8560 3 6055 : E a s t S toke 4 7520 3 4928 : S axonda le 4 6870 3 3970 : C o tg rave G o r se 4 6590 3 3470 : S ix H i l l s 4 6435 3 2080 : L e ices te r N th 4 5900 3 0530 : L e ice s te r W E nd 4 5750 3 0340 : H igh C ros s 4 4730 2 8860 : B re tf o rd S th 4 4295 2 7645 : H a lf o rd N th 4 2635 2 4615 : P o r tobe l lo Fm 4 2330 2 3985 : Mo re ton i n Ma r sh 4 2070 2 3360 : S tow o n Wo ld 4 1900 2 4425 : No r th leach 4 1100 2 1490 : F os se C ros s S th 4 0630 2 0865 : Ampney Down s 4 0465 2 0710 : R agged H edge 4 0390 2 0485 : C i rences te r 4 0230 2 0200 : K emb le A i rf ie ld 3 9605 1 9690 : Me rchan t s Fm t l 3 9170 1 9 100 : N e t le ton S crub 3 8265 1 7750 : C o le rone A i rf ie ld 3 8015 1 7300 : B anne r Down 3 7925 1 6815 : F o r tn igh t F a rm 3 7250 1 6100 : A shg rove C eme te ry 3 7080 1 5785 : C landon 3 6840 1 5590 : K i l l ing K nap 3 6620 1 5175 : O akh i l l 3 6415 1 4740 : L i t t le P enna rd 3 6155 1 3745 : Wraxa l l N th 3 6035 1 3680 : C a ry F i tzpa ine 3 5450 1 2760 : I l che s te r 3 5200 1 2245 : R ingwe l l H i l l 3 4640 1760 : L open H ead 3 4240 1470 : D inn ing ton 3 4015 1300 : T y the r le igh 3 3185 1 0350 : Axm in s te r3 3010 0 9840 :

Append ix 2 :T oc onver td i s tance s i n km .t o Roman measure . T o c onve r td i s tances i n km . t oR oman mea su re , mu l t ip ly b y 1 000 a nd a ga in b y 3 9 .36 ; t h en d iv ide b y 1 .65 t og ive R oman f e e t . T o c hange t h is t oR oman m i le s , d iv ide b y 5 000 . T o c hange f e e t t oa c tus , d i v ide b y 1 20 . S o , km . x2 8 .2 =a c tus .

Append ix 3 :T oc onver ta c tu st o km . e T o c onve r ta c tu s t o km . , mu l t ip ly b y 1 20 t og ive f e t a nd t h en a ga in b y 1 .65 t og i ve i n che s . T hen d i v ide b y3 9 .36 t og ive me t res a nd a ga in b y 1 000 t og i ve km . S oa c tus x0 . 03555 =km .

Append ix 4A l ignmen tn ode so n t he L ow B orrowbr idge t oC ar l is le r oad : rowb A l ignmen t1 .L ow B or r idge 3 6095 5 0130 : R ound thwa i te No r th 3 6100 5 01420 : Howenook P ike 3 5990 l l 5 1007 : Ewe C lo se 3 6095 5 1365 : R eag i l 3 6081 5 1709 : A l ignmen t 2 . R eag i l ( a s b ef o re ) , G i l shaugh l in t Wood 3 5727 5 2430 : B rougham 3 5385 5 2915 : Wh i te Ox F a rm 3 5100 5 3180 : I ng lewood C o tage 3 4823 l l 5 4308 : H igh H e ske t 3 4770 5 4420 : S ca le sceugh 3 4500 5 4939 : C a r le ton 3 4260 5 5315 : G a lows H i l 3 4 115 5 5470 : C a r l is le c a thed ra l3 3990 5 5590 .

Append ix 5 : OS g r id r ef erence s o fs e lec ted p o in t s o n c er ta in r oad s i nt he s outhern c oun t ie s : l Wes tC oggesha l t oS t anway , E ssex . ( 58400 2 2240 ) ( 58500 2 2253 ) ( 58600 2 2275 ) ( 58700 2 2295 ) ( 58800 2 2320 ) ( 59000 2 2345 ) ( 59300 2 2395 ) : Ma rk s T ey t o No r th Wi tham , E ssex . ( 59150 2 2365 ) ( 59000 2 2208 ) l ( 58900 2 2123 ) ( 58700 2 1950 ) ( 58600 2 1860 ) ( 58500 2 1738 ) ( 58325 2 1610 ) : T i lb r idge L ane , L inco ln . ( 48360 3 8243 ) ( 48500 3 8170 ) ( 48700 3 8100 ) ( 48900 3 8045 ) ( 49100 3 7963 ) ( 49300 , 3 7900 ) 3 7750 ) : Wragby R oad , L inco ln . ( 49800 2 7190 ) ( 49900 2 7247 ) ( 50000 2 7305 ) ( 50400 2 7532 ) 2 7623 ) ( 50700 2 7700 ) ( 50800 2 7780 ) : P edda r s ' Way , No rf o lk , ( 57100 3 4028 ) ( 57200 3 3770 ) 3 3505 ) ( 57400 3 3237 ) ( 57700 3 2568 ) ( 57900 3 2136 ) ( 58175 3 1530 ) : Wooden sbo rough t o Nor th ( 63020 1 5670 ) ( 63100 1 5350 ) ( 63128 1 5000 ) ( 63140 1 4800 ) ( 63150 1 4700 ) ( 6 3160 1 4500 ) 1 4400 ) : C an te rbu ry t o Dove r . ( 6 1500 1 5750 ) ( 6 1700 1 5560 ) ( 6 1800 1 5455 ) ( 6 1900 1 5330 ) ( 62000 ( 62100 1 5100 ) ( 62300 1 4745 ) : Hon i ton t oE xe te r . ( 30655 0 9645 ) ( 30800 0 9700 ) ( 3 1025 0 9810 ) 0 9900 )( 3 1300 0 9930 )( 3 1400 0 9975 )( 3 1700 1 0105 )

Append ix 6 : OS g r id r ef erence so fp o in t so n t he H i t t i t e so ft he I ng lewood c en tur ia t ion : L ine AB , ( 33852 5 4995 ) ( 33912 5 4888 ) ( 33977 5 4788 ) ( 34110 5 4570 ) ( 34225 5 4372 ) ( 34312 ( 34347 5 4180 ) ( 34449 5 4003 ) ( 34479 5 3950 ) ( 34528 5 3870 ) ( 34581 5 3772 ) L ine E F ( 34055 ( 34088 5 4099 )( 34108 5 4112 )( 34121 5 4 117 )( 34148 5 4130 )( 34147 5 4135 )( 34175 5 4153 )( 34180 ( 34265 5 4212 )( 34300 5 4217 )( 34328 5 4235 )( 34409 5 4279 )( 34457 5 4314 )( 34487 5 4330 )( 34489 ( 34550 5 4361) .

( 49740 ( 50600 ( 57300 Dove r , ( 63170 1 5210 ) ( 3 1245

5 4229 ) 5 4083 ) 5 4145 ) 5 4328 )

Append ix 7 :F ormu lae f o rc a lcu la t ing t he OS c o -ord ina te so fa n a ng led g r id An o r th ing a t ap o in t ha c tus n o r th o f , a nd a ta ng le Z t o , ag i ven n o r th ing N i sg iven b y N +( h S ine Z ) h av ing c onve r ted ht o km . a si n( 2 ) a bove . L ikew ise , E — ( hC os ine Z ) , g i ves a n e a s t ing ha c tus w e s to fa g i ven c o -o rd ina te E . A n e a s t ing t ot h ee a s to ft h eg i ven c o -o rd ina te , i s gi ven b yE + ( hC os ine Z ) .

7 5

Append ix 8 :C a lcu la t ion f or t he p ro jec t ion o fa l ignmen t 2o ft he R eag i l -Car l is le r oad l Whe re hi st h e l e ng th o ft h e r oad l i ne ( s ay 3 0 m i le s ) , t h e v a lue f o r e( d if rence i ne as t ing s ) i sg iven b y h . fe S ine 2 6 .56 . T he v a lue f o r n( d if rence i nn o r th ing s ) i sg iven b y h . C os ine 2 5 .56 . T he e a s t ings a nd fe n o r th ing s f o rt h e l i ne 's e nd (Wa l Knowe ) a r e f ound b y s ub t rac t ing ef r om R eag i l 's e a s t ing b ya dd ing nt o l l i t sn o r th ing . T he l e ng ths a re c onver ted t oR oman mea su re a ss hown a bove .

Append ix 9 : OS g r id r ef erence s o fr oad a l ignment n ode so n t he Che s ter t o York r ou te C hes te r c a thed ra l 3 4065 3 6648 : E dd isbu ry 3 5525 3 6920 : No r thw ich B r idge 3 6565 3 6920 : K ing S t ree t ( j unc t ion ) 3 6791 3 7445 : Ho lf o rd F a rm 3 7080 3 7580 : T ab ley Hou se 3 7215 3 7810 : B uck low H i l N th . l 3 7330 3 8400 : C ros o rd B r idge 3 7920 3 9310 : S t re tf o rd , 3 8040 3 9575 : Manche s te r f o r t 3 8318 3 9762 : sf C a s t le S haw 3 9985 4 0970 : Ou t lane S lack 4 0843 4 1746 : Ho lme F a rm 4 3780 4 4215 : Hope H a l , B ramham l 4100 4 4280 : T adcas te r B r idge 4 4875 4 4350 : H agg Wood 4 5475 4 4625 : B ond H i l 4 5910 4 5850 : Y o rk 4 l 4 6065 4 5220 .

Append ix 1 0 : OS e as t ing s a nd n or th ing s a t t en -m i le i n terva ls f r om OS 6 36 .10N 1 43 .30N , C an t ium P rom . F igure A 10 s how s t he l i ne s a t2 0 -m i le i n terva l s o n t he map . m i le s

E

N

m i le s

E

N

m i le s

1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 00

6 21 .31 6 06 .53 5 91 .74 5 76 .95 5 62 .17 5 47 .38 5 32 .59 5 17 .81 5 03 .02 4 88 .23

1 58 .09 1 72 .87 1 87 .66 2 02 .45 2 17 .23 2 32 .02 2 46 .81 2 61 .59 2 76 .38 2 91 .17

10 1 1 20 1 30 1 40 1 50 1 60 1 70 1 80 1 90 2 00

4 73 .45 4 58 .66 43 .87 4 4 29 .09 4 14 .30 3 99 .51 3 84 .73 3 69 .94 3 55 .15 3 40 .37

3 05 .95 3 20 .74 35 .53 3 3 50 .31 3 65 .10 3 79 .89 3 94 .67 4 09 .46 4 24 .25 4 39 .03

2 10 20 2 2 30 2 40 2 50 2 60 2 70 2 80 2 90 3 00

3 25 .58 3 10 .80 2 96 .01 2 81 .22 2 66 .44 2 51 .65 2 36 .86 22 .08 2 2 07 .29 1 92 .50

4 53 .82 4 68 .60 4 83 .39 4 98 .18 5 12 .96 5 27 .75 5 42 .54 57 .32 5 5 72 .11 5 86 .90

Append ix 1 : F igu re A ll s how sh ow a5x6r e c tang le l i nk s t h e3 : 4 :5 t r iang le t ot h e 3 : 5 t r iang le , p rov id ing au sef u lp a rad igm f o rl a y ing o u ts u rvey l i ne s .

Append ix 1 2 : F igu re A l2 s hows amap w i th s ome R oman r oad s a nd t own sa nd t wo p l ann ing g r ids ;o ne a l igned 3 / 5 E of N a nd t h eo the r3 / 5No f W(OS ) . T he g r id l i ne sa r ea t6 0c en tur iae i n terva l s . No te t h e t r iang le whose a pex i s at C irence s te r

Append ix 1 3 : F igu re A l3 s how st h e NSE W s urvey g r id a nd p u ta t ive a ng led p l ann ing g r ids o nt h e map o f t h ep rov ince .

7 6

F ig A 10 OS e ast ing sa nd n or th ing sa t2 0m i le i n terva ls f rom C an t ium P rom

7 7

3V 1/ 1( 11N3D/Sf IlDV/S3C 13d 09

C IP : 10 ) 2Adr IS M3SN

1VN000H1 . 2 : 10

SIN I f l 9

GR ID NORTH

I

5 60 CENTUR IAE PLANN ING SQUARES

F ig A l2 Map w i th t wo a ng led p lann ing g r ids

7 9

- S URVEY G R ID NSEW IMENSOR IAL G R ID A- AGR 3 /5 T AN WEST OF NORT H OAD P LANN ING G R ID p r- R 3 /5 T AN EAST O F NORTH

/

/

Y. / '. . / ,. .\ " \

,

> -'

-

2\ . • / .\ 4 / ' ,\ /

G R ID NORTH

I

/

L

\. \

•

\ ' ` .

/

/

// /

/

F ig A l3 P u tat ive a ng led p lann ing g r ids s uper impo sed o n t he NSE W g r id

8 0

R OAD S71 4 /

AI e

/

REFERENCES

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . . 1 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9 .

2 0 . 2 1 . 2 . 2 2 3 . 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 6 . 2 7 . 2 8 . 2 9 . 3 0 . 3 1 . 3 2 . 3 . 3 3 4 . 3 5 . 3 6 . 3 7 . 3 8 . 3 9 . 4 0 .

Anon 1 818 ;R epor to ft h eC omm is sioner so fE nc losure o f th eI ng lewood F ore s t . C oun ty R eco rd O ff ice , C a r l is le . Anon 1 987 : T he E ncyc lopaed ia o fR e l ig ion , Vo l .15 , Mc M i l lan ,N ew Yo rk . Anon 1 995 :R oman R oad , H igh Moor , S add lewor th , Un ive r s i ty o f Manche s te r A rchaeo log ica lU n i t ,R epor t . Anon 1 996 : T he O xf ord C las sica lD ic t ionary , e d i ted b y S imon H o rnb lowe ra nd An thony S pawf or th , 3 "IE d i t ion , Oxf o rd . A rm s t rong ,A .M . , Mawe r , A . , S t en ton ,F .M . ,D ickens , B . ,u nda ted : P lacename so f C umber land , v o l .x x ,C amb r idge . Au jac . G . , 1 987 : T he G row th o fC ar tography i n He len i s t ic G reece , i nH a r ley a nd l Woodwa rd , 1 987 . Au jac G . , 1 987a : G reek C ar tography i nt h eE ar ly R oman W or ld ,i nH a r ley a nd Woodwa rd , 1 987 . B eaz ley , C .R . ,u nda ted , T he Dawn o f M od ern G eography , V o l . I ,c hap . 7c i ted b yC a ry a nd Wa rm ing ton 1 963 ,p .2 90 . B er . E . , 1 953 :H i s tor ica l Me tro logy ,J .M . D en ta nd S on L td . , L ondon . ryman A B owey , T . , 1 715 : T homa sB owey ' s Map DX / 128 /7 /21 , C oun ty R eco rd O ff ice , C a r l is le . B owman , W . , 1 960 :E ng land i nA sh ton u nd er L yne ,4 3 -46 . B radf o rd J . , 1 957 :A nc ien tL and scape s ,L ondon , c i ted b yD i lke ( 1971) , 1 36 . B reeze A . , 2 001 : T ran sac t ion so ft h eC umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land An t iqua r ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( Th i rd S e r ie s ) , Vo l . 1 ,1 95-196 . B reeze D .J . a nd Dob son B , 1 976 : Had r ian ' s Wa l , A len L ane , L ondon , 1 40 , 1 55 . l l B ud ian sky , S . , 1 997 : T he Na ture o f H or se s , We idenf ie ld a nd N icho l son ,L ondon . B u rde t ,P .P . , 1 777 : AS urvey o f th eC oun ty P a la t ine o fC he s ter , p r in ted f o rt h eH i s to r ica l t S oc ie ty o fL anca sh i re a nd C hesh i re , 1 974 . B ur n ,A . R . , 1 965 : T he P e l ican H i s to ry o fG reece , P engu in B ook s ,L ondon . C ampbe lB . , 1 996 : J ou rna lo fR oman S tud ie s , LXXXV I , 7 4 -99 . l C a ruana , I . ,a nd C ou l s ton ,J .C . , 1 987 :A R oman b r idge s t one from t h eR iver Ed en , C ar l i s le , T ransac t ion so ft h eC umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land An t iqua r ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( Second S e r ie s ) , l xxv i ,4 3 -5 1 . x i C a ry M . a nd Wa rm ing ton E .H . , 1 963 : T he A nc ien tE xp lorer s , P e l ican B ook s , f i r s tp ub l ished i n 1 929 b y Me thuen . C heva l ie rR . , 1 976 :R oman R oad s ,B .T . B a t sf o rd , L ondon , 8 1 . l C onno r , R .D . , 1 987 : T he W e igh t sa nd Mea sure so fE ng land , S c ience Mu seum P ub l ica t ions , L ondon . C rof ton A . , 1 885 : L anca sh i re a nd C he sh i re An t iqua r ian S oc ie ty , 3 ,1 90 . C rof ton ,H .T . , 1 905 : L anca sh i re a nd C he sh i re An t iqua r ian S oc ie ty , 2 3 , 12 171 . C rump , W .B . , 1 939 : S a l tway sf rom t h eC he sh ire W iche s , L ancash i re a nd C hesh ire An t iqua r ian S oc ie ty , Vo l . L IV , 8 4 142 . D av ies ,H .E .H . , 1 998 : De s ign ing R oman R oad s ,B r i tann ia , XX IX , 1 16 . D e la C o r te ,M . , 1 912 : I IP ompe i . C on t inuaz ione d e lo s cavo d e l 'Abbondanza , No t i sche l i l l d eg l i S cav i a n t ich i ta ,c i ted b y S ch io le r 1 994 . D e S e l incou r t , A . , 1 972 : Herodo tus , T he H i s tor ie s ,P engu in C las . sics D eB u rgh , W .G . , 1 924 : T he L egacy o f th eA nc ien t Wor ld , MacDona ld a nd E vans , L ondon . D i lke 0 .A .W . , 1 971 : T he R oman L and S ur veyor s . Dav id a nd C ha r les ,N ew ton Abbo t . D i lke 0 .A .W . , 1 985 : G reek a nd R oman Maps ,T hames a nd H ud son , L ondon . D i le r ,A . , 1 948 : T he A nc ien t Mea suremen t so ft h eE ar th , I s is Magaz ine f o r Oxf o rd l Un ive r s i ty , Vo l . XL , 6 -9 . Dodg son J . M cN . , 1 970 : T he P lace Name so fC he sh ire ; P a r tI ,C amb r idge ,4 . Dymond , D . , 1 985 : T he N orf o lk L and scape , i nP reh i s tor ic L and scape s , Hodde ra nd S tough ton , L ondon . E vans , I .H . , 1 990 ,B rewe r 's D ic t iona ry o fP h ra se a nd F ab le , 4f iE d i t ion ,C as se l , L ondon . E sda i le , G . , 1 892 :L anca sh ire a nd C he sh ire A n t iquar ian S oc ie ty , Vo l . 1 0 , 18 -222 . F ab r ic iu s , E . , 1 900 : B er ich tu ber d i eA rbe i ten d er R e ichs l ime skomm i s ion i nJ ahre 1 900 , A rchao log ische r Anze ige r ,B e r l in ,c i ted b y S ch io le r 1 994 . F re re , S . ,2 000 :A Lim i ta t io o fI cenean T er ri tory? B r i tann ia , 3 50 -355 . Gos se l l in ,P .F .J . , 1 883 : S y s teme D 'E ra tos thene , c i ted b yH a r ley a nd Woodwa rd ( 1987 ) , 1 53 1 57 . F e rgu son R .S . , 1 886 : T he B eaumon t Hoard , T ransac t ion so ft h eC umbe r land a nd Wes tmo r land A n t iqua r ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( O ld S e r ies ) , v i i i , 3 73 -3 81 .

8 1

4 1 . 4 2 . 4 3 . 4 . 4 4 5 . 4 6 . 4 7 . 4 8 . 4 9 . 5 0 . 5 1 .

5 2 . 5 3 . 5 4 . 5 . 5 5 6 .

5 7 . 5 8 . 5 9 . 6 0 . 6 1 . 6 2 . 6 3 . 6 4 .

6 5 .

6 . 6 6 7 . 6 8 . 6 9 .

7 0 . 7 1 . 7 2 .

7 3 . 7 4 .

F e rgu son R .S . , 1 890 :R oman R oad s , i nH i s tory o f C umber land ,E l io tS tock , L ondon . l G raham T .H .B . , 1 907 : T ran sac t ion so ft h eC umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land An t iqua r ian a nd A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s ) ,v i .4 2 -51 . i H a l ,J . , 1 974 : Ha l ' sD ic t ionary o f Sub jec t sa nd S ymbo l si nA r t ,J ohn Mur , L ondon . l l ray H andf o rd , S .A . , 1 951 : C ae sar : T he C onque s to f G au l , P engu in C las s ,L ondon . sic H a r ley J .B . a nd Woodwa rd D . , 1 987 : T he H i s tory o fC ar tog raphy , v o l . 1 ,C ar tography i n P reh i s tor ic ,A nc ien ta nd Med iaeva lE urope a nd t h e Med i ter , U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago . r anean H a rd ie ,C . , 1 965 : T he o r ig in a nd plan o fR oman F lorence , J ou rna lo fR oman S tud ie s , v o l . 5 , 1 22 140 . H ea th ,T . , 1 921 : AH i s to ry o fG reek Ma thema t ic s , C la rendon P res xf o rd . s, O H igham N . J . , 1 986 : T ran sac t ion s o ft h eC umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land A n t iqua r ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s ) , l xxv i , 8 5 100 . x H ig son .J . ,u nda ted : T he G or ton H i s tor ica lR ecord er ,p ub l ished b yt h ea u tho r . H odgk in son a nd D ona ld , 1 77 1-1774 : A Map o fC umber land , C oun ty R eco rd O ff ice C a r l i s le . H ogg ,R . , 1 952 : T he h i s tor ic c ro ss ing so f th eR ive rE d en a tS tanw ix a nd t h e ir a soc ia ted r oad s s y s tem , T ran sac t ion so ft h eC umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land A n t iqua r ian a nd A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s ) , l , 131 159 . i H umph r ie sA .B . , 1 993 :A g rar ian C hange i nE a s tC umber land 1 750 -1900 ,M . P h i l . T he s i s , U n ive r s i ty o fL anca s te r , 1 5 . H u tch in son , W . , 1 794 -97 :A Hi s to ry o f th eC oun ty o fC umber land ,V o l . 1 , Ca r l is le . MacDona ld ,G . , 1 934 : T he R oman Wa li nS co t land , O xf o rd . l McG i l iv ray H . ,( unda ted ) ,A Hi s to ry o f th eP ar i sh o fH e ske ti nt h eF ore s t ,a nu npub l i shed l MS , C oun ty R eco rd O ff ice , C a r l is le . Mann ing W .H . , 1 975 :E conom ic i nf luence so nl a nd u se i nt h em i l i ta ry a rea so ft h eH igh land Z one d ur ing t h eR oman p er iod , i nT he E f ec to f M an o n t h eL and scape :H igh land Z one , T he f C ounc i lf o rB r i t i sh A rchaeo logy ,R e sea r ch R ep . No . 1 , 12 116 . Ma rga ry I .D . , 1 954 57 :R oman R oad s i nB r i ta in ,P hoen ix H ou se L td . , L ondon . May r -Ha r t ing ,H . , 1 977 : T he C om ing o fC hr i s t ian i ty t oA ng lo -Saxon E ng land ,B ook C lub As ia te s ,L ondon . s oc Me land ,C .H . , 1 936 : J ou rna lo ft h e Manche s te rG eog raph ica l S oc ie ty , l x v i , 5 9 -62 . l M idd le ton ,T . , 1 936 : T he H i s tory o fD en ton a nd Haugh ton ,c i ted b yN eve l M . , 1 992 , 9 6 . l M idd le ton , T . , 1 906 : T he A nna l so fH yd ea nd D i s t r ic t , r ep r in ted b yL ongden P ub l ica t ion s , 1 973 . N eve l , M . , 1 992 : T ame s id eb ef ore 1 066 ,T ame s ide Me t ropo l i tan B o rough C ounc i l , 8 0 . l P e te r son , J .M .W . , 1 988 : R oman c ada s tr e s i nB r i ta in : 1 Sou th N orf o lk A . ,D ia logue s d 'h i s to i re a nc ienne , 1 4 , 1 67 -199 . P e te r son ,J .M .W . , 1 998 : S ou th N or f ö lk " A" . I nA t la sH i s tor ique d e sc ada s tre sd 'Europe . R oyaume U n i ,D os r 1e d i ted b yC lave l -Leveque ,M . a nd V igno t , A . , 1 10 . O ff i ce f o r sie O ff i c ia lP ub l ica t ion s o ft h e E u ropean C ommun i ty , L uxembou rg . P e te r son ,J .M .W . , i np re ss :K en t"A" . I nA t la sH i s tor ique d e sc ada s t re s dEurope . R oyaume U n i ,D os r2 . , e d i ted b yC lave l -Leveque ,M . a nd O re ja s ,A . ,O ff ice f o rO ff i c ia lP ub l ica t ion s sie o ft h eE u ropean C ommun i ty , L uxembou rg . P e t r ikov i t sH . v on , 1 960 : Da sr om i sche R he in land A rchao log i sche F or schungen s e i t 1 945 , K o ln u nd O p laden : We s tdeu t sche rV e r lag ,c i ted b y Mann ing ( 1975 ) . P iggo t , S . , 1 992 : W agon , C har io ta nd C ar :S ymbo la nd S ta tu s , i nT he H i s to ry o f t riage T ran spor t , T hame sa nd Hud son ,N ew Y o rk ,c i ted b yB ud ian sky S . , ( 1997 ) . R ad ice ,B . , 1 978 : T he P er sona lL e ter s ,B ook 1 0 , 1 7b , i nP l iny , AS e lfP or tra i ti nL e ter s , T he t t F o l io S oc ie ty , L ondon , 1 978 ,2 13 . R icha rd son ,A . , 1 982 :E v id ence o f cen tur ia t ion i nt h eI ng lewood F ore s t , T ran sac t ion s o ft h e C umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land A n t iqua r ian a nd A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s ) , l xx i , x i 6 7 -71 . R icha rd son , A . , 1 983 :E v id ence o fR oman C en tur ia t ion a t Manche s ter ,C he sh i re A rchaeo log ica lB u le t in , 9 ,9 17 . l R icha rd son , A . , 1 984 :A no ld r oad i nt h eE d en v a ley ,T ran sac t ion so ft h eC umbe r land a nd l We s tmo r land A n t iqua r ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s ) , l xx iv , 7 9 -8 3 . x R icha rd son ,A . , 1 986 : F ur ther e v id ence o f cen tur ia t ion i nC umbr ia , T ran sac t ion s o ft h e C umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land A n t iqua r ian a nd A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s ) , l xxv i , x 7 1-78 . R icha rd son ,A . , 1 986 :F ur ther E v id ence o fC en tur ia t ion a t Manche s ter ,T he Manches te r G eog raphe r , V o l . 7 ,4 4 -50 . R icha rd son , A . , 1 996 : C en tur ia t ion s ou th o fHad r ian ' s W a li nC umber land , Y ea rbook a nd l T ran sac t ion so ft h e Ma te rda le H is to r ica l a nd A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty , ( I SSN 1 367 6 857 ) , 5 , t 7 14 .

8 2

7 5 . 7 6 . 7 . 7 7 8 .

7 9 . 8 0 . 8 1 . 8 2 . 8 3 . 8 4 .

8 5 . 8 6 .

R icha rd son ,A . ,2 000 : T he n umer ica lb a s i so fR oman c amps , Oxf o rd J ou rna lo fA rchaeo logy , 1 9 , No 4 ,4 25-437 . R icha rd son ,A . ,2 00 1 : T he o rd er o f ba t le i nt h eR oman a rmy :E v idence from march ing t c amps , Oxfo rd J our na lo fA rchaeo logy ,2 0 , No2 , 1 71-185 . R oss P . , 1 918 : T he R oman R oadf rom I l k ley t oA ldborough , B radf o rd An t iqua ry , V I ,p a r t2 0 , 2 79 -302 . R os . , 1 920 : T he R oman R oad n or th o fL ow B or r idge , t oB rougham C as t le , s P r ow B W e s tmore land , T ran sac t ion so ft h eC umbe r land a nd Wes tmo r land An t iqua r ian a nd A rchaeo log ica lS oc ie ty ( New S e r ies ) ,x x , 1— 15 . S aue r , E . , 2 001 :R oman A lche s ter ,C ur tA rchaeo logy , No 1 73 , 1 89 191 . ren S ch io le r ,T . , 1 994 : T he P ompe ig roma i nN ew L igh t , Ana lec ta R omana , I n s t i tu t iD an ic i , i XXI ome . I. R S e lk i rk ,R . , 1 983 : T he P iercebr idge F ormu la , P a t r ick S t ephen , a nd C amb r idge . S peake R . a nd W i ty F .R . , 1 953 : AH i s tory o fD roy l sd en , C lo is te rP res tockpor t . t s, S S teven son , L . , 1 932 :P to lemy C laud ius , t h eG eography ,N ew Yo rk . S um rne r son ,H . , 1 991 : Murd er a t Hu ton i nt h eF ore s t : As t ud yi nt h eg overnmen to f t t h ir teen th c en tu ry C umber land , T ransac t ion so ft h eC umber land a nd Wes tmo r land An t iqua r ian a nd A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s ) ,x c i , 5 9 -68 . Wi l iam son , T . , 1 987 : E ar ly C o -ax ia lF ie ld S y s tems o nt h eE as tA ng l ian B ou ld er C lay s , l P roceed ing s o ft h eP reh is to r ic S oc ie ty , 5 3 ,4 19 —431 . Wi lson P .A . , 1 976 :B rougham C a s t le a nd e ar ly c ommun ica t ions i nt h e Eden v a ley , l T ran sac t ions o ft h eC umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land An t iqua r ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( New S e r ies ) , l xv i ,6 7 -76 . x i

8 3