impacts and legacies of sports events 9781781903506, 9781781903490

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28/09/2012

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ISSN 1758-2954

Volume 3 Number 3 2012

International Journal of

Event and Festival Management The impacts and legacies of sports events Guest Editors: Richard Shipway and Naomi Kirkup

www.emeraldinsight.com

International Journal of

ISSN 1758-2954

Event and Festival Management

Volume 3 Number 3 2012

The impacts and legacies of sports events Guest Editors Richard Shipway and Naomi Kirkup

Access this journal online __________________________ 214

CONTENTS

Editorial advisory board ____________________________ 215 Guest editorial: the impacts and legacies of sports events _____________________________________________ 216 The economic impact of the Comrades Marathon Melville Saayman and Andrea Saayman _____________________________

220

Host population perceptions of the social impacts of sport tourism events in transition countries: evidence from Croatia Ljudevit Pranic´, Lidija Petric´ and Liljana Cetinic´ ______________________

236

The inspirational effects of three major sport events Girish M. Ramchandani and Richard J. Coleman _______________________

257

Determinants of volunteer motivation and their impact on future voluntary engagement: a comparison of volunteer’s motivation at sport events in equestrian and handball Kirstin Hallmann and Gesine Harms________________________________ _

272

A neglected legacy: examining the challenges and potential for sport tourism development in post-Olympic Athens Vassilios Ziakas and Nikolaos Boukas _ ______________________________

292

Leveraging tourism social capital: the case of the 2010 Olympic tourism consortium Peter W. Williams and Aliaa Elkhashab ______________________________

317

Book review _______________________________________ 335

This journal is a member of and subscribes to the principles of the Committee on Publication Ethics

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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Dr Gurhan Aktas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Dr Anna Leask Napier University, UK

Jane Ali-Knight Napier University, UK

Associate Professor Janne Liburd University of Southern Denmark, Denmark

Professor Bagri HNB Garhwal University, India

Professor Kyong Mo Lee Kyonggi University, Korea

Dr Steve Brown Flinders University, Australia

Dr Judith Mair Monash University, Australia

Dr Jenny Cave University of Waikato, New Zealand

Jeroen Mourik Festival Organiser, Spain Dr Noe¨lle O’Connor Limerick Institute of Technology, Ireland

Dr Liu Dake Beijing International Studies University, People’s Republic of China Rob Davidson University of Greenwich, UK Professor Larry Dwyer University of NSW, Australia Dr Ruhet Genc University of Beykent, Turkey Professor Don Getz University of Calgary, Canada Dr Joe Goldblatt Queen Margaret University, UK Robert Harris University of Technology Sydney, Australia Dr Simon Hudson University of South Carolina, USA Dr Ian Jones Bournemouth University, UK Dr Ljubica Knezevic University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Dr Mia Larsen Goteborg University, Sweden

Editorial advisory board

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Haywantee Ramkissoon Monash University, Australia Elizabeth Rich Business Event Council of Australia, Australia Dr Brent Ritchie University of Queensland, Australia Martin Robertson Victoria University, Australia Professor Melville Saayman North West University, South Africa Professor Pauline Sheldon University of Hawaii, USA Dr Renata Tomljenovic Institute for Tourism Zagreb, Croatia Kenneth Wardrop Destination Edinburgh Marketing Alliance, UK Dr Michelle Whitford Southern Cross University, Australia Dr Vassilios Ziakas European University Cyprus, Cyprus

Associate Professor Laura Lawton Griffith University, Australia

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International Journal of Event and Festival Management Vol. 3 No. 3, 2012 pp. 216-219 r Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1758-2954

Guest editorial: the impacts and legacies of sports events This special issue examines a selection of key impacts and legacies associated with sports events. In doing so, it also investigates some prominent issues, trends and opportunities in the relationship between sport, tourism and events and how, irrespective of whether mega, leisure or community-based sports, event organisers and destination managers can tap the potential to be derived from sports events. The sports events sector has significant growth potential, and while larger-scale events tend to deliver a greater economic return, it is apparent that medium and smaller events can also deliver significant benefits. As participation rates in both sport and events continue to grow, the opportunities relating to sports events that are available to event organisations, other sport event stakeholders and destinations will continue to diversify and expand (Shipway and Fyall, 2012). International sports events (ISE’s) now form the basis of the events and tourism strategies for a growing number of towns, cities and regions around the world. As a consequence, the level of research into such events has intensified over recent years. The focus of much of this research, however, still tends to be on the larger-scale events such as FIFA World Cups and Olympic Games with a bias towards research from an economic perspective exploring their economic impact on the host region. Whilst there is little doubt that large-scale international sporting events have the potential for greater economic impacts than do the smaller events, although such impacts are often not realised, the medium and smaller events can have a much greater overall benefit for the host community. This helps explain the importance of enhancing our understanding of the broader “beyond economic” benefits of ISEs, as some of the papers included in this special issue will illustrate. In the context of ISEs, impacts and legacies encompass a variety of positive benefits and negative impacts which might accrue as a result of a sporting event taking place. As the papers in this special issue highlight, these impacts and legacies may be apparent before the event takes place, during the event or after the event has occurred. They may also be felt by a variety of stakeholders including participants, local businesses, the host community and the host destination. The papers demonstrate that a sports event will affect people in different ways, and thus, there may be inequity in the distribution of impacts and legacies. The growth of demand for certain sports and the changing resource requirements of others may place considerable demands on host communities, event organisers and those managing destinations. Similarly, the relationship between sport and the social, cultural, environmental and economic environments is constantly changing, with the success with which these impacts and legacies are understood and managed very likely to impact on the success or failure of prospective sports events. As a selection of the following papers will illustrate, unless the diverse range of impacts and legacies of sports are managed carefully, the longterm sustainability of some events and their future development could be compromised. As previously alluded to, whilst the rationale for sports events is generally economic, they can generate benefits in the areas of sport (through increased sports participation); impact upon social aspects of a host community (including social regeneration, community and national pride or enhancing volunteer workforces);

generate economic benefits (in terms of employment, inwards investment or investment in infrastructure); support environmental initiatives (through sustainable, accessible and inclusive facilities); and finally, provide opportunities for the enhancement of tourism (including the raising of service standards, destination repositioning and branding). This special issue on the impacts and legacies of sports events is divided into three inter-related sections. The first two papers continue to explore the economic impacts (Saayman and Saayman) and social impacts (Pranic´, Petric´ and Cetinic´) of sports events, highlighting the significant impacts that sports events can generate for destinations and regions. The first paper by Saayman and Saayman examines the economic impact of the Comrades Marathon, a world-renowned ultra marathon that takes place yearly between the cities of Pietermaritzburg and Durban in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Their paper is one of few on ultra-marathons and the results indicate that the ultra-marathon contributes significantly to the provincial economy and that more than 600 jobs are dependent on the event. Pranic´, Petric´ and Cetinic´ then examine host populations perceptions of the social impacts of the 2009 World Men’s Handball Championship in the Croatian city of Split, and suggest that the majority of respondents believe that the public monies spent on a new arena construction should have been allocated to construct facilities for which there is a greater public need, such as health care centres or schools. Additionally, this paper is one of the few papers to explore the social impacts of sport events in transition countries, in this case Croatia. The third and fourth papers move the focus towards exploring the less tangible impacts and legacies of sports events through an investigation of volunteer motivations (Hallmann and Harms) and the potential inspirational effects of sports events (Ramchandani and Coleman). Both papers sheds light on these important intangible features of this debate, and illustrate how sports events provide a valued place within their social environment, act as a means to connect to others, and also provide the opportunity to enhance self-worth and self-esteem. Hallmann and Harms investigate volunteer motivations at two major events in Equestrian and Handball events in Germany, revealing that expressions of value and personal growth are the strongest factors influencing volunteer motivation and future behaviour. Their results also detect significant differences in volunteer motivation based on the type of event, and identify the need for practitioners to find suitable matches between the interests and abilities of the volunteers and the actual tasks undertaken at the event. Ramchandani and Coleman then explore whether attending one-off sport events inspire audiences to increase their participation in sport or recreational physical activity, and discover that the provision of information about opportunities to undertake sport is the most important lever to convert inspiration into participation. Their paper, based on data collected at three major sports events in the UK, debates the assumption that audiences are first, inspired by their own “event experience”, and in doing so, they aim to measure this basic sense of event inspiration. The final two papers, with a focus on both the summer and winter Olympic Games in Athens 2004 (Ziakas and Boukas) and Vancouver 2010 (Williams and Elkhashab), respectively, explore themes that are clearly grounded in the tourism dimension of sports events. Ziakas and Boukas examine the challenges and potential of post-Olympic Athens to exploit its Olympic legacy for the development of sport tourism, and also propose a framework for the strategic planning and sustainable

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development of sport tourism in Athens. Their findings indicate that Athens 2004 stakeholders responded with ad hoc policies in their attempts to capitalise on the potential post event legacy, and were constrained by the absence of a comprehensive sport event policy and lack of appropriate coordination mechanisms which could have fostered mutually beneficial links between sport, tourism and event stakeholders. Williams and Elkhashab then conclude this special issue with an analysis of the processes, interactions and activities pursued by stakeholders to strategically leverage benefits from the Olympic Games, and in doing so consider the extent to which this can lead to potentially positive social capital legacies for the host destination’s tourism industry. Their paper explores the extent to which different types of social capital emerged from the activities of stakeholders participating in an “Olympic Tourism Consortium”, formed specifically to leverage tourism benefits from the Games, and they examine this social capital from the perspectives of those involved in the organisation’s planning and programme delivery activities. One common theme that runs through all the papers in this special issue is the places (destinations) in which such ISEs take place. As noted in Shipway and Fyall (2012, p. 5), “destinations are notoriously difficult entities to manage due to the multiple stakeholder scenarios that underpin their development, management and marketing”. For all sport event destinations, no matter how large or small, this entails collaboration between the public, private and quite frequently voluntary sectors in combining their talents, agenda and perhaps most importantly, budgets, in being able to deliver a destination-wide experience. What remain challenging for most sport event destinations, however, as illustrated by both the Ziakas and Boukas and Williams and Elkhashab papers, are the challenges for stakeholders across the tourism, events and sport domains to come together and work harmoniously on a single agenda to achieve a seamless sport, tourism and event experience for their respective markets. Whilst there has been recognition of the social impact of sports events, much research is still needed to uncover the full range of benefits and the means by which to maximise such benefits. Included in this area is the potential for increased sport participation amongst the host community as a result of hosting a sports event. This is touched on in the papers by Ramchandani and Coleman, and Pranic´, Petric´ and Cetinic´ who both indicate that there is scope for more research, as the potential benefits for the host community of success in this area are substantial. There is a need for unique and innovative research that can reach these event destinations (places) that host sports events and in doing so enhance the body of knowledge on the impacts and legacies of sports events. In doing so, it is anticipated that this will have implications for participants (spectators/fans/active participants); practitioners (stakeholders/event organisers/national governing bodies and federations); policy makers (government/ local authorities); and places (host destinations/countries), as advocated by Shipway and Fyall (2012). Encouragingly, several of the papers in this special issue also identify the implications of their findings for industry practitioners. This point is one consistently echoed by Leo Jago, the co-editor of IJEFM, in several of the preceding editorial articles. A clear message emerges that further studies are required which work with sports events stakeholders (coaches, community groups, coaches and volunteers, event planners, sport federations and clubs) to develop events, while there is also a need to undertake research at events which deliver practical outcomes that are of relevance to sports events industry practitioners. At the most fundamental level, the industry implications of research should be considered along with the wider economic and

societal impact of emerging work. It is important to explore research that engages private, public and voluntary sector sport event organisers. Whilst this special issue makes a valuable contribution to knowledge in the field of sports events, in recognition of the fact that ISEs make such broad-based contributions to the host towns, cities, regions and nations, there is now the need to consider the holistic benefits of sports events and the fact that this cannot be done by simply adding together the different silos of evaluation in areas such as economics, social and environmental. These papers illustrate that sports events can have substantial benefits that are wide ranging for stakeholders but they must be considered as a package. It is a substantial step forward that there is now recognition of the longer-term impacts and legacies of sports events and agreement that such impacts and legacies are generally more substantial than the immediate economic impact that was so much the focus of attention in the past. These are but a few suggestions of topics for future research that build upon the papers presented in this special issue. To conclude, based on the empirical findings that emerge in this special issue, it is anticipated that future research in this area will give consideration to the potential for future works that demonstrate impact and acknowledge the importance of sports legacies. In doing so, the potential for innovative and ground breaking future studies on ISEs is both a likely and envisaged outcome. Richard Shipway and Naomi Kirkup Guest Editors Reference Shipway, R. and Fyall, A. (Eds) (2012), International Sports Events: Impacts, Experiences and Identities, Routledge, London.

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1758-2954.htm

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The economic impact of the Comrades Marathon Melville Saayman and Andrea Saayman Tourism Research in Economic Environs and Society, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

220 Abstract

Purpose – The Comrades Marathon is a world-renowned ultra marathon that takes place yearly between the cities of Pietermaritzburg and Durban in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It attracts athletes from around the world, and boasts a participation of more than 14,000. The purpose of this article is to determine the impact that this marathon has on the provincial economy – a manufacturing-based economy. Design/methodology/approach – Spending data of participants and their accompanying spectators were compiled by means of surveys and participants were split into categories based on their origin. The provincial Social Accounting Matrix is used to quantify the impact of this spending stimulus on production, income and job creation within the province. Findings – The results show that Comrades Marathon contributes significantly to the provincial economy and that more than 600 jobs are dependent on the event. Research limitations/implications – It has a larger impact on the local economy than many similar sport events and this is attributed to the specialised nature of the event as well as its status as an ultra-marathon. Originality/value – This research is one of few on ultra-marathons and the focus is on participants’ spending behaviour during the event. Keywords Sport tourism, Ultra-marathon, Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), Event management, South Africa, Tourism, Sporting events, Local economies Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Event and Festival Management Vol. 3 No. 3, 2012 pp. 220-235 r Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1758-2954 DOI 10.1108/17582951211262675

Introduction The hosting of events in general and sport events specifically has revealed a number of potential benefits. Potential benefits such as the creation of infrastructure, investment, marketing, curbing seasonality, tax generation, positive psychic income, enhancing community image, job creation, generation of revenue, promotion of sport, health and fitness, creating local entertainment, enhancing community pride, urban regeneration, regional development, poverty alleviation and increased tourist flow are just a few, according to Daniels and Norman (2003), Saayman and Rossouw (2010) and Kim et al. (1998). In fact, thousands of sports events of different sizes and magnitudes are hosted in South Africa each year. In support of this, Bull and Lovell (2007) state that in recent decades the world has witnessed a substantial growth in higher spending events paralleled by an equally dramatic competition among towns eager to host them. Gibson et al. (2003) indicated that event sport tourism generates approximately $27 billion in the USA and more than 75 million American adults attended or participated in sport events in the past five years. Developing countries often use events as a way to position themselves and South Africa is no exception. Some of the major sport events hosted in South Africa include the Rugby World Cup (1995), African Cup of Nations (1996), Cricket World Cup (2003), Indian Premier League Cricket (2009), British and Irish Lions Tour (2009), FIFA Federations Cup (2009) and FIFA Soccer World Cup (2010). Over and above the major events, there are also the smaller but just as important events taking place annually

such as the Two Oceans Marathon, the Comrades Marathon, the Midmar Swimming Mile, the Premier Soccer League, the Currie Cup Rugby League and the Cape Argus Cycling Tour, to name a few. Higham (1999) is of the view that these types of events might have more positive effects for the hosting community since they take place more regularly compared to the major or mega-events that mostly take place every four years. Additionally, the smaller scale events use existing infrastructure, which also implies less environmental cost to the local community. Gibson et al. (2003) highlight the fact that much of the existing literature and sport events tourism focus on mega- or hallmark events. Saayman (2007) supports this notion and postulates that research concerning smaller events is neglected, and even more so in developing countries. Based on the above, the aim of this paper is to estimate the economic impact of the Comrades Marathon. The Comrades Marathon is a world-renowned ultra marathon of 89 kilometres (56 miles) that takes place between the cities of Pietermaritzburg and Durban in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The first Comrades took place on 24 May 1921, Empire Day, starting outside the City Hall in Pietermaritzburg with 34 runners. It has since then continued every year with the exception of the war years 1941-1945, with the direction alternating each year between the two cities, the so-called up and down runs. The Comrades Marathon is a cherished national treasure and attracts thousands of runners, spectators and television viewers every year. The 86th race took place on Sunday 29 May 2011 and was an up run starting in Durban and finishing in Pietermaritzburg – both in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal – with over 14,000 runners participating. Literature review Tyrrell and Johnston (2006, p. 3) explain economic impact as an analysis that tracks “monetary payments as they move through a regional economy” with the aim to estimate the subsequent changes that an event has on total spending, output, income and employment in the regional economy. They further maintain that an economic impact analysis should not be confused with cost-benefit analysis, since the two are conceptually different. This view is supported by Burgan and Mules (2001). Cost-benefit analysis is essentially a policy tool used to compare similar projects and the return they generate in order to decide which projects warrant public funding (Burgan and Mules, 2001). The analysis is therefore rather ex ante than ex post. Furthermore, cost-benefit analysis measures net economic benefits, while economic impact analysis focuses on economic activity or income (Tyrrell and Johnston, 2006, p. 3). Crompton (2006) refers to cost-benefit analysis as economic impact analysis that incorporates costs into the analysis as well. The net benefit of an event or project is often measured by the consumer surplus that arises due to the event or project, but Burgan and Mules (2001) ascertain that this view is incorrect, since the consumers of tourism goods are non-residents and therefore the consumer surplus do not reflect the net benefit to the economy. The sum of the producer surplus and the increase in payment received by production factors is a better representation of the income received by the residents due to the event. While the consumer surplus calculation is often added to economic impact studies to legitimise the results, this is criticised by Burgan and Mules (2001, p. 326) who maintain that “where resources (particularly the primary factors of production) are underused, an economic impact analysis becomes more relevant than both consumer surplus and producer surplus”. Crompton (2006), however, states that economic impact refers for the net benefit derived from hosting the event. His view is in contrast to that of both Tyrrell and

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Johnston (2006) as well as Burgan and Mules (2001). Abelson (2011), however, equate the concept of economic impact assessment to net welfare gains, which is even more defined than the view taken by Crompton (2006) and rather correspond to Tyrrell and Johnston’s (2006) definition of cost-benefit analysis. In this paper, we stay with the most accepted definition of economic impact, namely that posed by Tyrrell and Johnston (2006) and described above. Since this is not an event supported by public funding and therefore do not attempt to influence policy decisions on optimal societal benefits, economic impact assessment is more appropriate in determining the increase in observable economic activity (Tyrrell and Johnston, 2006). However, cognisance should be taken that since economic impact studies do not account for costs associated with hosting the event it represents only the positive gain in terms of output, income and employment generation. To estimate economic impacts, the additional “new money” generated for the local economy from tourism is normally considered (Gelan, 2003). An economic impact study therefore normally starts with an estimation of the magnitude of spending that is injected in the economy due to hosting the event (Dwyer et al., 2006, p. 59). This spending stimulus is the result of spending by visitors, organisers, sponsors, accompanying person, etc., but Dwyer et al. (2005, p. 352) indicate that only new money that enter the area should be counted. Crompton (2006) continues by identifying two controversial issues that should be addressed in measuring this initial stimulus: the inclusion of local spending and the use of capture ratios to only measure spending that truly takes place in the local economy. Stynes and White (2006) add that the inclusion of various spending categories, as well as the segmentation of visitors into distinct classes improves the estimate of the initial stimulus. According to Saayman (2007), the following factors influence the magnitude of the initial stimulus generated by a specific event: . the total number of spectators and participants, where more people is associated with a greater impact; .

the duration of the event, since events of longer duration increases stay and spending;

.

the average spending of spectators and participants, with a positive relationship between spending an impact; and

.

the type of event.

The latter plays an important role since the literature review indicates that different events lead to different spending patterns and therefore impacts. In this regard, several issues are at play, namely some events are much more expensive to host than others; some events require more expensive equipment, for example motor sport; some events attract larger numbers of spectators and few participants, for example the Tour de France or team sports; some events attract similar number of spectators than participants, for example the Two Oceans Marathon; some events are hosted more regularly and some events do not require elaborate infrastructure. In general, the initial spending stimulus will be greater the more visitors and the longer they stay, and the greater their total spending, all things being equal. Even though many economic impact studies for events and sport events specifically have been conducted (see Liu, 1986; Murphy and Carmichael, 1991; Kang and Perdue, 1994; Black and Pape, 1995; Andersson and Solberg, 1998; Gelan, 2003; Daniels and Norman, 2003; Daniels et al., 2004; Lee and Taylor, 2005; Bull and Lovell, 2007;

Saayman and Rossouw, 2008; Diakomihalis and Lagos, 2008), very few focused on including participants at sport events, i.e. sporting events that attract large numbers of participants with spectators mainly accompanying the athletes. Additionally, very few studies have also been conducted at marathons and even fewer focusing on ultra-marathon events. Seeing that these events attract large numbers of participants from across the globe, it is important for academics, scholars and practitioners to gain a greater understanding of the influence that these events have on the local economy. Methodological review The economic impact of tourism activity has been studied widely and a number of methods are available in order to quantify the increase in economic activity due to an event. Especially prevalent in most economic impact studies on tourism, is the use of multiplier analysis made popular by Brian Archer (1984). The multiplier concept was originally developed to justify public spending, but is nowadays better known for its application in determining the contribution of individual industries or events to the economy. The multiplier explains the process of how a spending stimulus, as described above, is circulated through the economy due to spending and re-spending (Wang, 1997). The estimate of the total change in economic activity (or employment) relative to the initial change in spending is captured by the multiplier (VanBlarcom and Backman, 2007). The initial spending stimulus due to the activity or event is popularly referred to as the direct impact. The indirect impact comprises the spending due to inter-business transactions flowing from the initial spending stimulus, while the induced impact refers to the increase in consumer spending due to the increase in income. The total impact on the economy is the sum of these three impacts and can be calculated as the product of the direct spending and the multiplier. Various methods have been put forward in estimating the indirect impact or secondary impacts of the initial spending stimulus. Two of the most prominent methods found in literature are input-output (I-O) analysis and computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling. I-O models and variants thereof, such as partial I-O models and regional I-O models (see Wagner, 1997; Vaughan et al., 2000), dominated the field until the application of CGE models in tourism and events research were made popular with work by, amongst others, Blake (2005), Dwyer et al. (2005) and Dwyer et al. (2006). I-O models have been criticised widely for always producing positive impacts due to the assumption of unlimited resources and capacity; and its inability to capture feedback effects (Abelson, 2011, p. 54). These include a shift in economic activity from one sector to another, increased prices and changes in the exchange rate that cause the country to lose its comparative advantage in certain export industries (Dwyer et al., 2004). Dwyer et al. (2006, p. 60) further explain that these models assume that an increase in economic activity in one area does not reduce economic activity elsewhere. Due to these shortcomings, these models tend to overestimate the impact of an event, and this is especially true of economic impact studies that focus only on output changes in the economy (Blake, 2005, p. 7, 12). Blake (2005, p. 11) indicates that CGE models differ from I-O models by imposing restrictions on the availability of labour and capital so that the price of labour and capital adjust, and not only the volume of these factors of production; and imposing a macroeconomic balance restriction that income must equal expenditure. Abelson (2011) continues by stating that CGE models link industries through a system of equations, which allows for substitution between industries. The core of the CGE

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model is normally a social accounting matrix (SAM) (Bohlmann and van Heerden, 2005), which is compiled from I-O tables, national income statistics and household income and expenditure data. It therefore allows the simulation of changes in gross value added (GVA) or income multipliers, which is, according to Blake (2005, p. 7) more realistic than gross output multipliers. While CGE analysis clearly incorporates more relationships and therefore delivers more realistic impacts, it is not without criticism. Abelson (2011, p. 56) declares that CGE models were mainly developed to “assess the longer-term impact of major microeconomic policies such as trade liberalisation” and cast doubt over its applicability for short-term events (excluding mega-events) which leads to a temporary increase in demand. He continues by indicating that the results obtained from the analysis depend greatly on the availability and quality of industry and inter-industry data, and the assumptions made by the modeller. Furthermore, the cost of constructing a CGE model may outstrip the benefit, since significant changes have to be made to the model to assess small temporary demand changes. Dwyer et al. (2006) also state that events that are held in low tourism seasons do not create the same resource constraints, since idle capacity is available, and output effects would then be greater. Since the Comrades Marathon takes place end of May – a winter month and low tourism season in South Africa – and not during school holidays, it constitutes an event that takes place in low season which, according to the above, requires less resource constraints. Furthermore, the fact that this is a one-day event (i.e. temporary demand shock) means that the cost of compiling and adjusting a CGE model for the event may outstrip the benefit. Therefore this research generates multipliers from a provincial SAM of KwaZulu-Natal. The SAM assumes that the relationships in the economy are linear and that prices are fixed in the short run. According to Wagner (1997), using a SAM for multiplier analysis holds three distinct advantages: it describes the links between production, income and demand within a regional economy; it gives a thorough account of the regional economy and it lends itself to determining regional multipliers. Furthermore, it allows the estimation of changes in GVA, which is more realistic in estimating the impact of the event (Blake, 2005). The KwaZulu-Natal SAM was compiled by Conningarth Economists and available from the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA[1] ). The KwaZulu-Natal SAM distinguishes between 45 sectors, 12 household types and four ethnic groups. The economy of KwaZulu-Natal is mainly a manufacturing-based economy with approximately 50 per cent of all economic activity in this sector (Conningarth Economists, 2006). Due to its location on the shores of the Indian Ocean, it is also a popular holiday destination for both South African as well as international tourists. The tourism-related sectors, namely trade and accommodation, transport and communication, as well as financial and business services, are therefore also major role-players in the provincial economy. The transport sector is further boosted by two harbours – one in Durban and another in Richards Bay. Durban, the provincial capital, is home to regional offices of financial service businesses. The distribution of economic activity across the various sectors is illustrated in Figure 1. Almost half (4.8 million) of the 9.8 million residents of the province live in poverty ( Jacobs and Punt, 2009). Method of research This section describes the questionnaire, the sampling method, the survey and the analysis.

Impact of the Comrades Marathon

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ic es

n

io at od m m

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n

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an

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Ag ric

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225

Source: KwaZulu-Natal social accounting matrix

The questionnaire A structured questionnaire was used to collect the data and was based on the works of McDonald et al. (2002), Ogles and Masters (2003), LaChausse (2006) and Saayman and Saayman (2012), and was subdivided into three sections. Section A captured demographic details (gender, home language, age, occupation, home province, marital status and preferred accommodation) as well as spending behaviour (number of persons paid for, length of stay and expenditure on various items), while Section B focused on specific information concerning the race (initiator of participation, frequency of participation, repeat participation, other tourist attractions visited and information sources regarding the event). Section C measured the motivational factors and the participants’ preference for competing in the race. For the purposes of this research, the information obtained from Section A was predominantly used. Survey and sampling method A destination-based survey was undertaken and questionnaires were handed out on-site at the Bonitas Comrades Expo in Durban during the registration period (27-29 May 2011). Participants were selected after they had completed their registration. The fieldworkers were trained to ensure that they understood the aim of the study as well as the questionnaire. A total of 450 questionnaires were distributed over a period of three days. Since more participants register towards the end of the registration period, 100, 150 and 200 questionnaires were distributed over the three days of registration, respectively. Participants were randomly selected until the number of required questionnaire per day was achieved. In total, 437 questionnaires were completed sufficiently to be used in the analysis. In all, 14,900 athletes participated in the Comrades Marathon of 2011. According to Israel (2009, p. 6), from a population of 14,900 (N), 389 respondents (n) are seen as representative with a 95 per cent level of confidence. Data analysis The data were captured in Excel and split according to the origin of the athletes. Three groups were identified, namely athletes from KwaZulu-Natal in which the marathon is

Figure 1. Sectoral distribution of economic activity in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

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hosted, athletes from the rest of South Africa and international athletes and a segmentation strategy, as proposed by Stynes and White (2006) was therefore followed. By splitting the respondents into various groups, a more accurate value of spending can be determined (Saayman et al., 2005). It is often argued that spending by locals (in this instance, athletes from KwaZulu-Natal) should be excluded, since it only represents a shift in expenditure patterns and not new money that flows into the region. However, Crompton (2006) indicates that there are two circumstances when local spending can be included: when the event caused the residents to stay at home rather than take a trip elsewhere, referred to as the “deflected impact” and when a study of the significance of the evnt is made, i.e. the size and nature of the influence that the event has on local economic activity. Since athletes travel within the province to participate in the Comrades Marathon, it implies that they would travel to another province if the marathon was held elsewhere. Therefore there is a strong case that option mentioned above is true and the spending by participants and their supporters from the province of KwaZulu-Natal is therefore included in the analysis. The contribution is, however, always listed separately in the analysis to allow economic impact estimation with and without local spending. The questionnaire is used to gather expenditure information from athletes, but some athletes travel with family as supporters, or with fellow athletes. The spending per group thus includes spending by athletes (which may be more than one athlete in a travel group) and supporting spectators. To determine number of athletes in a travel group, spending on entry fees was used. Given the amount spent on entry fees for the race, KwaZulu-Natal athletes travel in athlete groups of 1.15 (accompanied by 0.6 supporting spectators on average), other South African athletes in athlete groups of 1.54 (and is accompanied by one supporting spectator) and international athletes in athlete groups of 1.13 (accompanied by 0.8 supporting spectators). The magnitude of spending for each category was therefore divided by the number of athletes in the group, in order to derive the value of spending per athlete. Table I indicates the spending per athlete based on the survey results as well as the athletes per group. Note that this spending includes the accompanying persons for whom the participant is financially responsible. More than 18,500 athletes registered for the 2011 Comrades Marathon; however, only 14,900 participated in the race. The number of participants from each origin was obtained from the organisers – 3 483 athletes were from KwaZulu-Natal, 10,140 from

Spending item

Table I. Spending per athlete according to origin (in South African Rand)

Entry Accommodation Transport Running gear Food Beverages Medicine Souvenirs Other Total (in ZAR)

KwaZulu-Natal

Rest of RSA

International

270.00 262.87 538.24 1,032.07 244.01 105.73 158.15 83.37 52.14 2,746.58

270.00 1,664.03 1,040.68 881.00 704.08 184.37 126.48 192.40 39.13 5,102.17

1,226.00 4,653.00 4,931.31 2,242.16 2,098.95 636.78 72.47 560.73 136.90 16,558.30

Source: Authors’ own calculations based on survey results

the rest of South Africa and 1,277 were international athletes. By multiplying the number of athletes with the spending per athlete, total spending due to the Marathon of athletes from different origins can be derived. The total spending also includes spending of approximately 12,000 accompanying supporters. Two assumptions are, however, made and the spending is adjusted by using capture rates, as explained by Crompton (2006), to account for these assumptions. The first assumption is made to account for transport cost that does not accrue to the Provincial economy of KwaZulu-Natal. For athletes from the rest of South Africa as well as international athletes, it is assumed that only 50 per cent of transport cost is spent in the province. The rationale for this percentage is because athletes from the rest of South Africa mostly drive by car to the race, and would probably fill their fuel tanks before departing from their home province and again before their return (this time in KwaZulu-Natal) to their home province. International athletes fly to South Africa and airport taxes accrue to the local economy. In addition, they make use of local transport while in the province. The second assumption pertains to the allocation of entry fees. Entry fees are used by the organisers in hosting the event. The organisers have provided their expenditure items and therefore entry fees are excluded from athlete spending and included in organiser spending, in order to avoid double counting[2]. If this is taken into account, the total spending by athletes amounts to 4ZAR68.7 million. The breakdown of athlete spending per origin is provided in Table II[3]. In addition, organiser spending amounts to just over ZAR8.5 million. However, some of the spending is on the prize money, which again does not accrue to the local economy. If prize money is excluded, total spending by organisers amounts to almost ZAR7 million. The total direct spending that takes place in the KwaZulu-Natal economy therefore amounts to R75.7 million. The spending stimulus therefore includes spending by athletes and their supporting spectators, as well as that of organisers. Since no entry fee is asked for spectators and since the course runs over almost 90 kilometres, the total number of spectators is impossible to determine. Therefore only spectators travelling with athletes are included in the analysis. The total spending by athletes from different origins, as well as organisers, was allocated to the categories of the KwaZulu-Natal SAM. Since a SAM multiplier approach is followed, distinct multipliers for each expenditure-related economic activity are applied. The subsequent change in commodity demand is therefore translated into a change in economic activity by using the SAM multipliers – the Spending item Accommodation Transport Running gear Food Beverages Medicine Souvenirs Other Total (in ZAR)

Impact of the Comrades Marathon 227

KZN

Rest or RSA

International

Total athletes

915,565.35 1,874,671.19 3,594,621.77 849,883.34 368,237.78 550,837.81 290,371.18 181,587.47 8,625,775.90

16,873,782.73 5,276,414.22 8,933,671.54 7,139,581.83 1,869,531.00 1,282,598.73 1,951,045.34 396,804.74 43,723,430.14

5,940,615.25 3,147,965.74 2,862,626.83 2,679,785.20 812,999.46 92,521.22 715,902.85 174,782.99 16,427,199.54

23,729,963.34 10,299,051.16 15,390,920.14 10,669,250.38 3,050,768.24 1,925,957.76 2,957,319.38 Table II. 753,175.19 Total spending of athletes 68,776,405.58 according to origin (in South African Rand)

Source: Authors’ own calculations based on survey results

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so-called “corrected” direct impact of the event. The multipliers then convert the spending into the associated increase in production, income and employment opportunities due to the circulation of the additional spending through the local economy. Results The results of the analysis are discussed by assessing the influence of the Comrades Marathon 2011 on production in KwaZulu-Natal, on income of households in the province as well as on job creation in the province. The initial stimulus of additional spending in the economy creates an inflow into the economy that stimulates further economic activity. Production can be seen as the total turnover that is generated by each sector in the economy, and the increase in production due to the spending stimulus is summarised in Tables III and IV. Table III presents a breakdown of the direct, indirect and induced impacts on production of athlete and organiser spending due to the event, according to origin. For

Sector

KZN Rest of RSA International Organisers Direct and Direct and Direct and Direct and indirect Induced indirect Induced indirect Induced indirect Induced

Agriculture 0.092 0.028 Mining 0.026 0.009 Manufacturing 2.031 0.495 Electricity and water 0.100 0.032 Construction 0.183 0.046 Trade and accommodation 5.760 2.188 Transport and communication 2.378 0.719 Table III. Financial and Direct, indirect and business services 0.885 0.386 induced impact Community services 0.674 0.485 of spending on production Total (in ZAR million) 12.130 4.388 (in ZAR millions, 2006 prices) Source: Authors’ own calculations based

Sector

KZN

1.257 0.135 11.696 0.813 0.923

0.377 0.049 2.913 0.266 0.234

0.446 0.055 4.499 0.296 0.333

0.134 0.020 1.121 0.097 0.084

0.032 0.031 1.791 0.047 1.458

0.010 0.011 0.476 0.016 0.369

32.971

11.572

11.811

4.154

2.728

1.062

8.417

2.544

3.983

1.201

0.821

0.250

5.071 1.751 63.033

2.336 1.260 21.550

1.837 0.382 23.641

0.844 0.275 7.928

1.705 0.578 9.191

0.898 0.415 3.508

on multiplier analysis

Rest of RSA International Organisers

Agriculture 0.120 1.633 0.580 Mining 0.035 0.184 0.074 Manufacturing 2.526 14.609 5.620 Electricity and water 0.132 1.078 0.393 Construction 0.230 1.156 0.417 Trade and accommodation 7.948 44.542 15.964 Transport and communication 3.096 10.962 5.184 Table IV. Financial and business services 1.271 7.407 2.682 Total impact of the Community services 1.159 3.011 0.656 Comrades Marathon 2011 Total (in ZAR million) 16.518 84.583 31.570 on production (in ZAR millions, 2006 prices) Source: Authors’ own calculations based on multiplier analysis

0.042 0.042 2.267 0.063 1.827 3.790 1.072 2.604 0.993 12.699

Total

%

2.376 1.63 0.336 0.23 25.021 17.21 1.667 1.15 3.630 2.50 72.244 49.70 20.313 13.97 13.963 9.61 5.820 4.00 145.370 100.00

ease of interpretation, the results are summarised in sectors of the economy, using the basic sector aggregation as classified by the South African Reserve Bank and Statistics South Africa. It is evident that the direct and indirect impact of spending by athletes from the rest of South Africa exceeds that of other athlete groups as well as that of the organisers. This is to be expected, since they make out the majority of the marathon participants. Table III also shows that the tourism-related sectors, i.e. trade and accommodation, transport and communication and financial and business services, are the sectors in KwaZulu-Natal that benefit greatly from the event. Through backward linkages, the indirect and induced effects on manufacturing as well as community and personal services, are also noteworthy. Table IV summarises the total impact of the event. It shows that the value of the event to production in the province exceeds ZAR145 million. If local spending is excluded (i.e. athletes from KwaZulu-Natal), the value of the Comrades Marathon 2011 to the local economy is ZAR128.85 million. Athletes from the rest of South Africa as well as international athletes are the main contributors to the increase in production. Organiser spending, on the other hand, is the lowest contributor to the increase in production, although it has a substantial effect on the building and construction sectors of the provincial economy. In total, the sectors that benefit the most in terms of output due to the Comrades Marathon are, in order of importance, trade and accommodation (49.7 per cent), manufacturing (17.21 per cent), transport and communication (13.97 per cent), financial and business services (9.61 per cent) and community and personal services (4 per cent). An increase in spending not only leads to an increase in production, but also to an increase in employee remuneration. Therefore, the spending stimulus due to the event also has an effect on household income in the province. The resulting income multipliers derived from the KwaZulu-Natal SAM are used to quantify the effect of the Comrades Marathon on household income. Since the income (or GVA) effect is seen as more realistic in estimating the increase in economic activity due to the event (see Blake, 2005), is it also reported according to each segment. It is estimated that the Comrades Marathon 2011 contributed almost ZAR70.5 million in income to households in KwaZulu-Natal. It is evident that the impact via income multipliers is considerably less than that proposed by the production multipliers (ZAR145 million vs ZAR70 million), which confirm the concerns raised in the literature that focusing only on the production effect of a spending stimulus, may paint an unrealistic positive picture of the economic impact of the event (or for that matter, any other activity) (Table V). Of special importance is the effect of the event on the income of low-income households, since it provides an indication of the effect on poverty alleviation in the province. Income categories P1 to P5 are considered to be low income, which translates into income oZAR24,000 per year (i.e. oUS$3,000 per year). Table VI summarises the impact of the Comrades on income. From the tables it is clear that the Comrades Marathon 2011 generated income of almost ZAR70.5 million for households in KwaZulu-Natal. Low-income households receive about 5 per cent of this income. The labourers in the trade and accommodation sector experience the greatest increase in income, followed by those in the manufacturing and in other tourism-related services sectors i.e. transport and communication, and business and financial services. If one were to exclude athletes from KwaZulu-Natal, the total impact on income will still be in excess of ZAR60 million.

Impact of the Comrades Marathon 229

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Sector

KZN

Rest of RSA

International

Organisers

Total

%

0.018 0.019 0.960 0.029 0.801 2.015 0.477 1.436 0.607 6.362

1.005 0.157 10.350 0.754 1.592 36.619 9.019 7.438 3.556 70.491

1.43 0.22 14.68 1.07 2.26 51.95 12.79 10.55 5.04 100.00

Agriculture 0.051 0.691 0.245 Mining 0.017 0.087 0.035 Manufacturing 1.023 6.044 2.323 Electricity and water 0.060 0.488 0.178 Construction 0.101 0.507 0.183 230 Trade and accommodation 4.171 22.397 8.036 Transport and communication 1.378 4.865 2.299 Table V. Financial and business services 0.663 3.920 1.419 Total impact of the Community services 0.708 1.840 0.401 Comrades Marathon 2011 Total (in ZAR million) 8.171 40.840 15.118 on income (in ZAR millions, 2006 prices) Source: Authors’ own calculations based on multiplier analysis

Sector

Total impact

Indirect and induced impacts Low-income Other Total households households households

Agriculture 2.376 0.06 Mining 0.336 0.01 Manufacturing 25.021 0.50 Electricity and water 1.667 0.05 Construction 3.630 0.08 Trade and accommodation 72.244 1.90 Transport and communication 20.313 0.44 Financial and business Table VI. services 13.963 0.29 Total impact of Comrades Community services 5.820 0.14 Marathon 2011 on Total (in ZAR million) 145.370 3.47 household income (in ZAR Source: Authors’ own calculations based on multiplier analysis millions, 2006 prices)

%

0.95 0.15 9.85 0.96 1.51 34.72

1.01 0.16 10.35 1.01 1.59 36.62

1.4 0.2 14.6 1.4 2.3 51.8

8.58

9.02

12.7

7.15 3.42 67.28

7.44 3.56 70.75

10.5 5.0 100.0

Finally, the spending stimulus also leads to job creation. Since labour is a key input in the production process, an increase in production is associated with an increase in employment. The number of jobs created per activity sector is based on the figures obtained in the KwaZulu-Natal SAM, as well as data on the labour force per province relative to business volume and jobs per activity sector in South Africa for 2006. Table VI summarises the results of the impact that Comrades 2011 had on the regional employment level in the province. From Table VII it is evident that 629 job opportunities may depend on the hosting of the event, in addition to the job opportunities of people directly involved in the event. In the absence of the Comrades Marathon, 629 job opportunities might be lost, most of these in the trade and accommodation sector. Other sectors also affected include manufacturing and agriculture, with the business and community service sectors also benefiting from the event in terms of employment opportunities.

Sector Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Electricity and water Construction Trade and accommodation Transport and communication Financial and business services Community services Total

Total impact

Labour multiplier

Number of jobs

% (total)

2.376 0.336 25.021 1.667 3.630 72.244 20.313 13.963 5.820 145.370*

20.93 2.75 2.77 2.45 5.63 5.61 0.95 1.96 5.18

50 1 71 4 20 406 19 27 30 629

7.9 0.1 11.3 0.6 3.2 64.6 3.0 4.3 4.8 100

Note: *In ZAR million, 2006 prices Source: Authors’ own calculations based on multiplier analysis

Findings and implications Based on the results, the following findings and implications are eminent: Firstly, the results from the economic impact assessment confirm the notion that sport events, and specifically an ultra marathon, can be used as a tool to increase economic activity, create income and support employment during low tourism seasons. Additionally, results show that the positive spin-offs due to the event also reach the poor. This supports research findings by Gelan (2003), Daniels and Norman (2003), Daniels et al. (2004) and Saayman and Rossouw (2008). When one compares this study with similar studies conducted in the field of both sporting and other events, it provides an indication of the magnitude of this event. In terms of studies conducted at similar sport events, an I-O analysis of the economic impact of the Cooper River bridge road run, USA, which also attracts approximately 16,000 runners, showed that the road run has an economic impact of approximately US$5 million with 114 job opportunities that depend on hosting it (Daniels et al., 2004). In terms of regular sport events in the USA, the NSA girls Fastpitch World Series has an impact of US$4 million, the St Giles Youth Soccer Classic an impact of US$1.2 million, while the Youth Tennis Championships, the Southeast Regional Championship Regatta, the Soccer Six National Championships and the CGA senior amateur Championship all have impacts of less than US$1 million (Daniels and Norman, 2003). By comparison, the value of economic activity created by the Comrades Marathon is much greater in terms of both income (ZAR70.5 million, which translates to approximately US$9 million) and job creation, with more than 600 jobs depending on the event. The reason for this might be found in the reputation of the event a a major, well-established ultra marathon; and the fact that it attracts a specialised group of athletes (since you have to qualify in order to participate in the Comrades Marathon). The latter is also confirmed in research by Saayman and Saayman (2012), who found that the more professional and/or specialised the activity, the higher the spending per participant. Based on research results found internationally in the literature (see Mules, 1998; Bull and Lovell, 2007), the only sport events that have a greater impact are hallmark events, such as the FIFA Soccer World Cup, the IRB Rugby World Cup and the IAAF Olympic Games. This support Higham (1999), who concluded that, in the long run, annual events might be more beneficial than hallmark events.

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Table VII. Total impact of spending on employment

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If one compares this event with other types of events that used similar methods to determine the economic impact, such as Arts Festivals, which generally span over a longer period of time and attract significantly more participants, the economic impact of the Comrades is much greater (see for example, Saayman and Rossouw, 2011; Saayman and Rossouw, 2010). The implication of this finding is that event organisers need to take cognisance of the events they host, since the type of event influences the impact that the event has on the local economy. It is again confirmed that the focus of an event should not exclusively be on attracting large numbers of participants, since large numbers of participants in an event do not always lead to greater economic impact if it is associated with a decline in spending per person. Added to this, the reputation, and therefore how the event is positioned and perceived by participants and the public at large, plays an important role – although this aspect is quite difficult to quantify. It is also an aspect which is not included in the current research, although the positive image that an event can create for a region, is widely recognised and should form part of a cost-benefit analysis (Abelson, 2011). Second, the results show that if one compares the three main participant groups of the event, namely athletes from KwaZulu-Natal (where the event is hosted), those from the rest of South Africa and international athletes, the spending per person by international athletes is much higher. However, in terms of total spending, the rest of South Africa spent significantly more, due to the magnitude of the market. Therefore, from a marketing point of view, in order to increase the economic benefit of the event, expanding both these markets might be worthwhile. Third, the sectors that benefit the most from the Comrades Marathon include both manufacturing and the key tourism sectors, thereby confirming the role and impact of events in tourism. The notion that events can be used to stimulate tourism activity to diminish the effects of seasonality is therefore supported. The sectors that benefit most due to the event are trade and accommodation, transport and communication, as well financial and business services. The spending stimulus creates a large impact on the manufacturing sector in the province, which holds positive implications for job creation, since the economy of KwaZulu-Natal is a manufacturing-based economy. Through strong backward linkages in the province, both the agricultural sector, and community and personal services sectors are influenced significantly – both sectors have high employment multipliers. The implication is that the tourism industry should use events as part of their activities, attractions and strategy to grow the regional economy, as well as to alleviate seasonality of tourism demand. Finally, it should be kept in mind that the analysis conducted was an economic impact analysis, focusing on the economic activity that is stimulated due to spending initiated by the event, and therefore the focus is mainly on the positive aspects associated with event. In this type of analysis, the structure of the economy influences the magnitude of the impact and it is evident that a well-developed manufacturing sector increases the benefits that accrue to the local economy. Conclusion The purpose of this research was to determine the impact that the Comrades Marathon has on the economy of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. The research is based on spending data obtained from participants and their accompanying supporters in the 2011 Comrades Marathon, as well as information obtained from the event organisers. The results show that the event has a significant production and employment effect on the economy, while it also contributes significantly to income generation for households.

The research contributes in several ways: first, it fills a gap in the sports events literature, specifically the scarce literature on ultra marathons. Second, the research not only determines the impact of the event on the provincial economy, but also compares it to other events. The results clearly illustrate that the impact of various events on the economy differs and differences even exist within the sport event genre. Third, the research shows that over and above the general items that determine the economic benefit derived from an event (i.e. number of participants, spending and length of stay), the level of specialisation as well as the reputation of an event cannot be ignored in importance in creating a spending stimulus. This highlights the complexity of economic impact studies, especially in the field of events tourism. Fourth, it shows that spending per participant differs significantly based on the origin of the participant. This information is useful for event planners and marketers, since it can assist in growing the tourism economy. Finally, this research fills a gap in terms of the contribution made by participants and their accompanying supporters of an event to the local economy, since most of the impact studies are based purely on spectators. recommendation on this study is that future research should also include non-supporting spectators’ contributions. This would imply a separate survey as well as an estimate of the spectator (excluding supporter) numbers, since no entry fees or registration is required for spectators along the route of an ultra marathon. Notes 1. The SAM is available from the DBSA web site: www.dbsa.org/%28S%28ljt3xv 55ifxdjc55r0urey55%29%29/SAM/Pages/default.aspx 2. Organiser spending is therefore listed as a separate category and encompasses the allocation of entry fees paid by athletes. 3. The marathon hosts an expo that sells the latest running gear which explains why spending on running gear during the event is high. References Abelson, P. (2011), “Evaluating major events and avoiding the mercantilist fallacy”, Economic Papers, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 48-59. Andersson, T.D. and Solberg, H.A. (1998), “Regional income from a big international sport event”, paper presented at the 29th Annual TTRA Conference, Fort Worth, TX, 7-10 June. Archer, B. (1984), “Economic impact: misleading multiplier”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 517-18. Black, T. and Pape, A. (1995), “The Indy car grand prix: costs and benefits”, Australian Accountant, Vol. 65 No. 8, pp. 25-8. Blake, A. (2005), “The economic impact of the London 2012 Olympics”, Research Report No. 2005/5, Christel DeHaan Tourism and Travel Institute, Nottingham University, Nottingham. Bohlmann, H. and van Heerden, J. (2005), “The impact of hosting a major sport event on the South African economy”, Department of Economics Working Paper Series, University of Pretoria, Pretoria. Bull, C. and Lovell, J. (2007), “The impact of hosting major sporting events on local residents: an analysis of the views and perceptions of Canterbury residents in relation to the Tour de France 2007”, Journal of Sport and Tourism, Vol. 12 Nos 3-4, 229-48.

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Murphy, P.E. and Carmichael, B.A. (1991), “Assessing the tourism benefits of an open access sports tournament: the 1989 B.C. Winter games”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 32-6. Ogles, B.J. and Masters, K.S. (2003), “A typology of marathon runners based on cluster analysis of motivations”, Journal of Sport Behaviour, Vol. 26 No. 1, pp. 69-85. Saayman, M. (2007), En Route with Tourism: An Introductory Text, Leisure C Publications, Potchefstroom. Saayman, M. and Rossouw, R. (2008), “The economic value of the 2010 soccer world cup”, Acta Commercii, Vol. 8, pp. 1-14. Saayman, M. and Rossouw, R. (2010), “The Cape Town International Jazz Festival: more than just Jazz”, Development Southern Africa, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp. 255-72. Saayman, M. and Rossouw, R. (2011), “The significance of festivals to regional economies: measuring the economic value of the Grahamstown national arts festival in South Africa”, Tourism Economics, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 603-24. Saayman, M. and Saayman, A. (2012), “Determinants of spending at three major sporting events in South Africa”, International Journal for Tourism Research, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 124-38. Saayman, M., Saayman, A. and Du Plessis, C. (2005), “Analysis of spending patterns of visitors of three world cup cricket matches in South Africa”, International Journal of Sports Tourism, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 211-21. Stynes, D.J. and White, E.M. (2006), “Reflections on measuring recreation and travel spending”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 8-16. Tyrrell, T.J. and Johnston, R.J. (2006), “The economic impacts of tourism: a special issue”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 3-7. VanBlarcom, B. and Backman, K.F. (2007), “A comparison of methods for assessing the short-run economic impacts of tourist spending on a county economy”, in Matias, A., Nijkamp, P. and Neto, P. (Eds), Advances in Modern Tourism Research: Economic Perspectives, Physica-Verlag, Heidelberg, pp. 259-74. Vaughan, D.R., Farr, H. and Slee, R.W. (2000), “Estimating and interpreting the local economic benefits of visitor spending: an explanation”, Leisure Studies, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 95-118. Wagner, J.E. (1997), “Estimating the economic impacts of tourism”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 592-608. Wang, P.C.M. (1997), “Economic impact assessment of recreation services and the use of multipliers: a comparative examination”, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 32-43. Further reading Gratton, C., Shibli, S. and Coleman, R. (2005), “The economics of sport tourism at major sports events”, in Higham, J. (Ed.), Sport Tourism Destinations: Issues, opportunities and Analysis, Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 233-47. Corresponding author Melville Saayman can be contacted at: [email protected]

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Host population perceptions of the social impacts of sport tourism events in transition countries Evidence from Croatia Ljudevit Pranic´, Lidija Petric´ and Liljana Cetinic´ Faculty of Economics, University of Split, Split, Croatia Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to empirically investigate residents’ perceptions of social impacts from co-hosting the 2009 World Men’s Handball Championship (WMHC09) in a small Croatian city – Split – in response to the need for social impacts research at a variety of sport tourism events and locations. Additional analysis was performed on a number of socio-demographic factors that may affect the magnitude of residents’ perceptions. Design/methodology/approach – A quantitative methodology was employed using a convenience sampling method. A drop and mail-back technique with self-completed surveys was used. A total of 92 completed surveys were returned. Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to test for patterns of social impacts across demographic variables. Findings – Overall, respondents’ perceived the social impacts from co-hosting WMHC09 as mostly positive. However, the majority of respondents believed that the public monies spent on a new arena construction should have been allocated to construct facilities for which there is a greater public need (healthcare centers, schools, etc.). Variations in respondents’ perceptions generally could not be explained by their socio-demographic characteristics. Practical implications – Any future decisions to use public monies for one-time financially intensive events should perhaps be subjected to a decision by a popular vote. Originality/value – This is one of the few studies to examine the residents’ perceptions of the social impacts of sport tourism events in transition countries. It also extends social exchange theory and reports validity and reliability of the social impacts scale. Keywords Sport tourism, Events, Social impacts, Resident perceptions, Transition countries, Handball, Tourism, Sports, Croatia Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Event and Festival Management Vol. 3 No. 3, 2012 pp. 236-256 r Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1758-2954 DOI 10.1108/17582951211262684

Introduction An estimated cumulative television audience of 26.29 billion and a total of 3.35 million spectators at 64 sold out games watched the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. It was broadcast to 214 countries on 376 channels, and a total of 73,000 hours were dedicated to its media coverage (FIFA, 2007). The 2004 Summer Olympics, staged in Athens, Greece, provided even more – the cumulative TV audience estimated at 40 billion (Horne, 2007), along with 5.3 million ticketed spectators (Embassy of Greece, 2004). Moreover, an estimated 3.9 billion viewers watched parts of the Summer Olympics in Athens on TV, with a total of 35,000 hours of media coverage. Both the FIFA World Cup and the Olympics represent a sport tourism mega-event. “Sport tourism events refer to those sport activities that attract tourists of which a large percentage are spectators [y] [and] have the potential to attract non-residents, media, technical personnel, athletes, coaches and other sporting officials” (Kurtzman

and Zauhar, 2003, p. 44). Mega-events are defined as “large-scale cultural (including commercial and sporting) events, which have dramatic character, mass popular appeal and international significance” (Roche, 2000, p. 1). Additionally, the volume of a mega-event should exceed one million visits and its reputation should be that of a “must-see” event (Marris, 1987). Conversely, a sport tourism event that does not meet the criteria above might instead be referred to as either small, medium, or major event. The theme of this article, that is, the 2009 World Men’s Handball Championship (WMHC09) – hosted in Croatia – featured over 400,000 spectators in 110 games, 1.58 billion in cumulative TV audience, and 1,420 hours of media coverage on 90 channels (International Handball Federation (IHF), 2010; Rowland, 2009). Thus, it is apparent that WMHC09 figures pale in comparison to those for the Olympics and the FIFA World Cup. What is more, the WMHC09 attendance falls well below the one-million-visitors criteria, as defined by Marris (1987). Therefore, WMHC09 may not be considered a mega-event, but rather a major or a medium sport tourism event. Irrespective of size, events are recognized internationally as an important component of sport tourism (Getz, 1997; Gammon and Robinson, 2003; Penot, 2003; Sofield, 2003; Zauhar, 2004), and are becoming a strong component of tourism destination development and marketing (Mules and Faulkner, 1996; Ritchie and Smith, 1991; Tassiopoulos, 2005). It is also generally understood that events can have positive and/or negative economic, social, and environmental impacts on host communities (Bull and Lovell, 2007; Fredline et al., 2003; Getz, 1991; Jeong, 1995; Kim and Lee, 2006; Lee and Han, 1999; Ntloko and Swart, 2008; Ritchie, 1984; Turco et al., 2003). While research on the impacts of sport tourism events has focussed primarily on the economic effects, the social impacts are empirically under-researched (Ohmann et al., 2006). Recognizing this imbalance, in recent years, researchers have paid increasing attention to the hitherto neglected social issues of sport tourism mega-events (Bob and Swart, 2009; Fredline et al., 2003; Jones, 2001; Ntloko and Swart, 2008; Ohmann et al., 2006; Ritchie and Adair, 2004; Turco et al., 2003; Zhou and Ap, 2009). Despite these recent research tendencies, there is still a paucity of empirical research on the social impacts of sport tourism events in countries in transition and developing countries. To date, most social impacts research has focussed on sport tourism events in developed countries, such as Germany, France, UK, Australia, South Africa, etc. (e.g. Bull and Lovell, 2007; Fredline, 2005; Higham, 1999; Ohmann et al., 2006; Preuss and Solberg, 2006), while research on events in transition and developing countries remains an uncharted territory. The term “countries in transition” denotes a distinct group of countries undergoing a grueling social, political, and economic transformation from a centrally planned economy to a market-based one (Goic and Bilic, 2008). This process of transition began in the late 1980s following the fall of both the Berlin Wall and the communist system. Thus, transition countries comprise the former communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, including the former Soviet Union (United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), 2011). In some transition countries (e.g. Croatia), all aspects of the already arduous social and economic transformation were further exacerbated by war (e.g. Croatia’s 1991-1995 War of Independence). Consequently, while eight countries, who joined the EU in 2004 (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) have for the most part completed the transition process (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), 2006), Croatia and several other countries are still struggling. Even though Croatia is expected to become the 28th member of the EU on July 1, 2013, the country is still internationally scrutinized for corruption in all segments of

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society and the lack of judicial independence. As a case in point, Croatia’s former Prime Minister Ivo Sanader (2003-2009), who abruptly resigned in the middle of his second term in office, was charged by Croatian authorities in two (and counting) high-profile corruption indictments in December of 2010. On that very same day, just hours before it became clear that prosecutors wanted him detained on corruption charges, Sanader fled to Austria, where he was subsequently arrested, and is currently awaiting extradition to Croatia. Moreover, some estimate that corruption in Croatia during the 2000-2010 period amounted to several billion euros. Taken together, these examples suggest that the social fabric in Croatia cannot be understood simply by looking at developed and other non-transition countries. Because of its turbulent past, compounded with the breadth and magnitude of the ongoing comprehensive changes since the late 1980s, separate investigation appears warranted in the case of Croatia and other countries in transition. Furthermore, understanding social impacts of sport tourism events in a variety of social, political, and economic contexts appears an important avenue for research, because social impacts are thought to vary depending on the host destination’s unique historical, cultural, economical and environmental background, as well as on the nature, scale, location, and duration of the events (Barker, 2004; Fredline, 2005). To help fill this research gap, in this article we empirically explore residents’ perceptions of social impacts from co-hosting one major (as opposed to mega) sport tourism event (WMHC09) in one small city (Split) in a transition country (Croatia) – an issue that is not well covered in the literature. Additionally, we examine age, gender, employment in tourism, length of residence in the city, and other socio-demographic factors that may affect the magnitude of residents’ perceptions. An overview of WMHC09 The World Men’s Handball Championship, organized by the IHF since 1938, is a biennial event staged in odd years. WMHC09, hosted by the Croatian Handball Federation, was staged in seven cities in Croatia between January 16 and February 1 of 2009. Six out of the seven host cities constructed brand new indoor arenas, while one arena underwent renovation. The Championship featured 24 competing nations, 110 games, 10,000 local volunteers, 1,568 media personnel, and over 400,000 spectators, including 10,000 fans from abroad (IHF, 2010; Rowland, 2009). Both opening (Croatia vs South Korea in Split, attendance 12,000) and closing (final Croatia vs France in Zagreb, attendance 15,200) ceremonies and games were sold out. To promote WMHC09 internationally, the Croatian National Tourist Board did a series of presentations in the capitals of 13 participating countries (Croatian Ministry of Tourism, 2008). Split, a co-host city for WMHC09, is the second largest city in Croatia, with a total population of approximately 175,000 (Croatian Central Bureau of Statistics, 2001). In terms of tourism, the number of tourists visiting Split grew steady from 119,454 in 2002 to 211,299 in 2008, reflecting an overall 77 percent increase (Croatian Central Bureau of Statistics, 2010). Similarly, the number of cruise ships (and cruise ship passengers) in the city increased by 183 percent (539 percent) from 82 (20,616) in 2002 to 232 (131,833) in 2009 (Split Port Authority, 2010). Despite the evident growth in tourist arrivals, for many decades Split has served as merely a transit point for tourists en route to the adjacent Adriatic islands of Bracˇ, Hvar, Sˇolta, Vis, Lastovo, and Korcˇula. For instance, between 2002 and 2007, while a total number of tourist arrivals soared, tourists’ average length of stay plateaued between 1.8 and two nights. Lately, however, the marketing efforts of local tourism authorities have been directed at extending

tourists’ length of stay in the city. Whether the result of a conscious effort or sheer coincidence, in 2008 and 2009 tourists’ length of stay increased to 2.2 and 2.4 nights, respectively. In this context, the staging of the WMHC09 sporting event was welcomed as an important push toward positioning the city as an international tourist destination. While Split is a small city by global standards, it is not new to hosting international sporting events. In 1979, it hosted the 8th Mediterranean Games, involving 2,048 athletes from 14 nations competing in 26 different sports. In 1990, the 15th European Athletics Championships were also held in Split. Most recently, in 2010, Split hosted the IAAF Continental Cup (formerly known as the IAAF World Cup) in athletics. That being said, between the 1979 Mediterranean Games and WMHC09, very few athletic facilities have been constructed in Split. Therefore, the construction of the new Spaladium Arena for WMHC09 was Split’s largest financial and infrastructural project in almost three decades. As can be imagined, in the months preceding the Arena, a staunch public debate developed over cost-effectiveness of such a major undertaking. Some argued that allocating public funds for alternative projects (e.g. schools, hospitals, etc.) would better serve the public’s interest. Nevertheless, the Spaladium Arena was completed in December of 2008, and is part of the partially completed Spaladium Center, a large sports, entertainment, and business complex (Spaladium Center, 2008). When completed, the center will also boast a 25-storey business tower, an 11-storey garage with 1,500 parking places, and a substantial amount of retail space. The Spaladium Center project is a public private partnership between the city of Split and the consortium of three private companies. As part of the project deal, both the city and the Croatian Government must each pay half of the HRK 2.46 million monthly lease to the consortium (HRK ¼ Croatian Kuna; Kuna ¼ marten in English, h1 E HRK 7.4 in May of 2011) or roughly a total of h4 million per year for 30 years. Consortium’s responsibilities include financing, designing, obtaining permits, constructing, and managing the center’s facilities over the next 30 years. After this period, the consortium will hand over the sportsentertainment complex to the city. Overall, the goals of the Spaladium Center project are to fulfill residents’ sport, recreational, cultural, and entertainment needs; position the city as the region’s business, sports, and cultural center; and create new jobs. Countries in transition While transition is a broadly used concept, the demise of the communist system accross Central and Eastern European countries in the late 1980s has given rise to a new meaning of an otherwise generic concept. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall, all of the formerly communist nations became “countries in transition.” Although some developing countries can claim that they have been “in transition” for several decades (e.g. Turkey, India, and Egypt), and many developed countries can point to periods of transition (Goic and Bilic, 2008), the notion of “countries in transition” exclusively applies to the former communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, including the former Soviet Union (UNSD, 2011). In the transition countries, during the decades leading to the fall of the Berlin Wall, private-sector enterpreneurship was restricted, confined, hampered, suppressed, and even illegal (Goic and Bilic, 2008). Now, after more than 20 years since the onset of the transition era, the free market economy surprisingly still remains an elusive concept in many, albeit not all, aspects of society at large. Therefore, the process of introducing modern market mechanics into Central and Eastern European transition countries

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continues with a specific task of significantly altering the host population’s social, economic, political, and environmental attitudes and behaviors. However, host population’s perceptions and behaviors are products of complex and long lasting past processes, and thus take time to change. In fact, a business culture in the transition countries cannot be explained exclusively either by their communist heritage or by their journey through transformation. For instance, some countries that are still in transition (i.e. Croatia, BosniaHerzegovina, and Kosovo), earned their independence from the former Serbia-dominated Yugoslavia through a bloody war that lasted up to several years. Meanwhile, other countries in transition (i.e. Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) completed their transition process and joined the EU in 2004 (EBRD, 2006). Despite having encountered dissparate obstacles and rates of progression through transition, both sets of countries (i.e. the war-stricken vs the war-free countries) share some common traits. From the developed country perspective, all transition countries either went or are still going through similar processes and face or have faced analogous developmental issues. To this extent, countries in transition may be considered as relatively homogenous, thus warranting further scientific inquiry about the potential (dis)similarities between developed and transition countries. Tourism, social impacts, and the social exchange theory (SET) Empirical research investigating and identifying positive and/or negative social impacts of tourism on host communities is voluminous (e.g. Andereck et al., 2005; Ap, 1990; Ap and Crompton, 1998; Brunt and Courtney, 1999; Carter and Beeton, 2004; Gursoy et al., 2002; Haley et al., 2005; Khan and Ata, 1994; Lankford and Howard, 1994; Mason and Cheyne, 2000; Northcote and Macbeth, 2005; Teye et al., 2002; Tomljenovic and Faulkner, 2000; Tovar and Lockwood, 2008; Williams and Lawson, 2001). The majority of studies have been based upon the resident/host perception approach and SET (Huttasin, 2008; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2011; Tovar and Lockwood, 2008). SET suggests that residents view tourism impacts more positively when the benefits of tourism outweigh its costs (Ap, 1992). Conversely, when the costs of tourism exceed its benefits, residents view impacts negatively. In this sense, tourism social impacts denote “short term consequences that become apparent in the form of immediate and noticeable changes in the quality of life of the host communities and their adjustments to the tourist industry” (Ohmann et al., 2006, p. 130). Putting SET to the test, researchers have found that when locals perceive that the benefits outweigh the costs, they support future tourism development in their community (Gursoy and Rutherford, 2004). However, although many studies have adopted SET to explain the benefits from tourism, they appear to provide an understanding only of the economic benefits, while neglecting the non-economic ones (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2011). For instance, scholars have focussed on economic indicators such as income, tax revenue, employment, consumer spending, and level of economic dependency, when in fact an exchange process may also engross non-economic benefits such as social, aesthetic, community pride, and other intangible variables (Wang and Pfister, 2008). Contextualizing the above arguments to the present research, this study proposes that the non-economic benefits derived by the local residents are in the form of satisfaction with the different dimensions of community life that are affected by tourism development in the area. These in turn are proposed as determinants of local community’s perceptions of the social impacts of a sport tourism event.

The social impacts of sport tourism events In small economies and countries with a big public sector, such as Croatia, staging a major sporting event requires substantial investment, and the largest part of it is typically funded by the public domain (Lyck, 2006). Local and national residents play an important role in this process, because if residents welcome a particular event, politicians are more willing to allocate public monies to fund that event (Preuss and Solberg, 2006). Thus, it is important that any discussion of a sport tourism event considers residents of the host destination and takes into account how hosting an event at a destination may impact upon the quality of life of the local population (Fredline, 2005). If residents’ views are neglected, they may respond with withdrawal of support for the organizations and authorities which promote the event, unwillingness to work at the event or in the tourism industry, lack of enthusiasm in promoting the event by word of mouth, and hostility to visitors manifested in overcharging, rudeness, and indifference (Crompton and Ap, 1994). Since hosting a sport tourism event can produce a range of positive and negative social impacts (Preuss and Solberg, 2006), understanding both event social impacts and residents’ perceptions of these impacts may enable action that could ensure that the positive social impacts outweigh the negative (Delamere, 2001). Similarly, as support for staging of major events is reliant upon residents’ perceptions, it is important that they are assessed so that policies can be developed that maintain the support of the host community (Ohmann et al., 2006). Higham (1999), Fredline (2005), Preuss and Solberg (2006), Ohmann et al. (2006), and Bull and Lovell (2007) have all identified social impacts that may arise as consequences of sport tourism events (as opposed to events in general), and these are summarized in Table I. Only Higham (1999) does not present any positive social impacts of sport tourism events, suggesting they are mostly negative. In contrast, all other authors acknowledge positive social impacts in addition to the negative ones. Furthermore, Fredline (2005), Ohmann et al. (2006), and Bull and Lovell (2007) identify sense of community as a positive impact, while poor fan behavior (Fredline, 2005; Higham, 1999; Ohmann et al., 2006) and crime (Ohmann et al., 2006; Preuss and Solberg, 2006) are viewed as negative impacts. Overall, it is difficult to fully document the multitude of possible social impacts because of the unique features of each location and sport tourism activity (Fredline, 2005). In terms of the types of events and locations examined in these studies, Higham (1999) discusses mega-events, Ohmann et al. (2006) covers a mega-event (FIFA World Cup) in a large city (Munich, Germany, population 1.28 million), Bull and Lovell (2007) explore one leg of a mega-event (Tour de France) in a small city (Canterbury, England, UK, population 150,000), Preuss and Solberg (2006) compare secondary data on five different events (Olympics, FIFA World Cup, EURO, Rugby World Championship, and Nordic World Ski Championships), whilst Fredline (2005) reviews residents’ perceptions at three different events (Australian Formula One Grand Prix, Australian Open Tennis Tournament, and Rugby World Cup). In sum, the overview of sport tourism event scholarly research suggests that a number of social impacts, both positive and negative, may be apparent at certain events and destinations, yet not at others (Ohmann et al., 2006). However, due to limited empirical evidence, it is unclear why these differences exist. Hence, more social impact research at a variety of sport tourism events and locations is needed (Ohmann et al., 2006). That being said, it appears that the existing research on social impacts of sport tourism events has centered on developed countries (e.g. Bull and Lovell, 2007; Fredline, 2005; Higham, 1999; Ohmann et al., 2006; Preuss and Solberg, 2006), while

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Positive social impacts

Negative social impacts

Developing cross-cultural partnerships Development of skills among planners

Changes in community structure Commercialization of activities which may be of a personal or private nature Congestion/overcrowding Corruption

Enhanced country pride Enhanced international recognition of region and values Enhanced national identity Enhanced national pride Enhanced resident pride Festival/fun atmosphere Future use of new facilities Heritage preservation Impacts on sport Improved interethnic relationships Improved leisure facilities Improved local infrastructure Increased awareness of non-local perceptions Increased community spirit International understanding More cultural events More entertainment opportunities More shopping opportunities Opportunity for family togetherness Self-actualization Sport/health promotion Strengthening of local values and traditions Unique/interesting event

Table I. Social impacts of sport tourism events

Culture shock Dislocation of local residents Disruption of local lifestyle Distortion of true nature of event to reflect elite values Fan delinquency Heritage destruction Increase in (organized) crime Increased housing/apartment rent Increased housing/apartment prices Increased interethnic tensions Infrastructural congestion Legitimating of ideology and sociocultural reality Locals avoid places frequented by fans Misunderstandings leading to varying degrees of host/ visitor hostility Modification of nature of event or activity to accommodate tourism Prostitution increase Reductions of psychological well-being due to perceived loss of control over local environment Road closures Suppression of human rights Tendency toward defensive attitudes concerning host region Unused facilities Use of event to legitimate unpopular decisions

Sources: Bull and Lovell (2007), Fredline (2005), Higham (1999), Ohmann et al. (2006), Preuss and Solberg (2006)

events in transition and developing countries remain under-researched. Additionally, the evidence is mixed as to what factors affect residents’ perceptions of social impacts (Fredline and Faulkner, 2000). For instance, research on the relationship between tourism and impacts suggests that residents benefiting from tourism report both higher levels of support for it and more positive impacts from it (Husbands, 1989; Lankford and Howard, 1994; Madrigal, 1993). Yet, in another study, residents’ perceptions of social impacts are found not to depend on whether employment is related to tourism or a sport tourism mega-event (Ohmann et al., 2006). Owing to these findings, it appears important to understand how social impacts are perceived in transition countries such as Croatia. Through an empirical assessment of residents’ perceptions of the social impacts of WMHC09, this article seeks to make a contribution in the needed direction.

Methodology Since social impacts frequently have a dissimilar effect on different members of the host community, they are often hard to quantify and, thus, difficult to measure objectively (Fredline et al., 2003). For this reason, social impacts are most commonly examined through the measurement of residents’ perceptions (Fredline, 2005), for whom these perceptions are reality (Sillanpa¨a¨, 1998). In this study, perceptions were measured through a four-page self-completed questionnaire written in Croatian, administered to a sample of 200 residents of the city of Split (population 175,000) in Croatia. The 200 surveys with stamped pre-addressed return envelopes were distributed via convenience sampling. More precisely, authors and ten of their friends and colleagues each dropped off 15 or 16 surveys in mailboxes of their closest neighbors within their respective city sections. Here it must be stressed that the city comprises 27 sections, that each of the 13 individuals who dropped off surveys resides in a different section of the city, and that these 13 city sections are scattered evenly around the city. Also, unlike many other cities around the globe, Split does not have a single section or part of a section where residents are significantly more affluent than residents in other sections or parts of a section. Instead, residents with dissimilar interests, attitudes, beliefs, and demographics are evenly distributed between and within the city’s sections. Nevertheless, convenience sampling is a non-probability technique, and as such, its generalizability to a larger population is limited (Malhotra, 1996). The most obvious reason for using convenience sampling is cost-effectiveness, i.e. the respondents are relatively easy to reach. Convenience sampling is also used in theory research and exploratory studies when the researcher wants an inexpensive and quick way to discern whether further research is warranted. Since the goal of this study is theory research beyond the research setting (i.e. to empirically explore the social impacts of a sport tourism event in a transition country), it is the theory that should be generalizable, rather than the particular empirical results (Calder et al., 1981, 1982; McGrath and Brinberg, 1983). Thus, given the goals of this study, a non-probability convenience sample of Split residents was somewhat justified because these residents were expected to be broadly familiar with the issues surrounding WMHC09. Resident questionnaires were distributed within a few days following the end of WMHC09. Our survey instrument was based on the survey developed by Ohmann et al. (2006), and adapted to the Croatian context. The questionnaire comprised eight multiple-choice questions and 16 Likert-type items – evaluated by two social science research experts. The subsequent pre-test of the survey on ten students revealed only a few typos that were easily corrected. The final instrument comprised three parts. The first part aimed to identify some of the characteristics of the respondents by using five multiple-choice questions. This included length of residence (o1 year, 1-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-20 years, 21-30 years, 31-40 years, and 440 years), is the respondent a handball supporter (yes or no), did the respondent follow WMHC09 matches (yes or no), at which location did the respondent predominantly follow WMHC09 matches (home, live in the arena, at friend’s/family, in cafe´/beergarden/konoba/trattoria/etc. public viewing on big screen, and other), and did the respondent avoid any public places and facilities such as shops and public transportation on days when WHMC09 matches took place in Split. The second part of instrument contained a 16-item measure of residents’ perceptions of social impacts from WHMC09 in Split. Of the 16 randomly ordered

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items, ten of them investigated the perceived positive social impacts, whereas six explored the negative social impacts. While the former were borrowed entirely from Ohmann et al. (2006), the latter were part borrowed from the same source and part adapted to the context of this research. Specifically, Ohmann et al.’s (2006) three separate items for crime, organized crime, and prostitution in our study were merged into one category – crime – where a respondent was given the opportunity to select among various types of crimes, such as theft, violence, burglary, corruption, prostitution, and other. The reasoning behind this merge is straightforward. Both organized crime and prostitution are still crimes, albeit of a different magnitude than, say, petty crime, such as theft. Therefore, it makes sense to combine them under a single category – crime. Similarly, unlike football games, known for notoriously rowdy, often thuggish, and occasionally prostitute-seeking male-dominated crowds, handball matches typically attract entire families and orderly spectators. Thus, since prostitution is likely of little, if any, relevance, at any handball event, we decided to de-emphasize it in our survey instrument. Moreover, Ohmann et al.’s (2006) question about the increased tensions between ethnic groups in the city was excluded from our instrument, because Split is a small and an ethnically homogeneous city (over 95 percent of the total population are Croats). Additionally, given the highly publicized policy debates over the best allocation of public monies, which took place before and during the construction of a new arena for WMHC09 in Split, we added one item reading: the co-hosting of WMHC09 in Split resulted in missing the opportunity to use public monies to construct facilities for which there is a greater public need (healthcare centers, schools, etc.). The third and final part of the instrument included questions about participants’ gender, age, and whether respondent’s current employment is related to tourism or events like WMHC09. Once collected, all data were entered into SPSS for further analysis. Analysis consists of generating descriptive statistics, testing for patterns of social impacts across demographic variables, and assessing reliability and validity of the social impacts scale. In relating social impacts (a response variable) to seven predictor variables (age, gender, employment in tourism, length of residence in the city, and other socio-demographic factors), the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U (M-W U) and Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) tests were performed due to ordinal nature of the data. M-W U tests were performed for predictor variables with two subgroups, whereas K-W tests were used for predictors with three or more subgroups. Validity and reliability were examined via exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and Cronbach’s Coefficient a, respectively (Carmines and Zeller, 1979; Cook and Campbell, 1979; Gursoy and Rutherford, 2004). Findings Respondent characteristics Of the 200 distributed questionnaires, a total of 92 respondents returned the self-administered surveys, thus representing an overall 46 percent response rate. Just over two-thirds of the respondents (Table II) were female (69 percent) and between 15 and 29 years of age (68 percent). When compared to census data, our sample features a greater proportion of females (69 percent sample vs 52.2 percent census) and those in the 15-29 age group (68 percent sample vs 21.2 percent census). Three-fifths (60 percent) of the respondents have been residing between 11 and 30 years in the city. A total of 70 percent reported that they were handball supporters, while only 11 percent reported that their current employment is related to tourism or events like

Variable

Number

Gender (N ¼ 92) Female 64 Male 28 Age (N ¼ 92) 15-19 10 20-29 53 30-39 8 40-49 11 50-59 8 60 þ 2 Employed in tourism (N ¼ 91) No 43 Not (currently) employed at all 35 Retired 3 Yes 10 Length of residence (N ¼ 92) o1 year 1 1-5 years 8 6-10 years 4 11-20 years 33 21-30 years 22 31-40 years 9 440 years 15 Handball supporter (N ¼ 92) Yes 65 No 27 Followed WMHC09 matches (N ¼ 91) Yes 79 No 12 At which location followed WMHC09 matches (N ¼ 79) At home 45 Live in the arena 11 At family/friend’s 5 In cafe´/beergarden/trattoria/etc. 18 Public viewing on large screen 0 Other 0 Avoided public places on WMHC09 matchdays (N ¼ 92) Yes 26 No 66

%

Valid %

69.6 30.4

69.6 30.4

10.9 57.6 8.7 12.0 8.7 2.2

10.9 57.6 8.7 12.0 8.7 2.2

46.7 38.0 3.3 10.9

47.3 38.5 3.3 11.0

1.1 8.7 4.3 35.9 23.9 9.8 16.3

1.1 8.7 4.3 35.9 23.9 9.8 16.3

70.7 29.3

70.7 29.3

85.9 13.0

86.8 13.2

48.9 12.0 5.4 19.6 0.0 0.0

57.0 13.9 6.3 22.8 0.0 0.0

28.3 71.7

28.3 71.7

WMHC09. The vast majority of respondents (86 percent) followed WMHC09 matches, of which 57 percent did so from home. Only 28 percent avoided public places and facilities such as shops and public transportation on days when WHMC09 matches took place in Split. Because of the insufficient number of respondents in the 60 þ age group (o5), this group was merged with the 50-59 age group to create a new category, 50 þ , with ten (10.9 percent) respondents, in the later analysis. For the same reason, three groups representing the length of residence (o1 year, 1-5 years and 6-10 years) were merged into a new category, 0-10 years, with 13 respondents (14.1 percent). Similarly, three groups comprising the employment in tourism variable (no, not employed at all, and retired) were combined into a new category, not employed in tourism, with

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Table II. Characteristics of surveyed respondents

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81 respondents (89 percent). Moreover, two groups representing the location of WMHC09 viewing – at family/friend’s and in cafe´/beergarden/trattoria/etc. – were merged into a new category, at family/friend/cafe´. Perceptions of social impacts Respondents’ perceptions in terms of both positive and negative social impacts are presented in Table III. In relation to positive social impacts, respondents’ agreement was strongest with statements that hosting WMHC09 strengthened community ties, was positive for national identity, and increased country pride. However, most respondents disagreed with statements that WMHC09 hosting improved the city’s leisure facilities and increased the number of cultural events and shopping outlets. In terms of negative social impacts, respondents disagreed with all but the following statement: The co-hosting of WMHC09 in Split resulted in missing the opportunity to use public monies to construct facilities for which there is a greater public need (healthcare centers, schools, etc.). Social impacts and selected demographic characteristics The association between social impacts and selected demographic characteristics was examined on three levels (Table IV). First, we explored the effect of independent variables on each of the 16 items (i.e. statements) making up the social impacts scale. Second, we looked at the effect of independent variables on all positive social impacts combined. We did this by creating a new variable in which valid responses to all ten positive social impacts items were summed and averaged for each respondent.

Perceived impact

Table III. Respondents’ perceived social impacts of WMHC09

Positive impacts Stronger sense of community Positive for national identity Increased pride for my country Increased pride of being a Split resident Arena construction a positive outcome Increased national pride Improved city infrastructure Improved leisure facilities Increased number of cultural events Increased number of shopping places Negative impacts Missed opportunity to use public funds for other more needed facilities Increased housing/apartment rent Increased housing/apartment prices Locals avoided places frequented by handball fans Poor fan behavior Crime increase

Strongly disagree 1

2

3

4

Strongly agree 5

¯b X

Rank N

6.5a 8.8 13.0

8.7 8.7 31.5 11.0 23.1 23.1 9.8 14.1 31.5

44.6 34.1 31.5

3.99 3.63 3.59

1 2 3

92 91 92

18.7 15.2 19.8 16.7 29.9 26.1 39.3

13.2 18.5 11.0 12.2 23.0 28.4 22.5

25.3 25.0 19.8 23.3 17.2 15.9 10.1

25.3 23.9 17.6 13.3 6.9 4.5 6.7

3.25 3.24 3.04 3.04 2.48 2.44 2.22

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

91 92 91 90 87 88 89

15.1 22.2 25.3

14.0 19.8 22.1 16.7 31.1 18.9 25.3 37.4 8.8

29.1 11.1 3.3

3.36 2.80 2.40

1 2 3

86 90 91

28.6 45.1 59.1

35.2 16.5 14.3 17.1 18.3 7.3 21.6 12.5 3.4

5.5 12.2 3.4

2.33 2.24 1.70

4 5 6

91 82 88

17.6 17.4 31.9 34.4 23.0 25.0 21.3

Notes: aValid percentage; bmean ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree

An identical procedure was performed to investigate the effect of independent variables on all negative social impacts combined. Third, we examined the effect of independent variables on both positive and negative social impacts combined. We accomplished this by first, reverse coding the items measuring negative social impacts, followed by creating a new variable in which valid responses to all 16 positive and negative social impacts items were summed and averaged for each respondent. The findings in Table IV suggest that demographic characteristics generally do not affect respondents’ perceptions of positive and negative social impacts. Yet, on the level of individual items, three social impacts are worth mentioning in this context. The effect of the handball supporter on sense of national identity is strongly statistically significant ( p ¼ 0.000), thus implying that handball supporters find WMHC09 co-hosting more positive for national identity than non-supporters. The effect of tourism job relatedness on national pride is moderately significant ( p ¼ 0.008), hence suggesting that those holding a tourism-related job believe that co-staging WMHC09 is more positive for national pride than those whose job is unrelated to tourism. In addition, a perception that locals avoided places frequented by handball fans during WMHC09 was stronger for respondents who had avoided public places than for those who had not ( p ¼ 0.008). The flagged p values for the remaining social impacts indicate few marginally significant differences attributable to different levels of perception. Looking at the effect of independent variables on all positive social impacts combined yielded only two marginally significant differences. Both handball supporters and those who followed WMHC09 games held more positive views of social impacts from co-hosting WMHC09 than non-supporters and those who did not watch WMHC09 matches. In terms of all negative social impacts combined, only one marginally significant difference surfaced. Namely, respondents who avoided public places held more negative perceptions of social impacts from co-staging WMHC09 than those who did not avoid public places during WMHC09. The examination of the influence of demographic characteristics on aggregate social impacts (i.e. both positive and negative social impacts) produced only one marginally significant difference. Handball supporters generally held more favorable views of aggregate positive and negative social impacts from co-hosting WMHC09 than non-supporters. Validity and reliability To assess validity, all 16 items were factor analyzed in an attempt to discover underlying patterns in data without sacrificing the data’s original integrity. However, for an accurate EFA, one needs an adequate sample size, which is partly determined by the nature of the data (MacCallum et al., 1999). Namely, while EFA is generally a “large-sample” procedure, it is an error-prone procedure even with very large samples and optimal data (Costello and Osborne, 2005). That is, the two common rules of thumb regarding sample size (i.e. the minimum level of N or the minimum subject-to-variable ratio) are neither valid nor useful (MacCallum et al., 1999). Instead, the level of communality plays a critical role. When the mean level of communality is at least 0.7, a good recovery of population factors in sample data can be achieved with samples that would traditionally be considered too small for EFA studies (i.e. when N is well below 100). The initial EFA of data with 16 items produced the mean level of communality of 0.68. Dropping the variable with the smallest communality (i.e. arena construction a positive outcome, h2 ¼ 0.564) achieved the desired outcome, resulting in the 0.7 mean level of communality.

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Table IV. Association between social impacts and selected independent variables 0.089 0.895 0.134 0.179 0.130 0.456 0.811 0.191 0.138 0.738 0.020* 0.455 0.184 0.120 0.090 0.160 0.630 0.378 0.251

0.022* 0.204 0.036* 0.093 0.000*** 0.065 0.826 0.832 0.082 0.966 0.036* 0.621 0.626 0.978 0.975 0.881 0.157 0.286 0.010*

Hb 0.032* 0.336 0.098 0.042* 0.201 0.126 0.088 0.015* 0.151 0.054 0.058 0.180 0.452 0.014* 0.011* 0.183 0.627 0.332 0.104

Wb 0.059 0.560 0.264 0.247 0.026* 0.444 0.270 0.172 0.931 0.225 0.013* 0.602 0.517 0.147 0.367 0.581 0.831 0.502 0.297

WLa 0.564 0.379 0.626 0.881 0.347 0.203 0.145 0.308 0.294 0.814 0.661 0.025* 0.008** 0.112 0.952 0.117 0.016* 0.641 0.150

Ab

0.581 0.923 0.908 0.996 0.134 0.300 0.109 0.368 0.319 0.122 0.100 0.109 0.601 0.936 0.826 0.246 0.026* 0.513 0.835

Gb

0.055 0.597 0.132 0.361 0.010* 0.560 0.543 0.074 0.390 0.267 0.213 0.536 0.467 0.513 0.144 0.075 0.825 0.141 0.292

Aa

0.312 0.079 0.008** 0.082 0.939 0.136 0.463 0.402 0.518 0.995 0.260 0.849 0.593 0.427 0.387 0.402 0.588 0.942 0.151

Tb

Notes: L, length of residence; H, handball supporter; W, watched WMHC09 games; WL, watching location; A, avoided public places; G, gender; A, age; T, tourism-related job. aKruskal-Wallis (K-W) test; bMann-Whitney U (M-W U) test. *po0.05; **po0.01; ***po0.002

Positive impacts combined Increased pride for my country Increased national pride Increased pride of being a Split resident Positive for national identity Stronger sense of community Arena construction a positive outcome Increased number of shopping places Improved leisure facilities Increased number of cultural events Improved city infrastructure Negative impacts combined Locals avoided places frequented by handball fans Increased housing/apartment rent Increased housing/apartment prices Crime increase Poor fan behavior Missed opportunity to use public funds for other more needed facilities Positive and negative impacts combined

La

248

Perceived social impact

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After rerunning EFA with 15 items, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.656, and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (X2 ¼ 413.723, df ¼ 105, po0.001). Both of these measures indicated that the data were appropriate for factor analysis (Norman and Streiner, 1994; Pedhazur and Schmelkin, 1991). Moreover, the Cattell scree test and the “Eigenvalue 41” criterion suggested a fivefactor solution accounting for 70 percent of the variance (Table V). Factors 1 and 2 account for most of the variance in the data (26.4 and 17.9 percent), whereas factors 3, 4, and 5 account for 9.3, 8.6, and 8.1 percent of the variance, respectively. Using a factor loading cutoff of 0.50, the factor loadings (Table VI) indicate that, for the most part, the scale representing positive social impacts loads on two separate factors. The first factor consists of five positive social impacts items (country pride, national pride, city pride, national identity, and sense of community), and is labeled identity and unity. The second factor comprises items shops, facilities, and events from the positive social impacts scale, and is labeled venue. EFA further reveals that the negative social impacts scale loads on three separate factors. Thus, the third factor consists of two negative impact items – place avoidance and real estate prices. This factor is labeled real estate and traffic. The fourth factor, labeled infrastructure and rent, contains items rent and missing facilities from the negative impact scale and item city infrastructure from the positive impacts scale. The fifth factor comprises items crime and behavior from the negative impact scale, and is labeled conduct. Overall, only one observed variable (rent) loaded on more than one factor and no observed variable loaded on more than two factors. The results of reliability analysis indicate that the a coefficients equal 0.79 and 0.62 for the nine-item positive and six-item negative social impacts scales, respectively. Thus, the a value for the negative social impacts scale appears somewhat below the minimum acceptable guideline of 0.70 for new scales (DeVellis, 2003; Nunnally, 1978). Neither scale could be improved by deleting any item.

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Discussion and conclusion While the majority of research on the social impacts of sport tourism events has focussed on developed countries (Bull and Lovell, 2007; Fredline and Faulkner, 2000; Ohmann et al., 2006; Preuss and Solberg, 2006; Ritchie and Adair, 2004), this study focussed on empirically exploring the social impacts, as perceived by residents, of a

Component

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 – – 16

4.253 2.706 1.477 1.311 1.244 0.867 – – 0.148

Total variance explained Initial eigenvalues % of variance

Note: Extraction method: principal component analysis

26.582 16.913 9.233 8.192 7.776 5.418 – – 0.927

Cumulative % 26.582 43.495 52.729 60.921 68.697 74.115 – – 100.000

Table V. Results of EFA for social impacts

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Table VI. Factor loadings for social impacts

Item Increased national pride Stronger sense of community Increased pride of being a Split resident Positive for national identity Increased pride for my country Increased number of cultural events Improved leisure facilities Increased number of shopping places Locals avoided places frequented by handball fans Increased housing/apartment prices Improved city infrastructure Missed opportunity to use public funds for other more needed facilities Increased housing/apartment rent Poor fan behavior Crime increase Cronbach’s a

1a

2b

Component 3c 4d

5e

0.851f 0.018 0.006 0.019 0.118 0.850 0.129 0.071 0.138 0.001 0.806 0.084 0.091 0.004 0.021 0.782 0.063 0.107 0.203 0.037 0.756 0.081 0.004 0.188 0.208 0.025 0.842 0.005 0.030 0.127 0.153 0.808 0.184 0.186 0.085 0.140 0.607 0.476 0.120 0.326 0.029 0.029 0.782 0.071 0.085 0.271 0.774 0.157 0.177 0.435 0.023 0.732 0.072 0.142 0.012 0.055 0.099 0.599 0.045 0.176 0.014 0.038 0.011 0.232 0.85 0.70 0.66

Communality Estimates (h2) 0.739 0.764 0.665 0.669 0.657 0.727 0.752 0.735

0.159 0.032 0.012

0.643 0.706 0.758

0.690 0.400 0.630 0.013 0.149 0.813 0.057 0.740 0.55 0.42

0.662 0.768 0.717 0.606

Notes: aIdentify and unity; bvenue; creal estate and traffic; dinfrastructure and rent; econduct; fitalic font indicates loadings 40.5 threshold. Extraction method: principal component analysis; rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser normalization

sport tourism event – World Men’s Handball Championship – in a transition country. Additionally, this study also examined the effects of several socio-demographic factors on residents’ perceptions. Overall, the empirical research suggests that residents’ perceptions of the social impacts from co-hosting WMHC09 were mostly positive. The less tangible positive impacts relating to pride and community togetherness were identified as key issues by the respondents, thus corroborating Fredline’s (2005) findings from the case studies on the Rugby World Cup and the Australian Open Tennis Tournament. The few tangible positive impacts that were not realized are improvements in leisure facilities and increases in the number of shopping places and cultural events. Negative impacts, such as crime, fan behavior, and the cost of real estate appear not to have been important issues. This is consistent with the findings by Ohmann et al. (2006) regarding the FIFA World Cup. However, missing the opportunity to allocate public monies to build other more needed facilities, such as healthcare centers and schools – instead of having spent the funds for the new arena construction – was perceived as a non-trivial issue. This last point seems to be a key point of difference between transition and developed countries, as identified in this study. It intuitively makes sense that the state of healthcare, citizen services infrastructure, and the overall quality of life in developed countries fare much better than in transition countries. In developed countries, the high standards of products/services in the private sector have in turn raised residents’ expectations when they deal with government organizations. Hence, citizens have grown accustomed to both expect and receive more and better services and facilities from the government. Moreover, there has been a cultural shift within both local and national governments – away from organizations that are focussed on managing and maintaining a complex internal structure to ones that put the resident at the heart of

the process, providing support services designed to deliver that objective. In comparison, in transition countries, both the quality and the availability of facilities and service options available to citizens – in private and government sectors alike – are generally lackluster and inferior. Consequently, residents’ expectations from both local and national governments in transition countries are much higher, as compared to developed countries. In terms of the socio-demographic characteristics, they generally did not explain variations in residents’ perceptions, thus validating similar findings by Ohmann et al. (2006). However, two differences should be noted. Contrasting handball supporters and non-supporters, the former held more favorable views of both aggregate social impacts and in the case of a single impact on the sense of national identity. In addition, although residents benefiting from tourism experienced higher levels of national pride than those whose job is unrelated to tourism, residents’ overall perceptions of social impacts were found not to depend on whether employment is related to a sport tourism event. Interestingly, this finding confirms Ohmann et al.’s (2006) results, while refuting those who suggest that residents benefiting from tourism report more positive impacts from it (e.g. Husbands, 1989; Lankford and Howard, 1994; Madrigal, 1993). Limitations of this study are threefold. First, a convenience sampling method is typically considered a drawback, thus future research could involve the use of a probability (i.e. random) sample from the general population. Yet, despite the limitations of convenience sampling, the findings in this study apply to at least some Split residents, and to some citizens of Croatia and other countries in transition. A second limitation derives from the over-representation of females and those in the 15-29 age group in the sample. A third limitation is that the negative social impacts subscale appears less robust, as evidenced by the resulting Cronbach’s a and EFA. Limitations notwithstanding, this study offers both theoretical and practical contributions. Theoretically, it contributes to the under-researched area of social impacts of sport tourism events in transition countries. Specifically, it introduced the important yet often not reported notion of appropriateness of public funds allocation, which is essentially an opportunity cost issue. In this sense, it appears noteworthy that in terms of negative social impacts, respondents disagreed with all but the following statement: The co-hosting of WMHC09 in Split resulted in missing the opportunity to use public monies to construct facilities for which there is a greater public need (healthcare centers, schools, etc.). One way of interpreting this finding is that any future plans to use public monies for one-time financially intensive events perhaps should take a back seat to more important resident issues, i.e. affordable/subsidized housing, schools, kindergartens, retirement homes, healthcare clinics, etc. While this study does not provide enough evidence to absolutely support this interpretation, it certainly provides some great face validity to it. This finding upholds Barker’s (2004) and Fredline’s (2005) perspective whereby social impacts of sport tourism events are thought to vary depending on the host destination’s unique historical, cultural, economical and environmental background, as well as on the nature, scale, location, and duration of the events. In a practical sense, the results highlight that either local or national legislative bodies (or both) should conduct referendum or a sample opinion poll before taking on any long-term financially intensive project involving the use of public monies. As a case in point, the newly constructed Spaladium Arena in Split has hitherto been used only sporadically at best, and certainly nowhere near the level that would justify its annual operation cost. At the same time, the city is in dire need of subsidized housing,

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schools, and kindergartens are overcrowded, waiting lines for retirement homes are in excess of two years, and the state of hospitals (other than the newly constructed maternity ward) is generally appalling. Had the city government initiated a public discussion about the proposal of the new arena construction, and then submitted it to a popular vote, the outcome may have been different, and certainly in tune with the majority’s needs and expectations. The findings and the limitations of this study provide directions for future research in the area of sport tourism events’ social impacts. First, more scholarly research in transition and other non-developed countries is needed in order to advance our understanding of this complex phenomenon, which in turn may enable us to better manage the social and other impacts of sport tourism events. Second, the finding that perhaps the money was not well spent on the event –along with the subsequent interpretation that one-time publicly funded financially intensive events perhaps should take a back seat to more important resident issues – is one that should be re-visited in future studies, however in greater detail. Third, future studies should strive to increase the credibility and validity of the results through cross verification of data via several research methodologies (i.e. triangulation). Fourth, steps should be taken to ensure that the sample is reflective of the area’s demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Fifth, based on this study’s a coefficient and EFA figures, the negative social impacts scale may need further calibrating. Moreover, empirical studies should also report reliability and validity of the survey instrument employed. Also, the reason behind labeling the increase in shopping facilities as a positive social impact may need to be re-visited. Namely, the number of malls and shops in Croatia in general, and in Split in particular, has mushroomed since 2000. Except for tourism and retail trade, Split does not have any manufacturing to sustain its long-term development. In such context, the oversupply of shopping outlets and the related over-reliance on retail sector as a generator of local GDP are growing concerns for the host community, not to mention the development of a culture that is permeated by consumerism. Needless to say, an increase in the number of shopping opportunities can thus be viewed as a negative social impact. In conclusion, residents’ affirmative perceptions of a sport tourism event and its social and other impacts are critical drivers of both hosting a successful sport tourism event and ensuring sustainable development for the host community. Therefore, understanding residents’ attitudes toward a given event is pivotal for winning their support and reducing unwanted outcomes for the host population. References Andereck, K.L., Valentine, K.M., Knopf, R.C. and Vogt, C.A. (2005), “Residents’ perceptions of community tourism impacts”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 32 No. 4, pp. 1056-76. Ap, J. (1990), “Residents’ perceptions research on the social impacts of tourism”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 610-6. Ap, J. (1992), “Residents’ perceptions on tourism impacts”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 665-90. Ap, J. and Crompton, J.L. (1998), “Developing and testing a tourism impact scale”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 37 No. 2, pp. 120-30. Barker, M. (2004), “Crime and sport events tourism: the 1999-2000 America’s cup”, in Ritchie, B. and Adair, D. (Eds), Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues, Channel View Publications, Clevedon, pp. 174-91.

Bob, U. and Swart, K. (2009), “Resident perceptions of the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup Stadia development in Cape Town”, Urban Forum, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 47-59. Brunt, P. and Courtney, P. (1999), “Host perceptions of sociocultural impacts”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 493-515. Bull, C. and Lovell, J. (2007), “The impact of hosting major sporting events on local residents: an analysis of the views and perceptions of Canterbury residents in relation to the Tour de France 2007”, Journal of Sport & Tourism, Vol. 12 Nos 3-4, pp. 229-48. Calder, B.J., Phillips, L.W. and Tybout, A.M. (1981), “Designing research for application”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 197-207. Calder, B.J., Phillips, L.W. and Tybout, A.M. (1982), “The concept of external validity”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 240-4. Carmines, E.G. and Zeller, R.A. (1979), Reliability and Validity Assessment, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Carter, R.W. and Beeton, R.J.S. (2004), “A model of cultural change and tourism”, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 423-42. Cook, T.D. and Campbell, D.T. (1979), Quasi Experimentation: Design and Analytical Issues for Field Settings, Rand McNally, Chicago. Costello, A.B. and Osborne, J.W. (2005), “Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis”, Practical Assessment Research & Evaluation, Vol. 10 No. 7, pp. 1-9. Croatian Central Bureau of Statistics (2001), “Population by sex and age, by settlements, census 2001”, available at: www.dzs.hr/default_e.htm (accessed December 21, 2010). Croatian Central Bureau of Statistics (2010), “First releases and statistical reports: 4. Trade, foreign trade in goods, hotels and restaurants, and tourism”, available at: www.dzs.hr/ default_e.htm (accessed December 21, 2010). Croatian Ministry of Tourism (2008), “Dani hrvatskog turizma nastavljeni nizom strucˇnih skupova i radionica”, available at: www.mint.hr/default.aspx?id¼4807 (accessed December 21, 2010). Crompton, J.L. and Ap, J. (1994), Development of a Tourism Impact Scale in Host Resident Context Research Enhancement Program: Final Report, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Delamere, T.A. (2001), “Development of a scale to measure resident attitudes toward the social impacts of community festivals, part 2: verification of the scale”, Event Management, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 25-38. DeVellis, R.F. (2003), Scale Development, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Embassy of Greece (2004), “Athens 2004 Olympics: general fact sheet”, available at: www.greekembassy.org/Embassy/content/en/Article.aspx?office¼3&folder¼95&article¼12033 (accessed December 21, 2010). European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) (2006), “Law in transition online 2006 – focus on Central Europe”, available at: www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/law/ lit062.pdf (accessed July 6, 2011). FIFA (2007), “Germany 2006 in numbers”, available at: www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/news/ newsid¼518083.html#germanyþ2006þnumbers (accessed December 22, 2010). Fredline, E. (2005), “Host and guest relations and sport tourism”, Sport in Society, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 263-79. Fredline, E. and Faulkner, B. (2000), “Host community reactions: a cluster analysis”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 763-84.

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The inspirational effects of three major sport events

Inspirational effects of sports events

Girish M. Ramchandani and Richard J. Coleman Sport Industry Research Centre, Academy of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK

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Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether attending one-off sport events might inspire audiences to increase their participation in sport or recreational physical activity. Design/methodology/approach – Primary data collection was undertaken with spectators aged 16 and over at three major sport events held in the UK in 2010. The findings are based on an aggregate sample of 2,312 respondents. Findings – Around two-thirds of respondents reported that their event experience had inspired them to increase their participation in sport or physical activity. The inspiration effect varied according to age and respondents’ predisposition to sport. The main factors that caused the inspiration were linked directly to the athletes and the competition. The provision of information about opportunities to undertake sport was found to be the most important lever to convert inspiration into participation. Originality/value – Evidence of the impact of major sport events on mass participation is relatively scarce and inconclusive. In order for any “trickle-down” effect to occur, it would be reasonable to assume that audiences would first be inspired by their event experience. It is this basic sense of inspiration that the research aimed to measure. Keywords Event impact evaluation, Inspiration, Participation legacy, Sport development, Sports, Sporting events, United Kingdom Paper type Research paper

Introduction This paper examines the results of independent research conducted with spectators at three major sport events held in the UK in 2010 in order to understand the potential of such events to encourage or inspire audiences to participate in sport. All three events were funded by UK Sport, the lead agency responsible for co-ordinating the bidding and staging of major international sport events in the UK, via its National LotteryFunded World Class Events Programme. Government expenditure to secure and support elite sport events is often justified through the likely legacy benefits that such events can deliver for host cities, regions and countries. UK Sport has traditionally supported the bidding and staging costs of major sport events with a view to generating a positive economic impact on the communities that stage them. Whilst economic impact still remains an important outcome, there is a recognition that not all events that are “major” in sporting terms will consequentially be “major” in economic terms (Coleman and Ramchandani, 2010; Gratton et al., 2000, 2005). In the lead up to the London 2012 Olympic Games, UK Sport has broadened its major events’ strategy to incorporate other non-financial outcomes associated with sport events, including the delivery of elite performance benefits in Olympic and Paralympic sports from hosting World and European Championships on home soil (see UK Sport, 2009). Other commonly cited legacy benefits associated with major sport events include, amongst others, promoting the host area as a tourist destination; creating a physical legacy of infrastructure and sporting facilities for future generations; and, stimulating mass participation via public exposure to elite sport (see e.g. Cashman, 1999). However,

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in order for any mass participation legacy to occur, it would be reasonable to assume that audiences would in the first instance be inspired by the event in question. Indeed, as highlighted later, one of the key shortcomings of previous research has been the inability to demonstrate an unambiguous causal link between an event being staged and any increase in participation that may follow. Given the lack of such evidence, it is this basic sense of inspiration that this research aimed to measure, together with the factors that may trigger the inspiration effect as well as the potential levers that might convert inspiration into participation. In the next section of the paper we review some relevant academic literature including theoretical models and the policy context for the research and its findings. Literature review Events as promotional tools Elite sport events have become an increasingly popular platform for both sport and non-sport corporations to promote their brands, a phenomenon that has been fuelled by the extraordinary growth in the demand for, and supply of, global sport broadcasting in recent decades. To emphasise this latter point, it is claimed by FIFA (2011) that the final of the 2010 World Cup in South Africa between Spain and the Netherlands was seen by at least one billion viewers globally and Nielsen (2008) estimate that up to 4.7 billion viewers (equivalent to some 70 per cent of the world’s population at the time) watched some part of the coverage of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games over the 17 days of the event. However, the demand for watching sport extends beyond these two iconic competitions to incorporate both annual events and domestic sports leagues. For example, the global cumulative television audience for Wimbledon (tennis), held in the UK annually, is estimated at 378.8 million people in 182 countries (Wimbledon, 2010). Furthermore, the English Premier League (EPL) (football) is reportedly broadcast in 212 territories around the world, with a television audience commensurate with the last summer Olympic Games, at 4.7 billion (EPL, 2011). Crompton (1995) identified four key business motives for sponsoring sport, namely: image enhancement, increased awareness of the product and the firm, hospitality opportunities and product trial or sales opportunities. Numerous studies (see e.g. Howard and Crompton, 2004; Rines, 2002), have sought to evaluate the effectiveness of sport event sponsorship, with Kinney and McDaniel (1996) examination of advertising by four companies (Visa, MasterCard, McDonald’s and Wendy’s) containing themes linked to the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games revealing that the strongest positive impact of the advert in all cases was on attitude towards the brand rather than on purchase intention. If elite sport events can be used successfully to increase the awareness of commercial products and services that are not necessarily associated with sport in an attempt to influence the buying behaviour of audiences, then an important question is whether they can also be used as an effective instrument to promote participation in sport. Evidence either for or against this notion is relatively scarce and inconclusive. Sport development legacies A systematic review of the literature on the health and socio-economic benefits for the host population of previous multi-sport events conducted by McCartney et al. (2010) found that there was an upward trend in sports participation from the early 1980s until 1994 in association with the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, Spain. However, commenting on the findings from another study the authors indicated that overall sports participation in the Manchester area of the UK decreased by 2 per cent after the

2002 Commonwealth Games. Furthermore, Veal’s (2003) analysis of sports participation in Australia between 1985 and 2002 suggests that in the year following the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000, seven Olympic sports experienced a small increase in participation while nine declined; the pattern for non-Olympic sports was also broadly similar. The process by which major events are assumed to engage non-participants in physical activity and sport is a “trickle-down” effect, whereby the achievements of top athletes inspires non-participants to get involved in sport (Weed et al., 2009). However, far from promoting participation, it is even possible that major sport events may have a “discouragement” effect (Van den Heuvel and Conolly, 2001) because the standard of performance of elite athletes is seen as impossible to emulate. In assessing the evidence of the “trickle-down” effect of the Olympic Games, Hindson et al. (1994) recognise potentially dual models of the dynamics, suggesting that, on the one hand, elite sports people can be inspirational as role models, but on the other, they may deter participation because of the perceived competence gap. This view is also re-iterated by Coalter (2007), who argues that patterns of behaviour change are complex and the relationship of these processes to role models may partly depend on a range of factors including how role models are seen, how accessible or “normal” their profile is and also on individual or community self-efficacy. Not only is the evidence of the sport development or participation legacy of elite sport events conflicting, but the focus of previous research on this subject has been largely limited to mega, multi-sport events notably the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games. Very little is known about the impact of more routinely held single-sport events and their impact on sport participation. Theoretical considerations Weed et al.’s (2009) systematic review of the worldwide literature relating to the contribution of the Olympic Games, other major sport events and sports franchises to the development of physical activity and sport participation, or to the promotion of positive health behaviours, identified three models of engagement with physical activity and sport – the transtheoretical model (TTM) (Prochaska et al., 1992), the exercise adoption model (EAM) (Brooks et al., 1996) and the psychological continuum model (PCM) (Funk and James, 2001). Even though each of these models were developed in contexts other than physical activity and active sport, there are broad similarities between them that suggest a staged process of engagement in physical activity and sport. Nonetheless, the TTM has been most widely adopted and researched in the sport and exercise literature (see Marshall and Biddle, 2001; Spencer et al., 2006). Empirical evidence pertaining to the TTM suggests that individuals attempting to change their physical activity behaviour move through a series of five stages that differ according to an individual’s intention and behaviour. The stages can be summarised as follows: pre-contemplation (no intention of becoming physically active), contemplation (thinking about becoming physically active), preparation (making small changes in physical activity behaviour), action (meeting a criterion of physical activity, but only recently) and maintenance (meeting a criterion of physical activity for a sustained period of time). Marshall and Biddle (2001, p. 229) note that stage progression is likely to follow a cyclical (rather than linear) pattern “where individuals progress and regress through stages in an effort to create a lasting change”, although Prochaska et al. (1992, p. 1105) argue that the TTM is spiral in nature, which suggests that “most relapsers do not regress all the way back to where they began”. In other words, once people have progressed from pre-contemplation to

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contemplation, a return to the pre-contemplation stage is unlikely. In comparison with the TTM, the PCM suggests that recreation participation (whether active or passive) occurs within four general hierarchical stages of “awareness”, “attraction”, “attachment” and “allegiance”, whereas the series of stages within the EAM range from “not aware/not interested” to “long-term commitment”. An alternative way to look at the promotion of participation in sport and physical activity through the medium of sport events, not normally employed for this purpose in academia, is the application of Ansoff’s (1989) growth matrix, according to which there are four possible scenarios for achieving business growth, namely: market penetration (existing products for existing markets), market development (existing products for new markets), product development (new products for existing markets) and diversification (new products for new markets). In terms of promoting engagement with sport and physical activity, the market penetration strategy can be likened to increasing the participation frequency of those who are already active, whereas market development might refer to encouraging previously sedentary people to take up sport through exposure to an event. Policy context Even though the evidence to date of sport and physical activity legacies associated with major sport events is inconclusive, their use as a policy tool to foster participation has been documented in a number of countries for more than a decade. For example, in examining the evidence for a “trickle-down” effect in Australia between 1976 and 1996, Hogan and Norton (2000) highlight specific examples of strong political belief in favour of the inspirational value of elite performance underpinning sport development policy in Australia, New Zealand and the USA. In a UK context, Weed et al. (2009) liken such political and policy making thinking in relation to the potential physical activity and sport benefits of major events to the “Wimbledon-effect” through which, there is claimed to be an increase in the use of tennis courts around the country in the two to three weeks around the All England Lawn Tennis Championships (Wimbledon) each year. Similar predictive claims have been made in relation to the London 2012 Olympic Games, although previous research suggests that whilst more than a quarter of the English population (26 per cent) were inspired by British medal-winning performances at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, this figure comprises those “who are now involved in more sport” (11 per cent) and those “interested in doing more sport” (15 per cent), “as a result of Team GB’s success” in the event (Hamlyn and Hudson, 2005, p. 882). This indicates an increase in the participation frequency of those already active i.e. a market penetration effect, rather than an increase in participants (market development), which is also flagged by Weed et al. (2009, p. 33) as a “common misrepresentation in evaluations of this kind”. As noted previously, the three events included in this research were funded by UK Sport. From a national (UK) perspective, UK Sport’s objective of investing in major events in order to provide people with high profile opportunities to engage with sport events complements the work of Sport England, which is the national agency responsible for grassroots and community sport. In particular, there is potential synergy between any sense of inspiration that events might generate and the delivery of Sport England’s agenda to grow and sustain the numbers of people taking part in sport, particularly young people. If one-off sport events can be shown to generate a notable inspirational effect on those who experience them, then they can be used by relevant authorities as strategic tools, and in conjunction with other longitudinal sport development initiatives, in the drive to achieve participation targets.

Research methods The events The events included in the research were the FIH Women’s Hockey Champions Trophy (Nottingham), the Triathlon World Championships Series (Hyde Park, London), and the IRB Women’s Rugby World Cup (Guildford and London). The selection of these events was made by UK Sport, as part of a pilot study to examine the prevalence of the wider benefits of its investment in elite sport (which have historically been evaluated in economic terms). Collectively, up to £768,000 of public money was awarded to the three events by UK Sport. Whilst there is a high significance attached to these events in their respective sport calendars, they are fairly routine, albeit still major, competitions in world sporting terms. The hockey and rugby events were exclusively elite competitions whereas the triathlon involved both elite athletes and non-elite participants. It is also worth noting that an invitational men’s competition involving four nations was integrated within the hockey programme. Thus, two events (hockey and triathlon) involved participation by both men and women, whereas the rugby was a women-only event. The triathlon was also different to the other two events in terms of access, being a free to view event whereas the hockey and rugby were both ticketed competitions. Data collection and analysis The assessment of the inspirational impact on spectators’ willingness to participate in sport was undertaken using a standard self-completion questionnaire at each event with adults aged 16 and over. Data collection with spectators was conducted on six of the nine event days for the hockey (including competition for both genders), on all five match days and at both venues for the rugby, and on both days of the triathlon. Moreover, in order to achieve as representative a sample as reasonably possible within the window of opportunity available to survey at each event and the resources available for the research, interviews were conducted at various times throughout the day. However, care was taken not to survey spectators too early in the day in order that they had watched at least some part of an event to make an informed judgement about their experience. Overall, 2,312 responses were achieved across the three events – hockey (781), triathlon (781) and rugby (750). Further details regarding the approach to data collection employed in the research, including event-specific considerations, are available from SIRC (2010). The key issues covered by the core survey instrument are summarised as follows: .

whether attending an event inspired spectators to participate in sport or recreational physical activity more often;

.

the attitudinal changes caused amongst inspired spectators;

.

what the key factors were that triggered this inspiration; and

.

identifying the factors by which spectators might activate this inspiration.

The questionnaire also contained demographic questions and others linked to spectators’ attitudes towards, and participation in, sport and physical activity. The survey data were analysed using the statistical package PASW Statistics (formerly SPSS). Variables such as gender, age and physical activity levels of respondents were used to explore differences in the level of inspiration experienced by different groups. Where appropriate, statistical procedures, including independent sample t-tests and

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analysis of variance, were used to comment on the level of significance attached to the findings. Sample profile Before presenting and discussing the research findings, it is worth considering the nature of the sample obtained from the three events in order that the findings can be put into an appropriate context. Table I summarises the key characteristics of the respondents. Perhaps the most noteworthy point in Table I relates to the predisposition of spectators to participation in sport and physical activity. More than half (53.7 per cent) of the aggregate spectator sample undertook sport or recreational physical activity on a regular basis (for at least 30 minutes at moderate intensity on 12 or more days in the previous four weeks) and a further 40 per cent were occasional sports participants (i.e. they had done at least 30 minutes sport or physical activity on between one and 11 days in the four weeks before interview). The high level of adherence to sport by spectators can be explained by three key factors. First, the majority of the spectators surveyed were relatively young (56 per cent were aged 16-34), did not have a limiting long-standing illness or disability (95.2 per cent) and described their ethnic origin as “white” (94.6 per cent). These demographic groups tend to have participation rates that are above the national average, as revealed by Sport England’s annual Active People Survey. Second, more than 90 per cent of respondents at each event considered sport to be either a “very important” or “quite important” part of their lives. Third, each event had high concentrations of spectators who took part in the sport being featured with

Overall, n ¼ 2,312 (%)

Variable

Category

Gender

Male Female 16-34 35-44 55 þ Yes No White Other

48.1 51.9 52.9 34.0 13.1 4.8 95.2 95.2 4.8

49.8 50.2 59.1 33.1 7.7 3.8 96.2 95.0 5.0

34.5 65.5 56.1 34.6 9.2 5.6 94.4 93.6 6.4

44.1 55.9 56.0 34.0 10.0 4.8 95.2 94.6 5.4

Zero days 1-11 days 12 þ days Very important Quite important Not important Yes No Yes No

5.6 46.0 48.4

4.6 31.3 64.1

8.5 43.0 48.5

6.2 40.1 53.7

68.4

61.3

57.4

62.5

25.8 5.7 66.7 33.3 94.0 6.0

29.1 9.6 42.8 57.2 44.9 55.1

34.1 8.5 52.7 47.3 90.5 9.5

29.6 7.9 54.1 45.9 80.1 19.9

Age Disability Ethnicity Participation in sport/physical activity (last four weeks)

Importance of sport

Participation in sport being watched Table I. Sample characteristics by event and overall

Hockey, Triathlon, Rugby, n ¼ 781 n ¼ 781 n ¼ 750 (%) (%) (%)

Club member of sport being watched

many being club members of that sport. If spectators who attend major sport events are already relatively active in sport, then any subsequent inspiration effect on spectators, in accordance with the Ansoff Matrix alluded to previously, is likely to be one of market penetration (i.e. inspiring those who participate to do so more frequently) rather than market development (i.e. inspiring non-participants to take up sport). This view is tested in the following section. Results and discussion The results of the research are presented and discussed in five sections. First, we consider the headline level of inspiration reported by the sample of spectators at each of the three events and for the combined sample overall. Second, we examine differences in inspiration levels by key demographic and other sport-related variables. The third and fourth sections examine the changes in attitudes of inspired spectators that occur as a result of their event attendance and the factors that trigger the inspiration effect, respectively. In the final section, the potential levers to convert the initial inspiration into subsequent participation in sport are examined. The inspiration effect of the three events The key survey question asked spectators whether they felt inspired to do more sport or recreational physical activity as a result of attending an event. An extremely encouraging finding for sport development authorities is that, across the three events, around two-thirds of spectators interviewed (67.6 per cent) either “agreed” or “strongly agreed” that their experience of attending the event in question had made them feel inspired to participate in more sport or physical activity than they would normally. This statistic comprises those who felt inspired to participate more frequently in the sport featured at the event that they attended, in other sports and/or in general physical activity. Being inspired represents an important step in helping people to consider undertaking more sport or indeed taking up sport. Within the TTM, this would translate to people moving from the pre-contemplation stage to the contemplation stage. There are variations in the magnitude of the inspiration effect recorded at each event. In particular, spectators interviewed at the triathlon (76.1 per cent) were significantly more inspired than those at the hockey (61.6 per cent) and rugby (65.2 per cent) events ( po0.05). A relative limitation of the hockey inspiration score is that it does not differentiate between the primary attraction (i.e. the women’s event) and secondary attraction (i.e. the men’s event) since the research instrument did not ask respondents specifically which component of the programme they found more appealing. There are two likely explanations for the higher inspiration effect at the triathlon. First, in addition to being an elite competition, the triathlon also comprised a programme of mass participation races; by contrast, the hockey and rugby were both exclusively elite events. In the triathlon sample, 28.8 per cent of people who were interviewed as spectators had also taken part in one of the mass participation races and such people had a particularly high positive inspiration effect of 81.9 per cent, whereas for those spectators who were not involved in the mass participation element the corresponding score was 74.9 per cent. This finding is not altogether surprising, given the widespread notion that prior participation in, or experience of, physical activity and sport predicts current and future participation. Indeed, Hagger et al. (2002) report that the effect of past behaviour on planned behaviour in physical activity is

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twice that of any other variable studied and Weed et al. (2009) suggest that there is also some limited evidence that past behaviour predicts engagement in or with sport or health behaviours in a sport event context. Nonetheless, those who did not take part in the triathlon event still recorded higher inspiration scores than spectators at the hockey and rugby events. This latter finding indicates that there may be something inherently more inspiring about events that have a mass participation element in addition to the main spectacle of an elite event. Further research at future events may help to confirm or refute this interpretation. The headline findings above may mask further variations in inspiration levels according to respondents’ age and predisposition to sport. These and other differences are considered in the next section of the paper. Who is inspired by major sport events? The purpose of this section is to explore the characteristics of the people who are inspired by major sport events. This is conducted: first, by demographic variables; and second, by behavioural and attitudinal variables. Figure 1 compares the inspiration levels across the three events according to gender, age, ethnic origin and whether or not respondents considered themselves to have a disability. When the data are analysed by gender, ethnicity and disability, there are no statistically significant differences in the inspiration effect on spectators ( p40.05). However, there is a significant difference in the inspiration effect on spectators by age. Specifically, the inspiration effect for the 16-34 age group is significantly higher than the other two age categories ( po0.05). There is a difference of more than 19 percentage points between the most inspired age group (16-34) and the least inspired age group (55 þ ). Moreover, respondents aged 35-54 reported a higher inspiration effect compared with those aged 55 and over, albeit the difference between these groups is not significant in statistical terms ( p40.05). Together these findings indicate that the inspiration effect is negatively correlated with age. If this is accepted, then it could be argued that events that attract relatively younger audiences will generate a higher inspiration effect than other events. Figure 2 shows the inspiration effect on spectators broken down by behavioural and attitudinal variables. As reported previously in Table I, 53.7 per cent of spectators at the three events were undertaking at least 30 minutes of sport or recreational physical No

67.9

Disability Yes

66.0

Other Ethnicity

70.5

White

67.6

55+ Age

54.9

35-54

61.0

16-34

Figure 1. Inspiration levels – by demographic variables

74.1

69.6

Female Gender

67.9

Male 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Club member of sport being watched

Participate in sport being watched

70.7

No

62.2

Yes

72.7

64.7

Quite important 32.4

Unimportant

72.0

Regularly active Participation in sport

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73.4

Very important Importance of doing sport

Inspirational effects of sports events

65.8

No Yes

Figure 2. Inspiration levels – by sport-related variables

65.3

Occasionally active 48.9

Inactive 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

activity on 12 or more days every four weeks. Conversely, we also know that only 6.2 per cent of the sample was inactive (zero days activity). An important cross-tabulation therefore identified the inspiration effect according to people’s level of participation in sport and recreational physical activity. It is evident from Figure 2 that the inspiration effect increases with the level of sport or recreational activity in which respondents take part. For people who are inactive (zero days activity) the inspiration effect is 48.9 per cent whereas for those who are already regularly active (12 þ days activity) the corresponding figure is 72 per cent. The differences in the inspiration effect according to the categories of activity levels is statistically significant ( po0.05). Moreover, there is also a significant difference in inspiration scores according to how important sport participation was to respondents – the higher the importance of sport the higher the inspiration felt. The idea that the inspirational effect is felt more strongly by those already connected with sport is further supported by results that consider participation in the featured sport at each event and club membership in that sport. For both participants in, and club members of, the featured sport the inspiration effect was significantly higher compared with non-participants and non-members, respectively. The findings above indicate that major events have the potential to support market penetration in that they can inspire those already connected to sport to participate more frequently. This is consistent with the work of Funk et al. (2007), who in their investigation of active participation in the 2005 Gold Coast Marathon in Australia found that, among international entrants, prior sport involvement was identified as a key motivation for participation, regardless of gender or cultural group. From a national perspective, market penetration is a worthwhile outcome and clearly contributes to Sport England’s agenda for retaining participation in sport. This value is further strengthened given that the inspirational effect of the three major sport events examined is strongest amongst younger audiences, for whom retention in sport is particularly important. There is also some evidence that major events can support market development, given that nearly half (48.9 per cent) of spectators who were not active in sport also reported an inspiration effect. Spectators who responded positively to the inspiration question were asked followup questions about the nature of the attitudinal change they experienced, the factors that had caused the inspirational effect and levers to subsequent participation in sport. The findings from this enquiry are now examined.

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The potential changes in attitude brought about by the events There is a gap in extant literature about how the process of inspiration generated from attending a major sport event might work in practice. Those who said they were inspired were asked to score, on a four-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (2) to strongly agree ( þ 2), statements about how their attitudes towards taking part in sport and physical activity had changed. The responses were analysed to produce the mean scores presented in Figure 3. Whilst all statements had a positive mean score, three scored particularly well with scores in excess of þ 1 (agree). These statements related to a reconnection with the enjoyment of sport, a desire to get fitter and a desire to improve performance or achieve personal sporting success. The relatively low (albeit still positive) mean scores for the other two statements in Figure 3 may be related to the fact that the spectator sample across the three events was primarily sensitised to sport and physical activity. The levels of agreement with the various statements also appear to be consistent across the three events (i.e. there are no significant differences between the mean scores at event-specific level compared with the sample overall). Despite these findings, attitude change is not the same as behaviour change, as illustrated previously by the different stages within the TTM and the other sport/physical activity engagement models, and therefore there can be no assumption that a change in attitude towards sport during the excitement of a major sport event will translate into future action. The likely causes of the inspiration effect Respondents who were inspired were asked to rate features of the events in relation to the impact of each feature on their desire to undertake more sport or physical activity. The features were scored on a scale of “none” (0) to “high” (3) and the mean impact scores for the sample as a whole are summarised in Figure 4. Five of the seven features had mean impact scores of 2 (moderate impact) or better. One feature was in the low to moderate impact range (activities going on around the main event, with a mean score of 1.36) and another feature (information received about opportunities for doing more sport) had a mean score below 1 (low impact). The impact ratings for the seven factors reviewed are also consistent across the three events. Together, these findings indicate that the highest impact ratings tend to be those that are intrinsic to the events. The three factors that achieve the highest impact ratings are The event has reminded me about the enjoyment of doing sport/recreational physical activity

1.38

1.28

The event has inspired me to want to get fitter

The event has made me want to improve my own sport ability and/or to achieve personal sporting success

1.21

0.84

I had like to learn something new and challenge myself

Figure 3. Attitudinal changes for inspired spectators

I have picked up tips/learned something I can use when I am taking part in sport myself –2 Strongly disagree

0.56

–1 Disagree

-

1 Agree

2 Strongly agree

Inspirational effects of sports events

2.42

The skill and ability of the athletes/players

2.30

The quality of the competition

The performance of the team or athlete(s) I am/have been supporting

2.17

The whole atmosphere i.e. the spectacle, the crowd, the excitement, etc.

The physical environment in which the event is taking place i.e. the actual venue/stadium, etc.

2.02

1.36

Activities that have been going on around the main event

Information I have received at the event about opportunities for doing sport or recreational physical activity None

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0.88 1 Low

2 Moderate

3 High

dependent upon the athletes in the event (skill and ability) and the sporting context in which the event takes place (quality of competition and performance of the team or athlete being supported). This finding supports the idea of a “trickle-down” effect referenced previously. Moreover, these factors can also be experienced by people following an event away from the actual venue, that is, on television or via other media platforms. In this context, a limitation of the research is that it does not consider media viewers. Nonetheless, the impact of factors linked to live attendance (in this case the whole atmosphere and the physical environment) was also regarded by inspired spectators as being moderately high. On this basis, it could be argued that the potential of events to inspire audiences is higher amongst those who attend events rather than those who experience them elsewhere. Factors that are extrinsic to the event such as ancillary activities and information received at the event have much lower inspirational impact ratings. Only a small minority of the spectators interviewed at the hockey (7 per cent), triathlon (18.8 per cent) and rugby (4.4 per cent) events indicated that they had received any information at these events about opportunities for undertaking sport or recreational physical activity. This finding may explain the relatively low score for this particular feature. Nonetheless, for spectators who received information at the event that they attended about opportunities for taking part in sport and recreational physical activity, the inspiration effect score was significantly higher (85.1 per cent) than for those who did not (65 per cent). The levers that might cause people to act on the inspiration effect In order to identify how inspiration (contemplation) might be converted into participation (action), respondents were asked to state the degree of importance they attached to a list of seven types of intervention. The list of intervention types and the mean scores for the sample overall (not at all ¼ 2, very ¼ þ 2) are shown in Figure 5. As noted in the previous section, spectators interviewed at the three events reported that the factor with the lowest level of impact on their sense of inspiration was information that they received at the events about opportunities for doing more sport. However, the highest scoring interventions (in terms of their importance) were both

Figure 4. Impact of potential factors on inspiration

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Information about sports that I can do where I live at a level appropriate to my fitness and ability

0.72

Information about local clubs or centres where I could have a go

0.69

The chance to try sport in a non-threatening environment with other inexperienced people

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0.47

The chance to meet athletes and hear how they got started in their sport

0.38

The chance to talk to sports people about the right types of sport for me to try to do

0.36

0.25

Taster sessions where I live

Taster sessions here at the event

Figure 5. Potential levers to participation

–2 Not at all important

– 0.14 –1 Not particularly important

-

1 Quite important

2 Very important

concerned with information: either about local sports clubs, or about sports that people can do at an appropriate level given their fitness and ability. The provision of this type of information can be termed as “sign posting”. By contrast, taster sessions in sport, either at the events or where people live, were rated of relatively low importance by spectators – this in turn may be linked to the relatively high proportion of respondents who were existing participants in the sport featured at the events. Taster sessions tend to be aimed at those people who do not play a particular sport but who might be persuaded to do so and are therefore likely to be of less relevance to existing participants. There were no notable differences in the mean scores of the seven interventions between events, indicating that the levers to converting inspiration into participation were common across the events included in the research. Taking into account that only 10.2 per cent of the overall sample reported receiving information at the events, the main policy implication of these findings is that sport development organisations should work closely with event organisers to disseminate information about opportunities to undertake sport at major sport events. The value of such an approach lies in moving those who are inspired by their event experience further along the stages of the TTM, from “contemplation” to “preparation” and “action”. Conclusions and future research The measurement of the inspiration effects of three major sport events in the UK provides an insight into the potential of events to stimulate audiences to undertake more sport. The study found that the audience drawn to these events was primarily active in sport and that the inspiration effect was significantly higher amongst more physically active spectators. Consequently, the primary effect generated was one of market penetration rather than market development. In order for such events to be used as a tool for market development, organisers should seek to attract a different mix of spectators, that is, those who are not normally connected with the featured sport. Across the three events, there is consistency in terms of how an event has changed attitudes towards sport. Clear patterns emerge with respect to the factors that trigger inspiration amongst spectators watching an event. Without exception, the factors

regarded as having the highest inspirational impact are those that were intrinsic to the three events, linked to the athletes and the competition. Extrinsic factors such as activities going on around the main event also appear to influence spectators, albeit not to the same extent. The levers that might cause people to act on their sense of inspiration are also broadly consistent between the three events. The most important lever to sport development appears to be “sign posting”, that is providing people with access to information about sports clubs (and other opportunities) as well as about sports that people can do at an appropriate level relative to their fitness and ability. It cannot be claimed that the sense of inspiration triggered by major events will automatically lead to a participation increase. One approach that has attempted to explain when and how people are likely to change their physical activity behaviour is the application of the TTM. The process of inspiration through the medium of events effectively moves people from the stage of pre-contemplation to contemplation. There are many subsequent causal factors beyond the control of a major event that determine whether people translate inspiration into actual behavioural change i.e. the preparation, action and maintenance stages. These may include, for example, health issues, monetary and lifestyle considerations, and the availability of opportunities to participate. What this study does show, however, is that major events can play an important role at the start of what is a complex process, sparking people’s desire to participate or participate more frequently, and sign posting them towards the next stage of that journey. The findings emerging from this pilot study raise some pertinent questions and provide several directions for future research. First, further investigation is required across a wider range of events and audiences. More assertive generalisations about the power of major sport events to inspire spectators to participate more often in sport can only be made following a sufficiently robust sample of events of varying sporting significance. For example, do age group competitions and disability events encourage spectators to be just as active as open and non-disabled events, respectively? Moreover, the target audience of this study was adults aged 16 and over. It is arguably more worthwhile for future research efforts to encompass the inspirational effects of attending major sport events on children and young people. Second, do audiences who follow live sport away from the actual venue (i.e. on television or via alternative media platforms) also experience a sense of inspiration and, if so, how does this compare with any inspiration effect reported by spectators at such events? A study by Downward and Ralston (2006) involving volunteers at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester found that previous live attendance at sport events was a factor in raising both interest and participation in sport, but that this did not extend to those who watched sport on television. This, albeit isolated, evidence suggests that there may be a staged relationship, and that if those watching sport on television progress to watching live sport, this may also be a first step towards active sport participation. Third, what is the lifespan of inspiration generated by watching major sport events and to what extent does the initial intent to increase participation in sport translate into physical behaviour change? Whilst stimulating inspiration represents a step in the right direction, the ultimate aspiration of sport development professionals is for target audiences to make positive changes in their participation levels. However, as suggested previously, there is no guarantee that “intent to change” (contemplation) will necessarily result in “behavioural change” (action) that is sustainable in the long-term (maintenance). Longitudinal research to assess the subsequent actions of individuals

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who are inspired is required to understand fully whether, and how, major sport events can contribute to a quantifiable increase in sport participation amongst spectators. Such research will facilitate a better understanding of the unique benefits and limitations of major events in the overall drive to encourage people to participate in sport.

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References Ansoff, I. (1989), Corporate Strategy, revised ed., Penguin, Harmondsworth. Brooks, C.M., Lindenfeld, C.M. and Chovanec, S.A. (1996), Understanding Exercise Adoption Behaviour, International Health and Racket Sports Association, Boston, MA. Cashman, R. (1999), “Legacy”, in Cashman, R. and Hughes A. (Eds), Staging the Olympics: The Event and its Impact, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, pp. 183-94. Coalter, F. (2007), “London Olympics 2012: the catalyst that inspires people to lead more active lives?”, Journal of the Royal Society of Health, Vol. 127 No. 3, pp. 109-10. Coleman, R. and Ramchandani, G. (2010), “The hidden benefits of non-elite mass participation sports events: an economic perspective”, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 24-36. Crompton, J. (1995), “Factors that have stimulated the growth of sponsorship of major events”, Festival Management and Event Tourism, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 97-101. Downward, P.M. and Ralston, R. (2006), “The sports development potential of sports event volunteering: insights from the XVII Manchester Commonwealth games”, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 6 No. 4, pp. 333-51. English Premier League (EPL) (2011), “The world’s most watched league”, available at: www.premierleague.com/en-gb/about/the-worlds-most-watched-league.html (accessed 17 March 2012). FIFA (2011), “Almost half the world tuned in at home to watch 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africat”, available at: www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/southafrica2010/organisation/ media/newsid¼1473143/index.html (accessed 17 March 2012). Funk, D.C. and James, J. (2001), “The psychological continuum model: a conceptual framework for understanding an individual’s psychological connection to sport”, Sport Management Review, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 119-50. Funk, D.C., Bruun, T. and Toohey, K. (2007), “International sport event participation: prior sport involvement; destination image; and travel motives”, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 227-48. Gratton, C., Dobson, N. and Shibli, S. (2000), “The economic importance of major sports events: a case-study of six events”, Managing Leisure, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 17-28. Gratton, C., Shibli, S. and Coleman, R.J. (2005), “The economics of sport tourism at major events”, in Higham, J. (Ed.), Sport Tourism Destinations, Issues, Opportunities and Analysis, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 233-47. Hagger, M., Chatzisarantis, N. and Biddle, S.J.H. (2002), “A meta-analytic review of the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior in physical activity: predictive validity and the contribution of additional variables”, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 3-32. Hamlyn, P.J. and Hudson, Z.L. (2005), “2012 Olympics: who will survive?”, British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 39 No. 12, pp. 882-3. Hindson, A., Gidlow, B. and Peebles, C. (1994), “The ‘trickle-down’ effect of top level sport: myth or reality? A case study of the Olympics”, Australian Leisure and Recreation, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 16-24.

Hogan, K. and Norton, K. (2000), “The ‘price’ of olympic gold”, Journal of Science & Medicine in Sport, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 203-18. Howard, D. and Crompton, J. (2004), Financing Sport, Fitness Information Technology, Morgantown, WV. Kinney, L. and McDaniel, S.R. (1996), “Strategic implications of attitude-toward-the ad in leveraging event sponsorships”, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 250-61. McCartney, G., Thomas, S., Scott, J., Hamilton, V., Hanlon, P., Morrison, D. and Bond, L. (2010), “The health and socioeconomic impacts of major multi-sport events: systematic review 1978-2008”, available at: www.bmj.com/content/340/bmj.c2369.full (accessed 28 November 2011). Marshall, S. and Biddle, S. (2001), “The transtheoretical model of behavior change: a metaanalysis of applications to physical activity and exercise”, Annals of Behavioral Medicine, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 229-46. Nielsen (2008), “Beijing Olympics draw largest ever global TV audience”, available at: http:// blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/media_entertainment/beijing-olympics-draw-largest-everglobal-tv-audience/ (accessed 17 March 2012). Prochaska, J.O., DiClemente, C.C. and Norcross, J.C. (1992), “In search of how people change: applications to addictive behaviors”, American Psychologist, Vol. 47 No. 9, pp. 1102-14. Rines, S. (2002), “Guinness rugby world cup sponsorship: a global platform for meeting business objectives”, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 449-64. SIRC (2010), The Inspirational Effect of Major Sport Events, UK Sport, London. Spencer, L., Adams, T.B., Malone, S., Roy, L. and Yost, E. (2006), “Applying the transtheoretical model to exercise: a systematic and comprehensive review of the literature”, Health Promotion Practice, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 428-43. UK Sport (2009), “The performance benefits of hosting major sporting events”, available at: www.uksport.gov.uk/docLib/What-we-do/Events/Home-Advantage.pdf (accessed 28 November 2011). Van den Heuvel, A. and Conolly, L. (2001), The Impact of the Olympics on Participation in Australia: Trickle Down Effect, Discouragement Effect or No Effect? National Centre for Culture and Recreation Statistics, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Adelaide. Veal, A. (2003), “Tracking change: leisure participation and policy in Australia, 1985-2002”, Annals of Leisure Research, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 245-77. Weed, M., Coren, E., Flore, J., Mansfield, L., Wellard, I., Chatziefstathiou, D. and Dowse, S. (2009), “A systematic review of the evidence base for developing a physical activity and health legacy from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games”, Department of Health, London, available at: www.london.nhs.uk/webfiles/Independent%20inquiries/Developing %20physical%20activity%20and%20health%20legacy%20-%20full%20report.pdf (accessed 15 March 2012). Wimbledon (2010), “Facts and figures 2010”, available at: www.wimbledon.com/news/mediacentre/facts-figures (accessed 17 February 2012). .

Corresponding author Girish M. Ramchandani can be contacted at: [email protected]

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Determinants of volunteer motivation and their impact on future voluntary engagement A comparison of volunteer’s motivation at sport events in equestrian and handball Kirstin Hallmann and Gesine Harms Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate the determinants of volunteer’s motivation at major sporting events, how those affect future voluntary engagement, and whether there are differences in motivation based on the type of event. Design/methodology/approach – A quantitative research design was chosen and volunteers at two major events in handball (n ¼ 96) and equestrian (n ¼ 83) were surveyed. Structural equation modelling was used based on a multi-group analysis to answer the guiding research questions. Findings – The results reveal that the expression of values and personal growth are the strongest factors influencing volunteer motivation and future behaviour. The factor “love of sport” had surprisingly no major effect on volunteer motivation at the handball event. Significant differences in volunteer motivation based on the type of event were detected. Research limitations/implications – A limitation of this study is the rather small sample sizes. Nonetheless, the results appear reliable. One implication of this research is that a model proposed in previous research to investigate volunteer motivation at mega sport events can be applied to major sport events and the multi-group approach is useful when analysing different events. Practical implications – Practitioners should try to find a good match between the interests and abilities of the volunteers and their tasks at the event, which includes their motivations. Originality/value – The value of this research lies in applying a new methodological approach using multi-group analysis to volunteer research. Keywords Sporting events, Mass participation, Multi-group analysis, Motivation, Equestrian sports Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Event and Festival Management Vol. 3 No. 3, 2012 pp. 272-291 r Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1758-2954 DOI 10.1108/17582951211262701

Introduction Volunteers are a key element of mass sports. On the one hand, they support, through their engagement, the existence of many non-profit sport clubs and on the other hand they guarantee the operation of small-scale, major and mega sport events. For instance, in Germany 1.85 million people are engaged as volunteers in sport clubs (Breuer and Wicker, 2011). The importance of volunteers’ involvement in non-profit organisations has been highlighted (e.g. Breuer and Wicker, 2011; Lasby and Sperling, 2007). Volunteer hours for non-profit sport clubs amounted to 37.2 million hours in Germany in 2009 indicating a monetary value of 6.7 billion euros (Breuer and Wicker, 2011). Being part of non-profit sport clubs, volunteers contribute through societal welfare (Heinemann, 2005). Moreover, volunteers are important for the production process in the staging of major and mega events (Getz, 1997; Williams et al., 1995). Most sport events on a regional, national or international level could not be staged without the voluntary engagement of many people. Consequently, with regard to terminology it

can be concluded that sport volunteering encapsulates every voluntary engagement in sports and sport event volunteering focuses solely on events. The latter can be defined as persons involved in “any event where sporting activity or competition is the focus” (Cuskelly et al., 2006, p. 135). The contribution of volunteers is significant for every organisation and thus it is important to have an understanding of the volunteers’ underlying motivations, the recruitment of volunteers and their retention (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009). Bang and Chelladurai (2009) drawing on the work of MacDuff (1995) point to a typology of volunteers, namely continuous and episodic. Continuous volunteers are those who are involved over a long period of time with an organisation and devote a lot of time to it, while episodic volunteers are those who provide their service at special events and/or any kind of programme (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009; MacDuff, 1995) such as for instance a one-off voluntary engagement at a non-profit sport club. As the type of voluntary engagement differs, it is assumed that the underlying motivations are also diverse (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009; Farrell et al., 1998). Since there is an increasing competitive market looking for volunteers in different societal areas, sport and sport events must identify the factors that make the volunteer experience attractive (Costa et al., 2006), what actually motivates the volunteers to take on their jobs, and what contributes to future engagement or retention of volunteers (Clary et al., 1992; Cuskelly, 2004). This is of particular importance as the benefits of being a volunteer are valuebased and far less tangible than the benefits of a paid employee (Cuskelly et al., 1998). Moreover, Baum and Lockstone (2007) highlight a lack of research concerning volunteers although this type of research is substantial for sport administrators and policy makers. This lack of research includes motivation (Baum and Lockstone, 2007). Thus, the purpose of this study is to contribute to research on volunteer motivations at sport events employing a new methodological approach to volunteer research, namely multi-group structural equation modelling (SEM). International events in the sports of handball and equestrian were selected. The research questions (RQ) for this study are: RQ1. Which factors describe volunteer motivation in a sporting context for handball and equestrian events? RQ2. Do volunteer motivations influence intentions to volunteer at a different event and in a non-profit sport club? RQ3. What are the differences in volunteer motivation and behavioural intentions at events held in different sports? Therefore this paper aims to contribute to the current state of research in employing multi-group SEM to detect differences between two sports. Although behavioural intentions have already been investigated as an outcome of volunteer motivation, work in this area is still rather scant (e.g. Doherty, 2009; MacLean and Hamm, 2007) and most studies have so far covered only one sport or a multi-sport event (e.g. Coyne and Coyne, 2001; Downward and Ralston, 2006; MacLean and Hamm, 2007). This study aims to narrow this research gap. With regard to policy it is assumed that this research can contribute to the knowledge of triggers for volunteer motivation in “minor” sports. The results provide insight into the key determinants of volunteers’ motivation which is essential for event

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organisers of minor sports. Knowing the motivation of volunteers can contribute to hosting a successful event and to ensure the volunteer experience is a satisfying experience. Literature review Motivation theories and volunteer motivation Motivation in general can be defined as “an internal process or a state of an organism that leads to activation” (Reber, 1995, p. 472). This definition implies that motivation could be considered as the reason for activation. It is mostly triggered by needs, incentives and expectations (Georgiadis et al., 2006). Herzberg et al. (1959) explained that higher-order needs affect satisfaction (motivators or satisfiers) and lower-order needs (dissatisfiers or hygiene factors) affect dissatisfaction in a working context. Satisfaction can only be reached if motivators are activated as well. Confirming this theory, Maslow’s (1987) hierarchy of needs describes that every person can be defined by different needs. This model can be applied to the motivations of volunteering as different motives might evolve from psychological needs. Bonjean et al. (1994, p. 491) implied that “people may seek out voluntary activity to satisfy needs that are not met elsewhere”. The traditional understanding of volunteer motivation has been identified as being altruistic and selfless (Phillips, 1982). The concern for others was the focus of attention, whilst self-interest has also been identified as motivating voluntary activity. Especially increasing one’s status, learning new skills and self-actualisation played a minor part in motivational studies from the beginning (Phillips, 1982). Volunteer motivation at sport events There are many studies acknowledging diverse reasons to volunteer (e.g. Caldwell and Andereck, 1994; Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen, 1991; Johnson-Coffey, 1997; Nassar and Talaat, 2009; Nichols and King, 1998; Okun, 1994; Twynam et al., 2002). However, in the majority of these studies the most significant factors were defined differently and they are thus difficult to compare. Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen (1991) extensively examined the existing literature of volunteer motivation and constructed their own scale (motivation to volunteer scale), consisting of 28 motives which they collected from the reviewed studies and reflecting egoistic as well as altruistic motives. For older people altruistic values and esteem were much more important than personal growth (Okun, 1994). The underlying theories of general volunteer motivation can be seen as the basis for the concept of volunteer motivation in sport. Many studies (e.g. Farrell et al., 1998; Georgiadis et al., 2006) based their theoretical models on studies about volunteer motivation which were not focused on sport. Yet, there is a substantial body of research focusing on volunteer motivation at sport events (e.g. Bang and Chelladurai, 2009; Bang and Ross, 2009; Bang et al., 2010; Cuskelly et al., 2004; Coyne and Coyne, 2001; Farrell et al., 1998; Johnston et al., 1999; Ralston et al., 2004). A majority of studies has researched mega events like the Olympic Games (Bang et al., 2009; Chanavat and Ferrand, 2010), Continental Games (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009), Commonwealth Games (Lockstone and Baum, 2009; Ralston et al., 2004) or World Championships (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009; Farrell et al., 1998) in different sports (although for the latter it can be argued whether those represent mega or major events). Nonetheless, some studies referring to major or minor events were also identified (e.g. Burgham and Downward, 2005; Coyne and Coyne, 2001; MacLean and Hamm, 2007; Pauline, 2011; Strigas and Jackson, 2003). Usually, only one event has

been analysed with the exception of Bang and Chelladurai (2009). Baum and Lockstone (2007) raised in this regard the question whether different events attract different volunteers and identified this issue as worthwhile to investigate. A lot of work has been conducted concerning the creation and validation of scales and models to assess volunteer motivation and/or commitment/involvement (e.g. Bang et al., 2009; Bang and Chelladurai, 2009; Caldwell and Andereck, 1994; Clary et al., 1998; Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen, 1991; Strigas and Jackson, 2003). Ralston et al. (2004) analysed the motivation of volunteers at the Commonwealth Games in Manchester 2002. They identified that a major motive of the volunteers was to participate in something positive. Members of the community wanted to return something useful to their community and society. Thus, they got involved as a volunteer at the event in the hope of contributing to a successful event for the city. Many people were motivated to join because it was a one-off event. Moreover, the uniqueness of events in general played an important role in volunteer motivation. A very important study about volunteer motivation at sport events was developed by Farrell et al. (1998). They analysed the motivation of volunteers at the Canadian Women’s Curling Championships. It was investigated on a 28-item scale adapted from Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen (1991) and from the literature on special events and thus targeted on special events, namely the Special Event Volunteer Motivation Scale. The scale also included two of the categories from Caldwell and Andereck (1994), purposive and solidary. Further factors included external traditions and commitments. External tradition included family traditions in volunteering and commitments contained “incentives that link external expectations and personal skills with commitment to volunteering” (Farrell et al., 1998, p. 293). In comparison to sport club volunteers, it was important to note that at events, the specific factor of wanting to make the event a success also motivated volunteers (Farrell et al., 1998). A further scale was developed, tested and resulted in five factors, namely, leisure, material, egoistic, purposive and external influences (Strigas and Jackson, 2003). Consequently, some overlaps between the various scales can already been detected. A more recent and more detailed study with regard to sport event volunteers was executed by Bang and Chelladurai (2003, 2009). They developed and purified the Volunteer Motivation Scale for International Sporting Events (VMS-ISE). During the process they also validated this scale and eventually displayed the major motivations. They resulted in six motivational dimensions, which explained the reasons for people to volunteer at events (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009). These reasons were the expression of values, which was related to altruistic reasons and could be compared to the category purposive from the study by Farrell et al. (1998). Second, patriotism included aspects such as strengthening the community image and expressing national pride. Third, interpersonal contacts focused on affiliation and the relationships and networking with others, represented by solidarity in Farrell et al. (1998). Fourth, career orientation had a focus on gaining practical experience and skills and preparing for the career. Fifth, personal growth contained increasing self-esteem with the help of the experience and finally, extrinsic rewards involved being motivated by free admissions, t-shirts, pins or similar give-aways (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009). Expression of values was identified to be very important for all volunteers, whereas extrinsic rewards or career orientation representing rather egotistical reasons played a minor role in motivating sport event volunteers. In general, the more social the reason, the more important it seemed to be for the volunteers (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009). A new aspect compared to previous studies was that Bang and Chelladurai (2009) included

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patriotism as a motivational factor. They investigated whether volunteers wanted to support the country and the organisation of the event in order to make it a success. A reason for that was also that the country was being represented in a suitable way. Thereby, they would also gain international prestige. As sport events involve winning a bid to host the event in either a city or a country, patriotism might play an important role in applying as a volunteer. However, this seems to be more appropriate for mega events. As major events might take place yearly in the same sport, this motivational factor lacks importance for these events. That is why it was also substituted by Bang and Ross (2009) for smaller events with the factor community involvement. Following up on this piece of literature Bang et al. (2009) validated the VMS-ISE at the Athens 2004 Olympic Games. They added another motivation category, namely love of sport. Love of sport has already been applied in previous studies about volunteers at sport events and proved to be an important motive for volunteers (Coyne and Coyne, 2001; MacLean and Hamm, 2007), though once only based on descriptive analysis (Coyne and Coyne, 2001). The motivation for including this factor was traced back to the theory of sport fan involvement, where the sport itself is considered the incentive for volunteering (Bang et al., 2009). Nonetheless, one of the key questions remains how sport volunteers can be retained. Clary et al. (1992) postulate that if the needs of the volunteers are met (i.e. when they are satisfied), volunteers will remain with the organisation. Similar results were found in the context of a mega event (Commonwealth Games) that experience of volunteering at an event can raise interest, participation and volunteering in sport (Downward and Ralston, 2006). Moreover, the volunteer’s role, the volunteer’s love for sport and pride for the sport influence the intention to remain a volunteer (MacLean and Hamm, 2007). In a further study, it was concluded that the costs experienced by volunteers at the event, contributing to the community and life experience were significant determinants for future volunteering (Doherty, 2009). The research on sport event volunteers is still emerging though a research framework has already been developed (Baum and Lockstone, 2007). Above, a detailed overview about several studies is provided. In summary, some deficiencies in the current literature were detected. None of the studies used a multi-group SEM as the events analysed were held in either multi-sports or single sports. This implies that comparisons between motivation for different events are scarce, with some exceptions (e.g. Bang and Chelladurai, 2009 the 2002 FIFA World Cup and the 2002 Asian Games). Future behaviour of volunteers based on the volunteer experience has often been neglected as the development of scales was sometimes the major focus of the studies discussed. Yet, there are also some exceptions (Doherty, 2009; Downward and Ralston, 2006), and Doherty (2009) notes that there seems to be no substantial research in this area. Methodology A quantitative research design was chosen for the purpose of this study using a survey as the RQ suggested a positivist paradigm. Thereby, a self-administered questionnaire was distributed to the population of volunteers under investigation. Measurement The questionnaire distributed is based on the volunteer motivation study of Bang et al. (2009), motivation theories (Herzberg, 1968; Maslow, 1987) and the theory of sport fan involvement (Lavarie and Arnett, 2000; Shank and Beasley, 1998; Wann et al., 2001).

The authors decided to base their research on the scale developed by Bang et al. (2009) instead of using the more widely employed scale by Farrell et al. (1998) because the construct love of sport is integrated into the scale. Farrell et al. (1998) have only one item referring to the sport and this is whether the person is involved with the sport. As one characteristic of sport demand is its emotional appeal (Schubert, 2005) an emotional element such as love of sport should be integrated in a scale. Moreover, this scale has been already been utilised several times (Coyne and Coyne, 2001; MacLean and Hamm, 2007). The study by Bang et al. (2009) focused on volunteers at sport events and as a result forms a good basis for this research. It included the main motivational factors of volunteers at sport events. The items referring to patriotism were left out as the objects under investigations were major and not mega events. Moreover, the motivation theories by Maslow (1987) and Herzberg (1968) identified the psychological background of motivation; they were not necessarily focusing on volunteers but built some important aspects of the motivation. Finally, the theory of sport fan involvement showed another feature of volunteer motivation at sport events, as most fans like to spend time at these events anyways. The wish to be involved with their team or sport can, therefore, be linked to being active as a volunteer. The underlying theoretical model is displayed in Figure 1. Based on this theoretical foundation, a questionnaire was developed to answer the three RQ outlined earlier (see Introduction). Several questions were included relating to volunteer motivation, sport involvement, volunteer experience and sociodemographics. All volunteer motivation variables are based on the studies of Bang and colleagues (Bang et al., 2009; Bang and Chelladurai, 2009) and are related to the above-mentioned theories. Table I provides an overview about the relevant variables for this research. A pilot study with 12 different participants was conducted to test the questionnaire. The questionnaire was revised according to the comments provided by the participants. This included rewording some questions to increase the ease of reading and understanding.

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Expression of values

Interpersonal contacts

Career orientation

Motivation

Intention

Personal growth

Love of sport

Source: Model based on Bang et al. (2009) and Bang and Chelladurai (2009)

Figure 1. Theoretical model

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Table I. Overview of variables

Variable

Description

Scale

Volunteer motivation (five-point Likert scales: from 1 ¼ do not agree at all to 5 ¼ totally agree) Values1 I want to help out in any capacity Ordinal Values2 I want to do something worthwhile Ordinal Values3 I feel it is important to help others Ordinal Values4 I want to make the event a success Ordinal Values5 Volunteering creates a better society Ordinal Interpersonal1 I want to interact with others Ordinal Interpersonal2 I want to work with different people Ordinal Interpersonal3 I want to meet people Ordinal Interpersonal4 I want to develop relationships with others Ordinal Career1 Volunteering experience will look good on my resume Ordinal Career2 I want to gain some practical experiences Ordinal Career3 I can make new contacts that might help my business or career Ordinal Career4 I want to gain work-related experience Ordinal Career5 I want to gain experience that would be beneficial in any job Ordinal Growth1 Volunteering makes me feel needed Ordinal Growth2 I can explore my own strengths Ordinal Growth3 Volunteering makes me feel important Ordinal Growth4 Volunteering allows me to gain a new perspective on things Ordinal Extrinsic1 I want to get event uniforms/licensed products. Ordinal Extrinsic2 I want to get tickets/free admission Ordinal Sport1 I like any event related to sport Ordinal Sport2 I like any event related to this sport (handball or equestrian) Ordinal Sport3 Sport is something I love Ordinal Sport4 I enjoy being involved in sport activities Ordinal Future behaviour Future event I will engage myself at another sport event in the future as volunteer Dummy Future club I will engage myself in a sport club in t he future as a volunteer Dummy Socio-demographic variables Gender Gender of the participant (1 ¼ female, 0 ¼ male) Dummy Age Age (in years) Metric Higher education Highest educational level attained (1 ¼ at least A-levels/university Dummy entrance diploma, 0 ¼ else) Work time How many hours do you work weekly? Metric Income Monthly net income (1 ¼ up to h500, 2 ¼ h501-1,000, 3 ¼ h1,001-1,500, Ordinal 4 ¼ h1,501-2,000, 5 ¼ h2,001-2,500, 6 ¼ h2,501-3,000, 7 ¼ h3,001-3,500, 8 ¼ h3,501-4,000, 9 ¼ 4h4,000)

Data collection The study population consisted of volunteers of two different major sport events: volunteers of the handball Champions League final VELUX EHF FINAL4 held in Cologne in 2011 and volunteers of the Concours Hippique International Officiel (CHIO) held in Aachen in 2011. These events were chosen because of several reasons: first, they are major international events; second, they represent two different sports allowing comparisons; third, one is a well-established event (CHIO has been staged since the 1930s) while the EHF FINAL is rather new (created in 2010); and finally, they involve a different number of volunteers (EHF FINAL: 132 volunteers; CHIO: 1,088 volunteers)[1].

The volunteers at the VELUX EHF FINAL4 were approached via e-mail in the postevent phase. The e-mail was sent on the 3 June 2011 then three weeks later a reminder e-mail for returning the questionnaires was sent addressing all volunteers who had not responded. At the CHIO in Aachen a convenience sample approach was chosen. The survey was conducted from 12 July to 15 July 2011. The questionnaires were laid out in the catering area next to a returning-box, so that volunteers could take one themselves to complete it and an interviewer was there to answer questions if necessary. A total of 312 questionnaires were distributed to the volunteers. The response rates varied. At the EHF FINAL4, 96 volunteers filled in the questionnaire and all of them were valid for the analysis indicating a response rate of 72.73 per cent. At the CHIO 2011, 94 volunteers returned the questionnaire but only 83 were useful for the analysis. Although a higher amount of volunteers had been approached not every one of them ended up taking a questionnaire and completing it. This resulted in a response rate of 30.13 per cent. The final sample for the analysis included n ¼ 179 respondents in total. Data analysis The data were analysed using SPSS 19 and AMOS 19. First, an exploratory analysis was carried out to identify meaningless answers and errors of data entry. After controlling for errors due to data entry and setting two answers for the amount of weekly hours of volunteering to missing as they exceeded the usual rate by far, the descriptives were analysed. Single imputation using the regression coefficients was used as some of the variables that were integrated into the model had missing values. Thereafter, a two-step approach was followed to first evaluate the measurement model and thereafter estimate the structural model (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988), first for each group and finally using the multi-group approach. The multi-group approach is a rather new procedure in the field of volunteer research. While confirmatory factor analysis, respectively, SEM has been employed in the past (e.g. Bang et al., 2009; Farmer and Fedor, 1999; Kim et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2010), the authors could not identify a study on volunteers using the multi-group approach in SEM. SEM was chosen, as the construct motivation is not directly measurable, and represents a latent construct which is explained through additional latent constructs: in this case expression of values, interpersonal contacts, career orientation, personal growth, extrinsic rewards and love of sport (Bang et al., 2009; Bang and Chelladurai, 2009). This procedure takes the unobserved latent factors into account and tests their association with intention. A methodological issue in research on volunteering and the use of SEM needs to be addressed: sample size. Numerous studies that analysed volunteers have sample sizes smaller than n ¼ 250 using a quantitative paradigm (e.g. Bang et al., 2009; Burgham and Downward, 2005; Cuskelly, 1995; Doherty and Carron, 2003; Farrell et al., 1998; Pauline, 2011). There are only few exceptions with samples n41,000 (e.g. Nichols and Shepard, 2006). A possible reason for the small sample sizes might be that access is difficult and that the number of volunteers is rather small (in particular compared to participants). Therefore, generalisations often need to be made with care. Yet, from a methodological standpoint it is most important that the prerequisites for the applied statistical procedures are met. Brown (2006, p. 412f.) pointed out that many rules of thumb have been offered based on Monte Carlo studies for SEM, “including minimum sample size (e.g. NX100 to 200), minimum number of cases per each freed parameter (e.g. at least 5 to 10 cases per parameter), and minimum number of cases per indicator

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in the model”. However, he also emphasised that those guidelines are difficult to generalise to any given data set (Brown, 2006). Thus, the researcher has to analyse whether the available data is appropriate for the respective procedure chosen. The sample sizes for each group are rather small (as already indicated above). Therefore, it needs to be investigated whether the implied statistical procedure can be employed. Chen (2007) suggested that sample size had no big impact on the fit indices using a multi-group approach although the tendency for fit indices being rejected was higher when the sample sizes of both groups were equal. Contrary, Brown (2006) advised that sample sizes should be equal. The multi-group approach has the advantage that the model is estimated simultaneously for both groups and all aspects of measurement invariance and population invariance can be investigated. Below some thresholds that need to be considered when sample size is small are introduced. In general, considering the minimum number of cases as rule of thumb in SEM, in particular using the ML estimator which was used here (100-200; Anderson and Gerbing, 1998; Brown, 2006), it can be said that this study meets this criterion. Hair et al. (2006) further point out that larger samples produce in general more stable solutions, but for models with seven or fewer latent constructs a minimum of n ¼ 150 is required (including no under identified construct and modest communalities) which is basically met (although modest communalities are not met by every indicator variable). For estimating the two groups, the approach suggested by Brown (2006) was followed. First, single group solutions were estimated for the EHF FINAL4 and the CHIO samples. Second, measurement invariance was investigated; thereby equal factor loadings, equal indicator intercepts and equal indicator error variances were examined. Third, with regard to population heterogeneity equal factor variance and equal latent means were analysed. Model fit was evaluated not only based on exact model fit (w2), but also based on the normed model fit (w2/df) with a suggested threshold of o3 (Bollen, 1989), the comparative model fit (CFI) having a cut-off criteria of 0.9 (Hu and Bentler, 1999), the standardised root mean square residual (SRMR) with a threshold o0.1 (Kline, 2005), and the RMSEA. Kline (2005) suggests the value of 0.05 as the threshold for the RMSEA with the 90 per cent confidence interval between 0.05 and 0.1 while others suggest a threshold of 0.6 (Hu and Bentler, 1999) or 0.8 (Hair et al., 2006). With small samples, this value tends to be higher and therefore models tend to be rejected (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Pertaining to the multi-group analysis, further thresholds for testing invariance need to be taken into consideration, in particular when sample sizes are small: a change of p0.005 in CFI and a change of X0.01 in RMSEA or a change of X0.025 in SRMR indicates non-invariance for the factor loadings whereas a change of X0.005 in CFI, supplemented by a change of X0.01 in RMSEA or a change of X0.005 in SRMR would indicate non-invariance for the indicator intercepts and indicator error variances (Chen, 2007, p. 501). RQ1 is answered using descriptive statistics and testing the impact of the latent constructs expression of values, interpersonal contacts, career orientation, personal growth, extrinsic rewards and love of sport on motivation. RQ2 is answered based on the SEM identifying whether motivation impacts on intention or not. Finally, RQ3 is tested using the multi-group approach. Results First, an overview about the participant characteristics is given, before the three RQ are addressed. Differences between the two events are indicated throughout this section. The participant characteristics of the entire sample can be summarised as

being mainly female (58 per cent), age (M ¼ 34 years), having a good education (67 per cent have at least A-levels) and a low income (Category 3 ¼ 1,001-1,500). Yet, the volunteers at the two different events had different characteristics and a diverse understanding of their volunteer motivation as Table II highlights. While at the handball event the majority of volunteers were female (67 per cent), at the equestrian event, the majority of volunteers were male (52 per cent). The mean age of the handball volunteers was 26 years whereas the equestrian volunteers had a mean age of 43 years. The volunteers at the EHF FINAL4 were better educated (80 per cent have at least A-levels) and the volunteers of the CHIO (52 per cent have at least A-levels). Hitherto, the income of the CHIO volunteers was higher than the EHF FINAL4 volunteers (3.98 vs 2.47). The equestrian volunteers had in terms of months of volunteers’ experience more practice than the handball volunteers (40.67 vs 35.68), though the latter were more involved with the sport as they practiced it more often: 56 per cent of the handball volunteers played handball whereas 32 per cent of the equestrian volunteers were themselves engaged with the sport. Variable Volunteer motivation Values1 Values2 Values3 Values4 Values5 Interpersonal1 Interpersonal2 Interpersonal3 Interpersonal4 Career1 Career2 Career3 Career4 Career5 Growth1 Growth2 Growth3 Growth4 Extrinsic1 Extrinsic2 Sport1 Sport2 Sport3 Sport4 Future behaviour Future event Future club Socio-demographic variables Gender Age Higher education Work time Income

Overall sample (SD)

4.03 3.92 4.02 4.55 3.94 4.26 4.16 4.25 3.58 3.70 3.79 3.26 3.11 3.17 3.42 3,74 2.91 3.51 2.20 2.58 3.69 4.04 4.27 4.10

(0.834) (0.929) (0.824) (0.751) (0.931) (0.815) (0.721) (0.818) (0.976) (0.971) (1.049) (1.066) (1.229) (1.220) (0.965) (0.868) (0.979) (0.991) (1.023) (1.091) (1.034) (0.991) (0.845) (0.849)

0.89 (0.309) 0.54 (0.500) 0.58 34.39 0.67 24.84 3.09

(0.495) (15.838) (0.471) (19.833) (2.383)

EHF sample (SD)

4.21 4.00 4.01 4.61 3.90 4.33 4.19 4.35 3.70 3.79 4.10 3.39 3.38 3.38 3,36 3.74 2.90 3.64 2.36 2.77 3.90 4.31 4.45 4.41

(0.724) (0.918) (0.775) (0.671) (0.840) (0.816) (0.715) (0.740) (0.884) (0.917) (0.876) (1.030) (1.242) (1.181) (0.796) (0.798) (0.774) (0.809) (1.027) (1.100) (0.970) (0.850) (0.738) (0.674)

0.91 (0.278) 0.60 (0.492) 0.67 26.66 0.80 25.36 2.47

(0.474) (8.321) (0.401) (18.677) (1.972)

Determinants of volunteer motivation 281

CHIO sample (SD)

3.83 3.82 4.02 4.47 3.99 4.17 4.12 4.12 3.43 3.59 3.42 3.11 2.80 2.93 3.49 3.75 2.93 3.37 2.00 2.35 3.45 3.72 4.06 3.75

(0.908) (0.939) (0.883) (0.831) (1.030) (0.809) (0.771) (0.889) (1.061) (1.025) (1.117) (1.093) (1.154) (1.228) (1.130) (0.948) (1.177) (1.155) (0.988) (1.041) (1.051) (1.051) (0.915) (0.895)

0.87 (0.341) 0.46 (0.501) 0.48 43.45 0.52 24.12 3.98

(0.502) (17.794) (0.503) (21.457) (2.649)

Table II. Summary statistics (of the overall sample and the two distinct events)

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Pertaining to the first RQ and thus to the motivation indicators, it can be generally said, that the volunteers at the EHF FINAL4 were higher motivated than the volunteers at the CHIO. However, this did not apply to every single indicator. For instance, for expression of values the values 1, 2 and 4 were perceived higher by the handball volunteers, while the values 3 and 5 were perceived higher by the equestrian volunteers. Table II provides a detailed overview of all indicators of volunteer motivation and how they are perceived by the two different groups. The initial SEM models estimated did not show satisfactory fit indices. Therefore, modifications were made with caution based on the modification indices suggested. The extrinsic factor had to be removed, as it was not significant. Brown (2006) highlighted model re-specifications should be done with care, as they entail exploratory elements. Yet, as two models were estimated, cross-validations were used. The single group solution for both models showed an adequate fit for the majority of fit indices. The EHF FINAL4 model had an appropriate fit (w2 ¼ 315.533; df ¼ 240; p ¼ 0.001; SRMR ¼ 0.093; CFI ¼ 0.905; RMSEA ¼ 0.058; pclose ¼ 0.238) while the CHIO model was slightly worse (w2 ¼ 397.045; df ¼ 240; p ¼ 0.000; SRMR ¼ 0.090; CFI ¼ 0.833; RMSEA ¼ 0.089; pclose ¼ 0.000). With regard to the two estimated models and RQ1, the results affirmed that the indicators were loading strong on the latent constructs. Expression of values was the strongest motivational factor in both samples (EHF FINAL4 l ¼ 0.971; CHIO l ¼ 0.910), thereafter the factor personal growth loaded in the EHF FINAL4 sample (l ¼ 0.890) and the CHIO sample (l ¼ 0.882) quite high. Interestingly, love of sport had the lowest factor loading (l ¼ 0.149) and was not significant within the handball sample while the factor career orientation loaded weakest on motivation in the equestrian sample (l ¼ 0.586). Concerning RQ2, motivation had in both models (CHIO ¼ 0.646; EHF FINAL4 ¼ 0.736) a significant and strong influence and future behaviour, namely intention to engage as a volunteer (Table III). Investigating the multi-group solution and thus RQ3, the normed fit index and the SRMR suggested satisfactory fit which applied for the RMSEA for the equal form and equal factor loadings model, too (see Table IV). The other fit indices were rather weak. Yet, the question was whether there are differences between the volunteers of the two events and the volunteer motivation. The nested model comparison revealed not a significant change in w2 between the models equal form and equal factor loadings (i.e. no group differences), but a significant change in w2 between the models equal factor loadings and equal indicator intercepts, suggesting model invariance (i.e. the groups seem to differ). Consulting the suggested thresholds for CFI and RMSEA or SRMR developed by Chen (2007), model non-invariance could be found between the second (equal factor loadings) and third (equal indicator intercepts) model. To conclude, measurement invariance could not be found. Consequently, the two models for both groups were not equal indicating that there were differences in the volunteer motivation with regard to the type of events. It was possible to compare the parameters of the entire model between the two groups. The critical ratios revealed that there were no significant differences at the factor loading level, but significant differences at the intercept level, indicating that scores from different groups had the same unit of measurement (factor loading) but not the same origin (intercept; Chen, 2007). There were several differences between the intercepts, e.g. between values 1 and 5[2]. To conclude, differences between the volunteer’s motivations at different events were detected.

Indicator EHF FINAL 4 Expression of values Values1 Values2 Values3 Values4 Values5 Interpersonal contacts Interpersonal1 Interpersonal2 Interpersonal3 Interpersonal4 Career orientation Career1 Career2 Career3 Career4 Career5 Personal growth Growth1 Growth2 Growth3 Growth4 Love of sport Sport1 Sport2 Sport3 Sport4 Motivation Future behaviour Future event Future club CHIO Expression of values Values1 Values2 Values3 Values4 Values5 Interpersonal contacts Interpersonal1 Interpersonal2 Interpersonal3 Interpersonal4 Career orientation Career1 Career2 Career3 Career4 Career5

l/ba

0.971 0.661 0.520 0.638 0.634 0.444 0.574 0.829 0.818 0.909 0.646 0.480 0.850 0.685 0.513 0.814 0.659 0.890 0.598 0.610 0.266 0.368 0.149 0.689 0.418 0.830 0.721 0.736 0.730 0.405 0.910 0.578 0.782 0.795 0.755 0.596 0.647 0.862 0.870 0.857 0.649 0.586 0.631 0.807 0.666 0.755 0.645

t-value

SE

c

c

3.733*** 3.330*** 3.668*** 3.659***

0.343 0.384 0.361 0.312

3.033** 6.776*** 6.709*** 7.164***

0.299 0.175 0.152 0.144

c

c

c

c

2.790** 5.946*** 5.590*** 4.456*** 7.335***

0.370 0.169 0.138 0.152 0.177

c

c

2.598* 2.930** 2.950** 1,877

0.290 0.548 0.557 0.368

1.130 5.904*** 3.632*** 6.184***

0.177 0.237 0.201 0.204

c

c

c

c

3.236***

0.127

2.605**

0.377

c

c

4.389*** 5.327*** 5.378*** 5.211***

0.189 0.225 0.213 0.196

3.656*** 6.619*** 6.661*** 6.592***

0.220 0.152 0.145 0.166

3.354*** 4.707*** 5.454*** 4.868*** 7.439***

0.248 0.174 0.209 0.189 0.147

c

c

c

c

c

c

R2b

0.942 0.437 0.270 0.407 0.402 0.197 0.330 0.087 0.669 0.825 0.417 0.230 0.723 0.470 0.263 0.663 0.434 0.793 0.357. 0.373 0.071 0.135 0.022 0.475 0.175 0.689 0.519

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0.542 0.532 0.164 0.828 0.334 0.612 0.632 0.570 0.355 0.419 0.743 0.757 0.735 0.421 0.344 0.399 0.652 0.444 Table III. 0.569 0.416 Single group SEM: results for the volunteer (continued) motivation indicators

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Indicator

l/ba

t-value

Personal growth Growth1 Growth2 Growth3 Growth4 Love of sport Sport1 Sport2 Sport3 Sport4 Motivation Future behaviour Future event Future club

0.882 0.718 0.681 0.601 0.705 0.597 0.730 0.580 0.731 0.527 0.646

4.201*** 5.543*** 5.349*** 4.757***

0.304 0.181 0.150 0.185

3.012** 4.070*** 3.631*** 4.061***

0.167 0.404 0.356 0.350

2.399*

0.078

0.474 0.457

c

c

c

1.988*

SE

c

712

R2b 0.778 0.516 0.464 0.361 0.498 0.357 0.533 0.337 0.534 0.277 0.417 0.225 0.209

a

Table III.

Notes: Standardised factor loading (l ¼ latent construct, b ¼ indicators); bsquared multiple correlation; cin AMOS one loading has to be fixed to 1, therefore no t-value and standard error can be computed for this factor. *po0.05; **po0.01; ***po0.001

Discussion The descriptive results exposed two different profiles of volunteers pertaining to their socio-demographic traits. The volunteers at the EFF FINAL4 were much younger than the volunteers at the CHIO. Based on the descriptive analysis, the volunteers’ motivations seemed to differ. This was confirmed by the analytical results. The significant impact of expression of values on motivation and its high factor loading were congruent with previous research in the field (Bang et al., 2009). This also applied, generally speaking, to the values of interpersonal contacts and career motivation. It was apparent that expression of values had the biggest impact on volunteer motivation, regardless of the event. Interpersonal contacts represented a reasonable factor to volunteer motivation which seemed to be important but not as essential as expression of values. Career orientation did not seem to have a big influence at all. These results supported the outcome of the rather traditional studies (Phillips, 1982) indicating that volunteer motivation is mostly based on altruistic and intrinsic reasons. A difference between the results of Bang et al. (2009) and this study was indicated by the factor personal growth. This aspect reached in the previous study low or mediocre results, in this study the impact on volunteer motivation proved to be rather high for both events. The difference in terms of event size could be a reason for the difference between the studies, but also intercultural differences might play a role. While the volunteers at the 2004 Olympic Games (Bang et al., 2009) might not see volunteering as a chance of feeling needed of exploring their own strength, the volunteers at the two German events put their focus on this impact. Although Okun (1994) mentioned that older people were less likely to emphasise aspects such as personal growth of volunteering, this study suggested (with regard to similar factor loadings) that there was no difference between younger and older volunteers regarding their motivation based on personal growth. Receiving a new responsibility in life especially when you are retired might be important for some of the volunteers. As the amount of older people at the CHIO sample was higher compared to the handball sample, this could explain why there was no difference for this factor. The factor love of

Single group solution EHF FINAL (n ¼ 96) CHIO (n ¼ 83) Multi-group solution Measurement invariance Equal form Equal factor loadings Equal indicator intercepts Equal indicator error variances Population heterogeneity Equal factor variance Equal latent mean 240 240 480 498 522 552 553 553

712.697 734.915 932.021 998.404 998.475 998.475

df

315.533 397.045

w2

0.000 0.000

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

0.001 0.000

P

1.806 1.806

1.485 1.476 1.785 1.809

1.315 1.654

w2/diff

1 0

18 24 30

Ddf

(0.044-0.060) (0.044-0.060) (0.060-0.079) (0.061-0.074)

0.0067 (0.061-0.074) 0.067 (0.061-0.074)

0.052 0.052 0.067 0.068

0.058 (0.038-0.074) 0.089 (0.037-0.105)

RMSEA (90% CI)

0.000 0.000

0.311 0.345 0.000 0.000

0.238 0.000

pclose

CFI

0.905 0.833 0.866 0.864 0.764 0.743 0.744 0.744

SRMR

0.093 0.090 0.093 0.094 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098

Determinants of volunteer motivation 285

Table IV. Multi-group SEM: tests of measurement invariance and population heterogeneity

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sport had a high impact on the motivation in the studies by Bang et al. (2009) and Coyne and Coyne (2001) and affected intentions to remain a volunteer in a study by MacLean and Hamm (2007). Thus, it was assumed that this would also be the case in this research. Yet, it hardly showed influence on the motivation to volunteer. While love of sport in the EHF FINAL4 model had only a very small and non-significant impact which could almost be ignored, the factor reached a high and significant effect in the CHIO model. One reason for this result could be that among the respondents, the other factors were much more prevalent than love of sport resulting in only low effects on motivation. The results confirmed that volunteer motivation based on actual volunteer engagement had a significant impact on intention to engage in voluntary work in the future which was congruent with previous findings (Doherty, 2009; MacLean and Hamm, 2007). This finding is very important for policy makers (see the following section). Nonetheless, the importance of satisfaction in this regard (Costa et al., 2006) and responsibility in terms of task performed (Cuskelly et al., 1998) should not be neglected. Although the impact of motivation on future behaviour was confirmed, the results suggested also further variables influencing future behaviour and it was assumed that satisfaction or involvement could contribute to a better model fit and explained variance of future behaviour. There was clear evidence to verify RQ3, indicating that there were differences between the volunteer’s motivations at different sporting events. This finding was divergent to a previous finding (Bang and Chelladurai, 2009) where no significant differences based on the type of event were found – yet a different statistical procedure was used. One reason for this finding could be the different socio-demographic profile of the volunteers at the two events. A further explanation could be that volunteers at team sports might differ to volunteers at individual sports or that the relative novelty of the event (it was held only for the second time) led to very enthusiastic volunteers. There are some limitations that have to be mentioned. First, the sample sizes were both rather small, in particular the sample size for the CHIO volunteers considering their absolute numbers. Additionally, accessibility as limitation has also to be included. The volunteers at the handball event have been approached via e-mail. Hence, all participating volunteers have been reached. This approach was not applicable at the CHIO, since no database was available. In comparison, the volunteers were approached at the event itself which made it more challenging to convince them to participate in the survey during their working time. Conclusions and implications The aim of this study was to identify drivers for volunteer motivation at major sporting events and their impact on future voluntary engagement. These determining factors were detected and to conclude, the model developed by Bang and Chelladurai (2009) for mega sport events is also useful in determining volunteer motivation at major sport events. Intentions for future voluntary engagement were fostered through the volunteer’s motivation therefore answering the second RQ posed. Moreover, differences amongst volunteers at different events were detected and thus the third RQ could be answered. The motivation for volunteers to take part at major events slightly differed depending on the event. However, generally speaking, the study showed that intrinsic factors were more important for volunteer motivation than extrinsic motivation. Expression of values seemed to be the most important motivator for both events tested while extrinsic rewards failed to have an impact in both models.

There are several practical and theoretical implications that can be attributed to this research. With regard to theoretical implications, this study adds to knowledge of volunteer motivation at major sport events in minor sports. Further, the methodological approach used, employing SEM based on multi-group analysis is also new in this strand of research. This particular type of analysis allows for the comparison of the results of the two estimated models and indeed, differences could be detected which can be referred to the type of event. This study also gives some hints for practitioners who are working in sport clubs and who are organising sport events. Generally speaking, knowledge about volunteer’s motivation is essential for the recruiting process. Practitioners should try to find a good match between the interests and abilities of the volunteers and their tasks at the event. Personal growth and expression of values had the highest impact explaining volunteer’s motivation. Consequently, event organisers should foster personal growth in handing over responsible tasks to the volunteers and providing room for acknowledging the work the volunteers offer. This could be accomplished through integrating some volunteers (it is not feasible with everyone) in the pre-event phase and offer special training prior to the event for all volunteers. Feedback and evaluation opportunities should be easily accessible for the volunteers to acknowledge their work in the aftermath and give the opportunity for personal engagement and thus personal growth. Moreover, interpersonal contact was higher rated by the volunteers of the CHIO sample who were also older. This finding suggests that event organisers should try to offer in particular older volunteers the opportunity to work in close contact with either spectators or participants to enrich their volunteer motivation. The passion for sport is something the majority of volunteers shares, when considering the single item Sport 3 (Sport is something I love, see Table II). Therefore, it might be useful as team building instrument to start every morning with a joined leisure activity – ideally in the sport the event is concerned with (though this is hardly logistically manageable for equestrian, but might be doable for handball in the form of half an hour playing inbetween when a venue is easily available). This might be in particular important for volunteers at the equestrian event as the latent factor love of sport was also highly predictive for motivation, what was not the case for the handball volunteers. The volunteer’s motivation has a significant impact on future behaviour, in this case, future engagement as a volunteer at a sport club or a sport event. Being active as a volunteer at an event might not only lead to continuous engagement at sport events but also to voluntary engagement with a sport club. This finding might be surprising at first sight, but it represents a positive notion sport clubs can build on in the way that when they organise events and are able to recruit new volunteers it is likely that they remain volunteers (apart from the event itself). Yet, it has to be noted, that being motivated is one part, the volunteer experience must be also somewhat fulfilling for the volunteer (Costa et al., 2006) before he/she undertakes future actions. Thus it remains the first and utmost task of the event organiser to create a satisfying volunteer experience offering room for expression of values, and focusing on personal growth of the volunteers. Therefore it would also be interesting to investigate the expectations and satisfaction with the volunteer experience in the future. Moreover, it would be of interest to include the actual involvement and prior experience of the voluntary engagement into the model and how that affects future behaviour. Furthermore, it is recommended to test the motivation of volunteers at different events in diverse sports. As it is shown by this research, significant differences exist between various events. By analysing other major events, a profile of volunteers regarding these sports could be

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established, e.g. a marathon event, a tennis event. Thereby, a classification system could be implemented which could help managers to gain an overview about their personnel even before they are recruiting or the event is taking place. Notes 1. These numbers were provided by the event organisers.

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Herzberg, F. (1968), “One more time: how do you motivate employees?”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 46, January/February, pp. 53-62. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B. and Snyderman, B. (1959), The Motivation to Work, Chapman & Hall, New York, NY and London. Hu, L.-T. and Bentler, P.M. (1999), “Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives”, Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1-55. Johnson-Coffey, G.C. (1997), “Trends in volunteerism”, The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 60-4. Johnston, M.E., Twynam, G.D. and Farrell, J.M. (1999), “Motivation and satisfaction of event volunteers for a major youth organization”, Leisure/Loisir, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 161-77. Kim, M., Trail, G.T., Lim, J. and Kim, Y.K. (2009), “The role of psychological contract in intention to continue volunteering”, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 549-73. Kim, M., Zhang, J.J. and Connaughton, D. (2010), “Modification of the volunteer functions inventory for application in youth sports”, Sport Management Review, Vol. 13 No. 1, pp. 25-38. Kline, R.B. (2005), Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, The Guildford Press, New York, NY. Lasby, D. and Sperling, J. (2007), Understanding the Capacity of Ontario Sports and Recreation Organisations, Imagine Canada, Toronto, Ontario. Lavarie, D.A. and Arnett, D.B. (2000), “Factors affecting fan attendance: the influence of identity salience and satisfaction”, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 32 No. 2, pp. 225-46. Lockstone, L. and Baum, T. (2009), “The public face of event volunteering at the 2006 commonwealth games: the media perspective”, Managing Leisure, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 38-56. MacDuff, N. (1995), “Episodic volunteering”, in Connors, T. D. (Ed.), The Volunteer Management Handbook, John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York, NY, pp. 187-205. MacLean, J. and Hamm, S. (2007), “Motivation commitment, and intentions to volunteers at a large Canadian sporting event”, Leisure/Loisir, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 523-56. Maslow, A.H. (1987), Motivation And Personality, Harper & Row, New York, NY. Nassar, N.O. and Talaat, N.M. (2009), “Motivations of young volunteers in special events”, Tourismos: An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 145-52. Nichols, G. and King, L. (1998), “Volunteers in the guide association: problems and solutions”, Voluntary Action, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-32. Nichols, G. and Shepard, M. (2006), “Volunteering in sport: the use of ratio analysis to analyse volunteering and participation”, Managing Leisure, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 205-16. Okun, M.A. (1994), “The relation between motives for organizational volunteering and the frequency of volunteering by elders”, The Journal of Applied Gerontology, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 115-26. Pauline, G. (2011), “Volunteer satisfaction and intent to remain: an analysis of contributing factors among professional gold event volunteers”, International Journal of Event Management Research, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 10-32. Phillips, M. (1982), “Motivation and expectation in successful volunteerism”, Journal of Voluntary Action Research, Vol. 11 Nos 1/2, pp. 118-25. Ralston, R., Downward, P. and Lumsdon, L. (2004), “The expectations of volunteers prior to the XVII Commonwealth Games 2002: a qualitative study”, Event Management, Vol. 9 Nos 1/2, pp. 13-26.

Reber, A.S. (1995), Penguin Dictionary Of Psychology, Penguin Books, London. Schubert, M. (2005), “Sport-Marketing – einige U¨berlegungen zu den konstitutiven Grundlagen eines neuen Forschungs – und Aufgabenfeldes (Sport Marketing . some thoughts about the constitutive foundations of a new research field and scope of duties)”, in Breuer, C. & Thiel, A. (Eds), Handbuch Sport Management, Hofmann, Schorndorf, pp. 239-57. Shank, M.D. and Beasley, F.M. (1998), “Fan or fanatic: refining a measure of sports involvement”, Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 435-43. Strigas, A.D. and Jackson, E.N. (2003), “Motivating volunteers to serve and succeed: design and results of a pilot study that explores demographics and motivational factors in sport volunteerism”, International Sports Journal, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 111-23. Twynam, G.D., Farrell, J.M. and Johnston, M.E. (2002), “Leisure and volunteer motivation at a special sporting event”, Leisure/Loisir, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 363-77. Wann, D.L., Melnick, M.J., Russell, G.W. and Pease, D.G. (2001), Sport Fans – The Psychology and Social Impacts of Spectators, Routledge, New York, NY and London. Williams, P.W., Dossa, K.A. and Tompkins, L. (1995), “Volunteerism and special event management: a case study of whistler’s men’s world cup of skiing”, Festival Management and Event Tourism, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 83-95. Further reading Borkowski, N. (2009), Organizational Behavior, Theory, and Design in Health Care, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, MA. Bowdin, G., Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnell, I. (2011), Events Management, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Brussel, H. and Forbes, D. (2002), “Understanding the volunteer market: the what, where, who and why of volunteering”, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 244-57. Parks, J.B., Quarterman, J. and Thibault, L. (2007), Contemporary Sport Management, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL. Shibli, S., Taylor, P., Nichols, G., Gratton, C. and Kokolakakis, T. (1999), “The characteristics of volunteers in UK sports clubs”, European Journal for Sport Management, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 10-27. Corresponding author Kirstin Hallmann can be contacted at: [email protected]

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A neglected legacy Examining the challenges and potential for sport tourism development in post-Olympic Athens Vassilios Ziakas and Nikolaos Boukas Center for Sustainable Management of Tourism, Sport and Events (CESMATSE), European University Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Abstract

International Journal of Event and Festival Management Vol. 3 No. 3, 2012 pp. 292-316 r Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1758-2954 DOI 10.1108/17582951211262710

Purpose – Although research on the impacts of the Olympic Games on Athens addressed the impact of the Games on economy, generic tourism, and urban restructuring, there has not been given to date attention on the prospects for sport tourism development in Athens as a result of hosting the Olympics, especially if it is considered that the construction of Olympic facilities was legitimized by the government’s intention to use them for sport. To address this omission, the purpose of this study is to draw attention to examining the challenges and potential of post-Olympic Athens to exploit its Olympic legacy for the development of sport tourism. Design/methodology/approach – A qualitative approach was employed by conducting nine semistructured interviews with Athens’ tourism/administrative officials and analyzing them in line with pertinent literature. Findings – Results show that the city’s tourism officials respond with ad-hoc policies in their effort to capitalize on Athens’ Olympic legacy. Consequently, Athens’ potential is constrained by the absence of a comprehensive tourism policy aimed at enriching and diversifying the city’s post-Olympic tourism product. In this context, the study shows that there is limited awareness by the city’s tourism administration for sport tourism development and for establishing appropriate coordination mechanisms, which could foster mutually beneficial links between sport and tourism stakeholders. This leaves unexploited the potential for utilizing effectively Athens’ Olympic facilities and destination capitals in developing a competitive sport tourism product mix. Research limitations/implications – A limitation of the study is that it examines Athens’ sport tourism prospects through the lens of tourism policy. Future studies are needed to examine also sport policy. On a broader level, it is suggested that future research should extend the focus on the study of post-event leverage to find the best means for fostering post-Games Olympic tourism from a sustainability perspective. Practical implications – To redress post-Olympic Athens’ inertia and associated structural problems that affect its tourism policy, the study presents a framework for the strategic planning and sustainable development of sport tourism in Athens. Originality/value – The study by examining Athens’ neglected legacy for sport tourism, attempts to synthesize a common ground for sport and tourism development in Olympic cities. This inquiry suggests the need for a broader planning and leveraging framework to extend the study of Olympic tourism in the post-Games period as it relates to the use of Olympic legacy and post-Olympic assets, which can, in turn, reveal the conditions for synergistic development of sport and tourism. Also, such an examination may shed light on what and how can be corrected in order to mitigate the sources and consequences of problems, while providing lessons for future Olympic cities. Finally, by focusing on sport tourism as it is induced by the Olympics knowledge can be advanced on how to effectively leverage the Olympic legacy and develop sustainable post-Olympic tourism products. Keywords Tourism policy, Sport tourism development, Olympic legacy, Post-Games Olympic tourism, Post-event leverage, Destination capitals, Sustainability, Sustainable development, Tourism, Sports, Greece Paper type Research paper

Introduction The hosting of 2004 Olympics in Athens constituted a unique opportunity for the diversification and enrichment of Athens’ (and Greece’s) tourism product (Asprogerakas, 2007; Kavaratzis, 2008; Weed, 2008; Zografos and Deffner, 2007). Yet, due to the fragmented nature of sport and tourism industries in Greece, a lack of coordination is evident between commercial providers and public governing bodies of sport and tourism sectors. In fact, it is widely accepted that the field of sport tourism suffers from a lack of integration between the sport and tourism sectors at the policy and supply levels (Devine et al., 2010; Weed, 2001; Weed, 2003; Weed and Bull, 1997). The effective integration of sport and tourism requires that policy makers develop a joint strategic approach and establish infrastructures that facilitate linkages between operators in the different sectors (Standeven and De Knop, 1999; Weed and Bull, 2009). It is generally recognized that the Athens’ Olympics were successful in terms of meeting the high operational standards for conducting multiple sport competitions in state-of-the-art facilities (Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou, 2004; Gold, 2011; Weed, 2008). The successful organization of the Olympic Games by Athens left a valuable legacy for the city and the major projects that were implemented in the preparation for the Games such as the new international airport, the new metro network, and the new sport facilities, enhanced the sport and tourism superstructure of Athens (Beriatos and Gospodini, 2004; Tziralis et al., 2006). However, a successful event and successfully marketing the host city are distinctly different concepts (Ritchie, 2000). In the case of Athens there were major planning failures concerning the lack of coordination between the organizers of the Olympic Games and the tourism bodies (Singh and Hu, 2008), the lack of leveraging benefits from the Games (Weed, 2008), and the lack of post-Olympic use of facilities (Gold, 2011). These planning failures constrained the attainment and magnification of positive outcomes that the Olympics could bring to Athens and Greece in general. Although empirical research on the impacts of the Olympic Games on Athens is limited with the few studies addressing the impact of the Games on the economy (e.g. Kasimati and Dawson, 2009), generic tourism (e.g. Zografos and Deffner, 2007), and urban restructuring (e.g. Beriatos and Gospodini, 2004), to date that has been insufficient attention given to the prospects for sport tourism development in Athens, especially if we consider that the construction of Olympic facilities was legitimized by the government’s intention to use them for sport (Official Gazette of the Government, 2005). In this respect, the purpose of this study is to ignite interest in examining the challenges and potential of post-Olympic Athens to exploit its Olympic legacy for the development of sport tourism. By doing so, the study attempts to synthesize a common ground for sport and tourism development in Olympic cities. This inquiry suggests that apart from focussing on the pre- and during-Olympic periods, a focus on Olympic tourism in the post-Games period as it relates to the use of Olympic legacy and post-Olympic assets can reveal the conditions for synergistic development of sport and tourism. Also, such an examination may shed light on what and how can be corrected in order to mitigate the sources and consequences of problems, while providing lessons for future Olympic cities. Finally, by focussing on sport tourism, as it is induced by the Olympics, we can advance our knowledge on how to effectively leverage the Olympic legacy and develop sustainable post-Olympic tourism products.

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Sport tourism planning for creating sustainable post-Olympic tourism products The appeal of sport makes it an attractive tool for destinations to enrich and diversify their tourism product. This drives the implementation of policies that seek to integrate sport and tourism (Bull and Weed, 1999; Chalip, 2001; Getz, 1998; Grabowski, 1999; Higham, 1999; Pigeassou, 1997; Smith, 2001; Weed, 2009). In this respect, Higham (2005) questioned how coordinated sport and tourism planning interests contribute to the development or periodic under-utilization of facilities and infrastructure at a tourism destination. To evaluate the effectiveness of sport tourism development strategies it is important to examine the ways that the use of a destination’s assets optimize the synergistic benefits of the sport and tourism product mix. Nevertheless, managing any useful form of integration between sport and tourism depends as much upon the organization of government administration as upon the will of those involved in delivering the experiences (Standeven and De Knop, 1999). The organization of Olympic Games may induce cooperation between sport and tourism agencies in an effort to leverage the Games (O’Brien, 2006; Weed, 2008). Weed (2008) examines in detail the emergence of Olympic tourism defining the phenomenon as tourism behavior motivated or generated by Olympic-related activities. This definition covers the full range of pre- and post-Games sport tourism activity and generic tourism that can be stimulated by the Olympics. In general, the investment of a host city in building Olympic facilities and implementing urban regeneration projects can generate favorable or unfavorable legacies for residents (Essex and Chalkley, 1998; Gold and Gold, 2011; Hiller, 2006; Horne, 2007; Mangan and Dyreson, 2009). As Smith (2009) underlined, if sustainable regeneration from major events is to be achieved, an important consideration is to plan for the effective post-event utilization of the new facilities and manage the associated risk that the new facilities will not be used after the event. When the post-Olympic use of facilities ends up being an uncertain legacy (Searle, 2002), a range of unintended consequences may be derived (Hall, 1992; Olds, 1998; Prasad, 1999; Ritchie, 1999). To avoid this happening and/or mitigate its consequences, the sustainable management and leveraging of Olympic assets in the post-Games period needs to effectively incorporate sport in an Olympic city’s tourism product through a long-term post-Olympic strategy. In addition, this may tackle the unmet expectations and inequalities in terms of the human and social legacy of the Games, as long as the Olympics contribute to the enhancement of self-esteem and empowerment of local residents (Hiller, 2000). The literature reports positive outcomes that accrued from the Olympics for tourism development. The building of tourism infrastructure in the case of Barcelona significantly enhanced its image and credibility as an international tourist destination (Duran, 2005). The Sydney Games were the first to implement comprehensive pre- and post-Games leveraging programs in order to boost tourism (Brown et al., 2004; Faulkner et al., 2000), and enhance business networking relationships (O’Brien, 2006; O’Brien and Gardiner, 2006). These programs entailed the creation of alliances between the Olympic Games organizers and the Australian Tourist Commission that enhanced the destination promotion activities and exploited the positive publicity generated by the Games. Similarly, the Winter Olympic Games in Turin (Bondonio and Guala, 2011) and Vancouver (Kaplanidou and Karadakis, 2010) applied strategic legacy programs for tourism development (Weed, 2008), while for the London 2012 Summer Games a range of initiatives were designed to build a sustainable Olympic sport development

legacy in terms of promoting sport participation across the country (Girginov and Hills, 2008). All these advancements illustrate the potential to develop joint programs for leveraging the Games and creating sustainable sport and tourism legacies. Current tourism leveraging programs of the Olympics are strongly associated with the role of the media in city/nation branding. As Payne (2006, p. 167) suggests: “Whether it is to increase tourism, change foreign and domestic policy, attract investment or aid, or boost international trade, the goal of national image management is to cast the nation in a more favorable global light.” In this regard, Preuss (2004) argues that the most significant Olympic spectator is television because it increases the image of the host city to a vast variety of audiences and provides an avenue for corporations to invest on Olympic emblems/commercials. This creates the opportunity for host cities to generate and maximize positive exposure through the media that can help build their tourism brand. Even though the promise of the Olympics does not ensure that the expected benefits will be obtained, the Olympics are prestigious enough to force quick decision making on improving infrastructures and economic development opportunities, as the 1984 Los Angeles Games’ entrepreneurial behavior model first demonstrated (Andranovich et al., 2001). As the authors emphasize, the question arising is whose interests are served by a shift to entrepreneurial activities. In any case, it should be acknowledged that rapid decision making does not always result in effective planning, collaboration among stakeholders, and sustainable outcomes. For instance, while the Los Angeles and Barcelona Games set the basis for the effective entrepreneurial planning, the incursion of considerable amount of private funding in combination with the creation of private-public alliances for financing the Games appeared to be problematic, as the case of Atlanta in 1996 illustrates (Gold and Gold, 2008). Specifically, the Atlanta Games benefited the business community rather than the disadvantaged communities that expected benefits such as job positions, better infrastructure, and improved housing (Maloney, 1996). The issue, therefore, is the sustainability of strategies that originate from sport tourism development policies, which according to sustainable development principles should maintain economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental integrity (Campell, 1996; Fitzgerald and Leigh, 2002). Consequently, a comprehensive triple bottom line analysis has been suggested as a framework for the planning, management, and evaluation of the social, economic, and environmental aspects of events (Hede, 2008). Accordingly, event leveraging for optimizing the outcomes of sport events has moved toward sustainable development (O’Brien and Chalip, 2008). The gigantism of the Olympics, involving immense infrastructure and operating costs (Giatsis et al., 2004), apparently contradicts with the principles of sustainability that advocate sharing and dispersing social, economic, and environmental impacts across time and space for the benefit of all (Girginov and Hills, 2008). In this regard, leveraging aimed to extend the benefits obtained from the Olympics in the post-Games period constitutes a long-term time-horizon that can potentially compensate for the costs of Olympic growth and be aligned with sustainable development. Girginov and Hills (2009) by employing a constructivist perspective to examine the link between the London Olympics and sustainable sport development suggested that the creation of a positive legacy from the Games requires a complementary understanding of sustainability as a social construct and a set of processes that reflect collective and contested goals. Thus, they contended that sustainable sport development involves an unending iterative process of construction, destruction, and

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maintaining of opportunities for people to participate and excel in sport and life. Therefore, sustainable sport development is not a static goal to be achieved (Girginov, 2008) but a constant process of participation and contestation that results in social learning and change. From this perspective, the convergence of sport and tourism legacies and their alignment with sustainable development rest on a common reconstructive participatory process thereby involving stakeholders that can enable change. Accordingly, Costa and Chalip (2005) put forth that local policy should move toward participatory planning in order to integrate and leverage a host community’s assets and optimize the role that sport plays in development. This call is for identifying the ways that sport tourism can be incorporated into the socio-political structures of host destinations for contributing to their sustainable development. To do so, it is imperative to consider the spatial and temporal dimensions of sport tourism. In this regard, Hinch and Higham (2004) suggested that the foundations of sport tourism development lie in the geographical principles of space, place, and environment. Likewise, Weed and Bull (2009) explained the interconnectedness of sport and tourism as a social, economic, and cultural phenomenon that stems from the unique interaction of activity, people, and place. The application of sustainable principles to sport tourism brings forth serious challenges that derive from the contested relationship between sustainability and tourism. Sharpley (2009), in his critique of sustainable tourism development as unrealistic, proposed a more pragmatic approach on sustainability, which provides a framework for optimizing those benefits within locally determined environmental parameters. Sharpley’s destination capitals approach is a logical process of need identification followed by an analysis of destination resources or capitals which, when related to market opportunities and external forces, provides a basis for tourism development plans. Thus, sustainability is inherent in the process of assessing the potential contribution of destination capitals to generate a flow of benefits to the destination according to the desired outcomes of tourism development. Likewise, sustainable sport tourism development can devise strategies that utilize those resources and assets that have the potential to optimize the returns to the destination. This approach concurs with leveraging events (O’Brien and Chalip, 2008) and other synergistic or complementary assets to attain, magnify, and sustain their outcomes for a sport tourism destination. In this context, leveraging programs can be operationalized in the post-Olympic period for creating and harnessing a sustainable sport tourism legacy. 2004 Athens’ Olympic legacy Athens’ Olympic legacy has been multi-dimensional including, among others, physical, social, and cultural dimensions. This is mainly because Athens sought through the Olympics the multiple goals of upgrading its urban environment and infrastructure, improving its image, and rejuvenating its tourism industry (Beriatos, 2006). Athens followed a multi-nuclear strategy dispersing the construction of new facilities, which led to the creation of sport and leisure clusters (Gospodini, 2009) or urban poles of interest (Serraos et al., 2007) that concentrated in their premises sport, leisure, and commercial activities. This altered the physiognomy of Athens’ urban tissue by combining the architecture of its Olympic projects modern design with traditional characteristics that resulted in a “glocalized” urban landscape (Beriatos and Gospodini, 2004). Nonetheless, the Olympics also brought unintended consequences (Maloutas

et al., 2009), such as their excessive financial cost, environmental problems (e.g. Hadjibiros and Sifakaki, 2009), and housing evictions (e.g. COHRE, 2007). Arguably, the Olympics generated a significant legacy for Athens that is epitomized in its built and human heritage. In terms of tourism development, the Games brought about the unification of the city’s urban landscape with the coast at the south (Kissoudi, 2008; Sykianaki, 2006), enriching its tourist product mix and facilitating the transportation of tourists, via the initially made for the Olympics, tram-line that connects the city center with Athens’ southern outskirts (Boukas et al., 2012a; Zografos and Deffner, 2007). Moreover, because the rationale for hosting the Olympics was based on the intention to project the cultural identity of Athens and Greece (Boukas et al., 2012b; Fauquembergue, 2008; Traganou, 2010), the Olympics acted as the medium for the unification, enhancement, and projection of many areas with cultural significance (Beriatos and Gospodini, 2004). The cultural significance of the Olympics for Athens was also highlighted by the Olympic Truce (IOC, 2008), the Cultural Olympiad (Athens 2004, 2004), and the integration of modernity (Kissoudi, 2010) with the past (Khirfan, 2010) that exhibits the multi-cultural character of the city (Athens 2004, 2004; Boukas et al., 2012b). Finally, the Games provided an opportunity for the participation of various people that amplified the concept of volunteerism (European Commission Citizenship, 2005; Karkatsoulis et al., 2005; Panagiotopoulou, 2005). In summary, Athens underwent dramatic spatial and landscape transformations in its restructuring as a post-industrial metropolis having at its core the tourism, recreation, culture, and trade services (Gospodini, 2009). While the Olympics gave an impetus to urban reshaping and status of Athens, the challenge for the city is to capitalize on its modern “glocalized” capabilities and Olympic legacy in order to revive its tourism industry. Consequently, the development of sport tourism represents an essential means to enrich and diversify Athens’ post-Olympic tourism product. Theoretical framework In order to investigate Athens’ post-Olympic assets and the potential for sport tourism development, the following three streams of theoretical inquiry need to be contextualized: (1)

legacy planning of the Olympic Games and mega-events;

(2)

event leveraging; and

(3)

destination capitals approach in tourism sustainability.

This allows situating the planning for sport tourism legacies of the Olympics (and mega-events) in a sustainable framework and envisioning their effective leveraging. Although the concept of legacy is not new, it is only recently that it has been formalized suggesting the need for strategically developing long-term, sustainable legacy plans (Leopkey and Parent, 2012). Legacy has been conceptualized as the planned and unplanned, positive and negative, intangible and tangible structures created through a sport event that remain after the event (Gratton and Preuss, 2008; Preuss, 2007). On these grounds, mega-events have the capacity to generate various types of long-lasting legacies, commonly understood as the impacts and outcomes of events (e.g. Cashman, 2006; Mangan and Dyreson, 2009; Toohey, 2008). This dictates host cities to plan for achieving positive outcomes and preventing or mitigating negative impacts. The issue thus is what event planning processes or models can enable host cities to harness mega-events.

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In this regard, the concept of leverage has been introduced by Chalip (2004) to denote those activities, which need to be undertaken around the event itself, and those which seek to maximize the long-term benefits from events. This approach entails a forward, ex ante, and analytic mindset for legacy planning focussing on why and how intended outcomes can occur, thereby explaining the processes and strategic means that can enable their attainment. From this perspective, events should be seen as opportunities for interventions; not interventions in themselves (Chalip, 2004). As O’Brien (2006) suggests, events and their opportunities are merely the seed capital; what hosts do with that capital is the key to realizing sustainable long-term legacies. Recognizing events as capital brings forth the need to cross-leverage them with a host city’s other capitals. Sharpley’s (2009) destination capitals approach provides a framework for leveraging the opportunities events create in synergy with the host city’s assets by fostering their inter-connectedness in order to generate a flow of sustainable tourism benefits. The challenge is to create the appropriate conditions in which event stakeholders can reach a consensus in formulating leveraging initiatives that embed legacy in the sustainable development of the host city. The types of leveraging initiatives may vary as the types of legacies that are sought. Likewise, their time of commencement (before, during, or after the event) and duration vary according to the host’s objectives. There is a lack of research in examining the temporal aspects of leveraging. It is uncertain on the best time to start a legacy program and for how long, so that benefits are maximized. In this vein, it is important to know what the effects are of different legacy programs that took place before, during, and after the event. Since legacy is the outcome that remains in the aftermath of the event, its leveraging should extend in the post-event period and sustain its benefits. From this standpoint, we can envision leveraging programs that can be operationalized in the post-Olympic period for creating and harnessing a sustainable sport tourism legacy and enriching as well as diversifying a host city’s post-Olympic tourism product. Methodology This study was part of a larger research that examined Athens’ tourism development in the post-Olympic era. Findings from this research indicated the status and qualities of post-Olympic Athens as a national capital that need to more effectively exploit its cultural tapestry in order to become a competitive cultural destination (Boukas et al., 2012a). Further, findings illustrated the multi-faceted Olympic heritage of Athens, which brings forth the opportunity for cross-leveraging the Olympic legacy with its cultural assets (Boukas et al., 2012b). This research revealed the unexplored potential to leverage the Olympic legacy for sport tourism development and thus instigated the undertaking of this study. In line with the two previous studies, a qualitative approach (Yin, 2009) was chosen for the initial investigation of post-Olympic Athens’ sport tourism development. Semistructured interviews were employed, as they allow more detailed information to be gathered, by providing an opportunity for the interviewer to probe and expand the interviewee’s responses (Weiss, 1994). A secondary data analysis of the relevant literature and pertinent government documents was undertaken along with the collection of primary data in seeking to discover, describe or map patterns, and trends in sport tourism policy making. Data were collected for this research between summer 2010 and spring 2011 in order to obtain more representative responses that account for the effects of the dramatic

socio-economic crisis on Athens. The period of approximately seven years after the Games allowed a critical reflection of the issues that surfaced in post-Olympic Athens. Nine interviews were conducted with high-rank tourism officials and representatives who have/had an important contribution to the Athens’ Olympics during and after their organization (Table I). This purposive sampling of high-rank administrators aimed to draw knowledge from the most informed actors who have influenced the tourism legacy of the Games. Elite interviewing provides a rich and thorough source of data as top executives hold strategic knowledge (King, 1994) and can express their ideas/experiences (Arksey and Knight, 1999). In this regard, the basic criterion for the selection of interviewees was that they held a key position in organizations responsible for the management of Olympic assets and for development of tourism policy in the post-Games period. As such, the sample represented primarily the lens of tourism policy in order to delineate an initial account of the primary grounds that shape sport tourism in post-Olympic Athens. The interviews were conducted in the offices of the interviewees and their length ranged between 30 and 40 minutes. An interview guide was used to provide a focus for the questions. Main directions: .

identify the position and importance of sport tourism for Athens overall tourist product mix as well as the types of sport tourist activities currently offered;

.

explain the ways that the Olympic Games contributed to the development and enhancement of the sport and tourism industries of the city;

.

explore the potential of the Olympic legacy to be leveraged for sport tourism development; and

.

analyze the challenges and opportunities to develop sport tourism in the postOlympic period.

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The interviews sought to probe deeply by asking supplementary questions. Furthermore, unofficial discussions were conducted with the personnel of the Greek National Tourism Organization and with Athens’ sport tourism providers for the broader understanding of sport tourism development in post-Olympic Athens. Since this study was part of a larger research, data collection was constantly informed from the overall pool of data.

Respondent

Organizational domain

Expertise

Olympic post

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9

Tourism administration Tourism administration Tourism administration Government administration Government administration Government administration Olympic facilities administration Olympic facilities administration City administration

Tourism planning Tourism policy Tourism policy Tourism marketing Tourism education Tourism policy Facility management Facility management Tourism marketing

No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Note: Due to the request of some interviewees to keep their anonymity, specific information that could reveal their identity is not provided

Table I. Background of interviewees

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All the interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim in the Greek language. Afterwards the interviews were translated in English and analyzed manually. Content analysis employed a directed approach using pre-determined categories for the coding scheme (Silverman, 2001). The thematic categories were the following: context of tourism policy; Olympic legacy and sport tourism policy/planning; and opportunities and challenges for sport tourism development. This structured approach allowed to categorize data according to prior research and incorporate new insights. Data that did not fit the coding scheme were categorized as alternative themes. All the results were checked for validity and consistency by comparing them with the two previous studies and also by going back to the general literature. This helped to substantiate the findings of the study. Results In this section, the findings of the study are presented in the order of the predetermined themes that the data were analyzed. The analysis aims to set the basis for dealing with the range of issues that impact on Athens’ sport tourism potential. The results are presented with reference to the literature aiming to substantiate the findings of the study and further examine their implications. Context of tourism policy The emergence of sport tourism in Athens (and in Greece) can be studied through the lens of tourism policy. For this reason, the context of tourism policy that affects the development of sport tourism is examined. In the interviews conducted an official explained Athens’ position in the Greek tourism policy: Athens has never been the priority of the national tourism policy. Rather the effort has been to promote tourism in the whole country and thus position Greece as a destination (R1).

On these grounds, a respondent summarized the major efforts of Greek tourism policy making as follows: First, to promote incentives for diverse tourism enterprises to invest in territories that have tourism prospects but they are not developed until today. Second, there is an effort to develop alternative forms of tourism which should be realized with the cooperation of the local authorities (R2).

Another respondent explained that the making of the Greek tourism policy is not being created in vitro but in practice receiving continuous feedback from the volatile environment of the tourism industry: There is more practical policy-making than wider strategic planning. Hence, there is not a comprehensive strategy in the tourism sector. There are ad-hoc policies for some special issues and some policies result from general governmental policies that indirectly influence the tourism sector (R3).

Consequently, the tourism policy in trying to meet the changing needs of tourists attempted to reconfigure its tourism product mix. An interviewee explained: There has been an effort to reshape and enrich the tourist product. This started with the logo that was extended from the mono-dimensional “sea and sun” to include nine circles that describe the nine thematic axes: sun and sea, nautical tourism, culture, touring, countryside tourism, health and wellness, conference tourism, luxury tourism and city-break [y] Athens focuses basically on city-break, conference and luxury tourism (R1).

In this context, the growth of sport tourism offerings is rather reactive to market demand and trends as a special form of tourism. In particular, a respondent stated about the development of sport tourism: The Greek tourism policy tries to create the appropriate conditions, the infrastructure, the facilities and the technical equipment which are necessary for modern sport-training centers. Tourism policy provides incentives to hotels to enrich their facilities with the construction of both indoor and outdoor gyms. For instance, hotels are given incentives for the creation of golf courses. The Greek tourism policy therefore is focused on providing the incentives, which will assist in the development of sport and recreation as an additional part of the Greek tourism product. Of course, there is provision about the financial and legislative context as well as the projection and promotion of recreational tourism. Lastly, for the professional athletes’ competitive sport tourism the existence of modern infrastructure is necessary in order for this form of tourism to be developed (R2).

Similarly, another respondent explained: Sport tourism is mainly part of other main types of tourism such as nautical or countryside tourism. In Athens sports are offered in city-break and luxury tourism as complementary activities. Of course, a big part of sport tourism is the international events that the city hosts such as the Special Olympics (R3).

It seems, therefore, that sport tourism is viewed by the tourism administration in Greece and Athens as an alternative form of tourism, which has the potential for development and can contribute to the enrichment of its tourism product. Yet, sport tourism is not viewed as a distinct phenomenon with its own dynamics and requirements, which calls for integration of sport and tourism policies in order to fully exploit its potential. Olympic legacy and sport tourism policy/planning The findings of the interviews shed light on the impact of Olympic legacy on sport and tourism. In terms of the role of the Olympic legacy in tourism development, one respondent explained: The Olympic Games was a very good chance for the modernization of the infrastructure (highways, ports, airports, etc.), and tourism facilities (hotels, museums, etc.). Furthermore, Athens used the Olympics in the promotion of its tourism product. The Olympics is a powerful symbolic event, which gives the opportunity even years after its organization to attach to marketing messages all the elements of Athens’ tourism product (R4).

The promotion of Athens’ tourism product should be able therefore to associate the Olympics with the destination elements of Athens. This depends on a comprehensive tourism marketing strategy and how the complex sport and tourism enterprises, as well as the authorized public agencies, cooperate. However, the lack of strategic planning inhibits the potential for exploiting Athens’ Olympic legacy. As an official underlined: There was not strategic planning neither for the post-Olympic use of the facilities nor for the development of sport tourism. This has brought a burden to the state and the city, which do not have the money to maintain them. It is a pity. The situation of closed, abandoned facilities that was shown in the international media is at least embarrassing for our Olympic legacy (R7).

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Another official agreed with the above statement but turned attention to the risk of promoting positive characteristics in the image of Athens that stem from its Olympic legacy, which do not represent the daily reality of the city: There are positive stereotypes about Athens that are promoted. For example, during the Olympics there was a “vibe” of the city with street parties and other activities that enhanced the celebratory atmosphere. However, this is not the real Athens. So if someone visited Athens during the Olympics, visits again the city and confronts the traffic congestion will probably be disappointed (R9).

In terms of sport development, an official underlined: The Olympics aimed to put us on the map as a sporting nation. The new facilities lifted our profile and can be used for training and international events. To a degree that however it’s difficult to evaluate I think they helped us to have significant victories in sports such as the EURO 2004 [y] and basically they improved the infrastructure and know-how in managing important sport events (R8).

Another respondent mentioned the Olympic Education Program (OEP) that was initiated in all Greek school levels in 2000: With the Olympics there was the OEP in schools, which I believe it raised awareness and cultivated an Olympic sporting culture by promoting the values and spirit of Olympism to the kids (R5).

While the impact of the OEP is questionable, there is some evidence about its contribution as a source of pedagogical ideas. Specifically, the OEP taught students the history of the Olympics, the values of sports (e.g. fair play, respect for co-athletes, etc.), the importance of Olympics for Greece, the significance of volunteerism, and the role of exercise in health (Grammatikopoulos et al., 2005). As Smith (2009) pointed out, this illustrates the power of major events to act as “hooks” that can generate support for wider regeneration projects and thus the value of OEP can be viewed from this standpoint. Despite the failure and ineffectiveness of the Greek tourism policy, the service quality, and the differentiation of the Greek tourism product were enhanced satisfactorily through the Olympics, which contributed to the enrichment of Athens’ product mix, its athletic infrastructure, and its international profile as a sporting city. In terms of sport tourism development, an interviewee summarized the forms of sport tourism that Athens has been able to offer in its tourism product mix: There have been some developments in sport tourism with the opportunity of the Olympic Games. First, Athens has achieved to host some other international events taking into advantage its know-how and international exposure as an Olympic city. It also attracted teams for training in its [Olympic] facilities. Luxury sport tourism was significantly enhanced with the renovated hotels and the attendant services provided. Also, recreational sport activities like yachting, golf, and diving have been improved and offered as complementary activities in the city’s tourism product (R9).

The potential for harnessing Athens’ Olympic legacy is also related to the city’s heritage that was highly enriched due to the Olympics. According to Kissoudi (2010), the quality of life in Athens was improved and projected further its athletic, economic, and cultural deposits. The enrichment of heritage was both tangible and intangible. The Olympics enhanced the residents’ pride for Athens. As one respondent indicated: “During the Games the residents of Athens were proud for their city and its heritage. This feeling lasted also after the Games, but I believe it is fading now” (R9). Even

worse, the difficult time that Greece currently faces due to the economic problems prevent the opportunity to realize the potential of Olympic legacy. There is a need to utilize the venues in sport tourism development since there is a clear comparative advantage: a rich history and a unique infrastructure and heritage. Overall, the Olympics despite the economic, social, and environmental burdens they caused, in terms of tourism development helped in the city’s re-imaging and upgrading of its infrastructure (Asprogerakas, 2007; Kavaratzis, 2008; Kissoudi, 2008). However, the lack of strategic planning about the post-Olympic use of the newly constructed facilities (Beriatos, 2006; Gospodini, 2009; Zifou et al., 2004) has also led to an inability to develop a competitive post-Olympic tourism product (Weed, 2008). Opportunities and challenges for sport tourism development The organization of the Olympics provided to Athens a range of state-of-the-art venues and facilities for sport and tourism usage (Asprogerakas, 2007; Gospodini, 2009). As a respondent explained: The Olympics offered to the city new sport venues and they contributed to the renovation of many other athletic facilities such as the Olympic Complex, the Hellenikon Complex or the coastal zone of Faliron (R7).

The Olympics was a unique opportunity for Athens to upgrade its infrastructure. As Malfas et al. (2004, p. 215) argued: “The impact of the Games on the physical environment includes the building of new sport facilities, accommodation, changes to the look of the city, and transport links as well as industrial space.” In this regard, the venues are the “raw material” for the development of high-quality sport tourism, while the whole city’s infrastructure has been renovated facilitating the comprehensive development of sport tourism forms. It is also evident that according to the plans of the government during and after the Olympics, the venues were scheduled to primarily accommodate, among others, sport uses (Official Gazette of the Government, 2005). Another opportunity derived from the Games was the effective/efficient know-how in event management. As Potsiou and Zentelis (2005, p. 20) stated: “As it has happened in other hosting countries, too, the international assistance from other countries especially in the fields of planning know-how and technology was necessary and successful, too.” Athens’ organizational bodies shared knowledge and best practices with other organizers of mega-events and therefore, developed valuable insight. In this respect, it is an opportunity for the city to adapt these practices for the future development and promotion of sport tourism. The venues and the know-how exist. It is a matter of entrepreneurship and effective management for proceeding to the diversification of Athens’ tourism product. Along with the infrastructure of the city, there was also an improvement in its tourism structure. Even though the number of accommodation units in Attica was not increased significantly, there was an upgrade in terms of their service quality and many of them were fully renovated (Tsartas et al., 2008). As a respondent indicated: “Many tourist businesses were upgraded prior to the Games in order to offer services of much better quality than the past and be more competitive” (R6). Given the demanding nature of sport tourists for increased service quality, Athens has a unique chance to meet their expectations. Finally, one of the most significant comparative advantages of Athens for developing sport tourism is its natural resources, and especially the sea. As a responded mentioned: “The Olympic venues that are related to sea and water sports

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have the greatest potential to be used for sport tourism successfully” (R4). In this respect, Athens could be an ideal urban destination that combines culture, good weather, shopping, and the appropriate environment for sea/water-based sport tourism activities. For example, a respondent mentioned the marina of Aghios Kosmas: The marina has a 1,000 yachts (of more than 10 meters length) capacity and has the potential for the construction of a luxury hotel. The marina is the “diamond of the crown” that the Olympics left behind. It is a tourist marina and the gate of Athens from the South for many yachts (R7).

Similarly, another respondent indicated as a significant sport tourism destination the marina of the Faliron Olympic Coastal Zone Complex: Despite that the marina in Faliron Zone was never used for the Olympics, it has the potential to be used for sport tourism and it has already hosted sport crews that arrived there for training at the Aegean Sea [y] However, this was of small scale (R8).

Why then does this potential remain unrealized? The city faces a number of challenges that hinder the development of sport tourism. The main problem for the city as well as for the whole country is the current economic crisis that leads to persistent social problems and negatively affects the potential for development. However, the crisis also brings forth the need for rapid decisions in order the comparative advantages of the city to be fully used for its faster recovery. According to a respondent: The economic crisis put many of the plans for developing post-Olympic Athens in the drawer. However, we need to act fast and according to a specific plan in order to fully use the Olympic legacy (R5).

The respondents agreed that the construction of large venues created an unbearable maintenance cost. For this reason, these venues should also be used for other purposes. It was argued: The facilities can be used effectively for sport tourism purposes but only in combination with other recreational uses. Because of their size the cost to maintain them is huge and the revenues from sport tourism are not enough to cover their operation and maintenance. For example, we have suggested some of the facilities to be used also for paintball, yachting, and as theme parks (R7).

And: Change of land use is the key for the [post-Olympic] use of the facilities. It is impossible all of them to be used for athletic purposes especially in sports that are not popular in Greece. Also, we cannot cover the cost of maintenance. Changing their land use for other purposes such as conferences and parks we can combine the development of sport tourism with other elements of Athens’ tourism product (R8).

Indeed, the plans for the post-Olympic development of the venues in Athens and their implementation have been dramatically delayed. Consequently, many of the opportunities mentioned earlier in this section are lost. As a respondent stated: The post-Olympic use of the venues for sport tourism and other types of tourism in general is still behind the schedule [7 years after the Games]. There are still cases where we still don’t know how the venues will be used. Unless we act fast we won’t be able to maintain the Olympic facilities. For this reason many of them are still closed (R9).

Additionally, the lack of a strategic plan concerning how each venue should be used and by whom (Beriatos, 2006; Zifou et al., 2004) raises problems regarding the

efficiency of the tourism policy to develop a holistic post-Olympic product (Weed, 2008). Moreover, the questionable development of Athens’ assets regarding sustainability standards is also highlighted. As Tziralis et al. (2006, p. 26) stated: The sustainability of the Games’ impact could be further documented by the permanent nature of the facilities used for staging the Games. Out of the 1.975 billion h spent for the renovation or construction of Olympic facilities, only 10.2% concerned temporal facilities.

Although the permanent nature of Olympic venues could justify their long-term utilization, there have not been significant attempts toward achieving their sustainable management. As one respondent indicated: “Many stadia are closed and I don’t know if the plans back then are still valid today” (R7) or “The permanent properties were built without knowing what will happen after the Games. That’s why many of the venues are still closed” (R8). Another respondent stated the lack of collaboration between interested parties for using the facilities in tourism development: There were cases where decisions were hindered because of bureaucratic schemes or other times where the dialogue between ministries, local communities, and other stakeholders led to a dead end (R6).

As a result, the framework of the post-Olympic use of the Olympic venues not only for sport tourism but also for other uses appears to be problematic. Given the problems that Greece currently faces, there is an urgent need to formulate and implement a strategic plan for their future use for tourism purposes. Discussion and implications The findings of this study indicate that Athens responds to the diverse needs, problems, and opportunities of its tourism industry with ad hoc policies dealing with particular issues. These individual ad hoc responses to tourism opportunities and problems may merely provide short-term solutions to essentially long-term problems (Jenkins, 1994). Buhalis (2001) has previously identified the need for Greece to adopt a long overdue master plan and comprehensive tourism policy. This call, which is still relevant and largely unrealized, would provide the strategic direction and management tools for cities and regions in Greece to devise their own tourism strategies. Within this context, Athens should analyze its resources and adapt its strategic planning accordingly by utilizing its post-Olympic assets and establishing inter-sectoral linkages between sport and tourism providers that are compatible with their economic, social, and environmental needs. Thus, Athens’ destination capitals should be leveraged through strategies aimed at generating a flow of benefits and optimizing the returns to the city. The organization of the Olympics illustrates the adoption of a neo-liberal policy by Greece and associated application of globalized free-market practices. Maloutas et al. (2009) argued that the neo-liberal urban planning doctrine as applied to the case of Athens’ weak planning/policy resulted in an exclusively consumption-oriented cultural economy with low internationalization, while the dispersed localization of Olympic venues have reproduced the pathogenies of Athenian symbolic economy and spatial structure. In this regard, it is imperative for Athens to re-orientate planning actions toward economic restructuring associated with flexibility of production, high capital mobility, and the growth of tertiary activities (Cooke, 1986). The position of Komilis (1994) illustrates that the Greek regional planning, organizational, and coordinating functions are in need of better instruments, mechanisms, and management systems capable of removing constraints that give rise to policy divergences and conflict

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situations among various actors. In redressing these structural weaknesses, the tourism administration in Athens needs to reorganize the city’s tourism productservice mix. Within this context and considering the economic crisis that currently affects Athens’ economic and social life, ways to exploit the Olympic legacy need to be explored. One way for doing so, is by building partnerships between the public and private sectors to enable the leveraging of the Olympic legacy. Through these partnerships benefits for both sides are evident such as the allocation of the risk (Roumboutsos and Anagnostopoulos, 2008) where the Greek public sector can operate in a regulatory and legal context and the private sector can deal with the maintenance, financing, and management skills (Tomadaki, n.d.). According to Furrer (2002), forms of public-private partnerships can lead to the acceleration of public investment decisions. Public-private partnerships for leveraging the Olympic built heritage of Athens could become a valuable means for escaping the grave situation of the economic recession. The establishment of public-private partnerships should be placed on a sustainable development framework for sharing and dispersing the social, economic, and environmental impacts/benefits among all stakeholder groups. This study shows that there is limited awareness by Athens’ officials and tourism policy makers to develop sport tourism as a distinct market and subsequently there is not a strategic plan of the tourism policy to integrate the sport and tourism sectors. Given the inherent weaknesses of Athens’ tourism policy, the sustainable diversification/enrichment of the city’s tourism product is a challenging task. The inertia in leveraging the post-Olympic assets needs to be urgently redressed in order for Athens to harness their potential. Since Athens has followed the post-industrial trajectory of a consumption-oriented cultural economy, the way ahead is to effectively develop these sectors of the economy. To do so, Athens needs to capitalize upon its Olympic legacy by developing a portfolio of sport and cultural events. An event portfolio strategy can reach a wide range of audiences and thus attract extensive tourism visitation (Chalip, 2004; Chalip and Costa, 2005; Getz, 2005, 2008; Ziakas, 2010; Ziakas and Costa, 2011a, b). This requires cities to think holistically about events and by organizing and managing their event portfolios effectively, they can move from being cities with events to become “eventful cities” (Richards and Palmer, 2010). In terms of sustainability, leveraging strategies for events should generate and retain revenues locally and thus assist the long-term viability of local business (Smith, 2009), while protecting the social and environmental integrity of the host city. On this basis, a comprehensive sport tourism development strategy in Athens can develop other types of sport tourist products that would enhance its distinctiveness and authenticity as a destination. Higham and Hinch (2009) argue that sport-based tourist attractions have unique qualities that facilitate authentic tourism experiences including the uncertainty of outcomes, the role of athletic display, the kinesthetic nature of sport activities, and the tendency for strong engagements in sport. These characteristics of sport can protect and (re)construct the cultural authenticity of a destination. As such, the Olympic legacy provides added value to the sport-based tourist attractions that Athens can develop by using its post-Olympic assets for sport tourism development. A strategy toward sport tourism development The Olympics provided Athens with a significant number of sport venues and facilities (for the complete list see Boukas et al., 2012b). One year after hosting the Games the

Greek Government introduced a statute about the sustainable development and social utilization of the Olympic infrastructure, underlying the importance of the venues for the future use in sport activities (Official Gazette of the Government, 2005). In terms of sport tourism, Table II illustrates those Athens’ post-Olympic facilities with the potential to be used as significant resources for the development of sport tourism. In order to leverage Athens’ Olympic legacy and venues, this study proposes in Figure 1 a sport tourism development strategy for Athens. To realize this strategy, the public sector should establish partnerships with private organizations. The joint planning of sport tourism as a niche market needs to formulate a strategy aimed to accomplish the following objectives: (1)

the coordinated development of tourism with all sport activities and the resolution of the unavoidable conflicts arising out of their demand for common property resources (land, air, water);

(2)

the strategic integration of sport and tourism and further diversification of the sport tourism industry; and

(3)

a balanced distribution of sport tourism’s benefits and disbenefits according to sustainability principles.

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These objectives could be incorporated in a new legal framework, providing the mechanisms to enable the implementation of all the initiatives via cooperation between sport and tourism providers. As the findings of this study indicate, there are a number of opportunities for the development of sport tourism in post-Olympic Athens, which, however, are offset by a series of challenges. The opportunities include the multi-dimensional Olympic legacy, the state-of-the-art Olympic facilities and venues, the improved tourism superstructure, the know-how in event management, the variety of complementary cultural tourist activities, and Athens’ natural resources, especially the sea. These constitute the destination’s capitals, resources, and assets that need to be exploited by Athens’ tourism policy. However, the lack of strategic planning and the non-differentiation of the city’s tourism product hinder its competitiveness. The size and cost of facilities places a burden on the city for their maintenance, especially as long as they remain underutilized. Moreover, ineffective marketing and weak financial operations constrain the quality of Athens’ tourism product. These challenges are exacerbated by the

Facility Athens Olympic Sports Complex Hellenikon Olympic Complex Schinias Olympic Rowing and Canoeing Centre Aghios Kosmas Olympic Sailing Center

Sport tourism activities/events Complementary tourism offerings/events (in 2004 and future use) (in 2004 and future use) Athletics, basketball, swimming/water sports, tennis, indoor cycling Baseball/softball, hockey, canoe/kayak, handball, fencing Canoe/kayak, rowing Sailing events

Parks and promenades, convention halls, exhibition halls, commercial shops, cafes, restaurants Parks and promenades, convention halls, exhibition halls Parks and promenades, convention halls, exhibition halls Parks and promenades, convention halls, exhibition halls

Table II. Athens’ post-Olympic facilities as assets for sport tourism development

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Objectives 1. Coordinate the development of tourism with sport activities and resolve conflicts 2.Integrate strategically sport and tourism and diversify the sport tourism industry 3. Distribute equally sport tourism’s impacts

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Opportunities

Challenges

1. Multi-dimensional Olympic legacy

1. Lack of strategic planning and nondifferentiation of the city’s tourism product

2. State-of-the-art facilities

2. Size and cost of facilities

3. Improved tourism superstructure

3. Ineffective marketing and weak financial operation

4. Know-how in event management

4. Economic crisis

5. Variety of complementary cultural tourist activities

5. Lack of comprehensive tourism policy and decrease of competitiveness due to structural weaknesses and mass tourism

6. Natural resources and sea

6. Seasonality and damage to the environment resulting from unrestricted tourism activities

Strategic sport tourism actions Develop an event portfolio Broaden the spectrum of sport tourism products and services available Bundle sport tourism products with other main or complementary tourism activities and attractions Privatize via leasing and investment schemes Establish a climate of confidence and stability Control and ensure that services are delivered according to promised standards Update legislation to respond to the needs of sport tourism’s providers and consumers Safeguard the environment and promote sustainable sport tourism Disperse sport tourism impacts to central and peripheral areas Refocus on cultural and traditional characteristics (heritage, customs, architecture, etc.)

Form an integrated joint marketing strategy for sport tourism

Figure 1. Strategic planning for sport tourism in Athens

Diversified, differentiated and competitive sport tourism

economic crisis that bedevils the whole country. In addition, the lack of comprehensive tourism policy and the continuous decrease of Athens’ competitiveness due to structural weaknesses, mass tourism, seasonality, and damage to the environment resulting from unrestricted tourism activities, deteriorate the status and conditions of the city’s tourism industry. Based on the analysis of Athens’ opportunities and challenges for sport tourism development a number of strategic actions can be implemented. Athens needs to develop an event portfolio using the Olympic facilities and capitalizing on Olympic legacy. All types of sport tourism need to be developed in order to broaden the spectrum of sport tourism products and services available. The different sport tourism products can be bundled with other main or complementary tourism activities and attractions to reach different target markets. The government should privatize the Olympic venues via leasing and investment schemes as well as seeking to establish a climate of confidence and stability in the tourism industry. In terms of service quality, Athens’ administration needs to establish appropriate mechanisms to control and ensure that services are delivered according to promised standards. All these actions require updated legislation to respond to the needs of sport tourism’s providers and consumers. To achieve sustainability, tourism policy should safeguard the environment and disperse sport tourism impacts to central and peripheral areas. Also, to make distinctive Athens’ post-Olympic tourism product, the city should refocus on its cultural and traditional characteristics (such as heritage, customs, and architecture). Finally, these strategic actions should be coordinated through the formation of an integrated joint marketing strategy for sport tourism, which can eventually lead to the creation of a diversified, differentiated, and competitive sport tourism product. Conclusion and directions for future research This study aimed to ignite interest in Athens’ prospects to become a sport tourism destination, and by examining the associated challenges and opportunities suggests how Athens can move forward. The strategic planning scheme attempts to incorporate all the required elements of a sustainable framework envisaging the creation of synergies between the sport and tourism sectors in Athens. This framework contains the objectives of a planning scheme for sport tourism, the opportunities and challenges, and the strategic actions that should be taken accordingly. In addition, the need for an integrated joint marketing strategy for sport tourism is highlighted in order Athens to develop a diversified, differentiated, and competitive sport tourism product. The case of Athens and its planning failures provide insights for other Olympic cities that aim to harness their Olympic legacy and assets by raising the question of how the underutilized Olympic assets can be leveraged. As Figure 2 shows, the development of a sustainable Olympic tourism product depends on the efficacy with which the Olympic legacy and the destination capitals are cross-leveraged in the postGames period. This calls for the need to pay more attention to leveraging after the end of the Olympics. The leveraging of major events does not end with the completion of an event but there should be post-event leveraging programs implemented to attain sustainable outcomes. Sustainability can become the core constituent in the process of leveraging the event legacy and destination capitals. There is a need for negotiated trade-offs among all stakeholders to form a consensus for the distribution of benefits and dispersal of impacts that accrue from the implementation of cross-leveraging

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310 Figure 2. Post-event leverage for creating sustainable postOlympic tourism products

Efficacy?

Efficacy?

Post-games leverage

Olympic legacy

Negotiated trade-offs

Destination capitals

Sustainability

Post-olympic tourism product

strategies. This consensus can be realistically reached if post-event leverage is based on the employment of joint strategies that aim to obtain and maximize benefits in accordance with the objectives of tourism development, contingent upon the destination’s environmental carrying capacity as well as economic and social needs. In this context, policies for sport tourism development can create synergies with other forms of tourism that optimize their benefits to the destination. Therefore, this study stresses the need to develop a broader planning and leveraging framework for Olympic host cities that incorporates sport tourism into its scope and extends leveraging in the post-Games period. Specifically, tourism planning should build sport programs and activities tied to the Olympic assets and facilities. The leveraging of the Olympic legacy for sport tourism development represents a relatively unexplored pillar of potential post-Olympic initiatives, aimed to foster tourism development in the long run after the end of the Games. Consequently, this brings forth the potential of embedding the leveraging of post-Olympic tourism in the sustainable development agendas of Olympic cities and creating cross-leveraging synergies among different forms of tourism such as sport and cultural tourism (Boukas et al., 2012b). In conclusion, the post-Olympic period provides a unique context for examining the potential use of Olympic facilities and legacy from a sustainability perspective. Future research is needed to investigate the means to leverage the Olympic legacy and assets for sustainable sport tourism development. In this context, the processes and outcomes of leveraging Olympic destination capitals need to be delineated to help destination managers devise comprehensive sport tourism planning and policies. Similarly, the potential of an event portfolio to become a tool for the sustainable development of Olympic cities as sport tourism destinations needs to be examined. This line of inquiry can also help identify ways to foster synergies of sport tourism with other forms of tourism in order to optimize the derived benefits to an Olympic destination and develop sustainable post-Olympic tourism products. References Andranovich, G., Burbank, M.J. and Heying, C.H. (2001), “Olympic cities: lessons learned from mega-event politics”, Journal of Urban Affairs, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 113-31. Apostolopoulou, A. and Papadimitriou, D. (2004), “Welcome home’: motivations and objectives of the 2004 Grand National Olympic sponsors”, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 180-92.

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Leveraging tourism social capital: the case of the 2010 Olympic tourism consortium Peter W. Williams and Aliaa Elkhashab

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Centre for Tourism Policy and Research, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore social capital emerging from the collective set of activities pursued by a network of stakeholders leveraging tourism benefits from the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games (the Games). Design/methodology/approach – A case study of an Olympic tourism consortium (the Consortium) established to garner tourism benefits from the Games illustrates the forms of social capital development emerging from this initiative. A three-phased research process involving a literature review, key informant interviews with Consortium stakeholders, and a follow-up on-line survey with these representatives informs the study’s data collection and analysis process. Aspects of bonding, bridging and linking social capital creation are examined. Findings – Varying levels of confidence, trust, mutual respect, personal ties, shared values, and human capacity were generated through the Consortium’s activities. This social capital was perceived as a valuable but fragile legacy capable of nurturing increased leadership and organizational capacity particularly when tackling issues confronting the industry’s overall sustained prosperity. They also felt that the value and momentum of the social capital legacy might be imperiled by a limited appreciation of how to effectively activate it in a post-Games environment. Practical implications – Insights are provided into the social capital that networks of stakeholders can generate when working collectively to leverage benefits from sport mega-events such as the Games. Originality/value – The research contributes to emerging discussions concerning social capital leveraging in tourism related sport mega-event management settings. Keywords Social capital, Olympic Games, Legacy momentum, Tourism, Sporting events, Canada Paper type Research paper

Introduction Despite the Olympic Games not being specifically designed as tourism mega-events by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), they are increasingly positioned by local proponents as “once in a life time” opportunities to bolster the host destination’s competitiveness in the global tourism marketplace. Even in the face of mixed tourism outcomes, a stream of rhetoric persists which suggests the Olympic Games (the Games) are useful vehicles for leveraging immediate and potentially longer term benefits for the host destination. Those most frequently heralded include tangible improvements in tourism supporting infrastructure (e.g. transportation systems, accommodation, attractions, communication systems, sports venues, etc.), along with escalations in Games – time tourist visitor flows and related economic expenditures. Longer term tourism legacies noted by Games proponents also include increased levels of travel market awareness, destination interest and tourist flows stimulated by Games-time media coverage of the mega-event and its host community. The measurement of such tangible benefits is becoming increasingly sophisticated, and the leveraged outcomes vary from one edition of the Games to the next (Cashman, 2003).

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Games proponents also suggest that hosting the Games generates a range of less tangible social legacies (e.g. community pride, receptiveness, volunteerism, entrepreneurism) that spike during the mega-event’s delivery and provide a foundation for extended community social interaction and synergy (MacRury and Poytner, 2009). Some of this translates into community support and contributions to other festivals and events that include tourism components. Research clearly indicates that the extent to which such tangible and intangible tourism benefits emerge and last as positive legacies is situation dependent (Chappelet, 2003; Essex and Chalkley, 2003; Hiller, 1998, 2003; O’Brien, 2006; Preuss, 2007). Indeed, the presence and lasting power of Olympic legacies varies from city to city and depends on the organizational context in which the Games are delivered. The legacies emerging from the Games can be positive or negative, intended or unintended, costly or inexpensive, planned or unplanned as well as popular or unpopular depending on how the mega-event is managed (Preuss, 2007; Chalip, 2002). This paper suggests that the collective set of processes, interactions and activities pursued by stakeholders to strategically leverage benefits from the Games can lead to potentially positive social capital legacies for the host destination’s tourism industry. In this context and building on more generic interpretations (Woolcock, 2001; Onyx, 2005), social capital refers to the degree of shared trust, mutual understanding and respect generated or lost among stakeholders collectively working to leverage tourism legacies from the Games. Legacies refer to the lasting effects of the social relations and networks developed (Preuss, 2007). The research contributes to emerging discussions concerning social capital development in tourism contexts in general (McGhee et al., 2010) and mega-event settings in particular. It explores the extent to which different types of social capital emerged from activities pursued by stakeholders participating in a unique 2010 Olympic Tourism Consortium (the Consortium) formed specifically to leverage tourism benefits from the Games. It examines this social capital from the perspectives of those Consortium members involved in the organization’s planning and program delivery activities. Social capital concepts Social capital is a concept and management asset explored in many contexts including urban and regional development, health science, social policy, criminology, business studies, sustainable development and natural resources management (Field, 2008; Rydin and Holman, 2004; Schuller et al., 2000; Serageldin and Grootaert, 2000; Dale, 2005). However, investigations into its character and role in tourism and/or mega-event management contexts are limited (McGhee et al., 2010). Foundational concepts of social capital are traceable to specific theorists. Each offers distinct but complementary perspectives on what constitutes social capital’s dimensions and utility. For Bourdieu and Wacquant, social capital is a resource or asset gained by stakeholders working in networks characterized by relatively durable relationships of “mutual acquaintance and recognition” (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992, p. 119, quoted in Field, 2008, p. 17). Coleman (1994) suggests that social capital exists within networks and facilitates actions by stakeholders within the structure. Often it is an indirect and unintentional by-product of interaction processes that provide a base and rationale for reciprocity, shared norms and sanctions on “free riders”. In its positive form, social capital motivates individuals to work cooperatively for mutual gain (Coleman, 1988). Putnam (1995) further defines social capital as being a by product of the “[y] features of social life-networks, norms and trust that enable

participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives” (Putnam, 1995, p. 67). Through the shared bonds of norms, values, reciprocity and trust nurtured within these networks, increased flows of information, resources and collective action can emerge. Building on these concepts and other related social capital perspectives (Grootaert, 1998; Fukuyama, 1995; Portes, 1998; Woolcock, 2001), this paper examines the character of social capital created as an off-shoot of initiatives taken by the Consortium, a formal network of stakeholders created to leverage tourism benefits from the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games. It explores this social capital from the perspectives of those Consortium stakeholders who participated in the organization, strategic planning and programming of this network’s activities. Social capital in this context refers to the levels of engagement, trust, cooperation, shared norms, knowledge, power and a sense of common futures created as a result of the collective activities of the Consortium stakeholders (Cohen and Prusak, 2001). Social capital types Three forms of social capital are commonly associated with the social networks of organizations. Depending on circumstances, they play varying roles (Grootaert et al., 2004; Schuller et al., 2000). Bonding social capital refers to the “inward looking” ties or relationships built between people within a common geographic, cultural, demographic or institutional unit (Putnam, 2000; Woolcock, 2001). In this study’s research, bonding social capital refers to the capital nurtured between individual destination marketing organization (DMO) co-workers as a result of their Consortiumrelated responsibilities. Bridging social capital refers to the “outward looking” connections of people within organizations that might not have previously interacted with each other (Putnam, 2000; Schuller et al., 2000). In this research, it encompasses the linkages and relationships developed with Consortium members from other DMOs as a result of their participation in the network’s activities. Such connections are typically created when individuals realize that the collective capacities of all participating organizations are needed to attain the anticipated goals of the collective. Bridging social capital helps network members attract and capitalize on the intellectual, human and financial resources of stakeholders beyond their own organization. When these connections help cultivate feelings of trust, connections, cooperation and reciprocity that are essential ingredients for collective action (Estlund, 2003). Linking social capital (Woolcock, 2001) refers to those connections that extend beyond immediate social network stakeholders to institutions possessing different types and scales of power and resources needed to attain desired goals (Grootaert et al., 2004; Rydin and Holman, 2004). In this study, it refers to those relationships developed among Consortium members with strategically important non-tourism focussed Olympic stakeholders (e.g. the Vancouver Olympic Organizing Committee (VANOC), the IOC and other members of the IOC “family” including media, sponsors, sport organizations, etc.). Social capital’s effects Depending on how it is nurtured, social capital can be viewed as being “neutral,” “good/useful” or “bad/harmful” by network stakeholders (Dale, 2005; Field, 2008; Halpern, 2005; Krishna, 2000; Ramos-Pinto, 2006). As a neutral resource, it is a

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malleable phenomenon whose eventual effects are shaped by how it is managed and used (Coleman, 1988). Social capital can help generate positive outcomes for network members. It can enhance the ability of otherwise diverse groups of stakeholders to work together on project specific tasks (Evans and Carson, 2005); increase the collective sharing of technical, operational, administrative, financial, entrepreneurial and other strategic resources (Koka and Prescott, 2002); reduce the transaction costs associated with organizing and delivering specific programs (McGrath and Sparks, 2005); and facilitate ongoing co-operative community initiatives (Putnam, 1995). In contrast, it can also generate negative outcomes. For instance, it can lead to exclusive networks that reduce opportunities for the involvement of others; compliance protocols that constrain individual stakeholders from pursuing opportunities beyond the direct concern to the network participants; pressures to comply with network values and actions that do not align with individual stakeholder norms; and, entrapment in negative collective group actions that by association can lower individual stakeholder reputation (Field, 2008; Grootaert et al., 2004; Woolcock and Narayan, 2001; Kilduff and Tsai, 2003). The capacity of social capital to continue on a specific trajectory is referred to as its legacy momentum (Poytner and MacRury, 2009). Several factors reportedly shape the legacy momentum of social capital. For instance, in an Olympic event management context, these include the development of complementary post-Games opportunities to re-deploy and reinforce protocols, practices and relationships developed during the mega-event; and the purposeful post-event documentation and sharing of lessons learned from network participation during the Games (London Assembly, 2007). It is with the preceding dimensions of social capital in mind that this study explores the character of social capital developed through the activities of the Consortium’s network of stakeholders. The overall findings contribute to the call for research that “anchors the learning or relationships engendered by the Games” (Chalip, 2002, p. 16). Case study context and focus In July of 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, won the bid to host the 2010 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games (the Games). This achievement captured the attention of numerous government, industry and community groups interested in using the momentum and reach of the Games to secure benefits for their stakeholders. Not the least of those interested groups were several DMOs operating in the Vancouver region. They felt that the Games offered unprecedented opportunities to strengthen the region’s global tourism competitiveness. In response to this opportunity, the BC government identified the Games as a vehicle for leveraging a range of tourism infrastructure and market growth opportunities. The strategic intent was to use the ten-year Games’ ramp-up, delivery and wrap-up period to accelerate tourism’s growth to levels that might not be otherwise attainable over several future decades (Tourism British Columbia (TBC), 2003). TBC, the province’s lead DMO, was charged with using the Games as a “once in a life-time” opportunity to: increase media, travel trade and visitor awareness of tourism possibilities in BC; fill excess tourism industry capacity; promote BC’s existing tourism products and experiences; and ultimately convert expanded market awareness into increased tourism visits and revenues (TBC, 2003). TBC’s initial interactions with the host VANOC quickly confirmed that from the IOC’s perspective, the Games were ostensibly a sports spectacle driven by overriding

concerns that had little to do with tourism priorities. While VANOC representatives saw potential synergies eventually emerging between themselves and tourism stakeholders, they quickly expressed that tourism was not a priority concern for them. Furthermore, VANOC indicated that without a coordinated “single vision and voice” approach for communicating tourism’s collective needs and opportunities to them, it was unlikely that substantive Olympic tourism opportunities would emerge. Recognizing this reality, TBC led the creation of the Consortium in 2005. It was an unprecedented formal collaborative partnership of Games hosting DMOs and a supporting cast of government stakeholders. The core DMOs were TBC, Tourism Vancouver, Tourism Whistler, Tourism Richmond and the Canadian Tourism Commission. The supporting government stakeholders were the BC Ministry of Tourism, Culture and the Arts; the Olympic and Paralympic Games Secretariat; the City of West Vancouver; as well as representatives from other government funded organizations affecting tourism leveraging opportunities (e.g. 2010 Legacies Now; Olympic Torch Relay communities). The DMOs provided the vision, administrative and organizational support for the strategic planning and programming activities that ensued. The Consortium’s guiding frame included a consensus-based set of guiding principles and a comprehensive Joint Tourism Olympic Strategy (JTOS). Both were collectively crafted and managed by the DMO partners. The Consortium’s guiding principles comprised what essentially became a code of conduct for stakeholder collaborations both within and beyond the Consortium’s immediate network. Some of these principles focussed on foregoing individual member opportunities in the interest of broader goals. Others dealt with procedural protocols associated with the planning and execution of JTOS programs and tactics. In combination the guiding principles laid the foundation of trust and buy-in needed by the Consortium members to proceed with the collective development and eventual implementation of the JTOS. A Consortium’s Steering Committee comprised of senior representatives from each of the DMOs led the creation of the JTOS. The JTOS’s overall goals were to: .

Increase consumer awareness of Vancouver, Whistler, British Columbia and Canada as tourism destinations and hosts of the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in key markets world-wide, through unpaid media coverage.

.

Raise awareness of Vancouver, Whistler, British Columbia and Canada as yearround tourism destinations among the travel trade.

.

Leverage government’s investment in the BC Canada Pavilion in Beijing 2008 to reach, build relations and learn lessons from key media, travel trade, high-yield visitor markets.

To develop and execute the JTOS, the Consortium created ten functionally themed working groups. All were comprised of representatives from each DMO. Each was responsible for developing and guiding the implementation of their portion of the JTOS. All plans were vetted and refined based on how well they aligned with the organization’s overall goals, other working group action plans and available resources. Strategic leveraging strategies and related tactics were eventually executed with respect to: media relations, travel trade, research and measurement, visitor services, Olympic sponsor, Olympic torch relay, sport tourism, destination branding, consumer marketing, as well as community and regional event planning.

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Through these collaborative activities, the Consortium stakeholders collectively accomplished a wide variety of tourism outcomes. These ranged from leveraging previously unattainable levels of media coverage, to heightened travel trade development (Pricewaterhouse Coopers, 2010), to unprecedented levels of collaboration between what were previously and ostensibly highly competitive organizations. This paper’s case study explores the characteristics of the social capital created as a result of the collaborations among the Consortium members during the pre-Games “ramp-up” period. Research methods Research design The overarching purpose of the investigation was to determine the character of social capital developed through the Consortium’s activities. A three-phased research process involving a literature review, key informant interviews with Consortium stakeholders and a follow-up on-line survey with these same representatives informed the study’s design and subsequent analysis phases. Initially, a review of pertinent social capital, event management and tourism-related Olympic impact literature provided the rationale, guiding framework and focus for the questions explored in the study. Topics explored included the influence of network policies and procedures, operating culture, working atmosphere, transparency, information sharing and group cohesion in shaping social capital. It also helped identify approaches to identifying and measuring various types of social capital (Edwards, 2004; Franke, 2005; Grootaert and Bastelaer, 2002; Krishna and Shrader, 2002; Grootaert et al., 2004; Onyx and Bullen, 2000). A series of face-to-face interviews with select Consortium members constituted the second phase of the investigation. Overall, 18 of the Consortium’s executive committee and/or working group leaders were targeted for participation. Due to scheduling and other personal commitments, three of these personnel were unable to participate. The remaining 15 were all intimately involved with various aspects of the Consortium’s pre-Games preparations for over 2.5 years. As such, they were well positioned to elaborate on various aspects of social capital development relevant to this study. All 15 key informants were interviewed in the late spring or summer of 2009, about six to nine months prior to the Games. The interviews were organized around several social capital themes emanating from the literature. Open-ended questions related to these themes guided the interview process, and helped solicit insights into aspects of social capital development central to the Consortium’s context (Hague and Morgan, 2004). The informants provided valuable information (e.g. examples, issues, experiences) about the overriding interactions, relationships and outcomes emerging from Consortium-catalyzed activities. Their comments also assisted in framing the ensuing on-line survey conducted in the third phase of the research. The third phase of the research was conducted via an on-line survey administered about two weeks after all of the face-to-face interviews were completed. It involved the same informants. Unlike its more qualitative predecessor, the on-line survey focussed on soliciting quantifiable measures of the extent to which specific structural and cognitive dimensions of social capital were apparent in the Consortium’s stakeholder network. Structural dimension questions were centered on determining the incidence, frequency and diversity of Consortium stakeholder interactions. Cognitive dimensions of the Consortium’s social capital were measured through

Likert-type questions. These queries probed the extent of stakeholder agreement/ disagreement with various social capital statements, as well as their impressions of the level of increase/decrease in various aspects of this resource. Data analysis Qualitative data emanating from the first phase key informants interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim and categorized based on their relevance to the overriding research questions. Key quotations and examples emanating from this process were then selected and used to help contextualize and/or elaborate on specific social capital dimensions measured in the on-line survey phase of the study. Frequency counts summarized the on-line survey data collected. When triangulated with the qualitative information generated in the key informant interview phase of this research, these counts helped deepen the researchers’ appreciation of the nature and trajectory of the Consortium’s social capital.

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Findings The following sections describe key informant perspectives on the character of the Consortium’s social capital. Emphasis is placed on identifying various dimensions of bonding, bridging and linking social capital emerging from the Consortium’s tourism networking activities, as well as the extent to which this legacy is perceived to have momentum. Bonding social capital Bonding social capital referred to the extent to which the Consortium’s activities contributed to increased positive co-worker interaction within each participating DMO. Several indicators related to co-worker relationships and personnel development were explored. DMO co-worker relationships. Six indicators were used to capture respondents’ perspectives concerning the extent to which co-worker relationships had increased. On average, respondents felt that these relationships had somewhat or greatly increased due to their DMO related Consortium responsibilities (Table I). These impressions varied according by indicator. For instance, 12 of the respondents felt that the Consortium-related initiatives led to somewhat or greatly increased levels of interaction and information sharing between people in various departments in

Social capital dimension: co-worker relationship

GI

No. of respondents SI RS SD

Information sharing and interactions with other business units/departments in this DMO Interactions with DMO people beyond the workplace Information sharing with respect to professional contacts Trust in co-workers to get the job done Cooperation with co-workers to get the job done Support from co-workers to get the job done Overall average no. of respondents (N ¼ 14)

3 4 3 2 1 2 2.5

9 7 7 6 7 5 6.8

2 3 4 5 5 6 4.2

1 1 1 0.5

Notes: Rating scale: GI, greatly increased; SI, somewhat increased; RS, remained the same; SD, somewhat decreased; GD, greatly decreased

GD

Table I. Perceived impact of consortium activities on informant’s interactions with own destination marketing organization co-workers

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their DMO. Almost as many (11) also believed that interactions with people in the DMO had increased beyond the immediate workplace (Table I). Comments by two informants emphasized the value of these increased interactions: I think it increased the understanding and respect for what other units do [y] (Key informant 11).

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[y] because the project is outside of our norm we have learned to rely on each other [across departments], which is a good thing [y] (Key informant 9).

Despite these perceived increases in interaction, only slightly more than half (eight) of the respondents felt that the Consortium’s activities had increased co-worker trust and cooperation. Similarly only half (seven) of them felt that this increased interaction had led to escalated levels of DMO co-worker support for Consortium-related tasks (Table I). DMO staff development and work atmosphere. Six indicators explored the extent to which Consortium-related activities contributed to staff development and the overall working atmosphere within the DMOs. On average, about half (seven) of the respondents believed that their Consortium-related initiatives had somewhat or greatly increased staff development opportunities and the working atmosphere within their DMO (Table II). These impressions varied by indicator. About two-thirds (nine) of the respondents believed that participation in the Consortium had somewhat or greatly increased the sense of integrity of people in their DMO. Conversely, only four of them believed that it had increased the ease of working with other people in their organization (Table II). Bridging social capital Several sets of indicators helped gauge the Consortium’s perceived contribution to the development of bridging social capital. The findings emanating from the qualitative and quantitative investigations are summarized and highlighted in the following sections. Consortium network interactions. Overall, respondents reported that their level of professional interaction with members from other DMOs had increased after joining the Consortium. Prior to the Consortium’s creation they averaged 3.16 interactions annually. This jumped to more than almost six times (5.93) annually after engaging in

Table II. Perceived consortium activity impact on DMO staff development and overall atmosphere

Social capital dimension: DMO staff and overall atmosphere

GI

The sense of integrity of people in this DMO Personal commitment/involvement in the DMO’s ongoing operations The civic pride of people in this DMO The skills and knowledge required to get the job done The shared values of people in this DMO The ease of working with other people in this DMO Overall average no. of respondents (N ¼ 14)

1 4 3 2 2 1 2.2

No. of respondents SI RS SD GD 8 3 5 5 4 3 4.6

5 7 6 7 8 10 7.2

Notes: Rating scale: GI, greatly increased; SI, somewhat increased; RS, remained the same; SD, somewhat decreased; GD, greatly decreased

Consortium affairs. Exemplifying the nature of these interactions, a key informant indicated: I didn’t really know a lot of those people very well and some of them I never met before, we worked together and certainly established relationships. [y] it has been very rewarding getting to know some of the players [y] (Key informant 8).

Consortium network policies and procedures. Eight indicators were used to examine the extent to which the Consortium’s policies and procedures strengthened commitments to the network and its members. Overall about nine of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the policies and procedures generated positive benefits for the network’s members (Table III). Their responses varied by indicator. For instance, 12 respondents claimed the Consortium’s guidelines helped them collectively respond to changing circumstances, as well as learn from previous experiences (Table III). However, less than half of them (six) agreed or strongly agreed that the policies and procedures implemented fully addressed power imbalances (Table III). Largely because of the Consortium’s primary focus on Olympic matters, even less (four) of the respondents felt that it adequately facilitated partnerships that might lead to other non-Olympic-related tourism development opportunities (Table III). Consortium network operating culture. Nine indicators were used to explore respondents’ views on the operating culture of the Consortium. Overall, about nine of those interviewed agreed or strongly agreed that a positive operating culture existed in the Consortium (Table IV). The levels of agreement with this position varied by indicator. For instance, most (13) of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the Consortium’s operating culture was sufficiently informal to create opportunities for discussion around broader matters not directly linked to their formal responsibilities. Furthermore, 12 of them felt that such discussions and debates occurred in a respectful manner. These and other factors (Table IV) combined to create a collective confidence that the Consortium’s activities would lead to substantive benefits for the DMOs. However, less than half (six) of them felt that the Consortium had increased

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% of respondents Social capital dimension: consortium policies and procedures Responded collectively to changing circumstances Created opportunities for members to reflect on and learn from previous experiences Facilitated collective decision making Identified and followed-up on consortium related issues in a prompt and business-like fashion Addressed conflicts between members Effectively resolved differences in power amongst members in the consortium Addressed conflict between the consortium members and other external organizations Led to the development of other non-Olympic tourism plans Overall average no. of respondents (N ¼ 14)

SA

A

A/D

D

3

9

2

3 3

9 8

1 3

3 2

7 6

4 6

2

4

5

3

1 1 2.3

6 3 6.5

7 9 4.6

1 0.6

SD

1

Notes: Rating scale: SA, strongly agree; A, agree; A/D, neither agree nor disagree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree

Table III. Perspectives on consortium’s policies and procedures

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Table IV. Perspectives of the consortium’s operating culture

Social capital dimension: consortium’s operating culture Created informal opportunities for members to discuss matters that are not specifically tourism consortium related Created opportunities for members to discuss/debate opposing positions in a respectful manner Made members feel their perspective were considered in Consortium decision making processes Distributed agenda information to members in a timely manner prior to meetings Created a collective confidence that the consortium efforts will result in real benefits for the DMO Created opportunities for members to meet regularly Fostered opportunities to speak out on tourism consortium related matters Increased opportunities for consultations/inputs from nonconsortium members Made members appreciate the value of VANOC as an ally in building tourism opportunities for the region Overall average no. of respondents (N ¼ 14)

SA

% of respondents A A/D D

2

11

1

3

9

2

1

10

2

1

2

8

3

1

3 3

7 6

4 5

3

6

5

1

5

6

2

1 2.1

5 7.4

5 3.7

3 0.8

SD

Notes: Rating scale: SA, strongly agree; A, agree; A/D, neither agree nor disagree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree

opportunities to access and learn from non-Consortium members such as VANOC (Table IV). This situation existed despite the important role VANOC played in controlling access to potential Games’ allies. As one key informant indicated: [y] it has been very interesting experience working with VANOC [y] They really have nothing to do with the promotion of the host destination. [y] their core objectives are to take care of the Olympic family and sporting events (Key informant 6).

Consortium network cohesion and capacity. A total of 11 indicators were used to examine respondent’s impressions of the Consortium networks cohesion and capacity. On average, about 12 of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the Consortium was a unified, focussed and capable network (Table V). All of them agreed or strongly agreed that the organizations operated in ways that provided opportunities for working collaboratively, sharing information and developing contacts critical to the Consortium’s and their DMOs objectives. Most of them (13) agreed or strongly agreed that other members of the consortium worked in a focussed and collaborative manner to achieve the clearly focussed interests of the network (Table V). However, they stated that reputation had to be earned through performance within the Consortium over time. The following key informant’s words reflect this commonly held viewpoint: We have met more frequently and communicated with each other and see each other in different situations. Like any other committee, we have come to trust each other and the Consortium has become more effective as we learned how to work together [y] (Key informant 10).

Consortium network information sharing Six indicators were used to assess the quality of Consortium member information sharing. Overall, 11 of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that high quality

Social capital dimension: cohesion and capacity

SA

% of respondents A A/D D

Members provide adequate representation for their constituents Members are willing to work cooperatively to get the job done Members share information and contacts Members provide informed input to the collective interests of the group Members have a clear focus on the vision and objectives of the Consortium Members provide help and support when needed All member’s interests are included at the steering committee table Members can be trusted to represent the collective interests An adequate number of members are available to get the job done at the working group tables Members exist who you would socialize with beyond the workplace Members commit the time and effort needed to contribute to the collective interests Overall average no. of respondents (N ¼ 14)

5 4 4

9 10 10

5

8

3 3 6 3

10 10 6 8

2 2

1

3 2

8 7

2 4

1 1

1 3.6

8 8.5

3 1.3

2 0.6

SD

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1 1 1

Notes: Rating scale: SA, strongly agree; A, agree; A/D, neither agree nor disagree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree

information and knowledge sharing occurred in the Consortium’s network. All of them also agreed or strongly agreed that their organizations had benefited in this regard. Most of them (12) felt that this sharing had strengthened their awareness of each other’s DMO programs (Table VI). The information shared was perceived by 11 of the respondents to be timely and transparent – frequently providing access to normally inaccessible intelligence. Emphasizing this perspective, one key informant stated: I think we all benefited each other [y] probably learned things a little bit sooner then you would if you just waited on your own (Key informant 4).

Consortium network experiences. On average, about 12 of the respondents felt that their Consortium relationships were positive. All 14 informants felt this way with respect to matters concerning the cooperative achievement of the Consortium’s Olympic tourism goals (Table VII). For 13 of them it was perceived to have also been a good professional development experience (Table VII). However, only nine of them felt that the lessons and relationships the Consortium offered would lead to new tourism projects or working opportunities in their respective DMOs (Table VII). Linking social capital Despite the challenges of tourism stakeholders gaining access to IOC and other Olympic “Family” stakeholders, all respondents believed that the Tourism Consortium opened doors for their organizations to work more closely with media, sponsors, VANOC and the IOC in a single organized and integrated fashion. Overall, nine of them believed that without the impetus of the Consortium, these external linkages with other groups would not have been developed. As one key informant commented: [y] organizations like Microsoft, Google are now interested in what we are doing because of the Olympics. They [can] open stores of relationships that we probably previously wouldn’t have access to (Key informant 11).

Table V. Perceived consortium cohesion and capacity

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Table VII. Perspectives on consortium network experience

% frequency of responses A A/D D SD

Social capital dimension: information and knowledge sharing

SA

DMOs benefited from information sharing Strengthened awareness of other members organizations’ programs Accessed previously unattainable information sources Shared information in a timely manner Shared information transparently Shared DMO specific competitive intelligence Overall average no. of respondents (N ¼ 14)

7

7

4 3 3 2 2 3.5

8 8 8 8 6 7.5

2 3 3 4 6 3.0

Notes: Rating scale: SA, strongly agree; A, agree; A/D, neither agree nor disagree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree

Social capital dimension: relationship experience

SA

Cooperative in matters related to the Olympics Cooperative in matters related to other tourism issues A good professional development experience for you Easy to form relationship with consortium members A good professional development experience for them Opened the door to new working opportunities within your tourism organizations Overall average no. of respondents (N ¼ 14)

3 3 7 4 3 5 4.2

% of respondents A A/D D 11 11 6 7 7 4 7.6

1 2 4 5 2.0

SD

1

0.2

Notes: Rating scale: SA, strongly agree; A, agree; A/D, neither agree nor disagree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree

In addition, ten of them felt that the relationships built as a result of their involvement in the Consortium’s activities had escalated their personal and organizational capacity to work with other professionals outside their organization. The following statement by one of the key informants exemplifies that perspective: [y] one of the biggest things for me is the relationships that I have developed with people which will carry on long passed the Games [y] [this includes] [y] working on relationships with the tourism agencies, with government, with people at VANOC, many of whom are only here for a short period [y] (Key informant 3).

They (ten) also suggested that they were now much better prepared to deploy these enhanced abilities in a variety of new contexts after the Games. As one key informant aptly stated: [y] it has created a new bunch of lead opportunities that we would never have thought about it, pursued or been exposed to (Key informant 12).

Discussion In this case study the Consortium is positioned as an intervention in the traditional Games planning and delivery process. Through its interventionist activities, it

leveraged a range of tourism benefits (including social capital) that the tourism industry might not have otherwise realized. There are several reasons for this positioning and performance. First, very early on in the Games’ preparation process, tourism industry leaders and eventual Consortium partners recognized that “once in a lifetime” tourism leveraging opportunities would only be realized if a highly collaborative and focussed approach was pursued. The need for this type of collaborative approach was emphasized by VANOC representatives who essentially told the tourism industry to “get its collective act together” before coming to the Olympic “Family” with tourism leveraging requests. Second, as the immensity and complexity of the tasks needed to secure tourism benefits unfolded, so did the realization that only a unified and highly targeted strategy would succeed. Tourism benefits would not flow without the industry’s DMOs intervening via a collective set of proactive and aligned actions. This required the cultivation of social capital capable of facilitating the easy flow of those human, technical and financial resources needed to get the job done. Third, as awareness of VANOC’s limited ability to contribute resources to the Consortium’s activities increased, so did the realization that each DMO would have to share the burden of contributing equitably to the provision of the resources required. This sharing involved a combination of human, technical, financial, informational and infrastructural contributions, and varied according to each DMOs capacity to offer support in each of these areas. Fourth, as awareness of IOC and VANOC Games’ engagement protocols and programming requirements became more evident, so did the urgency for collective action among the Consortium’s members. While many needed linkages and relationships were in place prior to Consortium’s inception, the magnitude of the leveraging exercise and the unalterable Games’ timelines brought home the need to nurture and expand the base of social capital needed to work together. With these Olympic “drivers” of tourism collaboration and networking development in mind, the following paragraphs discuss the overriding perspectives offered by Consortium respondents concerning the extent of social capital created and its potential legacy momentum. Bonding social capital as reflected in the extent and nature of relationships within individual Consortium partner DMO organizations was examined in this study. It was expected that the urgency and magnitude of Games’ responsibilities within each participating DMO organization would stimulate increased and strengthened internal relationships. While increases in such relations occurred, for the most part respondents felt that the character of their co-worker relations remained relatively unaltered. This perception existed largely because internal interactions were perceived to already be strong prior to Games’ preparations. On a less positive note, some informants remarked that many normal DMO responsibilities had been “put on hold” to make way for Consortium responsibilities. As a result, they were concerned that the back log of DMO work would create additional workplace stress well beyond the Games. They believed this situation would reduce any momentum to use the Games’ social capital legacy for collective gain in the immediate post-Olympic period. Bridging social capital, as expressed in terms of relationships with other Consortium stakeholder organizations and individuals was the second area of social capital explored in this study. It was anticipated that the immensity, complexity and “time constrained” character of the Games would compel the Consortium’s members to demonstrate unprecedented levels of collective action. Respondents felt that overall

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bridging capital gradually ramped up as recognition of the multi-faceted and entangled complexity of leveraging benefits from the Games became clearer. As the subtle intricacies of leveraging these benefits emerged, so did recognition of the need to marshal the Consortium’s collective technical, financial and social capacities. At times, this involved investing in new/and or strengthened relationships with Consortium organizations that were previously viewed as competitors. Some respondents reported that as these relationships evolved, levels of relatively untapped trust, goodwill, cooperation and power sharing emerged. While not fully endorsed by all respondents, there was some agreement that Consortium experiences had raised their appreciation of bridging social capital as a tourism development asset. Some respondents mused about the extent to which the types of collaborative relationships developed and employed in an Olympic context would transfer over to the more parochial and often highly competitive environment of non-Games DMO operations. Their main concern was that without the possibility of another industry-coalescing mega-event on the horizon, limited incentive existed to activate many of the social capital resources nurtured in the Consortium. The bottom line was that a lack of any foreseeable major event would dissipate the social capital legacy momentum created through the Consortium’s initiatives. Linking capital as expressed through relationships with other non-tourism Olympic stakeholders was the final category of social capital investigated in this study. Opportunities for leveraging tourism benefits from the Games’ were dependent gaining access to VANOC’s influential network of Olympic partners. That access was facilitated by the Consortium becoming the legitimate “single” voice for tourism stakeholders. As VANOC’s trust in the Consortium grew, so did opportunities for the Consortium to reach out and collaborate with Games’ sponsors, media, sporting organizations, cultural groups and government agencies. At times these collaborations involved Consortium members embedding their human and infrastructural resources into the programs of the Olympic partners in exchange for opportunities to subtly communicate key tourism brand messages. Several respondents agreed that often these non-traditional links created unprecedented levels of new social capital that could potentially be used to leverage future tourism marketing opportunities. However, they were less certain as to how such capital would be activated without the catalyst of another mega-event. In summary, the respondents suggested that to varying degrees increased levels of confidence, trust, mutual respect, personal ties, shared values and human capacity were generated through the Consortium’s activities. This social capital was perceived to be a valuable but fragile legacy capable of nurturing increased: .

information and cost sharing among DMOs when tackling issues confronting the industry’s overall sustained prosperity (e.g. human resource capacities, technological innovation, infrastructure development, etc.); and

.

organizational leadership for marshalling the collective capacities of tourism stakeholders and other non-traditional partners in planned (e.g. sports and culture festivals) and unplanned (e.g. natural and human crises) mega-event situations.

Simultaneously, some of the informants expressed concern that the utility of this social capital might not be fully realized going forward. Several reasons were behind this

concern. First, they wondered how the Consortium’s social capital might be activated in the less grandiose and more individualistic post-Games operating environments of most DMOs. Second, even if future opportunities existed for collectively leveraging such social capital, they felt that much of the collaborative, strategic and tactical memory of the Consortium network would likely dissipate quickly without a formalized strategy for documenting and sharing the Consortium’s relationship building practices and lessons. Finally, some respondents expressed a concern that access to the inflated pre- and in situ Games’ budgets of the Consortium would be non-existent after the Olympics. They felt that this would lead to reduced incentives and fewer opportunities to activate the social capital created by the Consortium. For these reasons and others, a feeling existed that the value and momentum of the social capital legacy generated via the Consortium’s activities was imperiled by a limited appreciation of how it might be effectively activated and leveraged in a post-Games environment. Conclusions This study provided insights for scholars and practitioners interested in understanding processes for measuring and nurturing social capital in Olympic Games and other sporting mega-event contexts. It illustrated the types and dimensions of social capital that can be generated through purpose-built organizations designed to marshal the collective capacities of normally competitive tourism entities. While the research identified the extent to which the 2010 Tourism Consortium nurtured and generated social capital among its stakeholders, it is challenging to transfer its specific findings to other sport mega-event contexts. Much of its intelligence is based on the perspectives offered by a select group of respondents involved in a unique pre-Games tourism leveraging exercise. Consequently, further related analyses are needed to extend our understanding of the character and role of social capital development in sport and other mega-event management settings. Future research efforts that might help address this need include: .

Exploring how and the extent to which tourism-related social capital is activated in post-Games’ operating environments. While this study identified the extent to which social capital emerged during the run-up to the Games, it also noted concerns about the extent to which this intangible resource would be activated in post-Games context. Longitudinal investigations into the dynamics of social capital development, retention and activation prior to, during and at various points after the Games would provide useful insights into those forces shaping social capital momentum.

.

Comparing the findings of this social capital investigation with those in other mega-sport event contexts. This study identifies a social capital assessment frame and method that could be readily applied in other contexts. Comparative studies would help refine and/or validate the types of findings emerging from this study’s case.

.

Exploring the relative importance of various types of social capital at different stages in the mega-event management process. This study did not measure the relative importance that bonding, bridging and linking social capital play in pre-, in situ and post-Games managerial settings. It is conceivable that some forms of social capital are more critical than others to leveraging tourism

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benefits at each of these stages. Further investigations into this topic would make valuable contributions to mega-event practice and academic understanding of this emerging area of event research.

References Cashman, R. (2003), “What is Olympic legacy?”, in De Moragas, M., Kennet, C. and Puig, N. (Eds), The Legacy of the Olympic Games 1984-2000, Proceedings of the International Symposium 14-16/11/2002, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, pp. 31-42. Chalip, L. (2002), Using the Olympics To Optimize Tourism Benefits, Centre d’Estudis Olimpics 1 de L’Esport, Universitat Autonoma Barcelona, Barcelona. Chappelet, J.-L. (2003), “The legacy of the Olympic winter games: an overview”, in De Moragas, M., Kennet, C. and Puig, N. (Eds), The Legacy of the Olympic Games 1984-2000, Proceedings of the International Symposium 14-16/11/2002, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, pp. 54-65. Cohen, D. and Prusak, L. (2001), In Good Company: How Social Capital Makes Organizations Work, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Coleman, J. (1988), “Social capital in the creation of human capital”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 94, Supplement, pp. S95-S120. Coleman, J. (1994), Foundation of Social Theory, Harvard University Press, London. Dale, A. (2005), “Social capital and sustainable community development: is there a relationship”, in Dale, A. and Onyx, J. (Eds), A Dynamic Balance: Social Capital and Sustainable Community Development, UBC Press, Vancouver, pp. 13-30. Edwards, R. (2004), Measuring Social Capital: An Australian Framework and Indicators, Information Paper No. 1378.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Essex, S. and Chalkley, B. (2003), “The infrastructure legacy of summer and winter Olympic games: a comparative analysis”, in De Moragas, M., Kennet, C. and Puig, N. (Eds), The Legacy of the Olympic Games 1984-2000, Proceedings of the International Symposium 14-16/11/2002, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, pp. 94-100. Estlund, C. (2003), Working Together: How Workplace Bonds Strengthen a Diverse Democracy, Oxford University Press, New York, NY. Evans, W. and Carson, C. (2005), “A social capital explanation of the relationship between functional diversity and group performance”, Team Performance Measurement, Vol. 1 Nos 7-8, pp. 302-15. Field, J. (2008), Social Capital, 2nd ed., Routledge, London. Franke, S. (2005), “Measurement of social capital: reference document for public policy research, development, and evaluation”, Policy Research Initiative, Ottawa, available at: www.horizons.gc.ca/doclib/Measurement_E.pdf (accessed August 14, 2012). Fukuyama, F. (1995), Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity, The Free Press, New York, NY. Grootaert, C. (1998), “Social capital: the missing link”, World Bank Social Capital Initiative Working Paper No. 3, The World Bank, Washington, DC. Grootaert, C. and Bastelaer, T. (Eds) (2002), Understanding and Measuring Social Capital: A Multidisciplinary Tool for Practitioners, The World Bank, Washington, DC. Grootaert, C., Narayan, D., Nyhan-Jones, V. and Woolcock, M. (2004), Measuring Social Capital: An Integrated Questionnaire, The World Bank, Washington, DC.

Hague, N. and Morgan, C. (2004), Market Research in Practice: A Guide to Basics, Kogan Publishers, London. Halpern, D. (2005), Social Capital, Polity Press, Cambridge. Hiller, H. (1998), “Assessing the impact of mega-events: a linkage model”, Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 47-57. Hiller, H. (2003), “Towards a science of Olympic outcomes: the urban legacy”, in De Moragas, M., Kennet, C. and Puig, N. (Eds), The Legacy of the Olympic Games 1984-2000, Proceedings of the International Symposium 14-16/11/2002, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, pp. 102-9. Kilduff, M. and Tsai, W. (2003), Social Networks and Organizations, Sage Publications, London. Krishna, A. (2000), “Creating and harnessing social capital”, in Dasgupta, P. and Serageldin, I. (Eds), Social Capital. A Multifaceted Perspective, World Bank, Washington, DC, pp. 71-93. Krishna, A. and Shrader, E. (2002), “Social capital assessment tool: design and implementation”, in Grootaert, C. and Bastelaer, T. (Eds), Understanding and Measuring Social Capital: A Multidisciplinary Tool for Practitioners, The World Bank, Washington, DC, pp. 17-40. Koka, B.R. and Prescott, J. (2002), “Strategic alliance as social capital: a multi-disciplinary view”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 23 No. 9, pp. 795-816. London Assembly (2007), A Lasting Legacy for London? Assessing the Legacy of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games, Greater London Authority, London. McGhee, N.G., Lee, S., O’Bannon, T.L. and Perdue, R.R. (2010), “Tourism related social capital and its relationship with other forms of social capital: an exploratory study”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 49 No. 4, pp. 486-500. McGrath, R. and Sparks, W. (2005), “The importance of building social capital”, Quality Progress, Vol. 38 No. 2, pp. 44-9. MacRury, I. and Poytner, G. (2009), “Olympic cities and social change”, in MacRury, I. and Poytner, G. (Eds), Olympic Cities and the Remaking of London, Ashgate, Farnham, Surrey, pp. 303-26. O’Brien, D. (2006), “Event business leveraging: the Sydney 2000 Olympic games”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 240-61. Onyx, J. (2005), “Introduction”, in Dale, A. and Onyx, J. (Eds), A Dynamic Balance: Social Capital and Sustainable Community Development, UBC Press, Vancouver, pp. 13-30. Onyx, J. and Bullen, P. (2000), “Measuring social capital in five communities”, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 36 No. 1, pp. 23-42. Portes, A. (1998), “Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology”, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 1-24. Poytner, G. and MacRury, I. (Eds) (2009), Olympic Cities and the Remaking of London, Ashgate Publishing, London. Preuss, H. (2007), “The conceptualization and measurement of mega sport event legacies”, Journal of Sport and Tourism, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 207-28. Pricewaterhouse Coopers (2010), The Games Effect. Preliminary Impact of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on British Columbia and Canada to March 10, 2010, Report No. 6, Pricewaterhouse Coopers, Vancouver. Putnam, R. (1995), “Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital”, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 65-78. Putnam, R. (2000), Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Simon & Schuster, New York, NY.

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Ramos-Pinto, P. (2006), “Social capital as a capacity for collective action”, in Edwards, R., Franklin, J. and Holland, J. (Eds), Assessing Social Capital: Concepts, Policy and Practice, Cambridge Scholar Press, Newcastle, pp. 53-69. Rydin, Y. and Holman, N. (2004), “Re-evaluating the contribution of social capital in achieving sustainable development”, Local Environment, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 117-33. Schuller, T., Baron, S. and Field, J. (2000), “Social capital: a review and critique”, in Schuller, T., Baron, S. and Field, J. (Eds), Social Capital: Critical Perspective, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp. 1-39. Serageldin, I. and Grootaert, C. (2000), “Defining social capital: an integrated view”, in Dasgupta, P. and Serageldin, I. (Eds), Social capital: A Multifaceted Perspective, The World Bank, Washington, DC, pp. 40-58. Tourism British Columbia (TBC) (2003), Tourism BC Ten Year Strategic Plan, Tourism British Columbia, Victoria. Woolcock, M. (2001), The Place of Social Capital in Understanding Social and Economic Outcomes, Development Group, The World Bank and Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Woolcock, M. and Narayan, D. (2001), “Social capital: implications for development theory, research and policy”, The World Bank, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 225-49. Corresponding author Peter W. Williams can be contacted at: [email protected]

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Book review The Olympics – The Basics Edited by Andy Miah and Beatriz Garcia Routledge ISBN 978-0-415-59588-9 Review DOI 10.1108/17582951211262738 This book explores and offers insight into established, essential elements of the Olympic Games. It reminds us that the Olympic Games are not just a sporting spectacle, but should be regarded as a cultural festival foremost. It highlights that the operational requirements of the sporting component of the Games, and in particular the perceived elitism of the sports have the potential to over-shadow the aspirations of the Olympic values. The authors suggest that those who every two years take up the mantel to organise/host an Olympics should read this book as in reality they will rarely get the chance to do so during the frenetic planning stages. Yet, to read this book would help them understand much of the rituals, myths, history and symbolism that is so unique within the Olympic movement. As the book suggests, these are the people whose job it is to inspire and live the Olympic values, so perhaps they could benefit too. It is written in an easy style that draws the reader in and is divided into eight chapters including; society and identity; culture and education; ethics, politics; management and economics; media; legacy. This is a slightly different format than other recent books that explore the Olympic Games’ such as Gold and Gold (2007), Girginov and Parry (2005) or Toohey and Veal (2007). This book covers many of the same topics, albeit very briefly, yet considering the two authors backgrounds there is a strong focus on the cultural and media elements of the Olympic Games; two areas that don’t always receive extensive focus in academic writing. This is often because the measure of impacts and legacy, representing the success or not of hosting an Olympic Games is often centred on the more measurable outcomes of economic or environmental impacts. The two authors are well known for their research and publications in these areas so this is cutting edge, contemporary commentary, despite the book being part of Routledge’s Basics series. This book is not afraid to mention some of the more contemporary and controversial debates that have arisen within the Olympic movement, but not through any great in-depth critique that you would read from perhaps Helen Lenskyj (1996, 2000, 2002), Harry Hiller (2006) or Poynter and MacRury (2009). Whilst the marketing literature for the book claims that it explores the controversy and the legacy of the Olympics, it seems to skim over some of the more contentious issues in a light touch fashion. For example, issues around the membership of the IOC, their remits and voting etiquette; activism and protest mainly focused around Beijing 2008; and terrorism and security issues only warrant a few pages, whereas Fussey et al. (2011) have devoted a whole book to the subject. I found the section that discussed how the founding father of the modern Olympic Games succeeded, where other attempts at a revival of the ancient Olympic Games had failed, particularly interesting. The authors suggest that this was because Coubertin’s vision matched the internationalisation movements of the nineteenth century; whereby

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codified rules were introduced for many sports, yet his aspirations transcended sports to encompass the philosophy of Olympism too. He espoused that it is the training of both body and mind that symbolised human potential. This concept is as relevant nowadays, I believe, with sports psychologists and physiologists working alongside coaches and fitness trainers. Overall the book confidently discusses issues of inclusive vs exclusive and global vs local challenges for the organising committees (OCOG’s). Many of the original social, cultural and political values of the Olympic Games still apply today, and the similarities are part of the values and traditions that survive within the movement. However, the differences also highlight changes in society, not least the commercialism that has become a significant by-product for the Games in recent years. The focus of the book is the Olympic Games with only a passing reference made to the Paralympic Games and other derivations of the format, which I think is a shame particularly considering the 2012 focus of organising both Games within LOCOG. However, there is an informative chapter focusing on how the Olympic Games have become a defining event on the global stage through which to project notions of national identity and social priorities. This raises issues on whether public expectations and ideas of national identity can ever truly be met with the requirements of the financial stakeholders. The hosting of the Olympic Games can be seen as a turning point in a nation’s history, but also it can lead to pockets of resistance. It is how the host nation deals with these disturbances within the organising of the Games that can often define the public’s memories of the Games. Recent Games have illustrated that the most powerful expression of national identity is evidenced in the opening ceremony. Another interesting area of investigation is the extent which the Olympic Games are used by the host city to announce itself on the world stage as seen in Barcelona 1992 and Beijing 2008. It is questionable whether London, as host city for the 2012 Games, requires a global stage to assert this. The authors suggest that London with its own strong identity will use the Olympic Games to consolidate their powerful economic position, but to also reassert itself as a centre of cultural excellence through the Cultural Olympiad. This book is not an academic, in-depth text, and it doesn’t claim to be, as there are plenty of other sources for both undergraduate and postgraduate scholars to stretch their understanding of the Olympic Games, as already mentioned. However, any student wishing to undertake an in-depth study of the Olympic Games should read this book first as a precursor to their studies, as it contains rich contextual information to assist with an understanding of the global phenomena that is the Olympic and Paralympic Games, and what the Olympic movement represents. This book is very reasonably priced (£11.99) for a text marketed as a “basics”, and it is compact in size. Debbie Sadd School of Tourism, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, UK

References Fussey, P., Coaffee, J., Armstrong, G. and Hobbs, D. (2011), Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City – Reconfiguring London for 2012 and Beyond, Routledge, Abingdon. Girginov, V. and Parry, J. (2005), The Olympic Games Explained, Routledge, Abingdon.

Gold, J.R. and Gold, M.M. (2007), Olympic Cities, Routledge, Abingdon. Hiller, H. (2006), “Post-event outcomes and the post-modern turn: the Olympics and urban transformations”, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 6 No. 4, pp. 317-32. Lenskyj, H.J. (1996), “When winners are losers: Toronto and Sydney bids for the Olympic Games”, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 392-410. Lenskyj, H.J. (2000), Inside the Olympic Industry: Power, Politics and Activism, State University Press of New York, New York, NY. Lenskyj, H.J. (2002), The Best Olympics Ever? Social Impacts of Sydney 2000, State University of New York Press, New York, NY. Poynter, G. and MacRury, I. (Eds) (2009), Olympic Cities: 2012 and the Remaking of London, Ashgate, Farnham. Toohey, K. and Veal, A.J. (2007), The Olympic Games – A Social Science Perspective, 2nd ed., Routledge, Wallingford.

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