Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama 9781407314525, 9781407344058

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword: Dr. V. D. Misra
Foreword: Dr. Kenneth A. R. Kennedy
Preface
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables
List of Figures
PART I. History and Context
PART II. The Damdama Skeletal Series: Preservation and Demography
PART III. Craniometry and Dental Anthropology
PART IV. Post-cranial Skeletal Variation: Stature, Pathology, and Behavior
PART V. Damdama: Integrative Summary and Concluding Remarks
Appendices
References

Citation preview

HOLOCENE FORAGERS OF NORTH INDIA

Jagannath Pal is Professor, Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology at the University of Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh, India). His research centers on the prehistory of North India, including lithic technology and ceramic traditions.

LUKACS & PAL

John Lukacs is Professor Emeritus, Department of Anthropology at the University of Oregon (Eugene, USA). His research focuses on the dental anthropology of living and prehistoric populations and on the bioarchaeology of prehistoric South Asians.

2016

________

BAR S2783

A fresh and innovative approach to the skeletal biology of prehistoric South Asians is presented in this volume. It is the first comprehensive bioarchaeological study of an early Holocene human skeletal series from the Gangetic Plain of North India. New methods and techniques reveal insightful perspectives on the biological adaptations and affinities of the aceramic foragers from Mesolithic Damdama (ca. 8800 BP). Attention is given to archaeological context and to the geological and ecological setting in which these semi-nomadic, microlithic hunters lived and foraged. The integrative analysis of skeletal preservation includes documenting bone micro-structure and chemical composition, and a taphonomic approach to skeletal representation. Diverse methods of age and sex determination provide a firm basis for paleo-demographic analysis. Multivariate statistics refine the precision of: sex determination, stature estimation, and calculation of bio-distance from cranial and dental attributes. The large skeletal sample facilitates both statistical assessment of traits by sex within the Damdama series, and inter-site comparison of traits with nearby Mesolithic series and with key prehistoric samples from India and Pakistan. Prevalence of pathological lesions provides evidence of health and nutrition, while skeletal markers of activity yield insight into patterns of habitual behavior. These new data from Mesolithic Damdama contribute significantly to theoretical issues in anthropology, including health and subsistence, skeletal robusticity, and biological adaptation to a subtropical riparian environment.

B A R

Holocene Foragers of North India The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

John R. Lukacs Jagannath Pal with contributions by M.C. Gupta, V.D. Misra, Greg C. Nelson and G. Robbins Schug

BAR International Series 2783 2016

Holocene Foragers of North India The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

John R. Lukacs Jagannath Pal with contributions by M.C. Gupta, V.D. Misra, Greg C. Nelson and G. Robbins Schug

BAR International Series 2783 2016

First Published in 2016 by British Archaeological Reports Ltd United Kingdom BAR International Series 2783 Holocene Foragers of North India

© John R Lukacs, Jagannath Pal and the contributors severally 2016 The Authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, are hereby expressly asserted All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407314525 paperback ISBN 9781407344058 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407314525 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover Images: Overview of Damdama excavation (top); burial DDM 38—adult male (bottom) courtesy of J.N. Pal, University of Allahabad

All BAR titles are available from: British Archaeological Reports Ltd Oxford United Kingdom Phone +44 (0)1865 310431 Fax +44 (0)1865 316916 Email: [email protected] www.barpublishing.com

Foreword Dr. V. D. Misra Discovery of Late Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites in the Ganga Plain covering districts of Kausambi, Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Sultanpur, Jaunpur, Sant Ravidas Nagar and Varanasi in the last three decades of the 20 th century constitutes a significant chapter in the archaeology of India. Of these, more than 200 sites are located in the district of Pratapgarh alone. Out of these, three sites, i.e. Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama are situated in Pratapgarh district and have been excavated by the Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, University of Allahabad. The excavations at these sites resulted in the discovery of human burials, pit-hearths, animal bones, microliths, bone implements and food processing equipment including querns and mullers. The site of Damdama (Lat. 26 0 10’ N, Long. 820 20’ 36” E), situated at a distance of 36 km north-east of Pratapgarh and 5 km north-west of Mahadaha in the revenue village Warikalan in Patti sub-division of Pratapgarh district was discovered in 1978. The site, roughly circular in shape, is located on slightly raised ground at the confluence of two branches of Tambura Nala, a tributary of Pili Nadi which itself is a tributary of the river Sai. These nalas appear to be remnants of ancient horseshoe lakes. Being located on a slightly raised ground the Mesolithic site is not flooded even during the rainy season. The almost circular mound of Warikalan Damdama, sloping towards periphery, measures 8750 sq. m. It was excavated by the Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology for five seasons from 1982-83 to 1986-87. The excavated area measures 530 sq. m. The excavation revealed a 1.5 m thick cultural deposit divisible into 10 layers. Incidentally, excavations at the site have revealed the maximum thickness of the Mesolithic strata encountered at any site in the Gangetic Plain. At Sarai Nahar Rai the Mesolithic horizon was confined to 6 cm while at Mahadaha it measured 60 cm. It would indicate that in comparison to Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha, Warikalan Damdama was occupied for much longer time. The excavations at the site have exposed graves, pit-hearths, floors with burnt clay lumps, animal bones, microliths, querns, mullers, hammer stones, anvils and bone artefacts. Clearly, excavations at Damdama have enriched our knowledge of Mesolithic culture of South Asia. The excavations at Damdama exposed 41 burial features. With two exceptions, all the graves furnish evidence of extended burials. The exceptions are those of flexed burials. Generally the skeletons were found placed in supine position. In two cases, however, the skeletons were found in prone position. Of the 41 graves exposed at the site, skeletal remains of a single individual were obtained from as many as 35 graves. Double burials were encountered in five graves, while one grave yielded skeletal remains of three individuals. Of the double burials, in four cases the skeletal remains were those of a male and a female, the male being placed on the right side and the female on the left. In one grave, however, both the skeletons appeared to be those of males. The triple burial at the site yielded skeletal remains of two males and one female. The skeletal remains of Damdama are calcified and have acquired chocolate color. This is in keeping with the evidence obtained from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha. As per skeletal remains, the Mesolithic people in question were fairly tall with a sturdy and well-built physique. The reports on the skeletal remains from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha have already been published. I am thankful to Dr. Lukacs and his team for completing a thorough study of the human skeletons from Damdama. We are sure this analysis will earn the applause of the academic world as reports on Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha have already been well received. For completing the arduous task of finalizing the report on the skeletons of Damdama we express our sincere thanks to Prof. J.R. Lukacs, Prof. J.N. Pal and their team. It is first report of its kind in South Asian context presenting bioarchaeology of the Mesolithic people based on the study of human skeletal remains. V.D. Misra, Professor Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology University of Allahabad Allahabad, October 2012

iii

Foreword Dr. Kenneth A. R. Kennedy “The presence of a body of well-instructed men....is important to a degree which cannot be overestimated; as all high intellectual work is carried on by them, and on such work material progress of all kinds mainly depends not to mention other and higher advantages.” - Charles Robert Darwin 1872. The Descent of Man, Chapter 5. The high standards of scientific research and writing undertaken by Darwin are exemplified by Professor John R. Lukacs and his co-investigator, Dr. Jagannath Pal, in their study of the prehistoric human skeletal remains from Damdama in northern India. Their book sets a high standard for other scientists within the discipline of paleoanthropology, particularly in South Asia. Damdama is one of over two hundred Mesolithic sites which Indian archaeologists have discovered on the Gangetic Plain since 1972. It contains a cemetery of generally well-preserved human skeletal remains which were excavated during the field sessions of 1983 and 1987 under the direction of the late Professor G. R. Sharma, Head of the Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology at the University of Allahabad, India. Forty-seven human skeletons were unearthed in association with microlithic and other stone tools. A habitation area lay adjacent to the cemetery. These deposits dated from the Late Pleistocene to the Early Holocene. Absolute dates of 8640 ±65 BP and 8865 ± 65 BP (Before Present) were obtained from the Mesolithic site of Damdama. A morphometric examination of the Damdama human skeletons was undertaken by Professor John R. Lukacs of the University of Oregon in 1990-1991 and 1994. This has led to his publication of some twenty single-authored reports about these burials. As a respected dental anthropologist, his studies are widely known by his professional colleagues in the disciplines of odontological and biological anthropology. His success is reflected in the funding he has received from granting agencies and from publications of his work in prestigious anthropological journals and from books. As professor Lukacs notes in the Preface of this book, his purpose is to observe and report the biological profile of each skeleton from Damdama and discern its place within the broad context of Mesolithic foragers of South Asia. This broad quest is manifested in his teaching program at the University of Oregon as well as his frequent attendance and participation in scientific meetings held in many nations-the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, Greece, Australia, New Zealand, the Canary Islands, France, Italy, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Mexico and the United States. Pursuant to these scholarly activities it should be noted that Professor Lukacs has studied other Mesolithic populations in northern India (Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, Lekhahia ki Pahari) as well as burial sites of prehistoric human remains from Inamgaon, a Chalcolithic site in western Maharashtra; and Harappa, a Bronze Age site in Pakistan, and many others. He is the leading authority concerning dental anthropology in South Asia. The authors of this book have produced the most comprehensive compilation of data about Damdama. This work surpasses earlier written archaeological interpretations of that cemetery and adjacent burial deposits from the Gangetic Plain. He puts forward data about the prehistoric background of investigations in this region of India, and the geology and regional geography of Damdama. Attention is also given to the microscopic and macroscopic characteristics of the bones and teeth, as well as the attribution of age at death and sex of each specimen. The analysis of skeletal and dental pathology, cranial and post-cranial morphometrics, diet and nutritional profiles are then compared with data with from skeletal samples of other South Asian prehistoric and modern populations. Dr. Jagannath Pal, the archaeologist mainly responsible for excavations at Damdama, has given meticulous attention to the recovery of human skeletons from the site. He has provided essential information on the stratigraphic and cultural context of the burials at Damdama and given thoughtful consideration to them, thereby adding to the value of this book. Further contributions were made by M.C. Gupta, V.D. Misra, G.C. Nelson and G.R. Schug. Professor Lukacs has honored me by his request to write this forward to his book. Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, Professor Emeritus Department of Ecology and Systematics Cornell University Ithaca, January 2014 iv

Preface Our primary intentions in writing this book are varied: to provide fresh new perspectives on the activity patterns, health, nutrition, and climatic adaptations of early Holocene foraging people of North India, and to demonstrate the range of unique and valuable insights that can be derived from the study of prehistoric human skeletal remains. Historically, the description and interpretation of human skeletons from archaeological contexts has often been relegated to the relative obscurity of appendices in voluminous archaeological site reports. Departing from this pattern, two prior efforts have documented the biological attributes and adaptations of Holocene forager samples from Sarai Nahar Rai (Kennedy et al. 1986) and from Mahadaha (Kennedy et al. 1992). Hence, this analysis of the skeletal sample from Damdama continues and expands on these prior studies and permits extensive inter-site comparative assessments of the biological attributes of these valuable collections. The recent efflorescence of bioarchaeological research and publishing is closely linked with the dynamic development and rapid growth of two allied fields: paleopathology (Grauer 2012) and forensic anthropology (Dirkmatt 2012). While the initial development of bioarchaeology was centered in North America it has been enthusiastically adopted and applied in diverse contexts throughout the world: including East Asia (Pechenkina and Oxenham 2013), Southeast Asia (Oxenham and Tayles 2006) and South Asia (Schug 2011) . Within the analytic paradigm of bioarchaeology human skeletons have informative stories to tell us about conditions of existence in the past. While these ‘stories from the skeleton’ are complemented by contextual details from archaeological artifacts and indicators of paleoecology, the bones and teeth of ancient humans preserve direct, unique and enlightening clues regarding past life ways that cannot be found elsewhere in the prehistoric record. A popular forensic science book containing the ‘strange and fascinating case histories of a forensic anthropologist’ contends that skeletal and dental remains present a palimpsest of clues that have the potential to reveal many aspects of life experience to the trained observer. “Within the archives of our skeletons are written down the intimate diaries of our lives: our ancestry, our illnesses, our injuries and infirmities, the patterns of our labor and exercise... All we have been, or nearly, is inscribed and enclosed in our skeletons...” (Maples and Browning 1994) The goal of this work then is to ‘read’ the clues embedded in the skeletons from Damdama to retrieve the vital information they preserve regarding the biological attributes of Mesolithic foragers of north India. With this objective before us, each individual skeleton provides the bioarchaeologist with a unique osteobiography, an amalgam of skeletal size and morphology, developmental and degenerative pathological lesions, and indicators of genetic relationship (Saul 1972). When the attributes of individuals are viewed as measures of the biological adaptations and stresses experienced by a dynamic breeding population we can learn much about the group’s biological history, including activity, diet, disease, growth and stress. The history, methods and theoretical perspectives of bioarchaeology have been extensively documented in the encyclopedic anthology entitled Bioarchaeology: The Contextual Analysis of Human Remains (Buikstra and Beck 2006). Landmark regional studies focus on the bioarchaeology southern California (Gamble et. al 2001), the Georgia coast (Larsen 2000), and the Great Basin wetlands (Hemphill and Larsen 1999). Numerous anthologies contain problem-oriented bioarchaeology research on special issues such as sex and gender (Grauer and Stuart-Macadam 1998), the transition to agriculture (Pinhasi and Stock, 2011), climate change and demography (Schug 2011), or cannibalism in the southwestern US (White 1992). Others have compiled research on specific regions, for example, the bioarchaeology of the Spanish borderlands (Baker and Kealhofer 1996), prehistoric North Carolina (Hutchinson 2002), or the southeastern US (Powell et. al 1991; Lambert 2000). Synthetic reviews detail the more common methods of bioarchaeological analysis and summarize the most salient conclusions derived from this research paradigm (Hutchinson and Larsen 1988; Larsen 1997, 2000). By contrast, human osteological research in Europe and Asia has matured more slowly and generally lacks the broader theoretical foundations and interpretational dynamism of bioarchaeology as applied to prehistoric native north Americans. The past few decades of human osteological research in South Asia has been limited by the small size and fragmentary nature of skeletal samples, difficult access to innovative new technologies, and the absence of a solid foundation in evolutionary and population biology. Adequately documenting the range of biological variability in key features of skeletal morphology and metrics is a common shortcoming of some bioarchaeological research, yet meticulous documentation of the frequency of skeletal and dental traits and the v

prevalence of pathological lesions, including measures of central tendency and of dispersion are critical to inter-site and inter-regional comparisons. In addition, many prehistorians may be resistant to, or largely unconvinced of, the significant place that clues from the skeleton hold in piecing together a holistic bio-cultural understanding of past life ways. Countering the limitations of previous research and providing instructional examples of robust evidence-based bioarchaeological interpretation constitute important sub-themes of this volume. The research documented here represents years of active involvement in the field, the laboratory and the classroom. The first author (JRL) is privileged to have been welcomed into the Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology at the University of Allahabad. Initially as a guest, and over time as a respected colleague. A special debt of gratitude is extended to present and past heads of the department, including: Profs. G.R. Sharma, B.S.N. Yadav, U.N. Roy, S.C. Bhattacharya, V.D. Misra, and Om Prakash. Prof. Sharma provided laboratory access to selected specimens from Lekhahia ki Pahari and Sarai Nahar Rai in January 1975, and hosted a guided tour of the Belan River section and excavations at Neolithic Koldihwa. Drs. Roy and Bhattacharya, continued support for this project by providing access to skeletal collections and appointing a research assistant to prepare specimens for study and to provide logistical assistance. Traveling by train to Bhopal in December 1991, to attend the Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies conference with Drs. V.D. Misra, J.N. Pal, and Guliav, a Russian archaeologist was memorable. The first author’s (JRL’s) visits to the University of Allahabad began in January 1975, and continued in March 1988, October 1991 thru May 1992; March 1994 and February 1995; and March 2003. Support for Lukacs’ regular field research visits to the University of Allahabad, comes from many generous agencies and foundations, including: American Institute of Indian Studies, Junior and Senior Research Fellowships (1974-75; 1991-92), the National Geographic Society, Research Grants (5633-96; 5074-93; 3712-87), the National Science Foundation, Planning Grant (1994), the University of Allahabad, Visiting Scholar Award (1994), the University of Oregon, Social Science Seed Grant (1994), and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Grant-in-Aid (1998-99) and International Collaborative Research Grant (1994). J.N. Pal’s research visit to the University of Oregon in 1994, was supported by the Wenner Gren, International Collaborative Research Award. A preliminary version of the dental data contained in chapter 7, was presented at the 62 nd annual meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists in Ontario, Canada (14-17 April 1993) and as a poster with new comparative and interpretive frameworks at the 72nd annual meeting of the AAPA, in Tempe, AZ (25 April 2003). A version of chapter 8, was presented at the 66th annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, in New Orleans (19 April 2001), and published in a special issue of Asian Perspectives (2003). Thanks to Peter Johansen for organizing the conference, arranging publication of conference papers in AP, and for serving as the guest editor. Numerous colleagues have assisted with this project in diverse ways. Some have either provided data, responded to questions of method or theory, or took time for valuable discussions regarding the interpretation of human biological variation in prehistory. A debt of appreciation is extended to Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg, Trent Holliday, Kenneth Jacobs, Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, Christopher Meikeljohn, Gwen Robbins Schug, Guy Tasa, and Helen Vallianatos. Greg Nelson assisted with preparation of skeletal remains for study in early 1992 and conducted the analysis of mandibular osteometry. Former students completed master’s degree research on the Damdama series. Gwen Robbins Schug (Robbins, 2003) added a new and valuable dimension to age estimation through the application of cementum annulation methods and then subjected the demographic structure of Damdama to comparative anthropological analysis. Variation in skeletal preservation was approached by Helen Vallianatos who documented bone microstructure at Damdama and investigated its correlation with trace element abundances (Vallianatos 1999). The second author (J.N. Pal) wishes to acknowledge the Archaeological Survey of India for granting permission for the excavation. We express our thanks to the University Grants Commission, Archaeological Survey of India and University of Allahabad for grants funding the excavations at Damdama. Former Vice chancellors Prof. G.C. Pande and Prof. R.P. Misra offered their encouragement for these excavations. The district administration of Pratapgarh district and villagers of Damdama were of much help during the excavations at the site. Profs. R.K. Varma, D. Mandal and J.N. Pandey were initially members of the excavation team. Many of the leading archaeologists of the country visited the site during the excavations and gave support and encouragement to the excavation team. These included Prof. B.B. Lal, Prof. V.N. Misra, Shri J.P. Joshi, Shri M.N. Deshpande, Prof. B.P. Sinha, and Shri K.N. Dikshit. Thanks are due to Dr. K.S. Saraswat of Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow and Dr. M.D. Kajale of Deccan College, Pune for attending the excavation camp at Damdama and for vi

collecting and analyzing floral remains. We are also extremely thankful to Dr. P.K. Thomas and Dr. P.P. Joglekar, who have meticulously analyzed the faunal remains from Damdama and have published a thorough and informative report. The field work was assisted by the technical staff of the Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology. The final acknowledgment is to the first author’s family (wife Shirley, children Theresa, Michael, Sky and Sarah) whose attraction to India may not be as strong as my own, yet who cheerfully traveled with me to South Asia for research. I would be recklessly negligent if not dedicating this book to my daughter Sarah, who at 10 years of age, endured over a year away from friends, relatives, and normal school activities to live for 7 months in the Canary Islands then for 8 months in India, and to my wife Shirley, whose skill in creating a comforting home in sometimes unfamiliar settings and in diverse cultures is without parallel. During the long and often interrupted periods of research and of writing and revising this volume she provided meticulous editorial attention to manuscript and cheerful encouragement to successfully complete the volume. John Lukacs Eugene, Oregon (USA) 15 January 2012 and Jagannath Pal Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh (India) 15 September 2012

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Contents Forewords:

V. D. Misra (University of Allahabad) ................................................................................ iii Kenneth A. R. Kennedy (Cornell University) .................................................................... iv

Preface:

John R. Lukacs (University of Oregon) and J. N. Pal (University of Allahabad) ....................................................................................... v

Part I. History and Context 1. Introduction: Damdama in Context: Historical Background and Research Objectives................. 1 1.1 1.2 1.3

Sarai Nahar Rai: First Impressions of Mesolithic Lake Culture..................................................................2 Mahadaha: Another Window on Mesolithic Lake Culture of the Ganga Plain ...........................................6 Bioarchaeology of Damdama: Goals and Objectives ..................................................................................8

2. Regional Context: Geology, Geography and Climate .......................................................................... 11 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

The Geophysical Setting: Geology, Sedimentology, and Climatology of the Ganga Plains ..................... 11 Geological Origin, Structure and Evolution of the Indo-Gangetic Foreland Basin ................................... 12 Sedimentology, Geomorphology and Climatic Sequence of the Ganga Foreland Basin .......................... 14 Holocene Soils of the Ganga Plain: Indicators of Paleoclimate ................................................................ 18 Late Quaternary Environments of the Ganga Basin: Evidence from the Belan and Son Rivers ............... 19 A Multi-proxy Approach to Late Glacial - Holocene Environments of the Mid-Ganga Plain .................. 22

3. Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence ........................................................................... 23 3.1

3.2

3.3 3.4

Chronology: Controversy and Contention ................................................................................................ 23 3.1.1 Radiocarbon dates from accelerator mass spectrography (AMS) ................................................. 24 3.1.2 Implications of new dates for Mesolithic adaptations .................................................................. 26 Local Environment and Ecology: Soils, Flora, and Fauna ........................................................................ 27 3.2.1 Early environmental reconstructions for Mesolithic Lake Cultures ............................................. 28 3.2.2 Botanical indicators of environment ............................................................................................. 28 3.2.3 Faunal indicators of environment ................................................................................................. 29 Mesolithic Subsistence Patterns: Evidence and Inference ........................................................................ 30 3.3.1 Initial models and controversies: Mobile vs. sedentary, semi-nomadic vs. semi-sedentary ......... 30 Faunal Evidence of Mesolithic Subsistence: Recent Contributions .......................................................... 33

4. Excavations and Archaeological Context (by V.D. Misra, J.N. Pal and M.C. Gupta) .................... 37 Part II. The Damdama Skeletal Series: Preservation and Demography 5. The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy, and Inventory ....................................... 51 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Macroscopic Preservation of Skeletons .................................................................................................... 52 Microscopic Preservation: Histological Structure and Elemental Composition ....................................... 55 Human Skeletal Inventory and Assessment .............................................................................................. 57 Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 74

6. Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex ................................................................................. 75 6.1

6.2 6.3

Methods and Procedures for Determining Age and Sex ........................................................................... 75 6.1.1 Age estimation .............................................................................................................................. 75 6.1.2 Sex estimation............................................................................................................................... 76 Diagnosis of Age and Sex by Specimen ................................................................................................... 77 Age, Sex, and Demographic Structure: Summary Assessment and Conclusions.................................... 112

7. Paleodemography II: Age Estimation from Dental Histology ......................................................... 121 (by Gwen Robbins Schug) 7.1 7.2 7.3

Materials and Methods ............................................................................................................................ 121 Results: Age Estimates from Cementum ................................................................................................. 124 Demographic Dynamics .......................................................................................................................... 125 ix

Part III. Craniometry and Dental Anthropology 8. Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses..................... 131 8.1

8.2

8.3

Craniometry ............................................................................................................................................ 131 8.1.1 Craniometric methods ................................................................................................................. 131 8.1.2 Results: Craniometric measurements and variations .................................................................. 131 8.1.3 Comparative craniometry ........................................................................................................... 138 Mandibular Morphometrics..................................................................................................................... 141 8.2.1 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 141 8.2.2 Morphological variation ............................................................................................................. 143 8.2.3 Mandibular osteometry ............................................................................................................... 146 Comparative Mandibular Morphometrics (by Greg C. Nelson) .............................................................. 146 8.3.1 Analytic methods ........................................................................................................................ 146 8.3.2 Results: Osteometric analysis ..................................................................................................... 148 8.3.3 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 151

9. Dental Anthropology: Inventory and Tooth Wear ............................................................................. 153 9.1 9.2

9.3 9.4

Inventory of Dental Remains .................................................................................................................. 153 Tooth Wear: Data, Analysis, and Comparison ........................................................................................ 155 9.2.1 Methods of assessing occlusal wear ........................................................................................... 155 9.2.2 Patterns of tooth wear: Age and sex ........................................................................................... 159 9.2.3 Inter-site variation in tooth wear ................................................................................................. 163 9.2.4 Wear seriation of Mesolithic specimens ..................................................................................... 166 Eight Grade System Wear Patterns ......................................................................................................... 169 Unique Wear Patterns ............................................................................................................................. 170

10. Dental Pathology: Lesion Prevalence and Meaning ....................................................................... 173 10.1 10.2 10.3

10.4

10.5

10.6

Dental Pathology and Behavior ............................................................................................................. 173 10.1.1 Methods: Diagnosis and interpretation ..................................................................................... 173 Dental Pathology by Individual ............................................................................................................. 175 10.2.1 Inter-site variation in dental pathology ..................................................................................... 178 Enamel Hypoplasia: Types and Prevalence .......................................................................................... 178 10.3.1 EH frequency by specimen ....................................................................................................... 180 10.3.2 LEH frequency by tooth ........................................................................................................... 181 10.3.3 Age at LEH formation .............................................................................................................. 182 Dental Pathology by Tooth Count ......................................................................................................... 184 10.4.1 Results ...................................................................................................................................... 185 10.4.2 Evaluation, interpretation and comparison ............................................................................... 190 Developmental Defects and Pathological Lesions ................................................................................ 197 10.5.1 Tooth rotation ........................................................................................................................... 197 10.5.2 Congential absence ................................................................................................................... 197 10.5.3 Localized enamel hypoplasia .................................................................................................... 197 Behavioral Inferences from Tooth Wear and Dental Pathology ........................................................... 200

11. Morphometric Dental Variation: Bio-distance and Adaptation .................................................... 201 11.1

11.2.

11.3

Dental Morphology ............................................................................................................................... 202 11.1.1 Methods .................................................................................................................................... 202 11.1.2 Variation in dental morphology at Damdama ........................................................................... 203 11.1.3 Comparative analysis of dental morphology ............................................................................ 206 11.1.4 All-India inter-site comparison and biodistance from dental morphology ............................... 209 Tooth Size at Damdama: Adaptive and Evolutionary Perspectives ....................................................... 218 11.2.1 Odontometric methods.............................................................................................................. 218 11.2.2 Tooth size at Damdama: Crown dimensions and areas ............................................................ 218 11.2.3 Damdama tooth size in context ................................................................................................. 221 11.2.4 Deciduous odontometry ............................................................................................................ 224 Dental Variation at Damdama: A Synopsis........................................................................................... 226 11.3.1 Dental morphology ................................................................................................................... 226 11.3.2 Tooth size ................................................................................................................................ 226

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Part IV. Post-cranial Skeletal Variation: Stature, Pathology, and Behavior 12. Post-cranial Osteometry: Stature, Robustness and Limb Segments in Adaptive and Evolutionary Context ...................................................................................................................................... 227 12.1 12.2

12.3

12.4

Objectives.............................................................................................................................................. 228 Methods................................................................................................................................................. 228 12.2.1 Osteometry................................................................................................................................ 228 12.2.2 Estimation of stature ................................................................................................................. 229 12.2.3 Robusticity and limb proportions ............................................................................................. 230 Results ................................................................................................................................................... 230 12.3.1 Osteometry................................................................................................................................ 230 12.3.2 Stature ....................................................................................................................................... 239 12.3.3 Skeletal robusticity and adaptation ........................................................................................... 244 Summary of Post-cranial Osteometry ................................................................................................... 253

13. Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence on Diet, Disease and Behavior ................ 255 13.1 13.2 13.3

13.4

13.5 13.6

Goals and Objectives of Paleopathology ............................................................................................... 255 Methods: Recognizing and Diagnosing Pathological Lesions .............................................................. 255 Skeletal Indicators of Health: Diet and Infectious Disease ................................................................... 256 13.3.1 Nutritional status: Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis .................................................... 256 13.3.2 Infectious disease: Periostitis .................................................................................................... 257 Skeletal Indicators of Activity, Growth and Behavior .......................................................................... 259 13.4.1 Osteoarthritis .......................................................................................................................... 259 13.4.2 Trauma ...................................................................................................................................... 259 13.4.3 Enthesial hypertrophy ............................................................................................................... 262 13.4.4 Supratrochlear foramen (septal aperture) .................................................................................. 264 13.4.5 Vascular impressions ................................................................................................................ 265 13.4.6 Ankle flexion facets (squatting facets) ..................................................................................... 266 13.4.7 Lingual mandibular cortical depressions (Stafne’s defect) ....................................................... 268 Discussion: Markers of Stress and Activity .......................................................................................... 269 Summary: Skeletal variation and behavior............................................................................................ 269

Part V. Damdama: Integrative Summary and Concluding Remarks 14. The Bioarchaeology of Damdama: An Integrative Synthesis ........................................................ 271 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4

14.5

Objectives of an Integrative Synthesis .................................................................................................. 271 Environment, Subsistence and Human Biology .................................................................................... 272 14.2.1 Subsistence, diet and nutrition .................................................................................................. 273 Biological Affinities and Population History ........................................................................................ 274 Skeletal Robusticity: Types and Causes ................................................................................................ 276 14.4.1 Cranial robusticity .................................................................................................................... 276 14.4.2 Post-cranial robusticity ............................................................................................................. 277 14.4.2.1 Osteometric robusticity ........................................................................................... 278 14.4.2.2 Entheseal changes: Robusticity and activity............................................................ 278 Conclusions and Prospects .................................................................................................................... 279 14.5.1 Context: Chrono-eco-geographic setting .................................................................................. 279 14.5.2 Sample composition and preservation ...................................................................................... 279 14.5.3 Cranio-facial variation and adaptation ...................................................................................... 279 14.5.4 Dental adaptations .................................................................................................................... 280 14.5.5 Stature ....................................................................................................................................... 280 14.5.6 Post-cranial adaptations ............................................................................................................ 280

xi

Appendices ........................................................................................................................................................ 281 Appendix A: Supplemental Dental Data Table 1. Table 2. Table 3a. Table 3b. Table 4a. Table 4b. Table 5.

Inventory of dental elements and tooth status .............................................................. 282-284 Dental wear scores: Eight-grade scoring system .......................................................... 285-286 Scott wear scores by quadrant: Maxillary molars ........................................................ 287-288 Scott wear scores by quadrant: Mandibular molars ..................................................... 289-290 Odontometric data: Maxillary permanent teeth (by specimen) .................................... 291-293 Odontometric data: Mandibular permanent teeth (by specimen) ................................. 294-296 Deciduous dental morphology (DDM 5) ............................................................................. 297

Appendix B: Post-cranial Osteometric Data Table 1. Post-cranial measurements of the upper extremity (in mm) .......................................... 298-300 Clavicle, Scapula ........................................................................................ 298 Humerus ...................................................................................................... 299 Radius, Ulna ............................................................................................... 300 Table 2. Post-cranial measurements of the lower extremity (in mm) .......................................... 301-305 Innominate .................................................................................................. 301 Femur .................................................................................................. 302-304 Tibia, Fibula ................................................................................................ 305

References.......................................................................................................................................................... 307

xii

List of Tables Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4

Geomorphological Surfaces of the Ganga Plain ........................................................................ 15 Four Zone Model of Alluvial Megafan Sedimentation .............................................................. 15 Late Quaternary Formations of the Son River Valley ............................................................... 20 Sanai Tal: Sediments, Chronology, and Environments ............................................................. 21

Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3

Radiocarbon dates for Mesolithic Skeletons from North India ................................................. 24 AMS C14 Dates for Mesolithic Skeletons from North India ...................................................... 25 AMS radiocarbon dates from bovid enamel (bioapatite) ........................................................... 26

Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 5.7

Frequency Distribution of Histological Index ........................................................................... 56 Elemental Abundance (ppm) in Bone Samples ......................................................................... 56 Skeletal Inventory: Skull, Thorax, Pectoral Girdle and Upper Extremities ............................... 59 Skeletal Inventory: Pelvic Girdle and Lower Extremity ............................................................ 63 Skeletal Inventory: Hand and Foot Elements ............................................................................ 67 Representation of Cranium and Mandibular Elements .............................................................. 72 Representation of Post-Cranial Skeletal Elements .................................................................... 72

Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5 Table 6.6 Table 6.7 Table 6.8 Table 6.9 Table 6.10 Table 6.11 Table 6.12 Table 6.13 Table 6.14 Table 6.15 Table 6.16 Table 6.17 Table 6.18 Table 6.19 Table 6.20 Table 6.21 Table 6.22 Table 6.23 Table 6.24 Table 6.25 Table 6.26 Table 6.27 Table 6.28 Table 6.29 Table 6.30 Table 6.31 Table 6.32 Table 6.33 Table 6.34 Table 6.35 Table 6.36 Table 6.37 Table 6.38

Age estimate from cranial suture closure .................................................................................. 79 DDM 1 sex determination from measurements of the talus ...................................................... 79 Neurocranial chord measurements (DDM 4, in mm) and comparative data ............................. 79 Neurocranial chord measurements (DDM 5, in mm) and comparative data ............................. 82 Sex attribution for DDM 6a from measurements of humeral diaphyses (in mm) ...................... 82 Sex attribution for DDM 8 from measurements of the humerus (left) ...................................... 82 Sex attribution for DDM 12 from post-cranial measurements .................................................. 84 Tarsal measurements and sex estimation of DDM 12 (in mm) ................................................. 85 Sex estimation using discriminant function analysis of tarsal bones (DDM 12) ....................... 85 Sex attribution for DDM 13 from post-cranial measurements (in mm)..................................... 90 Sex attribution for DDM 16b from post-cranial measurements (in mm)................................... 90 Sex attribution for DDM 18a from post-cranial measurements (in mm) ................................... 90 Sex attribution for DDM 18b from post-cranial measurements (in mm)................................... 93 Cranial suture status and age estimation for DDM 18c ............................................................. 94 Sex estimation of DDM 19 from measurements of the innominate (in mm) ............................. 94 Sex estimation of DDM 23 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) ................................. 94 Sex estimation of DDM 23 from measurements of the femur and innominate (in mm) ........... 98 Sex estimation for DDM 24 from post-cranial measurements (in mm)..................................... 98 Cranial sutures scores and age estimates ................................................................................... 98 Sex estimation for DDM 26 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) ............................... 99 Sex estimation of DDM 28 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) ................................. 99 Sex determination of DDM 30a from post-cranial measurements (in mm) ............................. 101 Sex estimation of DDM 30b from measurements of the humerus (in mm) ............................. 101 Sex estimation of DDM 32 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) ............................... 101 Measurements of the right and left talus .................................................................................. 101 Sex estimation for DDM 33 using discriminant function analysis of the talus........................ 106 Sex estimation of DDM 36a from post-cranial measurements (in mm) .................................. 106 Sex estimation of DDM 36b from measurements of the humerus (in mm) ............................. 107 Cranial suture scores and age at death ..................................................................................... 108 Sex attribution of DDM 39 from measurements of the humerus (left; in mm) ....................... 108 Sex estimation of DDM 40 from measurements of the right innominate (in mm) .................. 108 Sex estimation based on discriminant function analysis of the humerus ................................. 110 Descriptive statistics for seven discriminant functions of the humerus ................................... 111 Estimates of age at death (in years) by specimen and technique ............................................. 114 Summary estimates of sex by specimen and technique ........................................................... 116 Demographic profile of the Damdama skeletal series ............................................................. 118 Specimens classified by age and sex ....................................................................................... 119 Sex distribution by site ............................................................................................................ 120

Table 7.1

Dental sample for histological analysis of cementum ............................................................. 122 xiii

Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 7.4 Table 7.5 Table 7.6 Table 7.7 Table 7.8

Pathology and preservation of histology sample ..................................................................... 123 Dental emergence timing for children in Western Australia (years) ....................................... 124 Age at death estimates (in years) from cementum annulations ............................................... 125 Revised age and sex estimates for the Damdama sample ........................................................ 126 Comparison of mean age estimates by sex .............................................................................. 126 Life table for Damdama ........................................................................................................... 130 Damdama, Mahadaha, and Sarai Nahar Rai age distribution .................................................. 130

Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3 Table 8.4 Table 8.5 Table 8.6 Table 8.7 Table 8.8 Table 8.9 Table 8.10

Cranial measurements ............................................................................................................. 132 Cranio-facial indices by specimen for Damdama .................................................................... 135 Cranial indices for Damdama and Mahadaha skeletal series ................................................... 136 Estimated endocranial capacity by specimen for DDM, MDH, and SNR ............................... 137 Craniometric data for Damdama for the first cluster analysis ................................................. 139 Mandibular measurements, symbols and descriptions ............................................................. 142 Damdama mandibular measurements (mm and degrees) ........................................................ 144 Comparative samples: Sites and References ........................................................................... 147 Summary statistics and t-test results for Damdama mandibular measures .............................. 149 Mandibular indices and robusticity values .............................................................................. 151

Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5 Table 9.6 Table 9.7 Table 9.8 Table 9.9 Table 9.10 Table 9.11 Table 9.12 Table 9.13

Summary of tooth status and preservation ............................................................................... 154 Dental sample by jaw and status .............................................................................................. 154 Eight grade wear scoring system ............................................................................................. 156 Wear score systems compared: advantages and disadvantages ............................................... 156 Compound tooth wear scores used in this analysis .................................................................. 157 Wear scores and ranks compared ............................................................................................ 157 Eight grade wear scores by tooth class; ranked by total wear score ........................................ 159 Scott wear scores by tooth, jaw and specimen; ranked by total wear score ............................. 160 Mean Scott wear scores at Damdama by sex ........................................................................... 162 Mean Scott wear scores by site (males only) ........................................................................... 163 Scott Quadrant wear scores and ranks: Mandible, maxilla and total ....................................... 168 Frequency distribution of teeth by wear grade, by jaw, and by tooth class ............................. 169 Frequency distribution of specimens by wear grade................................................................ 169

Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3 Table 10.4 Table 10.5 Table 10.6 Table 10.7 Table 10.8 Table 10.9 Table 10.10 Table 10.11 Table 10.12 Table 10.13 Table 10.14 Table 10.15 Table 10.16 Table 10.17 Table 10.18 Table 10.19 Table 10.20

Dental pathology: Distribution of lesions by specimen ........................................................... 176 Frequency of pathological lesions by sex ................................................................................ 177 Frequency of pathological lesions by site ................................................................................ 178 Enamel hypoplasia by specimen and by form of expression ................................................... 179 Frequency of enamel hypoplasias by type and by sex ............................................................. 180 Frequency of association of EH types ..................................................................................... 180 Mean maximum height of depressed pit patch area................................................................. 180 Frequency of LEH by tooth type ............................................................................................. 181 Mean number of hypoplastic lines by tooth type and by sex ................................................... 182 Distance from cemento-enamel junction (CEJ) to LEH defect (in mm) ................................. 183 Means for LEH location and estimated age of formation ........................................................ 184 Frequency of pathological lesions by tooth class .................................................................... 185 Frequency of pathological lesions by arcade and by location ................................................. 186 Dental pathology by sex: tooth count frequencies ................................................................... 186 Caries rates calculated by observed (OBS) and by ‘corrected’ (DMI, CCF) methods ............ 191 Caries prevalence in prehistoric South Asia ............................................................................ 193 Subsistence and caries rates (tooth count, observed; data from Turner 1979)......................... 194 Caries frequencies for native eastern North Americans (data from Larsen et al. 1991) .......... 196 LHPC size and location measurements (mm) .......................................................................... 198 Mean perimeter and area for LHPC defects ............................................................................ 198

Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Table 11.5 Table 11.6

Dental trait frequencies: Maxillary teeth ................................................................................. 204 Dental trait frequencies: Mandibular teeth .............................................................................. 207 Congenital absence .................................................................................................................. 209 Dental morphology trait frequencies for South Asian prehistoric sites ................................... 211 Standardized deviations for selected dental traits .................................................................... 212 Mesolithic Lake Culture dental trait frequencies in global context ......................................... 215 xiv

Table 11.7 Table 11.8 Table 11.9 Table 11.10 Table 11.11

Mean tooth crown measurements (MD and BL) by sex (mm2) ............................................... 219 Mean tooth crown areas (MD x BL) by sex (mm2) ................................................................. 220 Tooth crown area in prehistoric South Asia: DDM in context (sex-pooled) ........................... 221 Focal dates for sites used in Fig. 11.11 .................................................................................... 223 Deciduous tooth crown dimensions (mm) and areas (mm2): DDM 5 and mean crown areas (CA) of prehistoric and living comparison groups ........................................................................... 224

Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 12.3 Table 12.4 Table 12.5 Table 12.6 Table 12.7 Table 12.8 Table 12.9 Table 12.10 Table 12.11 Table 12.12 Table 12.13 Table 12.14 Table 12.15 Table 12.16 Table 12.17 Table 12.18 Table 12.19 Table 12.20 Table 12.21 Table 12.22

Mean long bone length by sex ................................................................................................. 231 Mean bone length compared (males): MLC sites (mm) .......................................................... 232 Mean measurements of bone of the upper extremity by sex (mm) .......................................... 233 Comparative osteometry of MLC upper limb bones ............................................................... 234 Mean femur measurements for Damdama by sex (mm) .......................................................... 235 Variation in MLC femur measurements (males; mm) ............................................................. 235 Femur shaft indices by sex: Platymeric and pilastric............................................................... 236 Femoral indices: MLC sites compared .................................................................................... 236 Intra-limb indices of MLC and prospective reference populations ......................................... 239 Stature estimates by specimen and element (cm) .................................................................... 240 Mean stature by sites, sex and element (cm) ........................................................................... 242 Mean differences in stature estimates by method (cm) ........................................................... 242 Measures of robusticity and computational formulas .............................................................. 245 Indices of robusticity (abridged, from Pearson 2002: 576, Table 3) ....................................... 246 Robusticity indices of the humerus by specimen and by sex (mm) ......................................... 246 Mean indices of robusticity for the humerus by sex ................................................................ 246 Humerus robusticity (males only): Mesolithic north India in global context .......................... 247 Femur robusticity index (males only; diaphyseal, mid-shaft after Collier 1989) .................... 250 Articular robusticity: femur ..................................................................................................... 251 Femur robusticity: Mesolithic north India in global context ................................................... 252 Proximal epiphyseal robusticity of upper limb elements by specimen (mm) .......................... 253 Robusticity indices by specimen and by sex: Tibia (mm) ....................................................... 253

Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 13.3 Table 13.4

Pathological lesions and variations of the cranium and mandible ........................................... 257 Pathological lesions and variations of the post-cranial skeleton.............................................. 260 Supra-trochlear foramen (STF) and ankle flexion facets (AFF) at MDH and SNR ................ 265 Distribution of supra-trochlear foramen (STF) and ankle flexion facets (AFF) in prehistoric Indian skeletal series ................................................................................................................ 267

xv

List of Figures Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6

Location map. ..............................................................................................................................2 Sarai Nahar Rai burials in situ. ....................................................................................................3 Frontal and lateral views of the SNR 4 cranium ..........................................................................5 Palatal view of the dental arcade of SNR 4 .................................................................................5 General view of Mahadaha with burials ......................................................................................6 Young adult male with bone ring ornaments (Mahadaha, MDH 12) ..........................................7

Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6

Physiographic zones of South Asia ........................................................................................... 12 Geographic divisions of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain ................................................ 13 Sub-divisions of the Ganga Plain and foreland basin ................................................................ 13 N-S cross section of foreland basin: components and structure ................................................ 15 Size and extent of mid-Ganga megafans ................................................................................... 16 Idealized model of megafan sediments and geomorphology ..................................................... 16

Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3

AMS 14C radiocarbon dates for Ganga Lake Culture sites ........................................................ 27 Frequency of identifiable fauna by class ................................................................................... 32 Frequency of identifiable specimens by layer ........................................................................... 32

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5

Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18 Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20

Mesolithic sites in the Gangetic Plain, showing location of Damdama ..................................... 36 Contour map of Damdama ........................................................................................................ 36 Forest remnant near Damdama .................................................................................................. 38 West - East section of excavation squares K-1 and K-2 ............................................................ 38 Photograph (left) and plan (right) of artefact distribution in excavated squares M-13, M-14, N-13 and N-14 .................................................................................................................................... 38 Plan (left) and photograph (right) of human burials and hearths ............................................... 39 Extended burial with right forearm across abdomen ................................................................. 39 Plan of extended burial disturbed by irrigation drain ................................................................ 39 Plan of tightly flexed burial ....................................................................................................... 41 Skeletons interred in supine (Grave VII, above) and prone (Grave XI, below) positions ......... 41 Double extended burial (Grave XX).......................................................................................... 41 Plan of disturbed double burial (Grave XXX) ........................................................................... 41 Photograph (left) and plan (right) of double burial (Grave VI) with male and female placed in opposite directions ..................................................................................................... 43 Pit hearth in earliest phase of section (left) and burnt plaster floors and hearth (right) ............. 43 Burnt plaster floors in different levels in the section ................................................................. 43 Drawing (left) and photograph (right ) of bone points and arrowheads .................................... 45 Quiver and other modified bone objects .................................................................................... 45 Microlithic artefacts: blades and cores ...................................................................................... 47 Microlithic artefacts: blades and geometric types ..................................................................... 48 Microlithic artefacts: burins, flakes and scrapers ...................................................................... 49

Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4

Variation in cranial preservation at Damdama .......................................................................... 53 Taphonomic agents influencing the preservation of human skeletal remains ........................... 54 Relative representation of skeletal elements at Damdama ........................................................ 73 Skeletal preservation at Damdama and Mahadaha compared ................................................... 73

Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5

Variation in size of the humeral diaphysis and attribution of sex ............................................ 111 Variation in size of the femoral diaphysis and attribution of sex ............................................ 113 Variation in circumference of the femoral diaphysis and attribution of sex ............................ 113 Age and sex structure of the Damdama skeletal sample .......................................................... 118 Male sex bias in Mesolithic Lake Culture skeletal series ........................................................ 120

Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Figure 7.5

Cementum annulations: location and histological architecture ............................................... 122 Macroscopic vs. histological age estimates ............................................................................. 124 Age at death profile at Damdama ............................................................................................ 127 Male (top), female (middle) and pooled (bottom) age pyramids by estimation method.......... 128 Probability of death and suvivorship models for Damdama and WHO life table

Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13

xvi

(United Nations 1982)............................................................................................................ 129 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 Figure 8.5 Figure 8.6 Figure 8.7 Figure 8.8 Figure 8.9 Figure 8.10 Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2 Figure 9.3 Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5 Figure 9.6 Figure 9.7 Figure 9.8

Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 Figure 10.4 Figure 10.5 Figure 10.6 Figure 10.7 Figure 10.8 Figure 10.9 Figure 10.10 Figure 10.11 Figure 10.12

Figure 11.1 Figure 11.2 Figure 11.3 Figure 11.4 Figure 11.5 Figure 11.6 Figure 11.7 Figure 11.8 Figure 11.9 Figure 11.10 Figure 11.11 Figure 11.12 Figure 11.13

Figure 12.1

Mean cranial indices: An inter-site comparison ...................................................................... 134 Mean facial indices: An inter-site comparison ........................................................................ 136 Mean cranial capacity for Mesolithic Lake Culture sites ........................................................ 137 Cluster analysis of Damdama craniometric data: cluster 1 (above) and cluster 2 (below) ...... 139 Variation in mandibular morphology, right lateral views ........................................................ 140 Mandibular morphology of DDM 12, an adult female, ca. 40 years of age ............................ 141 Measurements and landmarks used in mandibular osteometry (from Bothwell 1981 and Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) ................................................................................................................. 143 Bivariate plot of log transformed symphysis height and thickness ......................................... 148 Bivariate plot of log transformed bigonial breadth and symphysis height .............................. 150 Bivariate plot of log transformed bicondylar breadth and bigonial breadth ............................ 150 Scatterplot of composite molar wear scores by sex for Eight Grade and Scott Quadrant wear score systems ........................................................................................................................... 158 Eight Grade wear scores by tooth class, includes specimens - complete dentitions only ........ 158 Tooth wear and skeletal age at Damdama. Eight Grade scores (top panel), Scott Quadrant scores (lower panel) ............................................................................................................................ 161 Mean Scott wear scores at Damadama by sex ......................................................................... 162 Scott molar wear gradients by sex (females, top; males, bottom) for Damdama and Harappa165 Lower molar wear angles by sex, from lingual and buccal Scott Quadrant wear scores ......... 167 Proportion of teeth (left y axis) and individual specimens (right y axis) in each of eight wear grades (x axis) ......................................................................................................................... 170 Examples of molar tooth dislocation: a) DDM-11, b) DDM-11, c) DDM-28, d) DDM-26, e) DDM-18c occlusal view, f) DDM-18c right lateral view ........................................................ 171 Frequency of pathological dental lesions, by sex and for the pooled-sex sample ................... 177 Frequency of teeth with one or more LEH defects .................................................................. 182 Mean age at LEH formation by tooth, by sex and for the sex-pooled sample ......................... 184 Dental pathology by tooth count frequency and tooth class .................................................... 186 Dental caries frequencies (tooth count) by different methods ................................................. 192 Dental caries frequencies (tooth count ‘corrected’): a comparison by site and by sex ....................................................................................................................................... 193 Caries and subsistence: A global perspective .......................................................................... 195 Caries and subsistence: A native North American perspective ............................................... 195 Cline in caries frequency in Mesolithic Europe and South Asia ............................................. 196 Tooth rotation (DDM 20a, RP3 and DDM 8, RM3) and congenital agenesis (right, bilateral M3 s (DDM 30b) ...................................................................................................................... 199 Localized hypoplasia of primary canine teeth (LHPC, DDM 5). ............................................ 199 Digital measurements of LHPC defect on right deciduous canine: height and width (black lines, left panel), area measurements (gray fill, right panel) ............................................................. 199 Relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors to dental trait variation. .............. 202 Variability in maxillary dental morphology ............................................................................ 203 Post-canine dental morphology ............................................................................................... 206 Variation in expression of maxillary incisor and molar morphology in South Asia ................ 213 Variation in expression of mandibular molar morphology in South Asia ............................... 214 Biological relationships of Mesolithic Lake Culture sites (MLC) with prehistoric South Asian samples based on dental morphology ...................................................................................... 214 Multidimensionally scaled plot of MMD values for global samples ....................................... 217 Multidimensionally scaled plot of MMD values for South Asian samples ............................. 217 Mean tooth crown area in prehistoric South Asia: DDM in context (sex-pooled) .................. 220 Summed tooth crown areas by jaw and by site ........................................................................ 222 Tooth size (total crown area) vs. time in ancient India ............................................................ 223 Occlusal views of DDM - 5 maxilla and mandible.................................................................. 225 Crown areas of DDM - 5 compared with prehistoric South Asian samples and living groups from India (Gujarat) and Indonesia (Javan Malay) .......................................................................... 225 Mean bone lengths by sex for Damdama................................................................................. 231 xvii

Figure 12.2 Figure 12.3 Figure 12.4 Figure 12.5 Figure 12.6 Figure 12.7 Figure 12.8 Figure 12.9 Figure 12.10 Figure 12.11 Figure 12.12

Osteometric variation in MLC upper limb dimensions ........................................................... 233 Osteometric variation in MLC femora .................................................................................... 236 Frequency distribution of platymeric and pilastric indices (A), mean platymeric index (B), and mean pilastric index (C) among MLC sites ...................................................................... 238 Mean stature by site and sex .................................................................................................... 241 Comparison of stature estimates by reference sample: Amer White vs. ancient Egyptian ...... 241 Mean stature estimates for Meolithic sites in Europe and South Asia compared .................... 241 The influence of cultural and climatic factors on post-cranial robusticity............................... 244 Diaphyseal (deltoid) and epiphyseal (articular) indices of robusticity of the humerus............ 248 Diaphyseal robusticity of the humerus by sex and by climate ................................................. 249 Femur robusticity (males): Mesolithic India in global context ................................................ 251 Plot of mean epiphyseal vs. mean diaphyseal robusticity ........................................................ 252

Figure 13.1 Figure 13.2 Figure 13.3 Figure 13.4 Figure 13.5

Right femoral exostosis (DDM 23, adult male) ....................................................................... 262 Left ulna of DDM 24 (young adult, male) with oblique fracture of distal diaphysis ............... 262 Left radius / ulna of DDM 30a (adult female) ......................................................................... 263 Popliteal surface of right tibiae of DDM 12 (female, left) and DDM 33 (male, right) ............ 263 Vascular Impressions of the interosseous surface of the tibiae of DDM 2 (adult, female) ...... 263

Figure 14.1

Integration of topics yields a synthetic perspective on the bioarchaeology of Damdama ....... 272

xviii

1. Introduction: Damdama in Context: Historical Background and Research Objectives The site of Damdama was discovered in 1978, and constitutes the third major Mesolithic site in the mid Ganga Plain to yield a significant number of artifacts in association with numerous human burials. Taking its name from the hollow sound made upon tapping the ground - ‘dham-dham’, villagers from surrounding areas were attracted to the site by abundant animal bone fragments and stone flakes on the surface. Five seasons of excavation were conducted at Damdama, between 1982-83 and 1986-87, yielding abundant evidence of early forager activity and behavior. The goal of this study is to learn more about the dietary patterns, health status, life stresses, and activity levels of the Mesolithic people of Damdama from a study of their burial practices and their skeletal and dental remains. Fulfilling this goal requires a broadly conceived, yet well integrated approach that includes methods and perspectives, not only from anthropology and archaeology, but from allied sciences including biology, geo-chemistry, ecology, geology, and ethnoarchaeology.

elements as we will see in the following history of research. In the initial stages of excavation and analysis at Sarai Nahar Rai (March 1970), the services of paleoanthropologist P. C. Dutta (Anthropological Survey of India) were requested by officers of the Uttar Pradesh, Department of Archaeology (Dutta 1971). His contributions to understanding the significance of the site and the specimen (SNR - 4) will be summarized later in this chapter. Also discovered in 1978, the site of Mahadaha was the second key Mesolithic site to produce numerous artifacts and human burials in abundance. Excavations at Mahadaha were conducted over two consecutive field seasons in 1977-78 and 1978-79. In addition to the 28 graves yielding 32 human skeletons, the archaeological evidence from Mahadaha included microliths, querns, mullers, hammer stones and animal bones. Providing a significant addition to the evidence from Sarai Nahar Rai, the discovery of Mahadaha raised important questions regarding the identity of the people and relationship of the cultural remains derived from these sites. Were the people from these two sites derived from one large interbreeding biological population? Or, were they sufficiently different from one another in their genetically determined traits to infer their derivation from different, largely unrelated ancestral populations? Similar issues and uncertainties surround the interpretation of variation in cultural expression at Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha. Are the people who lived at these sites representative of the same ethnic group? Would the life ways and patterns of human behavior inferred from remnants of material culture, skeletal and dental remains indicate a high degree of cultural and behavioral overlap? Upon a chance encounter, would the people of Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha regard one another as familiar and friendly or as foreign and threatening? While the discovery and excavation of Damdama has yielded abundant new data for understanding the cultural and

In 1968, a full decade before the discovery of Damdama, Professor G. R. Sharma and archaeologists from the University of Allahabad learned of artifacts, burials, hearths, and animal bones at Sarai Nahar Rai (SNR; see Figure 1.1 for location map). The first glimpse of early Holocene hunter/forager behavior among Mesolithic people of the Ganga Plains was based on the archaeological record and the fourteen human skeletons recovered from SNR. This site provided the foundation for Sharma’s reconstruction of the ‘Mesolithic Lake Cultures’ of the Ganga Plain. Though an archaeologist by training, and lacking formal study in human osteology, Prof. Sharma’s multifaceted approach to understanding Mesolithic life ways included insights derived from human skeletons and today his perspective would aptly be labeled ‘bioarchaeology’. Sharma’s integrative interpretation of the cultural adaptations, ecological setting, and human biological attributes of the Mesolithic Lake Culture at SNR was holistic and visionary, yet contained several controversial 1

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 1.1. Location map biological attributes of Mesolithic people of the mid Ganga Plain, it adds significant new dimensions to deciphering bio-cultural interaction. Questions regarding common or distinctive lifestyles, shared ethnic identity or distinctive norms of behavior, level of inter-group genetic affinity are magnified by the discovery of human remains at Damdama. While the skeletons from Damdama raise important anthropological questions, they simultaneously yield a diverse array of osseous and dental evidence that promises to answer many important questions regarding lifeways, health and subsistence in early Holocene north India.

questions that remain to be answered will be framed to guide the direction of the current study. 1.1 Sarai Nahar Rai: First Impressions of Mesolithic Lake Culture The earliest archaeological report on Sarai Nahar Rai presents: a) site location and context, b) a description of artifacts (lithic material, hearths) and excavation features (a living floor), c) a report on burial practices, and d) a list and characterization of the human skeletal remains (Sharma 1973a). Eight skeletons, four hearths, and a living floor with postholes were revealed during the 1972 excavation season at Sarai Nahar Rai. These discoveries are reported Sharma’s 1973 article in the Proceedings of the Prehistorical Society, and form the basis for several themes that characterize the subsequent history of interpretation of Mesolithic Lake Cultures. The environment of Sarai Nahar Rai was envisioned as salubrious in that abundant resources would have been easily accessible from the vegetation and wildlife associated with the surrounding plains, rivers, and ox-bow lakes. However, raw materials for the manufacture of essential lithic implements were

How can the archaeological and human skeletal evidence from Damdama add to what is already known of the Mesolithic Lake Culture (MLC) people? This introduction will review the archaeology and biological anthropology of Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha with particular attention to the insights and achievements of past research and to issues and questions that remain unresolved or enigmatic. Common elements and themes in human behavior, cultural expression, and biological attributes such as stature, health and nutrition will be identified and 2

Introduction: Damdama in Context – Historical Background and Research Objectives

scarce. A late stone age occupation situated in an area completely devoid of rock outcrops presents serious problems regarding resource acquisition. Microliths found at Sarai Nahar Rai represent an early stage of the geometric microlithic tradition, it is aceramic and has only one geometric shape - the triangle. Locally the pre-pottery geometric microlithic stage follows the non-geometric and precedes horizons containing geometric microliths in association with pottery (Sharma, 1973a, b). Sharma envisioned the small size of cores and microlithic flakes at Sarai Nahar Rai as evidence of the conservation of a rare and valuable resource, one that could only be obtained by migration to stone quarries in the Vindhya hills. The relative importance of resource availability, climate and ecological change, and human population pressure as factors initiating and maintaining Mesolithic migratory patterns between the Ganga plains and the Vindhya Hills were more fully developed by Sharma (1975).

burial fill were interpreted as possibly representing burial goods. Similarities in burial posture at Sarai Nahar Rai (extended, supine, one arm across the abdomen, east-west orientation; see Figure 1.2) and the earliest burial at Bagor, in Rajasthan are noted. The use of microliths as weapons in interpersonal violence was initially advanced in these early reports on the site. Sharma (1973a) contends that the most decisive evidence for the use of microliths as weapons is from Skeleton X, a robust male, whose seventh rib was pierced with a blunted-back blade, and whose pelvic bones had three additional microliths resting on the left (2) and right (1) sides. Two microliths were found in association with the distal end of Skeleton XIII’s right humerus, and a single microlith was recovered from the right iliac crest of Skeleton V. Sharma offers no opinion on the range of possible causes responsible for the traumatic injuries he interprets as indicating violent behavior. Inter-group conflict could result from territorial disputes or competition for scarce or valuable natural resources, or alternatively it could result from within group competition among males for females, or for a place of leadership or dominance within the group. In sum, Sharma viewed the Mesolithic people of Sarai Nahar Rai as both taller and more muscular in biological attributes than modern inhabitants of the Ganga Plain. He also viewed them as a group whose cultural

Additional themes developed in these initial discussions of the MLC include the first descriptions of burial practices and postures. Sharma called attention to the surprisingly large size and robust nature of the human skeletons, and the presence of stone points closely associated with or embedded in skeletal tissue. Shells and microliths recovered from

Figure 1.2. Sarai Nahar Rai burials showing orientation and position 3

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

identity was distinctive from other ancient peoples of northern India.

features are taken to indicate a heavily muscled and powerful masticatory apparatus, while the pattern of dental wear is interpreted to result from the mastication of coarse dietary items. Though aspects of this analysis are now known to be inconsistent with results derived from an analysis of the entire sample of fourteen skeletons from Sarai Nahar Rai, Dutta’s primary insights regarding large size of the cranium, short and broad face, generally large and healthy teeth, and powerful masticatory system were ultimately confirmed by subsequent research. These findings augment the cursory observations regarding human skeletal variation made by Sharma, add to our understanding of Mesolithic Lake Culture adaptations, and foreshadow results to be derived from the analysis of additional skeletons from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha.

From the beginning, perceptions of the Mesolithic Lake Culture were composed of inferences derived from geo-ecology, archaeology and human osteology. The significance that human skeletons from Sarai Nahar Rai held for understanding the final phases of human evolution was immediately appreciated by the biological anthropologist P. C. Dutta. With assistance from his colleagues at the Anthropological Survey of India, Calcutta, Dutta excavated one skeleton from the site and published no less than six reports on the site, its lithic industry and the biological attributes of this specimen (SNR - 4). Early reports announced the find and emphasized its significance to an international readership in Nature (Dutta 1971). In the same year, Dutta documented, in a preliminary manner, the site and its environs, the nature of lithic artifacts, animal bones and human remains (Dutta et. al. 1971). These initial reports were followed by a note on the estimation of stature (Dutta and Pal 1972) and a more comprehensive description of the human osteology of the specimen excavated by Dutta and colleagues and brought to the Anthropological Survey of India for analysis (SNR - 4) (Dutta et. al. 1972). A subsequent study describes the pathological nature of cranial asymmetry, presents dental crown measurements, and provides a comparison of the cranial dimensions of SNR - 4 with craniometric variation in the Langhnaj skeletal series (Dutta 1973).

After retiring from the Anthropological Survey of India, Dutta taught anthropology at Northeastern Hill University (Shillong) from 1989 to 1991, and wrote a textbook on human evolution and development (Dutta and Debi 1995). Evolutionary biology, living and fossil primates, and the fossil record for human evolution are presented in this text intended for university students of the arts and sciences. Chapter 8 summarizes evidence for anatomically modern humans from the Middle East, Europe and Australia, and includes an up-dated synopsis of research on Mesolithic skeletons from Sarai Nahar Rai (Dutta and Debi, 1995: 213-219). This summary incorporates the results of recent investigations by Kennedy and associates, who conducted the most comprehensive analysis of the Sarai Nahar Rai skeletal series in 1980 (Kennedy et. al 1986).

A synthetic re-analysis conducted in 1984, collated current information on the geology, climate, fauna, and vegetation at Sarai Nahar Rai and provided a biomechanical assessment of cranial morphology (Dutta 1984). In this paper, Dutta contends that the ‘pedocalic’ soil formed under the widespread arid conditions generally associated with the early Holocene, that the fauna indicates a humid to semiarid climate, and that the scarcity of pollen at the base of the section suggests arid conditions and high salinity. Specimen SNR - 4, was determined by Dutta to be a 40 year old, male, of medium stature, with a long narrow cranium and short mid-face (Figure 1.3), whose dental dimensions were classified as mesodont (Figure 1.4). He singles out two features of cranial morphology for special attention: a) the forward placement of the anterior root the zygomatic arch, and b) the large size and thick enamel of the dentition. Together with evidence of an edge-to-edge bite, these

In January 1975, Lukacs visited the University of Allahabad for a preliminary examination of the human remains from Sarai Nahar Rai and from Lekhahia ki Pahari, a rock shelter site with human skeletons, located on the Vindhya Plateau. Time constraints limited analysis to selected specimens. Special attention was given to morphological, metrical, and pathological conditions of the dentition. His findings were reported in the appendix to his doctoral dissertation, providing the first impression of dental variation in the Sarai Nahar Rai skeletal series based on more than a single specimen (Lukacs 1977). Four specimens, original numbers SNR- III, VIII, X and XIII, were examined and observations included large tooth size, robusticity of the jaws, and the relative absence

4

Introduction: Damdama in Context – Historical Background and Research Objectives

Figure 1.3. Frontal (A) and left lateral (B) views of the first reported Sarai Nahar Rai (SNR 4) cranium (from Dutta 1984: 46, Plate I, A and B) of dental disease. The excellent overall dental health of the Sarai Nahar Rai specimens was contrasted with the poorer dental condition of the Mesolithic skeletons from Langhnaj, Gujarat. These early observations on the Sarai Nahar Rai dentition confirmed aspects of Dutta’s initial assessment of dental health and dimensions in SNR - 4, but added several new insights that would serve as the basis for constructing hypotheses regarding population interaction in prehistory to be tested in the course of future research (Lukacs 1990, 2002).

analysis of the collective sample of skeletons from this site than any prior study (Kennedy et. al. 1986). Issues regarding the geological, ecological, and chronological context of the site were critically, though briefly discussed and the human osteological analysis documented preservation and inventory of each skeleton along with specific criteria for age and sex determination. Kennedy and associates provided a valuable summary assessment of cranial and postcranial skeletal morphology, as well as an analysis of the demography and pathology of the SNR skeletal series. Notable by its absence from this report was a summary statistical characterization of the morphometric or pathologic attributes of the sample under analysis. Mean values and frequencies of key attributes such as stature, tooth size, or morphological traits are missing. While the absence of descriptive statistics in this initial analysis of the Sarai Nahar Rai skeletal series might be attributable to the small number of specimens available for study, it prevents preliminary estimates of biological variation. Nevertheless, Kennedy and colleagues provide valuable new insights regarding the skeletal biology of the Sarai Nahar Rai skeletons, and their interpretation of the evidence confirms Dutta’s prior, but preliminary, assessments of large skull and body size, short and broad faces, muscular jaws and limb structures, and generally healthy dental and skeletal systems, based on the analysis of a single individual (SNR - 4). In regard to dental health, Kennedy and associates observations were generally consistent with my own findings derived from the 1975 study (Lukacs 1977), and viewed the SNR dentition as large in size, heavily worn, yet relatively free from dental diseases.

Figure 1.4. Palatal view of the dental arcade of SNR 4 In 1980, Kennedy commenced a comprehensive examination of the human remains from the MLC sites of Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha. Published in 1986, the report on Sarai Nahar Rai skeletal series provided a much needed and more detailed descriptive

5

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Perhaps the most insightful observation regarding the Sarai Nahar Rai skeletal series appears in the 'Evolutionary Considerations' section of the report, where it is recognized that,

in an west - east orientation, with the head to the west, c) multiple burials occur in both sites, d) skeletal evidence suggests large body size, tall stature, and a muscular physique, and e) skeletal anomalies, including perforated olecranon fossae of the humerus and small exostoses (bone spurs) were observed.

“The Mesolithic skeletal series from Sarai Nahar Rai represents a phenotypically distinctive population in South Asia. It is unlike other mortuary series hitherto discovered from this part of the world and submitted to morphometric analysis. Its unique place in the biological history of man in South Asia is especially significant in the light of its antiquity.” (Kennedy et al. 1986:39)

However, Sharma notes that in other attributes the lithic and human skeletal evidence from Mahadaha is significantly different from prior discoveries at Sarai Nahar Rai. Notable inter-site differences are evident in: a) the presence of additional geometric forms (trapezes) in the lithic inventory at MDH, implying a chronologically later and possibly more developed form of Mesolithic technology, b) the recovery of bone arrowheads, mullers and querns, c) increased variation in burial posture, including arms extended alongside the extended supine body, whereas at SNR the right or left arm was typically placed across the abdomen, and d) body adornments, such as earrings and a necklace, made from antler, were associated with two male skeletons at Mahadaha (Figure 1.6), yet no evidence of body ornaments was found at Sarai Nahar Rai. Notably absent from the report on Mahadaha burials is mention of microliths associated with human skeletons in a manner suggesting their use as weapons.

1.2 Mahadaha: Another Window on Mesolithic Lake Culture of the Ganga Plain The site of Mahadaha (MDH) was discovered in 1978, during the digging of a branch of the Sharda Shayak canal, when thousands of human and animal bones were recovered from the canal dump. Excavated for two consecutive seasons, 1977-78 and 1978-79, MDH has added significantly to the understanding of Mesolithic peoples and cultures of the Ganga Plain. An excavation report documenting accomplishments of the first season’s field work is available as the second chapter in Beginnings of Agriculture (Sharma et. al. 1980a) and separately as an independent publication (Sharma et. al. 1980b). This report quite naturally contrasts the site location, settlement pattern, burials and funerary practices, and material culture and lithic technology with evidence from Sarai Nahar Rai. While both sites are situated adjacent to ox-bow lakes, at Mahadaha two distinct activity areas were identified within the settlement: the butchery area to the east of the main settlement, and the habitation / cemetery area. Hearths and burials are interspersed among one another at Mahadaha and occasionally hearths and later burials cut into earlier graves (Figure 1.5). By contrast, at Sarai Nahar Rai the hearths encircle the burial pits. The newly discovered burials at Mahadaha, and the human remains recovered from them share several key features with the burials and skeletons from Sarai Nahar Rai: a) the state of preservation is excellent with a high degree of bone mineralization, b) burial posture and bodily orientation is similar with extended, supine interment,

Figure 1.5. General view of Mahadaha with burials Sharma’s inter-site comparison of settlement, lithic technology, human burials and skeletal variations raises important questions regarding the degree of

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Introduction: Damdama in Context – Historical Background and Research Objectives

Answers to such questions were not forthcoming until the Lekhahia burials were fully analyzed and inter-site comparisons of stature, tooth size, muscularity, and pathology completed. Results of these comparisons confirm Sharma’s preliminary assessments of the gracility and lower stature among Mesolithic people of the hills, but isotopic chemistry of bones from upland and plains sites are distinctively different and non-overlapping (Lukacs and Misra 2000; Lukacs et. al. 1996). This finding strongly indicates different dietary patterns among prehistoric inhabitants of the Vindhya Hills and Ganga Plains and does not favor the Sharma’s scenario of seasonal migration between ecozones (Lukacs 2002). The greater abundance of graves at Mahadaha permits deeper insight into funerary practices and variations in burial posture. The in situ description of graves (I to XV) and skeletons of 17 individuals encountered in the first excavation season at Mahadaha is provided in the excavation report (Sharma et. al. 1980b: 42-54). Thirteen graves (XVI to XXVIII) and skeletons of 15 individuals were recovered during the second excavation season at Mahadaha and in situ descriptions are provided by Pal (1985). Further details regarding burial practices at Mahadaha, including line drawings and photographs, are available in the Mahadaha skeletal report (Kennedy et. al. 1992). The Mahadaha skeletal series is significantly larger than the sample from Sarai Nahar Rai. Of the 32 skeletons recovered from Mahadaha, 26 were sufficiently well preserved to warrant morphometric analysis of the skeleton, and 16 retained portions of the jaws and teeth for anthropological examination.

Figure 1.6. Young adult male with bone ring ornaments (Mahadaha, MDH 12) cultural distinction, and the level of biological affinity among the inhabitants of sites in the Ganga Plain (Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai) as well as between them and more distant Mesolithic sites located in the Vindhya Hills. “A comparative study of the Mesolithic burials at Mahadaha in the Ganga valley and those of Lekhahia and Baghai-Khor rockshelters in the Vindhyas would be of archaeological and anthropological interest.” (Sharma et. al. 1980b:69).

The analysis of human skeletons from Mahadaha was conducted by an interdisciplinary team consisting of an archaeologist and a group of biological anthropologists with complementary research interests. The historical background of research, morphometric analysis of skeletons, and a concluding chapter on evolutionary considerations was prepared by Kennedy. The volume also included chapters devoted to: archaeological recovery and burial practices by Pal, paleodemography by Lovell, dental anthropology by Lukacs and Hemphill, and dental attrition and microwear by Pastor and Johnston. The analysis of human remains from Mahadaha represents the first international, collaborative, and interdisciplinary bioarchaeological study in South Asia. It was a unique achievement in that within this report detailed attention was given to: a) field excavation of burials, b) laboratory analysis of dental

Perceptively, Sharma describes differences in stature and skeletal robusticity that distinguish people from the Vindhyas from people of the plains, and asks insightful questions regarding the origin of these differences. “The skeletal remains of Lekhahia and Baghai-Khor are lighter and marked by tenderness, whereas those of Mahadaha are sturdy and well built. Was this difference due to the availability of better food stuff in the Ganga valley, or to ethnic difference? This will be determined when the evidence is fully analyzed.” (Sharma et al. 1980b:70). 7

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

and skeletal elements, c) dental microwear, and d) paleodemography. The inter-disciplinary contents of the Mahadaha report make it a landmark publication in the bioarchaeology of ancient India and a model for future research and publication in the discipline.

skeletal and dental variation yielded high dividends of insight and understanding of life stresses and health conditions during the Mesolithic in north India. Radiographic methods of diagnosing dental development and scanning electron microscropy of dental microwear patterns were coupled with more traditional methods of metrical assessment and macroscopic observation.

The vision of Mesolithic life ways derived from an examination of the human remains from Mahadaha does not differ in any significant way from perceptions derived from initial studies of the Sarai Nahar Rai site and skeletons. Though the expression of Mesolithic culture at Mahadaha may indicate a somewhat more advanced lithic and bone tool technology than found at Sarai Nahar Rai, there are many shared biological and cultural features that are common at both sites. The Mahadaha report confirmed numerous aspects of the human biology of Mesolithic inhabitants of the Ganga Plain, including: a) large size, tall stature, and robust skeletal structure, b) large teeth and powerful jaw structure, and c) relative absence of pathological lesions in the skeleton and dentition. Anomalous features of the skeleton and markers of repetitive activity that occur in both the Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha series include: squatting facets of the tibia, hyper-development of the forearm muscle attachment sites, and osteoarthritic modification of vertebrae and joint surfaces. These attributes strongly suggest that similar life ways and activity patterns were engaged in by the people from both sites. The people of Mahadaha exhibit the largest tooth size found among prehistoric South Asians, and while they endured a heavily abrasive diet, they remained relatively free from dental disease like their neighbors at Sarai Nahar Rai. In the concluding chapter of the Mahadaha report, Kennedy asserts that,

1.3 Bioarchaeology of Damdama: Goals and Objectives Given the level of knowledge gained from analyses of the Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha artifacts and skeletal series, one might well ask, “What can be learned about Mesolithic lifeways and biological adaptations in north India that we do not already know?” Why devote more time and effort to the analysis of human remains from another Mesolithic site in the Ganga Plain? Why subject the human osteological remains from Damdama to scientific scrutiny when evidence from SNR and MDH has already yielded a glimpse of semi-nomadic hunters and foragers of the Ganga Plain of north India? The most salient limitation of prior studies of Mesolithic human skeletons is methodological. Past studies have been overly descriptive and focused on the individual specimen and its unique biological characteristics. When an understanding of biological adaptations and genetic affiliations comprise the primary issues of interest, a statistical approach based on the population as the main analytic unit is essential. The contrast is exemplified by conceptual perspectives that may be labeled “osteobiographical” and “adaptive populational”. An osteobiographic approach to human remains emphasizes an understanding of the individual’s life history as a complex and cumulative process of development. This approach traces the history of adaptive development as it is indelibly embedded in skeletal and dental tissue. The human osteologist accepts the challenge of deciphering clues and traces of past illness, nutritional stress, and repetitive physical exertion that occurred during an individual’s life. Integrating inferences from the skeleton regarding stature, dental health, age at death, sex, and evidence of nutritional disease, into an individual history of adaptation. These pieces of evidence comprise the data on which an individual’s bone biography is constructed. However, other expressions of genetically determined growth are important as well, such as dental morphology and non-metric skeletal attributes. Prior research on the skeletal biology of

“The skeletons from Mahadaha are the largest series of human remains recovered thus far from the south Asian Mesolithic, the period of cultural transition and concomitant demographic and biological reorganization marking the end of the once ubiquitous palaeolithic huntingforaging lifeway and anticipatory to the technologically more complex food-producing economic strategies of the Neolithic...” (Kennedy et. al. 1992:305). The large size of the Mahadaha skeletal series coupled with the interdisciplinary and collaborative approach employed in describing and interpreting 8

Introduction: Damdama in Context – Historical Background and Research Objectives

Mesolithic South Asians has focused too heavily on individual osteobiography, and consequently suffers from inadequate attention to population variation as a key component of the adaptive biological process.

• describing differences in stature or health quantitatively, • investigating components of large scale variables. C) Theoretical and Interpretive Models • subsistence transition theory as a framework for understanding demography skeletal and dental pathology, and morphological variation, • principles of thermoregulation and physiological adaptation to climate used in interpreting variation in body size, limb proportions and robusticity.

Following in the tradition of earlier research on the Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha skeletal series, this analysis of the human remains from Damdama is concerned with similar questions of biological identity and adaptation. However, this study represents a break with tradition in several ways. The most significant difference is the emphasis this analysis places on a population perspective of human skeletal biology, including documentation of biological variability within the Damdama skeletal series. Furthermore, this study places greater reliance on quantitative and graphic methods for characterizing dental and osteological variability, and includes more extensive inter-site comparison of cranial, dental and post-cranial variation. The grounding of this analysis in evolutionary theory and population biology, and the increased reliance on quantitative methods is made possible by the large size of the Damdama series in dramatic contrast to skeletal series from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha. Recent advancements in human osteology and newly developed methodologies and techniques also contribute to the wider range of analytic methods and techniques employed in this study.

For example, the chapter on skeletal preservation provides a discussion of the general condition of skeletal preservation and a tabular inventory of skeletal elements. This basic and fundamental record is amplified by attention to microscopic and chemical variation in preservation within the Damdama series and between Damdama and other north Indian skeletal samples. The principles of taphonomy are used to improve understanding of human and non-human, physical and chemical factors that contribute to differential preservation and destruction of skeletal elements at Damdama in contrast to other key archaeological sites. Objectivity in osteological analysis is enhanced through the use of discriminant functions for attribution of sex from post-cranial metric data, including dimensions of tarsal bones, elements of the upper extremity (dimensions of the humerus) and elements of the lower extremity (dimensions of the innominate and femur). The first author (JRL) has personally studied all three Mesolithic Lake Culture skeletal series, a feature of this study that facilitates: a) direct quantitative comparison of dental wear gradients and frequency of pathological lesions among sites, and b) obviates concerns over interobserver variance in observation or methodology. These attributes of the study enhance reliability and consistency of the comparative components of this research. For example, this investigation presents the first seriation of all Mesolithic Lake Cultures skeletons on the basis of degree of dental wear, permitting approximate inter-site cross-correlation of individuals by dental age.

Though the following research questions and investigative concerns may not be new or innovative in the bioarchaeology of Native North Americans or Europeans, they represent a fresh and innovative approach to the skeletal biology of prehistoric South Asians. Examples of the range of methods and issues addressed in this study, that are innovative in the bioarchaeology of ancient India, include analytical and methodological innovations in several categories: A) Preservation and Inventory Methods • graphical comparison of skeletal preservation among Mesolithic sites, • documentation of bone preservation histologically and chemically, • adoption of a taphonomic approach to understanding skeletal preservation. B) Osteological Methodology • employing metric and quantitative methods of age and sex attribution, • using descriptive and inferential statistics in characterizing trait variation,

Finally, this investigation deconstructs large scale variables into meaningful sub-components for more detailed analysis. For example, previous analysis of Mesolithic skeletons from the Ganga Plains have given attention to tall stature and inter-site comparisons of stature. The research reported in this 9

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

volume sub-divides stature into its component variables, and examines the relative proportions of limb segments (leg vs. thigh; forearm vs. upper arm) and interprets these variations in an adaptive biological framework. Similarly, variation in skeletal robusticity is partitioned into biologically meaningful components such as variation in muscle attachment sites (entheses), size of long bone epiphyses, and size of long bone shafts. The idea that robusticity of a skeleton can be usefully partitioned into osteometric and functional components is applied to analysis of post-cranial skeletal elements. The sub-division of larger or aggregate variables into smaller and more precise components for analysis yields greater insight into human biological adaptation in response to stresses induced by environmental conditions and activity patterns. The size and morphology of skeletal extremities for example, are selectively influenced by patterns of locomotion, physiological adaptation to climate, and occupational stresses.

contribution to the skeletal biology of prehistoric peoples of India rests firmly upon the diligent labors and prior accomplishments of archaeologists and anthropologists who share a desire to better understand India’s past. Before turning attention to the osteological remains from Damdama, Chapter 2 provides an overview of the regional geophysical setting of the site, summarizes evidence of regional geology, geography and climate. Site-specific issues such as chronology and local aspects of ecology and subsistence are the focus of Chapter 3. Excavations at Damdama and a summary overview of the archaeological evidence from the site is provided by V. N. Misra, J. N. Pal and M. E. Gupta in Chapter 4. J. N. Pal, instrumental in the excavation and conservation of human remains from Damdama documents the burial features and funerary practices in this chapter. Skeletal preservation, taphonomy, and an inventory of human remains is documented in Chapter 5. Demographic issues, including estimation of age and sex, are the focus of Chapter 6, which includes the critical subject of determining the age and sex of individual skeletons. Chapter 7 presents an approach to estimating age at death from histological indicators in dental cementum. The first glimpse of the Damdamans’ phenotype, cranial and mandibular morphometric variation, is the subject of Chapter 8. Initial topics in dental anthropology, including a dental inventory and analysis of tooth wear are considered in Chapter 9. The frequency of pathological dental lesions are presented in Chapter 10, and the insights they reveal regarding diet and oral health are discussed. Chapter 11 focuses on tooth crown morphology and odontometry, and their contribution to understanding prehistoric population affinities and the evolutionary reduction of tooth size in South Asia. Osteometry, estimation of stature, body proportions and robusticity comprise the focus of Chapter 12. Indicators of stress, pathological skeletal lesions and markers of activity and behavior are analyzed in Chapter 13. Lesion frequencies and distributions are presented and insights regarding general health, nutritional status, activity patterns, interpersonal violence and accidental injury are discussed. The final chapter provides an integrative synthesis of each chapters’ findings to provide a holistic interpretation of the biological adaptations and affinities of the people of Damdama.

The goals of this volume are multiple, yet modest. The first aspiration is to reveal the many ways in which bioarchaeology can contribute to a deeper understanding of prehistoric human behavior. This goal is especially relevant for people whose culture is rudimentary and for whom behavioral insights from the archaeological record of material culture is diminished. In such cases the unique and unparalleled evidence from human skeletal and dental variations is significantly enhanced. The second goal is more specific, to answer the call of Indian archaeologists who feel that although Mesolithic hunter-foragers of the Ganga Plain played a central role in the regional archaeological sequence, “...much more remains to be known about them.”(Chakrabarti 2001: 257). The third and final goal is that this investigation reaches beyond the evidence from Damdama and permits an integrative and synthetic perspective of the Mesolithic Lake Culture of north India. Thus further developing the idea that, “The mesolithic hunters and foragers who roamed the Indian landscape have left long enough shadows which still touch us in different ways.”(Charkabarti 1999:116). This final goal would be impossible to achieve without the pioneering field research of G. R. Sharma and his associates at the University of Allahabad, Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, and without the foundation provided by prior research in biological anthropology, especially by P.C. Dutta and Kenneth A.R. Kennedy. It should be clear to all that this

10

2. Regional Context: Geology, Geography and Climate Essential prerequisites in the study of past cultures and peoples is contextualizing them in at least two dimensions: space and time. This chapter provides a large scale spatial and temporal framework for Damdama by presenting a basic outline of regional geophysical features of the Ganga Plain and their evolution. A summary of the geologic and sedimentologic history of the region is followed by a review of different perspectives on early Holocene paleoclimate. Geomorphol ogi cal and geoarchaeological perspectives on paleoclimate and climate change in the mid-Ganga Plain generally, and in the Belan and Son Valleys in particular, are summarized to provide a regional foundation for understanding climate and ecology at Damdama.

The history of research on human skeletal remains from Mesolithic Lake Culture sites is characterized by attentiveness to problems of chronological context, and a lack of sufficient regard for the geo-ecological setting of these sites. The analysis of human remains from Sarai Nahar Rai reported local, site-specific data on soils and stratigraphy, fauna and flora, and provided a terse general concluding statement on local paleoclimate (Kennedy et al. 1986:6-7). The first chapter of the monograph on human skeletons from Mahadaha, entitled ‘historical background of research’, includes a separate sub-section with the heading - “Palaeoecological Setting”. The discussion of paleoecology at Mahadaha is based partly on paleoenvironmental data and trends during the Pleistocene / Holocene transition in the Thar Desert of northwest India and partly on Oldham’s review of the evolution of Indian geography, published in 1894 (Kennedy et al. 1992). While the environment and ecology of the mid-Ganga Plain is not discussed in detail, generalizations regarding alluvial deposits, diversity of habitats and climatic variations are provided. The absence of a well referenced, summary review of the geophyscial setting and paleoenvrionments of the Ganga Plain, is striking and is overdue, providing the stimulus for this comprehensive review of geology, sedimentology, and paleoenvironments. This section of Chapter 2 is designed to place the people of Damdama, and their biological and cultural adaptations firmly in the realm of the natural environment. Situating the bioarchaeological analysis of human remains from Damdama securely with a broader geo-ecological context is an essential prerequisite to fully understanding the interaction of these Mesolithic people with their physical surroundings.

2.1 The Geophysical Setting: Geology, Sedimentology, and Climatology of the Ganga Plain An understanding of the geophysical context in which prehistoric human populations foraged and camped is essential for several reasons: a) their biological and cultural remains are literally embedded in sediments that formed at a particular time and place in the geological evolution of the Ganga Basin, b) the fauna and flora on which they subsisted is intimately tied to the ecology and geography of the ancient landscape, and c) their biological and physiological adaptations were wrought by the terrain, food resources, and climatic conditions that persisted here in antiquity. The goal of this chapter is to outline key features of the geophysical evolution of the Ganga Basin, to place Mesolithic Lake Cultures within this geophysical history, and then to critically review diverse data on paleoenvironment and paleoclimate, including regional perspectives. Site-specific evidence regarding climate, ecology and chronology derived from Damdama itself will be considered in Chapter 3, with the goal of providing an understanding of the local environment, and the physical, floral and faunal components of the habitat in which Mesolithic Damdamans lived.

The summary overview that follows is based on recent descriptions of Ganga Basin geology and geomorphology (Dwivedi et. al. 1997; Narayan and Nigam 1992; Singh 1996; Singh and Ghosh 1994), and sedimentology and stratigraphy (Kar et. al. 1997; Kumar et. al. 1996, Sharma et. al. 2004, 2006; Shukla

11

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

et. al. 2001). A recent summary of Quaternary paleoenvironments of the Ganga Plain was presented as the keynote address at the 32nd annual meeting of the Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies (Lucknow, December 2004) and was conducted by Singh (2005). The myth of dense forests dominating ecology of the Ganga Plain and precluding human occupation until iron technology facilitated clearance has been effectively refuted (Tewari 2004).

boundary, while the southern limit is demarcated by the Vindhyan plateau. While the length of the Ganga Plain is approximately 1000 km, the width is variable, being narrower in the east (200 km), broader in the west (450 km). Three north-south zones can be recognized in the plain, the Piedmont Plain, Central Alluvial Plain, and the Marginal Alluvial Plain (Fig. 2.3). The Piedmont Plain includes both the Bhabar belt, a 10-30 km wide belt with steep slopes, deeply incised streams, situated adjacent to the Himalayan front; and the Terai belt, a 10-50 km wide low-lying area with swamps, ponds and sandy rivers. The Central Alluvial Plain, which comprises the bulk of the Ganga Plain, exhibits a gentle slope and features a drainage pattern aligned predominantly to the southeast. The Marginal Alluvial Plain is north sloping and features drainage to the NE by gravelly and coarse sandy rivers.

2.2 Geological Origin, Structure and Evolution of the Indo-Gangetic Foreland Basin The subcontinent of India is comprised of three physiographic regions: the Himalayas to the north, the Peninsula to the south, and the Indo-Gangetic Plain, interposed between the two (Fig. 2.1). Geological studies in south Asia have traditionally focused on hard rock successions or litho-stratigraphy, with the ancient peninsular Gondwana System and the dramatic Himalayan mountain exposures comprising the primary subjects of study (Singh 1996). The IndoGangetic Plains were initially viewed as a flat, featureless, and monotonous tract whose uninteresting landscape discouraged researchers who were preferentially attracted to the more fertile grounds and exciting landscapes of the Himalaya and the peninsula. The geological evolution and sedimentary history of the Gangetic Plain has become a focus of research within the past two decades due to the recognition of links between Himalayan tectonism and geology of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a growing appreciation of the value of studying Quaternary sediments for environmental assessment and planning, and in connection with the search for hydrocarbons and assessment of groundwater potential (Kumar et. al. 1996; Singh 1996). Clearly the increased attention that geologists and geomorphologists have given to the sediments and structures of the Ganga Basin provides valuable evidence for understanding paleogeography, paleoenvironments and paleoecology of Mesolithic archaeological sites in the area.

Figure 2.1. Physiographic zones of South Asia The Himalayan Mountain chain was produced by tectonic uplift following continental collision, and subsequent subduction of the Indian or peninsular plate (Gondwanaland) beneath the Asian plate (Laurasia) (Molnar 1986, 1997). The Tethys Sea separated the northern margin of the Indian plate from the southern margin of Asia prior to continental collision. Near-shore sediments of the Tethys Sea

The Ganga Plain is a sub-section of the more geographically extensive Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain (Fig. 2.2). The Aravalli-Delhi ridge defines the western limit and the Rajmahal hills comprise the eastern limit of the Ganga Plain. The Siwalik hills, piedmont of the Himalaya, form the northern

12

Regional Context: Geology, Geography and Climate

Figure 2.2. Geographic divisions of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaphutra Plain

Figure 2.3. Sub-divisions of the Ganga Plain and foreland basin are remarkable in providing a detailed paleontological record of the origin of primitive whales (archaeocetes) from terrestrial mammals during the early and middle Eocene (Thewissen 1998; Thewissen et al. 2001). A recent review of plate kinematic, paleomagnetic, paleontologic and stratigraphic evidence suggests that Indo-Asian continental contact occurred approximately 70 Ma (Yin and Harrison 2000). Subsequent crustal shortening and the initial rise of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau occurred during the Eocene. The high level of tectonism involved in the Himalayan orogeny has caused marine sediments of

Tethyan origin to become uplifted to significant elevations in the middle and high Himalaya (Valdiya 2002). Simultaneously, a geological structure known as the foreland basin developed as a direct result of this collision and the downward deflection of the Indian plate as it dips beneath the Asian plate (Willett and Beaumont 1994). While the craggy heights of the snow-covered Himalayas present awe-inspiring vistas, the magnitude and spectacular nature of the peripheral foredeep is concealed by extremely thick sediment. Foreland basin sediments rest upon basement rock that slopes gently northward and is composed of 13

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

metamorphic, Late Proterozoic, or Gondwana rocks. The topographic relief of the foreland basement has been reconstructed from a number of geophysical studies, including: seismic, gravity and magnetic surveys, and by deep drilling conducted by the Oil and Natural Gas Commission. The foreland basin is not a smooth incline, but exhibits distinctive ridges and basins, over which sediments are variably thinner or thicker. The basement is exposed in the west as the Delhi-Hardwar ridge, and two important basement basins (lows) have been documented, the Gandak and Sarda depressions. Near the main boundary fault, on the northern edge of the foreland, basement depths reach 6000 m below the present surface. The basement gradually rises to the south, with depths of approximately 3000 m at Lucknow, and less than 1000 m at Kanpur. An uplifted basement massif is known to exist beneath the Ganga alluvium north and west of Allahabad, and includes the entire area of Pratapgarh District, home to Damdama and other key Mesolithic Lake Culture sites. All essential features of a foreland basin are present and well defined here, including: a) orogen (the Himalaya), b) deformed and uplifted sediments adjacent to the orogen (Siwalik hills), c) depositional foredeep basin (Ganga Plain), and d) peripheral craton (Vindhya Plateau) (Singh 1996; see Figure 2.4).

Asia, and the erosion and weathering of the southern peripheral craton bulge. Nevertheless, the creation of a topographic basin is an essential antecedent to the accumulation of erosive sediments and the creation of a lithostratigraphic sedimentary record. 2.3 Sedimentology, Geomorphology and Climatic Sequence of the Ganga Foreland Basin Predominant factors influencing the formation and destruction of sediments and landforms in the Ganga Basin are fluctuations in sea level (variable base), Himalayan tectonism (episodic mountain-building), and amount of precipitation. The source of water flowing into the Ganga Plain is estimated to originate 60% from the Himalayas and 40% from the peninsula. However, several factors make these figures misleading indicators of the amount of sediment each region contributes to the Ganga Basin. In contrast to the peninsular craton, the Himalayan chain presents greater glacial erosion and temperature variation, steeper stream gradients, higher stream discharge and sediment load, coupled with less seasonality. All of which would directly result in a significantly higher contribution of sediments from the Himalayan chain than from the southern peninsula. The Ganga Foreland Basin is characterized as having attained a mature phase of evolution, with an oversupply of sediment, yet the basin remains incompletely filled. The present geomorphologic landscape was built to 300 - 500 m above sea level, exclusively by fluvial activity. Over 200 boreholes dug by the Central Ground Water Board reveal variation in the lithologic composition of the foredeep basin sediments. Overall, gravel, sand (coarse, medium, fine grained), mud, and mud with kankar, represent the common lithologies. In the Ganga Yamuna doab, at Kasganj (approximately 300 km NW of Kanpur, where the basement is between 0.5 and 1.0 km beneath the plain) sediment percentages consists of 45% gravel and coarse sand, 35% medium to fine sand, and 20% mud-kankar.

An estimated chronological sequence for the evolution of the Ganga foreland basin is provided by Singh (1996), who envisions four stages of development: a) initiation in the early Miocene, following a temporal delay after continental collision in the Eocene, b) subsidence and flexing of the basin began in the middle Eocene, c) the northern portion of the basin was uplifted and thrusted basin-ward in several steps from the middle Miocene to the middle Pleistocene, and d) craton-ward or southerly migration of the Ganga foreland basin has continued from middle Pleistocene to late Quaternary times. The geological origin of the foreland basin through tectonic activity occurred synchronously with the gradual rise and erosion of the Himalaya, the progressive subduction of the peninsular plate beneath

14

Regional Context: Geology, Geography and Climate

Table 2.1. Geomorphological surfaces of the Ganga Plain (after Singh 1996) Geomorphic Surfaces / older ‘classical’ terminology

Absolute Date (kya)

O2 Isotope Stage

Active Floodplain Surface (To ) / Newer Alluvium

12 - present

2-1

Piedmont Fan Surface (PF) /

23 - present

2-1

River Valley Terrace (T1 ) / Newer Alluvium

35 - 23

3

Megafan Surface (F) /

74 - 36

4-3

128 - 75

5e - 5a

Marginal Plain Upland Surface (MP) / Older Alluvium Upland Terrace Surface (T2 ) / Older Alluvium

Table 2.2. Four zone model of alluvial megafan sedimentation (Shukla et al. 2001) Zone Number

Zone Name

Features

I (proximal)

Gravelly braided zone

15 - 20 km wide belt; shallow braided channels; inter-layered gravel and sand bars

II

Sandy braided plain

channels shallow (1-2 m), bars 2-3 m high

III

Anastomosing channel plain

large vegetated inter-channel areas; lateral change from channel sand to mud interfluve common

IV (distal)

Meandering channels, broad interfluves

natural levees develop along meandering channels

According to Singh (1996), the classical literature subdivides the Ganga Plain alluvium into two morphostratigraphic units: Older Alluvium (Bhangar, Bangar) and Newer Alluvium (Khadar), following Oldham, Pascoe, and Pilgrim. Higher interfluve areas comprise the Bhangar alluvium and major river channels and their tributaries constitute the Khadar a l l u vi u m. Al s o r e c o gn i ze d as n ame d geomorphological units are: gravely sediments near the Siwalik front (Bhabar), flat marshy areas adjacent to the Himalayan piedmont (Terai), linear sandy ridges of the northwest (Bhur), and salt-affected areas throughout the Ganga Plain (Usar). In the Ganga Plain of Uttar Pradesh, in which Pratapgarh District and Mesolithic Lake Culture sites are located, regional upland surfaces are termed Varanasi Older Alluvium and Banda Older Alluvium, while Piedmont Fan deposits are referred to as Bhat Alluvium (Singh 1996: 110). Current nomenclature of landforms in the Ganga Plain

recognizes six depositional surfaces spanning the early Late Pleistocene to the Late Holocene (see Table 2.1). Dating these units is difficult and the approximate chronology presented by Singh (1996) is based on morphological inter-relationships and order of superposition.

Figure 2.4. N-S cross section of foreland basin: components and structure

15

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 2.5. Size and extent of mid-Ganga megafans

Figure 2.6. Idealized model of megafan sediments and geomorphology The Older Alluvium of classical geologists is subdivided into the Upland Terrace Surface (T2 ) and the Marginal Plain Surface (MP). These high planar landforms probably originated during a long humid climatic period that coincided with three episodes of high sea level and lead to wide spread alluviation and planation. Megafan Surfaces (F) result from a huge amount of sediment transported from the Himalaya to the plain, forming four large cone-shaped alluvial

fans. Named after rivers responsible for their deposition, the megafans are Kosi, Gandak, Sarda, and Yamuna - Ganga (from east to west; Fig. 2.5). The Sarda Fan is of special relevance because it is the largest and is more highly skewed in a southeasterly direction, than other fans. The Sarda Megafan is bounded by the Ganga River in the south, the Ghaghara River in the north, it extends in an easterly direction to approximately 100 km west of Patna, thus 16

Regional Context: Geology, Geography and Climate

covering the geographic region immediately north of Allahabad.

preservation and destruction. Alkaline burial environments preserve bone well, and mineralization of the skeleton occurs quickly, guaranteeing long-term preservation of bones and teeth. Alternatively, when nodular kankar forms in excessive amounts, it may adhere with great tenacity to the external cortical surface of bone. Efforts to remove calcrete from bone involved considerable force, requiring the use of implements such as hammer and chisel. This typically caused removal of bone with calcrete, preventing efficient removal of matrix from cortical bone.

A model of alluvial megafan sedimentation was recently developed by Shukla and associates based on their analysis of the Ganga Megafan (Shukla et al. 2001). A four zone sedimentation model is proposed that is characterized by proximal (adjacent to the piedmont) and distal facies changes that generally typify megafan deposition. The zone names, their characteristic features and facies are summarized in Figure 2.6 and Table 2.2.

Shell deposits have been extensively studied due to their economic role as raw material for small-scale cement plants. The general stratigraphy of lakes in the Central Ganga Alluvial Plain begins with a sandy base, followed by beds of shell, black loamy clay, and capped by silty subsoil at the top. Total thickness averages about 3 to 4 m, while the base of the shell layer is typically C14 dated to approximately 8 Kya. The lake-fill section from Misa Tal, Lucknow District, located less than 100 km west of the Mesolithic Lake Culture sites, yielded the following geomorphic and climatic sequence:

The Newer Alluvium of traditional Indian geomorphologists is now subdivided into: River Valley Terrace (T1 ) and Active Flood Plain Surface (T0 ), with a newly recognized land form - Piedmont Fan Surface (PF) - interposed between them (see Table 2.1). The River Valley Terrace is situated several meters higher than the active flood plain, is not typically affected by floods, and overbank deposits are rare. The Piedmont Fan Surface includes both the Bhabar and Terai belts, and is characterized by diverging and converging shallow braided channels that are active only during the monsoon. PF surfaces are superimposed on megafan, T2 or T1 surfaces and are therefore younger. The Active Flood Plain Surface (T0 ) of the Central Ganga Alluvial Plain consists of relatively narrow, entrenched rivers with poorly developed flood plains. This surface is associated with a variety of fluvial land forms including: channels, channel bars, levees, meander cutoffs, oxbow lakes, swamps, crevasse channels and a range of sediment types. These are the types of land form that existed, with minor modification during the early middle Holocene when Mesolithic people foraged across the landscape.

12 - 8 Kya. Activation and formation of river channels on T2 surface due to low sea level and increased water budget, but reduced sediment supply. The increased water budget was in response to melting Himalayan glaciers and high early Holocene precipitation. 8 - 6 Kya. Abandonment of many channels and channel belts and formation of many large linear lakes. The channel abandonment occurred in response to base-level adjustment due to rising-sea level. Large lakes were maintained by continued high water budget, related to high precipitation rates.

A Holocene climatic and environmental history of the Ganga Plain has been proposed by Singh (1996: 118120) based on supplemental evidence derived from calcrete horizons, shell deposits, and lake bed cores. Calcrete, or kankar, is calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) that precipitates from groundwater in bedded or nodular form. Groundwater of the Ganga Plain is alkaline, high in calcium carbonate and has the potential to produce calcrete. Extensive samples of near-surface calcrete from the Lucknow - Kanpur region were dated (using C14 ), indicating that the early and middle Holocene (10 - 4 kya) witnessed extensive kankar formation in response to fluctuating groundwater levels. Calcium carbonate at Damdama presents positive and negative features with regard to bone

6 - 4 Kya. Lakes begin to shrink in size due to increase in supply of sediment caused by dryer climate. In-filling of lakes with clayey sediment low in shell count. Aridity increases in combination with reduced water budget. 4- 2 Kya. Increased rates of siltation and deposition of organic matter producing rich clay deposits in lakes. Increased sedimentation partly due to aridity, partly anthropogenic - due to initiation of agriculture. 2 - 0 Kya. Siltation of major portion of most lakes, which become ephemeral in nature. Oxidized clayey silt deposited as the top layer (Singh 1996: 119-120).

17

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

The sediments, stratigraphy, and geomorphic features of the Ganga Foreland Basin provide a useful contextual framework for understanding changes in the landscape, landforms, and climate in which Mesolithic hunters and foragers subsisted. Higher resolution and finer grained analysis of the microstructure and chemical composition of carbonate nodules from Ganga Plain soils provide another avenue from which Holocene climate has been reconstructed.

sedimentation and soil formation; and c) significant uplift, resulting in well-developed soils becoming subject to erosion. By contrast, tectonism has an impact on geomorphology by affecting: a) the slope of tectonic blocks thereby influencing direction and gradient of drainage; b) how faults define river courses, c) the sag and tilt of fault blocks, thereby causing shifts in stream courses and changes in meander sinuosity. Stating that, “No information is available from the Gangetic Plains for climate changes during the Holocene period...” (Srivastava et. al. 1994: 149), evidence from adjoining areas is briefly reviewed. Referring to the palynology of lacustrine deposits in Rajasthan (900 km WNW), the mineralogy of outer shelf sediments, and multiple indicators of climate in the Vale of Kashmir (600 km, NW), Srivastava and associates conclude that adjoining areas experienced a cold and arid climate from the early Holocene to approximately 6000 - 5000 yr B.P., when a period of wetter and warmer climate began. The ages of the QGH 5 and QGH 4 calcrete suggest that between 11,500 and 6,500 yr BP, climate in the central Ganga Basin was dry as well. In this analysis, climatic conditions in the study area are inferred from the study of geographic areas over 500 km away, in different ecozones and at different altitudes. The impact of the inferred climate change at 6,500 BP is then used to explain the dissolution and removal of calcrete from younger soils in the Ganga Plain, leading to the formation of relict soils. Singh (1996: 118) is critical of Srivastava’s analysis of soil development and the validity of ages he assigned to soil-geomorphic units. According to Singh, Ganga Plain sediments do not display prominent soil profiles because the soils are too immature. Vertical and horizontal variation in grain size and mineralogy are more likely due to changes in provenance and depositional processes than soil development, Singh contends. Furthermore, the antiquity assigned to different soil-geomorphic units have little validity, due to problems inherent in accurately dating the antiquity of calcrete formation.

2.4 Holocene Soils of the Ganga Plain: Indicators of Paleoclimate Climatic conditions that prevailed during periods of past soil formation may directly influence structural and chemical properties of soils and can be preserved intact in prehistoric soils or paleosols. Close examination of specialized components of fossil soils, including minerology, stable isotope composition of carbonate nodules (kankar), and micromorphology may yield valuable clues to climatic conditions and vegetation cover during the time of soil development. A series of provocative studies on soils of the Central Alluvial Plain of the Ganga Basin have recently been conducted with specific consideration devoted to: a) the role of neo-tectonics and climate in soil development (Srivastava et. al. 1994), b) clay mineral assemblages as paleoclimate indicators (Srivastava et. al. 1998), c) paleoclimatic implications of variation in stable isotopes and micromorphology of pedogenic carbonates (Srivastava 2001), and d) climatic inferences from micromorphological features of polygenetic soils (Srivastava and Parkash 2002). In 1994, Srivastava and colleagues investigated the role of neotectonics and climate in the geomorphology and soil development in the Central Ganga Alluvial Plain (Srivastava et al. 1994). Fifteen soil-geomorphic units were delineated, between the Ramganga and Rapti Rivers, including multiple sample sites in Pratapgarh District, home of the Mesolithic Lake Culture sites. Remote sensing, field checks, and laboratory analysis were used and soils were grouped into five members (QGH 1 to QGH 5) with QGH 5 being the oldest. Soil chrono-associations were determined by degree of soil profile development and by C14 dates on pedogenic carbonates derived from the top layers of soil units. Tectonism influences both pedogenesis and geomorphology in different ways. Tectonism controls soil formation processes by causing: a) local subsidence, permitting sedimentation, resulting in poorly drained soils, as in piedmont zones; b) slight uplift, cessation of

In 1998, Srivastava and colleagues conducted a significantly more detailed analysis of clay minerology in samples from the former study (Srivastava et. al 1998). This analysis is based on the mineral biotite, which weathers to vermiculite and smectite during the relatively cooler and arid phase (10,000 - 6,500 yr B.P.), then during the succeeding warm and humid phase unstable smectite was transformed into smectitie-kaolin. The investigators conclude that during the development of soils in alluvium of the Ganga Plain, climatic fluctuations 18

Regional Context: Geology, Geography and Climate

appear to be more significant than previously believed. Once again, the evidence used in reconstructing paleoclimatic conditions in the Ganga Plain were derived from disconnected areas to the northwest and west. No evidence from within the Ganga Basin is presented in these investigations that could permit inference regarding local climatic history during the Holocene.

have preserved a Late Quaternary sedimentary record of climate change that has relevance to reconstructing paleoclimate for Mesolithic Lake Culture sites. 2.5 Late Quaternary Environments of the Ganga Basin: Evidence from the Belan and Son Rivers A flurry of intensive geo-archaeological field research was conducted in the middle Ganga Basin during the early 1980s. Teams from the University of California, led by J. D. Clark and from Macquarie University led by Martin A.J. Williams were co-ordinated by Professor G.R. Sharma, doyen of ancient Indian history and archaeology at the University of Allahabad. Two seasons of interdisciplinary fieldwork were conducted in 1980 and 1982 in the Belan and Son River Valleys. Significant advances in knowledge of regional archaeology, geomorphology and paleoclimatology were made and provided valuable new perspectives on cultural and climatic sequences in the area south of Allahabad during the Late Quaternary (Sharma and Clark 1982, 1983). The sediments, stratigraphic sequences, and inferred geoecology and climatic histories of these valleys were found to be more complex than previously reported (Williams and Clarke 1984; Williams and Royce 1982). Sediments and traces of human occupation in the region were shown to span the Middle Pleistocene to Late Holocene, but established stratigraphic sequences based on cemented gravels of the Belan Valley were problematic and required revision. Four geological formations are now recognized in the Son Valley: the Sihawal, the Patpara, the Baghor, and the Khetaunhi Formations. The lithology, chrononlogy, and cultural associations of these deposits are given in Table 2.3.

The focus shifted in 2001, to an analysis of micromorphology and stable isotope abundances of pedogenic carbonates (Srivastava 2001). Two types of calcrete are identified. Type I occurs in more strongly developed soils of older soil-chrono-associations (QGH 4 and QGH 5), shows more regular morphology, includes soil constituents and precipitation of carbonates between weathered layers of mica, and has a lower percentage of calcite than Type II. Srivastava (2001:218-219) asserts that the micromorphology of Type I calcrete indicates that it formed during pedogenesis in a semi-arid to subhumid climatic phase. In addition, the depleted values of carbon stable isotope (ä13 C values range from - 6.9 ‰ to - 0.6 ‰) of Type I calcrete suggest that a significant portion of the vegetation in older soil chrono-associations (13,500 - 6,500 yr BP) was C4 vegetation. Pollen analysis suggests that species of Chenopodium sp. on dry saline land and Typha sp. on lakeshores were part of the grassland component of this habitat. If the stratigraphy and chronology employed by Singh (1996) and Srivastava and colleagues (1994, 1998, 2001, 2002) are fundamentally correct, there is some disparity in their interpretation of climatic conditions in the mid Ganga Plain during early to mid Holocene times. Singh (1996) envisions a humid phase with a high water budget derived from high levels of precipitation, while Srivastava, in different publications, infers arid or semi-arid conditions during the same period of time. The differences between these paleoenvironmental reconstructions may result from the different methods these researchers use, differences in interpretation of soil maturity and the validity of inferences regarding the antiquity of the soils under study. In the southern margin of the Ganga Basin, rivers draining the peripheral northern margin of the peninsular craton

Cross-bedded sands were deposited in the Son Valley during the terminal Pleistocene by a highly seasonal, low sinuosity stream. The early Holocene was characterized by deposition of highly stratified silts and clays due to overbank flooding of a more sinuous, less seasonal stream. The upward-fining sequence of Late Quaternary deposits in the Son Valley is interpreted by these investigators to coincide with global change in climate in the intertropical zone, from dry and cold in the terminal Pleistocene, to warm and wet in the early Holocene. Radiocarbon dates from shell, charcoal and carbonate from the terrestrial

19

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 2.3. Late Quaternary formations of the Son River Valley1 Geological Formation

Age (years BP)

Lithology

Cultural Associations

Khetaunhi

3,000 ±

interbedded silts & clays, occasional fine to very fine sand

Neolithic

Baghor

#10,000 - $26,000

upper Fine Member: silts, clays, & fine sands lower Coarse Member: sand & cemented gravel

Mesolithic Upper Paleolithic

Patpara

Upper Pleistocene

clay rich sands & gravels gravelly-sands & sandy-gravels red-brown hue

Middle Paleolithic - Upper Acheulean

Sihawal

Middle Pleistocene TL date: 103,800 ± 19,800

basal conglomerate, sandstone cobbles in gray & yellow-brown clay

Lower Paleolithic

1) Modified from (Clark and W illiams 1986 :23, Fig. 2)

sedimentary sequence of the Belan and Son Valleys permitted correlation with microfossils, sediment, and oxygen isotope studies of deep sea cores from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea (Williams and Clarke 1984).

derived from sea-core data remains consistent with prior reports by these researchers, “ ...the Early to Middle Pleistocene climate of India was generally wet and warm, with heavy monsoonal rain in summer and moderate rain in winter. By about 4 - 3 kyr BP the Late Holocene dessication of northern India was under way, aggravated by the impact of Neolithic herding, land clearance and cultivation.” (Williams and Clarke 1995: 287).

During the early Holocene, when Mesolithic populations inhabited these valleys sporadic deposition of wind-blown dust continued, though a local color change from yellow-brown to black may signify organic staining of dust trapped in seasonal or perennial swamps. Also during this time, between 10 8 kya and 5 - 4 kyr, the two rivers incised 20 - 30 m into their former flood plains, exposing older alluvial formations. Recently, alluvial stratigraphic sections were reported at: a) Jhusi, on the left bank of the Ganga, 1 km upstream from the Ganga - Yamuna confluence, b) eight locations in the middle Belan Valley, and c) four location in the middle Son Valley (Williams and Clarke 1995). The most significant result of this study relates to the discovery and implications of pure volcanic ash (Toba) in a buried channel of the Baghor Formation. The Toba ash constitutes a widespread chronostratigraphic marker bed at 75 kyr BP, enabling correlation with other Upper Pleistocene sites. Reconstruction of climate

These findings are generally consistent with the results reported by Singh (1996) derived from the analysis of shifts in sedimentation, erosion, and transformation of land forms through time. Therefore it is not surprising to find greater agreement between the paleoclimatic reconstructions advanced by the Australian geologists Williams and Clark (1995), Singh (1996), and Sharma and colleagues (2004, 2006; see below), and a greater disparity in the Holocene paleoclimate history presented by Srivastava and associates.

20

Regional Context: Geology, Geography and Climate

21

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

The site of Damdama would have been occupied during the time sediments of Zone IIIb were accumulating (10,000 to 5800 BP). The oxbow lake reached its maximum extent during this humid period which was characterized by an active SW monsoon. Vegetation attains maximal coverage at this time as well, with pondweed (Potamogeton sp.) - an aquatic perennial and bulrush (Typha sp.) - a flowering monocot becoming abundant, while ferns and sedges decline in frequency. Grasses continue to dominate the non-arboreal pollen as in Zone IIIa. The authors interpret Zone IIIb as possibly corresponding to the early to mid-Holocene climatic optimum, a phase recognized in profiles from several regions of India, including the Son Valley in north central India (Williams and Clarke 1984) and Rajasthan in western India (Bryson and Swain 1981).

2.6 A Multi-proxy Approach to Late Glacial Holocene Environments of the mid-Ganga Plain An innovative multi-proxy approach to paleoclimate, vegetation and ecology of the middle Ganga Plain provides valuable evidence for the environmental setting in which the people of Damdama lived and foraged. Stable isotopes, elemental geochemistry and pollen analysis of sediments from Sanai Lake in the central Ganga Plain were used to reconstruct climate oscillations during the past 15,000 years (Sharma et al. 2004). Sanai Tal is located about 100 kms west of Damdama, between Aihar and Raebareli. The freshly exposed profile, 2.10 m deep, was excavated in May 2000, calibrated with 7 radiocarbon dates (AMS 14 C), and was systematically sampled every 5.0 to 15.0 cm. A tabular summary of selected variables was compiled from Sharma and colleagues’ analysis (Table 2.4). Four relatively more humid, wet phases and three relatively dry, arid phases were grouped into four LithoZones (I through IV) which were identified by variation in sediment, pollen content, and carbon and oxygen isotopes. The pollen data indicate that Sanai Lake catchment has been dominated by grasses throughout the recorded depositional history (Sharma et al. 2004: 151). This result is opposed to the longstanding assumption that the Ganga Plain east of the Yamuna River was heavily forested until iron technology facilitated clearance and large scale human occupation in early historic times (Tewari 2004).

This account provides a summary yet detailed description of key features of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and provides valuable data for understanding the regional paleo-landscape in which Mesolithic Lake Culture sites are located. Specific attention was given to the origin and structural geology of the mid-Ganga Plain, regional geomorphology and evolution of landforms, and reconstructions of climate change through time. The next chapter has a narrower focus and provides current site-specific evidence on the chronology, local ecology, and subsistence patterns at Damdama.

22

3. Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence Having established the fundamental components of regional context in Chapter 2, we now move from issues concerning the geophysical, stratigraphic and paleoclimatic characteristics of the Ganga Plain during the early Holocene, to local and site-specific issues regarding the antiquity of human activity at Damdama, archaeologically derived evidence of local environments and ecology, and patterns of subsistence and mobility inferred from biological (fauna and flora) and cultural evidence recovered from Lake Culture sites.

critical review of the evidence for subsistence, and of the scenarios inferred from this evidence, is undertaken here to provide a subsistence baseline against which the biological attributes derived from an examination of human skeletal and dental remains can be compared. 3.1 Chronology: Controversy and Contention The goal of this section is to evaluate evidence bearing on the antiquity of Damdama. This objective has three components:

Spatial and temporal context are critical components of any archaeological or paleontological investigation. The chronology of Late Quaternary cultural sequences in north India has had a contentious history, yet knowing when the site of Damdama was occupied is crucial to every component of this bioarchaeological investigation. This chapter begins with a review of salient problems surrounding the chronology of postPleistocene cultures of the mid-Ganga Plain and presents recent advances in the effort to establish an absolute chronology of Mesolithic sites, thereby placing Damdama more securely within a local chronological sequence. The second section of the chapter addresses questions about habitat. What was the local environment like at Damdama? Was the ecological setting in which Mesolithic foragers lived the same as, or significantly different from, the present-day ecology of the Ganga Plain? Multiple indicators of the local environment at Damdama, including soil structure and chemistry, macro- and micro- botanical evidence, and faunal remains from the site are summarized in response to these concerns. The final section of the chapter is devoted to conflicting interpretations of Mesolithic subsistence patterns. Several archaeologists have garnered a diverse array of data bearing upon subsistence at Damdama. These data include size and type of lithic and bone implements, food refuse, resource exploitation patterns, spatial orientation of burials, and attributes of the fauna and flora. They provide the foundation for conflicting inferences regarding the nature of mesolithic subsistence at Damdama. A

1) a review of the controversy and contention over Mesolithic chronology in north India, 2) critical assessment of eleven 14 C dates from DDM derived from human bone (n=4) and bovid dental enamel (n=7), and 3) to interpret these new dates and evaluate their implications for understanding Mesolithic Lake Culture adaptations. The chronological framework for Mesolithic cultures of north India is unreliable, unresolved, and the subject of much controversy. The most profound obstacle to successful inter-site comparison and the main factor discouraging serious consideration of these sites by archaeologists and bio-anthropologists world-wide is the absence of a well established chronology. The fact that some archaeologists favor a very young age (2500-1000 BC for SNR and LKH; Sharma and Sharma 1987), while others, equally confidently, advocate an early Holocene antiquity 8100 BC for SNR (Sharma et al. 1980 a, b), suggests the magnitude of the problem. Previously published absolute dates for Mesolithic sites in rockshelters of the Kaimur Hills and open-air sites of the Ganga Plains are provided in Table 3.1. Several independent factors contribute to this heterogeneity of dates: charcoal deposits are rare or of minuscule size, 14C dating has occasionally been conducted on inappropriate or contaminated materials, and complete and adequate pre-treatment of 14 C samples is neither uniform, standardized, nor commonly practiced.

23

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 3.1. Radiocarbon dates for Mesolithic skeletons from North India Site

Unit

Layer

Date1

Sample Number

Material Dated

Phase III

4

3,560 ±110

TF-417

bone

Phase I

8

4,240 ±115

TF-419

bone

Loc XII-XIV

2

4,010 ±120

BS-136

Loc XIIXVIII

3

2,880 ±250

BS-137

Loc VI-XII

4

3,840 ±130

BS-138

Hearth 1/A3

?

2,860 ±120

TF-1356

bone

Hearth 2/B4

1

10,050 ±110

TF-1359

charred bone

Lekhahia

Mahadaha

Sarai Nahar Rai

charred bone carbonate

Source Agrawal & Kusumgar, 1969

Rajagopalan et al., 1982

Agrawal & Kusumgar, 1975 Agrawal & Kusumgar, 1973

1) in radiocarbon years BP using half-life and corrections as described in sources cited

While the absence of charcoal should foster the development and application of alternative methods that use non-organic materials, such as thermoluminescence (TL) and electron spin resonance (ESR), these techniques have not been systematically applied to Mesolithic sites in north India. The limited use of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) to assess 14 C dates on structural carbonate from carefully pretreated bio-apatite from dental enamel and bone in South Asian prehistory may be due to a combination of economic and technical factors.

chronological contemporaneity or temporal sequence of sites is an essential prerequisite to meaningful inter-site comparative analysis of lithic assemblages, burial practices, paleodiet, paleopathology, and paleodemography. Resolving the chronological framework of the north Indian Mesolithic became an important component of our interdisciplinary biocultural research program. 3.1.1. Radiocarbon dates from accelerator mass spectrography (AMS). In this section previously reported radiocarbon dates from human bone (n=4) and bovid dental enamel (n=7) for four north Indian Mesolithic sites (DDM, LKH, MDH, SNR) are evaluated (Lukacs et al. 1996; Lukacs and Pal 2003). The goal is to better understand the chronology of north Indian Mesolithic sites generally and to provide a firmer basis for the temporal placement of Damdama in particular.

The chronology of archaeological sites that have yielded cultural remains of Mesolithic hunting and foraging peoples of the Indian subcontinent has recently been discussed in some detail (Kennedy et al. 1986:8-9, 52; 1992:7-9; Possehl and Rissman 1992). We agree with these authors that the high diversity of dates currently available for the Indian Mesolithic are inconsistent and inconclusive. It may also be true that some archaeologists inappropriately equate microlithic with Mesolithic, creating confusion and a broad temporal range for 'Mesolithic' cultures in India (Kennedy 2000:198). Nevertheless, the prime obstacle to an improved chronology for these important hunting and foraging sites in the Kaimur Hills and the mid-Ganga Plain is the absence of a well formulated research plan to acquire new absolute dates using newly developed methods. Establishing the

Four new AMS 14C dates, two for Damdama and two for Lekhahia are presented in Table 3.2. These dates are based on structural carbonate from the inorganic phase (apatite) of human cortical bone (proximal femoral sections). Samples were analyzed by Krueger Enterprises / Geochron Laboratories Division. Preparation included multi-stage pre-treatment with acetic acid washes to remove adsorbed, diagenetic carbonate. Natural and laboratory experiments

24

Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence

Table 3.2. AMS C14 dates for Mesolithic skeletons from North India1 Date2

Lab sample Number

Skeleton Number

8,640 ±65

GX-20829-AM S

DDM 36a

8,865 ±65

GX-20827-AM S

DDM 12

8,370 ±75

GX-20983-AM S

LKH 4

II 6 8,000 ±75 1) AM S = Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 2) These dates are in C 14 years BP and have been C 13 corrected

GX-20984-AM S

LKH 13

Site

Phase

Layer

VIII Damdama

I III

3

Lekhahia

have shown that accurate dates can be derived from structural carbonate in bio-apatite provided cleaning and pre-treatment is thorough and the small carbon samples are measured by AMS (Krueger 1991). The results reported here constitute the first absolute dates for Damdama and suggest an early Holocene antiquity for this site. The dates for Damdama are internally consistent: DDM-12 the earliest skeleton, and the only specimen from Phase I yielded a date of 8,865 ±65 BP, while DDM-36a, from Phase VIII is approximately two centuries younger (8,640 ±65 BP). The dates from Lekhahia are exciting yet somewhat problematic. Exciting because they suggest an antiquity for the site that is twice as old as previously thought, problematic because there is inconsistency in the results. The stratigraphically deeper skeleton (LKH 13; 8,000 ±75 BP) has an antiquity that is more than three centuries younger than the skeleton (LKH 4; 8,370 ±75 BP) stratigraphically above it.

MDH n=3, SNR n=1). All samples were analyzed by Geochron Laboratories using the following methodology. Enamel was thoroughly cleaned by repeated washings in distilled water with ultrasound for the purpose of removing dirt and foreign material. The sample was treated with dilute acetic acid to dissolve surficial carbonate. After further washing and drying, the sample was crushed to fragments less than 1.0 mm and was again treated with dilute acetic acid, with periodic evacuation, until the evolution of carbon dioxide from normal carbonates ceased. Powdered samples were washed, dried, and reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid, under vacuum, to dissolve bioapatite and to recover carbon dioxide for analysis. The radiocarbon dates are presented in Table 3.3, with relevant ancillary data, including archaeological context and ä13 C‰ values. Figure 3.1 provides a graphic comparison of radiocarbon dates by site, stratum and material dated. All carbon samples were very small and analysis by AMS was required. Dates are based on the Libby half-life (5570 yrs) for 14 C, are reported in radiocarbon years before present (BP), and are 13 C corrected.

According to both Sharma (1965) and Misra (1977) the stratigraphic position of human skeletons at Lekhahia is difficult to ascertain due to disturbance, and some specimens could not be assigned to period. Furthermore field notes recorded during the excavation of human skeletons at Lekhahia (Gupta ms) and laboratory observations of commingled skeletal elements (Lukacs and Misra 1997) further document the degree of disturbance at this site. These archaeological and skeletal observations may explain the 'inconsistency' of the new 14 C dates, which comprise precise and reliable absolute determinations that simply reflect the disturbed stratigraphy at this rockshelter site. These new radiometric ages tentatively place Damdama in the first half and place Lekhahia toward the end of the 7th millennium BC. Bio-apatite from seven samples of bovid dental enamel were analyzed from three sites (DDM n=3,

Different levels and types of diagenesis were detected for the three sites from which bovid enamel was derived. Damdama had the least contamination, and stable isotopes indicate that soil carbonate is normal (Krueger, pers. comm: 25 Mar 97). A larger amount of secondary carbonate was found in the Sarai Nahar Rai sample, also similar to soil carbonate. Mahadaha had more contamination and the stable isotopes suggest that it is partly marine limestone, dissolved and redeposited. Though the three samples from Damdama cleaned up well and yielded consistent ages (Krueger, pers comm), they are younger by an average about three thousand years than the dates derived from human bone bioapatite (Table 3.2).

25

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 3.3. AMS radiocarbon dates from bovid enamel (bioapatite) Site 1

Geochron ID Number (Sample #)

Stratum

Square

Date Excavated

Bone #

Age (BP)

ä 13C

DDM

GX - 22887-AMS-1

1

S-15

1987

378

5,550 ± 60

0.5

DDM

GX - 22888-AMS-3

6

N-4

1984

-

5,250 ± 70

0.9

DDM

GX - 22889-AMS-6

8

P-10

1984

126

5,430 ± 60

1.0

SNR

GX - 22890-AMS-8

surface

B-5

1972

-

5,040 ± 50

1.7

MDH

GX - 22891-AMS-9

1

E-3

1979

XII-XVII

4,680 ± 80

0.7

MDH

GX - 22892-AMS-10

2

F-2

1978

VI-XI

4,110 ± 60

0.1

MDH

GX - 22893-AMS-12

4

F-2

1978

VI-XII

6,160 ± 60

0.8

1) site name abbreviations: DDM = Damdama; MDH = M ahadaha; SNR = Sarai Nahar Rai

Two sets of dates can be paired by stratum at Damdama. From stratum 1, the human bone sample from DDM 12 yields an age of 8,865 ±65 years BP, while the bovid enamel sample (bone # 378) from the same stratum gave an age of 5550 ±60 years BP, a difference of 3,315 years. Likewise, paired samples from stratum 8 at Damdama include the human bone sample from skeleton DDM 36a (8,640 ± 55 BP) and the bovid enamel sample from bone number 126 (5,430 ± 60 BP). Again the bovid enamel sample produced an age that is 3,210 years younger than the human bone apatite sample. Interpretation of the different results from human bone and bovid enamel could reflect: 1) methodological problems in age assessment from different biological tissues, either bone or enamel yielding inaccurate dates, or 2) archaeological disturbance, with intrusion of accurately dated bovid dental remains from a later period into deeper, older strata with accurately dated human remains.

Comparative dates for Mesolithic sites in North India come from Baghor II, in the Son Valley, and Paisra, a stone age site in Bihar. While no hearths were encountered during excavations at the Mesolithic site of Baghor II, a radiocarbon date of 8,090 ±220 BP (PRL-715) was derived from 'scattered charcoal' overlying layer 2a, 0.61-0.69 cms below datum (Agrawal et al. 1985:95). This same determination for Mesolithic Baghor II was reported with minor variations as 8,330 ± 220 BP by Mandal (1983:28687), and as 6,200 BC by Clark and Williams (1986:33). This date is interpreted as belonging to the earlier part of the Mesolithic and is associated with an occupation where post-holes, grinding stones with pigment traces, and a geometric microlithic industry lacking the micro-burin technique were found. This date for Baghor II is considered consistent with the earlier date (10,050 BP) for SNR (Mandal 1983), and is in agreement with the new dates reported here for Lekhahia, but somewhat younger than the new dates for DDM. Excavations at the stone age settlement of Paisra (Munger Dist, Bihar) yielded a 7,420 ±110 BP date (BS-675) on charcoal from a refuse pit in Locality F of the Mesolithic occupation (Pant and Jayaswal 1991). The authors emphasize the significance of this date since it is the only radiocarbon date known for the Mesolithic in eastern India (Pant and Jayaswal 1991:136 & 139).

The antiquity of Mahadaha is plagued by similar issues. Dates reported by Rajagopalan and associates (1982, Table 3.1) are not congruent with stratigraphic depth; the sample from layer 2 is dated earlier than samples from layers 3 or 4. A mid-Holocene age of 6320 ± 80 BP (OxA 1647) for MDH is based on charred animal bone from layer 3 (Chattopadhyaya 1996). This date is ca. 3440 years older than sample from layer 3 (BS-137; 2880 BP) reported by Rajagopalan (et al. 1982). Newer dates giving greater attention to sample preparation and using AMS methods suggest that the antiquity of MLC sites may be greater than previously believed; DDM likely early Holocene and MDH possibly mid-Holocene.

3.1.2. Implications of new dates for Mesolithic adaptations. The new AMS 14 C dates for Damdama and Lekhahia have significant implications for understanding Mesolithic adaptations in north central India. First, these dates raise a strong challenge to ideas of population interaction between Mesolithic hunting /

26

Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence

Figure 3.1. AMS 14 C dates for Ganga Lake Culture sites (st-stratum, Ph-phase, MDH-Mahadaha, SNR-Sarai Nahar Rai, LKH-Lekhahia) foraging people and settled agriculturalists. Second, by establishing a greater degree of contemporaniety between Mesolithic sites of the Kaimur Hills and the Gangetic Plains, they open new possibilities for research into issues of sedentism and mobility. The bio-cultural significance of contact between the nomadic microlithic people of Langhnaj and the urban agriculturalists of Lothal is well documented (Possehl and Kennedy 1979; Kennedy et al. 1984; Lukacs 1990). Previously published late dates for the Mesolithic cultures of Gangetic Plains and Kaimur Hills suggest to some prehistorians, "...signs of the kind of accommodation between a hunting and gathering population and later food producers that has been suggested for the interactive trade and barter aspect of the Indian microlithic tradition" (Possehl and Rissman 1992:37). If confirmed by further radiometric determinations, the new early Holocene dates for Damdama and Lekhahia dictate against the interactive trade model for north central India. The accommodation referred to above is based on late dates for MDH presented in Table 3.1. If an earlier, mid-Holocene age for MDH is confirmed, this interpretation of interactive trade becomes less likely. We believe that the homogeneous pattern of artifact types, burial patterns, biological adaptations, and pathological lesions from Mahadaha, Damdama, Sarai Nahar Rai, and Lekhahia (Lukacs and Misra 1997)

represent one broadly similar set of adaptations shared by early Holocene hunters and foragers of this region, and they do not provide convincing evidence in support of the interactive trade model for north central India. The new dates reported here place Damdama and Lekhahia temporally prior to the local beginnings of agriculture, and bio-cultural evidence of interactive trade with settled agriclturalists is lacking. Confirmation of the new AMS dates will place Damdama, a representative site of the plains, and Lekhahia, a rockshelter site of the Kaimur Hills, within the same millennium. The greater degree of temporal proximity between these two sites renders the investigation of issues regarding mobility and transhumance more manageable (Lukacs, 2002). 3.2 Local Environment and Ecology: Soils, Flora, and Fauna Local indicators of paleoenvironment at Mesolithic Lake Culture sites were initially described and interpreted in conjunction with the excavation of burials at Sarai Nahar Rai beginning in 1968. Evidence from soils and pollen comprised key environmental indicators in early assessments of paleoenvironment in the mid-Ganga Plain. After reviewing early attempts at environmental reconstruction, including the evidence from 27

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Mahadaha, more recent botanical and faunal studies at Damdama are considered.

Following Gupta's (1976) pioneering analysis of sediments and pollen profiles near Sarai Nahar Rai, further investigations were conducted at oxbow lakes near Chopani-mando, located 77 km SE of Allahabad, on a terrace of the Belan River, and Mahadaha, one of the key Mesolithic Lake Culture sites, by Pant and Pant (1980). Their brief report was very preliminary in nature and the few microfossils recovered were interpreted to indicate that grassland vegetation predominated during the time Mahadaha was occupied. Fungal spores and Compositae (daisy, dandelion, aster) pollen were also recovered. The presence of Pinus (pine) pollen is rare and probably best accounted for by dispersive aerial transport from the Himalayan foothills.

3.2.1. Early environmental reconstructions for Mesolithic Lake Cultures. The earliest assessment of environmental conditions associated with Mesolithic Lake Cultures of the early Holocene are based upon soil horizons and faunal remains at Sarai Nahar Rai (Dutta 1984), as well as lacustrine sediments and a pollen profile obtained from an oxbow lake located approximately 15 km southwest of Pratapgarh and 1.5 km southeast of the archaeological site of SNR (Gupta 1976). Dutta (1984) follows Gupta (1976) in recognizing three local stratigraphic units, labeled Lithozone (LZ) 1 through 3, youngest to oldest, and correlating the deposits at Sarai Nahar Rai with the pedocalic soil of Lithozone 3. Gupta identified LZ-3 in lake sediments, while Dutta observed it in the Belkhari Nahar nala section, and provides a diagram showing inter-site stratigraphic correlations (Dutta 1984: 38, Fig.3) . This unit (LZ-3) is comprised of clay mixed with coarse sand that contains irregularly shaped kankar (calcium carbonate nodules). Arid to sub-arid climatic conditions are indicated by this type of soil, an attribution which Dutta (1984) finds consistent with widespread aridity during the early Holocene. Gupta (1976) sub-divides a 330 cm deep lacustrine profile into four local pollen assemblages [HS - I (earliest) through HS - IV (most recent)]. The pollen profile is interpreted by Gupta to show a general trend from arid, to semi-arid, to moist conditions, during the time Sarai Nahar Rai was occupied. The early Holocene environment is characterized as open savannah, and the climate is estimated to have been arid.

Soil chemistry and pollen analysis on eighteen samples from an oxbow lake near Damdama were conducted by Kajale and Deotare (1988). The 1.8 m section was comprised of yellowish alluvial silt (30 cm thick), locally known as Khadar, at the base. The thickest unit (0.30 - 1.6 m) comprised a silty clay with yellowish-red patches due to limonitzation of the lake sediments. The uppermost 30 cm is modern soil containing humus. The lower fifteen samples were found to be very poor in pollen and fungal spores occurred only in the lower level samples. Chemical characterization of the sediments in terms of pH, Eh and organic carbon content provided insight into why pollen was not found in greater abundance. Values for pH ranged from neutral to alkaline (6.8 - 8.2), while the oxidation - reduction potential (Eh) was determined to be very low (-0.02 to -0.09). Organic carbon content of the soil was also very low (< 0.25%) in all but the top three samples which were classified as modern soils. The investigators suggest that two factors account for the near absence of pollen in their samples: a) the pH - Eh character of most samples indicates that a partially oxidizing environment was present, and b) limonitized patches in the sediment profile clearly indicate intermittent exposure of the sediment. The second feature may be due to groundwater fluctuation that typically occurs during the alternating wet (monsoon) season and the dry summer season. Similar seasonal variation and sediment chemistry may have been present in the early Holocene accounting for the very low level of pollen preservation at Mesolithic Lake Culture sites.

3.2.2. Botanical indicators of environment. Botanical remains are less informative about paleoenvironment than faunal evidence, yet they have yielded several important insights regarding vegetation and habitat during the early Holocene. Evidence of plants in prehistory comes from microscopic pollen spores and from macroscopic seeds, grains and plant fragments. Sediments at Mesolithic Lake Culture sites and adjacent horseshoe lakes are generally not conducive to pollen preservation and hence pollen profiles are often based on low abundances of poorly preserved pollen. By contrast, seeds and grains are somewhat better preserved, occur in greater abundances and yield greater insight into environment and human - plant interaction among foragers of the mid-Ganga Plain.

The most informative study of botanical remains from Mesolithic sites was conducted at Damdama using flotation for recovery of seeds and grains (Kajale 1990). This analysis of plant remains from DDM is 28

Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence

devoted to understanding plant economy rather than paleoenvironment, but revealed evidence of several wild plant species (Kajale 1990). Three taxa have been identified to species, these include: wild grasses (Heteropogon contortus, and several of indeterminate type), goosefoot (Chenopodium album), and purslane (Portulaca oleracea). Seeds belonging to three additional plant groups have been identified to family: buckwheat (Polygonaceae), niteshade (Solanaceae), and mint (Labiatae), and more specific identifications will be forthcoming (Kajale 1990). In India today, C. album is found wild and as a weed in cultivated fields. The plant has medicinal uses, the young shoots are eaten as greens, and boiled seeds are mixed with, or substituted for, grains (Weber 1991). Purslane is a succulent, yellow-flowered herb commonly regarded as a troublesome weed, but whose greens are often consumed. In addition, evidence of millet-like grains and the Indian jujube (Zizyphus) have been noted by the excavators. The stone of the small fruit of the jujube preserves well and is known from many prehistoric sites in the Indian subcontinent. Widely distributed throughout India today, the jujube is commonly harvested in February and March, and is consumed fresh, dried, candied, stewed or smoked. The leaves and bark of the tree also have value, as fodder and for medicinal purposes, and the fruit may be an important source of nutrition during periods of scarcity (Weber 1991). For a review of botanical evidence of agriculture in mid-Ganga Plain see Fuller (2006: 44-45).

The list of faunal remains from Sarai Nahar Rai provided by Dutta (1984) is based on Sharma's (1975) presidential address to the Indian Prehistorical Society (Delhi). It provides the same list of faunal elements that Sharma (1973a) published in his earlier, preliminary report to the Prehistoric Society, and includes: two species of buffalo (Bos indicus and Bos bubalus), elephant (Elephas indicus), sheep (Ovis sp.), goat (Capra ap.) and tortoise (Chelonia sp.). This list was based upon preliminary zooarchaeological identifications by Alur. At the conclusion of Alur's research on the faunal remains from the Vindhyas and Ganga Valley, his final report included a more extensive list of taxa (Alur 1980). Alur added hippopotamus (Hippopotamus paleaindicus), bison (gaur, Bos gaurus), swamp deer (barasingha, Cervus duvauceli) and axis deer (chital, Cervus axis) to Sharma's preliminary list of Sarai Nahar Rai fauna, but drew no paleoenvironmental inferences from the fauna. The more extensive fauna remains from Mahadaha were also examined by Alur (1980) and reported in Appendix I of Beginnings of Agriculture (Sharma et al. 1980a, b). The entire study sample comprises 768 specimens derived from the lake area (n = 319), the butchering area (n = 165) and the cemetery/habitation area (n = 284). Twelve taxa were recognized by Alur at Mahadaha, including: cattle (Bos indicus); sheep / goat (Ovidae / Capridae); antelope and deer (Cervidae); bison (Bos gaurus); hippopotamus (Hippopotamus palaeindicus); swine (Sus scrofa); horse (Equidae); carnivores (Carnivoridae); rat (Rattus rattus); tortoise (Chelonia); fish; birds (Gallus galliformes). In the body of the Mahadaha report, Sharma contends that among the SNR and MDH fauna, "...bison, elephant, and hippopotamus would require more humid climate than the one prevailing in the area at present. This would suggest a greater incidence of rainfall and swampy condition during the Mesolithic period." (Sharma et al. 1980a:110).

3.2.3. Faunal indicators of environment. A recent review of Holocene archaeozoology in India and Pakistan includes a critical summary of faunal studies at Mesolithic sites in the Ganga Plain (Chattopadhyaya 2002a). This review envisions the historical development of Mesolithic faunal studies as occurring in three phases: a) Alur’s early study of Ganga Valley sites (Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha, first season) and Chopani-Mando a site in the Vindhyan plateau (Alur 1980), b) Chattopadhyaya’s dissertation research, which included material previously analyzed by Alur, with the addition of samples from the second season at Mahadaha and the first two seasons at Damdama (Chattopadhyaya 1996), and c) completion of Thomas and Joglekar’s research on the entire faunal sample from Damdama (Thomas et al. 1996; Thomas et al. 2002). The following assessment of Mesolithic Lake Culture paleoenvironment is organized in accordance with the history of faunal studies in the region.

Faunal studies of Mesolithic sites in north India are primarily devoted to the goals of deciphering dietary patterns or reconstructing subsistence systems. These perspectives and inferences are more fully discussed in the next section of this chapter. The investigation of Mesolithic fauna has been less directly concerned with reconstructing paleoecological interactions and environmental conditions during the early Holocene when these sites were occupied. However, several observations based on taxonomic and functional aspects of Mesolithic fauna provide valuable 29

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

information regarding the early Holocene paleoenvironment. The swamp deer or barasingha found at these sites is identified by Chattopadhyaya (2002a), as the sub-species Cervus duvauceli duvauceli (Cuvier). This sub-species is differentiated from its cousin, Cervus duvauceli branderi (Pocock), by the larger size of the skull and body, and by splayed hooves. While the branderi sub-species frequents areas with a firm substrate and open terrain, in the central highlands of Madhya Pradesh and peninsular India, the archaeologically derived duvauceli sub-species has an ecological preference for moist and swampy habitats (Sankhala 1978:101). The latter habitats are regarded as consistent with the wellwatered alluvial plains, meander channels and oxbow lakes inferred from geomorphology and stratigraphy of the early Holocene Ganga Plain.

relationships and patterns of resource exploitation were similar too. While there is merit to using modern cultures and ecological systems as analogues for interpreting the past, especially when direct evidence is incomplete or fragmentary, great care must be taken to avoid projecting modern ecology and culture into the past. 3.3 Mesolithic Subsistence Patterns: Evidence and Inference 3.3.1. Initial models and controversies: Mobile vs. sedentary, semi-nomadic vs. semi-sedentary. The initial problem regarding Mesolithic Lake Culture subsistence relates to issues concerning the relative importance of mobility and the nature of the settlement pattern. The essence of the challenge is that the subsistence strategy of these Mesolithic people is not clearly discernable from the archaeological record. Either the archaeological evidence is sufficiently ambiguous to provide support for one of several alternative subsistence and residential systems, or archaeologists are consciously or unconsciously predisposed to favoring one over another pattern of subsistence and interpret the data to fit preconceived models. Another factor impacting the controversy is that archaeological impressions of subsistence behavior derived from each site are to some degree unique and yield conflicting conclusions regarding mobility and permanence of settlement. The earliest model of settlement and subsistence among Mesolithic Lake Cultures was Sharma's seasonal migration theory based on evidence from SNR in contrast to Vindhya hills sites (Sharma 1975). In response, Varma advocated a semi-sedentary settlement model based on new archaeological data from Mahadaha that in conjunction with new and independent evidence is now regarded as having greater validity (Varma 1981-83; Varma et al. 1985).

Further paleoenvironmental inference can be made from both the largest and smallest mammals recovered from the site of Damdama (Thomas et al. 1995, 2002). Bones of elephant (Elephas maximus), rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), and Indian bison (gaur; Bos gaurus) suggest a diverse fauna and one that is linked to mixed habitat environments encompassing areas of moist woodland and open grassland. The gaur in particular favors forested hilly habitats, not flat alluvial plains, and may have originated from populations in the southern hills of the Vindhya Plateau or in the hilly terai (meaning moist land) landscape to the north. The small wild pig species, Sus salvanius, is especially interesting because it is approximately the size of a domestic cat, and because today its range is confined to the terai several hundred kilometers to the north. Two hypotheses can be forged to explain the presence of these taxa at Damdama: a) variation in the species ecology including expansion and contraction of range of distribution, over the short or long term or in response to climate change, and b) the possibility of human movement such as logistic or residential hunting and gathering excursions north or south, that encroached into these species’ ranges and included the retrieval of these species’ bones as part of either the dietary inventory or bone tool production activities.

The first version of Sharma's migration model consisted of several stages: a) a mid-upper Pleistocene faunal migration from the Vindhya Plateau to the Ganga Plain, without an associated movement of human populations, b) a second faunal migration about 20 kya, linked with human movement from the Vindhyas into the Ganga Plain, and c) development of a seasonal pattern of migration between two different ecosystems (Sharma 1975). This human dispersal into the plains was temporally correlated with Belan River cemented gravel III and was influenced by two additional factors: pressure of population growth in the Vindhyas, and a climate-induced ecological shift

The Royal Chitwan National Park, located in the terai of Nepal has been proposed as a valid ethnoecological model for the Mesolithic period in the middle Ganga Plain (Chattopadhyaya 1988). MLC sites and modern Chitwan Park may have numerous parallels and the possibility exists that man - land 30

Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence

that stimulated the search for food and water. Initial colonization of the Ganga Plain by Vindhya hill tribes ultimately developed into a seasonally transhumant system of migration regulated by climatic factors and resource availability.

longer-term, permanent occupations (e.g. incipient villages), that may have been on the threshold of agriculture. Varma counters Sharma's assertion that the stone tool industry of these Mesolithic sites are exclusively designed for hunting. Varma (1981-83) contends that many stone objects and lithic implements were fabricated for the purpose of processing vegetal food items, which probably comprised a significant portion of the diet. Ethnological analogy with modern hunting and foraging societies is cited in support his contention (Varma 1981-83: 31). Though the depth of the occupational deposit at SNR is minimal (6 cm), represents a single cultural stage, and implies shortterm seasonal occupation, deposits at MDH (60 cm) and DDM (maximum 1.5 m) do not fit this pattern and imply somewhat longer periods of occupation. Additional support for Varma's concept of a nontranshumant, locally semi-sedentary, hunting and foraging Mesolithic adaptation in the Ganga Plain comes from ecological arguments espoused by Sharma and Sharma (1987: 58). They question the validity of Sharma's contention that acute scarcity of food and water occurred in the Belan Valley and counter that no evidence exists to support seasonal scarcity or nutritional stress in the Vindhyas. To the contrary, Sharma and Sharma (1987) contend that continuous multi-stage occupation at Chopani-mando proves acute seasonal fluctuation in essential resources did not exist, thereby negating a key causal element in Sharma's migration model.

Sharma and colleagues (1980a, b) maintain that a seasonally transhumant pattern of migration existed. Mesolithic sites in the Vindhya hills south of the Ganges River were occupied during the monsoon, while in the dry season, shores of oxbow lakes in the Gangetic Plains were occupied. Each region, according to Sharma, provided valuable resources during each season of the year. Sharma's view is founded upon differences in the thickness of occupational deposits in hills and plains sites, derivation of microlith assemblages in plains sites from raw materials available only in the southern hills, and the abundance of food and water in the plains during the time of summer drought in the hills. Sites in the Vindhyas have thick occupational deposits ( > 1.0 m thick) and are typically multi-stage sites, typically including more than one of the following stages: Upper Paleolithic, Epi-Paleolithic, nongeometric and geometric Mesolithic, and Neolithic. By contrast, occupational deposits at Sarai Nahar Rai were only 6 cm thick, suggesting a short-term seasonal camp with only a single cultural stage represented. In his quantitative analysis of lithic industries, Sharma concluded that stone tools from Sarai Nahar Rai, though obtained from quarries in the Vindhya hills were diminutive in comparison to stone tools from archaeological sites located in the Vindhyas (Sharma 1975:11, Fig. 5). This difference was explained by the scarcity of lithic raw material in the Ganga Plain necessitating an economic approach to lithic manufacture that included recycling and reuse of lithic raw materials. In support of this contention, subsequent excavations at Mahadaha and Damdama revealed extensive use of bone tools, perhaps in compensation for the scarce availability of lithic raw material in the Ganga Plain.

Dietary differences in bone samples from DDM and LKH bear upon models of Mesolithic subsistence. Dietary patterns were assessed from apatite derived stable carbon 13 isotope values for DDM (n = 21, mean = – 7.88, sd = 1.1; LKH (n = 8, mean = – 14.0, sd = 1.7). The mean difference is significant and values for one site do not overlap the other. This suggests that DDM and LKH had different diets, in the proportions of C3 and C4 foods. This difference implies exploitation of local resources in the Vindhya Hills for LKH and in the Ganga Plain for DDM. This evidence does not support transhumant exploitation of resources in both regions (hills and plains) by the same group. A transhumant pattern would yield no inter-site difference in mean carbon isotope values and large overlap of individual values (Lukacs et al. 1996).

By contrast, Varma (1981-83), argues for a semisedentary settlement pattern among Mesolithic foragers of the Ganga Plains for several reasons. The Lake Culture site of Mahadaha contains an abundance of artifacts (querns and grinding stones, for example) that because of their non-transportable nature imply

31

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 3.2. Frequency of identifiable fauna by class

Figure 3.3. Frequency of identifiable faunal specimens by layer

32

Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence

Chattopadhyaya stresses variation in age structure of certain species and the presence of commensal species.

3.4 Faunal Evidence of Mesolithic Subsistence: Recent Contributions Significant insights regarding the hunting and foraging behavior of Mesolithic Lake Culture (MLC) people have been derived from the specialized study of faunal remains. In the analysis of faunal remains from MDH and DDM all investigators recognize, to different degrees, the importance of taphonomic factors and have attempted to account for preservation bias in their research. Collectively, they address problematic issues such as the high frequency of bone breakage and charring, and other aspects of bone modification, often referred to as taphonomic traces (Lyman 1994). The investigation of faunal remains from Damdama conducted by Thomas, Joglekar and colleagues was driven by observed patterns in the distribution of species, species' ecological preferences, and species' body sizes across the temporal span of occupation at the site (Thomas et al.1995, 1996, 2002). By contrast, Chattopadhyaya's approach to MLC subsistence behavior is informed by an integrative mix of methods that include: a) ethnographic analogy with modern hunter-gatherers, b) theoretical modeling of population size, distribution, mobility and territoriality, and c) faunal remains recovered from archaeological contexts (Chattopadhyaya and Chattopadhyaya 1990; Chattopadhyaya 1988, 1996, 2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2008).

Since each group of investigators contributed unique and significant conclusions on subsistence from their distinctive analyses of the fauna, I will begin by summarizing their independent assessments on Mesolithic subsistence. Following this summary an account of the primary points of agreement and disagreement will be presented and the section concludes with a discussion of the importance of subsistence reconstruction as a framework for the a n a l ysis of huma n ske l e t a l va r i a t i o n , paleodemography and paleopathology. Thomas and colleagues note that faunal remains from Damdama are highly fragmented and extensively charred. Approximately 27% of 21,108 bone fragments could be identified and 90% of these were charred. The extensive degree of bone fragmentation at Damdama is not due to dietary resource procurement, but to bone tool manufacture. Every second or third bone fragment is a worked bone, and the abundance of bone chips is interpreted as manufacture waste from an active bone tool industry. Thomas and colleagues reject the idea that bone charring is due to cooking on several counts: charred bones are too common and many are calcined - suggesting they were heated far beyond the requirements of roasting meat. They argue instead that the pattern of charring on many bone fragments suggests that fire was utilized in repeated site clearing activities, thus accounting for the high percentage of charred bones in the collection.

There are advantages and limitations to each of these approaches to the reconstruction of prehistoric patterns of subsistence. The data-based focus adopted by Thomas and his associates does not suffer from potential biases due to over-reliance on analogues or theoretical models. Their data-driven technique derives insights regarding subsistence from the distribution and patterning in space and time of the faunal record alone. By contrast, the multi-faceted and interdisciplinary perspective of Chattopadhyaya benefits from the judicious use of analogy with modern ecosystems and cultures, the application of methods for the assessment of seasonality, and models of population growth and migration. While thought provoking and potentially fruitful, Chattopadhyaya's heavy reliance on theoretical models and modern analogues raises concern over the imposition of modern systems and behaviors on prehistoric peoples. While all faunal analysts use measures of species diversity and abundance as critical variables in their research, Thomas and Joglekar emphasize temporal trends in prey size and type at Damdama, while

More than 30 vertebrate and invertebrate species have been identified by Thomas and colleagues at Damdama. Mammals comprise 77% of the fauna and constitute the dominant vertebrate group, followed by reptiles (12.1 %), birds (9.0 %), and fish (1.3%; see Fig. 3.2). The fact that tortoise (11.0 %) remains were found to be more frequent than bird bones (9.0 %) represents a unique finding in South Asian zooarchaeology and indicates the significance of tortoise in Damdaman diet. Thomas and colleagues make three key inferences regarding Mesolithic subsistence from faunal remains at Damdama: 1) the absence of domestic species and wild ancestors of domestic species indicates a hunting and foraging economy, 2) exploitation of mammals oscillated through time based on body size, and 3) utilization of aquatic and avian resources covary inversely through time with the use of mammalian resources.

33

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

In layers 10 and 9 large sized animals, with a body weight of 200 - 500 kg, including sambar and nilgai, are preferentially represented, while later, in layer 5, smaller animals, with body weights of 20 - 50 kg, including chowshinga, blackbuck, and hog deer are most abundant. Temporal variation in mammal body size is plotted layer by layer to reveal this pattern which was most dramatic in earlier layers (Thomas et al. 1995: Fig. 5). These data are re-plotted in Figure 3.3 and while the amplitude and level of complementarity declines after layer 5, it is still discernable. When aquatic resources (molluscs, fish, and reptiles) and avian resources are compared with reliance on mammalian species a clear pattern of covariation is discernable (Fig. 3.3). The decrease in abundance of mammal remains from layer 10 to 8, is complemented by an increase in the percentage of avifauna. As mammals increase in frequency from layer 7 through 5, aquatic resources decline in layer 6 and avifauna decrease in layers 5 and 4. These complementary oscillations in utilization of mammalian vs. aquatic and avian fauna continue to the surface and are evident in Figure 3.3. The meticulous faunal investigation by Thomas and associates has paid valuable dividends in revealing important trends in the exploitation of faunal resources, explaining these changes in the utilization of fauna over time presents a greater challenge still. Two key factors are potentially responsible for these patterns of variation in mammalian body size and fluctuation in resource utilization: density-dependent selection and climatic or environmental change. The difficulty in resolving the issue lies in the fact that the explanations are not mutually exclusive and may act synergistically. In addition, further complications include possible cultural variation in preferred prey species over time. Thus objectively establishing the relative contribution of each factor to oscillations in prey size and type will be a challenging task.

idea that bone charring is due to repetitive site clearing activities. A diverse variety of analytic methods have been adopted by Chattopahyaya in the assessment of settlement pattern and the spatial and temporal organization of subsistence among Mesolithic Lake Cultures of the Ganga Plain. The role of faunal evidence in reconstructing subsistence and settlement is highlighted in the following discussion, though ancillary support from mortuary practices are considered by Chattopadhyaya in assessing short-term seasonal site occupation vs. long-term more permanent settlement. In Chattopadhyaya's analysis of faunal remains, the population structure of two cervid taxa, swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli) and hog deer (Axis porcinus), are central to the issues of mobility and seasonality. First, the age structure of samples of these species recovered from archeological sites is distinctly different (younger age at death) than naturalistic wild populations. This is interpreted to reflect selectivity and predation pressure by Mesolithic hunters. Second, dental age estimates from hog and swamp deer permit an estimation of season of death. When age-at-death data for both taxa are plotted by month on an annual calender reveals these species were hunted in winter, spring, and summer (Chattopadhyaya 1988, 1996). This observation constitutes sufficient evidence, according to Chattopadhyaya, to challenge Sharma's hypothesis of seasonal migration. Seasonal migration in Binfordian nomenclature is known as residential mobility (Binford 1980). Chattopadhyaya's age assessment of cervids provides one category of evidence in support of a subsistence pattern involving logistical mobility, a semi-permanent base camp from which hunting and foraging expeditions of varying duration are launched. Another fauna-based argument supporting greater permanence of Mesolithic settlement is the increasing proportion of rodent remains in upper levels of Mahadaha and Damdama. The bandicoot rat (Bandicota bengalensis) is a commensal species whose presence in archaeological sites implies food availability year-round (Chattopadhyaya 1996).

The fauna from Mahadaha and Damdama were also examined by Chattopadhyaya, whose general inferences regarding subsistence behavior include: a) all skeletal elements are from wild taxa, there are no domestic, or ancestors of domestic species present, b) the species diversity index suggests a broad spectrum or generalized hunting pattern, and c) cervids and aquatic resources were especially prominent and comprised key components of the diet. The high frequency of bone breakage and charring is attributed to the presence of a dynamic bone tool industry. Neither charring nor bone breakage is dietary in nature and Chattopadhyaya discounts the

Independent evidence in support of long-term, yearround settlement is derived from the orientation of burials with regard to the setting or rising sun. The solar orientation hypothesis is based on the assertion that a high range of burial orientations should accompany a year long occupation, while a much narrower range of burial orientations will be associated with seasonal or short term camps. The 34

Site Context: Chronology, Ecology and Subsistence

orientation of 55 burials was determined, including data from each site (SNR, n = 10; MDH, n = 24; DDM, n = 21), and the results were plotted by angle from the azimuth (Chattopadhyaya, 1996: 470, Fig 4.). The data show that: a) Sarai Nahar Rai exhibits a seasonal pattern with grave orientations clustered in winter (if sunset is used) or summer (if sunrise is used), b) the pattern at Mahadaha displays a distribution of grave orientations that suggests year round occupation, and c) Damdama agrees with the range of grave orientations observed at Mahadaha. Though he advises caution in regard to the small sample from SNR and points to four methodological sources of potential error in the analysis, the conclusion is unambiguous: burial orientation at both Mahadaha and Damdama provides further evidence for residential stability and permanence of settlement.

• •

•

taxa, no domestic species, or precursors to domestic species, are present, the subsistence pattern was exclusively hunting and foraging, a wide range of species were utilized as food suggesting a broad-spectrum or generalized pattern of faunal exploitation, and deer (venison), avian and aquatic resources comprised important components of the Damdaman diet.

In sum, this chapter has documented current knowledge and controversy regarding: a) the antiquity of Damdama and sister MLC sites in the Ganga Plain, b) documented faunal and floral evidence for local environment and ecology, and c) described and discussed evidence from which the nature of settlement patterns, diet, and subsistence have been inferred. With this foundation now established, attention shifts to the archaeological evidence. This account of excavations at Damdama includes documentation of site features and artifacts, and an interpretation of the life-ways and cultural achievements of this aceramic, microlithic settlement.

From their separate analyses of Mesolithic Lake Culture (MLC) faunal remains, Chattopadhyaya, Thomas, Joglekar and associates are essentially in agreement with regard to several important insights on subsistence at Damdama: • all identifiable skeletal elements are from wild

35

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 4.1. Mesolithic sites in the Gangetic Plain, showing location of Damdama (top center)

Figure 4.2. Contour map of Damdama

36

4. Excavations and Archaeological Context contributed by V.D. Misra, J.N. Pal and M.C. Gupta The discovery of a large number of Stone Age sites in the Gangetic Plain in the last three decades of the previous century opened a completely new chapter in the prehistoric archaeology of the region in particular and India in general. Now more than 200 Stone Age sites with cultural associations ranging from the Epipalaeolithic to the Mesolithic have been discovered (Sharma et al. 1980a). These sites are located north of the Ganga and south of the Gomati Rivers and are widely distributed in Kausambi, Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Sultanpur, Jaunpur, Sant Ravidasnagar and Varanasi districts (U.P., Fig. 4.1). Most sites are located in Pratapgarh district and three sites with human remains - Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama - have been excavated by the Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, University of Allahabad. All three sites are located in similar geo-ecological settings on the banks of horseshoe lakes.

confluence of the two branches of Tambura Nala, a tributary of Pili Nadi, which itself flows into the River Sai (Varma et al. 1985). These Nalas appear to be the remnants of ancient horseshoe lakes, a common geomorphological feature of the mid-Ganga Plain. During the rainy season these natural depressions serve as local drainage basins. Damdama is not flooded even during the rainy season, although it appears as an isolated island. Mesolithic people may have selected locally elevated ground for settlement because of its strategic advantages: adjacent to a resource-rich lake, yet safe from flooding and giving a panoramic view of the surroundings. For many years the site was remote and distant from local villages, guaranteeing preservation and preventing disturbance. Only recently have people colonized the mound. Human encroachment includes the construction of dwellings, cattle sheds, a temple, and the digging of irrigation canals. The area surrounding the site may have been densely wooded until the inception and intensification of agriculture. Remnants of past woodlands, including dhak and sihor trees, can be seen in surrounding area today, though they are widely scattered (Fig. 4.3). Increasingly dense human settlement has had an adverse impact on the local environment, including deforestation and the transformation of rich woodland environments to usar land. There are no wild fauna in the area today, with the exception of wolf, jackal, and rabbit. However, fifteen to twenty years ago herds of deer, wild pigs, and antelope (nilgai), frequented the area. The combined effects of deforestation and hunting are primarily responsible for the decline in environmental quality.

The site of Damdama (Lat. 26° 10' N, Long. 82° 20' 36" E) is located 36 km northeast of Pratapgarh and 5 km northwest of Mahadaha in Warikalan revenue village, in the Patti sub-division of Pratapgarh district (Fig. 4.1). The site was initially discovered in 1978, and extensively excavated in 1979 and 1982. According to local oral tradition, the existence of Mahadaha and Damdama is related to an episode of Mahabharata. In this legend 75 of the 100 brothers of Keechak were killed and buried at Mahadaha, while the remaining brothers were interred at Damdama. This tradition might have originated from the casual observation of many bones naturally exposed on the surface at both sites. At Mahadaha human bones were discovered in abundance and commingled with the skeletal remains of animals. By contrast, at Damdama the surface was littered with animal bones and occasional microliths.

The occupation mound of Damdama slopes towards the perimeter and measures 8750 square meters. The site was excavated for five seasons from 1982-83 to 1986-87 (Misra 1988; Pal 1985-86, 1988, 1994, 2002a, 2000b). The excavated area measures 550 square meters. The depth of artifact-bearing deposits is 1.5 m thick and is divisible into 10 layers (Fig. 4.4).

The site of Damdama approximates a roughly circular shape and is situated on ground slightly raised above the surrounding plain (Fig. 4.2). It is located at the

37

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 4.3. Forest remnant near Damdama

Figure 4.4. West - East section of excavation squares K-1 and K-2

Figure 4.5. Photograph (left) and plan (right) of artefact distribution in excavated squares M-13 - M-14, N-13 - N-14.

38

Excavations and Archaeological Context

Figure 4.6. Plan (left) and photograph (right) of human burials (flexed and extended) and hearths

Figure 4.7. Extended burial with right forearm across abdomen

Figure 4.8. Plan of extended burial disturbed by irrigation drain

39

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Notably, this is the greatest thickness of the culturebearing deposits encountered at any Mesolithic site in the Ganga Plain. For example, at Sarai Nahar Rai the Mesolithic horizon was confirmed to be only 6.0 cm, while at Mahadaha it measured 60.0 cm. The thickness of cultural deposits at Damdama indicate that in comparison to Sarai Nahar Rai (Sharma 1973a) and Mahadaha (Sharma et al. 1980b), it may have been occupied for a significantly longer period of time. Excluding the surface deposit (layer I) all nine layers exposed at Damdama contained artifacts of the Mesolithic occupants of the site. The first Mesolithic settlers at Damdama occupied the exposed surface of natural soil, a fine yellowish silt, and dug hearths and graves in this virgin soil. The excavations have revealed graves, pit hearths, floors with burnt clay lumps, animal bones, microliths, querns, mullers, hammer stones, anvils and bone artifacts (Fig. 4.5). The excavations at Damdama have significantly enriched our knowledge on Mesolithic cultures of South Asia (Kennedy 2000, Pa12002b, Misra and Pal 2002, Mithen 2003).

The human skeletal remains are highly calcified, have acquired chocolate color, and are in an advanced stage of fossilization. The skeletal data will be presented in greater detail later, but here we note that the people of Damdama were distinctive in being tall with a sturdy and well-built physique. Burial customs at the site are more complex and diverse than burials at either Sarai Nahar Rai (Sharma 1975, Kennedy et al. 1986) or Mahadaha (Kennedy 1996, Kennedy et al. 1992). Of the 48 skeletons exposed during excavations at Damdama, skeletal orientation was well documented in 46 cases. Thirty-four skeletons were oriented westeast with the skull lying to the west, while only two skeletons were oriented east-west. In six cases the orientation was north-south, while in two it was southnorth. Sex of 38 skeletons could be estimated with confidence, with 22 being male or presumably male, while 16 are female or presumably female. All the skeletons belong to adults, though fragmentary remains of two sub-adults were recovered. Few juvenile or senile skeletal remains were found at Damdama, a demographic pattern common to Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha. Bone arrow-heads and one ivory quiver were retrieved from graves and appear to have been offered as burial goods. However, the discovery of these objects in only a few graves, suggests that these individuals occupied a position of status in their community.

Forty-one graves were discovered and excavated at Damdama and they can be characterized as shallow in depth and oval in shape. The burials are associated with all Mesolithic strata from beginning to end. The human burials are commonly in the close proximity of hearths (Fig. 4.6), and with two exceptions, all the graves furnish evidence of extended burials (Fig. 4.7 and 4.8). The exceptions include flexed burials (Fig. 4.9). Generally the dead were found placed in supine position and in only two cases were the skeletons found placed in prone position (Fig. 4.10). Of the 41 graves exposed at the site, skeletal remains of single individuals were interred in each of 35 graves. Double burials (Fig. 4.11 and 4.12) were encountered in 5 graves, and in one of the double burials the male and female were placed in opposite directions (Fig. 4.13). One unique grave yielded skeletal remains of three individuals. In four of the double burials the skeletons were male and female; with the male placed on the right and the female on the left. In one grave both skeletons were determined to be male. The triple burial yielded skeletal remains of two males and one female.

Pit-hearths constitute a common feature of Mesolithic sites of the Ganga Plain. As many as 31 hearths were encountered during excavation at Damdama. The hearths are either circular or oblong in shape, and their presence is indicated by the concentration of lumps of burnt clay (Fig. 4.14). Hearths may be divided into two groups: a) simple shallow pit-hearths and b) hearths with clay plastering on the sidewall or bottom or both. The hearths were filled with burnt clay lumps, the charred and semi-charred fragments of animal bone, and ash. Charcoal was not obtained from any of the hearths. These hearths were evidently used for roasting flesh of mammals, birds and aquatic creatures like fish and turtle. Absence of human bones from any of the hearths suggests that cannibalism was not practiced at Damdama.

40

Excavations and Archaeological Context

Figure 4.9. Plan of tightly flexed burial

Figure 4.10. Skeletons interred in supine (Grave VII, above) and prone (Grave XI, below) positions

Figure 4.11. Double extended burial (Grave XX)

Figure 4.12. Plan of disturbed double burial (Grave XXX)

41

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Excavations at Damdama uncovered circular or semicircular burnt and plastered floors, some of which were composed of multiple layers of plaster (Fig. 4.14). The evidence of burnt plastered floors is present throughout the Mesolithic occupation (Fig. 4.15). Outlines of two floors were completely cleared. One floor measured 5.35 meters north-south and 5.39 meters east-west. Microliths, querns, burnt clay lumps and animal bone fragments were found scattered on the floor. The second floor was elliptical on plan, measured 5.63 meters on its longer axis (north-west to south-east) and 4.20 meters on the shorter axis. Five post-holes were identified around the periphery of the floor. Microliths, a bone arrowhead and quern fragments were obtained from the floor surface. Plastered floors with fireplaces in the center were undoubtedly used for living purposes. The fire-places on the floor were used for roasting the animal flesh as is indicated by the presence of charred animal bones on the floor surfaces. These plastered floors likely served the purpose of working floors as well, an interpretation implied by the occurrence of microliths and bone objects scattered on them.

quartz are divided into two broad categories: a) unmodified waste, and b) finished and utilized artifacts (Pal 1985-86). The unmodified waste includes blades, blade fragments, flakes, flake fragments, cores, core trimming flakes and core rejuvenating flakes. These are unretouched and unutilized.

Both surface exploration and excavation at Damdama yielded a rich abundance of tools and weapons fashioned from raw materials of stone and bone. Artifacts used in food-processing include querns and mullers made of quartzite and sandstone. Wear and tear on the working surface of the querns indicates long and constant use. Hammer stones, anvils and sharpeners, manufactured from quartzite and sandstone were recovered in large numbers. Bone arrowheads, both long and small, are also found (Fig. 4.16). While in the Vindhyas, the bone tools are rare in Mesolithic contexts, in the Ganga Valley, the limited availability of lithic raw material for producing microliths may have encouraged the adoption of unconventional raw materials. Bone industry at Damdama reflects successful adaptability in the adoption of new raw materials. In addition to bone arrowheads, an ivory quiver having two perforations, and other bone objects were found at the site (Fig. 4.17). At Damdama the bone industry constitutes a remarkable and salient feature of material culture. Microliths (Figs. 4.18, 4.19 and 4.20) fashioned on chert , chalcedony, agate, carnelian and

A preliminary study of the microlithic assemblage at Damdama indicates that unmodified waste constitutes 88.28% of the sample, while finished tools and utilized artifacts comprise only 11.72% of the microlithic sample. The most popular raw material in the lithic assemblage was chalcedony, which represented 71.53% of the sample, and was followed by chert (24.93%), quartz (1.76%), agate (1.46%) and carnelian (0.31%). The same study revealed that lunates and backed blades were present from the lowest stratigraphic level (layer 10), while triangles of two types - scalene and isosceles, and the perçoir (awl) first occur in layer 9. The trapeze makes its first appearance in layer 5. The microlithic industry of the site exhibits excellent workmanship. Excavations have yielded animal bones in appreciable numbers, with more than 30 species of animals identified, including mammals, reptiles, birds, fish and molluscs. The mammalian faunal remains are diverse and include six species of deer, including mouse deer and musk deer, nilgai, blackbuck, chousingha, chinkara, as well as the wild pig (Sus scrofa). Several large mammals are present as well; including the elephant,

The finished tools and utilized artifacts include blades/blade fragments, normal retouched blades/blade fragments, inversely retouched blades/blade fragments, normal and inversely retouched blades/blade fragments, ouchtata retouched blades/blade fragments, convex backed blades/blade fragments, concave backed blades/blade fragments, partly backed and retouched blades/blade fragments, double backed blades/blade fragments, backed and truncated blades/blade fragments, scalene triangles, isosceles triangles, trapezoids, trapezes, lunates, perçoirs (awl), drills, transverse arrowheads, tip of a triangle/miscellaneous, utilized flakes, normal scrapers, concave scrappers, convex scrapers, notch scrapers and micro-burins.

42

Excavations and Archaeological Context

Figure 4.13. Photograph (left) and plan (right) of double burial (Grave VI) with male and female placed in opposite directions

Figure 4.14. Pit hearth in earliest phase of section (left) and burnt plaster floors and hearth (right)

Figure 4.15. Burnt plaster floors in different levels in the section

43

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

rhinoceros, gaur, wild buffalo and possibly wild cattle have been identified. Three species of carnivores have been identified, including the wolf, jackal and fox. Bones of the hare and the porcupine are present but are represented by only a few bones. Birds, tortoise, fish, molluscs and the other reptiles like Trionyx gangeticus, Varanus sp. and Colotes versicolor have been identified and appear to have played a role in the food economy at Damdama (Thomas et al. 1995, 1996, 2002). All the animal bones are derived from wild species. Approximately 90% of the animal bones from Damdama are charred or semi-charred, suggesting they were either part of the diet or that fire-hardening was an important step in bone tool production. As hunter-gatherers, the people of Damdama exhibit a broad spectrum foraging adaptation as evidenced by their dependence on wild animals and wild plants, fruits, and roots. A similar list of animal species was recovered during the course of excavations at Mahadaha (Joglekar et al. 2003). The animal bone sample not only suggests that plentiful animal resources were available in the Ganga flood-plain during the early to mid-Holocene, but faunal remains also provide evidence of climatic conditions prevailing in the region at that time. Of the animals recovered from Damdama, the elephant and rhinoceros are two species that require a damper climate than the one prevailing at present in the Ganga Plain, suggesting a moister climate in the past.

consists of dark black organic mud with very fine silt. Lithozone III (251-330 cm) was made of sticky grey clay with coarse sand and irregular kankar nodules which became more frequent towards the lower limit. On the basis of bio- and litho-stratigraphy, Gupta proposed a four fold climatic oscillation from very arid to semi-humid through arid and semi-arid. Lithozone II witnessed a climatic fluctuation from semi-arid to semi-humid. This formation might have taken place in a semi-arid to semi-humid climatic condition. However, the occurrence of the bones of elephant, rhinoceros and possibly hippopotamus from the Mesolithic context in the Gangetic Plain would indicate the prevalence of milder climatic condition in the area during the Mesolithic period. Supportive evidence has also been obtained from the Vindhyan area both from the valleys of the Belan and Son Rivers. In the Belan section microliths were found in the last three formations, the blackish clay and the two succeeding deposits (Sharma 1973b, Misra 1977; Sharma et al. 1980a). The blackish clay is interpreted to have been formed under slightly humid conditions, while the overlying deposit represents a comparatively dry climatic phase. The blackish clay may represent a transitional phase from dry to humid conditions at the end of the Pleistocene. In the Son Valley microliths have been obtained from the younger member of the Baghor formation (Sharma and Clark 1982, 1983; Clark and Williams 1986, 1990; Williams and Clarke 1984). According to Clark and Williams (1986) the younger member of Baghor formation was formed in the warmer and wetter early Holocene condition (Sharma and Clark 1983, Clark and Williams 1986).

Another approach to the palaeoenvironment of the middle Gangetic Plain during the Mesolithic period, includes paleobotany. Soil samples were collected from Mesolithic layers in the lake areas of Mahadaha and Damdama. Preliminary identifications revealed the presence of pollen grains of gramineae, fungal spores, and pinus (Pant and Pant 1980; Kajale 1989, 1990, 1996; Kajale and Deotare 1988-89) indicating grassland vegetation. The earlier pollen study conducted by H.P. Gupta at the horseshoe lake at Newari (Lat. 25° 41' N, Long. 81° 31' 20" E), near Sarai Nahar Rai also confirms the presence of grassland (Gupta 1976). A bore-hole 3.30 meters deep was made for collecting pollen from Newari Lake. The texture and color of these sediments permitted the identification of three distinct lithozones. Lithozone I (6-70 cm) consists of compact grey clay with fine sand and silica. Lithozone II (71-250 cm)

It is generally believed that the climate during the Mesolithic period was more humid than that prevailing during the Upper Palaeolithic period. An observation that implies that the Upper Palaeolithic witnessed a relatively drier climate. The faunal remains obtained from the younger member of the Baghor formation, on the one hand, and the Mesolithic sites of the Gangetic Plain, on the other, include Bos, Bos gaurus, stag, deer, Sus, bison, elephant, rhinoceros and possibly hippopotamus. This faunal assemblage suggests the prevalence of a moister climate than that prevailing in these regions today.

44

Excavations and Archaeological Context

Figure 4. 16. Drawing (left) and photograph (right ) of bone points and arrowheads

Figure 4.17. Quiver and other modified bone objects

45

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Understanding the nature of economic and subsistence systems of the Mesolithic culture from evidence recovered from Damdama and Mahadaha may be summarized by following observations:

Holocene, if not at the end of Pleistocene. A few carbon dates obtained from a number of late Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic sites would also suggest this chronology (Misra 2002a). Five dates from Gravel IV of the Belan at Mahagara range from 8080 BC to 12,200 BC through 8175 BC, 9360 BC and 9945 BC (Possehl and Rissman 1992). A date obtained from Sarai Nahar Rai reading 8395±110 BC from Mesolithic horizon is noteworthy. A thermoluminiscent date from Damdama suggests an antiquity between 5000 BC to 7000 BC.

a) all animal bones belong to wild species, suggesting that in the Mesolithic period the process of domestication had not yet begun, b) no potsherds, even handmade forms, were recovered from the site indicating that Mesolithic people were unfamiliar with pottery production or use. The Mesolithic culture at these sites may be characterized as firmly within the aceramic geometric microlithic phase.

Two recently obtained AMS C14 dates from Damdama read 6690±65 BC and 6915±65 BC (Lukacs et al. 1996). The corpus of these dates would suggest a high antiquity for the Mesolithic culture of Damdama. Supportive evidence from the Mesolithic sites of the Vindhyan area is also available. From Baghor IIa date 6380 BC has been obtained (Possehl and Rissman 1992). Barkhera and Adamgarh have yielded dates reading 5520 BC to 5505 BC (Misra 2002b). Two AMS CI4 dates from Lekhahia rockshelter I read 6420±75 BC and 6050±75 BC (Lukacs et al. 1996). For the Mesolithic Paisra a radiocarbon date reading 7420±110 BC has been obtained (Pant and Jayaswal 1991:193). Two radiocarbon dates have recently been obtained from the Neolithic horizon of Lahuradeva in Sant Kabirnagar, Uttar Pradesh - 5320±90 and 6290±160 BP. These dates when calibrated place period I at Lahuradeva in late 6th and 5th millennium BC (Tewari et al. 2001-2002, 2002-2003:43). The combined testimony of these dates would place the Mesolithic culture at Damdama in early half of the Holocene if not at the end of the Pleistocene. To sum up, the excavations at Damdama deserve special attention on multiple critical points:

c) the occurrence of animal bones of the elephant, bison, rhinoceros and possibly hippopotamus in the Mesolithic settlements suggests a relatively humid climate, and d) fragments of querns and mullers occur in appreciable numbers suggests that gathering and processing of wild grains and other edible plants played an important role in the life of the Mesolithic people. This observation agrees with the presence of food processing equipment, which otherwise would not be easily explained. The manufacture of food processing technology relied on sandstone and quartzite, raw materials that had to be obtained from the Vindhyas, since these kinds of stone are not available in the Ganga Plain. On this point the Mesolithic culture of Damdama tallies well with its counterparts not only of the middle Gangetic Plain but those of the Vindhya Hills area as well. Fragments of querns, mullers, and hammer stones, were obtained in appreciable number at Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai in the middle Gangetic Plain as well as at Chopani Mando in the Belan Valley and Baghor II, Medhauli, and Banki in the Son Valley. Thus along with hunting wild animals and collecting aquatic fauna such as turtle and fish, and killing birds, these people were augmenting their dietary items with the wild edible grains as well.

a) it is the most extensive Mesolithic site discovered so far in the Gangetic Plain, and b) the Mesolithic remains are found on an elevated ground at Damdama. In this connection it may be pointed out that the Mesolithic site of Sarai Nahar Rai is located on flat ground while at Mahadaha a slight elevation is noticed, but Damdama is conspicuous by its location. Probably this site was selected on account of its elevated nature, so that even in the rainy season people would not be affected by rising later levels during the monsoon season.

The combined testimony of these different pieces of evidence strongly suggests that the Mesolithic people at Damdama were still leading a Mesolithic way of life, marked with a hunting-gathering and foraging economy. Multiple indicators of mild climatic conditions during the time would make a strong case for placing this culture in the early phase of the 46

Excavations and Archaeological Context

Figure 4.18. Microlithic Artefacts: Unmodified Blades 1-5, Core Trimming Blade 6, Cores 11-12, Utilized Blades 13-16, Retouched Blades 15-23, Retouched and Truncated Blades 24-27, Straight Backed Blades 28-33, Convex Backed Blades 34-44, Partly Backed Blades 45-46, Partly Backed and Truncated Blade 47

47

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 4.19. Microlithic Artefacts: Straight Backed and Truncated Blades 48-54, Convex Backed and Truncated Blades 55-56, Lunates 57-65, Isosceles Triangles 6676, Scalene Triangles 77-83, Trapezoids 84-85, Drills 88-91, Perscoirs 92-95

48

Excavations and Archaeological Context

Figure 4.20. Microlithic Artefacts: Transverse Arrowhead-cum-drills Burin 99, Microburins 100-103, Retouched Flakes and Scrapers 104-113

c) Of the excavated Mesolithic sites in the Gangetic Plain, Damdama records the maximum thickness of occupational strata. By contrast the occupational strata at Sarai Nahar Rai measure only 6 cm, and at Mahadaha the occupational deposit was 60 cm thick. Against this background the significantly thicker occupational strata at Damdama (1.5 meters) is remarkable.

For example, at Sarai Nahar Rai in one collective grave four individuals were found buried together; two were male and two were female. At Mahadaha double burials containing one male and one female were recorded from two graves. New evidence from Damdama presents greater diversity in burial types. From one double burial grave, skeletal remains of two males were obtained. Another grave yielded skeletal remains of three individuals, a unique case of odd numbers in which two skeletons were complete primary burials, while the third specimen was represented by a fragmentary, incomplete secondary burial consisting mainly of disarticulated bones of the skull.

d) In contrast to sister-sites Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha, occupational strata and burials at Damdama were relatively undisturbed. e) Plastered floors with multiple layers have been encountered at Damdama.

The archaeological evidence documented above provides valuable insights and critical details on the cultural, dietary and ecological features of the people of Damdama. This contextual setting is indispensable to the analysis of human skeletal remains from the site.

f) Evidence of complex multiple and double burials from the excavations of Damdama have furnished new and interesting information. At Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha wherever there were more than one individual in one and the same grave, these were never in odd number.

49

5. The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory Clues preserved in archaeologically derived human skeletons have the potential to inform us about life in the past. “Within the archives of our skeletons are written down the intimate diaries of our lives: our ancestry, our illnesses, our injuries and infirmities, the patterns of our labor and exercise... All we have been, or nearly, is inscribed and enclosed in our skeletons...” (Maples and Browning 1994:105). Skeletons and their constituent components, bones and teeth, comprise the focus of this study, consequently a critical prerequisite to the analysis is reviewing the state of preservation of the skeletons and providing a comprehensive listing of the skeletal parts upon which the investigation is based. This chapter has three goals: a) to describe the quality of skeletal preservation, b) to identify taphonomic agents influencing preservation of bone, and c) to provide an inventory of human remains recovered from Damdama.

bones that were recovered during field excavations at Damdama and subsequently examined by the authors in the bioarchaeology laboratory at the University of Allahabad. This inventory documents the hard material objects, bones and teeth, upon which this study is based. The diverse insights that can potentially be derived from prehistoric human skeletons are dependent on the quality of bone preservation. Complete and well preserved skeletons have the potential to yield more information about past lifeways and biological adaptations than poorly preserved and incomplete skeletons. For this reason osteological research requires documentation of the abundance of skeletons and their component elements, their completeness or degree of fragmentation, and a description of the quality of preservation of skeletal and dental tissues. Inter-site variation in preservation of skeletal parts may directly influence the rigor of comparative analyses of human biological attributes. Significant differences in skeletal preservation between study groups may preclude asking specific questions or making direct comparisons.

Quality of bone preservation is generally discussed in terms of macroscopic observations that describe the complete or fragmentary nature of the skeleton and its constituent parts. Typically discussions of skeletal preservation describe the condition of bone recovered from a burial and document elements that are well preserved as well as bones and parts of bones that are damaged by mechanical forces, human funeral procedures or subsequent accidental disturbances. The analysis of bone preservation at Damdama will additionally include a description of microscopic bone quality and document the chemical and elemental composition of bone. Furthermore, consideration of taphonomic agents influencing the quality of bone preservation will involve evaluating the variable impact of mechanical, chemical, microbiological and cultural agents as they affect the macroscopic and microscopic appearance and the chemical composition of bone. Finally, a detailed tabular presentation of skeletal and dental elements recovered and examined for each individual specimen is provided. This element-specific inventory of human skeletal remains provides a comprehensive listing of all the human

While yielding limited insight into human biology, nutrition, and health patterns in the past, fragmented and incomplete skeletal remains may provide valuable clues regarding the postmortem history of bone, revealing events that occurred during burial and fossilization. The goal of taphonomy is to understand forces and factors that affect the preservation of skeletal elements during the long and complex transition from their existence as a living tissue through death, burial, exposure, discovery and recovery, and their study as a non-living ‘fossil’ specimen in the laboratory (Lyman 1994). Each step in this transition from life to fossil involves loss of some kinds of information, such as physiology and behavior upon death, and the addition of other types of information, such as cut marks, tooth marks, and breakage patterns, that reveal the postmortem taphonomic history of the specimen.

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

All archaeologically derived human skeletons contain a complex mix of biogenetic and diagenetic information. Biogenetic features of a skeleton include all physical manifestations that result from the dynamism of a life time of interaction between an individual and their genetic endowment with their developmental environment. Stature, bone mineral density, level of bilateral asymmetry, dental morphology, and extent of degenerative joint disease are examples of biogenetic information. Skeletal variations of biogenetic origin yield information about activity patterns, diet, health, and biological relationships, depending on the relative contribution that genetic and environmental factors make to variation in the expression of each trait. By contrast, diagenetic effects include postmortem influences on biological tissues that occur during death, dismemberment, burial, compaction, fossilization, weathering, exposure, discovery, recovery, and scientific study. Diagenetic marks on archaeologically derived human bone commonly include the affects of soil chemistry, fungi and bacteria on bones and teeth, marks on bone left by an excavator’s trowel or preparator’s tools, funerary practices that leave cut marks on bone and natural or cultural factors that may bias the number of skeletons by age, sex, or social status. The ability to distinguish biogenetic from diagenetic ‘signals’ in bones and teeth is a critical aspect of bioarchaeological research. The potential for confusing a skeletal modification of diagenetic origin with a biogenetic signal may seriously compromise the scientific merit of a bioarchaeological investigation. Discussion of the quality of preservation, taphonomic forces, and burial environment will assist in the recognition of diagenetic skeletal modification and will provide insight into the postmortem history of the skeletons that comprise the foundation of this investigation.

contrast, several burials produced two skeletons, and one contained three individuals, the total number of identifiable skeletal specimens for analysis is 46. Quality of skeletal preservation consists of multiple components, two of which are completeness and fragmentation. The presence or absence of bones, or parts of bones, is completeness, while fragmentation refers to the degree to which a bone is broken into pieces. Though fragmented, a bone’s pieces are usually not deformed or warped, and may be re-joined into a more complete bone, which when reconstructed is similar in shape and form to the original. A bone, or a skeleton, can be complete, yet highly fragmented. Describing a bone as ‘well preserved’ implies that the bone is both complete and not fragmented. Despite the large number of individual skeletons in the Damdama series, many are incomplete and many skeletal elements, or portions of bones, are fragmented. It is critical to clearly describe the state of preservation of the Damdama skeletal series in order that the basis for subsequent investigations is unambiguous. While incomplete and fragmentary skeletons compose a fair portion of the Damdama series, further observations regarding skeletal preservation place limitations on the utility of the Damdama series. 1) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) concretions adhere to cortical surfaces of bone. This may occur in either of two ways: a) as localized discrete nodular masses adhering to restricted areas of the periosteal surface of long bones, or b) as a thin film that coats the entire surface of flat bones such as ectocranial surfaces or the iliac blade. This coating of cortical bone with calcium carbonate hardened sediment (silt, clay) is problematic because it cannot be easily removed without damaging the bone surface and consequently variable portions of the external bone surface are obscured from view. This obstacle to observational analysis compromises the search for both biogenetic evidence, such as pathological lesions and rugosity of muscle attachment sites, and diagenetic traces, such as cut marks or evidence of rodent gnawing. During the process of preparation and inventory, when bones whose surface was partly obscured by matrix were encountered, notes were made on the approximate percentage of visible surface area present.

5.1 Macroscopic Preservation of Skeletons The scientific value of the Damdama skeletal series lies in the large number of specimens recovered from the site and the great potential they present for improving our understanding of human biology during the Mesolithic period in north India. Since not all graves yielded human skeletal remains (e.g. DDM 14 had only small unidentifiable bone chips), and by

52

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

c) DDM 10. postmortem vertical compression (occipital-frontal)

a) DDM 12. frontal view

b) DDM 12. right lateral view d) DDM 8. postmortem lateral compression (parieto-parietal)

Figure 5.1. Variation in Cranial Preservation at Damdama. a) and b) well preserved, middle-aged adult female (DDM 12), c) DDM 10, an adult female; and d) DDM 8, an adult male present examples of skulls affected by postmortem compressive distortion (anterior-posterior and lateral, respectively)

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

taphonomic history may take several forms: a) warping - bending or deformation of bone without breakage, altering the natural form, size, and proportions of a bone, b) crushing - bone breakage accompanied by change in the spatial orientation and relationship of skeletal parts, c) displacement - bones displaced from correct anatomical position though the bones themselves may not be deformed, crushed or warped. For example, pressure from soil or gravity may force overlap or separation of cranial bones along sutures, detachment may occur at unfused symphyses of the mandible and pubic bones, and displacement of unfused epiphyses separates them from diaphyses at the cartilage plates.

Matrix naturally indurated by CaCO3 presented numerous obstacles in the preparation of skeletons for study because hardened matrix cemented bones in articulated or semi-articulated positions. Long hours of intense effort were required in attempting to remove mandibles from articulation with crania, to clear indurated matrix from foramina, fossae and orbits, and to free skeletal elements held tightly in articulation at joints. Hammer and chisel were required in these preparation efforts, and tools were often worn down or bent by the amount of force necessary. In many cases, the olecranon process could not be removed from the olecranon fossa of the humerus, nor were efforts to free the femoral head from the acetabulum always successful. Limited success was achieved in clearing matrix from orbits and occasionally a mandibular condyle remained cemented to the glenoid fossa of the temporal.

Crushing and fragmentation were by far the most commonly observed forms of mechanical diagenesis observed in the Damdama skeletal remains. These forms of diagenesis commonly affected long bones with large metaphyses, such as the proximal and distal regions of the femur, the proximal humerus, and the proximal tibia. Crushing and fragmentation usually co-occur and tend to compress a portion of the proximal or distal end of a long bone, distorting shape and altering anatomical relationships. Warping was the least common form of mechanical diagenesis, and was observed more frequently in mandibles and humeri than in other skeletal elements. Ascending rami were deflected or bent from their normal position relative to the mandibular corpus, or twisting was observed at the mandibular symphysis. The humeral diaphysis was occasionally observed to be compressed in the anterior-posterior plane and bowed along its longitudinal axis without fragmentation. Displacement of skeletal elements was also infrequent, but was observed in bones of the neurocranium, and the pectoral girdle.

2) Mechanical agents of postmortem diagenesis. Mechanical damage to bones during their post-burial

The identification of taphonomic agents and forces that influenced the macroscopic bone preservation at Damdama can be sub-divided into natural or physical forces and human or cultural actions. In South Asian bioarchaeology the critical role of taphonomic research in understanding forces contributing to bias in human skeletal preservation is under-utilized. Figure 5.2 illustrates multiple human and non-human factors influencing the preservation of skeletal remains at archaeological sites (adapted and modified from Petrone 2000). The primary natural taphonomic agents consist of settling of soil and gravity-induced soil compaction. This force has been augmented by additional forceful compaction due to animal and human activity on the ground surface directly above burials, during and after site occupation from the early

Figure 5.2. Taphonomic agents influencing the preservation of human skeletal remains

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The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Holocene to the present. Exposure, weathering and erosion are forces that have more directly affected later, superficial burials at the site, and have contributed to the destruction or removal of skeletal elements from the study sample. Beyond the compressive force of human activity on graves, cultural action has impacted bone preservation in several ways. Mesolithic denizens of Damdama occasionally and accidentally cut into earlier burials when digging a new grave, thereby disturbing and dispersing skeletal elements of primary burials. Dispersed and isolated elements might then be inadvertently added to the burial fill of a later grave. In one instance (DDM - 18c), a small number of bones of the disturbed individual were collected and re-interred in a small space in the new grave. Though often fragmented and incomplete, many of the Damdama bones feel heavy and have a dark chocolate color. They are hard and well mineralized, and many skeletal elements would be characterized as wellpreserved. Few investigators proceed further in the assessment of skeletal preservation and ask questions such as: How does the external appearance of bone correlate with the quality of preservation in microscopic structure? Are macroscopic preservation, or bone micro-structure details, positively associated with the original biogenetically determined chemical composition of bone? These questions are addressed in the next section.

those recovered from Lekhahia. Entitled Prelude to Paleodiet, the research conducted by Vallianatos had three goals: a) to identify diagenetic alteration of bone using two complementary methods, b) to determine if the two methods agreed in identifying diagenetically altered bone, and c) to recognize bone that preserved a biogenetic dietary signal and would be useful in paleodietary reconstruction (Vallianatos 1999). Histological analysis was employed in determining quality of preservation because bone integrity is often modified by the activity of micro-organisms, especially fungi and bacteria. Fungal alteration results in destruction of bone micro-structure through the formation of tunnels known as Wedl tunnels, and the production of a mineral called brushite (CaHPO4 A2H2 0). By contrast, bacteria create linear, budded, and lamellate tunnels, and may also redeposit minerals. Examination of microscopic bone structure at Damdama was based on thin-sections from 21 femoral diaphyses taken at mid-shaft; the Lekhahia sample consisted of 5 femora and one humerus. In the combined sample 2153 tunnel structures were identified, 84.3% of which were linear, 8.1% lamellate, 6.2% Wedl, and 1.4 % budded. All bones from both sites displayed some degree of postmortem diagenetic alteration, but the destruction was patterned. Tunneling was most frequently observed in the periosteal portion of the cross-section and least frequently in the mid-cortical region. The endosteal region was tunneled with a frequency intermediate between periosteal and mid-cortical zones. Tunnel type also varied by study location in the cross-section.

5.2 Microscopic Preservation: Histological Structure and Elemental Composition The first multi-method investigation of bone preservation in South Asian bioarchaeology employed bone histology and trace element analysis to document the degree of postmortem diagenesis at Damdama (Vallianatos 1999). The findings of this research are significant for the present investigation because: a) the primary sample investigated is Damdama (n=21), and because comparative samples include: b) Lekhahia, a site in the Vindhya hills that plays a key role in reconstructing subsistence adaptations during Mesolithic period in the Ganga Plain, and c) Harappa, a third millennium urban site in Punjab Province, Pakistan. This study of histological structure and trace elemental composition of bone at Damdama places the degree of postmortem diagenetic alteration in a broad South Asian comparative context and permits a fine-grained test of earlier perceptions by Sharma (et. al 1980a) and Lukacs (Lukacs and Misra 2000) that human skeletal remains from Damdama are better preserved than

Generalized destruction of bone micro-structure was also evaluated, using systematic observations on bone integrity such as the degree of disintegration, disaggregation and dissociation of osteons. Destruction of micro-structural detail is greatest near the edges (periosteal and endosteal surfaces) and least in the mid-cortical region of bones from Damdama and Lekhahia. However, the degree of destruction was significantly greater in specimens from Lekhahia. Bone micro-structure at Damdama retained more of its primary histological integrity. Quantifying the degree of diagenetic change, Vallianatos (1999) adopted the Histological Index. This technique was initially developed by Hedges and colleagues who used the index to classify specimens into five categories based on the percentage of ‘intact bone’ present:

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 5.1. Frequency distribution of the Histological Index1 DDM2 LKH2 Index Value n % n % 0 2 9.5 3 50.0 1 5 23.8 3 50.0 2 10 47.6 0 0.0 3 3 14.3 0 0.0 4 1 4.8 0 0.0 5 0 0.0 0 0.0

0 = no original structure other than Haversian canals visible; less than 5% intact bone, 1 = small areas of well preserved bone or lamellar structure; less than 15% intact bone, 2 = clear areas of lamellar structure between destructive foci; less than 33% intact bone, 3 = clear lacunae visible with lamellar structure; greater than 33% intact bone, 4 = well preserved, only minor sections of focal destruction; more than 85% intact bone, 5 = preservation is indistinguishable from modern non-archaeological bone sample.

1) Data from Vallianatos (1999) 2) DDM = Damdama; LKH = Lekhahia

The overall frequency of Histological Index values for Damdama and Lekhahia are compared in Table 5.1. Two-thirds of the Damdama specimens (14) were classified in Histological Index 2 or higher, while none of the six samples from Lekhahia were assigned an index of 2 or more. These results demonstrate that perceptions of the Lekhahia skeletal sample as ‘less well preserved’ than the Damdama sample are confirmed by this analysis of bone micro-structure. This analysis raises an interesting conceptual issue, can variation in the taphonomic history and preservation of a skeleton influence an investigator’s perception of the robusticity and level of biological adaptedness of the specimen? When diagenetic factors render a skeleton’s bones “better preserved”, “more completely mineralized”, or “heavier”, these attributes could possibly be misinterpreted as evidence of increased bone robusticity during life. These qualities of postmortem preservation could be incorrectly interpreted as evidence of greater muscularity resulting from an active lifestyle and better nutrition. In effect, misinterpreted as evidence of biogenetic causation rather than diagenetic forces.

Nevertheless, Vallianatos found that histological analysis of skeletal elements from Mesolithic sites of Damdama and Lekhahia revealed they were better preserved in micro-structural detail than the bones from Harappa, a 3rd millennium urban site in Pakistan. Trace element analysis of bone samples from Damdama (n=20) and Lekhahia (n=6) was designed to achieve three goals: a) to determine which samples were affected by soil contamination, b) to identify diagenetically altered samples by detecting geochemical associations with diagenesis, and c) to determine which samples lack alteration and would be best suited for paleodietary assessment (Vallianatos 1999:36). A multi-element assessment of elemental abundances in bone samples was conducted using instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Sample analysis was performed at the Oregon State University nuclear reactor (TIGRA facility, Mr. Erwin Torne) with assistance from Dr. Gordon Goles (University of Oregon, Geological Sciences) who provided control samples, data reduction programs and assisted in interpretation of INAA results. Mean

Table 5.2. Elemental abundance (ppm) in bone samples1 Element

Damdama

Lekhahia

Archaeological2

Modern3

Arsenic (As)

15.66

9.39

0.41 - 0.86

0.01

Barium (Ba)

171.35

230.36

44 - 522

20 - 594

Strontium (Sr)

487.07

398.66

155 - 647

75 - 150

Zinc (Zn)

85.62

65.44

86 - 826

50 - 280

1) Data from Vallianatos,1999; 2) Price and Kavanagh, 1982; 3) Driessens and Verbeeck, 1990

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The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

elemental abundances for Damdama and Lekhahia samples are presented in Table 5.2, along with values of modern and archaeological bone.

auditory ossicles (6), and scapula (2) are often under represented in osteological collections, either because of their small size or thin structure. Incomplete mineralization often results in fewer infant and child skeletons, though other factors may contribute to their scarcity in skeletal series derived from archaeological burial grounds (Saunders and Barrans 1999). An element specific inventory of skeletal remains from Damdama is provided here for multiple reasons: a) to document the complete series of bones examined during the course of this research, b) to permit an evaluation of the completeness of individual skeletons, c) to provide a basis for assessing representation of skeletal parts, and d) to allow recognition of preservation biases resulting in over or under representation of skeletal elements.

The general conclusion of this study was that the quality of histological preservation is not directly correlated with trace element abundance among Mesolithic bone samples. For example, though the Lekhahia bones are poorly preserved in microstructure, some elements appear unaltered diagenetically (arsenic and selenium). By contrast the higher level of arsenic in Damdama bones may be a useful diagenetic indicator with potential for sites in relatively dry inter-fluvial plains. However, an intersite comparison reveals that on a larger scale bone samples from Harappa show the least microstructural integrity and the greatest aberration in trace element abundances. Chemical diagenesis and soil contamination were found to have affected some specimens (DDM - 12, DDM - 25, LKH - 4) more than others, and arsenic, silver, and uranium were identified as valuable indicators of diagenesis. Concentrations of silver were found to decrease from periosteal and endosteal surfaces toward the midcortex, suggesting a pattern consistent with the fungal invasion of bone. The analysis of trace elements at Damdama concluded with a preliminary assessment of diet, in which Vallianatos tentatively interpreted elevated values of strontium and barium, in conjunction with low zinc values, as indicators a plant-based dietary pattern.

As the potential number of elements in a series of 46 specimens is over 9000, three tables were required to clearly and concisely inventory each skeletal element. Table 5.3 (p. 59) contains the inventory data for cranial, mandibular, and dental elements, as well as for the pectoral girdle, upper extremity, and carpal bones. Elements of the pelvic girdle, lower extremities and tarsal bones is provided in Table 5.4 (p.63). The large number of elements in the hands and feet include 14 phalanges and 5 meta-bones for each hand and foot; yielding a total of 76 bones and therefore requiring a separate table. Table 5.5 (p. 67) is devoted to the inventory of metacarpals and manual phalanges, metatarsals and pedal phalanges.

The integration of histological methods and trace element analysis in the evaluation of bone preservation is new to South Asian bioarchaeology, yet has yielded numerous valuable insights regarding chemical diagenesis and microstructural integrity of bone. Investigations of this kind have the potential to dramatically improve our understanding of the postmortem taphonomic history of bones (diagenesis) and thereby, aid in clarifying the quality of the biogenetic signal as a source for reconstructing biological adaptations in prehistory.

The following abbreviations provide a relative indication of the presence or absence of skeletal parts for each specimen. This system follows that used by Kennedy and colleagues (1986, 1992) in the inventory of human remains from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha, and has been adopted here partly for consistency and comparability. While there are limitations to the system, it has several advantages. Ease of access to information regarding the preservation of each skeleton and element is its primary advantage. The ability to compare element abundance and quality of preservation or element completeness is another advantage. Together these factors permit a condensed descriptive summary of skeletal preservation at Damdama, which appears at the end of the chapter. This can then be compared and contrasted with the skeletal inventories for other sites.

5.3 Human Skeletal Inventory and Assessment If all 46 skeletons recovered from Damdama were complete and all bones were present for each skeleton (n = 206), the study sample would consist of 9476 skeletal elements. Of course post-burial disturbance, taphonomic forces and agents result in preservation biases and have significantly reduced the number of bones available for study. In adults the hyoid bone (1),

Abbreviations used in inventory charts may vary slightly in meaning from the abbreviations used by Kennedy and colleagues. Please refer to the list of 57

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

abbreviations and definitions provided below in perusing the inventory data in Tables 5.3 through 5.6.

D = When used alone, the letter D signifies diaphysis, meaning that part or all of the diaphysis of a long bone is present. D may include specimens for which a small section of the mid-shaft is present, or the entire diaphysis between the proximal and distal metaphyses may be present.

Complete ( C ) = the complete bone is present, often as a single element, commonly as more than one piece that could be reconstructed, occasionally as more than one piece that could not be re-joined due to adhering matrix or damage to the broken edges. Complete bones may display limited amounts of crushing or fragmentation, or both, but the entire element is regarded as present. Long bones must retain both proximal and distal epiphyses and the diaphysis to be considered complete.

D# = The letter D followed by a numeric fraction, as in D¾, signifies that the distal three-quarters of a bone is present. This label means that the distal metaphysis and epiphysis are present along with a major segment of the diaphysis, but that the proximal 25% of the element and the proximal epiphysis is missing. The D# label is more informative than the Incomplete label and is used when sufficient evidence is available to allow it.

Incomplete ( I ) = a bone or bone assemblage is labeled incomplete when a significant portion of the element or assemblage is missing. A long bone missing one metaphysis, a temporal bone missing the squama or mastoid process is incomplete. The preserved portion of an incomplete skeletal element may exhibit limited crushing or warping, but the bulk of the element must retain original shape and form.

P# = The letter P followed by a numeric fraction, as in Pb, signifies that the proximal two-thirds of a bone is present. This label means that the proximal metaphysis and epiphysis are present along with a major segment of the diaphysis, but that the distal 33% of the element and the distal end is missing. The P# label is more informative than the Incomplete label and is used when sufficient evidence is available.

Fragmentary ( F ) = Bones that are broken into pieces that are often too numerous or too small to justify effort at reconstruction are labeled fragmentary. Single skeletal elements may present sections that are fragmentary and sections that are well preserved. When a skeletal part is judged fragmentary, the specimen cannot normally be measured or observed for pathological or morphological variations.

Manual and pedal phalanges were easily identifiable to position (proximal, middle, distal), but not always identifiable to digit (ray). The number of right and left proximal, middle and distal phalanges is given in the first two rows of Table 5.5 under the headings ‘Manual Phalanges’ and ‘Pedal Phalanges’.

Additional abbreviations commonly used in the skeletal inventory charts include:

58

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Table 5.3. Skeletal inventory: Skull, thorax, pectoral girdle and upper extremity DDM Spec. No.

1

2

3

4

5

6a

6b

7

8

9

10

11

12

Element Skull:

Cranium Mandible Dentition 1

C C 17

I I 2

C C 18

F – –

C C 20/d

I F 32

F F 20

F F 28

F F 31

– – –

C C 31

F I 28

C C 32

Thorax:

Ribs - R L Sternum Vertebrae

I/F I/F – I

– I/F – –

I/F I/F – –

– – – –

– – – –

I/F I/F – –

I/F I/F – –

– – – –

F F – C

– – – –

– – – –

F F – --

F F – I

Pectoral Girdle: Clavicle - R L Scapula - R -L

– – I F

D – – –

D D I –

– – – –

– – – –

– I I I

C Da F –

F F F F

I I F I

– – – –

C – F –

D D½ F F

C C F F

Upper Extremity: Humerus - R -L

C C

P¼ D

D D

– –

– –

– –

D C

F D

C C

– –

F –

D C

C C

Radius

-R -L

C C

– –

I I

– –

– –

D¾ –

Db C

D¾ C

P½ C

– –

F DbE

D D

C C

Ulna

-R -L

C D

– –

I I

– –

– –

D¾ –

C C

D¾ C

P½ C

– –

F Db

D D

C C

Carpals Scaphoid - R L

C –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

F C

Lunate - R L

C –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

F C

Triquetral - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

Pisiform - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

C F

Trapezium - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

F F

Capitate - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

C C

Trapezoid - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

F F

Hamate - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

F F

1) tooth counts = permanent teeth, with one exception DDM 5, d = deciduous

59

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 5.3. Skeletal inventory: Skull, thorax, pectoral girdle and upper extremity (cont’d) DDM Spec. No.

13

15

16a

16b

17

18a

18b

18c

19

20a

20b

21

Element Skull:

Cranium Mandible Dentition

F C 30

F F 14

C C 31

C C 32

F – 13

F F 28

F F 27

F C 27

– – –

F F 21

F F 30

– – –

Thorax:

Ribs - R L Sternum Vertebrae

– – – –

– – – F

F F – F

– – – –

– – – F

F F – F

F F – –

F F – –

F – – –

F F – –

F F – F

– – – F

Pectoral Girdle: Clavicle - R L Scapula - R -L

– – – –

– – – –

I/F I/F I I

– – – –

– C – –

I I I I

D D F F

C I F F

– – – –

D D F F

D D I I

– – I I

Upper Extremity: Humerus - R -L

C D

F F

C C

C C

– –

– D

F F

F C

– –

F Db

I I

Db D½

Radius

-R -L

D Db

– F

C I/F

C P¾

– Pb

I/F C

D P½

D¾ C

– –

Pb C

I I

D F

Ulna

-R -L

D D

– F

C I/F

C P¾

– P¾

– C

D P½

D¾ C

– –

P½ C

I I

P½ F

Scaphoid - R L

F –

– –

F –

F –

– –

– C

C –

– F

– –

– –

C –

– –

Lunate - R L

– –

– –

F –

F –

– –

– C

F –

– –

– –

– –

F –

– –

Triquetral - R L

– –

– –

F –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

F –

– –

Pisiform - R L

– –

– –

F –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Trapezium - R L

F –

– –

F –

C –

– –

– C

F –

– –

– –

– –

F –

– –

Capitate - R L

F –

– –

F –

F –

– –

– C

– –

– F

– –

– –

C –

– –

Trapezoid - R L

F –

– –

F –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Hamate - R L

F –

– –

F –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– F

– –

– –

– –

– –

Carpals

60

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Table 5.3. Skeletal inventory: Skull, thorax, pectoral girdle and upper extremity (cont’d) DDM Specimen No.

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30a

30b

31

Element Skull:

Cranium Mandible Dentition

– – –

C C 32

I – –

I/F – –

C F 20

C C 32

F F 30

C C 28

F I/F 32

F F 28

– – –

Thorax:

Ribs - R L Sternum Vertebrae

F F – –

F F I I/F

F F – –

– – – –

F F – F

– F – –

F F – –

F F – F

F F – F

– – – –

– – – --

Pectoral Girdle: Clavicle - R L Scapula - R -L

– – – –

D D F F

D – – –

– – – –

D – F F

D½ D½ – –

D D – F

D D F –

D D F F

– F – F

– – – –

Upper Extremity: Humerus - R -L

F –

C I

Da D

D½ –

D D

D D

D D

F D

D C

D D

– –

Radius

-R -L

– D

D D

Pf C

D –

– –

D D

Pf D

– D

– C

F D

– –

Ulna

-R -L

– D

D D

D D

F –

Pa –

C D

D D

– D

– C

F D

– --

Scaphoid - R L

– –

– –

F C

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– F

– –

– –

Lunate - R L

– –

– –

F –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

Triquetral - R L

– –

– –

F F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Pisiform - R L

– –

– –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Trapezium - R L

– –

– –

F C

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Capitate - R L

– –

– –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

Trapezoid - R L

– –

– –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Hamate - R L

– –

– –

F –

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

Carpals

61

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 5.3. Skeletal inventory: Skull, thorax, pectoral girdle and upper extremity (cont’d) DDM Spec. No.

32

33

34

35

36a

36b

37

38

39

40

Element Skull:

Cranium Mandible Dentition

– C 18

I C 32

I I 14

– – –

F – 18

F – 16

F F 22

C C –

I I 17

C C 22

Thorax:

Ribs - R L Sternum Vertebrae

F F C F

F F – –

F F – –

– – – –

F F – C

F F – –

– – – –

F F F C

F – – –

– – – –

Pectoral Girdle: Clavicle - R L Scapula - R -L

D – F F

D – F F

F F F –

– – – –

I I F F

P½ C – F

– – I –

C C F F

C – C –

– – – –

Upper Extremity: Humerus - R -L

D D

F F

– –

C C

C C

D –

C C

C –

– –

D F

– –

P½ C

D C

I I

C C

C –

– –

Radius

-R -L

D C

– D – – D

Ulna

-R -L

D D

– D

D F

– –

P½ C

D C

– –

C C

C –

– –

Carpals Scaphoid - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

+ – –

+F – –

C C

+F – –

– –

Lunate - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

Triquetral - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

Pisiform - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

Trapezium - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

Capitate - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

Trapezoid - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

Hamate - R L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

62

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Table 5.4. Skeletal inventory: Pelvic girdle and lower extremity DDM Spec. No.

1

2

3

4

5

6a

6b

7

8

9

10

11

-R -L

I F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

I I

I –

– –

F –

F F

Ischium -R -L

I F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

F –

F F

Pubis

R -L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

F –

– –

Sacrum

F

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Lower Extremity: Femur -R -L

C F

D½ D½

D D

– –

– –

D F

F F

D D

C –

– –

D D

C D¾

Element Pelvic Girdle: Ilium

Tibia

-R -L

D F

D D

D D

– –

– –

D –

I F

D D

F I

– P¼

F D

P½ P½

Fibula

-R -L

– I

C C

D D

– –

– –

D –

I F

D C

F I

– P¼

F D

P½ –

Patella - R -L

– –

F F

– –

– –

– –

F C

– –

– –

C C

C C

F –

F F

Tarsals: -R Calcaneus - L

C F

– F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

I I

– –

F –

– F

– –

Talus - R -L

– –

C F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

– –

C F

– –

1st cuneiform - R (medial) - L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

C C

C F

– –

2nd cuneiform - R (intermediate) - L

– –

C C

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

C –

C –

– –

3rd cuneiform - R (lateral) -L

– –

C F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

C –

C –

– –

I/F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– C

– –

C –

– –

– –

I –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

C –

– –

– –

Cuboid - R -L Navicular - R -L

63

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 5.4. Skeletal inventory: Pelvic girdle and lower extremity (cont’d) DDM Spec. No.

12

13

15

16a

16b

17

18a

18b

18c

19

20a

20b

Pelvic Girdle: Ilium -R -L

C F

F –

– –

C C

C C

– –

F C

F I

F I

I –

F F

F I

Ischium -R -L

C F

– –

– –

– –

– F

– –

F C

F I

F I

I –

– –

F I

Pubis

-R -L

C F

F –

– –

– –

C F

– –

– –

F I

F –

– –

– –

– –

Sacrum

C

–

–

F

–

–

–

C

–

–

–

F

Lower Extremity: Femur -R -L

C C

F F

D D

C C

C C

– –

C C

C C

C F

F D½

F D

F C

Element

Tibia

-R -L

C C

C C

– D

I/F –

C C

– –

F P½

P¾ D

C F

F P½

D D

C F

Fibula

-R -L

C C

C I

– D

– –

C F

– –

– P½

P¾ F

C F

F P½

F F

C F

Patella - R -L

I C

C –

– –

C –

– –

– –

– C

C –

C –

C C

F F

I C

Tarsals: -R Calcaneus - L

C F

C C

– –

– –

C –

– –

– F

C C

– C

– –

C –

C I

Talus - R -L

C C

C C

– –

– –

C –

– –

– –

C C

– C

– –

C –

C I

1st cuneiform - R (medial) - L

C F

– C

– –

– –

– –

– –

F –

F F

– –

– –

– –

– –

2nd cuneiform - R (intermediate) - L

F F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

F –

F F

– –

– –

– –

F F

3rd cuneiform - R (lateral) -L

C F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

F –

F F

– –

– –

– –

F –

Cuboid - R -L

C C

– –

– –

– –

C –

– –

– –

F F

– –

– –

– –

– –

Navicular - R -L

C C

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

F F

– –

– –

C –

C F

64

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Table 5.4. Skeletal inventory: Pelvic girdle and lower extremity (cont’d) DDM Spec. No.

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30a

30b

31

I/F –

I/F –

C C

F F

I/F –

I –

F I

– –

– –

F F

F F

– –

Ischium -R -L

– –

– –

C C

– F

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Pubis

R -L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Sacrum

–

–

F

–

–

–

–

–

–

F

–

–

Lower Extremity: Femur -R -L

– –

C C

C C

C F

D D

D –

D¾ D

D D

– –

D D

D D

– –

Element Pelvic Girdle: Ilium

-R -L

Tibia

-R -L

– –

P½ P½

F Db

C D

D P½

F –

D D

D –

– –

F F

F F

I/F I/F

Fibula

-R -L

– –

F P½

C F

F D

F D

F –

F/C Pb

C –

– –

C D

F F

I/F I/F

Patella - R -L

– –

F F

– –

– –

F F

– –

– –

– C

– –

– –

– I

– –

Tarsals: -R Calcaneus - L

– –

– –

I I

I I

– –

– –

– –

I –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Talus - R -L

– –

– –

I I

C C

– –

– –

– –

I –

– –

– –

– –

– –

1st cuneiform - R (medial) - L

– –

– –

– –

F I

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

2nd cuneiform - R (intermediate) - L

– –

– –

– –

F –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

3rd cuneiform - R (lateral) -L

– –

– –

– –

– I

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Cuboid - R -L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

I –

– –

– –

– –

– –

Navicular - R -L

– –

– –

F F

C C

– –

– –

– –

I –

– –

– –

– –

– –

65

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 5.4. Skeletal inventory: Pelvic girdle and lower extremity (cont’d) DDM Spec. No.

32

33

34

35

36a

36b

37

38

39

40

-R -L

I C

F I/F

F –

– –

C C

C C

– –

C C

– –

C –

Ischium -R -L

– –

F I/F

– –

– –

I I

C C

– –

C C

– –

C –

Pubis

R -L

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

– –

C C

– –

I –

Sacrum

–

–

–

–

C

C

–

C

–

–

Pb P½

P¾ Pf

– D

F F

C F

C/F C

D D

C C

Df F

– –

Element Pelvic Girdle: Ilium

Lower Extremity: Femur -R -L Tibia

-R -L

– –

D F

– –

F F

C/F C

– C

D D

C C

F –

– –

Fibula

-R -L

– –

D D

– –

F F

F C

– F

D F

C C

F –

– –

Patella - R -L

– –

C I

– –

– –

C C

– C

C C

C C

C C

– –

Tarsals: Calcaneus - R -L

– –

I F

– –

F I

C F

I I

– –

C C

– –

– –

Talus - R -L

– –

C C

– –

I C

C C

F C

– –

C C

– –

– –

1st cuneiform - R (medial) - L

– –

C C

– –

– –

C C

F C

– –

C C

– –

– –

2nd cuneiform - R (intermediate) - L

– –

C C

– –

– C

C C

F C

– –

C C

– –

– –

3rd cuneiform - R (lateral) -L

– –

F C

– –

F C

C C

F C

– –

C C

– –

– –

Cuboid - R -L

– –

C –

– –

F C

C –

F I

– –

C C

– –

– –

Navicular - R -L

– –

C I

– –

F F

C –

I C

F –

C C

– –

– –

66

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Table 5.5. Skeletal inventory: Hand and foot elements Spec. No.

1

2

3

5

6a

6b

7

8

9

– – C C C C C C C –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – F F F F F F F –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – Db – D¾ – D¾ – – –

– – C – C P¾ – P¾ – –

– – – – F – F – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – C – C

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

PM D

– – – F – F – F – F – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– 3 – – – – – – – – – –

3 1 – – – – – – – – – –

5 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– 4 – – – – – – – – – –

Element Metacarpals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

Position Manual UI-R Phalanges -L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – C – – C C – C – – C C– – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

2 – – – – – – – – – – – F – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

3 – 4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Metatarsals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – C P¾ D P¾ D C

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

Da – – – P½ – P½ – P½ –

– – – – – – – – – –

F C F C F C F C F C

– – – – – – – – – –

Pb P½ C Pb Pb C F D½ F D½

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– 4 – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

3 4 C – – – – – – – – –

Pedal UI - R Phalanges - L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

3 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

P = proximal; M = middle; D = distal UI-R = right phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified UI-L = left phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified

67

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

1 – 4 3 C – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 5.5. Skeletal inventory: Hand and foot elements (cont’d) Spec. No.

10

11

12

13

15

16a

16b

17

18a

– – – F – F – F – F

– – – – – – – – – –

C C C C C C C C C C

C – C D C D C D C –

– – – – – – – – – –

C C C C C C C C C C

C – C I C I P¾ I P¾ –

– – – – – – – – – –

C C C C C C – C – C

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

Manual UI-R Phalanges -L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– 3 – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – C C C C C C C C C C

4 3 – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

4 2 – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

3 2 – – – – – – – – – –

Element Metacarpals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

Metatarsals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

– – 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – C C C – C – C – – – C – C – C – CC

2 1 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

4 – 2 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

F – P½ D F D F D F –

– – – – – – – – – –

C I C C C I C I C C

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

C – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

F I F – – – – – – F

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

Pedal UI -R Phalanges -L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

4 3 3 2 C – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – C – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – C C – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

P = proximal; M = middle; D = distal UI-R = right phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified UI-L = left phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified

68

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Table 5.5. Skeletal inventory: Hand and foot elements (cont’d) Spec. No.

18b

18c

19

20a

20b

21

22

23

24

– – I I I I – I – –

– – F – F I F I – –

– – I – I – I – – –

F – F – F – F – – –

I – – I I I I – I –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – I – I – – – –

D – D – D – – – – –

– – F – F D F D – D

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

PM D

Manual UI-R Phalanges -L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

4 2 – – – – – – – – – –

2 3 – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

2 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

Element Metacarpals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

Metatarsals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– -– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

F F F F F F F F F F

Pb – Pb – Pb – Pb – Pb F

– – – – – – – – – –

I – I – I F I F I –

I I I I I I I I – –

– – – – – F – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

P½ D P½ D P½ D P½ – P½ –

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

Pedal UI-R Phalanges -L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – –

3 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

P = proximal; M = middle; D = distal UI-R = right phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified UI-L = left phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified

69

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 5.5. Skeletal inventory: Hand and foot elements (cont’d) Spec. No.

25

26

27

28

29

30a

30b

31

32

– – F – F – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – D D D D – D – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– D – D – Pf – D – D

– – D – D – – D – D

– – – – – – – – – –

C – C F – – – – – –

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

PM D

Manual UI -R Phalanges -L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

2 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– 3 – – – – – – – – – –

1 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

Element Metacarpals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

Metatarsals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

3 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – D – D – D

C – C – C – C – C –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

Pedal UI - R Phalanges - L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

P = proximal; M = medial; D = distal UI-R = right phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified UI-L = left phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified

70

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Table 5.5. Skeletal inventory: Hand and foot elements (cont’d) Spec. No.

33

34

35

36a

36b

37

38

39

40

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – P¾ – D – – – – –

– I F I F I F I – I

– – – – – – – – – –

C C C C C C C C C C

C – C – C – C – C –

– – F – F – – – – –

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

PMD

P M D

P M D

Manual UI- R Phalanges - L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

4 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – C – C – C – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

Element Metacarpals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

Metatarsals I -R -L II -R -L III -R -L IV -R -L V -R -L

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – C – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

3 4 – – – – – – – – – –

4 2 3 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – C – – – C C – – C – – – C – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

C C Pf D Pf D Df F D F

– – – – – – – – – –

– C Pf P¾ Pf P¾ D C D –

C C C P¾ C P¾ C C C P¾

– – P¾ D P¾ P¾ P¾ P¾ P¾ P¾

– – – – – – – D – D

C – C – C – C – C –

– – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – –

Position

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

P M D

Pedal UI - R Phalanges - L 1 -R -L 2 -R -L 3 -R -L 4 -R -L 5 -R -L

2 – C C C – C – C – C –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

3 – – C – C – C – C – C

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – C – C – C – C – C –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

P = proximal; M = medial; D = distal UI-R = right phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified UI-L = left phalanges, digit (ray) unidentified

71

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – C – C C – – C C – – C C – – C C – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

removal of the torso en bloc will often include carpals, metacarpals and manual phalanges. These elements are well represented in part because burial posture guarantees their recovery, which may not always be intentional. By contrast, the peripheral position of the feet predisposes them to disturbance and removal through the inadvertent digging of new graves, hearths, or post-holes. The distal position of the feet predisposes them to dissociation from the lower limb and reduces their potential for full representation in the excavated skeletal sample. Though inferential and speculative in nature, this explanation suggests that burial posture and postburial disturbance are two possible factors contributing to the disproportionately higher representation of hand and wrist bones, as opposed to

Based on raw data presented in Table 5.3, the relative abundance of skeletal elements was computed using a baseline of n=46 for DDM and n=26 for MDH. The sample of cranial and mandibular elements is provided in Table 5.6 and Figure 5.3. While complete crania are much less common than fragmentary ones in the DDM skeletal series, the reverse is true for mandibles which are more often complete than incomplete or fragmentary. In comparison with data taken from Table 1 of the Mahadaha report (Kennedy et al. 1992), the DDM series contains significantly more fragmentary crania, but fewer incomplete ones. Mandibles are more frequently missing from the MDH skeletal series, while complete and fragmentary mandibles are more common at DDM than they are at MDH. In addition to cranial and mandibular parts, the horizontal bar chart also presents the relative abundance of homologous elements of the upper (grey bars) and lower (black bars) extremities in the Damdama skeletal series (Fig. 5.3). Data provided in Table 5.7, are derived from raw data presented in Tables 5.4 and 5.5 of this chapter. When post-cranial elements are the focus of concern, upper and lower extremities are preserved in approximately equal proportions at Damdama. A discrepancy is evident in the relatively higher frequency of metacarpals and manual phalanges, while metatarsals and pedal phalanges are somewhat and substantially lower in frequency, respectively. The reason for this disparity, favoring the preservation of hands and feet, is unclear, but two inter-related taphonomic factors, both human, may be responsible: burial posture, and post-burial disturbance. Mesolithic burial practices conventionally include placement of one or both hands of the deceased across the abdomen or on the chest, while in an extended, supine burial the feet are peripheral since legs are rarely flexed. Though hand position is not always on the abdominal cavity or thorax, and is occasionally below the iliac blade,

Table 5.7. Representation of post-cranial skeletal elements Element pectoral humerus forearm carpals metacarpals* manual pelvic femur leg* tarsals* metatarsals pedal phalanges

DDM1 n %

MDH1 n %

34 37 38 16 30 26 31 38 38 22 22 9

20 18 16 8 8 8 20 16 13 5 6 4

73.9 80.4 82.6 44.4 65.2 56.5 67.4 82.6 82.6 47.8 47.8 19.6

76.9 69.2 61.5 30.8 30.8 30.8 54.6 61.5 50.0 19.2 23.1 15.4

1) DDM=Damdama (n=46); MDH=M ahadaha (n=26) * difference significant at p < 0.05

Table 5.6. Representation of cranial and mandibular elements1 Complete cranium mandible

Incomplete

Fragmentary

Present

Missing

site

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

DDM

13

28.3

7

15.2

19

41.3

39

84.8

7

15.2

MDH

5

19.2

11

42.3

3

11.5

7

26.9

DDM

16

34.8

5

10.9

13

28.3

12

26.1

MDH

7

26.9

4

15.4

3

11.5

12

46.1

34

73.9

1) representation = number of elements present / the total number of skeletons (DDM=46, MDH=26) DDM = Damdama; MDH = Mahadaha (data calculated from Kennedy et al. 1992; Table 1, page 68, 72)

72

The Human Skeletal Sample: Preservation, Taphonomy and Inventory

Figure 5.3. Relative representation of skeletal elements at Damdama

Figure 5.4. Skeletal preservation at Damdama and Mahadaha compared elements of the foot and ankle in the Damdama skeletal series. Comparative evaluation of Damdama and Mahadaha post-cranial inventories is presented in Table 5.7 (and Figure 5.4) and reveals that all skeletal elements, except the pectoral girdle, are more abundant at Damdama than at Mahadaha. The

abundance of leg (tibia, fibula), metacarpal, and tarsal elements is significantly greater at Damdama, though manual phalanges and metatarsals also exhibit large differences in representation. Elements most similar in abundance include bones of the pectoral girdle, pedal phanlanges, and humerus. While proximal limb 73

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

elements are preserved with greater frequency at Damadama (humerus: 80.4%; femur: 82.6%) than at Mahadaha (humerus: 69%; femur 62%), fragmentary and incomplete elements are more common at Damdama. A similar preservational bias is evident in the forearm and leg segments, which are less frequently present among specimens recovered from Mahadaha (forearm: 62%; leg: 50%) than from Damdama (forearm and leg: 82.6%; see Table 5.7). However, consistent with the preservation of proximal limb elements, when Mahadaha specimens retain forearm and leg bones they are more complete, and less diagenetically altered than the same elements from Damdama, which are often incomplete or partly crushed postmortem.

Histological analysis of bone micro-structure and trace element analysis of bone chemistry augments and yields unique insights into skeletal preservation at Damdama. Though structural and chemical evidence of fungal and bacterial destruction was discovered, the bones from Damdama were judged to be better preserved than comparable skeletal elements from Lekhahia or those from the 5000 BP urban center of Harappa, Pakistan. An element-specific inventory of the Damdama skeletal series reveals that upper and lower extremities are approximately equally represented, but that bones of the hand are more abundant than bones of the foot. A comparison of preservation and representation of skeletal elements from Mahadaha and Damdama was conducted and provided quantitative validation of suspected biases in bone preservation between these two sites. The analysis revealed that more skeletons have been recovered from Damdama than from Mahadaha, and that these skeletons include more of their skeletal elements. However, this result is misleading because though they are abundant, many of the skeletal elements from Damdama have suffered extensive post-burial diagenesis, resulting in a higher frequency of incomplete, fragmentary, crushed and warped bones than were observed in the Mahadaha series. Taphonomic forces acting on the Damdama skeletons are many and complex, including mechanical and chemical agents, as well as microbiological activity and human disturbance. Though the archives written in our skeletons and teeth provide a wealth of valuable information regarding life ways of the past, the bones from Damdama do not yield their chronicles of the past easily.

5.4 Summary The preservation and inventory of human skeletal remains from Damdama presents opportunities for bioarchaeological research as well as impediments that render the analysis difficult and impose limitations on the conclusions that can be derived from them. The large size of the collection is a clear advantage that permits statistical analysis and engenders confidence in results because patterns rather than individual unique attributes are defined and documented. By contrast, the incompleteness and fragmentary nature of the skeletal assemblage from Damdama means that important sources of information have been lost to taphonomic agents of a mechanical or chemical nature. Care is therefore required in tabulating the number of specimens or skeletal elements for which specific morphological or pathological observations can be made. The most common problems affecting the preservation of skeletons at Damdama are calcium carbonate concretions adhering to bone surfaces, obscuring important features from view and the mechanical crushing of the ends of long bones limiting the number of specimens for which joint surfaces could be evaluated and for which accurate measurement of maximum long bone lengths could be conducted.

The demographic profile of Damdama begins in Chapter 6, with the attribution of age at death and sex for each specimen in the series. A more technical assessment of age at death from histological analysis of dental cementum annulations is the focus of Chapter 7.

74

6. Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex vs. morphological criteria of age or sex, as many methods as possible were used, results were weighted according to reliability of the technique.

The demographic structure of a skeletal population provides the foundation upon which subsequent research questions are based. Establishing an accurate demographic profile of a prehistoric human skeletal series requires the judicious application of multiple methods of age and sex assessment to each specimen in the series. The quality of preservation of each specimen, including level of completeness and degree of fragmentation, often play a role in determining which techniques are appropriate. Following the pattern of other Mesolithic Lake Culture sites yielding human skeletal remains, sub-adults are under represented in the mortuary sample from Damdama. Apart from this first impression of bias in the representation of skeletons by age group, what can be discovered about the age and sex structure of this skeletal series? Are there any other biases in the abundance of skeletons by age or sex? Is the demographic profile of the Damdama series unique, or does it conform broadly to the age and sex structure of other sites in Mesolithic Lake Culture complex? Finally, are the human remains from Damdama equitably enough distributed across age and sex categories to permit more detailed analyses of stature, health, and nutrition? These are the primary concerns motivating a high level of attention to the precise assessment of demographic parameters including age and sex. Demography of Damdama is organized in three parts: 1) a review of methods of age and sex estimation, 2) a specimen-by-specimen diagnosis of age and sex, and 3) summary description and interpretation of the demographic profile.

6.1.1. Age estimation. While processes of dental eruption and tooth crown and root calcification are well correlated with age at death, these aspects of development are confined to the first two decades of life. Consequently in a skeletal series consisting predominantly of mature and older adults, dental eruption and tooth calcification are not highly informative for most specimens. Postmortem diagenesis has taken a heavy toll on the human skeletal remains from Damdama, precluding methods of age assessment that utilize fragile elements such as the sternal ends of ribs or the face of the os pubis. A summary of the principal methods of estimating age at death follows. Dental development. Dental development in deciduous teeth follows the sequences for mandibular canine and molar crown, root and root apex calcification provided by Moorrees and colleagues (Moorrees et. al 1963a). Stages of permanent dental calcification follow Moorrees (Moorrees et. al 1963b). Deciduous and permanent dental eruption was evaluated using the chart developed by (Ubelaker 1989: 64, Fig. 71). Although entitled “the sequence of formation and eruption of teeth among American Indians”, this series of graphic images represents a composite derived from 16 studies of American Indians and other non-white populations. At least one of the non-white groups included children from the east Indian state of Bengal for whom the timing of deciduous dental eruption was documented (Banerjee and Mukherjee 1967), making these standards more appropriate than the figure caption suggests. Crown and root formation of permanent molar and premolar teeth follows the radiologically determined developmental stages described by Garn and colleagues (Garn et al. 1958) in their analysis of sex differences in tooth calcification.

6.1 Methods and Procedures for Determining Age and Sex The initial field study of human remains from Damdama employed standardized macroscopic techniques conventionally employed by human osteologists in the study of archaeologically derived human skeletons. The skeletal inventory determined which of the many methods and techniques could be used in the assessment of age and sex for a particular specimen. The following description of ageing and sexing methods used in this study is organized in approximate order of reliability of the method. For example, methods conventionally regarded as more reliable estimators of age, such as dental eruption and calcification are discussed first, and less reliable techniques, such as cranial suture closure and degenerative skeletal changes, are discussed last. In estimating age and sex in the Damdama skeletal series a multi-factorial approach was adopted (Lovejoy et al. 1985a). No special preference was given to metrical

Union of primary centers of ossification. Closure of the cranial fontanelles, fusion of the mandibular symphysis, metopic suture, components of the atlas and axis, and portions of the occipital bone follow the chronological guidelines described in Stewart (1979). Union of Epiphyses. Initiation and completion of epiphyseal fusion was evaluated using several sources that are based upon a range of data derived from studies using different methods, some used radiological methods, others gross observation. Data 75

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

from five independent researchers are summarized by sex, in Stewart (1979: 150-151, Table XIII and XIV). Additional tables and charts summarizing the general developmental sequence of epiphyseal fusion were referred to for verification and confirmation of closure times (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994: 43, Figure 20; Ubelaker 1989: 75, Table 16).

Recent advances have helped overcome some of the negative attitudes regarding the use of cranial suture closure in age assessment (Key et al 1994). Techniques of assessing ectocranial suture closure advocated by (Meindl and Lovejoy 1985) were used in this study. These investigators group suture observation sites into two systems: a) the vault system, and b) the lateral-anterior system. The vault system requires observation of seven suture sites (1mid-lambdoid, 2-lambda, 3-obelion, 4-anterior sagittal, 5-bregma, 6-mid-coronal, and 7-pterion), while the lateral-anterior system requires assessment of five sites (6-mid-coronal, 7-pterion, 8-sphenofrontal, 9-inferior spheno-temporal, and 10-superior spheno-temporal). In their analysis of 236 crania from the Hamann-Todd Collection, Meindl and Lovejoy (1985) found the lateral-anterior system more reliable than the vault system. In ageing the Damdama series, the lateral-anterior system was used in preference to the vault system when all suture observation sites were available. In addition to the original research report, this procedure is summarized by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994: 32-35) and by Ubelaker (1989: 8384).

Pelvic indicators: metamorphosis of the auricular surface and the pubic symphysis. At Damdama, postburial taphonomic agents result in a bias favoring preservation of the auricular surface of the ilium over the less dense and more fragile face of the os pubis. The age-dependent metamorphosis of multiple morphological components of the auricular surface were evaluated following the descriptions and illustrations provided by (Lovejoy et. al 1985b), and as later summarized by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994:24-332) and by Ubelaker (1989:81-83). Some individuals retained only the right or left ilium, in others only part of the auricular surface was preserved, limiting the accuracy of this method of age assessment in some specimens. Metamorphosis of pubic symphysis morphology was useful in a smaller number of specimens, since the pubic bone was frequently either missing, badly crushed or partly damaged. In a few instances, both right and left pubic bones were present and well preserved, but were held in full articulation by matrix, and could not be disarticulated or cleaned of adhering matrix, thus precluding observation and analysis. Several different methods were used to estimate age at death from the morphology of the pubic symphysis, including: Todd (1921a; Todd 1921b), McKern and Stewart (1957), Gilbert and McKern (1973), Katz and Suchey (1986) and Brooks and Suchey (1990).

Growth and development standards for cranial bones of juveniles are based on data provided by Scheuer and Black (2000) and by Young (1957). 6.1.2. Sex estimation. A multi-factorial and hierarchical approach was also adopted in the estimation of sex. All potentially informative methods that could be employed in estimating the age at death of a specimen were applied, yet greater emphasis was placed on the results derived from methods proven most accurate and reliable in prior research. Morphological and metrical indicators of sex derived from the pelvis are widely regarded as more reliable than indicators based upon cranial or mandibular anatomy. General size and robusticity of the skeleton are the most subjective and least reliable criteria on which to base attribution of sex. Confidence in allocation of sex increases with the number of techniques used and when concordant results are derived from the more reliable methods. A summary of methods of sex estimation used in this study is provided below.

Degenerative skeletal and dental changes. Vertebral osteophytes, osteoarthritic modification of appendicular joint surfaces, antemortem loss of teeth, and degree of dental wear are very generally, but positively, correlated with age. These markers of age at death were only used when other indicators could not be applied. Stewart (1979: 175-180) and Ubelaker (1989:84) provide guidelines for using degenerative changes in the joints and teeth as a basis for general age at death estimation, but both sources advise caution due to the high range of variation in appearance of degenerative skeletal conditions. Variation in the degree of dental wear on third molar teeth proved a useful method of establishing the relative age of specimens in this series. Scott’s (1979) quadrant system of evaluating molar wear was used for a quantitative assessment, but was augmented by descriptions of variation in degree of wear and extent of dentine exposure within and between specimens.

Pelvic Morphology. Shape of the greater sciatic notch and the pubic bone, sub-pubic concavity and angle, ventral arc, elevation of the auricular surface, and curvature of the sacrum constitute prime indicators of sex in the pelvic region. Standard descriptions of these attributes that served as the base for comparative evaluation in this analysis may be found in Bass (1987), Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), Steele and Bramblette (1988), Stewart (1979), and Ubelaker (1989).

Cranial suture closure. Notoriously imprecise and widely suspect for the broad range and imprecision of age assessments, cranial suture closure is often used as a method of last resort in estimating age at death.

Certain sex diagnostic criteria, such as the shape of the pelvic inlet or outlet, require a complete and undeformed pelvis and therefore could not be used in this study due to the amount of postmortem 76

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

diagenesis. In specimens that preserved critical anatomical features in pristine condition, metrical indicators of sex were utilized. These procedures included indices, such as: the ischio-pubic index (Washburn 1948) and the sciatic notch - acetabular index (Kelley 1979a), both of which are summarized in Steele and Bramblett (1988: 199-200); and direct linear measurements of the vertical diameter of the acetabulum or the diameter of the head of the femur (Bass 1987; Stewart 1979).

relatively more obtuse (greater than 125 degrees) in females, and the margins of the gonial region are straight or inverted in females and more frequently everted in males. The ascending ramus is also commonly taller, broader, and more robustly structured in males than in females. Prominent laterally projecting mandibular eminences are more often found in male than female mandibles. Multifactorial assessment of sex is essential when using data from mandibular architecture. Mandibular traits should be integrated and jointly interpreted with evidence from the cranium and post-cranial skeleton when it is available for study.

Cranial Morphology. Following Acsádi and Nemeskeri’s (1970) procedures, Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994: 19-20) recommend using five observation sites on the cranium for sex determination. These include: the nuchal crest, mastoid process, supraorbital margin, prominence of glabella, and shape of the mental eminence. A comparative scale for judging degree of expression of each trait is provided, but caution that sex determination from cranial features alone can be a challenging task. A longer list of cranial traits that display sufficient sex dimorphism to be useful in diagnosing sex include: 1) the degree of frontal and parietal bossing, 2) shape of the frontal bone in the mid-sagittal plane (forehead steep or retreating), 3) relative size of the supraorbital torus, palate, teeth and occipital condyles, 3) rugosity of muscular attachment sites (temporal lines, mandibular sites, nuchal plate, zygoma), and 4) mandibular angle (Bass, 1987: 81; Steele and Bramblett, 1988: 54)

Size and Robusticity of the Post-cranial Skeleton. Section points for partitioning size variation in postcranial articular surfaces into male and female are provided in Stewart (1979). Discriminant function estimates of sex are numerous and diverse, and include methods that use a range of cranial, mandibular and post-cranial measurements. Discriminant functions could not be extensively used in sex estimation because: 1) postmortem diagenesis in many Damdama skeletons precluded making the full list of multiple measurements required by many discriminant function methods of sex estimation, and 2) skeletal samples on which many discriminant functions are based were deemed inappropriate for use on an early Holocene skeletal series from South Asia. In a few instances, absence of alternative methods of sex assessment led to the adoption of several discriminant functions in sex estimation. Dittrick (1979; Dittrick and Suchey, 1986) developed discrimiant functions for estimating sex from measurements of the humerus (transverse diameter of the head) and femur (maximum head diameter, midshaft circumference and mid-shaft anterior-posterior diameter). France (1983, 1988) developed a method of sex attribution using measures of the proximal and distal humerus, as well as maximum and minimum diameters of the diaphysis. Steele developed a series of discriminant functions to estimate sex from five measurement of the talus and five measurements of the calcaneus. This technique of sex allocation could be used in several Damdama specimens. A description of the measurements and the functions is provided in Steele and Bramblett (1988: 259-261). When metric data for multiple variables was available for a specimen the full range of multivariate discriminant functions were used in estimating sex.

Mandibular Morphology. Sexual dimorphism in the mandible is especially sensitive to variations in functional stresses associated with sex based differences in diet and oral processing of a nondietary or occupational nature. Processing materials for clothing by female Eskimo results in a mandible with robust muscular markings giving a strong impression of masculinity (Steele and Bramblett, 1988). A high degree of caution must accompany decisions regarding sex when they are based exclusively on morphological features of the mandible. In addition to variation in the overall size and robusticity of mandibular morphology there are several mandibular traits whose variation is associated with sex. Typical features regarded of high value in sex diagnosis of the mandible include: the shape of the mental eminence and inferior margin of the horizontal corpus between the mental foramina, the degree of angulation at the gonial angle, amount of eversion along the gonial margin, height of the mandibular symphysis, breadth of the ascending ramus, prominence of the mandibular eminence, and size of genial tubercles. Female attributes include a small mental eminence located in the mid-sagittal plane in association with a rounded inferior margin. Males often express a large, square symphysis, with a large and bilateral eminence, and tubercles along the inferior margin of the corpus. The gonial angle is more acute in males (less than 125 degrees) and

6.2 Diagnosis of Age and Sex by Specimen Damdama Specimen 1 Age at Death: 36-50 years Sex: Female Age Determination. Two methods were used to estimate the age of this specimen: a) cranial suture closure following (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985) as presented by Ubelaker (1989: 84), and b) auricular 77

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

surface form also following procedures described by Meindl & Lovejoy (1985) and summarized by Ubelaker (1989: 81). The actual scores for the cranial suture closure measurements are presented in Table 6.1. Rates of suture closure are constant across ethnic and gender classifications, but they vary considerably within the individual stages of closure (Ubelaker, 1989: 83). The subsequent stage of the most fused suture is used to estimate age. The scores for this individual indicate that the specimen was an adult, between the ages of 22 - 49 years at time of death. The average age estimate of 35 years at the next stage of closure, is the best focal age for this individual.

despite a prominent glabellar region. The mastoid processes are small and the supramastoid region is not well developed, nor is a supramastoid crest discernable. The specimen has prominent parietal bosses, but the frontal bosses are not well developed. The nuchal markings of the occipital bone are faint and the squamous part of the occipital is gracile in appearance. Post-cranial remains also support the designating the sex of this specimen as female. The gracile femoral morphology and the absence of a femoral pilaster are also feminine. By contrast, the right femur is long, sturdily built, and has a large head. The right femoral head has a vertical diameter of 46.0 mm, which straddles the border between male and female in the distribution given by Steele and Bramblett (1988: 227). Other gracile post-cranial features include a smooth deltoid insertion on the humerus; one that lacks rugosity. The left humerus has a vertical head diameter of 43.0 mm, and generally a head diameter less than or equal to 43.0 (Stewart, 1979) or 45.0 mm indicates a female (Steele and Bramblett, 1988: 164). Note that France (1983, 1988) regards metrical dimensions of the proximal humerus more reliable indicators of sex than dimensions of the distal humerus.

Auricular surface morphology suggests that this individual was between 40 and 50 years at time of death. Macroporosity was observed on the auricular surface and slight breakdown of the margin is present anterior and inferior to apex. There is no billowing or transverse organization discernable, and macroporosity is only apparent in the superior and inferior demiface but not in the central region, which appears rather dense. This later age estimate broadens the range slightly to between 36-50 yrs., an assessment that is supported by the presence of osteoarthritic lipping on right and left elbow joints, as well as vertebral osteophytes. Sex Determination. Multiple indicators of the sex of this specimen are present, each is evaluated in sequence. The sciatic notches of right and left os coxae are preserved, though the right is more complete. The sciatic notch is broad on both os coxae, the pre-auricular sulcus is present on the right and is trough-shaped. The left pre-auricular sulcus is present, but is discernable only at its superior-anterior margin. These features of pelvic architecture strongly suggest that the specimen is female.

Measurements of the right talus and discriminant functions computed from them are presented in Table 6.2. Five measurements permit the calculation of three different discriminant functions for the purpose of sex determination. This analysis used regression formula numbers 2, 3, and 4 for sex estimation following the method of Steele and Bramblett (1988: 261). While each formula has a different level of accuracy in predicting sex (formula 4, 88% accurate; formula 3, 86 %; formula 2, 83%), all three functions agree in predicting this individual’s sex as male. In every instance, the calculated function for this specimen is below the male mean.

Though sturdily built, the mandible exhibits a median mental eminence and an obtuse mandibular angle. The left gonial region is inverted; the right is not preserved. These three characteristics support the sex determination drawn from the pelvic bones. The material was too fragmentary and not well enough preserved to make many facial and cranial measurements and no mandibular or cranial base measurements could be collected.

The specimen is most similar to the female pattern in cranial and mandibular morphology, overall rugosity of muscle markings, and most importantly - pelvic architecture. The lower extremities give contradictory evidence regarding sex, with discriminant functions of the talus predicting male sex. The vertical diameter of the femoral head is borderline male/female and the talus and trochlea indicate that the specimen is male. The majority of the more reliable indicators of sex support the designation of DDM-1 as female with a robust post-cranial architecture.

The cranial sex markers, in association with the feminine form of the sciatic notch, and gracile mandibular morphology, confirm the specimen as female. The supra-orbital tori are weakly developed

78

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Table 6.1. DDM 1 age estimate from cranial suture closure Anterior-lateral Vault Suture System Suture System Suture Num.

Score

Suture Num.

Score

1

0

6

1

2

0

7

0

3

2

8

0

4

1

9

0

5

0

10

1

6

0

7

0

total

3

2

mean age

34.7 yrs

36.0 yrs

range

22-48 yrs

25-29 yrs

std dev

7.8 yrs

6.2 yrs

Table 6.2. DDM 1 sex determination from measurements of the talus1 Measurement Discriminant Function Analysis number name result function value section point 1

maximum length

52.0

2

maximum width

42.5

3

body height

4 5

sex

2

39.31

38.75

M

33.0

3

77.52

75.44

M

maximum trochlear length

34.0

4

52.29

50.05

M

maximum trochlear width

35.0

1) Discriminant function formulae, section points, male and female means and percent accuracy derive from Steele and Bramblett (1988: 261, Table 11.7.)

Table 6.3. Neurocranial chord measurements (DDM 4, in mm) and comparative data Comparative data (Young, 1957) Measurement DDM - 4 mean range age (months) Frontal chord (Na-Br)

86.0

89.3

82 - 96

6

Parietal chord (Br-La)

114.0

114.7

107 - 135

9

Damdama Specimen 2 Age at Death: > 30 years Sex: Female

This suggests an age greater than 30 years; an upper limit for the estimate cannot be established with certainty.

Age Determination. Few diagnostic features for age assessment are present in this specimen. The os coxae are absent and most long bones lack epiphyses. Age estimations are based on an evaluation of the state of cranial suture closure, though the number of sutures present for analysis is limited. The mid-section of the lambdoid suture is partially closed, but portions of this suture remain open near lambda and asterion.

Sex Determination. This specimen either lacks or has poorly preserved skeletal elements that are correlated with sex. For example, bones of the pelvis are missing. The sex assessment was based on features of the posterior portion of the cranial vault and on an analysis of the post-cranial diaphyseal fragments. This estimate of female sex is therefore less certain than the estimation of sex for DDM - 1. 79

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

The mastoid processes are small bilaterally and the nuchal plate is weakly marked by muscle attachments. The external occipital protuberance is mound-shaped and not rugose. The supramastoid crests are absent; the parietal notch is present bilaterally. The mandible has a median mental eminence and the gonial tubercles are small. The digastric markings are weak, as is the mylohyoid line. This gracility might indicate a young age at death, but could also result from biomechanical alterations related to antemortem tooth loss and commensurate loss of function.

preserved. If degeneration of the auricular surface margin occurred antemortem, as it appears to have, age at death could be between 50-60 years. Sex Determination. The cranium and mandible are present for sex determination, but the pelvic bones are poorly preserved and yielded little secure information. The frontal bone has well-developed bosses and a vertical forehead. The supraorbital region is prominent medially, but the lateral supraorbital region lacks ridge development. Glabella is not more prominent than the supraorbital ridges. The superior orbital margins are sharp, especially the lateral half. The left mastoid process is of moderate size, but lacks a supramastoid prominence. The nuchal region and the parietal bosses are damaged and yield no evidence for use in the evaluation of sex. The mandible has a median mental eminence and the overall appearance of the mandibular structure is gracile. The gonial angle is obtuse, an appearance influenced in part by antemortem loss of molar teeth on the left side. The sigmoid notch is shallow and the left gonial region is inverted. The cranial and mandibular features indicate that this individual is female.

Overall, post-cranial bones are gracile, small in size, and delicate in construction. However, there is a notable exception in the well-defined deltoid tuberosity of the left humerus. In addition, both humeri have deep and well-marked bicipital (intertubercular) grooves. The femora lack well-developed pilasters. The overall impression of this individual is of a small female with relatively robust upper limbs. France’s (1983) discriminant function formula for sex determination using maximum and minimum diameters of the humerus yielded a female sex allocation. Measurements on the left humeral diaphysis result in a minimum diaphyseal diameter of 14.0 mm and a maximum diameter of 20.0 mm. Discriminant function formulae for sex estimation based on these measurements, result in values above the cutoff (greater than 1.48). The Arikara formula yields a value of 1.658, and the Caucasoid formula results in a figure of 1.924; both numbers agree in predicting that this specimen is female (see Table 6.32 below). Although measurements of the talus may also be used in estimating sex (Steele and Bramblett 1988: 261), only two measurements could be made on the right talus of this specimen: maximum trochlear length (32.0 mm) and maximum trochlear width (41.0 mm). At least three measurements are required for a sex diagnosis from dimensions of the talus. Given the fragmentary preservation of this individual, agreement between the degree of robusticity of the skeleton and discriminant functions based on humerus dimensions, an allocation of female sex seems secure and unambiguous.

Right and left os coxae are present and, though fragmentary, the sciatic notches are preserved. The left is more complete than the right and retains a small portion of the pre-auricular sulcus. The sciatic notches are broad and support the conclusion from the cranial and mandibular features that the specimen is female. Diaphyseal diameters of the right humerus are: 15.0 mm (minimum) and 20 mm (maximum). Using discriminant function formula provided by France (1983), the computed value of 1.79185 falls above the cutoff (1.47) providing additional evidence that the specimen is probably female (see Tables 6.32 and 6.33, p. 110-111 for comparative data). The overall impression derived from morphological indicators of sex is that this is individual is a large female. Damdama Specimen 4 Age at Death: 9 months (± 3 months) Sex: Indeterminate Age Determination. Two cranial measurements may be used to assess age by comparison with the established growth rates of bones of the neurocranium. However, this process is highly variable due to the differential impact of genetic and nutritional factors on growth, consequently the following age estimate should be considered an approximation only. The nasion - bregma chord has a maximum length of approximately 86.0 mm, and the maximum length of the left parietal, measured along the bregma - lambda chord is 114.0 mm. When these data are compared with Young’s (1957) reference sample an age at death between six and nine months is indicated (Table 6.3). The age at death of another juvenile in this series (DDM - 5) was independently determined using standards of dental development to be between 2 and 3 years. Craniometric data for DDM - 5 reveals longer frontal (115 mm) and parietal

Damdama Specimen 3 Age at Death: 55 years (range: 50-60 years) Sex: Female Age Determination. Some sutures have suffered from postmortem damage and displacement while others are filled with, or obscured by, matrix. Consequently, sutures cannot be successfully used in estimating age at death. None of the articular surfaces are preserved well enough to yield conclusive evidence of osteophytosis or degenerative joint disease (DJD), but some modification would be expected at this age. The os coxae are not well preserved, the pubic symphysis is missing and though the left auricular surface is present, assessing detail is difficult due to adhering matrix, postmortem damage and the small size of the apical region that was 80

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

chords (130 mm), than the same measurements on this individual. Consequently, this specimen is comparatively smaller, less developed, and therefore probably younger. The age of DDM - 4 is tentatively estimated to be between 6 and 12 months.

correlation with wear in other individuals that could be aged on skeletal evidence. Of the two specimens from Grave VI, DDM - 6a appears older than DDM 6b, if the severity of dental wear can be used as an approximate measure of chronological age.

Sex Determination. The sex of children cannot be confidently determined from crushed cranial remains. Therefore, this individual’s sex is indeterminate.

Sex Determination. Sex is difficult to assess in this specimen because the innominate bones are missing. This makes sex estimation dependent upon less reliable criteria from cranial and non-pelvic postcranial morphology. This specimen was initially marked "female" during the course excavation.

Damdama Specimen 5 Age at Death: 3.5-4.0 years (± 6 months) Sex: Indeterminate

Cranial variation indicative of sex includes the supraorbital region, which has sustained some postmortem damage, but does not appear robust, nor is glabella well developed. The superior orbital margins are not sharp, a male attribute. The mastoid process is medium in size and nuchal plate is not heavily marked with muscular impressions. The origin of the left masseter muscle is especially well developed. Postmortem crushing of the cranium in a posterior-inferior direction, such that the nuchal plate and frontal bone are displaced toward one another, renders morphological features of the frontal (arc, bossing, retreat) difficult to assess. Cranial variation in this specimen is not convincingly supportive of either sex. Mandibular morphology is also unhelpful regarding sex diagnosis. The mental eminence appears median, though the inferior margin of the right ramus is damaged postmortem. Warping of the specimen may have exaggerated the male characters of this specimen, leading to a more acute mandibular angle and rendering the corpus thicker postmortem than it was in life, and modifying the amount of gonial eversion.

Age Determination. Eruption of all deciduous teeth is complete indicating an age at death greater than 2 years. The fused mandibular symphysis is in agreement with this assessment. The right and left deciduous second molars have a slight amount of polish on the enamel and the other teeth exhibit a minimal degree of wear. This suggests that age at death was somewhat greater than 2 years; an estimate of between 3 and 5 years is a reasonable age bracket given these observations. The first permanent molar crown is incompletely calcified and crown calcification can attain completion at approximately 4.3 yrs. (female) and 4.0 yrs. (male), this suggests a somewhat younger age at death. Measurement of frontal and parietal chords and mean chord lengths are provided in Table 6.4, and suggest an age at death closer to eight years. These data, derived from a White reference population, exhibit a wide range of variation, and may be not serve as reliable comparative data. Dental indicators of age are favored and suggest that the best focal estimate for age at death of this specimen is 4.0 years ± 6 months. Sex Determination. Assessment of sex in young children is not possible with confidence so sex determination for this specimen remains unknown.

Post-cranial indicators of sex are mostly missing or not especially diagnostic. The innominate bones and sacrum are missing and few reliable sex-related measurements were possible. Most long bones lack metaphyses and epiphyses, and when present these parts of the skeleton are attached to one another with indurated and unremovable matrix. The diaphyses of the humerus are preserved from skeletons DDM - 6a and 6b, providing metrical data for minimum and maximum diameters, and discriminant function predictions of sex (Table 6.5). The function value for DDM - 6a falls well above the section point (1.471), indicating female sex. This function accurately predicted sex in 88.5% of determinations (Bass, 1987; France, 1983). In comparison with 6b, specimen 6a appears more delicate, less rugose, and smaller in size. Factors which must have lead to the field designation female. In the absence of clear cut pelvic indicators this attribution must remain tentative, however in overall appearance the skull presents feminine characteristics and the masculine attributes of the mandible may result from postmortem damage. A summary attribution of female sex is probable, but not completely conclusive.

Damdama Specimen 6a Age at Death: 37 years (range: 30-45 yrs) Sex: Female This specimen is the first of a pair of skeletons from the double burial in Grave VI. Age Determination. Evidence for age at death is limited and ‘open-ended’. Epiphyses are fused, cranial sutures obliterated, and neither the os pubis nor the auricular surface are available for examination. Maxillary and mandibular third molar teeth are present indicating the specimen is a mature adult. Since these teeth exhibit a moderate level of dental wear this individual may have reached middle-age. Dental evidence suggests this specimen is younger than DDM-3, which lost mandibular teeth antemortem and possesses heavily worn maxillary teeth. An age at death between 30 and 45 years may be inferred from the degree of dental wear and cross-

81

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 6.4. Neurocranial chord measurements (DDM 5, in mm) and comparative data Comparative data (Young 1957) Measurement DDM - 5 mean range age (years) Frontal chord (Na-Br) 115.0 114.2 104 - 120 8 Parietal chord (Br-La) 130.0 130.4 119 - 147 8 Table 6.5. Sex attribution for DDM 6a from measurements of humeral diaphyses (in mm)

Diaphyseal diameters DDM 6a DDM 6b

max 21.0 27.0

min 15.5 19.0

function value 1.66826 0.86086

sex estimate F M

Table 6.6. Sex attribution for DDM 8 from measurements of the humerus (left)1 meas (mm) func.value sex est. Diameter of the head 1.04645 M vertical 51.0 0.29985 M transverse (45.0) 0.92530 M Diaphyseal diameter maximum 21.5 minimum 1.24442 M 18.5 Distal epiphyseal dia. 0.4898 M biepicondylar width 65.0 0.78425 M trochear width 46.0 1.34488 M 1) data provided in Bass 1987: 156, Table 27; ( ) = estimated value

medium in size but are long and the supra-mastoid prominence is robust. The right temporal line is visible on the frontal bone and is rugose. In general, the cranium is badly crushed and many of the morphological details are obscured by adhering matrix, the rugosity of the nuchal plate for example. The mandible is also badly damaged but appears to have a square mental region and an acute mandibular angle, indicating that the individual is male. Both of these features are affected by the severe postmortem damage, the mental region fractured and the left condyle missing.

Damdama Specimen 6b Age at Death: 33 years (range: 30-35 yrs) Sex: Male Age Determination. The right maxillary third molar is missing but the other three 3rd molars are fully erupted and show enamel wear to a flat or curved plane. The eruption of third molars indicates an age greater than 16-18 years. The dental wear is to be calibrated for this population and an age estimate made at that time. The pubes are missing but a small portion of the auricular surface is preserved on the left innominate. The apex and the inferior demiface of the auricular surface are preserved, the retro-auricular area is missing. The anterior lip of the auricular surface superior and inferior to the apex is distinct and continuous. The preserved surface is uniform, lacks porosity, and exhibits fine striae but no billowing is observable. The morphology of the auricular surface indicates that this individual was 3035 years of age.

Maximum and minimum diaphyseal diameters of the humerus, and the resulting discriminant function value (Table 6.5), suggests the sex of this specimen is male (refer to Tables 6.32 and 6.33 below, p. 110111). This finding is in agreement with other indicators of sex and makes the attribution of male confident and secure. Damdama Specimen 7 Age at Death: 22 years (range: 20-25 yrs) Sex: Male

Sex Determination. The sex of this individual was determined based on the narrowness of the sciatic notch, the absence of a pre-auricular sulcus on both the right and the left innominates. Overall the best indicator of sex, the pelvic morphology indicates that this individual is male. The cranium exhibits medial supra-orbital prominence. The mastoid processes are

Age Determination. Dental eruption status and wear patterns suggest that this individual is a young adult between 18 and 22 years of age. All four third molars have erupted and show slight enamel wear. The 82

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

groove patterns and most of the cusp height is still preserved. The right and left tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges that are preserved and observable exhibit fused epiphyses. Most of the long bones lack epiphyses or they were crushed postmortem and cannot be evaluated regarding state of fusion. The distal epiphysis of the left fibula is present and fused. This event begins in the mid-late teens and is generally complete by 20 years of age. The estimate is in agreement with the age estimation from the dental eruption and wear (18-20 years). Together these observations suggest this individual was a young adult whose age at death was approximately 20 years or slightly later (20-25 years).

to calibrate dental wear among individuals with their accurately determined skeletal age. The total Scott (1979) wear score for DDM - 8 is 156, a value that is identical with the total wear score for specimen DDM - 15, indicating that in terms of dental wear stage these specimens are equivalent. Molar wear stage of DDM-30a is slightly lower (143) and DDM-12 slightly greater (161) than the molar wear in DDM 8, suggesting an approximate age at death of between 30 and 40 years. All of the following epiphyses are observable and fusion is complete: the right and left, proximal and distal humeri; the right and left proximal radii and ulnae; the right and left scapulae (acromion, coracoid, glenoid fossae); and the distal right femur. Fusion of these epiphyses suggests that this individual is fully adult.

Sex Determination. Due to postmortem damage, the right and left sciatic notches appear slightly asymmetrical. The right gives the impression of being wider than the left, a difference possibly due to visual bias caused by truncation. After further preparation of the sciatic region, the overall impression from the observational characteristics of the pelvis is that this individual is male. The remaining skeletal evidence for sex assessment is meager due to postmortem compression, warping, and matrix covering the cranial vault. The post-cranial skeleton appears gracile an appearance especially evident in the femoral diaphyses. The apparent shortness of the limb bones may be due to the absence of epiphyses and postmortem compression, giving a broad and short appearance that could create the impression that this individual is female.

Sex Determination. The pelvic bones for this individual are missing, but the overall robusticity, size, and observational criteria clearly suggest it is male. The cranium exhibits prominence at glabella and the supraorbital area is well developed medially. The left malar is large and the masseter insertion is well marked. The zygomatic process of the temporal is robust bilaterally. The external occipital protuberance is prominent and the occipital thick in this region. The right gonial region of the mandible is everted and rugose, as are the pterygoid entheses. The ascending ramus is broad and the mandibular corpus deep. The mental eminence is not especially square, but the symphyseal region is well buttressed. These combined features indicate that this individual is most likely male. Both humeri are robust, long and have large articular surfaces. Measurements (mm) taken from the left humerus for use in sex determination are presented in Table 6.6. Seven discriminant functions could be computed from these measurements, using France’s (1983) formulae. All seven functions agree in estimating the sex of DDM - 8 as unequivocally male.

Sex diagnostic features of the cranium and mandible are missing. The robusticity of the brow ridges, mastoid processes, nuchal region and mandibular mental eminence cannot be assessed. The gonial regions are missing and therefore the mandibular angle is not measurable. The teeth appear large overall, especially the canines in both the maxilla and the mandible. This feature may suggest that this individual is male. Although the sex of this specimen is questionable, based on the pelvic architecture it is more likely male than female. The other observations indicate a gracile male who is perhaps of short stature, though the complete fibula seems rather long.

Additional confirmation of the male sex of this specimen comes from metrical comparisons of specific variables. The section point dividing male from female for vertical head diameter of the humerus is 45 mm (Steele and Bramblett 1988: 164), suggesting male sex. Dittrick (1979) found 96% accuracy in the transverse diameter of the humerus head, with a male mean of 44.5 mm and values above 42.8 mm. attributed to males (cited in Bass 1987: 156), suggesting DDM - 8 is male. The superior portion of the sacrum is present, though damaged postmortem. The body width of the first sacral element is 56 mm and appears to exceed the width of the right ala. The width of the articular area of the first sacral body and the ala are generally equal or the sacral element is narrower in females. This feature also suggests that this individual is male. However, both the right and the left alae are incomplete. The metric and observational data for sex determination converge to indicate that this individual is male.

Damdama Specimen 8 Age at Death: 35 years (range: 30-40 yrs) Sex: Male Age Determination. All four third molar teeth are erupted, but they display widely varying degrees of wear. The right M3 is the least worn, probably due to rotation of the mesio-buccal quadrant of the occlusal surface which exhibits polished enamel. The buccal cusps of LM3 exhibit enamel wear, no dentine exposure is discernable. The LM3 has been worn to a flat enamel surface and cusp height is much reduced. Wear of the RM3 is anomalous, a large dentine exposure on the lingual aspect extends past the CEJ, but the buccal cusps exhibit a flat plane of enamel wear. For a precise age estimate, it will be necessary 83

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Damdama Specimen 9 Age at Death: Adult Sex: Uncertain

Damdama Specimen 10 Age at Death: 35 years (30-40 yrs) Sex: Female

Age Determination. All manual and pedal elements exhibit fusion of their epiphyses. Proximal tibia/fibula and distal fibula also show fusion suggesting only that the individual is a full adult. No more specific age range can be inferred from the elements present.

Age Determination. All third molar teeth have erupted and show considerable attrition. An enamel ring surrounds a flat or angular dentine surface. Other teeth have large areas of dentine or pulp exposed. Reliable indicators of age are absent from this skeleton. Cranial sutures are filled with matrix or postmortem breakage has occurred along suture lines whose margins are covered with matrix. Part of the coronal suture is fused (pars bregmatica), and the left lambdoid suture is open near lambda. Post-cranial evidence is limited to the few epiphyses preserved, but most are covered with matrix. Thus a tentative age estimate must be based on dental wear calibration. Quantitative assessment of dental wear reveals that DDM - 10, has one of the highest molar quadrant scores in the Damdama skeletal series, 209. This wear score is just below that recorded for DDM - 11, whose age at death is estimated at 40 ± 5 years. Consequently, the age of DDM - 10 is estimated at 5 years younger, or between 30 and 40 years, with a focal age of 35 years.

Sex Determination. There are not many diagnostic bones present as this specimen is primarily represented by hand and foot bones. However the proximal left head of the tibia and the tibial tuberosity are present. The breadth of the head measures 76.0 mm. While near the section point of 74 - 75 mm, this value is considerably below the mean value for males from any of the three reference series (Arikara, White, Black) for which data are available (Symes and Jantz 1983; Bass 1987). This comparison does not provide strong evidence for the sex attribution of this specimen. The tibial tuberosity is robust and rugose. The pedal bones are stout and appear robust. Sex in this case must remain indeterminate.

Table 6.7. Sex attribution for DDM 12 from post-cranial measurements meas. (mm) function value 1 Diameter of the head 1.99969 Humerus (left ) vertical transverse Diaphyseal diameter maximum minimum Distal epiphyseal dia. biepicondylar width trochear wd.

Innominate (left)

Femur (left)

ischium length sciatic notch width 2 Bicondylar width

Tibia (left)

1.69725 1.79825

F F

19.0 15.5

1.78380

F

1.65892 1.72925 1.82348

F F F F

65 58 67.0

Diameter of head vertical transverse Diaphyseal (mid-shaft) anterior-posterior medial-lateral circumference

43.0 43.0 28.0 24.0 83.0

< 72

F F

41.5 - 43.5

?F

see Fig. 6.2 and 6.3

F F

breadth of head 68.0 < 75 1) Discriminant function values calculated using France’s (1983), formulae in (Bass 1987:153-155); 2) following Kelley 1979a

84

F

39.0 38.5

53.0 41.0 49

acetabulum dia. vert2

sex estimate

F

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Table 6.8. Tarsal measurements and sex estimation of DDM 12 (in mm) Calcaneus (right) Talus (right) maximum length minimum width body height load arm length

74.0 25.0 43.0 47.0

maximum length maximum width body height max trochlear length

48.5 39.0 30.0 32.0

load arm width

42.5

max trochlear width

30.0

Table 6.9. Sex estimation using discriminant function analysis of tarsal bones (DDM 12)1 Bones used function result sex section point Fmean Mmean

% accuracy

calcaneus & talus 5 45.4071 F 47.30 44.72 49.88 talus 4 48.1050 F 50.05 47.68 52.41 talus 3 73.2388 F 75.44 73.84 79.09 talus 2 36.3984 F 38.75 36.62 40.87 calcaneus 1 33.2831 M 32.00 30.42 33.57 1) Discriminant function formulae, section points, male and female means and percent accuracy derive from and Bramblett (1988: 261, Table 11.7.)

Sex Determination. The right innominate of DDM 10 is preserved and includes parts of the ilium and pubis; enough is present to show the broad arch of the sciatic notch. The apex of the articular surface and the surface itself are missing, rendering identification of a pre-auricular surface problematic. The shape and breadth of the sciatic notch indicate that this individual is female. In addition to the broad notch, a small acetabulum retains a small femoral head, though damage to both has occurred postmortem and the diameter cannot be measured. The cranium exhibits a mixture of male and female traits. The mastoid processes are small and the zygomatic arches delicate. The malar bones are small and delicate except for the origin of masseter muscles. The frontal bone is damaged but the supraorbital region is well preserved and exhibits a prominent glabella and median supraciliary ridges. Some frontal bossing is discernable, though the frontal does not rise steeply from glabella.

89 88 86 83 79 Steele

suture (L.1) could be observed and appears fused. Other sutures cannot be employed in age assessment. All third molar teeth are erupted and in occlusion. All have suffered extensive occlusal wear and a steep wear angle is evident (lingual-buccal) on LM3 . Antemortem tooth loss is evident in the maxilla. The meager evidence available suggests this specimen is a full adult and the level of dental wear implies an age range of 35-45 yrs. Sex Determination. This specimen exhibits multiple secure indicators of male sex. Right and left innominate fragments are present and preserve the sciatic notch, which is narrow bilaterally. On the left, the margin of the auricular surface is present and no trace of a pre-auricular sulcus is visible. Portions of the right and left acetabula are preserved, more completely on the right side. The vertical diameter of the right acetabulum is 48.0 mm, a value that is convincingly male by several standards (Bass 1987; Stewart 1979). Most cranial indicators of sex have been damaged by postmortem compression or warping, or obscured by matrix adhering to the surface, precluding assessment of essential anatomical detail. The supraorbital region and frontal bone have been pushed posteriorly and to the right, more on left side, precluding use of this bone and related features for sex assessment. The left temporal has a robust zygomatic process and a small supramastoid eminence; and though the left mastoid process is damaged, it appears large. The left mandibular angle is acute as in males, but the gonial region is straight. The shape of the mental eminence is damaged by postmortem compression. Overall the cranial and post-cranial rugosity of this specimen is slight, but evidence from the pelvis and femoral head clearly indicates male sex.

The mandibular mental eminence is rounded and median. The ascending rami are relatively narrow, gonia sinuous and everted inferiorly, corpus depth is not great and the mandibular angle appears obtuse. Available evidence supports the designation of this specimen as female. Damdama Specimen 11 Age at Death: 40 years (35-45 yrs) Sex: Male Age Determination. Poor preservation precludes assigning an accurate estimate of age from the skeleton. Epiphyses are crushed, missing or matrix covered. The cranium is deformed postmortem in many dimensions so that sutures are damaged or obscured by matrix. A small segment of the lambdoid

85

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

the zygomatic arches are not robust. Post-bregmatic depression is absent. The mandible exhibits a prominent median mental eminence which is associated with a 90 degree left mandibular angle. The mandibular angle on the right side is more obtuse and in this respect and in several other features the mandible is asymmetric, including width of the ascending ramus, and height of ascending ramus, for example. Gonia are everted and pterygoid muscle impressions moderately rugose. Overall the mandible has a gracile appearance and is judged to be female.

Damdama Specimen 12 Age at Death: 40 years (range: 35-45 yrs) Sex: Female Age Determination. Many methods of age assessment are possible due to the complete and well preserved nature of this specimen. All epiphyses are preserved in good condition and are fused, and sutures of the cranial vault sutures appear open. Examination of the auricular surfaces was possible, though with some limitations. Right and left auricular surfaces are present and well preserved, although some of the face is partly obscured by matrix. Both faces are similar in presenting a dense surface with islands of granularity, no billowing, and no macro- or micro-porosity. This description is consistent with an age at death of ca. 40 - 44 years. The retro-auricular surface was obscured with matrix precluding assessment of age-related morphology in this region. The right and left pubic symphyses are preserved, though the ventral face is affected by a slight degree of postmortem weathering. Deciding if this is natural breakdown of the face or postmortem diagenesis is difficult. The dorsal aspect of the pubis shows no scars of parturition on right or left sides. Using photographs in Stewart (1979) the following component scores were observed using the Gilbert and McKern (1973) system: component I (4), II (3), III (3), yielding a total score of 10. This total score translates to a mean age at death of: 36.9 years ± 4.94, with a range of 30 - 47 years.

The general appearance of the post-cranial skeleton is gracile. However, several traits exhibit a degree of robustness unexpected in a female: a) the conoid tubercle of clavicle is well developed, b) the bicipital (intertubercular) groove of the humerus are deep, and the greater and lesser tuberosities well developed, and c) the linea aspera while moderately rugose, lacks a pilaster. Due to the completeness and well preserved condition of this specimen, several discriminant function methods could be used to predict sex. When more than one equation could be used for a given set of measurements, the equation yielding the highest percentage of correct assessments in the reference sample was used. For example, Dittrick and Suchey’s (1986) method uses four variables: a) the transverse diameter of the head of the humerus, and three measures of femur size: b) maximum diameter of the head, c) anterior-posterior diameter at mid-shaft, and d) mid-shaft circumference. This function is associated with a 96% accuracy (Early Horizon) and when applied to DDM - 12, yielded a result of 13.96. This value falls well below the 15.10 section point, and is nearly identical to the mean value for females (13.90) in the reference sample of 258 prehistoric central Californians, thereby clearly indicating that the specimen is female.

Dental indications of age are limited to the status of the third molar teeth. All third molars have erupted and exhibit enamel wear to a flat horizontal wear plane. The quadrant wear score for this specimen is 161, similar to DDM - 6a (168, 30-40 years) and DDM - 8 (156, 30 - 40 years), and DDM - 15 (156, young adult). LM3 however exhibits a trace of dentine exposure on the two buccal cusps. In sum, an age estimate of between 35 - 45 years is reasonable given the evidence available. Sex Determination. Both innominates exhibit a broad sciatic notch and have a deep and pitted preauricular sulcus, markers that clearly and unambiguously suggest female sex. Osteometric data from the post-cranial skeleton of DDM - 12 used in confirming the estimation of sex are provided in Table 6.7. Discriminant function values or section points, and the resulting sex attribution are included as well for easy reference.

The breadth of the proximal end (head) of the tibia is less than about 75 mm for three different study groups, Arikara, Blacks and Whites. Using this indicator DDM - 12 fall into the female category. Measurements from the two largest tarsal bones, the calcaneus and the talus, are presented in Table 6.8. These data provide the input for discriminant function prediction of sex that has a high but variable rate of accuracy (between 79 and 89%; Steele and Bramblett 1988: 261).

Sex diagnostic attributes of the cranium include moderate development of brow ridge medially, and weak development of glabella. Sharp superior lateral orbital margins, mild frontal bosses and weakly developed temporal lines are visible. The right mastoid process (left side damaged postmortem) is of moderate size and associated with a slight supramastoid prominence. The occipital squama is curved and gracile, nuchal markings are weak, and little rugosity is evident. Malar bones display a rugose area for the origin of the masseter muscle, but

Discriminant function number, the computed function value, sex allocation, section point, and male and female means are presented in Table 6.9. The four discriminant functions with the highest accuracy rates predict the sex of DDM - 12 as female. One result, based on dimensions of the calcaneus yields a conflicting result, suggesting the sex of this specimen is male. France (1983) employed single and multiple measures of the humeral epiphyses and diaphysis in discriminant functions to estimate sex. Measurements and functions for DDM - 12 are provided in Table 6.7. 86

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Five or six equations are provided by France for five different reference samples (Arikara, Caucasoid, Negro, Nubian, and Pecos Pueblo). Measures of the distal epiphysis and diaphysis are regarded as less accurate in predicting sex than measures of proximal epiphysis. Using equations with the highest accuracy, all seven functions fall above the section point providing unanimous agreement in allocating this specimen to the female sex.

A summary age assessment for this specimen results in a focal age of approximately 40 years, with a lower limit of about 35 years based on the os pubis and upper limit of about 45 years based on auricular surface morphology and comparable dental wear in other specimens. Sex Determination. Most of the right ilium is preserved in two pieces, one containing the head of the right femur. The right os pubis is also present, permitting accurate age and sex estimates for this specimen. Though the entire sciatic notch is present, it is truncated approximately 25.0 mm inferior and posterior to the apex of auricular surface. The preserved portion is very broad and strongly suggests female. Postmortem erosion has affected the region of the pre-auricular sulcus precluding observation of presence or absence. The cranium is fragmentary and provides few clues regarding sex, except that the left temporal has a small mastoid process in association with a very deep glenoid fossa. Frontal and occipital bones are not present. Though the mandibular symphysis is damaged postmortem, the left fragment exhibits an evenly rounded inferior margin, however the mental eminence is missing. Features of the mandibular angle and ascending ramus morphology are too damaged to provide accurate data for reliable assessment of sex. The left corpus is robust; however, deep and thick (see mandible measurements). Postcranial morphology is gracile overall and limb bones are delicately built. Measurements of the right humerus and right tibia are provided in Table 6.10, and when subjected to discriminant function analysis provide additional indications that the sex of this specimen is female.

Sacral features related to sex include the relative size of the first sacral body (Anderson 1962) and basality (Olivier 1969). Greatest sacral breadth (114 mm) is more than twice the transverse diameter of the first sacral body (55 mm), indicating relatively small size a female trait. The first sacral body is also elevated above the level of the alae and is therefore classified as hypobasal, a character frequently found in female sacra. Given that key features of the pelvic anatomy of this specimen indicate that it is clearly female, the results presented here may regarded as valuable ‘calibration’ data, helping gauge the relative utility of these methods in estimating the sex of other specimens in the Damdama skeletal series. Damdama Specimen 13 Age at Death: 40 years (range: 35-45 yrs) Sex: Female Age Determination. The right pubic symphysis and auricular surface are available and well suited to the estimation of age at death. Cranial bones are either too fragmentary or too matrix covered to be useful. Auricular surface morphology is slightly obscured by adhering matrix, but appears to be transitional between "islands of granularity" and the "uniformly dense surface" stages, but the rim is clearly defined and continuous and no porosity is present. The retroarticular area is not preserved and the auricular apex is similar in appearance to superior and inferior demifaces. These characteristics suggest an age at death between 40-44 yrs and 45-49 yrs categories. A conservative estimate on the basis of auricular surface bridges these categories: 43-46 years.

Three of the four functions computed from measurement of the humerus indicate the sex of this specimen is female. The most accurate function for sex diagnosis in the distal humerus is articular width, which yields a function value in the female range. The function that relies on diaphyseal measurements is less accurate and the computed value falls exactly on the section point. In addition, two measures of the right tibia provide additional indications of the sex of this specimen: the greatest width of head (71.0 mm) and breadth of the distal epiphysis (46.0 mm.). Both measures fall below the appropriate section points and close to the female means determined by Symes and Jantz (1983) for three different ethnic groups (Arikara, Blacks, Whites). Only a single measurement can be made on the left calcaneus, which has a maximum length of 72.0 mm. Discirminant functions cannot be used with a single dimension of this tarsal bone, precluding additional information regarding sex identification from this element.

Following Gilbert and McKern’s (1973) system, pubic symphysis scores were assessed for each of three components: I (3-4), II (3), III (3), yielding a total score of 9 to 10. The composite score translates to an estimated age at death of between 33 and 37 yrs, with wide range of 22-47 years. Dental age assessment is based on the observation that all four third molars are erupted and display dentine exposure on the lingual half of the occlusal surface in right and left M3 and smaller more discrete dentine exposure in M3 . The degree of third molar wear is consistent with the attainment of middle-age at time of death. Quadrant wear score for this specimen is 177, which is comparable to values for DDM - 28 (173, age 45 50 years) and DDM 39 (185, age 43 - 51 years).

Though fragmentary and incomplete, this specimen preserves an overall appearance of femininity in the gracile structure of several cranial and post-cranial morphological features. This impression of female sex is confirmed by metrical evaluation of the

87

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

humerus and tibia which agree in indicating the specimen is female.

DDM-16a was stratigraphically higher than DDM16b, and that 16a was female. Packets containing bones are so labeled. Both skeletons are well preserved and provide accurate estimates of age and sex. Therefore the assessments of age and sex that follow are more reliable and accurate and take precedence over estimates of age and sex assigned in the field during the course of excavation.

Damdama Specimen 14 Age at Death: unknown Sex: unknown This specimen is not represented by skeletal or dental remains, only small fragments of this individual were recovered in the field. No osseous remains were subsequently available for analysis in the laboratory.

Age Determination. Three types of data are available for estimating age at death in this specimen: auricular surface morphology, progress of epiphyseal union, and the dentition. Pubic symphyses are either damaged, right side, or matrix covered, left side, precluding the use of pubic symphyses in age estimation. The right auricular surface was cleaned for study and used in this analysis, and compares favorably with Lovejoy's 20-24 year age category. Observation of epiphyses reveals that, though damaged postmortem, the femoral head (left) and the head of the humerus preserve traces of the epiphyseal line through the cancellous bone. Fusion in these loci was in an advanced stage indicating an approximate age at death of between 19 and 23 years. The right iliac crest is preserved and on the posterior aspect at the iliac tubercle it is in final stage of fusion. All other areas preserved for observation appear to be completely fused. This could indicate an age at death between 14-23 years, but the later part of this range (17-24 years) is more likely.

Damdama Specimen 15 Age at Death: Young Adult Sex: Female Poor preservation makes estimation of age at death and sex of this specimen somewhat less secure than for other specimens. Skull and mandible have been crushed and warped postmortem, and matrix adheres to many bone surfaces precluding observation of critical aspects of age- and sex-related morphological variations. The post-cranial skeleton is highly fragmented and no epiphyses are preserved for analysis. Age Determination. The only reliable source of age information is dental: the RM3 is fully erupted and exhibits a flat occlusal wear surface of enamel with one pinhole of dentine visible on the lingual cusp. The LM3 was lost postmortem and is unavailable for study. Pinholes of dentine are evident on the two mesial cusps of RM3 , while the antimere (LM3 ) exhibits larger, though still discrete dentine exposures on the two mesial cusps. Full adult status is indicated by the erupted and worn status of the third molars, however the light wear displayed by these teeth suggest young adult age at death.

The status of third molar teeth provides additional information on age at death. The mandibular left third molar is either congenitally absent, or unerupted. Light enamel wear with no dentine exposure is evident on the maxillary and mandibular RM3s. In the absence of its antagonist, the LM3 is unworn. In general, the level of attrition in this specimen is less than most other specimens in this series. All teeth retain some occlusal enamel, and the molar wear quadrant score is 108. This value is less than the wear score of 111 associated with specimen DDM -34, whose age at death is estimated to be slightly older (25 - 29 years).

Sex Determination. Frontal bossing is slight but clearly present and the forehead rises from glabella rather steeply, both attributes indicating female status. The glabellar region and median supra-orbital region is moderately well developed, but not masculine. Lateral supra-orbital area lacks supraciliary development, and orbital margins in this region sharp. Visible portions of the occipital bone are gracile in appearance and the right temporal line is faintly marked. The mandibular corpus is delicate in structure, being shallow and thin, while the ascending rami are narrow. Postmortem distortion limits evidence from the mandible due to warping and postmortem breakage. In the absence of pelvic data, attribution of this specimen to female sex must be regarded as tentative, especially since male crania in this series are not especially robust or rugose.

An overall age estimate for this specimen is broadly placed in the late teens or early 20's, approximately 18 - 24 years is the most likely range, with a focal age of 21 years. Sex Determination. Sex is definitely male. Right and left innominates are nearly complete and exhibit narrow sciatic notches and lack pre-auricular sulci. The specimen is large, sturdily built and among the more robust specimens in the Damdama skeletal series. The cranium exhibits classic male features in glabella and the supra-orbital region. Brow ridges are depressed in the mid-sagittal plane, prominent and high medially and diminish laterally. The zygomatic process of the temporal is stout and sturdily built. The right mastoid process is large and has a supramastoid eminence of moderate size. The occipital and basal parts of the cranium are damaged or matrix covered.

Damdama Specimen 16a Age at Death: 21 years Sex: Male Burial 16 is a double burial with two skeletons (16a and 16b). Excavation notes and labels indicate that 88

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

The mandible has a square chin, the inferior margin of which is elevated in the mid-sagittal plane, and which sports tuberosities bilaterally beneath the canine and lateral incisor area. Gonia are everted and have heavy muscular impressions on the medial (lateral pterygoid insertion) and lateral (masseter insertion) surfaces. The mandibular corpus is deep and thick, ascending rami are set at a right angle to corpus, and are tall. The sigmoid notches are asymmetrical, with the right sigmoid notch deeper than left. A postmortem fracture between the LC and the LP3 makes mandible appear U-shaped due to compression of left side toward midline.

because unevenness of the surface is interpreted as the result of remnant billowing. All four third molar teeth are erupted and worn to a flat and horizontal plane, though no dentine is exposed. Based on dental wear, this specimen's third molars are more worn than DDM-16a's, which still have some cusp definition to them. Quadrant molar wear scores are comparable with DDM - 16b (114) and DDM - 34 (111) whose age at death is estimated to be similar, 25 - 29 years. Sex Determination. Though both innominate bones are preserved, with femora attached, the left is still partly encased in matrix and despite many hours of preparation could not be completely cleaned for analysis. The right innominate is broken into three pieces: the ilium, the pubis (which is securely affixed to the femoral head by matrix), and ischium (which remains in block with the left innominate and femur). The right sciatic notch is of medium breadth, somewhat narrower than DDM-12, and lacks a preauricular sulcus. The ilium is not especially broad, though part of the retro-auricular surface is missing. The breadth of the right sciatic notch, measured according to Kelley (1979a), is 40 mm. and vertical diameter of femoral head is 42 mm., both suggesting probable female. The acetabular diameter cannot be measured. Sex related measurements of the humerus are presented in Table 6.11, and yield discriminant function values that are within the male range (below the section point).

Post-cranial bones of this specimen are moderately rugose, but their uniqueness lies primarily in their large size. Rugosity and large size are attributes that agree with the assessment of male sex which is established with certainty by pelvic morphology. Histograms plotting the size distribution of femoral transverse diameter and mid-shaft circumference show DDM - 16a falls well within the male range of values for these variables, and provides additional assurance that the sex is male (see Figs. 6.2, 6.3, below, p.113). Damdama Specimen 16b Age at Death: 30 years (range: 25-35 yrs) Sex: Male This skeleton was recovered from the stratum stratigraphically below specimen DDM-16a. It is well represented and skeletally complete, however calcareous concretions are abundant and difficult to remove without damaging the outer cortical surface of the bone.

The cranium is robust. The supra-orbital torus is developed medially and best observed over the left orbit. The right supra-orbital region is damaged postmortem. Although the mastoid processes appear robust, they are partly obscured by matrix. Supramastoid crests are present bilaterally. The nuchal region is not visible due to diagenesis and matrix.

Age Determination. All visible epiphyses in this specimen are fused, and third molars are erupted and worn. The left pubic symphysis is clear and partly visible, and the right auricular surface is partly visible. These and the few sutures observable will provide evidence for a rough age estimate. KatzSuchey pubic symphysis models were used to evaluate the right symphysis, which was determined to display closest morphological similarity to Stage IV2 , or four advanced. However, the ventral margin is slightly affected by postmortem diagenesis and erosion (Katz and Suchey, 1986). In the Todd system this specimen is closest to the 30-35 year interval, or grade VI of Todd's series (1921a, b). The left pubic symphysis is somewhat better preserved, was independently evaluated, and suggests Stage III2 (three advanced) in the Katz-Suchey system, or grade V in the Todd system. These stages of pubic symphysis remodeling yield an age at death of approximately 27 - 30 years. The right auricular surface is quite uneven and the margin is not clearly demarcated above apex. The margin of the inferior demiface is clearer. Given the limited and uneven auricular surface and the inability to judge granularity due to matrix, the best age estimate is between 30 - 39 years. The lower end of this age range is likely

The mandible has a broad ascending ramus. The gonia are slightly everted and though thin, have rugose medial pterygoid markings. The corpus is robust and the mandibular angle acute. The mental eminence has a broad base, but the inferior margin is not square as in males. The sex of this specimen is not as clear as was the case for DDM-16a. Absence of pre-auricular sulcus suggests male, the shape of the left pubic body (triangular), and the absence of a ventral arch all suggest the specimen is male. In addition, form of the sciatic notch is more male than female, and compares favorably with the male pelvic morphology illustrated in Stewart (1979: figs 24/26). By contrast however, the skeletal system in general is small and somewhat gracile. This specimen is interpreted to be a male, though slightly smaller and more gracile than other males in the series. While cranial and mandibular morphology of DDM-16b are somewhat more robust than DDM-12 (a definite female), anatomy of the humerus for example, is smaller and more gracile than DDM-6b and DDM-8, very definite and large males.

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 6.10. Sex attribution for DDM 13 from post-cranial measurements Hum erus (right) Diaphyseal diameter maximum minimum

Meas. (mm)

function value 1

sex estimate

21.0 17.0

1.47078

?

1.77804 1.80800 1.91920 section point2 < 74.56 - 75.11 < 48.08 - 50.88

F F F

Distal epiphyseal diameters biepicondylar width trochear (articular) width

(52.0) 40.0

Tibia (right) greatest breadth of head distal breadth

71.0 46.0

F F

1) computed from France’s (1983) discrim function formulae in Bass (1987: 153155); 2) from Symes and Jantz (1983) data presented in Bass (1987: 238) Table 45; ( ) = estimated value

Table 6.11. Sex attribution for DDM 16b from post-cranial measurements Hum erus (right)

Meas. (in mm)

function value 1

sex estimate

22.0 17.5

1.34718

M

43.0

1.23145

Diaphyseal diameter maximum minimum Proximal epiphysis vertical diameter of head

section point

Innom inate (right) breadth of sciatic notch Femur (right) head diameter (vertical)

M 2

40.0 42.0

? 41.5 - 43.0

?F

1) computed from France’s (1983) discrim function formulae in Bass 1987:153-155 2) from Bass (1987: 219) Table 37; ( ) = estimated value

Table 6.12. Sex attribution for DDM 18a from post-cranial measurements Innom inate acetabulum dia. vertical1 sciatic notch width 1 Femur (left)2 bicondylar width diameter of head (vertical) Tibia (left) breadth of head

meas. (mm) 53.0 53.0

section point

sex est.

75.0 50.0

74 - 76 > 45.5 / > 47.5

sex ? M

69.0

< 75

F

1) following Kelley 1979a and Steele and Bramblett 1988 2) following section points in Bass 1987, Table 39, p. 219; Stewart 1979: 120

Age Determination. Dental eruption and attrition are the most secure evidence of age at death. The maxillary central incisors and third molars have come free from their alveoli postmortem and are kept in a separate packet. The third molars show no occlusal attrition and have no interproximal wear facets, suggesting that they were in process of eruption and had not attained occlusal level of the second maxillary molar teeth. This would place the age at death at between about 16 and 18 years of age. Attrition on other teeth is limited to enamel wear only. In just a

Damdama Specimen 17 Age at Death: 16-18 years Sex: Female The cranium of this specimen provides the only information for assessing age and sex. The mandible is absent, and post-cranial bones are few and incomplete. Though several vertebrae, a right ulna, and the right and left clavicles are present, these elements are not especially well suited to sex or age diagnosis. 90

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

few teeth, first molars for example, the mesio-buccal cusp exhibits a pinhole of dentine exposure. Overall this dentition is very unworn, an uncommon feature in this skeletal series. In addition to wear and inferred eruption status, the roots of the maxillary third molar teeth have not completely calcified. Right and left third molars are in a similar stage of root formation with approximately 6.5 - 7.0 mm of root formation completed, placing age at death between 15 and 20 years.

Sex Determination. Inferring the sex of this specimen is difficult partly due to post-burial diagenesis, but also due to conflicting signals derived from size and morphological attributes. The sciatic notch is broad suggesting female, but a pre-auricular surface is absent. The post-burial diagenesis of this specimen is great and includes the effects of both warping and crushing. It appears to have been secondarily buried. The skull is in many pieces and appears to have been placed in a pile, in great disassociation from normal anatomical position.

Sex Determination. The cranial architecture of this specimen exhibits classical feminine features. Glabella is very weakly developed and brow ridges are essentially absent. The frontal bone is gracile and the right boss is moderately well developed. The forehead is bulbous and the temporal line is very faintly marked. A postmortem fracture above the medial aspect of the left orbit precludes judging prominence of the left frontal boss. The right mastoid process is small, but a small supramastoid eminence is present bilaterally. The canine fossa is absent, but subnasal grooving and slight alveolar prognathism are present. The shape of the orbits in this specimen tends toward squarish. In its overall appearance this cranium is characteristically female.

Poor preservation precludes many measurements, but overall the post-cranial bones appear sturdily built and rather large. Sex is difficult to assess from cranial attributes due to crushing and postmortem damage. The right half of the frontal appears male, in exhibiting a brow ridge and receding forehead, but the left frontal is damaged and appears to preserve a steep forehead with prominent bossing present. Feminine features of the frontal are likely to result from crushing. The mandibular corpus is robust and thick. The mental eminence not preserved. The region below the mandibular RC shows moderate development of a tubercle as in DDM - 6b, a specimen judged as unambiguously male. The mandibular angle is more obtuse than expected in male, but may exhibit this appearance due to postmortem warping and slight damage at the gonial angle.

Damdama Specimen 18a Age at Death: 23 years (range: 20-25 yrs) Sex: Male Burial 18 is a triple burial containing the skeletal remains of three individuals designated DDM -18a, 18b, and 18c. These three skeletons were recovered from an archaeological feature designated Grave XVIII. Age at death and sex is attributed to each specimen in alphabetic order.

Post-cranial indicators of sex are numerous and include morphological observations and metrical dimensions. Generally the post-crania of this specimen are large and robust, though many elements have sustained postmortem damage. A few measurements of post-crania could be made to assist in estimating sex.

Age Determination. Dental and pelvic observations, in conjunction with the status of long bone epiphyses were used in age estimation. Maxillary third molar teeth have erupted and show slight enamel wear facets, but no dentine exposure. Lower third molars are completely erupted to the level of occlusion and exhibit enamel facet formation, but some postmortem damage is evident. The dental data suggests an age of more than 18 years, based on eruption status and the passage of a few years of attrition. This results in a dental age of between 20 and 22.

While the sciatic notch is broad, the absence of a preauricular sulcus in combination with the robusticity of post-cranial elements (including a very large greater trochanter on the left femur, the large femoral head, and the robust humerus, for example), and the masculine cranial and mandibular features all indicate DDM - 18a is male. Metric data derived from the innominate, femur and tibia is equally equivocal, some indicators suggesting male and others, just as strongly pointing to female sex (see Table 6.12). However, histograms plotting two aspects of femoral size: transverse mid-shaft diameter (Fig. 6.2), and mid-shaft circumference (Fig. 6.3, p. 113), both reveal that DDM - 18a clusters within the larger group, suggesting that the specimen is male. A series of comparisons were made in which the sciatic notch of DDM - 18a was compared with figures appearing in osteology manuals. Though the sciatic notch / acetabulum index of Kelley (1979a) falls within the female range of values, this specimen is not beyond male range of variation in sciatic notch morphology.

Right innominate preserves portions of the auricular surface. Billowing is present and observable auricular morphology corresponds most closely to Lovejoy’s (1985b) category for ages 20-24. Cranial suture closure could not be used in age assessment due to postmortem damage. Long bone epiphyses are not well preserved, but proximal and distal ends of the left radius are fused. Epiphyses of the left femur, including the head, greater trochanter, and the distal epiphyses, and the right and left iliac crests are fused. These findings are consistent with an estimated age at death of between 20 and 25 years.

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

notch shallow. The mandibular corpus is thick and the symphysis well buttressed.

Damdama Specimen 18b Age at Death: 22 - 25 years Sex: Male

Post-cranial remains of this specimen consist primarily of long bones which display generalized robust morphology. The right and left femora exhibit well developed pilasters and large heads in association with necks that are short and thick. Postmortem damage precludes osteometry of most sex relevant post-cranial measurements. Two variables that could be measured with precision are plotted in histograms of femur size, and reveal that in transverse mid-shaft diameter (Fig. 6.2, p. 113) and in mid-shaft circumference (Fig. 6.3), specimen DDM - 18b clusters in the midst of the larger group of values, suggesting that the specimen is probably male.

This specimen is reasonably well preserved, especially in the key areas critical to accurate estimation of age and sex. Furthermore, the evidence is abundant, well preserved and unambiguous. Age Determination. Auricular surface morphology and the status of third molar teeth provide evidence of age at death. All third molar teeth have erupted and are in the enamel wear stage. No dentine has been exposed on the maxillary third molars, which retain most of their cusp height. Mandibular third molars exhibit a slightly advanced stage of wear, with incipient dentine exposure on mesio-buccal cusps. An age of greater than 16 to 18 years is indicated by the eruption of M3s. An additional span of approximately 3-5 years is suggested by degree of M3 wear, resulting in a estimated dental age of death 22 years ± 2 years (range 20 - 24 yrs). Auricular surface morphology presents a youthful appearance. Billowing is present in combination with moderate granularity. An approximate age of between 22 - 26 years is suggested, bridging the first two stages described by Lovejoy et al. (1985b). The pubic symphyses are not sufficiently well preserved to yield an age estimate. Cranial sutures and the metaphyses of long bones are extensively damaged postmortem by warping and crushing. A summary age bracket of 22-25 years is consistent with the evidence.

Damdama Specimen 18c Age at Death: 50 years (range: 45- 55 yrs) Sex: Male This specimen is neither well preserved nor complete. The pelvis is very fragmentary and the only marker of value is the robust right ischial tuberosity. A small part of the right auricular surface is also present. Age Determination. Assessing age at death for this specimen is difficult, closure of cranial vault sutures comprise the only possible method of assessment. The developmental progress of suture closure is known to be highly variable and the correlation with age is poor. Epiphyseal fusion can also be observed but all observable epiphyses are fused, including the medial and lateral epiphyses of the right clavicle. This observation suggests an age at death of greater than 20 to 24 years. The observation of cranial sutures is impeded by the deposition of matrix on the cranial vault surface obscuring segments of some sutures.

Sex Determination. Though warped and damaged, the complete right innominate bone is present and yields the following evidence regarding sex: 1) the sciatic notch is narrow and the pre-auricular sulcus is absent. Though postmortem damage affects the area lateral to auricular surface, these observations are accurate and reliable. 2) the ischio-pubic ramus is straight and no hint of a ventral arch is discernable, 3) the pubic bone is triangular, not rectangular, 4) the acetabulum is large, and 5) preserved area of ischial tuberosity is rugose. These are masculine features and clearly indicate that the specimen is male. The postcranial measurements presented in Table 6.13 have been slightly affected by warping of the ischium and may not fully confirm conclusions derived from morphological observations.

Results of the assessment of suture closure for age estimation are presented in Table 6.14 (p. 94), and yields an estimate of approximately 56.4 years. Observation points at lambda (site number 2) and pterion (site number 7) were not completely visible, consequently this estimate may be somewhat inflated. The auricular surface is present and includes the apex and the anterior portion of the superior demiface. The region appears dense, but granularity absent. These morphological features place the specimen in the 45 49 year age group. Consequently, the auricular surface yields a younger estimate of age at death: between 45 and 55 years, with a focal age of 50 years.

The diameter of the acetabulum in DDM-18b is above the mean for the Damdama skeletal series (51.1, sd 3.92, n = 9) and suggests male sex. A small portion of the left ilium is also present. It retains the sciatic notch, which is narrow, and lacks a pre-auricular sulcus.

Dental evidence includes the presence of three third molar teeth. The LM 3 is missing, but its antimere (RM3) exhibits two large dentine exposures mesiobuccally and on the lingual cusp. Dental wear of the mandibular molars has progressed to expose four dentine basins, the anterior two have coalesced, and the posterior two coalesced on the right side. Wear of the LM3 is significantly less than on the right lower third molar and only the mesio-buccal and disto-

Cranial remains are fragmentary, have suffered postmortem diagenesis, and therefore do not yield reliable information regarding sex-related morphological variations. The mandibular corpus is robust and the symphyseal region exhibits a square inferior margin. Gonia are everted and the sigmoid 92

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

lingual cusps have small dentine exposures. In molar wear quadrant score DDM - 18c, with a score of 188, falls at the upper end of the Damdama range, similar to DDM - 37 (189) and DDM - 39 (185), whose focal ages are 50 years and 47 years, respectively. The majority of the occlusal surfaces exhibit enamel wear to a nearly flat plane.

and moderately well developed bilaterally. Mandibular features associated with sex are few, but suggestive. Though the mental eminence is median, the mandibular corpus is well built, ascending rami are broad, and gonia everted. In addition, pterygoid impressions are rugose, and digastric markings are well defined, presenting the overall impression that this specimen is male.

Sex determination. The size of the femora and the well-developed pilaster suggest this specimen is male. Since neither the right nor left sciatic notch is present, the attribution of sex for this specimen must remain tentative, as it is based on less secure and reliable observations. Limb bones are robust, though many measurements are not possible due to the degree of postmortem diagenesis. The right clavicle is long, measuring 157.0 mm in maximum length, and is morphologically robust, suggesting male sex. This value falls close to the mean male clavicle length (158.24) reported by Thieme (1957), and significantly above the mean value for females (140.28; Bass 1987: 131, Table 24). Other post-cranial indicators of sex include two variables that could be measured with precision. These include the transverse mid-shaft diameter (Fig. 6.2, p. 113) and mid-shaft circumference (Fig. 6.3), which are plotted in histograms of femur size in the Damdama skeletal series. These histograms show that specimen DDM 18c falls in the middle or high end of values for the larger group (presumably males), suggesting the specimen is probably male.

Though key anatomic regions for assessment of sex are absent from this individual, it presents a total morphological pattern that is assuredly male due to attributes of size and robusticity of cranial and postcranial anatomy. Damdama Specimen 19 Age at Death: 19 years Sex: Male This incomplete burial was disturbed by excavations for the purpose of constructing an irrigation canal construction. Many parts of the skeleton are missing including teeth and jaws, which leaves little secure basis for estimating age and sex. Age Determination. A few epiphyses are preserved permitting an approximate age estimate. The iliac crest, appears to be in partial fusion anteriorly and non-union posteriorly, though the epiphyseal crest is present. This places the age at death between 15 - 18 years. In addition, the greater and lesser trochanters have begun to fuse and the distal femur may have only just begun to unite, in combination the evidence suggests an age at death of less than about 20 or 21 years of age. Collectively, these observations suggest an age at death of between 17 and 21 years, with a focal age of 19 years.

Cranial indicators of sex include traces of a welldeveloped glabella and supra-orbital torus. They are best expressed on the left side. The nuchal region is present and a torus is well-developed to either side of the external occipital protuberance. Mastoid processes are damaged, but supra-mastoid eminences are present

Table 6.13. Sex attribution of DDM 18b from post-cranial measurements (in mm) Innom inate meas index / section sex acetabulum diameter (vertical)

52.0

sciatic notch width

52.0

pubis length

90.0

ischium length

75.0

pubo-ischium depth

86.0

100.0 F (> 87.0 = F)

Fem ur head diameter (L) bicondylar diameter (R)

48.0

> 45.5 / > 47.5

M

(76.0)

76 - 78

?M

meas = measurement; ( ) in meas column = estimate

93

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 6.14. Cranial suture status and age estimation for DDM 18c Suture Number

Score

1

2

2

2

3

3

4

1

5

1

6

2

7

1

Total

12

Age

56.4 years

Table 6.15. Sex estimation of DDM 19 from measurements of the innominate (in mm) Innominate (right)

measurement

section point

sex estimate

sciatic notch width 1 acetabulum diameter

(34.0) 58.0 58.6 % index 1

DDM mean = 51.1 < 87 % = M

M M M

( ) = estimate; 1) measurements and index following Kelley 1979a.

Table 6.16. Sex estimation for DDM 23 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) Humerus (right) measurement function value1 section point trochlear (articular) width biepicondylar diameter combined

42.0 58.0

1.72776 1.33550 1.21208

> 1.460 = F > 1.330 = F > 1.520 = F

sex estimate F F M

1) function values computed from formulae in France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155)

Sex Determination. The right innominate is complete except for the pubic bone. Damage to the iliac blade, posteriorly from the iliac tubercle caused the crest to be missing for approximately 70.0 mm. The sciatic notch is present and narrow. The pre-auricular sulcus is absent. The ischium is large. The femoral head (right) is retained in the acetabulum and both are large in size. The acetabulum diameter of this specimen is the largest in the Damdama series (mean acetabulum diameter = 51.1, sd = 3.92, n = 9). The sciatic notch acetabular index devised by Kelley (1979a) yields a value (58.6 %) well below the section point (87.0 %), clearly indicative of male sex (Table 6.15). However the accuracy of this indicator of sex may be compromised by the estimation of sciatic notch width. These observations indicate a robust male of large size.

complete, even though many of the breaks present fresh surfaces. Damdama Specimen 20a Age at Death: 17-20 years Sex: Female The bones of this individual are poorly preserved. The cranium and most long bones are crushed. Consequently little evidence is available on which age and sex estimates can be based. Fragments of the right and left innominate provide some data, though interpretation is difficult due to incomplete preservation. Age Determination. Age assessment relies primarily on the dentition and rate of dental wear, because postcranial and cranial bones are too poorly preserved to yield much information. Mandibular third molars have erupted fully and attained the level of occlusion of the mandibular second molar teeth. The eruption status of RM3 , however is incomplete. An interproximal

The only additional indicators of sex are the robusticity of the greater and lesser trochanters of the right femur, together with its robust diaphysis. None of the long bones of this specimen appear to be 94

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex 2

wear facet on the distal aspect of LM indicates that LM3 was also fully erupted. This observation is in agreement with the presence of wear facets on the distal half of the occlusal surface of LM3 . Third molar eruption status and degree of dental wear suggests an age bracket of between 17 and 20 years at death.

Except in LM3 where the dentine exposures on the two distal cusps have coalesced into one large dentine exposure. Third molar eruption suggests an age greater than 18 years, but when the degree of wear is considered, a significantly greater age is implied. Given the amount of third molar wear, this individual may be approaching middle age.

Sex Determination. The deepest parts of the right and left sciatic notches are preserved. The left ilium includes the apical part (apex) of the auricular surface as well. Too little of the sciatic notches are present on either side to be absolutely certain of its full shape, therefore sex cannot be judged from this feature. However, on the left side a vestige of the pre-auricular sulcus is present and the notch could easily have been broad enough to be female. The right side is less complete and less helpful in deciding sex attribution. The post-cranial elements of this individual are gracile in comparison with DDM - 20b. The humeri and femora in particular are more delicately built. In femoral mid-shaft attributes, though both specimens appear to fall in the male range, DDM - 20a is larger than DDM - 20b in transverse mid-shaft diameter (Fig. 6.2) and smaller in femoral mid-shaft circumference (Fig. 6.3, p. 113).

The left ilium has fallen away from the sacrum and exposed the superior demiface and the apex. The dense surface, which lacks billowing, transverse organization and striae, seems closest to the description provided for Lovejoy’s 40-44 year age category (Lovejoy et al., 1985b). However, most of the inferior demiface and the retro-auricular regions cannot be observed. Sutures are largely covered with matrix or crushed. The coronal suture is visible for most of its length and fusion appears complete in the intermediate region of the right side and partial on the left, other segments of the coronal suture are difficult to observe and cannot be scored. Sex Determination. This specimen is unequivocally male. The right innominate is positioned so the sciatic notch is easily viewed. The notch is narrow and the pre-auricular sulcus is absent. Key areas for mensural diagnosis of sex are either damaged or concealed ‘in block’. Observable pelvic indicators of sex show that this specimen is definitely male. The sacrum is buried in matrix except for left ala and therefore provide no additional information. Pelvic indicators of sex agree well with the very robust humeri and femora. The humeri have well developed and low deltoid tuberosities, while femoral trochanters and the linea asperas are well developed. In circumference of the femoral mid-shaft, DDM - 20b is one of the largest in the series and clusters with two other male specimens (DDM - 18c and DDM - 25; Fig. 6.3, p. 113).

Cranial morphology yields little information regarding sex diagnosis due to postmortem crushing and deformation. The supraorbital region is not well developed. No torus or brow ridges are present and in general bones of the cranial vault are gracile, suggesting feminine sex. Mandibular morphology provides little additional information, due to poor preservation. The mental eminence is median, but this feature is not too dimorphic among this collection. The teeth seem large. Caution is required in attributing sex to this individual, gracility is combined with large size, resulting in conflicting indicators. The specimen is best regarded as a probable female of large size.

Cranial variations related to sex include a large left mastoid process and slight development of the supramastoid eminence. Postmortem crushing makes it difficult to judge other aspects of morphology as pristine or subject to diagenesis. For example, the left supra-orbital region appears prominent, but this appearance may result partially from postmortem distortion; the right side appears flatter, but crushing have played a role in its appearance. The mandible exhibits a well developed mental eminence and the corpus is deep anteriorly, but tapers posteriorly, becoming much shallower beneath M3 . The inferior margin of the corpus exhibits tuberosities at the lateral bases of the mental trigone, giving a square appearance to the symphysis. Ascending rami are tall. Gonia are only slightly everted, but are thick and robust, while gonial angles have strong muscular impressions internally (pterygoid) and externally (masseter). Overall the sex of this specimen is most likely male.

Damdama Specimen 20b Age at Death: 40 - 45 years Sex: Male While some limb bones are preserved well, especially the humeri and the femora, others are less useful due to postmortem crushing and warping. The pelvis is preserved in block and neither time nor technology permits preparation and separation of right and left innominates from one another or from the sacrum. Many important morphological indicators of sex are visible without extensive preparation of the specimen. Age Determination. Dental status, morphology of the auricular surface and suture closure provide useful evidence of age at death. All third molar teeth have erupted and exhibit wear sufficient to expose patches of dentine. These areas of dentine exposure are discrete, not coalesced, and are of moderate size.

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

transverse diameter and circumference, it consistently ranks higher than DDM - 12 a specimen known with certainty to be female (see Figs. 6.2, 6.3, p. 113). Consequently, this individual is interpreted to be a gracile and smaller than average male.

Damdama Specimen 21 Age at Death: unknown Sex: ? Female This specimen is incomplete and poorly preserved, and there are no associated dental remains. Field notes characterize this specimen as “highly disturbed and corroded”. The absence of the skull and the lower extremities make age and sex estimation a challenging task.

Damdama Specimen 23 Age at Death: 45-50 years Sex: ? Male This specimen, like DDM - 16b and DDM - 18a, is an interesting and complicated case. Though the skull and pelvis are both complete and well preserved, indicators of sex are mixed. The specimen combines large post-cranial size, with a large, but gracile cranium and mandible. This individual may represent a female, of unusually large body size.

Age Determination. Since epiphyses are damaged and no pubic bone or auricular surface is preserved, the age of this specimen must be regarded as indeterminate. Sex Determination. The small size of preserved postcranial bones and their gracility suggests female sex. In addition, a small piece of the right ilium is present, and from a small-sized individual. The sciatic notch is partially preserved, is interpreted to have a broad shape, and suggests the specimen is female. While this agrees with the small size of the specimen, in the absence of additional sources of information this individual must be regarded as ‘probable female’.

Age Determination. All four third molar teeth are erupted and worn flat. Wear has exposed dentine patches to a greater degree in mandibular molars than in the maxillary molars. The wear gradient M1 - M2 M3 in this specimen is extreme. First molars exhibit pulp exposure and have no crown enamel left, while second molar wear is intermediate between first and third molars. In comparison with dental wear of specimens whose age was established skeletally, this individual was approximately 45-50 years of age at death. Skeletal age indicators are not readily visible: the auricular surface of ilium, pubic symphyses, and epiphyses are either matrix covered or damaged.

Damdama Specimen 22 Age at Death: 20-24 years Sex: Male This burial is incomplete due to post-burial disturbance. A fragment of the left ilium with sciatic notch is preserved.

Sex Determination. Right and left os coxae and the sacrum are held together “in block” by matrix, but right and left sciatic notches are fully visible. They are not easily categorized as male or female since they are broader than typical of a definite male, but not as broad as a clear-cut female. In addition, the preauricular sulcus is absent, as in DDM-16b and DDM18a, and could be indicative of male sex. Yet if the sulcus is due to childbearing, its absence may be due to the young age of these specimens.

Age Determination. The auricular surface of the left ilium is present and reasonably well preserved, however the retro-auricular area is missing. While the surface is incomplete, it includes large areas above, below and posterior to the apex. Close examination reveals a rough and billowed auricular surface texture, features associated with a youthful appearance, and indicating an age at death of between 20 - 24 years. Though the epiphyses of some long bones are preserved, permitting an estimated measurement of maximum length (of the left femur), they lack sufficient integrity to yield accurate measurements of sex relevant variables such as femoral head diameter or bicondylar breadth. Epiphyseal fusion could be evaluated in the femora, revealing that both proximal and distal epiphyses are fused. This observation suggests that age at death was greater than 13 - 19 years, a finding consistent with the age derived from the auricular surface.

Sex related cranial variants include a frontal bone that has a vertical forehead. Glabella and the supraorbital region is gracile. Frontal bosses are present, but not prominent. Mastoid processes appear large, but calcareous concretions partially conceal them from view. The occipital bone appears gracile, the zygomatic arch is delicate, and alveolar prognathism is pronounced. Collectively this association of cranial traits is more commonly found in female than in male crania. Mandibular morphology is feminine, and includes a prominent median mental eminence, narrow ascending rami, and straight gonia. In addition, the mylohyoid line is faint and the corpus is not especially well developed. Corpus depth appears to decrease from symphysis to the third molar teeth to a greater degree than is typical in males of this series.

Sex Determination. The narrow sciatic notch of this specimen is typically male in shape. The auricular surface is flat, not raised from the surrounding bone surface, and lacks a pre-auricular sulcus. Post-cranial bones preserved with this specimen are not very robust, however, and it seems to contradict the definitely male status of pelvic indicators of sex. For example, in attributes of femoral mid-shaft size, while DDM - 22 clusters with the smaller sub-group, in

Non-pelvic post-cranial sex indicators include a high degree of robusticity observed in the humeri. Robusticity is coupled with medio-lateral bowing and 96

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

a large distal epiphysis. Diaphyseal diameters could not be measured due to tenacious calcareous concretions which could not be removed. Osteometry of the humerus yielded two measures that demonstrate the size of the specimen, yet present conflicting indications of sex (Table 6.16, p. 94).

correspondence with pelvic morphology that strongly supports a sex diagnosis of male. These data provide somewhat contradictory results (Table 6.18). Biepicondylar breadth is estimated, the result could be an underestimate, yielding an incorrect sex attribution of female. Diameter of the femoral head provides an indeterminate sex estimate using Stewart’s (1979) standards, but the value of 46.0 lies close to the mean male value for Blacks reported by Thieme (1957). Finally, the acetabulum diameter lies above the mean for the nine Damdama specimens in which this variable could be measured (mean = 51.1, sd = 3.92), suggesting male sex.

Femoral morphology is sturdy, though not rugose. Femoral diaphyses are thick, but the linea aspera has not attained the size or form of a pilaster. For example, in mid-shaft measures of femoral size, DDM -23 clusters with the larger size grouping (presumably male) in both transverse diameter (Fig. 6.2, p. 113) and circumference (Fig. 6.3) at mid-shaft. Diagnosis of sex is difficult for this specimen since conflicting impressions are derived from different portions of the skeleton. Cranial and mandibular features, though large, are gracile and feminine, while the post-cranial skeleton is large and robust, suggesting male. Sciatic notch and pelvic morphology is uncertain though suggestive of male sex (Table 6.17, p. 98). In comparison with DDM - 16a, this individual has a somewhat broader sciatic notch, yet it is similar in form to specimens DDM - 16b and DDM - 18a, which also lack a pre-auricular sulcus and were sexed as males. Though sex indicators are conflicting DDM - 23 is interpreted as a probable male.

Damdama Specimen 25 Age at Death: Adult Sex: ? Male This specimen is incomplete and lacks dentition as well. Though neurocranial fragments are present, they present no diagnostic features on which a estimate of age or sex could be based. Consequently the age and sex of this individual must be regarded as tentative and imprecise. Age Determination. This specimen is in a very poor state of preservation, yet full stature appears to have been attained. All observable epiphyses are united and consequently full adult status is likely. A more precise age estimate than “adult” is not feasible given the elements preserved.

Damdama Specimen 24 Age at Death: Adult Sex: Male This specimen lacks dental remains, however the pelvis is well represented. Sex is much easier to assess than age for this individual.

Sex Determination. The only evidence suggestive of sex is the large size of the right femur. This bone is robust and exhibits a thick diaphysis and large head. Graphic comparison of femoral diaphysis size reveals that this specimen clusters with the larger sub-group in both transverse mid-shaft diameter (Fig. 6.2) and in mid-shaft circumference (Fig. 6.3). This specimen exhibits the maximum femur mid-shaft circumference in the DDM skeletal series, suggesting the likelihood of male sex. The condylar region of the distal aspect of the femur is damaged postmortem, precluding measurement in this region. Other information regarding sex is derived from the left talus: maximum length = 52 mm; trochlear width = 32.0 mm; trochlear length=33.0 mm. Though composite measures of the talus can be used to estimate sex with discriminant functions, no discriminant function is available for sex estimation using these three measurements. Based on the imprecise character of size, the sex of this specimen is “probable male”.

Age Determination. As the skull and the os pubis are not present. The auricular surface of the ilium is obscured with matrix. Consequently, the only information from which an indication of age can be derived is the epiphyses and this estimate of age is open ended. Since all visible epiphyses have completed fusion, age at death must be greater than approximately 20 to 23 years. This specimen was an adult at time of death. Sex Determination. All indicators suggest that this specimen is probably male. Though the pelvis is heavily covered with matrix, the right ilium-ischium is relatively complete. The crest of the right ilium is missing and the left side of the pelvis is less complete. The right sciatic notch is well preserved and narrow, and the pre-auricular surface is absent. The left side is much more difficult to judge due to combined effects of postmortem breakage and adhering matrix.

Damdama Specimen 26 Age at Death: 52 years (range: 45-60 yrs) Sex: Female

Cranial fragments are non-diagnostic, except that right malar is robust. The mandible is missing. Postcranial bones are somewhat robust, especially the greater and lesser trochanter of the left femur. Some bones are matrix encrusted, precluding assessment of robusticity. Measurement of typically sex dimorphic variables are recorded below to document their

Age Determination. This specimen is a mature adult. The main method used in assessing age is Meindl and Lovejoy’s (1985) system of anterior lateral suture closure. Scores of 10 and 11 were derived from this analysis (Table 6.19) and are associated with age at death estimates of 51.9 and 56.2 years. 97

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Due to the imprecision of suture closure as an aging method, a broad bracketing for age at death estimates is essential. The actual age at death may be as young as 45, or as old as 60 years of age. An approximate focal age is derived from the mean of the high and low estimates, or 52 years. Associated with this age at death is loss of the mandibular LM1 and RM3, as well as several maxillary molar teeth. Age-related degenerative changes to articular surfaces could not be extensively judged since few were preserved. However, the glenoid fossa of the left scapula revealed no trace of lipping, porosity, or eburnation.

Sex Determination. No pelvic indicators of sex are present. Post-cranial bones are delicate and gracile, especially the humeri. The impression derived from this specimen is that the combined effects of femininity and age are jointly influencing the gracile morphological appearance of this specimen. The cranium is represented by a complete and well preserved neurocranium from which the maxilla has been detached. The facial skeleton is missing and only the superior margins the orbits remain. The overall appearance of the cranium is definitely female, an assessment confirmed by the presence of welldeveloped parietal and frontal bosses.

Table 6.17. Sex estimation of DDM 23 from measurements of the femur and innominate (in mm) Measurement

Bone

left

right

sex

Head diameter (vertical)

femur

44

46

indeterminate / ? male

Sciatic notch width

innominate

38

--

Acetabulum diameter (vertical)

innominate

50

--

sciatic notch -acetabular index = 76.0 = M

Table 6.18. Sex estimation for DDM 24 from post-cranial measurements (in mm) Humerus (left) 1 biepicondylar diameter Femur (right)

measurement

function value

section point

sex

(57)

1.41425

1.330

F

Stewart, 1979

Thieme, 1957

43.5 - 46.5

M 0 = 47.2

2

head diameter

46.0

?/M

DDM 0

Innom inate (right) acetabulum diameter

53

51.1

M

1) function value and section point from France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155) 2) Stewart’s (1979) and Thieme’s (1957) data from Bass (1987: 220); ( ) = estimate

Table 6.19. Cranial sutures and age estimates (DDM 26) suture Suture name number score mid-coronal pterion spheno-frontal inferior spheno-temporal superior spheno-temporal Total Score Age

6 7 8 9 10 --

98

2 2 3 1-2 2 10 - 11 51.9 - 56.2

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Table 6.20. Sex estimation for DDM 26 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) Humerus (left)

measurement

diaphysis maximum

22.0

diaphysis minimum

17.0

function value1

section point

sex estimate

1.41301

> 1.471 = F

M

1) function values computed from formulae in France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155)

Table 6.21. Sex estimation of DDM 28 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) Humerus (right)

measurement

diaphysis maximum

24.0

diaphysis minimum

19.0

function value1

section point

sex estimate

1.03417

> 1.471 = F

M

1) function values computed from formulae in France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155)

The parietal bosses are more prominent than the frontal bosses and glabella is slightly developed. The supra-orbital region is weakly developed in the median region but not laterally. Temporal lines are not discernable. Right and left mastoid processes are damaged. The occipital contour is curved in a gracile manner, though slight nuchal torus development is present medially. Mandibular morphology includes a narrow right ascending ramus, a median mental eminence, and a gracile appearance of the mandibular corpus. All are features commonly found with greater frequency in females. This specimen is judged with confidence to be female.

However, an interproximal wear facet on the distal surface of RM2 conclusively establishes that the right upper third molar was fully erupted and functional. All third molar teeth exhibit little wear. Enamel polish is present, but no dentine is exposed. Cusp height of lower molars is reduced to a greater degree than in their isomeres, the maxillary third molars. A dental age based on the combined interpretation of eruption and wear is between 30 and 40 years, with a focal age at death of approximately 35 years. Postmortem damage to the skull includes crushing along many of the suture lines and adhering matrix. Long bone epiphyses are either damaged or missing which requires that greater emphasis be placed on the dental evidence for estimating this specimen’s age at death.

Post-cranial bones that could be measured are few since the general preservation of this specimen is poor. Most epiphyses and metaphyses are missing or badly crushed. Diaphyseal diameters of the humerus could be determined, and are presented in Table 6.20. The discriminant function calculated from these dimensions yields a value close to, but below, the section point suggesting male sex. Mid-shaft diameters of the humerus (anterior-posterior = 20 mm; medio-lateral = 19 mm) are also in the mid-range of values for the DDM series and coupled with gracile morphology that is typically considered feminine. When measures of femoral diaphysis size, including transverse mid-shaft diameter (Fig. 6.2) and mid-shaft circumference (Fig. 6.3), are plotted in a histogram, DDM - 26 clusters with the smaller sized, presumably female specimens. Most indicators of sex agree that this specimen is female.

Sex Determination. Pelvic, cranial and mandibular indicators of sex are preserved in this specimen. Though the cranium is crushed, the maxilla and mandible are preserved as fragments and the dentition is complete. Right and left iliac fragments are present and preserve the deepest part of the sciatic notch. While sciatic notch shape appears narrow more of the arch would be necessary to feel confident in assigning sex on this basis alone. The cranium however, yields promising clues regarding the specimen’s sex. The supramastoid crest is present and well developed and the left mastoid process, though damaged, is large in size. The supraorbital region is very well developed, as a torus medially. This individual presents one of the largest supra-orbital tori in the series. Shape and slope of the forehead cannot be determined due to postmortem crushing. Glabella is prominent. The mandible has a broad ascending ramus and the corpus is robust in structure. The gonia are too damaged to describe their morphology. This specimen is assigned male sex with high level of confidence. However, no useful postcranial measurements bearing on the attribution of sex could be recorded due to poor preservation.

Damdama Specimen 27 Age at Death: 35 years (range: 30-40 yrs) Sex: Male Age Determination. Dental evidence constitutes the main basis for estimating age at death of this specimen. All four third molar teeth have erupted to occlusal level. Postmortem suppression of RM3 presents a false impression of incomplete eruption for this tooth.

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Damdama Specimen 28 Age at Death: 45-50 years Sex: Male

Damdama Specimen 29 Age at Death: 30 years ± 5 yrs Sex: Female

This specimen is incomplete post-cranially. Though the cranium and mandible are present and complete, they have sustained postmortem warping and breakage. In the burial pit, the skull rested on its right side, the zygomatic arch in contact with the tibia and fibula beneath it.

The specimen is fragmentary and incomplete. In addition, key skeletal variations used in age and sex determination are missing, rendering these assessments less secure than in other specimens. Age Determination. Skeletal indicators are lacking, only the dentition provides a rough age estimate by degree of attrition. Dental wear of both anterior and post-canine teeth in this specimen are slightly less than observed in DDM-27, less dentine is exposed, though the pattern of dentine exposure is similar in both specimens. The age at death of this specimen is best placed at between 25 and 35 years of age, with a focal age of 30 years; approximately 5 years younger than specimen DDM-27.

Age Determination. Indicators of age at death are limited in this specimen because post-cranial remains do not include pelvic fragments, long bones are poorly preserved, and the cranium is badly crushed, rendering sutures uninformative. Dental evidence of age at death is derived only from the degree of wear. Relying heavily on third molar wear may underestimate age at death since a steep wear gradient is present: first molars exhibit wear-induced pulp exposure while maxillary third molars display only discrete dentine exposures. The occlusal surfaces of RLM3 have more enamel than dentine visible. This specimen is very similar to DDM-23 in molar wear, consequently a similar age at death is assigned: 45 50 years.

Sex Determination. In overall morphological appearance this specimen presents a female form. The left supra-orbital and glabellar regions are preserved and are weakly developed. The cranium is small and bones of the vault are thin. The left temporal bone is present and is neither robust nor large. The left mastoid process is slightly eroded postmortem, but is small in size and no supramastoid crest or eminence is discernable. Cranial features suggest female.

Sex Determination. No secure estimate of sex is possible as the pelvis is not present. Evidence from cranial and post-cranial morphology suggests the specimen is male. Supra-orbital ridges are well developed, especially on the right side. Frontal bossing is absent, the left mastoid process is large and associated with a well-developed supramastoid crest. Other sex-related features of cranial variation are too damaged to yield valuable clues regarding the sex of this individual. The mandible is fragmentary, but the left ascending ramus is broad (similar to DDM -16b). The symphyseal region is damaged, but the mandibular angle is acute. The overall morphology of the maxilla and mandible suggest the specimen is male. Post-cranial bones, especially the humeri and femora, appear sufficiently robust to support a sex designation of male. Femora are bowed and have well-developed pilasters. Humeri have thick diaphyses and prominent deltoid tuberosities. No post-cranial variations could be measured with the exception of humeral diaphyses. Maximum and minimum diaphyseal dimensions are reported along with discriminant function and section point in Table 6.21.

The mandibular corpus and symphysis are crushed by postmortem compression and give the mandible a more robust appearance than the cranium. This is misleading. The ascending rami are gracile, gonia slightly everted and pterygoid markings present but not rugose. Post-cranial indicators of sex are few and limited to diaphyseal morphology. The clavicle is robust, but most other limb bones, including the humerus, radius and ulna, are sufficiently gracile to be derived from a female. Damdama Specimen 30a Age at Death: 37 ± 2 years Sex: Female This is the first of two individuals from a double burial. Overall the skeleton is fragmented, though some bones, including the left humerus and the left radius and ulna, are undistorted and well preserved. Age Determination. No pubic bones are preserved, so alternative features must be used in assigning an age at death. The auricular surface is present, but encrusted with CaCO3 deposits and cannot provide a precise age, though a rough approximation is possible.

Though one of the least accurate discriminant functions for predicting sex from the humerus, this function is 88.9% accurate and yields a value well below the section point. This provides additional support for classifying this specimen as male.

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Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Table 6.22. Sex determination of DDM 30a from post-cranial measurements (in mm) Humerus (left)1 Diaphyseal diameter minimum maximum Femur (right) 2 head diameter vertical

measurement

function value

section point

sex estimate

19.0 21.5

1.17860

> 1.471 = F

M

Stewart, 1979 43.5 - 46.5

Thieme, 1957 M 0 = 47.2

?/M

46.0

1) function value and section point from France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155) 2) Stewart’s (1979) and Thieme’s (1957) data from Bass (1987: 220)

Table 6.23. Sex estimation of DDM 30b from measurements of the humerus (in mm) Humerus (right) diaphysis maximum diaphysis minimum

measurement 20.5 17.5

function value 1

section point

sex estimate

1.43384

> 1.471 = F

M

1) function values computed from formulae in France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155)

Table 6.24. Sex estimation of DDM 32 from measurements of the humerus (in mm) Humerus (right)

measurement

function value 1

section point

sex estimate

19.5 15.5

1.75491

> 1.471 = F

F

diaphysis maximum diaphysis minimum

1) function values computed from formulae in France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155)

Table 6.25. Measurements of DDM 33 right and left talus1 Measurement name

Meas. no.

Left

Right

maximum length width body height

1 2 3

54.0 39.0 34.0

56.0 39.0 34.5

trochlea: maximum length maximum width

4 5

36.0 30.0

35.0 29.0

1) following Steele and Bramblett (1988: 261)

The auricular surface cleaned up well on the left side. All of the superior demiface and apex are present, inferior demiface missing. Little billowing is present, some coarse granularity is mixed with incipient densification. Collectively these attributes suggest an age of between 35 and 39 years at death. Dental wear is slightly greater than in DDM-27, but roughly equivalent for most teeth. Right and left M3 are slightly more heavily worn in this (30a) specimen, implying an older age at death, in the range of 40 - 42 years. An approximate age range based on auricular surface morphology and relative molar wear is 35 - 40 years, with a focal age of 37, placing it in an age bracket with DDM - 27.

likelihood of this specimen being female is confirmed by gracile structure of the cranium, mandible and limb bones. Cranial indicators of sex include weakly developed brow ridges, a small left mastoid process, and gracile occipital squama. Other morphological features of the cranium are damaged by postmortem crushing and cannot be described. The mandible has an evenly rounded symphysis and the mental eminence is not prominent. The right gonial region is slightly everted and displays light pterygoid markings medially, but is smooth with a peripheral ridge laterally. Ascending rami are not broad. Post-cranial features include a round femoral diaphysis, with little pilaster development and minimal anterior-posterior bowing. The radius and ulna are gracile and the humerus is gracile though the deltoid insertion is well marked. The clavicle lacks robusticity. Several sex-related post-cranial measurements were made (see Table 6.22).

Sex Determination. The right and left ilia are preserved in fragments and though both sciatic notches are present and broad, pre-auricular sulci are absent. The left sciatic notch is more complete and includes the apical portion of the sciatic notch. The 101

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Surprisingly, the post-cranial measurements of the humerus and femur yielded indeterminate or weak support for a male diagnosis of this specimen. However, these indicators of sex are less reliable than the overall impression gained form the morphological evaluation presented above.

missing. The right mastoid is damaged, but the supramastoid crest is more developed than usual for this series and indicates maleness.

The total morphological appearance of this specimen suggests female status; despite the absence of a preauricular sulcus, the specimen is female.

Though the overall sex diagnosis is male, gracile features are evident in certain post-cranial elements such as femoral shaft size and suggest a feminine form (see Figs. 6.2 and 6.3, p. 113). The mandible is present, but fragmentary, and contributes little to assessment of sex.

Damdama Specimen 30b Age at Death: 30 ± 3 years Sex: Male

Damdama Specimen 31 Age at Death: probable adult Sex: possible male

This specimen is somewhat incomplete and most long bones lack epiphyses. However, critical regions of the innominate bones are present and a firm basis for sex assessment.

According to Pal's field notes most of this specimen was missing. The only parts present were fragmentary portions of the right and left tibia and fibula. These elements displayed badly weathered cortical surfaces when examined in the laboratory, but were rugose in morphology and large in size, suggestive of male sex. Since no epiphyses were present, any attempt to estimate of age at death with precision is inappropriate. The size of the parts preserved here would suggest that adult status had been attained. Measurements of variation in size for use in sex estimation could not be conducted. Consequently the age and sex of this specimen must remain speculative and uncertain.

Age Determination. Age at death is difficult to determine for this specimen since most epiphyses and the auricular surfaces are missing and the skull is crushed. The only basis for age assessment is dental wear and this evaluation is more difficult than usual since the mandibular third molar teeth are congenitally absent and their isomeres, the maxillary third molars, though present exhibit no occlusal wear. Dental wear of mandibular second molars is characterized by coalesced dentine exposures. The two posterior cusps have coalesced, while the two anterior dentine exposures are discrete. In maxillary second molars, the mesio-lingual cusp presents a large area of dentine exposure which merges with the smaller dentine exposure of the mesio-buccal cusp. This stage of dental wear is approximately similar to the degree of wear present in the second molars of DDM-27, and though a little less dentine is exposed, an age of 30 years ± 3 years seems reasonable.

Damdama Specimen 32 Age at Death: 16-20 years Sex: ? Male Though this specimen lacks a cranium, the mandible, torso, and limb bones are present. Portions of the right and left innominate are present as well, but postmortem damage to the pelvis and the juvenile age this specimen make it difficult to determine sex with certainty.

Sex Determination. Though this specimen presents some conflicting indicators of sex, it is ‘probably male’. The sciatic notches are narrow, especially on the right side, however the limb bones are gracile in architecture and small in size. The right and left humeri are present and exhibit neither medio-lateral bowing as in some robust males, nor rugose deltoid insertions. The contrast between narrow sciatic notch, lack of pre-auricular sulcus, and the gracile limb bone structure is somewhat enigmatic and can only be explained as a small or gracile male individual. Only the humerus provides measurements that might aid in sex diagnosis. Diaphyseal diameters of the right humerus, discriminate functions and the resulting sex estimate are provided in Table 6.23, and suggest male.

Age Determination. Age is more easily ascertained than sex for this individual, but certain aspects of the evidence are contradictory here as well. Observation of epiphyses reveal that several are unfused, including the proximal radius, proximal humerus, iliac crest and greater trochanter. None of these epiphyses have begun to fuse, yielding an age estimate of 16 - 20 years. Third molar teeth have completed eruption, suggesting an age of approximately 18 years. The right and left mandibular third molars are diminutive in size, but have erupted to occlusal level of the second molars. In conjunction with the epiphyseal observations, the eruption of mandibular third molars may have been accelerated with respect to skeletal maturation. Since alveolar eruption occurs approximately 6 months to one year before occlusal level is reached, and skeletal age is widely bracketed at 16 - 20 years, perhaps the mandibular third molars erupted by 16 - 18 years. The most probable estimate of age at death for this specimen is 16 - 18 years, though a wider bracket of 16-20 years is more secure.

In contrast to the gracile humeri, the femoral diaphyses are bowed and a robust pilaster-form of the linea aspera is present. The cranium is compressed toward the mid-sagittal plane and most sex-related traits are either modified by postmortem damage or

102

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Sex Determination. Though both sciatic notches are present, they are damaged postmortem. In addition, gracility of skeleton could easily be explained by its youthfulness. Therefore, sex assessment of this individual is more difficult than for most specimens. The mandible is gracile, but the inferior margin of corpus below RC exhibits a tubercle suggestive of a square chin and male sex. Also, the right gonial region and mandibular angle is thick and slightly everted, but muscle impressions are not especially rugose. Field identification of this individual based on ‘in situ’ skeletal elements, is male. The basis for this assessment is the narrow sciatic notch and rugged mandibular morphology, both of which are less clearly evident given the level of preservation of skeletal elements available in the lab. The sex of this specimen is not certain, however the lack of elevation of auricular surface and mandibular features are suggestive of male sex. Diaphyseal measurements of the right humerus and the associated discriminant function value and section point are presented in Table 6.24. The sex estimate based on the humerus is female. A similar conclusion is derived from the small size of the femoral mid-shaft. DDM - 32 exhibits the smallest recorded femoral mid-shaft dimensions in the Damdama series, for both transverse diameter (Fig. 6.2, p. 113) and circumference (Fig. 6.3).

is likely given the auricular surface evidence. When combined with the dental data, an estimate in the lower end of this age range is most reasonable: between approximately 18 and 22 years, with a focal age of 20 years. Sex Determination. This specimen is a definite male. Though the pelvis is fragmentary, two pieces of the right innominate could be reconstructed. They reveal that the sciatic notch is complete and narrow. The left sciatic notch is less complete, but also suggests a narrow structure. The pre-auricular surface is missing precluding observation regarding the presence or absence of an auricular sulcus. The cranium reveals median, moderate-sized brow ridges, but they are absent over the mid-to-lateral supra-orbital margin. Few sex diagnostic traits are visible in the cranium because postmortem damage is substantial. Neither of the mastoid processes are visible and the occipital protuberance is damaged, precluding evaluation of robusticity. The mandible is robust. Mandibular corpus and symphysis are thick and well buttressed. Though damaged, the gonia exhibit some eversion and the root of the ascending ramus is thick. Right and left ascending rami are damaged, but are broad and associated with an elevated coronoid process.

If the age estimate is accurate, and there is no reason not to accept it, and if field and mandibular indicators of sex are correct, then this specimen is best regarded as an immature male. The small size of incompletely developed skeletal elements often presents a gracile appearance and a false impression of female sex.

Post-cranial elements appear moderately robust. The femora have well developed pilasters, but the humerus is not especially robust. Tibia display a robust structure. Right and left tali are present and yielded a full set of measurements for this specimen whose sex is assuredly male based on pelvic indicators (Table 6.25, p. 101).

Damdama Specimen 33 Age at Death: 20 ± 2 years Sex: Male

Results of the discriminant function analysis of the right and left talus are provided in Table 6.26 (p. 106). Values computed for three functions yield results that fall very close to the section point. This results in an unusual situation in which the right talus is assigned male sex and the left talus assigned female sex. In reality the dimensions of the talus of this specimen are in the zone where male and female values overlap. When other aspects of post-cranial size are considered, DDM - 33 segregates with males, but at the lower end of the large-sized cluster of values. In femoral mid-shaft size, this individual displays the smallest value for transverse diameter (Fig. 6.2) and circumference (Fig. 6.3) among presumed males.

The maxillary and mandibular gnathic remains of this individual are complete, but the post-cranial skeleton and the cranium are less well preserved. Age Determination. Dental evidence of age at death includes the full eruption of maxillary and mandibular third molars and the low level of dental wear. Second molars are beginning to exhibit dentine exposures, with pinhole exposures on mesio-buccal cusps. Third molars display enamel wear facets only and cusp height is not significantly reduced. Dentine exposures on the mandibular second molars are only slightly greater than in the maxillary third molars. Since all four third molar teeth have erupted a minimum age of 16 - 18 years is established. The degree of dental wear is slightly greater than DDM-32, making an age estimate of approximately 20 years ± 2 years, reasonable. The auricular surface of the right ilium provides further evidence regarding age at death. Though damaged near apex, the preserved portions of the superior and inferior demifaces exhibit billowing. The anterior and inferior margins are distinct and not broken down, all attributes present a youthful appearance. An age at death estimate of 20 - 24 years

Damdama Specimen 34 Age at Death: 27 ± 2 years Sex: Male This specimen is both incomplete and fragmentary. Maxilla and mandible have separated from the base of the skull and are only partially preserved. Most limb bones are incomplete. Age Determination. The age of this individual is difficult to assess because cranial sutures are either 103

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

badly weathered or matrix covered or both. The only age estimate possible is from dental wear since neither auricular surface nor pubic symphyses are present. Third molar teeth have erupted and the wear stage of LM3 is characterized by enamel wear to a flat surface, though occlusal fissures remain clearly visible. Most, but not all cusp height is worn down. First and second mandibular molars exhibit discrete dentine patches. The maxillary second molar displays only one dentine crater on the mesiolingual cusp. In dental wear this specimen appears older than DDM-18b, whose molar quadrant score is 94, but less than DDM-27, whose score is 118. This results in a broad range for estimated age at death: between about 25-35 years. Probably the younger end of this range is more likely given that specimen DDM-30b has slightly greater wear in mandibular molars.

remains of specimens DDM-34 and DDM-35. Age Determination. Epiphyseal union is the most reliable method of age determination available for this specimen. The pubic bones and auricular surface remain embedded in matrix and cannot be cleared, precluding their use in estimating age at death. This age estimate is relatively precise because epiphyseal union and dental eruption are in progress. The state of fusion of several epiphyses is visible: the proximal head of the left humerus is unfused, the proximal radius and ulna are fused, femoral epiphyses appear fused, and the iliac crest has commenced fusion. The unfused humeral head yields an age of between 14-21 years (Ubelaker, 1989) and less than 24 years for complete fusion. The status of other fused epiphyses suggest an age at death of approximately 16 - 20 years. Dental eruption is complete for LM3 and in the final stage of occlusal level attainment for RM3. Some enamel wear is present on both teeth, suggesting an age of approximately 18 years. Keeping in mind that third molar eruption may be early in ths series, a broad age bracket of 16 - 20 years seem most reasonable, with a focal age of 18 years.

Sex Determination. The skull is crushed postmortem and yields few clues to sex identification. The mandible is small and gracile, the right innominate is incomplete but three pieces are present. The femoral head is solidly fixed in the acetabulum and a small portion of ischium (tuberosity and spine) is present. The sciatic notch is present and narrow, exhibiting classic male form. This evidence is in conflict with the gracile structure of the mandible, preserved parts of skull (neurocranium), and most limb bones, which all have a gracile appearance. The femoral diaphyses are somewhat robust. Given the reliability of pelvic indicators one must conclude that this specimen is a gracile, small-statured male.

Sex Determination. DDM-36a is a definite female. The burial position was prone and the pelvis is visible from the posterior (dorsal) perspective. Right and left innominate articulate with the sacrum. The sciatic notches are fully visible and display a broad arc. The cranium is compressed toward the midline, more anteriorly than posterior (frontal more than occipital). Brow ridges are very weakly developed. The left mastoid is of moderate size and has a small supramastoid eminence. The superior lateral margins of the orbit are sharp. The occipital contour is gracile, gently curved and lacks rugosity in the nuchal area. The mandible of this specimen was not recovered, though two lower teeth, RP3 and RP4 were found cemented to the maxilla by secondary calcium carbonate. The post-cranial skeleton is gracile, though some epiphyses are unfused and may indicate gracility due partly to the individual’s youth. The left humerus is bowed mediolaterally, but the deltoid insertion is faintly marked. The inter-tubercular groove is deep, and though the humeral head is unfused, the distal epiphysis is fused.

Damdama Specimen 35 Age at Death: 16-18 years Sex: ? Female No dental or gnathic remains are preserved with this specimen, whose post-cranial remains are fragmentary and incomplete. Sex was not noted in field by Pal due to absence of pelvic remains. Skeletal remains available for examination provide little useful information for assessment of age at death or sex. Age Determination. The pattern of non-union vs. union of pedal epiphyses in metatarsals and pedal phalanges suggests that age at death was roughly 1618 years. While some epiphyses appear to be in initial stages of fusion, they may simply be held in place by matrix and have yet to begin to unite. The younger end of this range is more probable than upper limit.

The left femur is bowed in the anterior-posterior plane, but despite this curvature the pilaster is minimally developed. The linea aspera is not robust or elevated. In general the post-cranial skeleton presents an appearance consistent with that of a young female. Post-cranial measurements for this young specimen and sex diagnoses derived from discriminant function analysis and reference skeletal sample cut-off points are provided in Table 6.27 (below, p. 106).

Sex Determination. Little can be said except that the diaphyses of preserved long bones, femur and tibia, are gracile and suggestive of female sex. Damdama Specimen 36a Age at Death: 18 ± 2 years Sex: Female

Three of four discriminant functions computed from measurements of the humerus agree in classifying the specimen as female. Additional measurements of the femoral head and proximal and distal tibia are all

This double burial includes two young, well-preserved and relatively complete burials. Thus they provide a dramatic contrast to the incomplete and fragmentary 104

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

compatible with the diagnosis of female. Diameter of the acetabulum is the smallest in the Damdama skeletal series and falls well below the mean for the Damdama skeletal series (51.1, sd = 3.9, n = 9) and agrees with a sex diagnosis of female. The sciatic notch - acetabulum index recommended by Kelley (1979) yields a value (106.8) above the section point (87.0) and clearly within the female range. This young adult is confidently diagnosed as female.

The cranium is gracile in appearance due partly to the youthful status of this specimen which is younger than DDM - 36a, by approximately two years. The cranium has nearly equal development of key morphological characters, though in some instances this specimen exhibits a slightly greater degree of cortical rugosity and development. Brow ridges and mastoid processes are somewhat larger than in DDM-36a. Superior lateral margins of the orbits are duller. Supramastoid development is approximately equal, as is the gracile nature of occipital nuchae. Post-cranial bones are also similar in gracility, if not more gracile, but the shafts of bones are straighter. Measures of the right humeral diaphysis and distal epiphysis are presented in Table 6.28 (below, p. 107). Metrical similarity to DDM 36a is due to the youth of this specimen, therefore inferences regarding sex cannot be reliably derived from mensural variation and attendant discriminant functions.

Damdama Specimen 36b Age at Death: 16 ± 2 years Sex: Male The male of this double burial is also complete and well preserved compared to previous specimens. The archaeological context of this and other double burials at Damdama have been described in detail elsewhere by Pal (1988, 1992). Age Determination. Epiphyses and dental eruption are the two most useful indicators of age at death for this specimen. Cranial sutures and auricular surfaces are partly obscured by matrix and the pubic symphyses are missing. Most observable epiphyses are unfused, including the proximal right radius, proximal right humerus, proximal and distal left tibia, and the distal femora. The greater trochanter of left femur appears to have commenced fusion, but elements of the sacrum appear unfused, permitting post-burial deformation in this region. Pedal metatarsals and phalanges of the left side have fused. In combination, these observations yield an approximate estimate of age at death of between 15 and 18 years. The dentition provides supplemental information on age at death. The right and left M3 have recently attained alveolar eruption, but have not yet reached the occlusal level of the second maxillary molars. In sum, the dental and skeletal evidence is in agreement that this individual was in the mid to late teens (15-18 years) at time of death. A focal age of 16 years is justified.

Only one in four discriminant functions assigns this specimen to the male sex. Undoubtedly, this outcome is directly linked to the immature stage of development at time of death. The overall impression derived from morphological indicators provide sufficient evidence for estimating the age and sex of this specimen as an immature male. Damdama Specimen 37 Age at Death: 45-55 years Sex: Female This is a poorly preserved specimen. The neurocranium is crushed and weathered. The maxilla has been detached from the neurocranium postmortem, and the mandible is warped. Most post-cranial bones lack epiphyses and metaphyses and no pelvic bones are present. Consequently, both age and sex are difficult to assess for this individual. Age Determination. Cranial and post-cranial indicators of age at death are largely absent. Only the fully grown size of preserved skeletal elements indicates adult age at death. Dental attrition indicates that this is not a youthful individual, because considerable dentine is exposed on occlusal surfaces of several teeth. All four third molar teeth have erupted and exhibit extensive dentine exposure. Right and left M3 s exhibit dentine exposure that is confined to mesial two-thirds of the occlusal surface. A greater portion of the occlusal surface of LM3 exhibits dentine with an enamel island in the center, surrounded by a rim of enamel. The teeth of this specimen are very poorly preserved and erosion has caused the postmortem loss of some enamel, dentine and root surfaces from many teeth. In terms of dental attrition status, this specimen is most similar to either DDM-6a or DDM-26, resulting in an approximate estimate of age at death between 45 and 55 years.

Sex Determination. Indicators of sex preserved in this specimen are many and lead to a confident diagnosis of male sex. The prime and most accurate data are the right and left innominates, preserved in articulation with sacrum. The pelvis is supine and the acetabula are encased in matrix. The sciatic notches are visible from the anterior medial aspect and appear narrower than 36a, and typically male. While the pubic bones are missing, evidence from the sacrum suggests male sex. Breadth of first sacral body relative to total sacral breadth is greater than 50 percent and although the anterior concavity of the sacrum is flat, with minimal curvature, this appearance results from postmortem diagenesis and is not an accurate indicator of sex. Measurements of acetabulum diameter and sciatic notch width cannot be conducted for this specimen; they are precluded by the presence of indurated matrix which cannot be removed without causing damage to the specimen.

Sex Determination. The post-cranial bones are generally gracile in construction, though lower limbs elements (femur and tibia) seem to be more robust 105

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

than their upper equivalents (humerus, radius and ulna). The femora exhibit considerable bowing and have developed a prominent pilaster. Tibia are stout. The two fragments associated with this specimen are labeled Radius / Ulna but appear very delicate and may not be derived from the same individual. The cranium and mandible provide little additional evidence for sex diagnosis since the effects of postmortem diagenesis are so severe. The balance of evidence points to female sex, though the evidence is neither highly diagnostic nor abundant. No measures of sex related variables could be made to facilitate diagnosis due to the poor state of preservation.

Consequently, specimen DDM - 38 was lifted ‘in block’ and preserved for display in the Museum of the Ancient History Department, University of Allahabad. Although preservation is as complete as DDM-12, the bones of this specimen are not as heavily mineralized or in as pristine a state of preservation. Slight postmortem damage is visible on the right frontal boss and superior to the right mastoid process, for example. The dentition can only be observed from the right lateral perspective because the mandible is held in occlusion with the maxilla by indurated matrix. The burial posture of this specimen is unique among all Mesolithic Lake Culture burials. The skeleton is in a supine position though the face and knees are displaced to the left side. The right forearm is flexed 90 degrees at the elbow and positioned across abdomen. The right hand and wrist are in close contact with the left elbow, which rests adjacent to bones of the right wrist (see cover image).

Damdama Specimen 38 Age at Death: Adult Sex: Male This specimen is the most complete skeleton in the series and presents a truly unique burial position.

Table 6.26. Sex estimation for DDM 33 using discriminant function analysis of the talus1 function side result sex section point Fmean Mmean % accuracy 4 3 2

R L R L R L

50.58 49.796 75.4556 74.6770 39.5486 38.7085

M F M F M F

50.05

47.68

52.41

88

75.44

73.84

79.09

86

38.75

36.62

40.87

83

1) Discriminant function formulae, section points, male and female means and percent accuracy from Steele and Bramblett (1988: 261, Table 11.7)

Table 6.27. Sex estimation of DDM 36a from post-cranial measurements (in mm) Hum erus (left) diaphyseal diameter minimum maximum biepicondylar width articular width articular & biepicond Femur (left) head diameter vertical Innom inate (left) acetabulum diameter (vertical) sciatic notch diameter Tibia (left) width of head distal width

result

function value 1

section point 2

sex est.

15.5 18.0 55.5 40.5

1.84157

> 1.471 = F

F

1.53238 > 1.330 = F 1.8713 > 1.460 = F 1.47269 > 1.520 = F section point, source 2 < 42.5, Stewart 1979 41.5 - 43.5, Thieme, 1957

F F M F ?F

44.0

DDM sample mean = 51.1

F

47.0

106.3 = index; > 87.0 = F

F

71.0 44.0

< 74.6 - 75.1 < 45.1 - 47.6

F F

42.0

1) function values computed from formulae in France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155) 2) section points for femur and tibia taken from Bass (1987)

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Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Table 6.28. Sex estimation of DDM 36b from measurements of the humerus (in mm) Humerus (left)

result

function value

diaphyseal diameter minimum 15.0 maximum 19.5 biepicondylar width 56.0 articular width 41.0 articular & biepicond 1) function values computed from formulae

1

1.84962 1.49300 1.82348 1.41313 in France (1983)

The left elbow is tightly flexed and the left wrist and hand are in contact with the mental eminence. The cranium is turned to the left approximately 45 degrees which brings the chin into close contact with the left hand, as if supporting the head.

section point

sex estimate

> 1.471 = F

F

> 1.330 > 1.460 > 1.520 and Bass

=F F =F F =F M (1987: 153-155)

sciatic notch is narrow; the right sciatic notch remains buried in matrix and cannot be observed. The left pubic bone is triangular in shape and the sub-pubic arch is v-shaped. All pelvic indicators of sex are in agreement and strongly suggest this specimen is a male. The cranial morphology of this specimen also indicates male sex. The supra-orbital torus is moderately well developed, the right mastoid crest is well developed, and the right mastoid process is large. Though the mandibular angle is not especially acute, the right gonial region is everted.

Lower extremities exhibit less flexure than the upper limbs. The right femur is flexed slightly and lying across left distal femur. The right knee is flexed ca. 110 degrees, which positions the proximal right tibia adjacent to the medial aspect of left distal femur. The feet lie parallel to one another and are plantar flexed to left side. Specimen was coated with preservative precluding unobstructed view of many bone surfaces.

The morphology of post-cranial long bones, especially the humeri and femora is robust. The lateral aspect of the right humerus is visible and exhibits a large midshaft circumference, prominent and large deltoid tuberosity and a large and rugose epicondylar region. These attributes are in agreement with pelvic and cranial indicators of male sex.

Age Determination. Age at death is difficult to assess with precision for this specimen due to its ‘in situ’ status. Two pieces of evidence suggest the specimen is approximately middle-aged: 1) the anterior margins of the lumbar vertebrae exhibit osteophytic spurs, an attribute that accompanies advancing or mature age; and 2) two teeth (RM1 and RM1 ) were lost antemortem, and other teeth are heavily worn. The dental status of DDM - 38, in so far as it can be assessed appears to be most similar to DDM - 26, whose age at death is estimated at ca. 40-50 years. DDM - 38 may have died at about the same age.

Damdama Specimen 39 Age at Death: 47 ± 4 years Sex: Male This specimen is incomplete, derived from near the surface, and exhibits extensive postmortem weathering. Nevertheless, evidence regarding age and sex is clearly discernable and indicates that this individual is mature and unambiguously male.

The pelvic indicators of age are mostly hidden from view. The auricular surfaces of ilia, in articulation with the sacrum and the right pubic face lies against the left inferior pubic ramus, for example. Nevertheless, the left pubic symphysis is offset and visible, but has sustained some postmortem damage along the anterior or ventral margin. Overall the left pubic symphysis presents as a flat surface with a welldefined dorsal margin. This assists in placing a more secure age at death. On the basis of lumbar vertebral osteophytes and dental attributes, a widely bracketed estimate of 30-50 years seems reasonable.

Age Determination. All epiphyses are fused, including the right clavicle, which suggests an age at death of greater than 23-25 years. Cranial sutures are in mid-stage of closure and while some parts are missing or obscured by matrix. Meindl and Lovejoy's (1985) neurocranial suture closure system was used. The estimation of some sutures based on the state of closure of others renders this estimate of age at death highly tenuous. The score for degree of closure of each suture is presented in Table 6.29. Scores in parentheses are estimated. The sum of all scores is 20, a value that corresponds to a focal age at death of 51.5 years, with a very wide range of 23 - 76 years. Given this wide range of values for age at death, with a mean of around 48 - 52 years, it is critical to consider supporting evidence of dental wear in age estimation for this specimen.

Sex Determination. The long bones of this specimen are robust and sturdily built and agree with cranial and pelvic indicators that strongly indicate that the specimen is male. The pelvic basin has been cleaned enough to expose the left sciatic notch, which is visible from the medial, anterior aspect. The left

107

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 6.29. Cranial suture scores and age at death for DDM 39 Suture Number

Score

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3 (3) 3 3 (3) 3 2

Total Score

20

Mean age

51.5 yrs

Age range

23-76 yrs

Table 6.30. Sex attribution of DDM 39 from measurements of the humerus (left; in mm) meas1

function2

section point

sex

vertical Diaphyseal diameter maximum

49.0

0.53275

> 1.477 = F

M

minimum Distal epiphyseal dias. biepicondylar width

20.0

0.78698

> 1471 = F

M

62.0

1.02050

> 1.330 = F

M

46.0

1.34488

> 1.460 = F

M

0.73560

> 1.520 = F

M

Diameter of the head

articular width articular & biepicond

26.0

1)measurement; 2) function values computed from formulae in France (1983) and Bass (1987: 153-155)

Table 6.31. Sex estimation of DDM 40 from measurements of the right innominate (in mm) measurement name

result

acetabulum diameter

52.5

sciatic notch - width

39.0

ischio-pubic height ischium length

91.0 (73.0)

index

section point

sex estimate

74.3 %

< 87 % = M

M

( ) = estimated value

The right third molar teeth are present and exhibit extensive dentine exposures. Two-thirds of the occlusal surface of RM3 is exposed dentine, while in the mandibular isomere (RM3 ) dentine exposure is somewhat less extensive. The maxillary left M1 retains no crown enamel, though its antimere retains portions of occlusal enamel distally and lingually, but not on the buccal portion of the crown. In comparison with other specimens in this series, this wear pattern displays similarities to DDM-6 and DDM-23; yielding an approximate age at death of 40-45. Since age estimates based on dental wear may be more

reliable than those based on suture closure, I would revise the suture closure estimate downward and conclude that age at death for this individual was between 40-55 years, with a focal age of approximately 47 years. Sex Determination. This specimen is most certainly male. Even in the absence of pelvic remains this attribution is a secure one because the post-cranial bones, cranium and mandible are all in agreement with a diagnosis of male, based on the combined evidence of robusticity and rugosity. 108

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Cranial indicators of sex are fragmentary, yet conclusive. Though only a trace of the right frontal bone is present (27.0 mm. medial to temporal line), it presents a retreating profile, shows incipient brow ridge development medially and a developed temporal line. The right malar bone is robust and the superior lateral orbital margin is rounded. The temporal bone has a sturdy zygomatic process, large mastoid and a moderate supramastoid crest. The mandible has an acute gonial angle, the ascending ramus is broad and the mandibular condyle large and long medio-laterally. The mental eminence is well developed and the inferior margin of the mandibular corpus displays a tubercle below the RI2 , making the corpus thick at this point. These skeletal attributes are usually associated with male sex.

and consequently this specimen was taken out hurriedly. Photographs and drawings of the grave, showing stratigraphic position and co-ordinates, are available. The number DDM-40 was assigned in the lab by mutual agreement. Age Determination. Age is more difficult to assess in this specimen than sex. Since all four third molar teeth have erupted, adult status has been attained. However, sufficient time has passed to permit these teeth to wear to a flat planar surface, indicating an additional 10 to 20 years of functional life. If the dental wear of this specimen is compared to others in the series, an age of roughly 35-42 years seems reasonable. This wear pattern - characterized by a dentine basin surrounded by rim of enamel in M1, isolated dentine exposures in M2, and flat enamel wear with little or no dentine exposure in M3 - is less than that observed in DDM-20b (aged 40-45 years), and more than that observed in specimen DDM-27 (aged 30-40 years); a focal age for this specimen on the basis of dental wear alone, would be approximately 40 years ± 3 years, yielding a range of between 37 and 43 years. The auricular surface is matrix covered, the pubic symphysis is damaged and key areas are missing. Cranial sutures are covered with matrix or the crevasses are matrix filled. Consequently dental wear age is considered the most reliable indicator for this specimen.

Post-cranial skeletal morphology supports the diagnosis of sex derived from cranial and mandibular characteristics. Femora are robust, the linea aspera are rugose and the humerus is large and robust. Despite the unquestionably male appearance of the post-crania, few measurements could be conducted due to the presence of indurated matrix that could not be easily removed from the cortical bone surface. Measurements of humerus and discriminant functions computed from them are presented in Table 6.30. The five discriminant functions computed from diaphyseal and epiphyseal dimensions of the humerus are unanimous in predicting the sex of this specimen as male. DDM - 39 exhibits the largest maximum and minimum diaphyseal diameters for the humerus in the entire Damdama skeletal series (Fig. 6.1, p. 111). The maximum length of the right clavicle could be determined (158.0 mm) and falls precisely on the mean value for clavicle length in a sample of 58 male American Blacks (Thieme 1957; Bass 1987: 131). The deltoid insertion of the humerus is well developed and the diaphysis bowed medio-laterally. The right clavicle is stout, has large epiphyses, a thick diaphysis and a well-developed conoid tubercle. In femoral mid-shaft size, DDM - 39 displays a large transverse diameter (Fig. 6.2, p. 113) and a mid-shaft circumference that falls within the larger sub-group presumably male (Fig. 6.3). The total impression derived from cranial, mandibular and post-cranial evidence is consistent and confirms that the specimen is definitely male.

Sex Determination. The sex of this specimen is confidently judged as male based on concrete evidence from the right os coxa. The sciatic notch is definitely narrow and the pre-auricular sulcus is absent. The body of the pubic bone is triangular and the acetabulum is large; both traits indicating male sex. Measurements of sex dimorphic variables of the innominate bone are provided for comparison with other specimens in the series and for the purpose of computing derivative indices indicative of sex (Table 6.31). The sciatic notch / acetabular index (Kelley 1979a) for this specimen is 74.3 [(39/52.5)x100], a value that falls well below the section point (87) and squarely within the male category (Steele and Bramblett 1988: 202). The pubic symphysis is damaged, precluding an accurate measurement of pubic length, and consequently preventing calculation of the ischiopubic index (Stewart 1979; Washburn 1948).

Damdama Specimen 40 Age at Death: 40 years ± 3 years Sex: Male

The cranium of this specimen provides additional positive indicators of male sex. Brow ridges are well developed medially and the superior margin of orbit is rounded laterally. The forehead is retreating and the temporal lines clearly marked and robust. Mastoid processes are damaged, but a moderate-sized supramastoid eminence is present bilaterally. Post-cranial

This specimen was not assigned a number in the field. It was found above Grave Number XVI and labeled as such. According to excavation notes, it was unnumbered because it was 'in the way' of a double burial that archaeologists were anxious to excavate

109

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

110

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

Table 6.33. Descriptive statistics for seven discriminant functions of the humerus Diaphyseal Distal measures articular & articular bi-epicond min & max biepicond only only cut off % success equation n mean std dev minimum maximum

> 1.471 = F 88.5% Caucasoid 16 1.46146 0.36443 0.78698 1.92350

vertical & transverse

> 1.520 = F 89.2% Pecos Pueblo 8 1.23259 0.44499 0.48981 1.77804

> 1.460 = F 93.5% Negro 8 1.66195 0.24396 1.34488 1.91920

Proximal measures vertical transverse only only

cut off

> 1.474 = F

> 1.477 = F

> 1.48 = F

% success

93.0%

91.6%

95.0%

equation

Caucasoid

Pecos Pueblo

Arikara

n

3

6

3

mean

1.64091

0.97914

1.52965

std dev

0.51848

0.51247

0.52446

minimum

1.04645

0.29985

0.92530

maximum

1.99969

1.69725

1.86540

111

> 1.330 = F 89.2% Nubian 8 1.38363 0.32216 0.78425 1.80800

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

long bones are few and fragmentary. Only the right innominate and two fibulae are present. The fibulae are stout and well built, thick enough for a field identification of humeri by excavators, thus confirming the male sex of this specimen.

increasing accuracy of sex prediction, from left to right. The discriminant function value and resulting sex classification derived from each formula for each specimen is presented. The most frequently well preserved portion of the humerus, the diaphysis, is the least accurate indicator of sex. Sixteen specimens could be sexed using discriminant function analysis of maximum and minimum diaphyseal diameters. By contrast, while the proximal epiphysis is the best sex predictor of the humerus, columns 6 - 8, there are few results reported due to poor preservation. Only five specimens could be sexed using the vertical diameter of the humeral head, and only three assessments were possible using the transverse head diameter. The final column presents the sex estimate for each specimen based exclusively upon the discriminant function analysis. Descriptive statistics for the discriminant functions reported in Table 6.32, are presented in Table 6.33 to provide context for the comparative evaluation of individual specimen’s values. Finally, a graphic presentation of minimum and maximum diaphyseal diameters (vertical bars; in millimeters; left vertical axis), cross-sectional diaphyseal ‘area’ (minimum x maximum diameter; in mm squared; line plot; right vertical axis), and discriminant function sex allocation (below specimen numbers, along horizontal axis) are presented in Figure 6.1 (above). If specimens with diaphyseal areas greater than the mean (dark horizontal dashed line) are “probable males”, then the two specimens immediately below this value (DDM - 13 and DDM - 30b) would be “probable females”. However, the discriminant function process allocates these specimens to male sex. The level of concordance of these discriminant function estimates of sex from dimensions of the humerus can be compared with the results from morphological and other metrical methods of sex assessment in Table 6.35 (pp. 116 - 117).

6.3 Age, Sex, and Demographic Structure: Summary Assessment and Conclusions Goals of this segment on the demography of Damdama include: a) a summary of variation in metric dimensions and discriminant function attribution of age and sex, b) an evaluation of the level of concordance among multiple indicators of age and of sex for each specimen in the series, and c) a synthetic portrait of the demographic profile of the Damdama skeletal series. Two aspects of post-cranial metric variation were commonly employed in sex estimation. These include measurements and discriminant functions of the humerus and metric variation in dimensions of the femur. In order to provide better appreciation for the range of variability in these data among the Damdama skeletal sample, metric variation in post-cranial size is discussed separately for the humerus and the femur. Table 6.32 presents data regarding the discriminant function evaluation of sex from dimensions of the diaphysis and epiphyses of the humerus. France (1983; Bass, 1987) provides 28 separate discriminant function formulae for five different study groups, none of which are especially closely related geographically, genetically, or temporally - to the Damdama skeletal series. The selection of formulae for use in estimating sex in the Damdama series was based on the percentage of accuracy in sex allocation. Ethnicity was not considered in the selection of formulae. If five equations were available from five different ethnic groups, the equation with the greatest accuracy in allocating sex was selected for use. France notes that dimensions and the resulting discriminant function derived from the proximal humerus are more accurate and reliable than diaphyseal or distal epiphyseal attributes. Consequently, if more than one formula was possible for a single individual, all were used in sex estimation, however results from analysis of the proximal humerus were weighted more heavily than distal or diaphyseal results in the final assessment of sex.

Two graphics depict variation in size of the diaphysis of the femur. Figure 6.2 is a histogram of transverse mid-shaft diameter of the femur. The horizontal axis is transverse mid-shaft diameter (in millimeters), the vertical axis is the number of specimens. The histogram is bi-modal, with a mean of 26.7 mm (sd = 2.3, n = 27). Specimens at or above the higher mode (28.0 mm) are “probable males”, while specimens at or below the lower mode (25.0 mm) are interpreted to be “probable females”. The three specimens falling between the upper and lower modes are regarded as of indeterminate sex. Their true sex identity is unknown and they could easily be derived from either male or female sex. Circumference of the femur at mid-shaft is depicted in Figure 6.3, and the axes have the same meaning and calibration. This histogram is less clearly bimodal, yet a natural break in values occurs between 90.0 and 94.0 millimeters, slightly below the sample mean of 94.0 mm (sd = 7.8, n = 26). Specimens above the break are regarded as “probable males”, while specimens below the break are considered “probable females”.

The top five rows of Table 6.32 present the measurement name, cut off value, percent success of the formula, and the name of the ethnic group from which equations were derived (France 1983, Bass, 1987). Due to the nature of preservation at Damdama, proximal humeri were less well preserved than distal, and distal epiphyses were less well preserved than diaphyseal segments. Following column one, which contains the specimen number, the columns of Table 6.32 (p. 110) are generally arranged in order of

112

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

113

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

114

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

115

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

116

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

117

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 6.36. Demographic profile of the Damdama skeletal series Age at Death (range, years)

n

male %

n

> 50 years

0

0.0

2

Mature adult

35 - 50

10

41.7

Middle-aged

25 - 34

4

Young Adult

18 - 24

Adolescent

Age Group Name1

female %

total n

%

13.3

2

4.9

8

53.3

18

43.9

16.7

1

6.7

5

12.2

9

37.5

2

13.3

11

26.9

12 - 17

1

4.2

2

13.3

3

7.3

Child

3 - 11

--

--

--

--

1

2.4

Infant

< 3 years

--

--

--

--

1

2.4

all ages

24

61.5

15

38.5

41

100.0

Old adult

Total Sample

1) age brackets based on recommendations in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994)

Figure 6.4. Age and sex structure of the Damdama skeletal sample The degree of concordance in estimates of age and sex is based on close scrutiny of multiple indicators of each demographic variable employed in the assessment of each individual specimen. Table 6.34 presents a summary of the age at death estimates for each specimen, while variables used in the attribution of sex are provided in Table 6.35. In addition to specimen number and sex estimate, the column headings in Table 6.34 list the six methods most commonly used in estimating age at death in this study. The last two right hand columns present the range of estimates for age at death and the focal or average age estimate. This summary of age at death procedures reveals that dental eruption and dental wear were the most frequently used methods of age

estimation, followed by suture closure and epiphyseal fusion. Pelvic indicators of sex were among the least frequently used methods of analysis due to poor preservation of relevant anatomical indicators. However, auricular surface morphology was used more often than metamorphosis of the pubic symphysis. Some aging methods, including dental eruption and epiphyseal fusion, were often imprecise and were only capable of providing general or ‘openended’ age estimates, such as greater than 16 - 18 years of age. The weighted average of multiple methods was based on independently established relative reliability of the methods used in determining age at death for each individual in the series. Five specimens could not be allocated to a specific age 118

Paleodemography I: Attribution of Age and Sex

group, and were only generally allocated to adult status (2 females: DDM -15 & 21; 3 males: DDM - 9, 25 & 31).

Composition of the Damdama skeletal sample is dominated by males over females and by mature adults over sub-adults. Subadults, both infants and children, are under-represented, a feature shared with other Mesolithic Lake Culture skeletal series (Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha). Whether the bimodal distribution of male mortality is ‘real’ or a sampling bias cannot be determined with certainty. However tempting it may be to speculate that sexual division of labor, involving risks associated with logistical foraging activity or intergroup competition for territory, essential food resources or raw materials for cultural production might be involved, such conclusions are premature.

Likewise, in Table 6.35, the methods employed in the allocation of sex are summarized. After the first two columns (specimen number and focal age), column headings list the six primary methods used in the estimation of sex. The right hand column contains the summary or overall estimate of a specimen’s sex. When either the word, female / male, or abbreviation, F/M, is preceded by a question mark or the abbreviations are conjoined (M/F) this indicates that firm attribution of sex was not possible. Final attribution of sex was based on the weighted evidence from multiple methods with emphasis based on the independently established relative reliability of sex determination. Two specimens could not be allocated to sex because of their immaturity (DDM - 4 & 5), and one additional specimen could not be sexed due to incomplete preservation (DDM - 9). For eight additional specimens, estimation of sex was difficult, either due to the conflicting nature of evidence or incomplete preservation of essential anatomical features. These specimens are accorded a probable or possible sex allocation and the summary attribution is preceded by a question mark (?).

How does the demographic profile of the Damdama sample compare with the age and sex distribution of specimens from other Mesolithic Lake Culture sites? Table 6.37 provides a tabulation of age and sex by specimen number for the DDM sample using age grade names and categories as Table 6.36. The three columns on the right side of this table show the number of specimens allocated to each age bracket at DDM, Mahadaha (MDH), and Sarai Nahar Rai (SNR). Accurate and reliable age at death estimates could not be determined for all specimens from all sites (see Table footnotes 1 and 3). While the number of old adults and sub-adults is similar at DDM and MDH, the most conspicuous inter-site difference in age structure is the greater number of mature adults at DDM. Another notable distinction is that the SNR sample consists exclusively of middle-young adults, with sub-adults and old adults not represented.

The demographic profile of the Damdama skeletal series is presented in Table 6.36 and Figure 6.4. These data represent a summary of the age and sex data contained in Tables 6.34 and 6.35, which are derived from evidence presented earlier in this chapter.

Table 6.37. Specimens classified by age and sex1 Age Group Name2

Damdama female spec nos.

total n

MDH3 total n

SNR4 total n

Age at Death (range, years)

male spec nos.

> 50 years

--

3, 26

2

2

0

Mature adult

35 - 50

8, 11, 18c, 20b, 23, 27, 28, 38, 39, 40

1, 2, 6a, 10, 12, 13, 30a, 37

18

3

0

Middle-aged

25 - 34

6b, 16b, 30b, 34

29

5

20a, 36a

10

18 - 24

7, 16a, 18a, 18b, 19, 22, 24, 32, 33

11

Young adult Adolescent

12 - 17

36b

17, 35

3

0

19

10

Old adult

11 3

Child

3 - 11

5

1

Infant

< 3 years

4

1

Total Sample

all ages

24

15

41

1) not including four ‘adults’ of unspecified age (spec nos. 9, 15, 25, 31) and one specimen of unknown age (spec no. 21) 2) age brackets based on recommendations in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) 3) from Kennedy et al. 1992, Tables 1 (pg. 141) and 3 (pg. 142) not including nine ‘adults’ of unspecified age (M DH 4, 8, 13, 14, 22, 25, 27, 29); 4) from Kennedy et al. 1986

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 6.5. Male sex bias in Mesolithic Lake Culture skeletal series The classification of specimens by sex at Mesolithic Lake Culture sites is presented in Table 6.38 and Figure 6.5. The predominant male bias in representation of specimens is clear in Figure 6.5. This sex bias is consistent among sites and among investigators (MDH, SNR - Kennedy; DDM Lukacs), leading to the inference that it is a true bias.

The possibility exists that some robust females may have been classified as male because of the generalized robusticity of the Mesolithic Lake Culture skeletons. However this is a methodological issue that confronts any researcher estimating sex from the skeleton in generally robust early Holocene samples. Two additional perspectives on demography at Damdama are presented in the next contribution, prepared by Gwen Robbins Schug: a) an evaluation of age at death based on variation in dental cementum annulations, and b) an assessment of the anthropological demography of Damdama. In the context of South Asian bioarchaeology, these perspectives represent the application of a creative and innovative method to age at death assessment, and a more comprehensive and comparative assessment of demographic profile than is commonly found in the investigation of biological anthropology in Indian prehistory.

Table 6.38. Sex distribution by site site 1

Male

Female

Unknown

DDM

26

17

3

MDH

17

7

4

SNR

7

3

0

total

50

27

7

1) DDM = Damdama; MDH = M ahadaha; SNR = Sarai Nahar Rai

120

7. Paleodemography II: Age Estimation from Dental Histology by Gwen Robbins Schug Human skeletons are an important source of evidence about the lifestyles and adaptations of past peoples—level of mobility, subsistence, and health. Paleodemography should serve as the foundation of bioarchaeological research but reconstructions of past population dynamics require accurate and reasonably precise estimates of biological age, which are hard to come by for a variety of reasons. For subadults, there is a fairly predictable sequence of developmental windows that reduce margins of error (Scheuer and Black 2000), but these small and delicate skeletons are not always preserved in the archaeological record. For adults, accuracy and precision are reduced because age is a function of highly individual, non-uniform degenerative processes that are not necessarily intercorrelated and are often heteroscadastic (BocquetAppel and Massett 1982; Lovejoy et al. 1985a, b; Meindle and Russell 1998).

age in humans (Charles et al. 1986, 1989; Condon et al. 1986; Hillson 1996; Hoppa and Vaupel 2002; Klevezal and Shishlina 2001; Rau 2007; W allScheffler 2007; Wittwer-Backofen 2008; WittwerBackofen and Buba 2002; Wittwer-Backofen et al. 2004). Recent validation studies have suggested that the most effective technique for age estimation with cementum annulations is to add a count of the mineralized bands to the age at which the tooth erupts (Wittwer-Backofen et al. 2004). This method has a strong correlation with known age (R 2=0.98), a low intra-observer error rate (Jankauskas et al. 2001), and avoids problems associated with regression (Lucy and Pollard 1995; Lucy et al. 1995, 1996). This chapter describes age estimates for the Damdama skeletal sample. A suite of macroscopic methods were applied by Lukacs to all skeletal and dental elements available (see Chapter 6). Due to preservation and sampling issues, it was not possible to use cementum annulations to estimate age at death for all of the adult individuals from Damdama. Teeth from 18 individuals were selected (18/46, or 39%) for histological analysis. A fertility centered approach to demography was employed by estimating the ratio of adults to subadults (Bocquet-Appel and Ibanez 2002). Assuming a stable population growth rate, this ratio was the basis for estimates of life expectancy at birth and fertility (following methods outlined in McCaa 1998, 2002). Primary goals in this demographic analysis were to examine the relative fertility and life expectancy of this community within the larger, regional and temporal context. Damdama was compared with other Mesolithic cemeteries in the Gangetic Plains area—Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai—and with the population dynamics of later agricultural sites in the south (Schug et al. 2012b).

Cementum annulations offer some advantages for aging adult skeletal material. Cementum is a mineralized tissue that forms in annular bands on the external surface of the roots of mammalian teeth (Fig. 7.1). It is comprised of mineralized extracellular matrix and it functions to anchor the permanent dentition in the jaw. Because of this protected location within the alveolus, this delicate material is rarely affected by conditions in the oral environment or by taphonomic processes like diagenesis. Cementum is continuously and regularly deposited throughout the life span of the tooth and unlike bone, there are no cementoclasts in the permanent dentition that would resorb or remodel the tissue (Lieberman and Meadow 1992). Because teeth are hard, they are the elements most likely to preserve and cementum annulations have the potential to include fragmentary, incomplete, and poorly preserved individuals in paleodemographic analysis.

7.1 Materials and Methods

Cementum annulations are commonly used to estimate age and season of death in archaeofaunal analysis (Burke 1993; Klevezal 1996; Lieberman 1994; WallScheffler 2007). These annular structures also have a strong relationship (R 2= 0.98) to chronological

According to macroscopic age estimates made during the 1992 field season, the Damdama skeletal collection consists of 2 infants (< 3 years), 9 adolescents (14-19), 10 young adults (20-29), 10 middle adults (30-45), and 6 older adults (45-60). Due to poor preservation six

121

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 7.1. Cem entum Annulations: location and histological architecture

individuals were aged only as “adult” and age estimation was not attempted macroscopically for 3 additional individuals. Age at death was first estimated macroscopically by dental eruption timing (Moorrees et al. 1963a, b), dental attrition (Miles 1962), the auricular surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985b), the pubic symphysis (McKern and Stewart 1957), cranial sutures (Meindl & Lovejoy 1985), and epiphyseal suture closure (McKern and Stewart 1957). Sex was estimated using the shape of the sciatic notch (Stewart 1979), the diameter of the humeral and femoral heads (Stewart 1979), mandibular and cranial morphology (Krogman 1962:115), as well as metric and morphological observations of the postcranial skeleton (Steele and Bramblett 1988). Full details of macroscopic age estimates for each specimen are provided in Chapter 6.

The Damdama skeletons were heavily encrusted with a calcareous matrix, making teeth difficult to extract. This concretion had the greatest influence on the selection of teeth available for this analysis, Table 7.1. Dental sample for histological analysis of cementum

Twenty-nine teeth were collected from 18 adult individuals (Table 7.1) with permission from the Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad. The selection of teeth for histological aging should ideally be determined by preservation, root morphology, and absence of pathology. Single rooted teeth are preferred for histological study because they are generally easier to position and section, though there may be few differences in accuracy between anterior and posterior teeth in evaluating root dentine translucency (Drusini et al. 1989) and cementum annulations (Klevezal and Shishlina 2001; Maples 1978). In archaeology, where preservation and recovery, taphonomy and diagenesis are also issues, single rooted teeth are not always available and posterior teeth may substitute (Klevezal and Shishlina 2001).

spec no

teeth 1

level 2

6b

P3, M2

VII

7

C, M2, M3

VII

8

I2, M3

VII

11

M2

IV

12

M3

I

13

C, M3

IX

15

M3

VI

16a

I2

III

17

M1, M3

III

18a

M2

VII

20a

M1

V

28

I1, M3

VII

30a

M3

VIII

30b

C, M1

VIII

32

I1, P4, M3

VIII

34

M2, M3

IX

36a

P4

VIII

37

M3

VIII

1) key to abbreviations: I1 - central incisor; I2 - lateral incisor; C - canine; P3 - third premolar; P4 - fourth premolar; M1 - first molar; M2 - second molar; M3 - third molar. 2) Stratigraphic context from Pal (1988, 1992)

122

Paleodemography II: Age Estimation from Dental Histology

which include both anterior and posterior teeth. When posterior teeth were used, the root pad was avoided and cementum annulations were evaluated on the external surface of the root, 1/3 of the distance from the CEJ to avoid cellular cementum (Klevezal and Shishlina 2001). In addition, teeth that have remained within the alveolus throughout the depositional period are protected, and thus less likely to suffer damage from diagenesis and other taphonomic processes (Stott et al. 1982). In this sample, 8 teeth had portions of alveolar bone protecting the root surface (30%), the rest of the sample consisted of isolated teeth.

this study, ground sections were prepared after the teeth were embedded in Spurr’s resin polymerized at 60 degrees for 24 hours (Stein and Corcoran 1994). Each tooth was longitudinally sectioned in the buccolingual plane using a Buehler Isomet low speed saw with a diamond impregnated blade. Longitudinal sections were used because they could be considered more conservative for archaeological samples; analyses of enamel formation and other histological study would not be possible in transverse sections (Klevezal and Shishlina 2001). The section that passed though the center of the root was used to test each method of age estimation. The sections were ground to a final thickness of approximately 100 um using a series of sandpapers (grit 200-600) and 9 um diamond paste on a Buehler Minimet automatic polisher. The teeth were stained with 2% Alizarin Red (following Charles et al. 1989). The acellular cementum was then scanned for intact areas (with periodontal tissue preserved) and these areas were photographed using a Polaroid digital camera (DMC1) at 1600 x 1200 resolution through a Zeiss 2000C stereomicroscope at 6.5 power magnification. The annulations were counted both through direct observation as well as using the digital image. Counts were recorded by Robbins in a blind evaluation of each section,

For an analysis of cementum annulations, the teeth should be free of pathological conditions such as periodontitis, alveolar resorption, passive eruption, adjacent Ante-mortem Tooth Loss (AMTL), and root caries that can expose the tooth root to the oral environment. Exposure of the root surface to the oral environment can cause hypermineralization of exposed surfaces, resorption bays on the cementum, and may have a significantly negative impact on age estimation. In this sample most of the teeth were missing portions of the periodontal ligament, making periodontitis impossible to judge with complete accuracy. The cementum annulations were only counted in areas where the ligament remained intact. However, the possible effects of periodontitis on the results of this study are unknown.

Table 7.2. Pathology and preservation of histology sample

Table 7.2 gives details on the condition and the pathological profile of the teeth used in this sample. Attrition had reached the level of dentine exposure in 10 teeth (66.67%) and had resulted in pulp exposure in 7 teeth (25.93%). There were 13 teeth (48.15%) which had large interproximal wear facets, and 1 tooth (3.7%) the mandibular right third premolar from individual 6b had an antemortem interproximal groove located at the cemento-enamel junction (CEJ), probably resulting from some habitual idiosyncratic behavior such as tooth picking. There was clear evidence of postmortem damage to the enamel of 8 additional teeth (29.63%). Two teeth had occlusal caries (7.4%), however the root was unaffected.

lesion

specimen numbers

n1

%

caries

10, 32

2

11.1

dentine exposure

6b, 8, 11, 12, 13, 18a, 28, 30a, 30b, 32, 34, 37

12

66.7

pulp exp 2

8, 11, 13, 30b

4

22.2

inter-prox 2 wear

6b, 7, 8, 13, 15, 18a, 28, 30a, 30b, 32, 36a

11

61.1

alveolar bone

6b, 7, 8, 28, 34, 36a, 37

7

38.9

postmortem 6b, 7, 13, 17, 28, 32, 7 38.9 damage 36a 1) n = number of specimens with pathological lesion 2) exp = exposure; inter-prox = interproximal

Estimating age at death from cementum increments requires thin sectioning and histological analysis. Cementum annulations are best resolved when teeth are decalcified, microtome sectioned, and stained with haematoxylin (Charles et al. 1986, 1989; Condon et al. 1986; Hillson, 1996). However this procedure is often too harsh for archaeological remains and tends to produce macerated sections in ancient teeth (Charles et al. 1986, 1989; Condon et al. 1986; Klevezal and Shishlina 2001; Lieberman and Meadow 1992). For

which had previously been assigned a random number. Each observation was repeated by Robbins after one week to evaluate intra-observer error. Age estimates were obtained by adding the number of annulations to the age at which the tooth generally completes eruption and reaches the occlusal plane. Eruption times, reported individually by tooth class for children from an aboriginal community in western 123

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Australia (Halikis 1961) were chosen based on similar subsistence patterns (Table 7.3).

macroscopic estimates (p = 0.02) and the two were not significantly correlated (r = 0.514, p = 0.30). The revised age estimates for the macroscopic and histological methods combined are presented in Table 7.5.

Table 7.3. Dental emergence timing for children in Western Australia (years)1 Maxilla tooth

male

female

male

female

I1

7.1

6.2

7.6

6.4

I2

8

7.2

8.3

7.7

C

10.8

9.8

11.6

10.7

P3

10

10.5

10.4

11.3

P4

10.9

11.5

11.2

12.3

M1

6.3

6.1

6.4

6.3

11.1

11.1

11.7

M2 11.5 1) Halikis 1961.

Estimates were also examined for significant differences by sex (Table 7.6). Cementum annulations could be scored in 7 males and 7 females. Although the mean from the cementum estimates was not significantly different from the macroscopic estimates, and the estimates for males were not significantly different, five females (35.7% of the sample) produced estimates differing from the mean macroscopic estimate by 9-10 years. There were three females for whom the cementum annulations gave estimates 9-10 years below the macroscopic estimates (DDM 12, 13, 30a) based on evaluations of the auricular surface and the pubic symphysis. There were two females (DDM 17, 20a) for whom the cementum estimates were 9 years older than the macroscopic estimates based on the eruption of the third molar and the slight amount of dental attrition. Thus although the age estimates from cementum annulations were not significantly different from macroscopic estimates in general, significant differences were found in the female skeletons—eruption of the third molar and attrition tended to produce low estimates and pelvic indicators tended to produce high age estimates of up to 10 years above the age estimate from the cementum annulations.

Mandible

7.2 Results: Age Estim ates from Cem entum The count of cementum annulations added to the age of eruption for each individual are summarized in Table 7.4. In this study 14/18 (88%) of teeth in the sample could be scored. Despite their early Holocene derivation, the proportion of usable teeth was similar to 82-86% of recent extractions and exhumations (Jankauskas et al. 2001) and high compared with the 58% of teeth that were scorable in Charles and colleagues' study (1986, 1989). Age estimates from cementum annulations were not significantly different from that of the combined macroscopic methods (p = 0.776). The Pearson's correlation between the age estimates is r = 0.642, significant at the á = 0.01 level (p = 0.013). There was a mean difference of 5 years (s.d. = 3.77) between the two sets of estimates, well within the margin of error for the macroscopic methods. The mean difference between the two sets of estimates was similar to the mean of 6.5-10 years observed in previous tests of macroscopic versus cementum estimates (Jankauskas et al. 2001). Intraobserver error was not significantly different in a Student’s t-test for paired samples (p = 0.307). The sample was divided into younger adults (16-29) and older adults (30-55) and a Student's t-test for paired samples was used to test for significant differences in the sets of estimates (Fig. 7.2). In the young adult category the estimates from the cementum annulations were not significantly different from the macroscopic estimates (p = 0.084) and the correlation was statistically significant (r = 0.693, p = 0.05). For the older adult age category the cementum estimates were significantly different from the 124

Paleodemography II: Age Estimation from Dental Histology

Table 7.4. Age at death estimates (in years) from cementum annulations spec no

sex

method for age at death estimate macroscopic histologic cementum age range mean annulations

absolute age difference

6b

M

30-35

32.5

34

1.5

7

M

18-20

19

24

5 5.5

8

M

20-23

21.5

27

11

M

35-45

(40)

not scoreable

12

F

35-45

40

30

10

13

F

35-45

40

30

10

15

F

30

30

27

3

16a

M

18-24

(21)

not scoreable

17

F

16-18

19

28

9

18a

M

20-25

22.5

23

0.5

20a

F

17-20

18.5

28

9.5

28

M

45-50

(47.5)

not scoreable

30a

F

35-39

37

28

9

30b

M

27-33

30

26

4

32

M

16-20

18

18

0

34

M

25-29

27

24

3

36a

F

16-20

18

19

1

37

F

45-55

(50)

not scoreable

n

14

14

mean

26.64

26.14

5.07

sd

8.31

4.29

3.77

min

18.0

18.0

max 40 34.0 key to abbreviatioins: spec_no = specimen number; M = male; F = female; n = sample size; sd = standard deviation; min = minimum; max = maximum

0 10

about life history and adaptation in the North Indian Mesolithic?

7.3 Demographic Dynam ics A demographic profile was constructed for Damdama to test several hypotheses about life in the Indian Mesolithic. In addition to basic population statistics, this analysis will be combined with information on pathology in the following chapters to create a detailed pathological profile as well. The combined profiles will shed light on the following questions: 1) What is the overall structure and growth rate of the Damdama cemetery sample?, 2) Are there significant differences in the magnitude or the timing of mortality (and morbidity) for different age and sex divisions of the population?, 3) Do these differences occur in all of the Mesolithic cemetery samples (DDM, MDH, and SNR) or are there unique features for each population? 4) How does the profile compare with other regions and groups? and 5) What does comparison of population structures indicate

Unfortunately there are fundamental flaws with demography for these populations, two of the most serious being that these three skeletal samples may not be contemporaneous and they may not accurately represent 'populations'. In terms of contemporaneity, the dates for the Mesolithic in general are varied and controversial. The Mesolithic in India ranges between 17,000 and 4000 BP and many sites are equated with this time span based solely on the presence of microliths (V.N. Misra 2002a, b). However, there are sites which show the development of microlithic technology prior to 17,000 BP, beginning with microlithic scatters in the Belan Valley dated to 25,000-10,000 BP, sites in Sri Lanka dated to 34,000 BP at Beli Lena Kitugala and 26,000 BP at Belanbandi Palassa, and Patne in

125

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 7.5. Revised age and sex estimates for the Damdama sample male

female

sex indet.

total

macro

age

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

0-4

0

.

0

.

2

100

2

4.35

2

4.35

5-9

0

.

0

.

.

.

0

.

0

.

10-14

0

.

0

.

.

.

0

.

0

.

15-19

4

16.67

1

5.56

.

.

5

10.87

8

17.39

20-24

7

29.17

1

5.56

.

.

8

17.39

5

10.87

25-29

1

4.17

3

16.67

.

.

4

8.70

1

2.17

30-34

2

8.33

5

27.78

.

.

7

15.22

5

10.87

35-39

1

4.17

1

5.56

.

.

2

4.35

3

6.52

40-44

3

12.5

1

5.56

.

.

4

8.70

6

13.04

45-49

2

8.33

1

5.56

.

.

3

6.52

3

6.52

50-54

0

.

2

11.11

.

.

2

4.35

1

2.17

55-59

1

4.17

1

5.56

.

.

2

4.35

2

4.35

60-64

0

.

0

.

.

.

0

.

1

2.17

Adult

3

12.5

1

5.56

.

.

4

8.70

6

13.04

sex indet.

0

.

1

5.56

2

.

3

6.52

3

6.52

Total

24

100.00

18

100.00

4

100

46

100

46

100

key to abbreviations: macro = distribution of ages from the original estimates made using macroscopic methods n = sample size; % = percentage; sex indet.= sex estimate inconclusive

Table 7.6. Comparison of mean age estimates by sex n

Mean Age (macroscopic)

Mean Age (cementum)

Difference (p-value)

Correlation (p-value)

Females

7

28.93

27.14

1.79 (0.601)

0.608 (0.147)

Males

7

24.36

25.14

-0.79 (0.586)

0.767 (0.044)

n = sample size

Maharashtra dated to 23000 BP. In addition, microliths were produced in India into the historic period and thus technology alone should not be used to establish a relative chronology (Kennedy 2000).

Later dates for the Gangetic Plains sites have also been obtained through conventional radiocarbon dating: for MDH 4010 +/-120 BP, 3840 +/- 130 BP, 2880 +/- 250 BP, and SNR 5040 +/- 50 BP, and 2860 +/- 120 BP.

Radiometric dates that support contemporaneity of Gangetic Plains sites between 8 and 10,000 BP include: one radiocarbon date of 8,100 BC from SNR, which is often discounted due to the material dated (unburned bone), and two AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) dates in the 8000-8800 BC range from Lekhahia and Damdama respectively (Lukacs and Pal 1993). These dates are supported by dates from Mahagara (9000 BC), Baghor II (7400-6600 BC), Paisra (7500 BC), and Bhimbetka (7800-6500 BC; Misra, 2002a, b). The dates for microlithic sites also extend up to the second or third millennium BC with Bagor at 5500 to 5000 BP and Langhnaj at 3900 BP (Kennedy 2000; Misra 2002).

For the purposes of this research, the contemporaneity issue will be resolved by assuming that the largest discrepancies between the dates are at least in part due to the different methodologies by which they were obtained. The dates for DDM are all derived from conventional radiocarbon and AMS. If we only rely upon the higher resolution AMS dates from bone bioapatite for the three sites (disregarding for practical purposes the dates on unburned bone from SNR, any dates from surface samples, and conventional radiocarbon dates) the temporal span is reduced to 88655550 BP for DDM, 6160-4110 BP for MDH, and 5040 BP for SNR. 126

Paleodemography II: Age Estimation from Dental Histology

The second difficulty is that demography requires that the skeletal sample represent at least a roughly synchronous subset of a population. The skeletons from Damdama are derived from nine different stratigraphic layers. The skeletons from Mahadaha are derived from four phases of burial activity. The Sarai Nahar Rai sample represents only the basal layer of occupation at that site. If conventional radiocarbon and AMS dates are both considered, there is up to a 5000 year span in which these sites were formed and the samples may not be directly comparable. Using only the higher resolution AMS dates reduces this span to roughly 2000 years. If we assume that there were three distinct communities occupying the plains, the long span of occupation indicates that the skeletal remains do not represent a cross-section of the population at a moment in time.

Demographic analysis should be based on biological as well as archaeological remains to create a "thicker" paleodemography (Paine 1997). Unfortunately, the most commonly used method of archaeological demography is an analysis of house floors and residential units. While Mesolithic sites have yielded some evidence of paved floors, the remains are inadequate for this type of study. Population sizes were estimated based on the number of querns and mullers recovered during excavation. One hundred forty querns were recovered at Damdama (190 querns at Mahadaha) (Varma 1989). Using ethnographic analogy to suggest that 1) one quern and muller set is equivalent to one family, and 2) a family represents an average of four people, the population of Damdama was equivalent to 550 people over the course of occupation (Varma 1989) and Mahadaha had a population of 700 in the last phase of occupation.

For demographic analysis it is also necessary to assume that the population is relatively stable in a Malthusian sense. The sample should effectively represent a sedentary, closed breeding population, which is increasing at a constant rate (with constant birth and death rates), and has an unvarying age distribution (Coale and Demeney 1983:7). It is unknown whether the sites represent the movements of only one semisedentary community, three temporally disparate communities, or three contemporaneous communities. However, I believe that the majority of evidence now supports a sedentary model and at the very least there is some basis for assuming that the levels of immigration and emigration would have been minimal or at least fairly equal.

Mortality profiles from archaeological samples are often biased toward compression of the adult age distribution within the 30-45 year age category and under representation of older individuals (Fig. 7.3).

As this issue has been detailed in a previous chapter, I will only state that evidence in favor of the more sedentary model, which includes the deep and varied nature of the deposits, the presence of heavily worn querns and mullers (non-portable artifacts), paved floors and work areas at Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai, formal cemeteries, the type and quantity of faunal remains, and stable carbon isotope research. The deep deposits at Damdama have also been used as evidence for a stationary lifestyle (Pal 1992), though the depth could also certainly represent a series of successive temporary occupations as well. Thus it is argued here that the construction of a demographic profile for this population is justified. These three samples are at least approximately contemporaneous, semi-sedentary huntergatherer communities based on a common suite of cultural features including technology, burial customs, skeletal morphology and pathological profiles.

Figure 7.3. Age at death profile for Dam dam a

127

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Recent approaches to this problem have focused on Bayesian prior probability, multivariate approaches to increase precision and accuracy of adult age estimates, and the use of cementum annulations as a potential source of accuracy in bioarchaeological samples (Bocquet-Appel 2008; Hoppa and Vaupel 2002; Wittwer-Backofen 2008; Wittwer-Backofen and Buba 2002; Wittwer-Backofen et al. 2004). In using cementum annulations to estimate age at death, we were hoping to reduce this uniformitarian effect (McCaa 1998). The age pyramids for the males and females (Fig. 7.4) demonstrate that the cementum annulations did allow 2 individuals out of 42 aged adults (4.7%) to be moved from the “adult” age category to a more specific category, increasing the representativeness of the demographic profile. The age pyramid for males shifted toward increased proportion of young individuals 20-24 and expanded the range of ages represented from 15-54 to 15-59 years of age. The female age pyramid now includes more females in the 20-34 year age range, moving out of from the 30-49 year age range. In addition, some female individuals that had previously been aged 55-64 years moved down into the 50-59 year age category. Taking the pooled sample into account, cementum annulations did shift individuals away from the 30-45 year age category and the use of cementum annulations also increased the range of ages represented in the profile. These two results support the hypothesis that cementum annulations alter the demographic profile in a significant manner, even if all individuals cannot be included in the analysis due to preservation, recovery, and other taphonomic issues. Mean age at death for the 14 individuals evaluated using both macroscopic estimates (mean = 26.64 years ± 4.155) and cementum annulations (mean = 26.14 years ± 2.145) did not change significantly. The median life expectancy (eo) for the pooled sex sample was 30 years for the original age estimates from macroscopic methods. The estimate eo shifts to 28.4 years according to the life table created using the cementum annulations (Table 7.7). Mean age at death and life expectancy at birth are not sensitive indicators of changes in the age pyramid (McCaa 1998, 2002). Using a traditional life table approach, it appears that life expectancy at birth was 28.4 years but if individuals lived to the age of 15, life expectancy at birth improved at an additional 19.6 years (34.6 years total). Mortality hazards were highest in the first 25 years and the oldest age achieved in this population was 50-55 years. Moderate fertility and

128

Paleodemography II: Age Estimation from Dental Histology

infant mortality rates are supported by taking a fertilitycentered approach to the demographic profile. Following Storey (1992), an age-corrected table was also constructed and individuals in the population were proportionally redistributed in age categories up to 84.9 years. The result was to raise the life expectancy at age 15 by 2.09 years and to counteract any underaging of older adults, making the distribution of deaths more gradual beginning at age 35. For both males and females, the high probability of death prior to age 50 is a trend that is significantly different from the World Health Organization (United Nations 1982) model life tables for South Asia. Comparison of survivorship curves show that the mortality rate at Damdama was more precipitous in younger ages (Fig. 7.5).

5-15 years to adults is 0.1220. The Damdama sample appears to have been in the intermediate range of population fertility (10 < ratio < 35) according to standards set by the Health in the Western Hemisphere study (McCaa 1998). The ratio of 12.21 corresponds to a calibrated Gross Reproductive Rate (number of female offspring per woman) of roughly 2.4 if the life expectancy at birth is indeed 30-40 years and slightly higher if the life expectancy is 20 years (GRR = 2.7). Assuming the higher life expectancy range, this corresponds to a Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 4.8 offspring per woman. Within the regional context of South Asia, the fertility of the population at Damdama compares with TFR estimates from the Deccan Chalcolithic (Robbins 2007) which range between 4.7 offspring per woman for smaller villages of Nevasa (400 people) and Inamgaon (1000 people), to 7.6 offspring for the urban center at Daimabad during the height of settlement growth (1500-1000 B.C). Life expectancy at birth for Early Jorwe sites of the Deccan Chalcolithic only vary between 27-33 years, a figure that resembles the Damdama cemetery and further supports the idea that proportional hazards are a more sensitive indicator than life expectancy at birth (McCaa 2002).

The probability of death in each age cohort now more closely resembles WHO model tables for South Asia especially after the age of 50, but there is no statistically significant difference between the corrected and uncorrected distributions (÷2 = 117, p = 0.261). While the probability of death within a given cohort is not significantly different in the corrected Damdama sample and the WHO, the survivorship curves show a dramatic difference. The WHO curve shows a much slower mortality rate until the age of 50, where a precipitous decline begins. The Damdama profiles show a more rapid decline from 15 to 40 and then a gradual tapering caused by the age correction.

Looking at the Damdama cemetery population structure in a regional perspective, Kennedy (et al. 1992) noted a more bimodal age distribution represented in the profile for Mahadaha (Table 7.8). The two sites were significantly different in a chi-Square test (p = 0.02).

Using both the histological and macroscopic age estimates, the proportion of subadults who died between

129

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 7.7. Life table for Damdama age

Dx

dx

lx

qx

Lx

Tx

ex

0

2

5

0

5.13

100.00

0.0513

100.00

567.93

28.35

0

94.87

0

97.44

467.93

24.01

10

0

15

5

12.82

0

94.87

0

88.46

370.49

20.94

82.05

0.1562

71.80

282.03

19.64

20

8

25

4

20.51

61.54

0.3333

56.41

210.23

18.64

10.26

51.28

0.2001

42.31

153.82

18.18

30

7

17.95

33.33

0.5386

61.53

111.51

9.06

35 40

2

5.13

28.20

0.1819

23.07

49.98

10.83

4

10.26

17.94

0.5719

14.10

26.91

9.54

45

3

7.69

10.25

0.7502

7.685

12.81

8.33

50

2

5.13

5.12

1.000

5.12

5.12

5.00

55 2 5.13 0 0 0 0 total 39 100.00 key to abbreviations: Dx – raw number of deaths; d x – percentage of total deaths; lx – proportion of survivors; q x – probability of death in age class; L x – years lived in age class; T x - years left in life; e x – life expectancy at beginning of age class

Table 7.8. Damdama, Mahadaha, and Sarai Nahar Rai age distribution sub-adult < 18 yrs

young adult 18 - 34 yrs

middle adult 35 - 50 yrs

older adult >50 yrs

indet.

4 (8.7 %)

22 (47.8 %)

11 (23.9 %)

2 (4.4 %)

7 (15.2 %)

3 (11.5 %)

11 (42.3 %)

1 (3.8 %)

2 (7.7 %)

9 (34.6 %)

10 (100 %)

0

0

0

Site

n

DDM

46

MDH

26

SNR

10

0

total 82 7 (8.5%) 53 (64.6%) 12 (14.6%) 4 (4.9%) 16 (19.5%) key to abbreviations: indet = age estimate not possible; DDM = Damdama; MDH = Mahadaha; SNR = Sarai Nahar Rai; MDH and SNR data derived from Kennedy et al (1992: pg 142)

Eighty-two percent of the variation between the two sites is loaded on one component—middle aged adults. This discrepancy in the middle of the age range could be explained by the large percentage of individuals for whom age at death could not be estimated and who were classified only as “adult”. It is possible that cementum annulations would be useful for this population if additional individuals could be classified more precisely. Sarai Nahar Rai has an uncommon age distribution, with all 10 individuals in the young adult age bracket. This is attributed to sampling error, the upper strata of the site having eroded away (Kennedy et al. 1986).

When the sample from Damdama is examined within the global context of the Neolithic transition (BocquetAppel and Naji 2006), this Holocene cemetery fits within expectations for a relatively healthy and robust population of semi-sedentary foragers with relatively modest fertility and long life expectancy at birth. From the demographic profile this population appears to have had relatively successful biocultural adaptations for life spent foraging in the lacustrine environment of the Gangetic plain. We predict that the pathological profile will demonstrate relatively low frequencies of disruption in growth and development and relatively low frequencies of biocultural stress markers.

130

8. Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

The study of human biological variation and adaptation in past and present human populations rests firmly on precise description of morphological and metrical attributes of the skeleton and dentition. This chapter presents the basic metrical and morphological attributes of the cranial and mandibular elements from Damdama. These basic data provide the foundation from which interesting and important questions regarding the nature of masticatory function, adaptation to diet and the degree of biological relationships with other groups can be answered.

variation among other Holocene foragers from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha, as well as with other prehistoric and modern human groups from the midGanga Plain and from other regions of the subcontinent. Can similarities be detected in cranial size and shape between the people of Damdama and living people that inhabit modern India today? For example, are there discernable differences in facial and cranial vault dimensions that separate these ancient foragers from modern Hindu caste groups? Or alternatively, do the skulls from Damdama display more similarities in cranial and facial form to living tribal populations?

The chapter presents a morphometric characterization of the crania and mandibles. This is followed by a comparative analysis designed to place morphometric variation of the Damdama series in broader perspective. Each section begins with introductory remarks which are followed by a statement of osteometric methods. Presentation of metric data by specimen is followed when possible by summary statistics. The chapter includes a comparative assessment of cranial and mandibular osteometric variation at Damdama with other Mesolithic Lake Culture sites, and when feasible, with relevant samples from more diverse chronological and geographical settings.

8.1.1. Craniometric methods. Craniometric methodology follows the guidelines set forth in standard manuals of osteometry. The definitions, landmark designations, and measurement techniques follow the recommendations set forth in the Lehrbuch der Anthropologie (Martin and Saller 1957) as translated by (Moore-Jansen et al. 1994) and available in abridged form in STANDARDS for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Additional descriptions of landmarks, techniques, and classifications of vault and facial indices follows recommendations and guidelines that can be found in (Bass 1995; Comas 1960; Hambly 1947; Lee and Pearson 1901; Stewart 1940, 1965). All linear measurements are reported in millimeters (mm), areas in square millimeters (mm 2), and volumes in cubic centimeters (cm 3).

8.1 Craniom etry The size and shape of human crania are attributes that have attracted the attention of biological anthropologists for centuries (Gould 1996). Early anthropologists viewed craniometric variation within a racial paradigm with typological classification and hierarchical ordering of groups comprising the objectives of craniometric analysis (Haller 1971). Variation in linear and curvilinear dimensions, volume of the endocranial space, and indices of shape of the skulls from Damdama are presented here as an important component of these hunting-foraging people’s phenotypic pattern. Precise description of cranial dimensions and indices permits comparison of cranial variation at Damdama with patterns of cranial

8.1.2. Results: Craniometric measurements and variations. The assessment of cranial dimensions and shape at Damdama is limited by small sample size and by a less than ideal state of preservation. Most crania have suffered from postmortem deformation by crushing, displacement, or fragmentation of bones that preclude accurate measurement of some or all cranial metric variables. An idea of cranial shape can be derived from several specimens for which cranial dimensions could be accurately measured, indices precisely determined and endocranial volumes calculated.

131

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

132

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

133

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 8.1. Mean cranial indices: An inter-site com parison Measurements of the neurocranium, facial skeleton and palate are presented in Table 8.1. Indices and volumetric variables derived from these measurements are provided in Table 8.2. The phenotypic attributes of Damdama crania presented in Table 8.2 reveal a pattern that is long, narrow (B/L = dolichocranic) and high (Ba-Br/B = acrocranic), yet in relation to cranial length, cranial height (B a-B r) is medium (orthocranic). In two supplemental indices of cranial height recommended by Stewart (1940, 1965), the Damdama specimens bridge the medium and high categories for both mean height indices: a) one calculated using basion-bregma height and b) the other using porion (auricular) - bregma height (Bass 1995:76-77). In measures of breadth, the frontal bone is broad relative to maximum cranial breadth (eurymetopic) and relative to bizygomatic breadth.

palatal size translate into palatal indices that are predominantly narrow (n=4, leptostaphyline), though one specimen is medium (mesostaphyline) in this attribute. A comparison of cranial indices among samples was conducted to assess the degree of similarity and discern differences in cranial variation among samples. The range of values for each cranial and facial index is presented in Table 8.3, along with sample size and the name of the craniometric category into which the majority of specimens are classified. Names of indices and the names of discrete categories into which specimens are allocated follows the recommendations set forth in Bass (1995). Sarai Nahar Rai is omitted from this comparison due to small sample size, but is included in the graphic comparison of indices in Figure 8.1.

Facial attributes display some heterogeneity, with specim en D D M -1 2 ex h ib itin g ve ry broad (hypereuryproscopic) total and broad (euryenic) upper facial indices; while by contrast others in the sample possess slender or narrow values (leptoprosopic) for the total facial index and average values (mesene) for the upper facial index. The phenotypic features of the facial skeleton at Damdama are dominated by broad nasal structure (platyrrhine) and wide orbits (chamaeconch). External measures of palatal size yield values for the maxillo-aveolar index that are variable and include two broad (brachyuranic), one medium (mesuranic), and two narrow (dolichuranic) palatal shapes. By contrast, measures of internal

Skulls from Damdama and Mahadaha display a similar range of variation in the cranial index (B/L). All specimens from both sites display a long and narrow (dolichocranic) cranial index (B/L Index), while in the height-length index (H/L Index) cranial vaults are medium to high (orthocranic to hypsicranic). By contrast, at Mahadaha the height breath index (H/B Index) exhibits more variability than in the Damdama sample; M ahadaha has three individuals with low skulls (tapeinocranic), one of average height (metriocranic) and one high-vaulted (acrocranic) specimen. Figure 8.1 clearly shows intersite similarity in mean cranial index and

134

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

Table 8.2. Cranio-facial indices by specimen for Damdama a. Cranial Indices Spec. No.

Cranial (B/L)

HeightLength

BreadthHeight

Module

Mean (Ba-Br) height

Mean (PoBr) height

Cranial capacity

1

73.8

72.2

97.8

153.3

83.1

70.8

1356

12

71.4

72.0

100.7

153.3

84.0

71.0

1353

23

68.6

79.0

115.3

157.7

93.8

74.5

1530

26

67.4

71.0

105.4

153.3

84.8

76.2

1348

b. Facial Indices Spec. No.

Frontoparietal

Zygo-frontal

Total facial

Upper facial

Nasal

Orbital

1

71.0

--

--

--

--

80.5

10

--

73.3

--

--

68.2

--

12

73.3

74.6

76.1

45.5

56.5

76.2

23

74.0

75.8

91.4

52.3

57.4

75.6

26

78.5

--

--

--

--

78.0

30

--

--

91.5

53.8

--

--

c. Palatal Indices Spec. No.

Index

Maxillo-alveolar Category

Index

Category

Palatal

10

101.7

Dolichuranic

64.6

Leptostaphyline

12

110.7

Mesouranic

74.0

Leptostaphyline

17

105.2

Dolichuranic

75.0

Leptostaphyline

20b

115.0

Brachyuranic

83.3

Mesostaphyline

23

116.9

Brachyuranic

73.5

Leptostaphyline

height-length index, and by contrast, the distinctively greater height-breadth index of the Damdama crania. Fronto-parietal breadth (Table 8.2), at both sites is dominated by broad (eurymetopic) phenotypes, yet Mahadaha presents greater variability with two individuals of medium breadth (metriotopic).

is narrow (leptostaphyline; DDM, n=4; MDH, n=3, SNR n=2). Less common are medium and broad palates, present in single specimens from DDM and SNR, respectively. An inter-site comparison of facial indices is presented in Figure 8.2. This graph reveals close similarities between Damdama and Mahadaha in fronto-parietal, upper facial and nasal indices, and differences in total facial, orbital and palatal indices. Damdama is similar in facial structure to Sarai Nahar Rai in fronto-parietal and orbital indices, and different in upper facial and nasal indices.

The dominant phenotype in facial shape at Damadama is broad, whether assessed using total facial height (hypereuryproscopic) or upper facial height (euryene). The single specimens from Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai for which these facial indices could be determined reveal a consistent phenotype, with upper faces broad at MDH and very broad at SNR, and a very broad total facial index is documented for MDH. Nasal shape is consistently platyrrhine at DDM and MDH, while at SNR the full range of shapes from narrow (leptorrhine) to broad (platyrrhine) nasal shapes are present in the two individuals that could be measured. Orbital shape is consistently wide (chamaeconch) among DDM (n=4) and SNR (n=2) samples, but the four specimens from MDH display greater variation, with narrow orbits (hypsiconch; n=3) more common than either mesoconch (n=1) or chamaechonch (n=1). The prevailing internal palatal shape among all groups

Although endocranial volume or cranial capacity is an important component of human phenotypic variation, it is infrequently or inconsistently reported for postPleistocene prehistoric human skeletal samples. By contrast considerable interest and a voluminous literature documents the endocranial volumes of ancestral hominin species and the evolution of human cranial capacity. Endocranial capacities were calculated from original data for length, breadth, and where possible, for two measures of cranial height. Lee and Pearson’s (1901:247) sex-specific formulae were used in calculating cranial capacity using both basion-bregma (Ba-Br) and auricular (Au-Br) height

135

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 8.2. Mean facial indices: An inter-site com parison Table 8.3. Cranial indices for Damdama and Mahadaha skeletal series Mahadaha 1

Damdama Range of Values

n

Category

Range of Values

n

Category

Cranial (B/L)

67.4 - 73.8

4

dolichocranic

63.5 - 72.9

5

dolichocranic

Height-Length

71.0 - 79.9

4

orthohypsicranic

71.7 - 82.1

5

orthohypsicranic

Height-Breadth

97.8 - 115.3

4

acrocranic

81.4 - 99.6

5

variable

159.5

5

Index

Module

154.4

4

2

83.1 - 93.8

4

average - high

--

--

--

3

70.8 - 76.2

4

average - high

--

--

--

Fronto-Parietal

71.0 - 78.5

4

eurymetopic

68.1 - 77.5

5

eurymetriotopic

Zygo-Frontal

73.3 - 75.8

3

75.0 - 87.3

3

Total Facial

76.1 - 91.5

3

hypereuryproscopic leptoproscopic

70.3

1

hypereuryprosopic

Upper Facial

45.5 - 53.8

3

euryene - mesene

48.8

1

euryene

Nasal

56.5 - 68.2

3

platyrrhine

59.6 – 63.6

4

platyrrhine

Orbital

75.6 - 80.5

4

chamaeconch

79.3 - 94.8

4

variable

101.7 - 116.9

5

variable

--

--

--

64.6 - 83.3

5

leptostaphyline

48.2 - 75.5

3

leptostaphyline

Mean Ba Height Mean Po Height

Maxillo-alveolar Palatal

1) cranial indicies for Mahadaha are from Kennedy et al., 1992 2) mean basion height index (after Stewart 1965) see also Bass (1995: 76) 3) mean porion height index (after Stewart 1965) see also Bass (1995: 77)

136

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

measurements (see also Comas 1960:411). Original cranial capacities for Damdama, and re-calculated values for Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai are presented in Table 8.4. Mean cranial capacity, estimated using basion-bregma height, is presented by sex for all Mesolithic Lake Culture sites pooled in the last two lines of Table 8.4. If the classification of variation in cranial capacity recommended by Comas is followed, the single male and three female crania from Damdama all fall in the aristencranic (large) category. Female crania with capacities at or above 1,301 cm 3 and male cranial at or above 1,451 cm 3 fall into this range of variation. The large individual and mean values for endocranial volume reported here for all Mesolithic Lake Cultures (MLC) sites represents another example of a phenotypic attribute shared by the people of DDM, MDH and SNR. Large cranial capacities may viewed as one component of an overall large-framed phenotype with associated features of tall stature and large teeth.

Table 8.4. Estimated endocranial capacity by specimen for Damdama (DDM), Mahadaha (MDH), and Sarai Nahar Rai (SNR) Endocranial Capacity (in cm 3 ) Specimen no.

Sex Ba-Br

Au-Br

DDM - 1

F

1355.5

1409.3

DDM - 12

F

1353.3

1396.7

DDM - 23

M

1529.6

1455.3

DDM - 26

F

1348.2

1453.7

MDH - 12

M

1574.3

--

MDH - 19

F

1382.6

--

MDH - 23

M

1574.7

--

MDH - 24

M

1619.9

--

MDH - 26

M

1524.5

--

SNR 1972-III

M

1612.5

--

SNR 1970-IV

M

1449.2

--

n

mean

sd

MALE

7

1555.0

59.2

FEMALE

4

1359.9

15.4

Mean endocranial capacities are plotted by site and by sex in Figure 8.3. The mean values for the combined MLC sample are also given for all seven males and all four females for which cranial capacity could be calculated. The degree of sex dimorphism in

Figure 8.3. Mean cranial capacity for Mesolithic Lake Culture sites

137

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

endocranial capacity was calculated using the formula [(M/F - 1.0)x100]. This equation provides an estimate of the percentage of sex dimorphism in metric variables. For Damdama skulls the level of dimorphism is 13.1% and for the composite mean values for all Mesolithic Lake Culture crania the value is 14.3%.

analysis (Ward 1963). Ward’s cluster analysis is widely used in anthropological bio-distance studies; it is hierarchical, agglomerative and reliably yields clusters that accurately represent known group relationships. In the first comparison DDM craniometric data (Table 8.5) were compared with ten groups (Mahadaha, MDH; Sarai Nahar Rai, SNR; Burzahom, BRZ; Harappa area AB, HarAB; Harappa area R37, HarR37; MohenjoDaro, MHD; Nevasa, NVS; Adittanalur, A DT; Brahmagiri, BRG; and Timargarha, TMG) and ten variables (Maximum Cranial Length, MaxCranL; Maximum cranial breadth, MaxCranB; Basion bregma height, BasBregH; Bi-frontal breadth, BiFrontB; Bizygomatic breadth, BiZygoB; Nasion prosthion height, NasProsH; Nasal length, NasalL; Nasal breadth, NasalB; Iner-orbital breadth, InOrbB; and External palatal breadth, ExpalB). Mean values for each variable were taken from Table 2 (Kennedy et al. 1984), and groups with incomplete cranial data - mean values were missing for any variable - were omitted from the analysis. This comparison is valuable because two Mesolithic samples from the Ganga Plain are included: MDH and SNR. The cluster derived from this analysis is presented in Figure 8.4a. Two main branches are discernable: one includes samples from the Indus Valley (Harappa, MohenjoDaro, and Timargarha) and from peninsular India (Adittanalur, Brahmagiri and Nevasa); the other branch includes three Ganga Plain sites and Burzahom. Note the close linkage of DDM and MDH samples and the somewhat more distant link with SNR.

In order to contextualize these values, percent sex dimorphism was calculated from mean cranial capacities reported by sex in Lee and Pearson (1901) and in Hambly (1947). Lee and Pearson’s (1901) data yield a mean percent sex dimorphism in cranial capacity of 11.8 for Ainu (M=1461.6 cm 3; F=1307.7 cm 3 ); 10.0% for Etruscan (M=1455.9 cm 3; F=1323.6 cm 3); and 12.5% for German (12.5%; M=1503 cm 3; F=1337.2 cm 3 ) samples. Hambly (1947:61) provides an approximate average cranial capacity for eight groups of 1373 cm 3 for males and 1237 cm 3 for females. These result in a 11.0% sex difference. He presents sex differences in cranial capacity for fourteen recent and archaeological samples (Hambly 1947:62). The values range from 4.6% (Tasmanians) to 13.1% (Australian Aboriginals), and yield an unweighted average of 9.7%. The level of sex dimorphism in cranial capacity at Damdama and collectively for Mesolithic Lake Culture specimens exceeds that reported by Hambly (1947) and Lee and Pearson (1901) for archaeological and contemporary populations. This slightly greater level of level of sex dimorphism in cranial capacity for the Mesolithic sample from north India may imply a true inter-group difference or an artifact of small sample size. 8.1.3. Comparative craniometry. How do the craniometric features of the Damdamans compare with those of other South Asian populations? At least two important factors influence patterning of craniometric variation in the Indian subcontinent: temporal and ethnic. Therefore it is important to include a diverse sample of prehistoric and living groups in the comparative analysis of DDM craniometric variation.

The second comparison employs data for prehistoric and recent skeletal samples from Hemphill (et al. 1991). Eleven groups and fourteen variables were used in this comparison. Groups (and their abbreviations) include eight prehistoric samples: Chatal Huyuk, CHY; Harappa - Cemetery H - jar burials, HarCHjar; Harappa - Cemetery H - open burials, HarCHop; Harappa Phase - R37A, HarR37A; Harappa Phase - R37C, HarR37C; Kish, KISH; MohenjoDaro, MHD; Timargarha, TMG; and three recent skeletal samples: Nepalese, NEP;Tibetan, TIB; and Veddah, VED. Variables used in this analysis differ from those used in the first analysis and include: Maximum cranial length (GOL), Bi-eyryonic breadth (BEB), Auricular height (AVH), Sagittal arc (SA), Cranial circumference above the brow ridges (CAB), Bifrontotemporale breadth (BFTB), Nasion-prosthion height (NPH), Nasal height (NH), Nasal breadth (NB), Orbital height (OH), Orbital breadth (OB), Bizygomatic breadth (BZB), Internal palatal length

Damdama craniometric variation was comparatively assessed using cluster analysis. Two analyses were conducted using different samples and different sets of variables. The first comparison employed craniometric data from Kennedy and colleagues’ (1984) principal components analysis of prehistoric South Asian crania. The second comparison used data presented in Hemphill and associates (1991) study of adaptations and affinities of Bronze Age Harappans. Cluster analysis was performed on standardized, pooled-sex mean values using Ward's minimum variance cluster 138

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

Table 8.5. Craniometric data for Damdama for the first cluster analysis Site [max n] Damdama [6] n

Max CranL

Max CranB

Bas BregH

Bi FrontB

Bi ZygoB

Nas ProsH

NasalL

NasalB

In OrbB

Ex palB

193.20

133.50 139.75

99.30

131.74

67.70

45.67

27.66

21.50

64.40

6

4

3

3

3

4

5

5

4

4

Figure 8.4. Cluster analysis of Dam dam a craniom etric data: a) cluster 1 (above, data from Kennedy et al. 1984); b) cluster 2 (below, data from Hem phill at al. 1991)

139

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

DDM 8: male, adult - 40 years of age

DDM 18c: male, adult - 50 years of age

DDM 12: fem ale, adult - 40 years of age

DDM 16a: male, adult - 21 years of age

DDM 16b: male, adult - 30 years of age

DDM 27: male, adult - 35 years of age

Figure 8.5. Variation in mandibular morphology right lateral view. The lower two im ages have been digitally reversed from the original orientation (left lateral) to enhance com parison

140

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

a) anterior

c) left lateral view

b) posterior

d) superior view

e) right lateral view

Figure 8.6. Mandibular m orphology of DDM 12, an adult female (ca. 40 years of age) (IPL) and Internal palatal breadth (IPB). Two main clusters result from this analysis: one includes four Harappan samples and Timargarh, two western Asian samples (Çatal Hüyük and Kish), with Damdama distantly linked to this grouping, and another cluster consisting of the living groups Nepalese, Tibetan, and prehistoric MohenjoDaro, with Veddahs remotely linked. Interestingly, Damdama is as distant from the Harappa cluster as Veddahs are to mainland groups of northern India.

analysis include: a) assessment of sexual dimorphism in mandibular osteometry and b) a comparison of mandibular dimensions and proportions with other groups within and beyond the borders of South Asia. Key features of mandibular morphological variation are illustrated in photographs of representative specimens in Figure 8.5 and multiple views of an adult female (DDM 12; Fig. 8.6). 8.2.1. Methodology. The summary description of mandibular m orphology em ploys anatom ical terminology found in standard textbooks of human osteology (Steele and Bramblett, 1988; White and Folkens, 1991) and medical anatomy (Gray et al. 1995). Landmarks and measurements of the mandible vary from one investigator to another. In this analysis landmarks and 24 measurements were selected from five primary sources, including Bass (1995), Brothwell (1981), Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), y’Edynak (1992) and Schwartz (1995). Measurement names, abbreviations (codes) and descriptions are listed in Table 8.6. Many measurements and some landmarks are illustrated in Figure 8.7, and labeled with identifying symbols and codes that may be found in Table 8.6. The morphological and metrical description of mandibles was conducted by Lukacs, data analysis, including the assessment of sex

8.2 Mandibular Morphom etrics Though often given less attention than the cranium, mandibular size and morphology is an important component of craniofacial skeletal variation. Variation in the size and muscularity of the lower face contributes to the overall phenotypic appearance of an individual and is significantly affected by mechanical stresses associated with mastication and the nondietary occupational use of teeth as tools. This analysis of mandibular morphometric variation in the Damdama skeletal series was conducted for the purpose of documenting lower facial variation for this sample of Holocene foragers of north India and to provide a comprehensive, integrated description of craniofacial morphology. Additional goals of this 141

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 8.6. Mandibular measurements, symbols and descriptions 1 Variable name (MS) 2 Maximum (condylosymphyseal) length (68) Bigonial breadth (66)

Symbol

Other names; description.

ML

total length (Olivier 1969); maximum projective mandibular length (Schwartz 1995; 47); from posterior margin of mandibular condyles to ganthion

Go-Go

distance from right gonion to left gonion (Schwartz 1995, 38)

Bicondylar breadth (65)

W1

distance from right condylion laterale to left condylion laterale (Schwartz 1995; 37)

Bi-mental foramen breadth

ZZ

Foramen mentalia breadth, distance from right mentalia to left mentalia (Schwartz 1995, 39)

Condyle length (right, left)

cdlLn

maximum measurement: from condylion mediale - condylion laterale (y’Edynak 1992; C-L)

Condyle thickness (right, left)

cdlTh

maximum measurement: from anterior margin to posterior margin of mandibular condyle (y’Edynak 1992; C-TH)

Corpus length, minimum

min corpus Ln

corpus length (Schwartz 1995; 48); from gnathion to gonion

Corpus length, maximum

max corpus Ln

mid-sagittal distance from pogonion to projected point on line tangent to posterior margin of ascending ramus (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; 33)

Corpus thickness at symphysis Symphysial height (69)

cthSym H1

distance from medial to lateral aspect of corpus at the symphysis, not including genial tubercles vertical distance from gnathion to infradentale

Corpus thickness at C (M 1 , M 2 )

cthC cthM 1 , cthM 2

distance from medial to lateral aspect of corpus, perpendicular to the long axis of the corpus

Corpus height at C (M 1 , M 2 )

cHC, cHM 1 , cHM 2

distance from alveolar crest to inferior margin of mandibular corpus

Thickness at gomion Mandibular angle (corpusramus angle, in degrees)

thGo

distance from medial to lateral surfaces of mandibular angle at gonion

34

angle formed at intersection of a line tangent to the posterior margin of the ascending ramus and the inferior margin of the mandibular corpus

Ramus height, minimum

minRH

from the deepest point in the mandibular notch along the midline of the ascending ramus to its inferior margin (y’Edynak 1992; R-HT)

Ramus height, maximum (vertical)

mxRH

from the most superior point on the mandibular condyle to projected line tangent to inferior margin of mandibular corpus

Ramus width, minimum (71)

30 (not RB’)

smallest distance from anterior to posterior border of ascending ramus, wherever found, usually an oblique not a horizontal measurement (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, 30; Schwartz 1995, 43)

Ramus width, maximum (71-1)

mxRB (not 31)

greatest distance between a line connecting the posterior most point on the condyle to the angle and the anterior most point on the ascending ramus (Schwartz 1995, 42)

Ramus recumbent length

rcRH

Coronoid process height

CrH

ascending ramus height (Bass 1995); distance from gonion along the posterior margin of the ascending ramus to the posterior superior aspect of the mandibular condyle (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, 32; y’Edynak 1992, R-L)

maximum height of coronoid process from planar surface on which mandibular body is placed (Brothwell 1981, CrH; Schwartz 1995, 41) 1) Mandibular measurements, definitions and recommendations of Bass 1995; Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and Ubleaker 1994; y’Edynak 1992; Olivier 1969; Schwartz 1995; 2) MS = M artin and Saller (1957) measurement code number

142

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

Figure 8.7. Measurem ents and landm arks used in m andibular osteom etry (top panel with m odification from Brothwell, 1981; bottom panel with m odification from Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994)

dimorphism and the comparative evaluation, was conducted by Greg C. Nelson.

(entheses), and cortical thickness. These features exhibit sex dimorphism, with straight or inverted, thin, and weakly marked gonia among females. By contrast, males have thick and everted gonia with rugose entheses laterally (masster muscle) and medially (medial pterygoid muscle).

8.2.2. Morphological variation. A record of morphological variation in specific aspects of mandibular anatomy was compiled during the process of inventorying the skeletal series and are summarized here. Mandibular corpora are deep and thick overall, but more noticeably so anteriorly, between the symphysis and canine, the corpus then decreases in depth or height posteriorly. The symphysis is well buttressed and the mental trigone varies in robusticity. Males often exhibit mental tubercles bilaterally on the inferior lateral margins of the mental trigone. These structures are not present or are diminished in size in females. Development of digastric fossae and genial tubercles is variable but frequently are well formed. The angle of the mandible displays variation in several features, including degree of gonial eversion, rugosity of masticatory muscle impressions

Ascending rami are typically tall and broad. The sigmoid notch is deep, contributing to a low minimum height of the ascending ramus. The coranoid process is tall and commonly projects well above the condyloid process in both sexes; on average by 15.0 mm. The mandibular condyles are variable in size, but their large size is in proportion to the massive and rugose structure of the mandible. The lateral aspect of the mandibular corpus, inferior to M 2, often exhibits prominent lateral swelling of cortical bone. These lateral eminences of the corpus are delimited by the oblique line, anterior margin of the masseter insertion, and the inferior margin of the body. 143

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

144

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

145

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Their expression may be attributed to biomechanical stresses associated with powerful masticatory musculature and the forces they generate. The mylohyoid line and groove is variably developed, but both structures are more prominent in males. Typically mental and mandibular foramina are single and bilateral.

8.3 Com parative Mandibular Morphom etrics: Questions of Robusticity (by Greg C. Nelson) This section provides a statistical and comparative analysis of the osteometric attributes of mandibles from the Damdama skeletal series. Goals of this analysis include understanding functional demands on the masticatory system, placing Damdama in the broader worldwide spectrum of prehistoric and recent variation, and interpreting mandibular morphometric variation in light of current debates on skeletal robusticity.

8.2.3 Mandibular osteometry Measurements of the mandibles from Damdama are presented in Table 8.7. The mandibular index [(maximum projective length / bicondylar breadth) x 100] could be computed for six specimens (3 female; 3 male) and ranges from 79.2 to 94.2 with a sex pooled mean of 86.5 (sd = 7.2). Using breakpoints for the mandibular index set forth in Olivier (1969), the Damdama sample includes the full range of mandibular index values from brachy- to dolichognathic. However, the sex-pooled mean falls squarely in the center of the mesognathic category, or in the mid-range of variation in mandibular lengthbreadth proportions. On average males have lower mandibular indices than females yet both fall within the range of values for mesognathy.

Traditional definitions of skeletal robustness have recently been reviewed and questioned by Pearson (2000), whose analyses focused on the post-cranial skeleton. He concluded that while ‘robust’ implies large size, it also connotes relative thickness of long bone diaphyses relative to epiphyses. These concerns have implications for the interpretation of mandibular dimensions, particularly in a sample such as Damdama in which average stature is tall, yet by Pearson’s (2000) definition long bones are gracile, not robust (see Chapter 12). Whether mandibular dimensions follow this same pattern, above average lineal dimensions with lower than expected breadth/width, would not necessarily follow because of the differential developmental and biomechanical forces that impact the crania and post-crania. In particular, masticatory forces associated with a relatively tough hunter-gatherer diet would tend to produce high mandibular robusticity values (McNamara 1980; Currey 1984; Martin and Burr 1989; Nelson 1998) and be similar to contemporary hunter-gatherer groups. However, if the post-cranial dimensions of the Damdama series are partly due to a physiological response to climatic conditions, then this response could also manifest in the mandible resulting in robusticity measures that fall below that of contemporary skeletal samples.

The relative divergence of the ascending ramus from condylion laterale to gonion is reflected in the goniocondylar index [(bigonial breadth / bicondylar breadth) x 100] (Olivier 1969). For a sex pooled sample of seven specimens (3 female, 4 male), the mean gonio-condylar index is 82.2 (sd = 4.4), a value similar to that of Australian Aboriginals indicating moderately divergent ascending rami. A significantly higher index has been reported for Eskimo (91.0). The fronto-gnathic index indicates facial shape by expressing bigonial breadth as a percentage of minimum frontal breadth (bifrontotemporale). Affects of postmortem damage restricted application of this index to three female specimens whose mean was 99.1 (sd = 2.1). This result indicates that the breadth of the mandible at gonion and across the forehead are similar and would present a squarish facial form in frontal view. More comprehensive analysis of mandibular osteometry by sex and for a global comparative sample follows.

8.3.1. Analytic methods. Twenty-eight adult mandibles, 14 male and 14 female, were available for study. Of the mandibular corpus and ramus measures recorded those used in this analysis are a subset of

146

Cranial and Mandibular Morphometrics: Descriptive and Comparative Analyses

Table 8.7. Damdama mandibular measurements (cont’d from p. 145) specimen number

29

30a

30b

32

33

39

sex

Female

Female

Male

Male

Male

Male

age

30

37

30

18

20

47

variable (Martin & Saller code)

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

Ramus Height, Minimum

49

48

--

51

52

--

42

--

55

57

--

58

Ramus Height, Maximum

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

55

--

--

72

Ramus W idth, Minimum

41

--

--

37

37

--

35

35

39

37

--

41

Ramus W idth, Maximum

--

--

--

--

44

--

43

--

49

49

--

47

Ramus, Recumbent Length

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

60

--

--

Bigonial Breadth (66)

--

Bicondylar Breadth (65)

--

--

Corpus Length, Minimum

91

Maximum Length (68)

--

---

--

92

107

--

--

89

114

102

---

103

80

--

82

72 ---

--

--

94

107

102

115

111

Symphyseal Thickness

--

15

--

16

17

15

Symphyseal Height (69)

--

38

--

33

35

32

Corpus Thickness at Canine

--

--

11.5

12

--

11

--

12

14

13

--

18

Corpus Height at Canine

--

--

34

34

--

31

--

28

32

30

--

33

Corpus Thickness at M 1

15

14

15

15

--

--

--

15

16

19

--

18

Corpus Height at M 1

--

35

33

34

--

31

--

27

32

30

--

34

Corpus Thickness at M 2

16

16

17

17

--

--

17

16

20

23

--

20

Corpus Height at M 2

--

36

31

32

--

28

--

26

30

29

--

34

117

--

--

113

114

--

124

122

126

--

--

106

Gonion Thickness

6

--

--

6

--

--

6

6

6

8

--

7

Condyle Length

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

24

Condyle Thickness

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

11

Mandibular Angle (in degrees) (79)

Bi-Mental Foramen Diameter (67)

--

--

--

--

Table 8.8. Comparative samples sample / site

reference

Nubia; Paleolithic, Agricultural

Calcagno 1989

Europe; Paleolithic, Mesolithic

Frayer 1978

Yugoslavia; Mesolithic, Neolithic

y’Edynak 1992

India; Chalcolithic Inamgaon

Lukacs & W alimbe 1986

India; Mesolithic Mahadaha

Kennedy et al. 1992

India; Mesolithic Sarai Nahar Rai

Kennedy et al. 1986

South Africa; Klasies

Lam et al. 1996

Europe; Atapuerca

Rosas 1995

Nubia; Mesolithic, AC, Meroitic, X

Carlson & Van Gerven 1977

Neanderthal, H&G, Austs, etc.

W olpoff 1975

Israel; Ohalo

Hershkovitz et al. 1995

Malaysia: Gua Ganung

Matsumura & Zuraina 1999

Israel; Natufian (El W ad)

Smith et al. 1984

147

48

--

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

those listed above in Table 8.6. Measurements taken on the left side were used for analysis unless missing, in which case those from the right side were substituted. Size and shape indicies calculated include the mandibular index, ramus index, corpus robusticity index (at canine, M 1, and M 2), and symphyseal robusticity index. Statistical analyses include t-tests, to determine if significant sex differences exist within the Damdama sample. Comparative samples used are listed in Table 8.8, and include contemporary as well as temporally earlier and later skeletal series. Early hominids were included to function as extremes.

For the mandibular corpus the distribution of differences shows some trends in that corpus height is consistently greater in males while breadth is greater in females. There are no statistically significant differences between the sexes for the calculated indices (Table 8.9). However, for all indices female numbers are on average higher than those of males. Although following traditional interpretations these results would indicate that females are more robust than males. Under closer scrutiny this is not the case for, in reality, all the indices truly measure is squareness. As discussed by Pearson (2000), and explored below, squareness does not necessarily equate with robusticity.

8.3.2. Results: Osteometric analysis. Analysis of the Damdama mandibular measures by sex reveals that males have greater values for 14 variables and females for seven but that only variables associated with ramus size show consistent and statistically significant differences. T-tests (see Table 8.9) reveal that males are significantly (p 70.0) using Manouvrier’s classification (Olivier, 1969:271). Other MLC sites exhibit similar mean indices for males (MDH=69.8, sd=4.1, n=6; SNR=70.2, sd=5.7, n=5) and for females from SNR (74.2, sd=4.5, n=2). However, females from MDH have a rounder (eurycnemic) proximal tibia (mean=82.4, sd=1.3, n=2). Several data-points help place these values in comparative context. At Ban Chiang the proximal tibia is moderately flattened or mesocnemic in males (66.8) and females (67.9).

At Bronze Age Ban Chiang in northeast Thailand the platymeric index is on average, platymeric for males (77.7, n=45) and hyperplatymeric for females (74.2, n=44; Pietrusewsky, 2002). This contrasts with DDM and other MLC sites where the mean index bridges the boundary between platymeria and eumeria (84.985.0) in both sexes, indicating a rounder proximal femoral shaft. At mid-shaft Ban Chiang femora are significantly rounder (males medium, 112; females

237

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 12.4. Frequency distribution of platymeric and pilastric indices (A), mean platymeric index (B), and mean pilastric index (C) among MLC sites

238

Post-cranial Osteometry: Stature, Robustness and Limb Segments

Table 12.9. Intra-limb indices of MLC and prospective reference populations brachial study group DDM1 Egypt2 SAfr3 TB2 TGB3 TGW3 TWhite2 EH4

n 3 37 ------216

female mean 78.7 77.5 -76.5 --73.5 73.9

sd 3.4 0.6 -0.5 --0.5 --

n 2 63 -----257

crural male mean 73.1 77.9 -77.1 --74.3 69.4

sd 3.1 0.5 -0.4 --0.4 --

n 2 37 122 ----233

female mean 83.9 82.8 83.8 83.8 79.0 77.2 82.0 82.0

sd 2.8 0.3 -0.5 --0.4 --

n 6 63 175 ----268

male mean 84.7 83.6 85.0 83.7 79.8 78.0 81.9 82.4

sd 1.3 0.2 -0.4 --0.4 --

1) this study; 2) Raxter et al. 2008; 3) Feldesman and Lundy, 1988; 4) Ruff et al. 2012

12.3.2. Stature. Stature estimates are presented in Tables 12.10 and 12.11. Mean long bone lengths for the DDM skeletal series are presented by sex in Table 12.1 above. Measurements of long bones for the MDH and SNR skeletal series were previously published (Kennedy et al. 1986, 1992). Table 12.10 lists the new estimates of living stature for the three MLC skeletal series by specimen and by element. Mean stature values and summary statistics are provided by site in Table 12.11.

most accurate mean stature values for males are between 174 (MDH) and 178 cm (DDM and SNR), and for females between 163 cm (MDH) and 179 cm (SNR). Prior estimates of stature for MLC skeletal series (DDM - Lukacs and Pal 1993, 2003; MDH - Kennedy et al. 1986; and SNR - Kennedy et al. 1992) were based on Trotter’s (1970) equations for American White males and females. These estimates are now known to have over-estimated stature for these series. The initial estimates of stature for DDM used Trotter’s (1970) American White equations to facilitate accurate inter-site comparison of stature with MDH and SNR (Lukacs nd-1). Since the new stature estimates reported here are based on equations from a more appropriate reference sample, they yield a more accurate reconstruction of stature for the MLC skeletal series. An assessment of the difference in stature estimates derived from the two techniques is given in Table 12.12 and Figure 12.6. Data for males from all three sites are plotted in the bar chart, but sufficient data for female stature is only available from DDM. Two patterns are clear. First, stature estimates derived from the ancient Egyptian equations are always significantly less than estimates calculated from American White equations (from 3.5 to 7.1 cm shorter - males; from 3.2 to 7.5 cm shorter - females). Second, stature estimates based on length of the tibia show the greatest difference between methods due to the technique used to measure the length of this bone.

These new stature estimates for MLC skeletal series reveal consistent patterns. Relative elongation of the distal element of the lower limb is reflected in the taller stature estimates derived from equations for the tibia, and for the femur + tibia for both sexes (Tables 12.11, 12.12). Stature derived from equations for the femur are on average 2.4 cm shorter in males (range 0.3 to 4.2 cm) and 2.0 cm shorter in females (range 1.3 to 3.2 cm) than estimates derived from the tibia or from the tibia + femur equations. Although sample sizes for femur-based estimates are larger than samples sizes for tibia and tibia + femur estimates, we regard estimates derived from the latter equations to be more accurate for two reasons. First, the standard error of estimates (SSEs) are smaller for both the tibia and the tibia + femur formulas than for equations using the femur alone (Raxter et al. 2008: p. 159, Table 2). Second, tibia length is a critical component of stature, highly correlated with it and should be used in stature reconstruction when available. Mean stature (± 1 sd) for MLC skeletal series are plotted by site and sex in Figure 12.5, which shows sample sizes and elements used in calculating stature estimates. The

Preliminary field measurements of SNR skeletons in situ led GR Sharma to characterize the first discovery

239

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 12.10. Stature estimates by specimen and element (cm) site

DDM

MDH

SNR

femur mx _ln stature side males

tibia mx _ln

stature

femur + tibia mx _ln stature

spec no

side

11

R

43.8

162.79

--

--

--

--

--

16a

R

52.2

181.75

R

44.0

182.47

96.2

183.39

16b

R

49.4

175.43

R

42.4

178.38

91.8

177.78

18a

L

54.2

186.26

--

--

--

--

--

18b

R

50.2

177.23

--

--

--

--

--

18c

R

53.5

184.68

--

--

--

--

--

20b

L

49.6

175.88

--

--

--

--

--

22

L

44.8

165.04

--

--

--

--

--

23

L

50.1

177.01

R

44.3

183.23

94.4

181.09

24

L

49.8

176.33

--

--

--

--

--

25

R

52.1

181.52

--

--

--

--

--

36b

R

49.0

174.52

L

41.2

175.32

90.2

175.74

38

R

48.5

173.39

R

41.5

176.09

90.0

175.48

2

L

46.4

168.65

L

39.0

169.71

85.4

169.61

8

L

51.6

180.39

L

43.5

181.19

95.1

181.99

11

L

52.0

181.29

--

--

--

--

--

12

--

--

--

L

43.9

182.21

--

--

13

R

50.4

177.68

R

43.3

180.68

93.7

180.20

24

L

48.4

173.17

--

--

--

--

--

26

L

45.7

167.07

L

38.5

168.43

84.2

168.08

73 IV

L

49.9

176.55

L

43.4

180.94

93.3

179.69

72 IX

L

48.0

172.27

--

--

--

--

--

72 X

L

51.2

179.49

L

44.5

183.74

95.7

182.75

70 IV

L

46.2

168.20

L

39.1

169.96

85.3

169.48

females

DDM

12

L

46.1

164.86

R

37.3

162.60

83.4

164.69

13

R

42.7

156.91

R

36.2

159.63

78.9

158.79

20a

L

47.5

168.14

--

--

--

--

--

36a

L

48.5

170.48

L

41.3

173.40

89.8

173.09

37

R

49.0

171.65

L

42.0

175.29

91.0

174.66

MDH

18

--

--

--

R

39.5

168.54

--

--

21

L

44.7

159.87

L

35.5

157.74

80.2

160.49

SNR

72 XIII

--

--

--

L

43.5

179.34

--

--

of MLC skeletons as tall-statured (Sharma 1973a, 1975). The revised stature estimates presented here confirm this assessment. According to a, “... common classification for stature...” (Comas 1960: 315), nearly all males and females from the three MLC skeletal series fall within the ‘tall’ category (male: 170 - 179 cm; female: 159 - 167 cm). The single exception

being the ‘very tall’ female from SNR. Beyond this, how does stature among Holocene foragers of north India compare with Holocene samples from other geographic and ecologic settings around the world? Studies of skeletal proportions and stature in native north and south Americans and Mesolithic Europeans provide comparative context.

240

Post-cranial Osteometry: Stature, Robustness and Limb Segments

Figure 12.5. Mean stature (± 1sd) by site and sex. Element(s) used in calculating stature estimate given above data point(s)

Figure 12.6. Comparison of stature estimates by reference sample: American Whites (Trotter 1970) ancient Egyptians (Raxter et al 2008)

Figure 12.7. Mean stature estimates for Mesolithic sites in Europe and South Asia compared 241

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 12.11. Mean stature by site, sex and element (cm) males site element n mean sd min

max

femur

13

176.3

6.8

162.8

186.3

tibia

5

178.1

3.6

175.3

183.2

femur + tibia

5

178.7

3.5

175.5

183.4

femur

6

174.7

6.0

167.1

181.3

tibia

5

176.4

6.8

168.4

182.2

femur + tibia

4

175.0

7.1

168.1

182.0

femur

4

174.1

4.9

168.2

179.5

tibia

4

178.2

7.3

170.0

183.7

femur + tibia

3

178.3

6.9

169.5

182.8

DDM

MDH

SNR

females femur

5

166.4

5.9

156.9

171.7

tibia

4

167.7

7.8

159.6

175.3

femur + tibia

4

167.8

7.4

158.8

174.7

femur

1

159.9

--

--

--

tibia

2

163.1

7.6

157.7

168.5

femur + tibia

--

--

--

--

--

femur

--

--

--

--

--

tibia

1

179.2

--

--

--

femur + tibia

--

--

--

--

--

DDM

MDH

SNR

Table 12.12. Mean difference in stature estimates by method (cm) site

DDM

MDH

SNR

element

Am W

Raxter male

n

diff

sd

p

femur

179.75

176.29

13

- 3.46

0.260

< 0.0001

tibia

186.18

179.10

5

- 7.08

0.016

< 0.0001

femur + tibia

183.58

178.70

5

- 4.88

0.036

< 0.0001

femur

178.23

174.71

6

- 3.49

0.268

0.0001

tibia

183.55

176.44

5

- 7.11

0.084

< 0.0001

femur + tibia

179.77

174.97

4

- 4.80

0.134

< 0.0001

femur

177.62

174.13

4

- 3.49

0.134

0.0001

tibia

185.30

178.15

3

- 7.09

0.052

< 0.0001

femur + tibia

182.15

177.31

3

- 4.85

0.075

0.0002

female DDM

femur

169.60

166.41

5

- 3.19

0.137

< 0.0001

tibia

175.20

166.73

4

- 7.47

0.285

0.0001

femur + tibia

172.43

168.81

4

- 4.62

0.217

0.0002

1) American W hite regression equations from Trotter (1970) 2) Regression equations from Raxter et al. (2008)

242

Post-cranial Osteometry: Stature, Robustness and Limb Segments

Early Holocene (9,515 - 8,250 BP) native north Americans exhibit a broad range of brachial and crural indices and of stature (160.84 - 171.74 cm), but they share the attribute of wide bodies (absolute biiliac breadth and bi-iliac breadth) relative to stature (Auerbach 2012). Samples are geographically dispersed, all male, and limited to one specimen per site: Gore Creek (161.13 cm; BC, Canada), Horn Shelter 2 (162.07 cm; central Texas), Kennewick (171.74 cm; southern Washington), Spirit Cave (160.84 cm) and Wizard’s Beach (170.68; western Nevada).

ancient India. For example, Baerstein and Kennedy (1990) conducted an analysis of stature based on published data for 21 prehistoric and 314 modern groups. Prehistoric sites were grouped into four classes based upon culture, geography, and subsistence. Stature for all samples was plotted separately for males and females along a single x-axis. They concluded: 1) Ancient populations of India had somewhat greater stature than modern groups. 2) The trend towards decreasing stature began in the Neolithic because selection for greater stature no longer played the same role it had in earlier huntergatherers. 3) Taller stature appears in northwest India where agriculture and pastoralism were first practiced. And, 4) the decrease in stature in modern groups may be an adaptive response to the chronic threat of protein deficiency and under-nutrition. Additionally, stature among living castes and tribes of India reveal a negative secular trend in stature over two generations (Ganguly and Pal 1974, Ganguly 1979). A similar negative secular trend was observed for South African Blacks under apartheid by Tobias (1985, 1990). Data from Baerstein and Kennedy, and Ganguly were combined with stature estimates for MLC sites and plotted by Lukacs (2007b, Fig. 2) who documented a long-term decline in stature from Mesolithic to modern groups in South Asia.

The average reconstructed stature for a sample of 35 Late Holocene (ca. 2500–400 BP) adults from central Patagonia (southwestern Argentina) was 160.8 cm for females (95% conf interval = 155.6 - 166.2 cm), and 170.5 cm for males (95% conf interval = 168.8 - 172.2 cm; Beguelin 2011). Stature in Mesolithic Europe has been documented for nine sites: 6 in Western Europe, 3 in eastern Europe (Formicola and Giannecchini 1999). Estimated stature for European and South Asian Mesolithic samples is plotted by region and sex in Figure 12.7. The pattern in mean stature is clearly discernable, western European series are similar in stature to one another and as a group are shorter than eastern Europeans. The MLC samples of north India are consistently taller than Mesolithic samples from western Europe and are more similar to, yet slightly taller than, eastern Europeans. An important finding of Formicola and Giannecchini’s (1999) study is the observation that in Europe, Upper Paleolithic skeletal series are generally taller than Mesolithic series. Tall stature in their opinion may have several plausible explanations, including: 1) better nutrition, 2) retention of ancestral heat-adapted limb proportions, 3) outbreeding mating patterns leading to genetic heterozygosity, and 4) natural selection optimizing stride length and locomotor efficiency. In modified form, these factors may also have played a role in selecting for tall stature among north Indian Mesolithic groups, which display greater similarity in stature to Upper Paleolithic than to Mesolithic Europeans. The tall stature of early Holocene foragers of South Asia may be attributable to the combined synergistic influence of high quality nutrition derived from a broad-spectrum pattern of subsistence, bodyproportions adapted to a seasonally hot, arid climate, and the functional demands of a mobile, seminomadic life-style.

The contention that stature in ancient India reduced with the intensification of agriculture (Kennedy 1984) was initially based on estimates derived from inappropriate reference samples. The findings reported here agree with a recent meta-analysis of biological impact of agriculture on stature that focused on studies conducted since the publication of Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture (Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Mummert and colleagues’ (2011) data come primarily from two main sources Backbone of History (Steckel and Rose 2002) and Ancient Health (Cohn and Crane-Kramer 2007). The analysis found that fourteen studies provide evidence of stature reduction as a consequence of agriculture, while in only three geographically dispersed regions (southeast coastal USA; Portugal; Thailand) stature remained either unchanged or fluctuated. Osteometric data on post-cranial skeletal variation in South Asia are abundantly available and will permit more precise detection of similar trends in ancient India. However, the success future research depends on critical reevaluation of published estimates of stature for prehistoric Indian skeletal samples with specific attention to reference populations and regression equations used.

The tall stature of Damdama males and females is consistent with prior interpretations of stature in

243

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

12.3.3. Skeletal robusticity and adaptation. In osteometry, the term robusticity or robustness, is a relative measure of a long bone’s diameter in relation to its length. Traditional indices of robustness express mid-diaphyseal measures of shaft size (anteriorposterior diameter, medio-lateral or transverse diameter, circumference or perimeter) as a proportion of bone length (maximum, ‘in position’, or physiological; Martin and Saller 1957; Olivier 1969). Subsequently, ‘robusticity’ has been defined in different ways by osteologists and functional morphologists leading to a broader range of concepts and connotations (Kennedy 2008). These definitions could be sorted into two main groupings: a) osteometric definitions, and b) functional definitions (markers of strength and muscularity). In this analysis we begin by using the earlier and more traditional osteometric definition of robusticity. Bioarchaeologists and human osteologists are advised to take greater care in unambiguously stating the type of robusticity they are analyzing or documenting. This would simply require the use of an additional term, to qualify the word robusticity, e.g. osteometric robusticity or functional robusticity. The latter includes study of bone cross-sectional geometry and the size, location, and texture of entheses (muscle attachment sites). An assessment of the functional robusticity of the DDM skeletal series is presented with data on skeletal pathology in Chapter 13.

or medio-lateral dimension) to maximum length. Thus the osteometric concept of robusticity more broadly includes indices of diaphyseal robusticity and of epiphyseal robusticity. Adopting a broad multi-causal theoretical model (Fig. 12.8), Pearson (2000) interprets osteometric robusticity as the outcome of several synergistic variables, including: a) cultural and behavioral factors (activity level, occupational stresses), b) climatic variation and physiological stress, and c) body size. Measures of relative osteometric robusticity have been used to address two different yet important anthropological questions. The goal of improving accuracy in the forensic identification of modern aboriginal Australian skeletal remains motivated Collier (1989) to question the widely held assumption that native Australian skeletal elements are easily identified by their robusticity. By contrast, Pearson (2000) elected to re-evaluate a vexing and longstanding question about the evolutionary origin of modern humans. He quantified post-cranial osteometric robusticity of Neandertals and early modern humans to assess the probability that modern humans originated through evolutionary continuity from antecedent groups or from population replacement. This investigation of osteometric robusticity in the DDM skeletal series employs both of these similar, yet different approaches. The first comparison follows the methods and robusticity equations Collier used to question assumptions about the robusticity of Australian aboriginal post-crania in contrast to

An important extension of the osteometric index of robusticity (robustness) involves the inclusion of measures of epiphyseal diameter. Thereby relating proximal or distal epiphyseal size (anterior-posterior

Figure 12.8. The influence of cultural and climatic factors on post-cranial robusticity. The robusticity of epiphyses is less affected by activity than long bone mid-shaft dimensions. (with permission of the author and University of Chicago Press) 244

Post-cranial Osteometry: Stature, Robustness and Limb Segments

European immigrants (Collier 1989). He secondarily sought to reveal the relationship between osteometric skeletal robusticity, economic behavior and ecology of prehistoric Australians. The second assessment utilizes Pearson’s (2000) methods and indices to independently evaluate the degree of osteometric robusticity of the Damdamans. This analysis will focus on proximal elements of the upper and lower extremities, the humerus and the femur, since they are best preserved. Robusticity of distal limb elements are documented when possible, but are not sufficiently abundant or well preserved to yield reliable descriptive statistics. The analysis of robusticity at DDM is further limited by differences among investigators in methodology or in osteometric variables recorded. A brief account of the variables used by each investigator, and any modifications used in our study, precedes the description and comparison of osteometric robusticity.

either proximal or distal epiphyses. Small sample sizes and use of modified or nearly-equivalent formula for some elements require caution in interpreting results. Post-cranial measurements and robusticity indices used by Collier (1989) and Pearson (2000) are listed in Tables 12.13 and 12.14. The definitions and formulas used in computing robusticity indices are discussed before results are presented for DDM. Osteometric robusticity at DDM is then compared with data for MLC sites and with data for global samples from different geographic regions, ethnic groups, and subsistence systems. Four indices of humerus robusticity were used in Collier’s (1989) analysis: two diaphyseal (robusticity, deltoid indices) and two epiphyseal (head articular, distal articular). Differences in osteometric methods preclude identical calculation of the robusticity index. At the mid-shaft Lukacs measured: anterior-posterior and medio-lateral diameters, and circumference of the humerus, while Collier measured maximum, minimum and deltoid circumferences. Of these, the deltoid and mid-shaft circumferences are effectively equivalent, thus the deltoid index of Collier is closely approximated when the mid-shaft circumference is used in calculating the diaphyseal index of robusticity for DDM. Under representation of the humerus head in the DDM series results in small sample size, prevents reliable assessment of sample mean and variation, and thus precludes accurate estimation of humerus head robusticity (head articular index).

The analysis of robusticity at DDM is limited by two factors: a) inter-observer differences in osteometric methodology and b) post-burial damage to postcranial bones. Differences in osteometry will be addressed below as specific indices of robusticity are considered. Taphonomic factors have affected DDM skeletons in several ways. Post-burial crushing has damaged less dense, trabecular bone of the epiphyses. Fine-grained sediment is occasionally cemented to long bone shafts, or to epiphyses, precluding some measurements. Hence, indices of robusticity are limited, but more abundant for diaphyses than for

Table 12.13. Measures of robusticity and computational formula (Collier 1989; as in Trinkaus 1980) Element index formula humerus

femur

robusticity

min_shaft_circ / max_hum_ln

deltoid

(deltoid circumference * 100) / max_hum_ln

distal articular

(dist_art_br * 100) / max_hum_ln

head articular

(hd_trans_dia * 100) / max_hum_ln

robusticity

[/ms_ap * ms_ml] x 100 / max_fe_ln

distal articular

[/lc_ln * bi_con_wd] x 100 / max_fe_ln

head articular

hd_dia * 100 / max_fe_ln

1) min_shaft_circ = minimum shaft circumference; max_hum_ln = maximum humerus length; dist_art_br =distal articular breadth; hd_trans_dia = transverse diameter of humerus head; ms_ap = mid-shaft diameter anterior-posterior; ms_ml = mid-shaft diameter medio-lateral; max_fe_ln = maximum femur length; lc_ln = length of the lateral condyle; bi_con_wd = bicondylar width; hd_dia = diameter of the femur head (parallel to the neck)

245

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 12.14. Indices of Robusticity (abridged, from Pearson 2000: 576, Table 3)1 Diaphyseal Indices (bone: formula) Femur 100 * [(midshaft AP + ML diameter)/bicondylar length] Tibia 100 * [(midshaft AP + ML diameter)/articular length] Humerus 100 * [(midshaft maximum + minimum diameter)/maximum length] Radius 100 * [(midshaft maximum + minimum diameter)/radial articular length] Epiphyseal Indices (location, bone: formula) Proximal femur 100 * (femoral head vertical diameter/maximum length) Distal femur 100 * (biepicondylar breadth/maximum length) Proximal tibia 100 * (proximal end maximum width/articular length) Distal tibia 100 * [(distal end ML diameter)/maximum length] 2 Proximal humerus 100 * (vertical head diameter/maximum length) Distal humerus 100 * (epicondylar maximum width/maximum length) Proximal radius 100 * (maximum head diameter/articular length) 1) formulas for metacarpals, metatarsals, and ulna have been omitted from this list 2) note change: medio-lateral width of the distal epiphysis is used in place of AP+ML, and maximum length is used in place of articular length

Table 12.15. Robusticity indices of the humerus - by specimen and by sex (mm) Diaphyseal index

Epiphyseal (distal) index

1

specimen number

sex

maximum length

ap + ml

index

MS circum

index

biepicondylar width

index

articular width

index

12

F

329

37

11.2

58

17.6

52

15.8

41

12.5

16a

M

370

52

14.1

75

20.3

62

16.8

47

12.7

16b

M

365

42

11.5

68

18.3

--

--

--

--

20b

M

357

46

12.9

73

20.4

--

--

--

--

23

M

355

43

12.1

69

19.4

62

17.5

44

12.4

30a

F

370

46

12.4

69

18.6

--

--

--

--

36a

F

348

36

10.3

62

17.8

57

16.4

40

11.5

36b

M

345

34

9.9

56

16.2

53

15.1

42

12.0

39

M

360

54

15.0

80

22.2

62

17.2

44

12.2

1) mid-shaft circumference of the diaphysis is equivalent to Collier’s (1989) deltoid circumference and was used to compute the deltoid diaphyseal index below (Table 12.16)

Table 12.16. Mean indices of robusticity for the humerus by sex Diaphyseal index ap + ml

deltoid

Epiphyseal (distal) index 1

biepicondylar

articular

sex

n

mean

sd

n

mean

sd

n

mean

sd

n

mean

sd

female

3

11.3

1.05

3

18.0

0.5

2

16.1

0.42

2

12.0

0.70

t (p)

1.112 (0.303)

1.182 (0.276)

0.729 (0.506)

0.7947 (0.4713)

male

6

12.6

1.84

6

19.5

2.1

4

16.7

1.07

4

12.3

0.30

Total: sexes pooled

9

12.2

1.67

9

19.0

1.8

6

16.4

0.89

6

12.2

0.43

1) Collier’s variable ‘deltoid circumference’ is effectively equal to the mid-shaft circumference used in computing this diaphyseal index for the DDM series

246

Post-cranial Osteometry: Stature, Robustness and Limb Segments

Table 12.17. Humerus robusticity (males only: Mesolithic north India in global context)1 deltoid (mid-shaft) index

distal articular index

Group / Site

n

mean

sd

n

mean

sd

MDH

7

18.8

1.8

--

--

--

DDM

9

19.5

2.1

4

12.3

0.30

SNR

4

19.5

1.1

--

--

--

12

20.3

0.8

40

12.9

0.7

EW

40

23.7

1.4

38

14.3

0.7

ER

44

23.3

2.1

39

14.4

0.8

TER

49

22.4

1.6

46

14.3

0.8

NNA

48

21.2

1.2

44

13.5

0.5

BRT

50

22.9

1.6

46

14.3

0.7

AA

2

1) comparative data from Collier (1989, Appendix, p. 28-29) 2) group abbreviations: AA=Australian aborigine; EW =Eskimo W haler, ER=Eskimo riverine; TER=Terry collection; NNA=Native North American; BRT=Briton

This analysis of the humerus robusticity at DDM uses one diaphyseal (deltoid index) and one epiphyseal (articular index) measure of robusticity from Collier and two indices diaphyseal (mid-shaft ap and ml diameters) and distal humerus (biepicondylar) from Pearson. Diaphyseal and epiphyseal robusticity indices for DDM are presented in Table 12.15. Raw data from which indices were calculated are also provided, including: maximum humerus length, sum of anterior-posterior and medio-lateral mid-shaft diameters, mid-shaft circumference (including the deltoid tuberosity), biepicondylar width and trochlear width (articular width). Though samples are small when sub-divided by sex, mean robusticity indices for males and females are presented in Table 12.16. Males consistently tend to exhibit higher mean robusticity than females, though the inter-sex differences are not statistically significant. Thus the sex-pooled mean indices are reported in the lower panel of Table 12.16.

robusticity (deltoid index), Damdama and MLC sites exhibit low levels of robusticity and are not significantly different from one another or from aboriginal Australians (p$0.05). By contrast, the mean deltoid index for DDM males is significantly less than all other global samples, including Eskimowhalers (EW), Eskimo-riverine (ER), Terry collection (TER), native north American (NNA) and Briton (BRT) samples (p0.05). By contrast, the low articular index for DDM males is significantly less than the means of all other global samples (p females). Inter-site comparisons found many similarities in diaphyseal and epiphyseal variables between DDM and SNR. By contrast, MDH tends to be different in metric attributes and robustness from both DDM and SNR.

Skeletal robusticity of the DDM series focused primarily on the humerus and the femur because they were better preserved and more abundant than distal limb segments. The analysis of osteometric robusticity used established methods to address the question: Is long bone morphology of the Damdamans robust or gracile? Both diaphyseal and epiphyseal robusticity of humerus and femur were documented. DDM and other MLC groups were found to have robust midshaft dimensions and gracile epiphyses. In robusticity, as in basic osteometric attributes, DDM tended to exhibit greater similarity in indices of robustness to SNR than to MDH.

Prior stature estimates for Damdama and Mesolithic Lake culture sister-sites were based on inappropriate reference samples and regression formulae. The adoption of a more suitable reference sample, Old Kingdom Egyptians, was justified on multiple criteria. The primary rationale being similarities in brachial and crural indices between ancient Egyptians and MLC samples. Stature at DDM is classified as tall, though not as tall as estimates using European derived - American White regression formula. Mean stature for DDM males (178.7 cm) is 10.9 cm greater than female stature (167.8 cm). These and newly revised stature estimates for MDH and SNR are important additions to the global database on stature in prehistory. They confirm earlier studies that characterize Holocene hunter-foragers of India as tall and envision a trend toward shorter stature beginning with later Neolithic samples and the advent of agricultural subsistence systems. Comparison of MLC stature with Mesolithic Europeans and with native Americans re-affirms the tall stature of hunter-forager groups of north India.

In conclusion, the question of skeletal robusticity at Damdama depends on the point of reference: the midshaft is robust, but the epiphyses are gracile. This seemingly odd combination of traits may be explained as the outcome of different selective forces acting on the limbs. Tall linear physique coupled with low body mass may result from a response to climatic factors seasonally hot and dry conditions. The robust dimensions of the mid-shaft may result from biomechanical stresses associated with locomotor adaptations to logistical foraging and carrying heavy loads. These osteometric insights into the nature of skeletal variation in the DDM foragers is augmented by an analysis of skeletal pathology, markers of muscular function, and variations that enhance understanding of activity and behavior in past populations. These topics are treated in Chapter 13 and make a valuable addition to knowledge of osteometric variation in the DDM skeletal series.

254

13. Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence of Diet, Disease and Behavior

13.1 Goals and Objectives of Paleopathology The focus of paleopathology is the study of disease in past populations with attention to the origin, evolution and progress of disease over long spans of time and in different ecological and geographical settings. Since disease is an inevitable part of life, paleopathology is a primary theme in bioarchaeological research (Roberts and Manchester 2010). Evidence from human skeletal biology, culture, and ecology, supports the role of paleopathology in reconstructing the disease profile of past populations. Insights from paleopathology are essential to understanding patterns of ancient health. Recent anthologies on the topic give attention to analytical and methodological issues and to the diagnosis and interpretation of pathological lesions and skeletal anomalies in human remains (Cohen and Crane-Kramer 2007; Pinhasi and Mays 2008). In addition to method and theory of paleopathology, a new compendium updates the discipline by providing perspectives on disease from ecological, evolutionary, molecular, and epidemiological viewpoints and by presenting controversy in diagnosis and interpretation of different types of lesions (Grauer 2012). Pathological skeletal lesions often viewed as disruptions to homeostasis have historically been used to measure “health” and “stress” in past populations. These concepts have come under scrutiny recently, resulting in refinement of theory and method that insure advancement of the field of bioarchaeology (Klaus 2014; Reitsema and McIlvaine 2014; Temple and Goodman 2014). In this chapter, pathological lesions and skeletal anomalies observed in the Damdama skeletal series are documented. A clear distinction is made here between pathological lesions and skeletal traits or anomalies. Lesions originate through skeletal response to disease vectors and chronic processes that include proliferation or resorption of bone. By contrast, skeletal traits are variations in morphology that may result from a variety of factors, such as repetitive or excessive patterns of activity or behavior, disparities in growth and development or nutritional and genetic 255

factors. In this analysis, pathological lesions result from disease processes and include: porotic hyperostosis, osteoarthritis, and periostitis, for example. Skeletal anomalies or traits do not result from either infection or metabolic disorders, but include anatomical variations that are nonpathological and include traits such as: the supratrochlear foramen of the distal humerus, ankle flexion facets (squatting facets) of the distal tibia, lingual mandibular cortical depressions (Stafne’s defect), and vascular impressions of long bones, for example. Methods used in diagnosing and interpreting pathological lesions are presented either in the subsequent ‘Methods’ section or in association with the description of specific skeletal traits and activity markers. The expression of lesions and anomalies is then described, frequencies are reported, and the implications of the presence or absence and frequency of lesions for the health, diet, and behavior of the Damdamans are discussed. 13.2 Methods: Recognizing and Diagnosing Pathological Lesions Reliable and authoritative sources were used in describing and diagnosing pathological lesions (Lovell 2000; Ortner and Putschar 1981). Four pathological variations were observed on cranial elements: cribra orbitalia (CO), porotic hyperostosis (PH), trauma, and osteoarthritis (OA) of the glenoid fossa. Two variations were observed in the mandible: osteoarthritis of the mandibular condyle and lingual cortical mandibular depressions (Stafne’s defect; Lukacs and Rodríguez-Martín 2002). The orbital roof was observed for evidence of proliferative or resorptive alteration of bone. If porosity or proliferation was observed, CO was scored as present and standardized categories of lesion severity and distribution were judged following Stuart-Macadam (1991). The cortical surface of flat neurocranial bones (the frontal parietal, and squamous portion of the occipital) were examined for evidence of porosity or proliferative bone. When fragments of these bones were present the exposed cross section was examined

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

for evidence of abnormal thickening overall and for porosity of the outer table. The bone affected and the size and distribution of PH lesions was recorded. Post-cranial bones were systematically examined for evidence of pathological lesions (periostitis, trauma, and osteoarthritis) and hypertrophy of entheses. The use of entheseal changes (EC) in reconstructing life ways and occupations has been critically re-evaluated with regard to terminology, theory, methods and applications (Henderson and Cardoso 2013). Though this analysis of entheses at DDM was conducted prior to these recent advances it was conducted systematically according to established standards (Hawkey and Merbs 1995; Robb 1998). Expression of four skeletal traits were observed in post-cranial bones. These include the supratrochlear foramen (STF) of the humerus, marginal ridging of the palmar surface of metacarpals, vascular impressions of the tibial diaphysis, and ankle flexion facets of the distal tibia (also known as ‘squatting facets’). Methods used in observing and classifying each trait and the significance of variation in each trait to reconstructing past lifeways and behaviors are considered below. All cranial and post-cranial elements, including ribs and rib fragments, were examined for evidence of trauma. Analysis of ‘trauma’ may include an extensive list of lesions which vary by investigator, but commonly include fracture, dislocation, deformation, scalping, exostoses, evidence of wounds and weapons (cut marks), and Schmorl’s nodes (Knowles 1983; Ortner and Putschar 1981; Steinbock 1976). Extensive postmortem damage limited documentation of traumatic lesions at DDM to fractures, evidence of weapons (wounds) and exostoses. Classification of trauma and fractures follow standards developed by Lovell (1997b). Jurmain’s (1999) suggestions for improving the reliability of reporting trauma are followed when possible. They include: a) report fractures by (complete) element, b) record by location (prox, distal, medial), c) note involvement of multiple elements, d) give attention to related events such as embedded projectiles and cut marks, and e) increase precision and include detailed observations, such as un-united and malunited fractures, facial fractures, and distribution of lesions. However one significant limitation of fracture analysis in the DDM series is the extent of postmortem damage to many of the long bones. This precluded strict adherence to all of the recommendations. Skeletal evidence of osteoarthritis (OA) was scored for each articular surface on the basis of three criteria: 256

porosity, marginal lipping (osteophytosis), and eburnation. A somewhat more restrictive ‘operational definition’ of OA (Waldron 2009: 34) requires presence of eburnation, or at least two of the following alterations: a) marginal osteophytes, b) new bone on joint articular surface, c) pitting on the joint surface, or d) alteration in joint contour. Cranial sites examined for OA include the glenoid fossa of the temporal and the coranoid process of the mandible, either location viewed as evidence of masticator stress at the temporomandibular joint. All postcranial articular surfaces were examined for the three criteria of OA listed above. All preserved synovial joint surfaces were examined including hand and feet (phalanges, carpal, metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal) and costal facets (rib - vertebra articular surfaces). The periosteal surface of all long bone diaphyses and metaphyses were examined for proliferative bone development or periostitis. The absence or presence of periostitis was recorded for each element and the extent of the lesion, its location on the shaft, and surface texture was noted (Ortner 2008). 13.3 Skeletal Indicators of Health: Diet and Infectious Disease All available cranial and postcranial bones were inspected visually for pathological lesions. All abnormal cortical bone surfaces were examined with a 10x hand lens. No evidence of skeletal lesions indicative of nutritional deficiency or of non-specific infectious disease were found in the DDM skeletal series. Pathological lesions and skeletal variations of the cranium and mandible are presented by specimen in Table 13.1, and discussed further below. 13.3.1. Nutritional status: Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis. Two lesions commonly associated with nutritional deficiency are cribra orbitalia (CO) and porotic hyperostosis (PH). These lesions are widely regarded as evidence of iron deficiency anemia, are easy to observe and record in skeletal remains and often co-occur in a single individual (Stuart-Macadam and Kent 1992). Fifteen adult crania could be observed for CO and 30 could be observed for PH (Table 13.1). Significantly, no specimen expressed evidence of either type of lesion. The absence of these lesions in the DDM skeletal series suggests that iron deficiency anemia was rare or not present. Other factors that have been associated with PH include genetic anemias (such as sickle cell and thalassemia) and in the American southwest, high parasite load (Reinhard 1992; Steinbock 1976). The absence of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis at

Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence of Diet, Disease and Behavior

13.3.2. Infectious disease: Periostitis. Pathological lesions and skeletal variation of the postcranial bones are listed in Table 13.2. The column head ‘Perio’ provides a tabular list of specimens that could be examined for evidence of periostitis. The diaphyses of all long bones, including the clavicle, were examined

Damdama is paralleled by absence of evidence of these lesions at sister-sites MDH and SNR (Kennedy et al. 1986, 1992). These results are in agreement with archaeological evidence of a broad spectrum diet that satisfied the nutritional requirements of an active and mobile population of hunter-foragers.

Table 13.1. Pathological lesions and variations of the cranium and mandible Identification

Mandibular Observations

Cranial Observations

Spec no

Sex

Age

Cranial trauma

Porotic Hyperostosis

1

F

43

0

2

F

43

3

F

4

Cribra orbitalia

TM J OA

Condylar OA

Stafne’s defect

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

0

0

0

0

0

--

+

--

--

0

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

0

55

0

0

0

0

--

--

--

--

0

0

?

9m

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

5

?

4

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

6a

F

38

0

0

0

0

--

--

--

--

0

--

6b

M

33

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

--

7

M

22

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

8

M

35

--

0

0

0

--

--

0

0

0

0

10

F

35

0

0

0

0

0

--

0

0

0

0

11

M

40

0

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

0

12

F

40

0

0

0

0

--

0

0

0

0

0

13

F

40

0

0

--

--

0

0

--

--

--

--

15

F

YA

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

16a

M

21

0

0

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

16b

M

30

0

0

--

--

--

--

0

--

0

0

17

F

17

0

0

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

18a

M

23

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

0

--

0

18b

M

24

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

0

0

18c

M

50

0

0

--

--

0

0

--

0

0

0

19

M

19

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

20a

F

19

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

–

20b

M

43

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

--

Abbreviations: - - = not observed due to fragmentation, adhering matrix, or absence of the skeletal element; 0 = trait or condition absent; + = trait or condition present. Note: Specimens DDM 7, 9, 14, 21, 35, and 38 do not have relevant skeletal parts present or are not sufficiently well preserved for evaluation

257

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 13.1. Pathological lesions and variations of the cranium and mandible (cont’d) Identification

Cranial Observations

Mandibular Observations

Cribra orbitalia

TM J OA

Condylar OA

Stafne’s defect

R

L

R

L

R

Spec no

Sex

Age

Cranial trauma

Porotic hyperostosis

22

M

22

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

23

M

48

0

0

0

0

--

--

--

0

0

0

24

M

22

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

25

M

Ad

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

26

F

53

--

0

--

--

0

--

--

--

--

0

27

M

35

0

0

0

--

0

--

0

--

0

0

28

M

48

0

0

0

--

0

--

--

--

0

0

29

F

30

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

30a

F

38

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

0

30b

M

30

--

0

--

0

--

0

--

--

--

--

31

?

Ad

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

32

M

18

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

?

?

33

M

20

0

0

0

0

0

--

0

--

--

--

34

M

27

--

--

--

0

--

0

--

--

--

--

36a

F

18

--

0

0

--

0

--

--

--

--

--

36b

M

16

--

0

--

0

0

0

--

--

--

--

37

F

50

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

39

F

47

0

0

--

--

--

0

--

0

--

0

40

M

40

0

0

--

--

--

--

0

0

0

0

Column (+ / n)

0/18

0/30

0/11

0/13

0/10

0/8

0/7

1/10

0/18

0/19

%, n (ind)

0, 18

0, 30

L

R

L

0, 15

0, 14

7.7, 13

0, 23

Abbreviations: - - = not observed due to fragmentation, adhering matrix, or absence of the skeletal element; 0 = trait or condition absent; + = trait or condition present. Note: Specimens DDM 7, 9, 14, 21, 35, and 38 do not have relevant skeletal parts present or are not sufficiently well preserved for evaluation

for proliferative or lytic bone lesions. The adverse effects of post-burial modification, such as sediment adhering to the sub-periosteal surface, crushing, fragmentation, and bones cemented to one another with matrix, precluded observing every aspect of every long bone. Despite this limitation, no trace of periostitis was observed in the 40 adult specimens represented by partial or complete skeletal remains. The tibia is preferentially affected by periostitic lesions (Ortner 2008; Roberts and Manchester 2010).

Significantly, in the DDM series the cortical surface of 43 tibia could be observed, representing 26 individuals, and no trace of periostitis was found. Bones of the upper extremity, were preserved for 24 individuals by single or paired elements of all three upper limb bones. None of these upper limb bones presented evidence of periostitis (n=42 humeri, n=48 radii, n=44 ulnae). Ribs and rib fragments of 16 individuals were examined for periostitic lesions and no lesions were found. 258

Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence of Diet, Disease and Behavior

Waldron (2009: 115-116) asserts that the etiology of periosteal new bone is complex and that many noninflammatory and non-infectious conditions may be involved. He lists 19 major causes that can produce new periosteal bone and states that clarity of thought on the topic is limited in paleopathology. He urges osteologists to be more cautious in inferring health status from lesions of new periosteal bone. The absence of periostitis at DDM may indicate that nonspecific infections or localized trauma were not present in the DDM skeletal sample. Despite the multifactorial etiology of periostitic lesions, their presence is documented with greater frequency in sedentary agricultural populations than in mobile foraging groups (Roberts and Manchester 2010). The absence of new periosteal bone in the DDM series agrees with and adds further support to this association. The preferential susceptibility of the tibia to periostitic lesions is well documented yet poorly understood. Given the abundance of DDM tibia available for examination, the absence of periostitic lesions in this bone is informative.

of one individual (DDM 1, female) and in the hand of another (metacarpals, DDM 12, female). OA of articular surfaces of the distal humerus and proximal ulna are evident in DDM 1; in which marginal osteophytic lipping of the semi-lunar notch is present bilaterally. The periphery of the articular surface is affected, including the coronoid process, medial margin, and the olecranon. The articular surface of the left ulna exhibits more lipping than the right side. Porosity and eburnation are absent bilaterally. Right and left humeri show marginal lipping of the articular surface, especially the medial margin of the trochlea. Metacarpals of the right (II, III) and left (III, V) hand of DDM 12 exhibit traces of marginal lipping of the heads of these elements. This faint trace of OA is associated with marginal ridges on the medial and lateral aspects of the palmar surface of the phalangeal diaphyses. These marginal ridges are most prominent at mid-diaphysis and reduce in size proximally and distally. Proximal and medial phalanges of 16 individuals could be assessed for palmar ridges of the diaphysis. Moderate-sized ridges were observed on medial and lateral aspects of the phalangeal diaphyses of 5 individuals (31.5%).

13.4 Skeletal Indicators of Activity, Growth and Behavior 13.4.1. Osteoarthritis. Evidence of osteoarthritis (OA) at DDM is present, but rare. OA of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) was lacking from the glenoid fossa (n=13), but present in the mandibular condyle of one specimen (DDM 1). In general, vertebrae were poorly preserved and under represented in the sample, however osteophytes were observed in 3 of seven specimens (DDM 1, 8, and 12). Large ‘parrot-beak’ osteophytes are present on the right lateral aspect of the ninth thoracic vertebra of DDM 1 (adult, female). The osteophytes may be of traumatic origin induced in response to the compression fracture of this vertebrae (see below). Thoracic (T-4 thru T-7) and lumbar (L-2, L-4 and L-5) segments of the vertebral column of DDM 8 (adult, male) show small to medium-sized osteophytes along the perimeter of the centrum (annulus). Lower thoracic vertebrae (T-10, T11) have osteophytes on the superior and inferior margins of the centra on the ventral (anterior) surface.

13.4.2. Trauma. Traumatic lesions were absent from all observable cranial remains, but three individuals preserved evidence of post-cranial fractures: a) a compression fracture of the 9th thoracic vertebra (DDM 1, adult female), b) a simple, oblique fracture of the distal left ulna (DDM 24, adult male); and c) a simple, oblique fracture of the right fibula (DDM 23, adult male). The latter injury was associated with multiple markers of dysfunction in the right leg including a prominent exostosis of the posterior superior aspect of the right femoral diaphysis (Fig. 13.1). This exostosis is located 10 cm below the lesser trochanter, 6 cm above mid-diaphysis and is 3 cms in length (superior-inferior). A vascular impression is visible at the distal margin of the exostosis and trends in a disto-lateral direction. The exostosis is laterally adjacent to the linea aspera and projects 10 mm above it. The apex of the exostosis is broken off postmortem thus was larger in life. This bony projection is situated in proximity to the origin of two components of the quadriceps femoris muscle group (m. vastus medialis, m. vastus intermedius).

Osteoarthritis of the appendicular skeleton is low in frequency and was observed bilaterally in the elbows

259

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Table 13.2. Pathological lesions and variations of the post-cranial skeleton Identification

Post-cranial Observations Supra Troc Foramen

Vascular Impressions

Ankle Flex Facet

Spec no

Sex

Age

OA

VO

EH

Trauma

Peri

L

R

L

R

Ind

L

R

1

F

43

EL

+

0

CF/T9

0

0

+

fgt

0

0

msg

pmd

2

F

43

0

--

0

--

0

msg

msg

5

4

+

- de

- de

3

F

55

0

--

0

0

0

0

mtx

1

2

+

- de

- de

4

?

9m

--

--

--

--

--

sa

sa

msg

msg

--

sa

sa

5

?

4

--

--

--

--

--

sa

sa

msg

msg

--

sa

sa

6a

F

38

--

0

0

0

msg

msg

msg

0

0

msg

pmd

6b

M

33

0

--

0

0

0

mtx

mtx

mtx

mtx

--

msg

pmd

7

M

22

0

--

0

0

0

+

mtx

0

pmd

0

- de

- de

8

M

35

0

+

RT

0

0

0

0

pmd

mtx

--

pmd

pmd

9

M

Ad

--

--

0

--

--

msg

msg

fgt

mtx

--

- de

- de

10

F

35

--

--

--

0

0

msg

mtx

mtx

fgt

--

- de

- de

11

M

40

0

--

--

0

0

0

art

msg

0

0

msg

-de

12

F

40

hand

+

0

0

0

art

mtx

0

0

0

0

0

13

F

40

0

--

RT, PQ

0

0

msg

mtx

mtx

3

+

+

+

15

F

YA

--

--

--

0

0

msg

msg

0

msg

0

- de

msg

16a

M

21

0

--

AIIS, GL

0

0

art

mtx

msg

0

0

msg

pmd

16b

M

30

0

--

--

0

0

art

mtx

mtx

fgt

--

mtx

mtx

17

F

17

0

--

0

0

0

msg

msg

msg

msg

--

msg

msg

18a

M

23

0

0

CT, PQ

0

0

msg

msg

msg

mtx

--

msg

mtx

18b

M

24

0

--

CT

0

0

0

mtx

fgt

mtx

--

- de

- de

18c

M

50

0

--

PQ, LA

0

0

mtx

mtx

fgt

mtx

--

- de

- de

19

M

19

0

--

--

--

0

msg

msg

mtx

fgt

--

mtx

- de

20a

F

19

--

--

SL

0

0

mtx

mtx

0

0

0

pmd

- de

20b

M

43

0

0

DT, LA

0

0

mtx

msg

msg

mtx

--

- de

- de

21

F

?

0

--

--

--

0

msg

msg

msg

msg

--

msg

msg

Abbreviatons: OA= osteoarthritis; VO= vertebral osteophytes; EH= enthesial hypertrophy; Peri= periostitis; L= left; R= right; Ind= individual; troc = trochlear; AIIS = anterior inferior iliac spine; CF = compression fracture; CT = conoid tubercle; DT=deltoid tuberosity; GL= gluteal line; LA = linea aspera; PQ= pronator quadratus; RT = radial tuberosity; SL= soleal line; T9 = 9 th thoracic vertebra; art= in articulation; – de = distal epiphysis missing; fgt = fragmentary; msg = missing; mtx = matrix; pmd= postmortem damage

260

Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence of Diet, Disease and Behavior

Table 13.2. Pathological lesions and variations of the post-cranial skeleton (cont’d) Identification

Post-cranial Observations Supra Troc Foramen

Vascular Impressions

Ankle Flex Facet

Spec no

sex

age

OA

VO

EH

Trauma

Peri

L

R

L

R

Ind

L

R

22

M

22

0

--

SL-mkd

0

0

msg

msg

0

fgt

0

+

msg

23

M

48

0

--

SL(R>L)

fibula/R

0

art

art

0

0

0

pmd

pm

24

M

22

0

--

PQ

ulna/L

0

mtx

mtx

mtx

0

0

pmd

mtx

25

M

Ad

--

--

SL-mkd

0

0

msg

mtx

0

0

0

msg

+

26

F

53

--

--

Brachial

--

0

msg

msg

msg

mtx

--

msg

pm

27

M

35

0

--

CT, SC

0

0

mtx

mtx

pmd

0

0

mtx

pm

28

M

48

0

--

DT, LA

0

0

art

mtx

msg

0

0

msg

- de

29

F

30

--

--

--

0

0

msg

msg

msg

msg

--

msg

msg

30a

F

38

0

--

RT, PQ

0

0

+

msg

fgt

mtx

--

- de

- de

30b

M

30

0

--

--

0

0

msg

msg

fgt

fgt

--

pmd

pm

31

?

Ad

--

--

--

--

--

msg

msg

msg

msg

--

pmd

pm

32

M

18

0

--

0

0

0

mtx

+

msg

msg

--

msg

msg

33

M

20

OC?

--

SC, SL

0

0

0

msg

0

0

0

pmd

+

34

M

27

--

--

0

0

0

msg

mtx

msg

msg

--

msg

msg

35

F

17

0

--

--

--

0

msg

msg

fgt

fgt

--

- de

- de

36a

F

18

0

0

0

0

0

0

mtx

3

pmd

+

+

+

36b

M

16

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

msg

0

+

msg

37

F

50

0

--

0

0

0

msg

mtx

2

0

+

0

- de

38

?

45

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

mtx

mtx

--

--

--

39

M

47

0

--

LA-rug

0

0

msg

0

msg

mtx

--

msg

- de

40

M

40

--

--

0

--

--

msg

msg

msg

msg

--

msg

msg

+/n

3/33

3/7

18/33

3/36

0/40

2/10

2/5

4/13

3/16

5/21

3/5

4/5

%

9.1

42.9

54.5

8.3

0.0

20.0

40.0

30.8

18.8

23.8

60.0

80.

Abbreviatons: OA= osteoarthritis; VO= vertebral osteophytes; EH= enthesial hypertrophy; Peri= periostitis; L= left; R= right; Ind= individual; troc= trochlear; CT= Conoid tubercle; DT= deltoid tuberosity; LA= Linea aspera; OC? osteochondritis dessicans; PQ = pronator quadratus; RT= radial tuberosity; SC = Supinator crest; SL=Soleal line; art = in articulation; – de = distal epiphysis missing; fgt = fragmentary; mkd = marked; msg = missing; mtx = matrix; pmd = postmortem damage; rug = rugose

261

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Figure 13.1. Right femoral exostosis (DDM 23, adult male). Diaphysis broken at midshaft, exostosis lateral to linea aspera and broken postmortem. Viewing right lateral aspect

Figure 13.2. Left ulna of DDM 24 (young adult, male) with oblique fracture of distal diaphysis. Callus and fracture orientation visible above left margin of scale

Development of the exostosis may result from longterm locomotor complications following the fracture of the right fibula.

(Denmark) and 13.8% (rural Nubia), respectively. Ulnar fractures have been observed at the sister-site of Mahadaha in the left ulna of MDH 11 (an adult, male, 18-20 yrs) and in MDH 23 (a middle aged adult male, 35- 50 yrs). Though analyzed, radiographed, and recorded in the sources cited below, these fractures have not been descriptively analyzed or published. A fracture of the left ulna has been reported in a middle aged (45-55 yrs) female (LKH 4a) from the rockshelter site of Lekhahia ca. 160 km south of Damdama in the Kaimur Hills (Lukacs and Misra 1997, 2002).

The spinal column of DDM-1 is incompletely preserved. Thoracic vertebrae 6 through 11, the 5th lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum are present. The costal facet of the left transverse process of T-8 has traces of marginal lipping. The compression fracture of T-9 is indicated by collapse of the anterior aspect of the centrum to 1/4th the height of the posterior margin of the centrum. Large osteophytes encircle the superior margin of the centrum and extend cranially 3 to 5 mm from it. A depression in the center of the centrum is difficult to diagnose. It may represent a Schmorl’s node and could be associated with the compression fracture, but postmortem damage may also contribute to its appearance.

13.4.3. Enthesial hypertrophy. Entheses are sites throughout the skeleton where muscles attach to bone by tendon. Enthesial hypertrophy (EH) was systematically evaluated as an indicator of skeletal function and activity and as one factor contributing to the perception of ‘skeletal robusticity’. EH was observed at multiple loci throughout the skeleton and 54% of 33 specimens displayed EH at one or more sites. Refer to Table 13.2 for specimens affected by each type of EH by abbreviation. Common loci of EH include the forearm: proximally near the elbow at the supinator crest (SC, n=5) and radial tuberosity (RT, n=3), and distally at the pronator quadratus (PQ, n=5) insertion. EH of the forearm often co-occur as in DDM 30 (Fig. 13.4). The supinator crest of the R ulna of DDM 27 is so prominently developed that the lateral edge of the crest has broken off postmortem. The expression of enthesial hypertrophy at the elbow joint has been described in detail for the sister-sites MDH and SNR (Kennedy 1983).

The oblique fracture of the distal left ulna of DDM-24 is located in the distal one-third of the diaphysis, proximal to the least diameter of the shaft (Fig.13.2). Fracture orientation and direction were confirmed by X-ray (Dr. Mullick’s Clinic, Allahabad; 20 Feb 1995). The callus is ca. 3 cms long and has a maximum diameter of 15.0 mm (anterior-posterior). This compares with shaft diameters of 11.5 mm proximal to the callus and 11.0 mm distal to it. This fracture is located in a position on the ulnar shaft that is frequently interpreted to signify a defensive posture and therefore labeled a ‘parry fracture’. While defense is a possible cause of the injury, this interpretation cannot be confirmed without additional supporting evidence (Jurmain 1999: 215-222). This is the only instance of a forearm fracture in the DDM series, in a sample of 23 complete left ulnae, a frequency of (4.3%). Though the small sample may impose bias, this rate of ulnar fracture falls within frequency data reported for 7 Old and New World groups (Roberts and Manchester 2010: 99, Table 5.2). Those data reveal a mean ulna fracture frequency of 6.1% (sd=1.5) with low and high frequencies of 2.1%

In the lower extremity the most prominent site of EH is on the popliteal (posterior proximal) surface of the tibia, where the soleal line is developed into a rugose welt-like swelling or in more extreme instances into a ridge-like crest from which the soleus muscle originates (SL, n=5). Hypertrophy of the soleal line is a marker of repeated and forceful plantar flexion of the foot and may be attributed to high mobility or carrying heavy loads.

262

Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence of Diet, Disease and Behavior

Figure 13.3. Left radius / ulna of DDM 30a (adult female). Note the well developed radial tuberosity (RT) of the proximal radius (above) and the marked origin of the pronator quadratus (PQ) of the distal ulna (below)

Figure 13.4. Popliteal surface of right tibiae of DDM 12 (mature female, left) and DDM 33 (young adult male, right). The latter exhibits a very prominent soleal line (white oval)

Figure 13.5. Vascular Impressions of the interosseous surface of the tibiae of DDM 2 (adult, female). The L tibia has five (numbered arrows) and the R tibia, four Vascular Impressions

263

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Rugose soleal lines at DDM are equally well developed among males and females and among young and old individuals. Less common but distinctive EH was noted in the anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) and gluteal line (GL) of DDM 16a, the conoid tubercle (CT) of the clavicle in DDM 18a, 18b, and 27, and the deltoid tuberosity (DT) of the humerus in DDM 20b and 28. Development of the linea aspera (LA) into a pilaster is present in DDM 18c, 20b, 28, and 39. The prominent LA on the right femur of DDM 39 is associated with a rugose tuberosity on the lateral supra-condylar line, point of origin of the plantaris muscle. The proximal right ulna in DDM 26 is well marked with a raised ridge that extends 7 mm along the area of insertion of the brachialis muscle.

distal humeri. The supra-trochlear foramen (STF) is reported present in 7 of the 9 MDH specimens (77.8% of individuals) that could be examined (Table 13.3), and 62.5% (n=16) of observable humeri expressed the trait (data from Kennedy et al. 1992). At SNR the septal aperture is present bilaterally in specimen 1972 X (Kennedy et al. 1986). Though humeral morphology is described for nine other SNR skeletons, presence or absence of the septal aperture is not mentioned. Supra-trochlear foramen (STF) have been widely documented in South Asian skeletal samples both recent and prehistoric. A brief summary of the distribution of this anomaly in space and time provides comparative context for its expression and frequency among Mesolithic foragers of north India. Though common, reports of STF in prehistoric series are unsystematic and uneven. Poor preservation of the ends of long bones in many South Asian skeletal series precludes reliable estimates of trait frequency. Level of interest in the trait may result from the ease of observing the trait rather than recognition of its value in behavioral reconstruction. In Appendix III of the Beginnings of Agriculture, A.K. Sharma describes two types of paleopathological lesions in specimens from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha: a) congenital perforations (of the olecranon fossa) of the distal humerus, and b) hook-shaped bony outgrowths (exostoses) of the first left metatarsal (SNR) and of the left humerus (MDH 14; Sharma 1980) This brief note provides measurements of the size of bilateral STF in SNR 10 (left: horizontal diameter = 7.0 mm; vertical diameter 5.0 mm; right: horizontal = 6.5 mm; vertical = 4.0 mm) and unilateral presence in the left humerus of MDH 14 (horizontal = 10 mm; vertical = 8 mm). The size of these fossae are comparable to those described above for supratrochlear foramen in the DDM series. Sharma’s use of the term ‘congenital perforation’ for this skeletal trait conflicts with his stated theory for its genesis, which is developmental. The thin bony membrane between the coronoid and olecranon fossa gets ‘rubbed’ during forceful, repetitive movement of the forearm, resulting in perforation of the septum (Sharma, AK 1980).

In sum, the prominent development and expression of muscular attachments in the appendicular skeleton is remarkable and yields clues regarding activity and behavior of the people of Damdama. In general, powerful flexion and extension were habitual behaviors of the upper and lower limbs. Specific locations (elbow and leg) exhibit significantly prominent EH in several individuals. This finding suggests that active use of the forearm (extension, rotation, pronation) and the talocurural joint (plantar flexion of the foot) were common activities at DDM. 13.4.4. Supra-trochlear foramen (Septal aperture). The distal humerus may possess a perforation in the thin bony plate separating the olecranon fossa from the coronoid fossa. This anatomical variant is variously referred to as the septal aperture (Bass 1995:154; Schwartz 1995:106), the coronoidolecranon septum (Comas 1960: 421), or the supratrochlear foramen (Olivier 1969:230; Singhal and Rao 2007). At DDM a septal aperture is present in four of 12 specimens in which the trait could be assessed (DDM 1, 7, 30a, and 32). Aperture shape was either round (7.0 mm in diameter, in DDM 7 - left humerus) or oval (11.0 mm horizontal by 7.0 mm vertical, in DDM 32 - right humerus). A reliable estimate of the frequency of the trait at DDM is precluded by small sample size due to issues of preservation (see Table 13.2). Only 12 of 43 specimens (27.9%) could be observed for this variable because most distal humeri are either not preserved (msg), affected by postmortem damage (pmd), or the fossa is obscured by matrix (mtx), or held in anatomical position with the proximal ulna (art). More than half the MDH skeletons (17/30) could not be assessed for the trait due to missing or damaged

While STF have been reported in Harappan skeletal series its frequency is difficult to infer because sample sizes are either small or not reported. The presence of STF at urban Harappa was first reported by Gupta and colleagues (1962). Seven humeri were affected in the Cemetery H, sample. Two individuals in stratum I (H 206a and 206d, both right humeri) and five specimens

264

Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence of Diet, Disease and Behavior

in stratum II (H 488, H 502G, H 694, H 696, and H 699; Gupta et al. 1962: 127, 162). These data were subsequently discussed by Sarkar (1964: 84-85) from the perspective of racial typology. He interpreted the presence of STF at Harappa as indicating ‘Australoid’ or ‘Veddid” affinities.

development of nerves or vascular tissues. A taught supra-orbital nerve has been proposed to cause vascular grooves of the frontal bone, for example (Hauser and De Stefano 1989: 48). Nerves or vascular channels may impose localized restriction on the outward proliferation of periosteal bone during growth, thereby creating sinuous or linear grooves on the cortical surface. Observing that sequellae of pathological change are frequently over-interpreted, Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994: 108) note that curved and linear grooves on raised areas of long bone surfaces are vessel impressions around which bone has remodeled. A vessel track associated with remodeled periostitis on the left tibia of an adult male (46 yrs) of European ancestry appears in STANDARDS (Smithsonian Institution, Huntington Collection, NMNH 320316; Buikstra and Ubelaker

At Kalibangan (2300 - 1700 BC) A.K. Sharma describes the presence of STF, which he refers to as ‘congenital perforations’, in two skeletons: Grave 8 (male, bilateral) and Grave 11 (sex not stated, left side). No frequency or sample size is indicated and dimensions of perforations are not reported. However photographs (Fig. 2; p. 113) show ‘medium sized’ apertures (Sharma 1969) which are described as resulting from vigorous use of the elbow joint as in wood cutting. This account is restated nearly verbatim in The Departed Harappans of Kalibangan (Sharma 1999).

Table 13.3. Supra-trochlear foramen (STF) and ankle flexion facets (AFF) at Mahadaha (MDH)1 and Sarai Nahar Rai (SNR)2

Recent South Asian skeletal series have been surveyed for STF frequency and help contextualize the prehistoric data. The frequency, sidedness, and sex distribution of STF was documented in a sample of 150 humeri at St John’s Medical College (Bangalore; Singhal and Rao 2007). They found 28% of humeri affected and no significant difference in frequency by side. Most foramen were oval in shape with mean transverse (6.9 mm) and vertical (4.6 mm) diameters, smaller than those measured in the DDM series. STF frequency in recent samples from North (27.5%; Singh and Singh 1972), East (27.4%; Chatterjee 1968) and Central (32%; Kate and Dubey 1970) India suggest that this trait may be less common in recent than in prehistoric skeletal samples.

spec no

STF sex

age

L

AFF R

L

R

Mahadaha

13.4.5. Vascular impressions. Vascular impressions, also known as vascular channels or cortical grooves, are shallow curvilinear grooves commonly found on the periosteal or outer cortical surface of cranial (especially the frontal bone) and postcranial long bones (especially the tibia). Variously referred to in the literature as cortical grooves (Wells 1963a), vessel tracks (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), or vascular impressions (Saul 1984), their origin was once poorly understood and a variety of causes proposed. These included: cutmarks inflicted accidentally or during inter-personal violence, scars resulting from mild fracture, or even predator’s tooth marks. The idea that they originated from postmortem root impressions, or even worm action, indicates the range of potential causes offered by researchers. A more plausible cause may be a disparity in the rate of bone growth relative to slower

1

M

18-21

+

msg

msg

msg

2

M

18-21

+

–

–

–

3

M

24-28

+

+

msg

msg

8

M

Adult

msg

msg

+

+

10

M

18-20

–

–

–de

–de

11

M

18-20

–

–

–de

–de

12

M

22-26

msg

msg

+

+

18

F

Adult

msg

msg

+

+

21

F

52-60

+

+

+

+

22

U

Adult

msg

msg

+

msg

24

M

21-23

+

msg

msg

msg

26

M

19-21

+

+

+

+

27

F

Adult

–

+

msg

msg

Sarai Nahar Rai 1970 IV

M

24-28

--

--

+

+

1972 X

M

22-28

+

+

+

--

1973 II

M

20-24

--

--

+

+

1973 IV

M

23-24

--

--

+

+

1) complied from data in Kennedy et al. 1992 2) compiled from data in Kennedy et al. 1986

abbreviations: msg= missing; –de = missing distal epiphysis

265

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

1994: 111, Fig. 77). While the authors caution that cortical grooves are frequently misinterpreted as cutmarks or evidence of postmortem alteration, it is noteworthy that, “... vessel impressions are not by themselves indicative of pathology...” (Ubelaker, pers comm 30 June 2003). Vascular grooves, may mimic cutmarks or tooth marks, and were observed on the lateral ramus of the posterior distal surface of large bovid humeri (wildebeest) by Shipman and Rose (1984).

occur mid-way along the anterior edge of the distal margin of the tibia as clearly demarcated elliptical or ovoid depressions (Olivier 1969:273; Schwartz 1995: 133). Commonly referred to as ‘squatting’ facets, these features develop from repetitive hyperflexion at the tibio-talar joint. Flexion forces the anterior inferior edge of the tibia into contact with the superior neck of the talus (Brothwell 1981:90). Labeling this facet with a term that has specific behavioral and functional connotations may theoretically and conceptually limit the range of behaviors that contribute to its formation. Therefore some investigators recommend labeling these facets lower ‘accessory’ articular facets of the distal tibia (Olivier 1969), or ‘ankle flexion facets’ (AFF; Angel 1966, 1971). We recognize that active locomotion in rough or steep terrain or on highly uneven substrates as suggested by Angel for skeletal series from Neolithic Catal Hüyük (Anatolia; Angel 1971: 92) and Tranquility (California; Angel 1966: 3) may contribute to tibio-talar hyperflexion and result in trait formation. Squatting posture is a common practice among modern rural South Asians but is not an exclusive cause of accessory facets of the distal tibia. Hence, we agree with those who urge caution in labeling traumatic lesions and anatomical variants with terms that have behavioral connotations (Jurmain 1999). Examples abound, including: ‘parry fracture’, ‘atlatl’ or ‘tennis’ elbow, ‘miner’s’ knee or ‘squatting facet’ (Kennedy 1989). Anatomical description, with no behavioral implication, such as ‘distal ulnar fracture’ or ‘ankle flexion facet’ is preferred. The behavioral interpretation of ankle flexion facets among Neanderthals illustrates the issues involved (Trinkaus 1975).

In the DDM skeletal series many individuals either lacked one or both tibias, or presented surfaces with postmortem damage or adhering sediment. Vascular impressions were observed in five of 21 individuals (23.8%), or 7 of 29 tibias (24.1%). When present, one or more vascular impressions were observed on either the right or left tibia, or bilaterally on both tibia. Two individuals exhibit multiple channels bilaterally (DDM 2, Fig. 13.5; DDM 3), and six lack the trait bilaterally (DDM 7, 12, 20a, 23,25, and 33). In one specimen, DDM 37, the trait is unilaterally expressed. Most specimens preserve just one tibia for observation due to a missing element or a damaged cortical surface on one side. Hence, two individuals (DDM 13 - right, and 36a - left) present evidence of vascular impressions on the preserved side, while ten specimens yielded evidence of the trait’s absence on one side that could be evaluated (DDM 1, 6a, 11, 15, 16a, 22, 24, 27, 28 and 36b). While the functional significance of such grooves remains unclear, the DDM sample shows no significant difference by side affected, with 30.8% of left tibia (n=13) and 18.8% of right tibia affected (n= 16; PFxt=0.6667). However significant inter-sex differences were observed with 50% of females (n=10) affected, yet none of 11 males exhibiting the trait (p=0.0124). Published data on vascular impressions are uncommon, though Wells (1963a, 1963b) reported a frequency of 52.6% (n=300) tibia affected in an Anglo-Saxon sample. Yet he found no significant inter-sex difference. The trait was not reported in either sister-site: MDH or SNR precluding inter-site comparison of trait expression and frequency.

Included in a list of non-metric infra-cranial traits by Finnegan (1978: 25), the ‘squatting facet’ is subdivided into lateral and medial components, “The lower margin of the anterior surface of the tibia presents a rough transverse depression for the attachment of the articular capsule of the ankle joint. This depression can usually be divided into medial and lateral fossae separated by a raised area. These fossae usually show obvious vascular pitting. Frequently, the inferior articular surface is extended into the medial fossa and this extension is scored as a medial squatting facet.”

13.4.6. Ankle flexion facets (squatting facets). A frequently reported anatomical variant that has implications for behavioral reconstruction is found on the distal tibia and is widely known as the ‘squatting’ facet. Located on the distal tibia these articular facets

In the DDM series ankle flexion facets could be assessed in 7 individuals (Table 13.2, p. 260); 16.3%

266

Skeletal Pathology and Activity Markers: Evidence of Diet, Disease and Behavior

Table 13.4. Distribution of supra-trochlear foramen (STF) and ankle flexion facets (AFF) in prehistoric Indian skeletal series STF

spec no

sex

age

Langhnaj

XIV

M

Mahadaha

14

site

1

AFF

L

R

L

R

source

25-30

+

+

?

?

Ehrhardt and Kennedy 1965

M

Ad

+

–

–

–

10

M

Ad

+

+

–

–

4

M

Ad

–

–

–

+

8

M

Ad

+

+

–

–

11

?

Ad

+

–

–

–

Sharma 1980 Sarai Nahar Rai

Kalibangan

Mushrif-Tripathy et al. 2009 Sharma 1969, 1999

Chalcolithic Daimabad

18

M

25-30

–

+

–

+

W alimbe 1986a

Hullikallu

1

M

35-45

–

–

+

+

W alimbe 1986b

146-A

F

30-40

+

+

+

–

146-B

M

40-45

–

–

+

+

157

M

25-35

–

–

–

+

200

M

35-45

–

–

–

–

208-B

M

25-35

+

–

–

–

220

?

Ad

–

–

+

–

228

M

12-14

+

+

–

–

1

F

25-35

+

–

+

–

10

F

18

–

–

–

–

18

F

18-22

–

–

+

+

21

M

20-30

–

–

–

–

49

M

25-35

–

–

–

–

Inamgaon

Kaothe

Nevasa

Lukacs et al. 1986 Lukacs and W alimbe 1986

W alimbe 1990

Kennedy and Malhotra 1966

Neolithic / Megalithic Burzahom

1

M

46-50

+

–

–

+

9

M

51-55

–

–

+

+

Basu and Pal 1980

Kodumanal

sp II

M

40+

+

+

+

+

Rami Reddy and Chandrashekar Reddy 2004

Kodumanal

IX-A

M

25

–

–

–

+

X-B

F

18-20

–

+

–

–

Munshrif-Tripathy et al. 2011

Piklihal

VII

F

Ad

–

–

+

+

Ayer 1960

Yelleswaram

1/61

F

YA

+

+

–

–

2/61

M

Ad

+

+

–

–

4/61

F

Ad

?

+

–

–

1/62

M

Ad

–

+

–

–

2/62

F

Ad

–

msg

–

–

3/62

M

Ad

–

–

–

–

Sarkar 1972

1) age - in years; Abbreviations: Ad= adult; YA= young adult; M= male; F= female; msg = missing; – = data not available

267

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

of the sample (n=43). The facets were observed in five individuals; two females (DDM 13 and 36b) and three males (DDM 25, 33 and 36b). In the two females trait expression is bilateral, while the remaining three specimens preserve the facet on one side only (DDM 25 right, 33 and 36b left). In these, the opposite side is either missing or has suffered postmortem damage and flexion facets could not be assessed. Two specimens lacked flexion facets (DDM 12, bilaterally; DDM 37 left side, right missing distal epiphysis). Ankle flexion facets are present in 71.4% (n=7) of the DDM sample suitable for observation and in 7 of the 10 tibia that could be assessed. Small sample size undoubtedly introduces bias into this trait frequency, yet the facet is clearly present in the majority of individuals available for assessment. Thirty-six specimens (n=43, 83.7%) could not be assessed for AFF because tibia were missing or the relevant area of the distal epiphysis was: a) not preserved (msg), b) suffered postmortem damage (pmd), c) obscured by adhering matrix (mtx), or d) held in flexed articulation with the talus by matrix (art). Two were sub-adult (DDM 4 and 5) lacking epiphyses. These results show that the trait is common in the Damdama series. Comparative data on expression of the trait comes from sister sites Mahadaha and Sarai Nahar Rai where observations on squatting facets were made and reported by Kennedy and associates (1986, 1992). The following data (see Table 13.3) were compiled from these sources. In parallel with the DDM sample, many specimens in the skeletal sample from MDH (19 of 26; 73.1%) could not be evaluated for ankle flexion facets due to either missing tibias or damaged or missing distal tibias. Just seven of 26 individuals (26.9%) possessed tibia sufficiently well preserved to permit observations. Six individuals had ankle flexion facets, three males (MDH 8, 12, and 26) and two females (MDH 18 and 21) and one specimen of uncertain sex (MDH 22; Table 13.3, p. 265). Mahadaha is similar to Damdama in that flexion facets were observed in the majority (85.7%; n=7) of specimens with suitably preserved elements; in only one individual was the trait absent (MDH 2, bilateral absence).

with one or more complete tibiae available for study (Kennedy et al. 1986; Table 13.3): 1970 IV, 1972 X, 1973 II, and 1973 IV. In three specimens the trait is present bilaterally (1970 IV, 1973 II and1973 IV). The left tibia of specimen 1972 X is affected (right side missing). An AFF on the R tibia of SNR 4 (Kennedy’s spec no. 1970 IV) was noted in a re-study of the specimen (Munshrif-Tripathy et al. 2009). Ankle flexion facets (AFF) are commonly reported in human remains from prehistoric sites in South Asia. A tabular summary of the expression of AFF in archaeologically derived skeletal series is provided in Table 13.4. This documents the widespread distribution of the trait in space and time in ancient India. In sum, ankle flexion facets are a common feature in Holocene foragers of North India. In the specimens that can be assessed for the trait it is present in the majority (71.4% at DDM; 85.7% at MDH; and 100% at SNR). 13.4.7. Lingual cortical mandibular depressions (Stafne’s defect). The lingual surface of the mandible, including the body below the mylohyoid line and the medial, inferior surface of the ramus, could be observed in 23 individuals (13 bilaterally and 10 unilaterally; Table 13.1, p. 257). No trace of Stafne’s defect was found in this sample. In modern populations the frequency of Stafne’s defect has been hypothesized to vary inversely with latitude (Shields and Mann 1996; Shields 1998, 2000). The association asserts higher salivary gland function in low latitude groups living in tropical environments with high parasite loads. By contrast, high latitude groups are predicted to exhibit low frequencies of the defect due to lower parasite loads in colder environments. Some support for this hypothesis comes from a clinal pattern of Stafne’s defect in living populations. Damdama is located in the sub-tropics and the potential for pathogens is moderately high, yet the defect is not present. This finding conflicts with Shield’s (2000) hypothesis in that regard. However, the absence of Stafne’s defect is consistent with absence of skeletal indicators of nutritional stress (PH and CO) and infectious diseases (periostitis). Its absence may be partly explained as the result of low pathogen and parasite loads associated with a semi-nomadic settlement pattern.

Assessment of flexion facets in the Sarai Nahar Rai sample is difficult to gauge accurately. Though missing, incomplete and fragmentary tibia are common and coded as such in the catalog, preservation of relevant anatomy cannot be consistently determined. For example, complete tibia may not always preserve the distal tibia undamaged. AFF were reported present in all four SNR specimens

Lingual mandibular cortical defects have not been reported for either MDH or SNR, by Kennedy and associates (1986, 1992) or by (Sharma, A.K. 1980) precluding an inter-site comparison of Stafne’s defect.

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indicate hypermobility and frequent flexion and extension at the elbow joint.

13.5 Discussion: Markers of Stress and Activity Skeletal indicators of infectious and nutritional diseases were absent at DDM. Degenerative joint disease and trauma occurred in relatively low frequencies compared to late Holocene urban populations (Lovell 1994, 2014a,b; Schug et al. 2012a). The dietary diversity and nutritional quality of food resources available to a semi-nomadic foraging population in a lacustrine environment in the Ganga floodplain may be partly responsible for the absence of lesions suggesting nutritional deficiency (cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis), although even settled urban populations that relied heavily on agricultural products demonstrated a low prevalence of anemia (Lovell 1998). Small, relatively stable population size (Schug et al. 2012b) and a mobile settlement pattern are responsible for the lack of evidence for infectious diseases (periostitis), which were much more common in later urban populations in South Asia (Schug et al. 2013). Controversy exists regarding MLC settlement patterns. Sharma (1975), based on evidence from SNR, envisioned a seasonally transhumant pattern, while Varma (1981-83) interpreted the evidence from MDH to indicate greater sedentism with locally mobile groups (logistical mobility) pursuing wild game and ripe fruits, grains, and vegetables. In either case evidence from skeletal markers of the lower limb are interpreted to indicate functional robusticity due to an active and mobile pattern of behavior.

The presence and co-occurrence of well developed entheses on the posterior proximal surface of the tibia, ankle flexion facets of the distal anterior aspect of the tibia, and vascular channels along the periosteal surface of the diaphysis of the tibia, collectively suggest a high level of body movement and activity. These attributes should be viewed together with tall stature (see Chapter 12) and elongation in length of the leg relative to the thigh in the DDM series (Lukacs and Pal 2003). Entheses, flexion facets, vascular channels, limb elongation and tall stature may represent adaptations to a combination of stressors that include a highly active and mobile lifestyle that includes significant levels of locomotion, combined with rapid growth of osseous tissues and high degree of flexion of the talo-crural (ankle) joint. The frequent expression of musculo-skeletal indicators of stress in MDH and SNR series led Kennedy (2008: 18) to interpret these ‘markers of occupational stress’ as skeletal robustness resulting from “...the challenges of survival in harsh lifeways and environments.” Collectively this suite of morphological traits contributes to the impression of functional robusticity in the DDM skeletal system. An adaptive feature it shares with skeletal series from sister-sites MDH and SNR. 13.6 Summary: Skeletal Variation and Behavior

Well developed entheses of the forearm (pronator quadratus) and radio-humeral joint (radial tuberosity, supinator crest) indicate active flexion-extension and pronation-supination. These movements are consistent with extensive flexion and extension of the forearm at the elbow (Kennedy 1983, 1989). That these skeletal attributes co-occur at DDM with supratrochlear foramen provides further confirmation of strenuous flexion-extension at the elbow. Analysis of a large Medieval skeletal sample from Warrham Percy, England found supratrochlear foramen: a) occurred more frequently in females and on the left side, b) showed no association with humeral robusticity, c) formed by resorption from the anterior surface of the septum, and d) began to form early in adulthood (Mays 2008). In this study group, the trait likely results from impingement on the humeral septum by the coronoid and olecranon processes, primarily the former. The presence and frequency of supratrochlear foramen (septal aperture) in association with entheseal hypertrophy in MLC skeletal series may

Pathological lesions, activity markers, and skeletal variations have been documented in the DDM skeletal series. These variations provide valuable insights into the health, growth and behavioral activities of these inhabitants of the Ganga Plain. The results of analysis can be summarized in three main points: 1) Evidence of nutritional and infectious diseases are absent. The absence of pathological skeletal lesions from cranial and post-cranial remains suggests that the people of DDM were free from nutritional deficiencies and infectious diseases. In particular, the absence of porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia suggests the absence of iron deficiency anemia, while the lack of periostitis is interpreted to indicate that infectious diseases and trauma causing sub-periosteal proliferative bone formation were rare as well. In sum, the absence of skeletal indicators of poor diet and generalized infection in the people of DDM suggest a pattern of health commonly associated with mobile hunting and foraging societies.

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2) Traumatic lesions, markers of growth and indicators of habitual activity are informative. Bone fractures are uncommon suggesting that accidents, interpersonal violence, or inter-group conflict were not sufficiently common among the inhabitants of DDM to be well represented in their skeletal remains. Enthesial hypertrophy is evident in two main areas of the skeleton: the elbow (proximal ulna) and the leg (proximal tibia). These markers suggest that two repetitive behaviors were present: one involving use of the right forearm in forceful throwing (spears, sling stone?) and another involving habitual plantar flexion of the foot as in the propulsive phase of the human bipedal stride. Walking great distances carrying heavy loads is an activity that would elicit the musculoskeletal responses observed in the lower limb. These observations agree with the expression of ankle flexion facets in the majority of specimens at DDM and sister-sites MDH and SNR. The presence of

vascular channels in many tibia may reflect exuberant bone growth relative to nerves and blood vessels. The combination of multiple skeletal variants in tibia of DDM specimens (ankle flexion facets, EH, and vascular channels) suggests high levels activity in the lower limbs. These variants are consistent with and reflective of stresses associated with walking and load carrying, behaviors that are characteristic of seminomadic populations. 3) The people of DDM and sister-sites MDH and SNR were generally healthy and well adapted to their environment. Their skeletal pathology profile, pattern of trauma and activity markers are collectively consistent with a mobile foraging subsistence pattern and contrast dramatically with predictions for the expression of these variables among sedentary agriculturalists.

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14. The Bioarchaeology of Damdama: An Integrative Synthesis conditions that affected the foragers of Damdama. Attributes of post-cranial osteometry are analyzed in Part IV to yield insights regarding body size, such as stature and skeletal robusticity. Pathological lesions and skeletal indicators of activity and behavior are used to gain an appreciation of the relative health status and habitual patterns of behavior among the Mesolithic Damdamans.

14.1 Objectives of an Integrative Synthesis The chapters of this volume document the geophysical context, demographic structure and biological attributes of the human skeletal sample from Damdama. Each chapter concludes with a brief summary highlighting the main findings on each topic independently. This final assessment of the human remains from Damdama has two main objectives: a) to integrate observations and interpretations from individual chapters into a unified synthesis, and b) to assess how biological attributes of this series augment and illuminate key issues in anthropological theory.

While each section of this report focuses on different aspects of biological variation, there are numerous linkages between chapters within sections and between Parts of this study that are best compared and integrated in this final syntheses. For example, how do climate, ecology, demography and subsistence at DDM impact growth, activity patterns and types of diseases affecting the population? Similarly, craniometric and dental morphologic variations were used to assess biological affinities of Damdamans in Chapters 8 and 11, respectively. To what degree do these assessments provide consensus or conflicting views on biological relationships? Are interpretations of general health, such as dental indicators of growth disruption (linear enamel hypoplasia) consistent with estimates of stature and skeletal robusticity? These questions are not addressed within topically focused chapters of the report, yet integration of independent measures of stress, growth, and biological variation are essential to achieve a synthetic and holistic picture of the biological adaptations of the people of Damdama (Fig. 14.1).

The first objective is synthetic and integrative in the following ways. Part I, for example, is devoted to regional and site-specific settings and the archaeological features of Damdama. Chapters in this section provide a synoptic description of the geologic, paleogeographic, and paleoclimatic attributes of the mid-Ganga Plain as well as the main features of the local ecology, chronology and subsistence that characterize the site of Damdama. Part II documents the nature of skeletal preservation from macro- and microscopic perspectives, and provides an inventory of skeletal elements from DDM that were available for study. It also characterizes the demographic structure of the skeletal sample giving the basis for attributing estimates of age and sex for each specimen using macroscopic skeletal and dental variables as well as histological indicators of age from dental cementum. Cranial, mandibular and dental variation are the topics of Part III, which documents metric and non-metric biological variation and uses these data to characterize phenotypic features of the people of DDM. The data presented in this section are used to gain insight into the biological affinities of the Damdamans with other prehistoric and living South Asian groups. Craniometric data and the frequency of non-metric morphological traits of the tooth crown are used in these analyses. Similarly, the type and prevalence of dental diseases are used to understand the developmental stresses and degenerative

The second objective is to place these new data on biological variation among semi-sedentary foragers of North India within key theoretical issues in biological anthropology. A few of the theoretical issues addressed in this synthesis are: a) health and subsistence, b) biological affinities and populations history, c) skeletal robusticity, behavior and climate, and d) habitual activities, behavior, and skeletal stress markers. An analysis of biological changes associated with the transition in subsistence from foraging to farming has been richly documented beginning with 271

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Figure 14.1. Integration of topics yields a synthetic perspective on the bioarchaeology of Damdama the seminal volume entitled, Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture (Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Since the inception of this research paradigm the cost of adopting a sedentary farming mode of subsistence has been elaborated (Cohen 1989) and expanded to incorporate new data from Asia and Africa (Cohen and Crane-Kramer 2007). Importantly, new perspectives derived from regions dependent on rice, have shown that the biological consequences of agriculture are complex and regionally variable (Tayles et al. 2000, 2009). What insights can be gained by interpreting biological attributes of Damdamans within the theoretical predictions of a subsistence transition model? Do the skeletal and dental variables and pathology profiles of the Damdamans align more closely with expectations for nomadic, hunting and foraging groups or with profiles predicted for sedentary groups reliant on farming?

Mahadaha and Sarai Rahar Rai have figured in discussions of robusticity (Kennedy 2008). Data on post-cranial osteometry and enthesial development were first related to issues of skeletal robusticity in the DDM skeletons by Lukacs and Pal (2003). New approaches, new data and a revised interpretation of skeletal robusticity at DDM are presented in Chapters 12 and 13. Given these preliminary considerations, three areas of enquiry were selected as the main foci for this integrative synthesis: a) environment, subsistence and human biology, b) biological affinities and population history, and c) activity, behavior and skeletal robusticity. Archaeological models of mobility, culture change, and group interaction in Mesolithic South Asia provide useful perspectives for understanding cultural features of Ganga foragers (Bhattacharya 1992, 2002; Chattopadhyaya 2008; Khanna 1993). However, this integrative synthesis focuses on the biological attributes and adaptations of human skeletal remains from Damdama and how they relate to broader issues and theories in biological anthropology.

Another theoretical issue that the Damdama sample may contribute to is the question of skeletal robusticity, physical activity and adaptation to climate. Critical issues of contention in this controversy are the meaning and definition of skeletal robusticity and the extent to which behavior, climate, body size, and genetic factors contribute to gracile or robust skeletal attributes. Collier (1989) and Pearson (2000) approached skeletal robusticity from very different perspectives: forensic identification and the origin of anatomically modern humans, respectively. Mesolithic Lake Culture (MLC) skeletal series from

14.2 Environment, Subsistence and Human Biology This section adopts an autecological perspective (Odum 1971). The web of interactions between one species, Homo sapiens - as represented by the early Holocene foragers of North India, and all components of their environment is the broad topic concern. 272

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Theoretically, a clearer understanding of human biological attributes, such as the pattern of disease, skeletal growth and robusticity, tooth size, and body dimensions will be clarified when viewed within the web of life and flow of energy that existed in the midGanga Plain during the early Holocene.

resource-rich areas for prehistoric human foragers comes from the Neolithic site of Houjiayao, Niehwan Basin, China (Li et al. 2014). Evidence for the value of broad-spectrum foraging that includes resources such as roots, tubers, bulbs and rhizomes comes from an analysis of Neolithic subsistence economy in Inner Mongolia (Liu et al. 2014). This view contrasts with the broad consensus on the importance of cereal grains in Neolithic subsistence. These studies raise the possibility that underground storage organs may have been an important food source for Mesolithic Lake Culture people of North India. In addition to wild cereal grains, roots and tubers may have been processed on mullers and querns either as a ‘fallback foods’ or as a dietary supplement to wild grains.

A diverse mix of geologic, climatic and biologic evidence suggests that the mid-Ganga Plain was a diverse and productive ecosystem in the early Holocene (ca. 9,000 - 8,000 BP). The Himalayan foredeep was filled with mineral-rich sediment derived mainly from erosion of the uplifted Himalayas to the north, but also from the more ancient Gondwana outcrops to the south. This deep and rich sediment was deposited on an uneven base, but the surface topography of the Ganga Plain is composed of giant alluvial mega-fans derived from the Himalaya and major rivers, Yumna and Ganga, that dissect this alluvial plain. These rich alluvial sediments, combined with sub-tropical solar intensity produced a landscape with an abundant and diverse flora and fauna. A critical component of this landscape is the presence of cut-off channels of the meandering Ganga River. These oxbow lakes supported an ecologically productive and diverse flora and fauna including many varieties of plants and species of fish, reptiles, and mammals that were collected and hunted by the occupants of Damdama. The richness and ecological productivity of the mid-Ganga fluvial and lacustrine environments provided adequate sustenance to support semi-sedentary settlement of the site. The long-term occupation of DDM is inferred from archaeological inferences, including the depth of occupational deposits, the presence of nontransportable food processing tools (querns and mullers) and the alignment of human burials.

What are the implications of a rich and productive riparian ecosystem like this for the human population that co-exists with it? This question has many possible, yet intertwined answers that encompass a range of human biological attributes. These include, but are not limited to: a) subsistence, diet, nutrition, b) type and frequency of diseases, c) cranial and dental attributes, and d) skeletal growth, robusticity and adaptations. 14.2.1. Subsistence, diet and nutrition. Evidence of long-term occupation at Damdama, coupled with reliance on hunting-foraging practices and supplemental archaeological insights suggests a successful logistical foraging strategy (Kelly 1992). The oxbow lake adjacent to the site provided a rich diversity of dietary resources with an emphasis on freshwater turtle (Chelonia). These components of the diet were supplemented by mammal species found at a greater distance. The subsistence pattern at DDM is interpreted to be ‘broad-spectrum’ in that a wide range of wild plant and animal species were collected and hunted. There is no evidence for plant domestication or for animal husbandry at DDM or at either ‘sister-site’ MDH or SNR.

Support for key components of subsistence at Damdama emphasize the richness and biological productivity of shallow water ecosystems and the adaptive value of broad-spectrum foraging. In a seminar on the value of ‘fallback foods’ as critical to survival of non-human primates, shallow water habitats are proposed as a significant resource for early hominins during periods of drought (Wrangham et al. 2009). As shallow water habitats, oxbow lakes have high plant growth rates, abundant underground storage organs (tubers, roots, bulbs), and year-round resource availability. Shallow lakes may also attract migratory birds, serve as a source of drinking water for herbivorous mammals, and support a diverse reptilian fauna including turtles. Archaeological support for the value of oxbow lake habitats as

The study of diet and nutrition in non-human primates, Paleolithic human ancestors, and modern hunter-gatherers conclusively suggests that diets including wild foods, both plant and animal, promote healthy lives (Cohen 1989; Eaton et al. 1988; Milton 2000). Diets including wild foods are beneficial because they have low digestible energy density paired with unique features of human gut physiology (Aiello and Wheeler 1995; Milton 2002). Nutritional deficiency diseases are found to be rare in huntergatherers in part because broad-spectrum foraging results in diets that contain an abundance and 273

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diversity of essential nutrients. Archaeological evidence from faunal and botanical remains show that only wild species of plant and animal foods were consumed at DDM. This suggests a successful foraging strategy that exploited diverse food resources that provided an adequate, yet varied diet. Food preparation technology at DDM was basic: meat was roasted and wild grains were ground to flour using stone mullers and querns. Modern ‘diseases of affluence’ or ‘diseases of civilization’, including cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, and obesity, are either rare or non-existent in modern huntergatherers. Evidence derived from the skeletons confirms the nutritional adequacy of the diet of Damdamans in several important ways: pathological skeletal lesions indicate nutritional deficiency diseases were absent, dental adaptations suggest a coarse and abrasive diet, tall stature was attained by males and females, and lesions associated with infectious disease are absent.

disruptions in enamel development. Another explanation that may account for this discrepancy is that ‘catch-up growth’ was possible during periods when dietary resources were abundant and of sufficient nutritional quality to sustain recovery of any growth deficits incurred during periods of illness or food shortage. In sum, the biological attributes of human skeletons from Mesolithic Damdama are consistent with expectations derived from subsistence theory in the following ways: a) dental attributes, such as heavy occlusal tooth wear, tooth dislocation and large tooth size, imply a tough, coarse diet of wild foods with modest food processing, b) a dental pathology profile characterized by low caries rates, abscesses and tooth loss resulted from exposure of the pulp chamber due to severe attrition, suggest an unrefined diet requiring powerful or persistent mastication, c) anatomical structure of the jaws and bones supporting muscles of mastication are robust and independently imply forceful closure of the jaws in dietary and, or occupational functions, d) pathological lesions of the skeleton lack indicators of nutritional deficiency or infectious disease, suggesting dietary sufficiency in essential nutrients, small group size, and a mobile settlement pattern, respectively, and e) skeletal growth during childhood and adolescence permitted attainment of tall stature by adulthood implying a nutritional adequate diet and ample opportunity for ‘catch-up’ growth when deficits occurred.

Pathological lesions often associated with nutritional deficiency diseases such as cribra orbitalia and prototic hyperostosis are absent from DDM crania. This observation suggests that iron deficiency was absent, but also implies that iron-depleting parasites were not a threat diminishing the health status of Damdamans. Large tooth size and heavy dental wear provide confirmation that wild food resources were simply prepared and required forceful mastication. The powerful structure of the jaws and cranio-facial anatomy associated with mastication also suggests a coarse diet that was abrasive in nature.

These findings are interpreted to reflect the stresses and advantages of a population whose biological adaptations are mediated by a semi-nomadic lifestyle of hunting and foraging. These biological attributes are contingent upon a diet that is diverse and composed of wild plant and animal resources that are simply and minimally prepared, yet provide an array of essential nutrients and fulfill caloric needs. Evidence of growth disruption is present in multiple stress events in enamel formation, yet full growth potential and tall stature was realized. This suggests a successful subsistence strategy was in place for exploitation of a productive shallow-water, oxbow lake environment in the greater Ganga floodplain.

The observation that adults of both sexes attained tall stature (female 167.8 cm; male 178.7 cm) implies that the diet provided adequate resources to sustain growth through childhood and adolescence. By contrast, evidence of growth disruption during youth was derived from linear enamel hypoplasia of the permanent teeth. This observation appears to contradict the link between tall stature and a diverse nutritious diet. Many individuals exhibit multiple linear hypoplastic defects. Of the 25 individuals exhibiting LEH, 22 (88%) had two or more defects. Two individuals had as many as five LEH events, implying repeated – possibly seasonal – disruptions in growth. Because bone and dental enamel may respond to nutritional stress or infectious disease stress in different ways, dental evidence of enamel growth disruption does not unequivocally indicate skeletal growth disruption (May et al. 1993). It is apparent that skeletal growth yielded tall stature in Damdama adults and that this was attained despite evidence of

14.3 Biological Affinities and Population History Given the extraordinary biological, cultural and linguistic diversity of the people of South Asia, it is not surprising that many questions remain unanswered about when and by whom the subcontinent was settled. The post-Pleistocene population history of 274

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South Asia is increasingly inferred from diverse types of genetic data gathered from living groups, in part because fossil and archaeological evidence for early periods (Upper Paleolithic) are scarce and unevenly distributed (Bovin et al. 2013). As genetic data become increasingly abundant and genome-wide data supplement uniparental genetic analyses (mt DNA, Ychromosome DNA) the population history of ancient India is becoming clearer (Majumder and Basu 2015; Pugach and Stoneking 2015). For example, most Indian groups are now thought to derive from two parental populations: Ancestral North Indians (ANI) related to Central Asians, Middle Easterners, Caucasians, and Europeans; and Ancestral South Indians (ASI) not closely related to groups outside the subcontinent (Moorjani et al. 2013; Reich et al. 2009). The ASI population has greater antiquity in the subcontinent and genetic evidence (from linkage disequilibrium) suggests ANI-ASI admixture dates range from about 1,900 to 4,200 years ago.

variation (Hemphill 2013; Hemphill et al. 1991). The biological affinities of Damdama could be assessed by multivariate analysis of two sets of variables: cranial measurements and non-metric variation of tooth crown morphology. A comparison of the results of these analyses is presented, salient findings summarized and new perspectives on the population history of ancient India discussed. Two cluster analyses of craniometric data were conducted using different comparative samples. In the first analysis, a close relationship exists between DDM and MDH with SNR linking at a greater distance. This implication of a close biological relationship among the Mesolithic Lake Culture sites was expected due to inter-site similarities in material culture, settlement pattern and overall skeletal attributes. The Neolithic site of Burzahom in Kashmir shows an affiliation with this group. The other main cluster identified in this analysis is distantly removed from the MLC cluster and includes Indus Civilization sites (Harappa - AB and R37; Mohenjo-daro) and three sites in peninsular India (Additanalur, Brahmagiri, Nevasa), and Timargarha. These sites are later in time and may reflect southward population movement or admixture of northern and southern groups over time as genetic evidence predicts. This analysis also agrees with patterns of biological affinity derived from dental morphology as discusssed below.

Prospects for recovering ancient DNA (aDNA) from human bone preserved in archaeological contexts in India are not promising (Kumar et al. 2000). When organic residue is recovered from prehistoric bone, ruling out recent sources of DNA such as fungi and bacteria that act in decomposing bone post-burial is difficult. The organic component of bone (collagen) degrades and fragments rapidly in highly seasonal environments and is unlikely to provide meaningful new data to assist in reconstructing the population history of South Asia. Extreme seasonal fluctuations in temperature and rainfall characteristic of monsoon India contribute to the rapid and complete degradation of the organic fraction of bone precluding the recovery of usable aDNA from archaeological human bone samples. Though successful extraction of aDNA from bovine bone (2000 BC - AD 1000) is promising (Singh et al. 2011), the greater the antiquity of a sample the less likely are prospects for recovering undegraded DNA.

The second analysis of craniometric data used a different set of sites in the comparison. DDM shows a distant linkage with Indus Valley sites and sites in southwest Asia. Surprisingly, MDH appears in a separate cluster than DDM, and links closely with Nepali and Tibetan samples to the north and Veddahs to the south. These analyses yield contrasting perspectives on the biological composition of MLC series. The first analysis suggests a close biological relationship exists among the three key sites: DDM, MDH and SNR, where as the second analysis sees DDM and MHD as distantly related. It may be that variable and small sample sizes for some prehistoric groups is partly responsible for this disparity.

The composition of human bone from DDM illustrates this problem well. Bone samples from 21 specimens were analyzed and consistently yielded less than 0.02% collagen (Geochron Labs, Krueger, 1995). By contrast, normal bone typically has between 12% and 25% collagen. For this reason, AMS 14 C dates and stable carbon isotope values for DDM were based on carbon from structural apatite, not from collagen (Lukacs et al. 1996; Lukacs 2002).Thus, the analysis of biological affinities and reconstruction of human population history in ancient India continues to rely primarily on metric and non-metric dental and cranial

Results of bio-distance analyses using data from dental morphology relied on two methods: cluster analysis and mean measure of divergence. A selection of global and South Asian groups, living and prehistoric, were included in these analyses. Due to limitations of sample size, dental data for MLC sites were merged into a single sample for the analysis. In 275

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the global analysis MLC sites are collectively compared with selected living groups as well as prehistoric South Asian series. The world-wide comparative sample results in the close clustering of the MLC sample with a group that includes prehistoric South Asians and eastern and western Europeans. This result is consistent with genomewide predictions that identify an Ancestral North Indian parental group.

interaction (protective buttressing). The analysis of skeletal robusticity is frequently focused in reference to specific regions of the skeleton: cranial vs. postcranial, or upper vs. lower limb. As discussed earlier (Chapter 12) it may be helpful to consider questions about the relative robusticity of a skeletal series by how it is defined or measured. Is skeletal robusticity osteometrically determined, or is the issue one of ‘muscularity’, in which the size and roughness of muscular attachments (origins and insertions) is the index of robustness? The ‘type’, ‘definition’, or ‘mode of measurement’ of robusticity has a significant impact on whether a skeletal sample is considered robust, gracile or somewhere along the continuum between extreme expressions. Overall, the impact of changes in human subsistence from mobile, hunting and gathering to sedentary farming has resulted in a process known as ‘gracilization’ or reduction in robusticity of the cranial and post-cranial skeleton (Larsen 1995, 2006; Ruff 2006).

When the MLC sample is compared with living tribal and Hindu castes and with selected ancient Indian samples the outcome is informative. Living castes and tribes exhibit regional geographic clusters for the northwest (RAJ, BHL, GRS) and central India samples (MRT, MDA, MHR), which implies intergroup gene flow between high and low caste groups and tribal populations. MLC clusters most closely in the mean measure of divergence analysis with a tribal group, the Chenchu, from Andhra Pradesh a state in eastern peninsular India. This outcome is provocative because it contradicts some earlier analyses of biological affinities based on osteology (Kennedy 2000) and because it suggests that the early Holocene people of DDM may have had an ancestral role in contributing to tribal populations of modern India (Lukacs and Pal 2013). This result appears to be consistent with genomic reconstructions of population movement in that a general pattern of movement of breeding groups or genes flowed from north to south over the course of time (Pugach and Stoneking 2015). The Chenchu may represent a living ASI population that has derived genetic input from older, indigenous populations represented by the early Holocene foragers of the mid-Ganga Plain. Recovery of aDNA from well preserved early Holocene samples may one day help clarify these relationships.

14.4.1. Cranial robusticity. Cranial robusticity is thought to be influenced by many synergistic factors including: a) adaptation to dietary toughness and subsistence strategy (Larsen 1995, 1997; Noback and Havarti 2015), b) use of anterior teeth in grasping or gripping in non-dietary occupational activity (Molnar 1972, Wolpoff 1980), c) the result of endocrine changes in response to cold and harsh environments (Bernal et al. 2006), and d) protective buttressing in response to inter-personal violence (Carrier and Morgan 2015), for example. The implication is that the process of gracilization, that accompanies the transition from foraging to farming results from a reduction in biomechanical loading (stress and strain) on both cranial and post-cranial skeletal elements (Ryan and Shaw 2015). The complex interaction of diet, subsistence, food preparation, non-dietary use of teeth as tools, climate, and inter-personal interaction preclude inferring direct uni-causal linkages between degree of robusticity and any specific behavior. For example, one study found only weak support for an association between mastication and cranial robusticity and cautioned that groups with mechanically demanding diets (hunter-gatherers) were not always more robust than groups practicing agriculture (Baab et al. 2010).

14.4 Skeletal Robusticity: Types and Causes Is the skeletal morphology of the Damdama mortuary sample robust? This question appears straightforward, yet it cannot be answered until more precisely stated and operationally tested. The question is important because it is central to understanding the impact of activity, diet, climate and subsistence on human biology. The combined influences of semi-nomadic mobility, hunting and foraging subsistence, and a diet of lightly prepared but diverse and nutritious foods place Damdama at a critical point in the transition from hunter to farmer. Questions about the skeletal robusticity of the DDM series are linked to the selective pressures resulting from mastication (diet), locomotion (mobility), and potentially, inter-personal

The trend from robust to gracile cranial morphology accompanying the transition from forager to farmer includes shorter and rounder cranial vaults, smaller and more posteriorly placed faces, general reduction in size and rugosity of faces and jaws. The mechanism(s) responsible for the reduction in cranial 276

The Bioarchaeology of Damdama: An Integrative Synthesis

robusticity are "progressive alterations in maxillomandibular growth in response to developmental variation in the size and position of the muscles of mastication" with the shift to the consumption of softer, processed, agricultural foods (Carlson and VanGerven 1977:574). These changes include an integrated mix of alterations in cranial size and shape, and importantly implicate attachment sites of muscles of mastication. These adaptive shifts in morphology have been independently verified by many investigators (cited in Larsen 1995, 2006) and have been tested, refined and reaffirmed using 14 geographically widespread populations (Baab et al. 2010).

In sum, cranial and mandibular morphology of the DDM skeletal series can be accurately characterized as robust. The size, shape and rugosity of structural features that buttress the skull may be seen primarily as adaptations to a diet of wild food sources that have coarse texture, in part because they are minimally processed or relatively unrefined. An additional factor selecting for robust cranial and mandibular structures is the use of anterior teeth in a forceful manipulative capacity in occupational rather than dietary functions. Heavy anterior dental wear and antemortem chipping of the enamel of anterior teeth suggest anterior tooth loading was an important function of the jaws. Structural buttressing of the mandible (corpus, symphysis, rami), maxilla (alveolar bone), mid-face (breadth, zygoma, entheses), upper face (supra-orbital and glabella), nuchal plate (size and entheses), and temporal bone (mastoid and supra-mastoid) are interpreted to result from the combined stresses of mastication of tough food and non-dietary loading of anterior teeth. The protective buttressing hypothesis for cranial robusticity is difficult to assess for Damdama and nearby ‘sister-sites’. However, archaeological evidence of stone projectile points in bone in association with skeletons from DDM and SNR suggest that inter-personal conflict occurred (see Chapter 1, p. 3). However, the frequency and intensity of intra- or inter-group conflict cannot be accurately determined for MLC samples. Despite the absence of skeletal evidence for cranio-facial trauma, the possibility exists that cranial robusticity in these series may result in part from selection for protection from aggressive blows to the face, as proposed by Carrier and Morgan (2015).

Cranial morphology in the Damdama sample conforms well with attributes regarded as indicating robust structure. In cranial shape, skulls are long. In architecture they are well-buttressed with strongly built and rugose zygoma, nuchal plates, temporal lines, supra-mastoid eminences, and prominent supraorbital and glabellar development. Mandibular structure is robust in many ways as well, exhibiting traits such as: thick corpora with prominent lateral eminences, tall and broad ascending rami with everted and often rugose gonia, and symphyses that are deep and well buttressed. Overall, cranial and mandibular structure is robust in metric dimensions as well as in the expression of muscle attachment sites (entheses). This mosaic of robust cranial attributes is functionally associated with large teeth, heavy anterior dental wear and robust mandibular structure. This structural complex at Damdama represents a distinctive pattern that is consistent with the ‘anterior tooth loading hypothesis’, a model that functionally integrates diverse cranio-dental adaptations of pre-modern early hominins. Advanced by Wolpoff (1980: 178, 208) as an adaptive model for the origin of Homo erectus’ cranial morphology, anterior tooth loading and cranial strengthening may continue to have adaptive significance in later hominins. This would have relevance for Neandertals and modern humans that are constrained by limited or inefficient technology. Challenges to the claim that anterior tooth loading applies to Neandertals are unconvincing (Clement et al. 2012). At Damdama the absence of ceramics and the geometric microlithic stone tool technology was augmented by the functional use of teeth as tools in non-dietary activities. This adaptation is analogous to the pattern documented in a Canadian Inuit population by Merbs (1983). The ‘teeth as tools’ adaptation contributes to the level of robusticity in the craniofacial and mandibular structures of the Damdama skeletal series.

14.4.2. Post-cranial robusticity. Is the post-cranial anatomy of the Damdama skeletal series robust? Do bones of the upper and lower extremities exhibit robusticity to the same extent as crania and mandibles? Again the answer depends on the type and measure of robusticity used and on the part of the skeleton under study. The short answer is that some functional components of the skeleton are robust if indicators of muscularity are the criteria for evaluation, though other functional complexes of the skeleton may remain gracile in structure. Likewise, if osteometric measures of robusticity are used DDM post-crania exhibit both gracile and robust structure depending on the sites and elements examined. In human osteology standardized biometric measures of robusticity historically preceded the adoption of functional measures that rely on the size, texture, and pathology of muscle attachment sites. Robusticity of 277

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

post-cranial skeletal structure at DDM was evaluated using both approaches: osteometry (Chapter 12) and entheseal change (Chapter 13). The objective of this section is to compare and integrate the results derived from different approaches to post-cranial robusticity with regard to DDM. And also, to establish any functional linkages between robusticity and other aspects of skeletal variation in this skeletal series.

gracile morphology of the limbs. This seems to contradict other indicators of robusticity (entheseal change or markers of occupations stress) and is at times perplexing or difficult to reconcile (Kennedy 2008). However, as shown below, both measures of robust skeletal structure (osteometric and entheseal) are valid, yet yield different information and insights regarding past behaviors and must be interpreted independently of one another.

14.4.2.1. Osteometric robusticity. Indices of epiphyseal and diaphyseal robusticity were applied primarily to proximal elements of the upper (humerus) and lower (femur) limbs. Poor preservation of distal limb segments precluded accurate estimation of robusticity for the radius-ulna and tibia-fibula. The humerus in the DDM sample produced mean deltoid (mid-diaphyseal) and distal epiphyseal robusticity values that were gracile, clustered with warm climate groups and were most similar to data for Australian aboriginals. Robusticity of DDM femora was limited to males and analyzed using formulae from Collier (1989) and Pearson (2000). The results were consistent in showing that articular robusticity is low for DDM and ‘sister-sites’ MDH and SNR, and that collectively MLC sites exhibit lower articular robusticity than other groups, and are similar to aboriginal Australians in this attribute. By contrast, in diaphyseal robusticity, DDM femora are more robust than ‘sister-site’ samples and aboriginal Australians, yet less robust than riverine Eskimos. Indices of humerus and femur robusticity suggest that DDM and SNR are more similar in this aspect of skeletal structure than either is to MDH. Several conclusions can be derived from the osteometric analysis of postcranial robusticity: a) epiphyses are gracile (low index of robusticity), b) diaphyses are more robust than epiphyses, but intermediate with respect to comparative samples, and c) MLC sites show similarities with warm climate samples and with Australian aboriginals. This pattern of post-cranial robusticity results from the combined selective influences of a semi-nomadic mobility pattern, a seasonally hot and arid climate, and a hunting and foraging mode of subsistence. The gracile nature of native Australian post-cranial morphology was an unexpected result of Collier’s (1989) analyses of aboriginal robusticity. Likewise, the large size and structural solidity of the DDM post-cranial skeleton combined with preservational attributes (heavy mineralization and weight of individual elements) gives the initial impression of a high level of skeletal robusticity. However, the validity of osteometric measures of assessing skeletal robusticity are well defined, standardized and reveal a non-robust or

14.4.2.2. Entheseal changes: Robusticity and activity. The analysis of entheseal changes (EC, hypertrophy, robusticity) in the DDM series was conducted using standards of analysis developed prior to the recent fluoresence of attention to the topic (Hawkey and Merbs 1995; Robb 1998). The use of EC in reconstructing life ways and occupations has been critically re-evaluated with regard to terminology, theory, methods and applications (Henderson and Cardoso 2013). Contributions to this special issue represent advancements and cautions that should improve the quality of research on activity and behavior in past populations. An analytic review of the use of enthesis robusticity in inferring activity in past populations considered research in anatomical sciences, bio-mechanics and sports medicine and found that little is known about the processes causing variation in the structure and rugosity of entheses (Foster et al. 2014). The review concluded that any interpretation of activity from enthesis robusticity should be approached with caution. This advice was heeded here in the analysis and interpretation of EC in the DDM skeletons. Examination of EC in the post-cranial skeleton found that there were specific locations in the upper and lower limbs that showed hypertrophic or robust entheses. Entheseal changes due to pathology (enthesopathies) were not specifically observed, yet in Chapter 13 hypertrophic entheses were identified at the proximal and distal radius-ulna, and at the posterior (popliteal) surface of the proximal tibia. In the proximal forearm, the radial tuberosity (biceps brachii insertion), supinator crest (supinator insertion) and anconeus (insertion) exhibited well developed EC (Hawkey and Merbs 1995, grades 3 and 4). While in the distal forearm the ulna frequently had a prominent longitudinal ridge at the site of the origin of the pronator quadratus (grades 3 and 4). In the tibia the soleal line, demarcating the origin of the soleus muscle, was developed as a rugose elevation (Hawkey and Merbs 1995, grade 3) or as a prominent ridge-like crest (grade 4). These EC indicate that habitual or powerful movements were common in: a) the 278

The Bioarchaeology of Damdama: An Integrative Synthesis

extension, supination and pronation of the forearm, and b) in the lower limb plantar flexion of the foot by contraction of the soleus muscle. EC in the upper limb suggest movements involving overhand throwing of projectiles and in the lower limb, long periods of walking, climbing, or carrying heavy loads. The expression of palmar ridges on proximal and intermediate manual phalanges in 31% of the DDM sample suggests that a powerful grasp was associated with the development of robust entheses of the forearm. Bony ridges of the palmar surface of manual phalanges are flexor muscle insertion sites, exhibit characteristics of enthesophytes, and when well developed suggest powerful grasping ability (PanchalKildare and Malone 2013).

14.5 Conclusions and Prospects This research has extended knowledge of early Holocene foragers of the Ganga Plain in new and important ways. The data presented in this volume yield a mix of new and sometimes unexpected insights into the biological diversity, adaptations and affinities of the semi-nomadic stone age foragers of North India. The following list enumerates the more salient findings derived from this study. 14.5.1. Context: Chrono-eco-geographic setting. The location of the site of Damdama geographically and temporally enhances its significance in South Asian prehistory. The early Holocene (8800 - 8000 BP) represents a period for which few data are available and for which samples are small in size. Placement of the site on a local elevation (safe from flooding), yet adjacent to a resource-rich shallow-water basin insured successful foraging and enhanced prospects for survival of the DDM foragers. The abundance and diversity of plant and animal food resources associated with Ganga floodplain ecosystem provided a rich and varied diet that sustained the occupants of DDM in both quantity and essential nutrients.

These insights reveal aspects of activity and behavior that are consistent with evidence reported previously for MDH and SNR (Kennedy et al. 1986, 1992). The objective of this integrative syntheses is to examine how these EC relate to other skeletal indicators of activity and behavior at Damdama (referred to as ‘markers of occupational stress’ or MOS; Kennedy 1989, 1998). Multiple features of skeletal morphology suggest that bone growth was adaptive and responsive to stresses of life: tall stature, long limb bones, vascular channels of the tibia, and robust entheses. This adaptive growth was enabled by broad spectrum foraging, and a diverse and nutritious diet extracted by DDM foragers from the productive shallow water ecosystems of the Ganga floodplain.

14.5.2. Sample composition and preservation. The skeletal sample recovered from DDM provides the largest number of specimens of early Holocene foragers in southern Asia. The ample representation of skeletal elements provides a firm basis for statistical analysis of many biological attributes of the DDM sample, observations that were not possible for the smaller skeletal samples from MDH and SNR. Though well mineralized many elements suffered postmortem diagenesis or have sediments adhering to bone surfaces limiting some aspects of the study. Taphonomic analysis revealed preservation biases that were attributed to variation in burial posture and postmortem disturbance by micro-organisms and by humans. Histological analysis revealed internal damage to bone microstructure and trace element analysis suggests micro-organisms altered bone chemistry postmortem in unexpected ways.

In the upper limb, well developed entheses in the forearm co-occur with the presence of supratrochlear foramen of the distal humerus. These seemingly contradictory attributes: hypertrophic entheses (proliferative bone accretion) and perforation of the supratrochlear plate (lytic bone resorption) are interpreted as complementary evidence of active, habitual flexion and extension of the forearm at the elbow joint. In the lower limb, entheseal robusticity of the soleal line is associated with vascular channels of the tibial diaphysis and with ankle flexion facets (squatting facets) of the distal tibia. These markers may be associated with one another and indicate adaptation to a life of frequent and possibly long distance bipedal locomotion. Adaptive responses may have included episodic exuberant periods of long bone growth (tibial diaphysis more rapid than vascular system, for example), a bipedal stride that was habitual and of long-duration, or with occasionally heavy loads (hypertrophy of the soleal line), and locomotion on an uneven substrate or that involved hilly terrain (ankle flexion facets).

14.5.3. Cranio-facial variation and adaptation. In morphometric variation, cranial, facial and mandibular features of DDM exhibit many similarities to ‘sister-sites’ MDH and SNR. Broad facial dimensions are associated with long-narrow crania and medium to large endocranial capacities. Orbit shape, palates and cranial height show greater variability. Cranio-facial variation was used to estimate biological affinities and to infer masticatory 279

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

functions and stresses. In one analysis of bio-distance DDM clustered with other Holocene foragers of North India. Cranio-facial and mandibular dimensions, structures, and enthesis development suggest forceful mastication in response to oral processing of a tough textured diet and to habitual stresses in non-dietary, occupational tasks. Analysis of pathological lesions of the cranium found no evidence of trauma or lesions suggesting either nutritional deficiencies or infectious diseases (cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis). Skeletal evidence suggests that aggressive interpersonal conflict, chronic nutritional stress and infectious diseases were uncommon at Damdama.

lower than prior estimates using less appropriate reference samples, stature remains tall and is interpreted as a response to selective pressures of locomotion and a seasonally hot and arid climate. The composite phenotype at DDM consists of an array of biological attributes that includes tall stature, large teeth and jaws, robust entheses, and gracile limbs. Interestingly, MLC samples of North India are significantly taller than western European Mesolithic groups, and tend to be taller than eastern Europeans. 14.5.6. Post-cranial adaptations. Documenting variation in post-cranial traits included observation of pathological lesions, metric and non-metric skeletal variables. Evidence of generalized infection (periostitis) is lacking and osteoarthritic lesions and fractures are rare suggesting that disease, occupational stress and trauma are uncommon. Bones of the upper and lower extremity are relatively long, but with relatively modest epiphyses. This combination of traits suggests the post-cranial skeleton is not robust but gracile in structure. Entheseal changes however indicate that some components of the post-cranial skeleton (forearm, elbow, leg, and ankle) are adapted to frequent, repetitive and powerful movement.

14.5.4. Dental adaptations. Tooth wear, dental morphology, tooth size and pathology reveal insights regarding adaptations to diet, biological affinities, and generalized systemic stress during development. Tooth wear is heavy and associated with dislocation of post-canine teeth suggesting an abrasive diet. Heavy wear of anterior teeth imply frequent use of teeth as tools in manipulative and non-dietary functions. Large tooth size (total crown area = 1383.0 mm2) is consistent with a selective response to heavy masticatory stress. The dental morphology of a composite MLC sample yielded estimates of affinity that varied with the composition of the comparative samples. In global context MLC clusters with Europeans and prehistoric South Asians, but within South Asia the cluster included a living tribal group (Chenchu) and a Neolithic Pakistani sample (MR 3).

In sum, the people of DDM exhibit skeletal evidence of long-term and successful adaptation to a riparian ecosystem of the Ganga River. Skeletons available for study are large framed (tall and sturdily built): crania and mandibles are large and associated with large but morphologically simple teeth. Pathological indicators of infectious disease are absent or rare. Biomechanical stress of mastication is clearly apparent in the structure of teeth, jaws and crania. Post-cranial robusticity and markers of activity are evident in specific functional complexes: namely the elbow, forearm and hand, and in the leg and ankle. These attributes result from biomechanical forces involved in movements at the elbow and wrist, such as throwing and forearm supination and extension, and in the leg and ankle with stresses of bipedal locomotor.

In dental pathology, Damdamans exhibit a profile consistent with an abrasive, unrefined, low carbohydrate diet: low caries rates, intermediate frequency of abscesses, antermortem tooth loss and pulp exposure, and higher rates of alveolar recession and calculus. Systemic disruptions to normative development are indicated by the high frequency of linear enamel hypoplasia. Most affected individuals exhibit two or more stress episodes or broader areas of deficient enamel (diffuse pit patches). The implication is that periods of nutritional stress or febrile disease were not uncommon during childhood. The single sub-adult presents a full set of deciduous teeth whose attributes are consistent with inferences from the permanent dentition (e.g. large size, simple morphology, and hypoplastic enamel).

Prospects for future research on DDM and MLC skeletal series will include the application of new methods, including geo-morphometrics and high resolution imaging, to obtain more refined assessment of bio-mechanical adaptations of surface and subsurface micro-morphology. As new skeletal samples are excavated and analyzed, the adaptations and affinities of the Mesolithic foragers of North India and their role in South Asian prehistory will be clarified and better understood.

14.5.5. Stature. Advancements in the methodology of stature estimation necessitated re-analysis of stature for DDM and ‘sister-site’ samples. New estimates rely upon more suitable reference samples, yet confirm the tall stature of early foragers of North India. Slightly 280

Appendices

Appendix A: Supplemental Dental Data Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

1. 2. 3a. 3b. 4a. 4b. 5.

Inventory of dental elements and tooth status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dental wear scores: Eight-grade scoring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scott wear scores by quadrant: Maxillary molars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scott wear scores by quadrant: Mandibular molars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odontometric data: Maxillary permanent teeth (by specimen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odontometric data: Mandibular permanent teeth (by specimen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deciduous dental morphology (DDM - 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

282-284 285-286 287-288 289-290 291-293 294-296 . . . . 297

Appendix B: Post-cranial Osteometric Data Table 1. Post-cranial measurements of the upper extremity (in mm) Clavicle, Scapula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Humerus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radius, Ulna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 2. Post-cranial measurements of the lower extremity (in mm) Innominate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Femur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tibia, Fibula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

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Pm

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

Appendix A. Table 1. Inventory of dental elements and tooth status (cont’d; see key for abbreviations) Left 1 spec no sex age jaw M3 M2 M1 P4 P3 C I2 I1 I1 I2

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

CA

P

P/d

P

P

P

P

P

P/d

P

P

P

M

Pm

P

P

P

P

C

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Am

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Am

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

Right P3 P4

P

R

P

P

P

P

P

Am

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

M1

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Pm

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

M2

P

CA

P

P

P

P

Am

Pm

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P/d

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

M3

Appendices

284

M

40

40

47

50

16

18

27

20

18

30

38

M P P

mx

md

M

md

md

P

mx

P

P

md

P

P

mx

mx

P

md

md

P

mx

P

P

md

mx

M

mx

P

CA

md

M

P

mx

md

P

md

mx

P

mx

P

P

M

P

P

P

M

P

M

P

M

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

P/d

P

M

M

P

P

M

P

M

P

M

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

P/d

P

M

M

P

P

M

P

M

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Pm

P

M

M

P

P

M

P

M

P

M

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

Pm

P

M

M

P

P

M

P

M

P

M

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

Pm

Pm

M

M

P

Pm

M

P

M

P/d

M

M

P

P

P/d

M

P

P

P

P

Pm

Pm

M

M

P/d

P

M

P

M

P

M

M

P

P

P/d

P

P

P

P

P

Pm

Pm

P/d

M

P/d

P

M

P

M

P/d

P/d

M

P

P

P

M

P

Pm

P

P

P

P

P

P

P/d

P

M

P

M

P

P/d

M

P

P

P

M

P

Pm

P

P

P

P

P

P

Pm

P

M

P

M

P

P

M

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

C

P

Pm

P

P

Pm

P

M

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

P

Pm

P

P

P/d

P

M

P

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

Right P3 P4

P/d

P

P

P

P/d

P

M

P

M

P

P

M

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

M1

Am = tooth lost antemortem; CA = tooth congentially absent; G = tooth germ present; P = tooth present in good condition; P/d = tooth present with postmortem damage due to weathering or breakage; Pm = tooth lost postmortem; M = tooth missing, either not recovered, or diagnosis of loss (Am, Pm) not possible due to diagenesis 1) Ten specimens had no gnathic or dental remains preserved and have not been included in this table (DDM 4, 9, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 31, 35, and 38)

M

39

Key to abbreviations:

F

37

M

34

M

M

33

36b

M

32

F

M

30b

36a

F

30a

Appendix A. Table 1. Inventory of dental elements and tooth status (cont’d; see key for abbreviations) Left 1 spec no sex age jaw M3 M2 M1 P4 P3 C I2 I1 I1 I2

P

P

P

P

P/d

P

M

P

M

P

P

M

P

P

P

M

P

P

P

P

M2

P

P

P

P

P/d

P

M

P

M

P

Pm

M

P

P

P

M

CA

P

P

P

M3

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Appendices

Appendix A. Table 2. Dental wear scores: Based on the Eight Grade scoring system. (9 = tooth not present for evaluation, 0 to 7 = wear grades; after Langsjoen 1998) I1 spec no

1

sex

age

I2

C

P3

P4

M1

M2

M3

jaw

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

mx

9

9

9

9

9

7

9

7

9

7

9

9

9

9

9

9

md

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

5

5

9

9

5

5

5

9

mx

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

md

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

5

9

5

9

mx

7

9

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

5

5

5

6

5

5

5

md

9

9

9

9

7

7

7

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

mx

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

6

6

3

3

2

2

md

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

3

4

6

4

3

4

2

8

mx

9

2

9

2

9

2

9

2

9

2

9

4

2

2

9

1

md

9

9

9

9

2

9

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

1

2

mx

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

md

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

9

2

9

2

2

2

2

1

1

mx

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

6

4

5

3

3

9

6

1

md

6

4

6

4

3

4

3

3

3

3

4

5

3

3

2

1

mx

4

4

4

4

5

4

4

9

4

9

5

5

9

4

9

3

md

9

3

9

3

4

3

3

3

3

3

9

6

4

4

3

8

mx

9

4

9

7

6

7

9

9

7

5

7

5

5

5

9

5

md

7

7

7

4

3

3

3

3

3

5

5

5

5

5

5

8

mx

4

4

3

3

4

4

4

4

3

3

3

4

3

3

2

2

md

4

4

4

4

4

4

3

3

3

3

5

5

3

3

2

2

mx

4

4

9

4

3

3

4

4

3

3

5

5

3

5

2

3

md

9

4

3

4

3

4

3

4

3

4

4

3

3

3

3

8

mx

3

3

3

9

3

9

3

9

9

9

9

5

9

3

1

9

md

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

4

4

3

2

2

2

mx

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

0

0

md

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

0

1

mx

9

2

2

9

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

1

1

md

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

3

3

2

2

1

1

mx

2

2

1

9

9

9

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

md

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

mx

2

9

2

9

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

1

md

9

9

9

9

2

9

1

2

1

1

2

3

2

2

1

1

mx

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

md

9

9

9

9

2

9

1

2

1

1

2

3

2

2

1

1

mx

4

4

6

4

6

4

4

6

3

4

5

9

3

9

2

9

md

6

9

3

9

3

4

3

3

3

3

5

7

3

4

2

8

mx

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

0

9

md

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

0

9

mx

3

3

3

3

4

4

3

3

2

2

3

3

2

2

2

2

md 9 9 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 1) Ten specimens had no gnathic or dental remains preserved and have not been included in this table (DDM 4, 9, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 31, 35, and 38; DDM 5 deciduous teeth)

2

1

F

43

2

F

43

3

F

55

6a

F

38

6b

M

33

7

M

22

8

M

35

10

F

35

11

M

40

12

F

40

13

F

40

15

F

YA

16a

M

21

16b

M

30

17

F

17

18a

M

23

18b

M

24

18c

M

50

20a

F

19

20b

M

43

285

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Appendix A. Table 2 (cont’d). Dental wear scores: Based on the Eight Grade scoring system. (9 = tooth not present for evaluation, 0 to 7 = wear grades; after Langsjoen 1998) Spec no 1

Sex

Age

Jaw

I1

I2

C

P3

P4

M1

M2

M3

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

mx

3

3

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

3

6

6

3

3

2

2

md

2

2

2

2

2

9

2

2

2

2

7

7

3

3

2

2

mx

3

3

3

3

3

3

9

3

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

2

md

9

9

3

3

3

3

5

3

6

5

9

5

6

5

4

9

mx

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

1

1

md

9

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

4

3

2

1

1

mx

3

3

9

6

3

3

5

3

5

3

6

6

3

3

2

2

md

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

3

5

5

6

6

3

3

9

2

mx

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

9

3

1

1

9

9

md

2

2

9

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

1

1

0

0

mx

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

3

2

2

md

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

2

2

mx

3

9

3

9

3

2

3

3

2

2

3

3

3

3

0

0

md

2

2

2

2

2

3

2

3

2

2

3

3

3

3

9

9

mx

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

md

9

2

9

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

1

mx

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

1

1

1

1

md

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

3

3

2

2

1

1

mx

9

9

9

9

9

2

9

2

9

2

9

3

9

2

9

1

md

9

2

9

9

9

2

9

2

9

2

9

2

9

2

1

9

mx

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

1

1

1

1

md

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

2

9

2

9

9

9

9

9

9

mx

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

1

0

0

md

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

mx

2

2

2

9

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

6

3

3

3

3

md

9

9

2

9

3

9

3

9

3

9

4

9

4

9

3

9

mx

9

9

3

9

4

9

4

9

4

9

5

9

4

4

3

3

md

9

9

9

3

9

4

9

4

9

3

9

5

9

3

9

3

mx

9

9

2

9

2

3

9

2

9

2

3

4

2

3

1

1

md 9 9 9 2 9 2 9 2 2 2 4 3 2 2 1 1) Ten specimens had no gnathic or dental remains preserved and have not been included in this table (DDM 4, 9, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 31, 35, and 38; DDM 5 deciduous teeth)

1

23

M

47

26

F

52

27

M

35

28

M

47

29

F

30

30a

F

37

30b

M

30

32

M

18

33

M

20

34

M

27

36a

F

18

36b

M

16

37

F

50

39

M

47

40

M

40

286

40

42

F

F

12

13

287

30

17

M

16b

10

9

7

0

9

5

0

10

6

4

10

5

10

8

0

10

7

5

10

5

4

3

6

5

0

9

8

10

10

9

5

0

10

10

0

0

DL

10

9

0

10

8

5

0

6

5

4

7

6

9

10

8

10

10

9

5

9

10

10

0

0

ML

8

7

0

10

7

5

0

5

5

3

5

6

8

9

9

8

8

8

5

8

8

9

0

0

MB

8

5

0

10

6

5

0

4

4

3

4

5

8

9

8

9

8

8

5

6

8

9

0

0

DB

10

8

0

10

7

4

0

5

4

3

6

5

9

10

8

10

9

8

5

9

10

10

0

0

DL

8

5

0

8

6

3

9

4

3

2

4

5

0

8

6

10

0

8

3

5

9

10

0

0

ML

6

4

0

7

4

3

7

3

2

2

5

5

0

6

6

8

0

7

3

3

5

9

0

0

MB

5

3

0

6

4

3

6

3

2

2

5

4

0

5

4

8

0

4

3

4

5

9

0

0

DB

7

4

0

7

4

3

8

3

3

2

4

4

0

7

5

10

0

5

3

4

8

10

0

0

DL

7

5

0

7

6

3

0

5

3

2

5

3

8

9

9

10

9

0

3

5

9

10

0

0

ML

5

5

0

5

4

3

0

4

3

2

4

4

8

6

5

8

8

0

3

4

5

9

0

0

MB

left

5

4

0

5

5

3

0

3

2

2

5

4

5

5

5

8

8

0

3

4

6

10

0

0

DB

7

5

0

7

5

3

0

3

3

2

5

4

8

8

8

10

9

0

3

5

8

10

0

0

DL

6

2

0

5

5

2

6

3

2

1

4

3

4

5

5

0

0

7

1

0

5

10

0

0

ML

5

1

0

5

5

2

6

2

2

1

4

4

4

4

4

0

0

4

1

0

5

8

0

0

MB

5

1

0

4

4

2

4

2

2

1

4

3

4

4

4

0

0

3

1

0

4

8

0

0

DB

right

4

2

0

3

4

2

4

2

2

1

4

3

4

5

5

0

0

7

1

0

4

9

0

0

DL

5

2

7

5

5

0

0

3

2

1

3

0

0

9

4

10

8

3

1

4

5

10

0

10

ML

5

1

4

5

4

0

0

3

1

1

4

0

0

4

4

7

8

3

1

4

4

10

0

10

MB

left

1

5

4

4

0

0

3

1

1

4

0

0

4

4

6

8

3

1

4

4

9

0

10

DB

2

7

3

4

0

0

3

1

1

4

0

0

8

4

7

8

3

1

3

4

9

0

10

DL

0

47

9

0

10

7

5

9

5

4

3

5

5

0

9

9

10

9

8

4

0

8

9

0

0

DB

right

29 F 30 0 0 0 0 6 5 4 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1) quadrant abbreviations: ML=mesiolingual; MB=mesiobuccal; DB=distobuccal; DL=distolingual 2) Ten specimens have no gnathic or dental remains preserved and are not included in this table (DDM 4, 9, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 31, 35, and 38; DDM 5 deciduous teeth)

28

35

52

10

8

5

9

5

5

3

6

6

0

9

9

10

8

8

5

0

8

9

0

0

MB

left

Third molar (M 3)

4

M

27

48

43

24

5

4

7

6

0

10

8

10

10

10

5

0

10

10

0

0

ML

right

Second molar (M 2)

5

F

M

26

F

23

18

F

M

20a

M

18c

20b

50

M

18b

23

F

M

17

18a

21

F

M

15

16a

40

40

27

F

40

M

M

8

20

11

M

7

33

37

55

40

45

Age

10

F

F

3

M

F

2

6b

F

1

6a

Sex

spec no 2

First molar (M 1)

Appendix A. Table 3a. Scott wear scores by quadrant1: Maxillary molars (after Scott 1979)

Appendices

288

47

6

10

10

10

9

6

10

9

5

5

0

5

5

6

DB

9

9

5

7

0

5

7

7

DL

0

10

6

7

7

6

8

8

ML

0

9

5

5

6

5

7

7

MB

0

9

5

5

6

5

5

5

DB

0

10

5

7

5

5

7

7

DL

9

8

3

4

0

4

8

5

ML

8

7

4

3

0

4

7

5

MB

9

7

3

3

0

4

4

4

DB

9

8

3

3

0

3

4

5

DL

9

8

3

3

5

4

8

7

ML

8

7

4

3

4

4

6

5

MB

left

9

6

3

3

4

3

4

4

DB

9

7

3

3

4

3

7

7

DL

7

7

1

2

0

3

1

5

ML

5

7

1

3

0

2

1

5

MB

9

4

1

3

0

1

1

4

DB

right

9

4

1

2

0

2

1

4

DL

7

7

1

2

3

3

1

5

ML

5

6

1

2

4

2

1

5

MB

left

4

1

2

4

1

1

4

DB

4

1

2

3

2

1

4

DL

4

M

39

50

16

5

0

5

7

7

MB

right

40 M 40 8 7 7 8 8 7 7 8 5 5 5 4 5 5 6 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 1) quadrant scores follow categories (0 - 10) described by Scott (1979); quadrant abbreviations: ML=mesiolingual; MB=mesiobuccal; DB=distobuccal; DL=distolingual 2) Ten specimens have no gnathic or dental remains preserved and are not included in this table (DDM 4, 9, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 31, 35, and 38; DDM 5 deciduous teeth and unerupted crowns of first permanent molars)

F

37

7

0

6

8

8

ML

left

Third molar (M 3)

8

M

36b

18

27

20

30

37

Age

right

Second molar (M 2)

6

F

M

33

36a

M

30b

M

F

30a

34

Sex

spec no 2

First molar (M 1)

Appendix A. Table 3a. Scott wear scores by quadrant1: Maxillary molars (cont’d)

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

289

M

M

F

M

F

F

18c

20a

20b

23

26

F

M

18a

18b

29

F

17

M

23

M

M

17

M

16a

16b

28

21

F

15

27

42

F

13

30

47

35

52

48

43

18

50

24

30

40

40 40

27

F

40

M F

M

8

20

33

11 12

M

7

37

10

M

6b

55

F

F

3

6a

40

F

2

45

F

1

Age

Sex

spec no

3

10

7

0

10

7

4

9

4

4

0

4

5

0

9

10 8

0

8

5

8

8

0

0

0

ML

5

10

8

0

10

8

6

10

5

5

0

6

6

0

9

10 10

0

9

6

9

10

0

0

0

MB

left

5

10

8

0

9

8

5

9

6

5

0

7

5

0

9

10 10

0

9

5

9

10

0

0

0

DB

5

10

7

0

10

7

5

8

5

4

0

5

5

0

9

10 8

0

8

5

9

8

0

0

0

DL

4

9

7

8

10

7

5

10

4

5

0

4

5

8

9

9 9

10

8

5

8

9

0

0

0

ML

5

10

8

10

10

8

5

10

5

6

0

6

7

9

9

10 10

10

9

6

8

9

0

0

0

5

10

8

10

9

8

6

10

6

5

0

6

7

9

9

10 10

10

9

5

9

9

0

0

0

DB

right MB

First molar (M1 )

5

8

7

9

10

7

5

10

5

5

0

5

5

8

9

9 8

10

7

5

9

9

0

0

0

DL

2

5

4

8

5

5

2

5

3

3

0

3

3

4

6

8 5

8

5

2

4

5

0

9

9

ML

5

9

5

0

7

7

4

7

4

0

0

4

4

8

8

10 9

9

6

4

5

8

0

10

10

MB

left

3

9

6

10

7

7

3

7

3

0

0

5

5

7

9

10 9

9

6

3

4

8

0

10

10

DB

4

5

6

8

5

4

3

6

3

3

0

4

3

6

7

8 5

8

5

3

5

5

0

10

9

DL

3

5

4

4

6

5

2

7

3

2

0

3

4

4

6

8 5

8

5

3

4

5

0

0

10

ML

4

9

5

7

7

6

4

9

5

3

0

5

5

6

7

10 7

9

6

5

5

9

0

0

10

MB

3

9

5

9

8

6

5

9

4

3

0

5

5

5

7

10 6

9

7

4

5

9

0

0

0

DB

right

Second molar (M2 )

Appendix A. Table 3b. Scott wear scores by quadrant: Mandibular molars (after Scott 1979)

4

5

4

5

6

4

3

7

3

2

0

4

5

5

7

8 5

8

7

4

5

6

0

0

0

DL

3

0

2

8

5

4

1

4

2

2

0

3

0

5

5

10 4

8

5

1

4

5

0

9

10

ML

2

0

4

8

5

5

2

5

4

0

0

4

0

5

6

10 4

8

5

2

4

5

0

9

10

MB

left

2

0

3

8

4

5

2

4

3

0

0

4

0

4

4

10 4

8

4

2

5

5

0

9

8

DB

2

0

3

8

4

5

1

4

3

2

0

3

0

4

5

8 4

8

3

1

4

5

0

10

9

DL

3

5

3

0

5

3

1

7

2

2

0

4

3

4

5

8 3

6

2

1

3

6

0

0

0

ML

2

6

4

0

5

5

2

7

4

2

0

4

3

4

5

10 5

6

3

2

4

5

0

0

0

2

5

3

0

4

4

2

7

3

2

0

4

3

4

4

9 5

7

2

2

4

4

0

0

0

DB

right MB

Third molar (M3)

2

5

3

0

4

5

2

7

2

2

0

4

3

4

5

8 4

7

2

1

4

6

0

0

0

DL

Appendices

290

M

F

M

M

36b

37

39

40

40

47

50

16

18

20 27

18

30

37

Age

7

0

9

0

0

5 0

3

7

6

ML

9

0

10

0

0

7 0

5

8

8

MB

left

8

0

9

0

0

6 0

5

8

7

DB

7

0

9

0

0

5 0

3

7

6

DL

7

9

0

0

0

5 5

3

7

7

ML

8

9

0

0

0

7 6

5

8

8

MB

7

9

0

0

0

6 6

5

7

8

DB

right

6

8

0

0

0

5 5

3

6

7

DL

5

0

8

0

0

3 0

2

6

5

ML

5

0

9

0

0

5 0

3

7

6

MB

left

5

0

8

0

0

4 0

3

7

7

DB

5

0

8

0

0

4 0

2

7

6

DL

3

5

0

0

0

3 5

2

5

5

ML

5

7

0

0

0

5 5

3

6

6

MB

7 4

5

0

0

0

4 5

2

6

5

DL

8

0

0

0

4 5

3

6

6

DB

right

Second molar (M2 )

1) quadrant abbreviations: (ML = mesiolingual; MB = mesiobuccal; DB = distobuccal; DL = distolingual); quadrant scores follow standard categories (0 - 10) described by Scott (1979).

F

32

36a

M

M

30b

M M

F

30a

33 34

Sex

spec no

First molar (M1 )

Appendix A. Table 3b. Scott wear scores by quadrant: Mandibular molars (cont’d)

4

0

8

0

0

3 3

2

0

5

ML

4

0

8

0

0

2 4

2

0

5

MB

left

4

0

6

0

0

2 4

2

0

5

DB

4

0

7

0

0

3 3

2

0

5

DL

3

5

0

0

0

2 0

2

0

3

ML

5

6

0

0

0

2 0

3

0

5

4

4

0

0

0

2 0

2

0

4

DB

right MB

Third molar (M3)

4

4

0

0

0

2 0

2

0

4

DL

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

291

DDM - 16b

DDM - 16a

DDM - 15

DDM - 13

DDM - 12

DDM - 10

DDM - 8

DDM - 7

DDM - 6b

DDM - 6a

DDM - 5

spec no

Tooth

7.6

-

-

-

7.2

9.9

8.1

8.6

7.4

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

-

MD

-

8.0

BL

MD

8.9

MD

7.3

7.6

BL

BL

9.6

MD

-

7.2

BL

MD

-

MD

7.5

-

BL

BL

-

MD

L

I1

-

-

8.1

10.0

7.4

-

-

-

7.8

8.1

7.2

-

7.6

-

8.2

9.1

-

-

7.5

-

-

-

R

-

-

6.9

-

-

-

-

-

6.7

-

-

-

-

-

6.5

7.2

6.1

8.1

6.6

-

-

-

L

I2

6.4

6.8

7.3

8.0

-

-

-

-

6.5

-

-

-

-

-

7.0

7.1

-

-

6.2

-

-

-

R

8.8

8.0

9.1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

8.6

-

8.9

-

9.4

7.7

8.2

7.8

8.9

-

-

-

L

C

9.1

7.9

9.5

8.9

-

-

-

-

8.7

-

-

-

-

-

9.6

7.8

-

-

-

-

-

-

R

10.0

7.0

10.7

-

-

-

-

-

8.9

-

8.9

-

-

7.0

11.0

7.8

10.8

8.1

-

7.3

-

-

L

P3

10.1

7.0

10.9

7.6

-

-

-

-

8.8

-

-

-

10.0

7.6

10.9

7.6

-

-

10.2

7.4

-

-

R

Appendix A. Table 4a. Odontometric data: Maxillary permanent teeth (mm; cont’d)

9.6

6.7

10.9

-

-

-

-

-

8.8

6.7

9.3

-

10.8

-

10.2

6.5

11.1

7.0

9.8

9.8

-

-

L

P4

9.5

6.9

10.8

7.5

-

-

9.7

-

8.8

6.7

-

-

10.7

-

10.1

6.5

-

-

-

-

-

-

R

12.3

10.4

13.3

-

-

-

-

-

12.4

9.7

12.5

-

10.8

-

13.5

10.8

13.0

11.9

-

-

12.4

11.0

L

M1

12.2

9.8

13.2

11.1

-

-

-

-

12.4

9.9

-

-

-

-

13.5

10.8

-

-

-

-

12.4

10.9

R

12.3

10.5

12.7

-

12.0

10.0

-

-

11.1

8.8

12.6

-

-

-

13.5

10.3

13.7

10.5

12.4

10.3

-

-

L

M2

12.4

9.9

12.8

10.4

-

-

12.2

9.9

11.7

9.2

-

-

12.8

10.9

13.1

10.5

13.5

10.8

12.4

10.7

-

-

R

11.2

9.1

12.4

9.6

-

-

11.2

7.5

9.8

8.1

11.2

-

-

9.7

11.9

7.5

15.4

11.1

12.0

9.4

-

-

L

M3

11.0

9.2

13.0

9.7

11.5

9.0

10.7

7.4

9.1

7.0

-

-

11.5

9.6

12.4

7.7

-

-

12.2

10.4

-

-

R

Appendices

292

8.1

7.4

-

-

10.3

8.5

-

-

8.9

8.0

-

8.2

9.5

7.5

-

8.1

8.2

7.3

-

7.8

10.3

7.8

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

L

1) CA = congenitally absent

DDM - 29

DDM - 28

DDM - 27

DDM - 26

DDM - 23

DDM - 20b

DDM - 20a

DDM - 18c

DDM - 18b

DDM - 18a

DDM - 17

spec no

Tooth

I1

8.1

10.1

7.8

-

7.4

8.1

8.0

-

7.6

9.9

8.3

-

8.0

8.8

-

-

8.6

10.1

8.3

10.1

7.5

8.3

R

7.7

7.7

-

-

6.7

6.7

-

-

7.0

7.7

7.3

-

7.3

7.4

-

-

7.4

7.7

-

-

-

-

L

I2

7.9

7.9

-

-

7.2

7.2

-

-

7.0

7.5

7.1

-

7.3

7.8

-

-

7.4

8.1

6.8

8.6

7.3

6.4

R

10.2

8.4

-

-

8.7

8.5

-

-

8.3

8.6

9.7

8.4

8.7

8.2

-

-

9.5

9.0

9.8

9.1

-

-

L

C

10.2

8.3

-

-

8.8

8.3

-

-

8.4

8.6

9.5

8.2

8.8

8.1

-

-

9.4

9.2

9.7

9.2

-

-

R

10.8

7.8

10.4

-

8.9

7.0

-

-

10.4

8.1

10.2

7.2

10.7

8.0

-

-

10.4

7.8

10.7

7.8

10.1

7.2

L

P3

10.5

7.8

-

-

9.1

7.0

-

-

10.3

7.8

10.0

6.9

10.5

8.2

-

-

10.4

8.0

10.7

8.0

10.3

7.3

R

Appendix A. Table 4a. Odontometric data: Maxillary permanent teeth (mm; cont'd)

10.0

6.9

10.5

-

9.2

6.8

-

-

10.6

7.3

9.9

6.7

10.9

8.0

-

-

10.6

7.6

10.6

7.9

10.0

7.3

L

P4

10.2

7.2

-

-

9.1

6.9

-

-

10.4

6.9

9.5

6.4

10.8

7.9

-

-

10.6

7.3

10.8

7.5

9.9

7.0

R

12.9

11.1

-

-

12.0

10.0

-

-

-

-

12.7

11.4

12.4

11.0

-

-

12.7

11.2

12.8

10.8

11.9

10.5

L

M1

-

-

-

-

11.6

10.2

-

-

-

-

12.4

11.3

12.5

10.9

-

-

12.9

11.3

12.4

11.2

12.0

10.4

R

13.0

11.0

12.4

9.5

11.8

10.5

-

-

12.3

10.5

12.1

9.8

12.7

10.6

-

-

12.2

10.4

12.9

10.4

11.6

10.6

L

M2

13.4

10.9

12.2

10.7

11.7

10.4

-

-

12.5

10.4

11.4

9.4

12.7

11.0

12.1

-

12.3

10.2

12.7

10.6

11.5

10.6

R

CA

CA

1

12.1

8.5

11.1

9.8

12.2

9.8

12.0

10.5

11.4

9.5

-

-

-

-

11.9

9.8

12.4

8.7

11.6

9.7

L

9.1

11.8

10.0

11.0

-

11.9

9.4

11.3

9.1

11.5

9.6

R

CA

CA

12.1

9.4

11.0

9.9

-

-

12.4

9.5

12.2

M3

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

293

DDM - 40

DDM - 39

DDM - 37

DDM - 36b

DDM - 36a

DDM - 34

DDM - 33

DDM - 32

DDM - 30b

DDM - 30a

spec no

Tooth

-

-

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

7.6

9.2

MD

BL

8.1

-

MD

BL

-

-

BL

MD

7.9

9.4

MD

BL

7.7

8.8

MD

BL

7.9

9.8

MD

BL

7.7

8.3

BL

MD

L

I1

-

-

-

-

7.2

-

7.7

8.9

8.0

9.4

-

-

8.1

9.1

-

-

-

-

7.5

8.4

R

-

-

-

-

-

-

6.6

7.8

7.0

7.3

-

-

7.7

7.5

-

-

7.2

-

7.2

7.7

L

I2

5.4

5.5

6.6

-

6.6

-

6.9

7.4

7.2

-

-

-

7.3

7.1

-

-

-

-

7.1

7.2

R

8.9

8.5

-

-

-

-

8.3

7.4

8.8

7.9

9.0

8.0

9.7

8.4

-

-

8.9

8.6

8.6

8.4

L

C

9.2

8.7

9.0

8.3

9.3

-

8.3

7.8

8.6

8.1

-

-

9.2

8.2

-

-

9.0

9.0

8.5

8.3

R

9.8

7.2

-

-

-

-

10.0

7.9

10.3

7.5

9.4

7.3

10.4

7.1

-

-

10.3

7.9

9.8

7.1

L

P3

-

-

-

-

-

-

9.9

7.6

10.4

7.8

-

-

10.2

7.2

-

-

10.4

7.8

10.0

6.9

R

Appendix A. Table 4a. Odontometric data: Maxillary permanent teeth (mm; cont'd)

9.3

7.2

--

-

-

-

9.6

7.3

10.1

7.3

9.1

6.6

10.2

6.9

9.5

6.8

10.5

7.0

9.5

6.3

L

P4

-

-

10.0

7.2

-

-

9.7

7.5

10.2

7.4

-

-

10.1

7.2

-

-

10.6

6.9

9.5

6.4

R

12.5

-

-

-

-

-

12.5

11.1

12.6

10.8

11.7

10.1

13.2

11.5

-

-

13.5

11.8

12.0

9.5

L

M1

12.5

11.3

-

-

-

-

12.3

11.1

12.7

10.5

-

-

13.2

11.2

-

-

13.5

11.4

12.0

9.9

R

12.2

9.5

11.5

-

12.2

9.9

12.2

10.4

12.6

9.4

11.7

10.2

13.2

9.8

-

-

13.5

10.6

11.9

9.5

L

M2

12.7

10.2

11.4

-

12.1

10.0

12.2

10.8

12.5

9.5

-

-

13.3

10.2

-

-

13.2

10.7

12.0

9.7

R

11.1

9.9

11.1

8.9

11.7

8.6

10.7

8.9

11.7

9.3

10.9

7.8

13.4

9.8

-

-

11.8

9.8

11.7

10.2

L

M3

9.6

7.7

10.6

-

11.5

8.7

10.4

8.9

13.4

9.1

-

-

13..6

9.6

-

-

12.1

9.3

11.7

9.5

R

Appendices

294

DDM -16b

DDM - 16a

DDM - 15

DDM - 13

DDM - 12

DDM -10

DDM - 8

DDM - 7

DDM - 6b

DDM - 6a

DDM - 5

spec no

Tooth

6.1

5.4

MD

BL

6.6

6.0

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

6.5

-

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

6.3

-

MD

BL

6.7

5.7

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

6.2

-

MD

BL

-

-

BL

MD

L

I1

5.9

5.4

6.8

5.9

-

-

-

-

6.4

-

6.0

-

6.3

-

6.7

5.7

-

-

5.9

-

-

-

R

6.2

-

7.1

6.8

-

-

-

-

7.1

-

-

-

6.8

-

6.9

6.2

-

-

6.5

-

-

-

L

I2

6.4

6.1

7.2

6.5

-

-

-

-

6.8

-

6.5

-

6.8

-

7.2

6.1

-

-

6.3

-

-

-

R

7.5

7.0

9.1

7.7

-

-

7.6

-

8.1

-

7.8

-

8.6

7.0

8.4

7.5

7.2

7.9

8.2

7.3

-

-

L

C

7.9

6.9

8.7

7.3

-

-

7.9

-

8.2

-

8.0

-

8.3

-

8.1

7.2

-

-

8.2

-

-

-

R

8.1

7.2

8.4

8.2

-

-

8.2

-

7.8

6.7

8.4

-

8.8

7.5

9.3

7.8

8.9

8.3

8.8

7.1

-

-

L

P3

Appendix A. Table 4b. Odontometric data: Mandibular permanent teeth (mm)

8.1

7.3

8.3

8.4

-

-

8.5

-

7.7

6.9

8.5

-

8.8

7.6

9.1

7.5

8.9

8.1

9.0

7.2

-

-

R

8.7

7.6

8.5

8.0

-

-

8.7

-

8.6

-

8.8

-

9.0

7.2

9.1

7.2

9.3

7.7

9.2

7.2

-

-

L

P4

8.7

7.6

7.9

8.1

-

-

8.9

-

8.7

-

8.9

-

9.1

7.4

9.3

6.8

9.6

8.0

9.0

7.2

-

-

R

-

12.3

12.3

11.8

-

-

-

-

11.2

-

-

-

11.3

-

11.6

12.2

12.2

12.6

-

-

11.1

12.3

L

M1

11.6

12.5

12.2

11.2

-

-

-

-

11.4

-

-

-

11.1

-

11.6

12.3

12.2

12.0

-

-

-

-

R

12.1

12.2

11.6

12.0

-

-

10.9

10.4

10.2

10.8

-

-

11.1

12.0

11.6

11.0

12.1

12.7

11.1

11.9

-

-

L

M2

12.0

12.2

11.1

11.2

11.7

11.5

10.9

10.6

10.4

10.7

11.3

11.4

11.1

12.3

11.4

11.3

11.9

12.0

11.1

11.9

-

-

R

11.3

10.6

-

-

11.0

10.8

10.2

10.8

9.1

9.2

10.5

11.3

10.8

11.2

11.6

11.5

10.4

-

10.7

10.4

-

-

L

M3

10.4

10.1

10.1

9.7

10.9

11.0

10.9

9.8

9.5

9.3

10.4

10.8

11.0

12.2

11.5

11.2

11.7

11.6

10.5

9.8

-

-

R

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

295

DDM - 29

DDM - 28

DDM - 27

DDM - 26

DDM - 23

DDM - 20b

DDM - 20a

DDM - 18c

DDM - 18b

DDM - 18a

spec no

Tooth

6.5

6.0

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

6.5

5.6

MD

BL

-

-

BL

MD

6.4

6.2

MD

BL

6.8

-

MD

BL

-

-

MD

BL

-

-

BL

MD

L

I1

6.5

5.8

-

-

6.2

5.0

-

-

6.5

6.2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

R

-

-

6.6

-

6.6

5.8

6.9

-

6.8

6.6

-

-

6.8

6.9

7.7

-

-

-

-

-

L

I2

7.0

6.6

6.9

-

6.5

5.8

6.9

-

6.8

6.7

-

-

6.7

6.9

-

-

-

-

-

-

R

9.4

8.0

8.5

7.7

7.8

7.2

8.6

-

7.8

7.6

8.7

-

-

-

9.4

-

-

-

9.0

8.2

L

C

9.1

8.1

-

-

8.0

7.2

8.4

-

-

-

8.6

-

8.4

7.1

9.4

8.0

-

-

8.9

8.2

R

9.3

7.5

-

7.2

7.7

7.0

-

-

9.3

8.6

-

7.8

-

-

9.5

-

8.9

8.0

8.5

8.1

L

P3

9.1

7.6

9.1

7.1

7.8

7.1

9.0

-

9.2

8.8

9.0

7.8

8.8

7.8

9.5

7.7

8.9

8.2

8.8

8.3

R

8.2

9.5

8.2

-

8.5

L

9.4

7.2

-

-

7.9

7.3

-

-

10.2

8.6

-

8.2

10.0

8.8

10.2

Appendix A. Table 4b. Odontometric data: Mandibular permanent teeth (mm; cont'd) P4

9.5

8.0

-

-

7.8

7.4

-

-

10.1

8.6

9.4

7.8

10.2

8.7

10.0

7.9

9.6

8.2

9.5

8.3

R

11.7

11.8

-

-

11.1

10.5

-

-

-

-

11.3

11.9

-

-

12.2

-

12.1

12.4

-

-

L

M1

12.0

11.9

-

-

11.0

10.9

-

-

-

-

11.5

11.4

11.8

12.2

-

-

-

-

11.9

12.6

R

11.6

11.5

10.7

11.2

11.0

11.5

-

-

10.8

11.6

11.0

10.9

-

-

11.7

11.5

11.4

11.2

-

-

L

M2

11.8

12.0

10.9

11.1

10.7

12.1

12.1

-

10.7

11.8

10.7

10.5

11.8

11.7

11.4

-

11.5

11.5

11.7

11.0

R

11.4

11.3

-

-

10.9

11.7

11.4

11.3

11.7

11.9

10.2

11.3

11.5

12.1

11.5

11.5

11.3

11.9

-

-

L

M3

11.4

11.0

10.7

11.2

10.7

10.4

-

-

11.3

11.7

10.1

11.4

11.6

12.0

11.9

11.4

11.1

-

11.4

-

R

Appendices

296

DDM - 40

DDM - 39

DDM - 37

DDM - 36a

DDM - 34

DDM - 33

DDM - 32

DDM - 30b

DDM - 30a

spec no

Tooth

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

MD

BL

5.3

MD

-

6.3

BL

BL

-

MD

-

6.5

BL

MD

5.9

MD

6.9

6.3

BL

BL

-

MD

L

I1

-

-

6.0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

6.8

5.4

6.2

6.1

6.3

5.8

6.3

-

R

-

-

-

-

6.3

-

-

-

-

-

7.1

6.1

6.4

-

6.7

6.3

6.6

-

L

I2

-

6.6

6.4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

7.1

6.4

6.3

6.3

6.8

6.1

-

-

R

-

-

-

-

8.5

-

-

-

-

-

9.4

7.5

8.2

7.1

8.1

8.1

7.6

7.3

L

C

8.2

7.5

8.2

-

-

-

-

-

8.0

7.1

8.9

7.2

8.4

7.0

8.4

8.1

-

7.9

R

-

-

-

-

8.3

-

-

-

-

-

9.0

7.5

7.9

7.5

9.5

7.8

8.5

7.2

L

P3

8.3

6.8

8.5

7.0

-

-

8.4

8.0

7.7

6.9

9.0

7.7

7.9

7.6

9.1

7.7

9.0

7.9

R

Appendix A. Table 4b. Odontometric data: Mandibular permanent teeth (mm; cont'd)

-

-

-

-

8.6

-

-

-

-

-

10.0

8.1

7.8

7.0

9.4

8.0

9.1

7.0

L

P4

8.4

7.7

9.2

8.4

-

-

9.0

7.9

8.4

7.2

9.9

7.8

7.9

7.0

9.5

7.4

9.1

7.6

R

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

12.0

11.4

10.4

10.7

12.0

12.2

11.1

11.2

L

M1

11.3

11.1

11.3

11.3

-

-

-

-

10.7

10.4

12.0

11.4

10.2

11.0

11.9

12.0

11.0

11.2

R

11.0

11.2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

12.4

11.0

9.5

11.2

11.9

12.8

11.0

10.9

L

M2

11.0

10.7

10.9

10.8

-

-

-

-

11.3

10.7

12.0

11.8

9.7

11.3

11.7

12.5

10.7

11.0

R

10.7

9.8

-

-

10.7

9.9

-

-

9.7

9.6

11.4

10.9

8.5

8.4

-

-

10.8

11.6

L

M3

10.3

10.6

10.8

10.7

-

-

-

-

-

-

11.5

11.7

8.2

8.6

-

-

11.1

11.6

R

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Appendices

Appendix A. Table 5. Table 5 presents data on the expression of non-metric traits of the deciduous teeth of DDM - 5. Trait classification was conducted according guidelines of Hanihara (1961, 1963) as summarized by Lukacs and Kuswandari (2013). The expression of each trait in DDM - 5 is compared with the

frequency of that grade of expression in two deciduous dental samples one prehistoric (Chalcolithic Inamgaon, western India) and one living (Javanese M alay, Yogyakarta, Indonesia). Photos of the occlusal surfaces of maxillary and mandibular teeth of DDM - 5 are available on page 225, Figure 11.12.

Appendix A. Table 5. Expression of non-metric tooth crown traits; deciduous dentition (DDM - 5) Grade of expression

Crown trait / complex maxillary traits

tooth

Shovel-shape

R

L

Chalcolithic Inamgaon 2

living Javanese Malay3

freq (n)

freq (%), n

di1

1

1

33.3, 39

46.5, 129

di2

2

2

19.2, 26

57.3, 131

dc

2

2

–

52.9, 140

di1

1

1

–

–

di2

2

1

–

–

dc

2

1

–

5.7, 140

di1

+

+

22.9, 35

–

Conical crown shape

dc

abs

abs

100.0, 64

95.0,132

Talon cusp (Hattab et al. 1996)

di2

abs

abs

100.0, 48

98.0, 148

Paramolar tubercle (Jørgensen 1956)

dm1

abs

abs

100.0, 86

56.1, 148

Cusp number (Hanihara, 1961)

dm1

3M1

3M1

47.7, 44

37.1, 140

Hypocone size (Hanihara, 1961)

dm2

4–

4–

21.7, 46

17.1, 140

Carabelli’s trait (Hanihara 1961)

dm2

5

4

4.4, 45

40.8, 140

Cusp 5 (Turner et al. 1991)

dm2

abs

abs

–

92.4, 145

L

R

(Hanihara, 1961)

Tuberculum dentale (Turner et al. 1991)

Labial deflection of root

1

mandibular traits winging (Enoki and Dahlberg 1958)

di1

C

C

–

50.5, 105

conical crown shape

dc

abs

abs

100.0, 63

98.6, 139

di / dc

1

1

–

31.4, 137

delta-shaped crown (Hanihara 1961)

dm1

abs

abs

100.0, 93

93.5, 139

cusp number (Hanihara 1961)

dm1

4

4

53.1, 47

33.1, 139

groove pattern (Turner et al. 1991)

dm2

Y

Y

–

94.8, 97

hypoconulid size (C5, Turner et al. 1991)

dm2

4

4

–

56.1, 139

entoconulid size (C6, Hanihara 1961)

dm2

0

0

82.0, 61

70.3, 145

metaconulid size (C7, Hanihara 1961)

dm2

1

1

1.7, 60

49.3, 148

deflecting wrinkle (Hanihara 1961)

dm2

0

0

–

69.3, 127

protostylid (Hanihara 1961)

dm2

0

0

98.4, 61

53.7, 136

shovel-shape (Hanihara 1961)

1) see Jorgensen (1956) for trait definition and expression in modern Danes; see also Lukacs & W alimbe 1986:25 2) data source: Lukacs & W alimbe 1986; 3) data source: Lukacs & Kuswandari 2013

297

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Appendix B. Table 1a. Measurements of the upper extremity: Clavicle (in mm) CLAVICLE Variable

Spec. no. side

sex

12

16a

17

18a

18c

20a

20b

28

30a

36b

39

F

M

F

M

M

?F

M

M

F

M

M

Maximum length

R

138

158

--

--

157

--

--

--

--

--

157

L

143

--

125

--

--

--

147

--

--

145

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

11

15

--

--

15

13

--

--

13

--

14

L

10

15

9

14

--

--

17

12

12

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

10

15

--

--

13

12

--

--

15

--

13

L

10

15

9

14

--

--

12

12

12

--

--

Mid-shaft circ

R

39

51

--

--

--

--

--

--

46

--

47

L

39

50

--

44

--

--

49

40

43

--

--

Claviculohumeral Index

R

41.7

41.6

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

43.6

L

43.5

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Robusticity Index

R

28.3

32.3

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

29.9

L

27.3

--

--

--

--

--

33.3

--

--

--

--

Appendix B. Table 1b. Measurements of the upper extremity: Scapula (in mm) SCAPULA Variable

Spec. no. side

sex

8

12

16a

20b

23

30b

33

36a

36b

39

M

F

M

M

?M

M

M

F

M

M

Maximum length

R

--

100

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

100

--

--

--

--

--

--

95

--

Maximum breadth

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

109

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Glenoid cavity height

R

40

36

39

--

38

--

38

--

--

40

L

--

36

--

42

--

36

--

--

--

--

Glenoid cavity breadth

R

27

26

--

--

26

--

--

--

--

24

L

--

26

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Axial border length

R

--

128

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

124

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Supraspinatus fossa length

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

41

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Infraspinatus fossa length

R

--

98

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

111

--

298

Appendices

Appendix B. Table 1c. Measurements of the upper extremity: Humerus (in mm) Spec no 6b 8 12 13 16a 16b 18a 20b 23 HUMERUS

28

Variable

M

M

F

F

M

?M

M

M

M

M

Maximum length

side R

sex

--

–

331

309

380

–

--

--

355

–

L

--

--

329

--

370

365

--

357

--

--

Head diameter

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant - post)

R

24

22

25

L

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R L

Mid-shaft circumference

--

39

--

50

39

--

20

19

20

--

--

22

20

18

--

25

20

21

22

21

22

29

21

21

20

--

--

--

26

22

22

26

23

19

--

25

22

23

24

22

21

R

78

68

61

64

--

--

--

--

71

74

L

75

70

58

--

75

68

80

73

69

76

Biepicondylar width

R

--

65

53

--

--

--

--

--

62

--

L

--

64

52

--

62

--

--

--

61

--

Trochlear width

R

44

46

42

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

42

47

41

--

47

--

--

--

44

--

Robusticity Index

R

--

--

18.4

20.7

--

--

--

--

20.0

--

L

--

--

17.6

--

20.3

18.6

--

20.4

--

--

Humerofemoral Index

R

--

--

70.8

--

71.7

--

--

71.0

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

73.3

--

--

70.3

--

L 25

Appendix B. Table 1c (cont’d). Measurements of the Humerus (in mm) Spec no 29 30a 30b 32 33 36a 36b 37 HUMERUS

39

Variable

F

M

side

sex

F

F

M

?M

M

F

M

Maximum length

R

–

--

–

–

--

348

350

--

360

L

--

370

--

--

315

--

345

--

--

Head diameter

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

49

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant - post)

R

--

--

19

19

--

20

18

17

23

L

20

23

15

17

21

19

19

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

--

--

20

17

--

17

17

19

26

L

23

23

16

16

--

17

15

--

--

Mid-shaft circumference

R

--

--

62

59

--

62

57

58

80

L

67

69

48

53

--

58

56

--

--

Biepicondylar width

R

--

--

--

52

--

57

53

--

62

L

--

--

--

--

--

56

--

--

--

Trochlear width

R

--

--

--

--

--

40

42

--

44

L

--

--

--

--

--

41

--

--

--

Robusticity Index

R

--

--

--

--

--

17.8

16.3

--

22.2

L

--

18.6

--

--

--

--

16.2

--

--

Humerofemoral Index

R

--

--

--

--

--

70.6

72.0

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

299

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Appendix B. Table 1d. Measurements of the upper extremity: Radius (in mm) RADIUS

Spec

8

12

13

17

18a

18b

20b

24

30a

32

33

36a

36b

39

sex

M

F

F

F

M

M

M

M

F

?M

M

F

M

M

Variable

side --

255

--

--

--

277

--

267

--

(252)

--

--

--

282

Maximum length

R L

--

248

--

--

325

--

--

267

291

(254)

--

286

255

--

Physiological length

R

--

235

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

232

--

--

--

--

270

--

275

--

--

265

--

--

Head diameter

R

25

22

--

--

--

23

--

24

--

--

--

--

--

24

L

25

21

--

18

--

--

--

25

--

--

--

23

19

--

Distal epiphysis width (med lat)

R

--

27

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

30

L

--

28

--

--

34

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

--

11

12

--

--

--

--

--

--

11

--

--

--

14

L

--

11

--

--

14

--

--

--

14

--

12

12

11

--

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

--

14

15

--

--

--

--

--

--

13

--

--

--

15

L

--

13

--

--

18

--

--

--

16

--

15

14

14

--

Mid-shaft circum

R

--

40

45

--

--

--

--

--

--

39

--

--

--

49

L

--

39

--

--

51

--

--

--

47

--

43

--

40

--

Robusticity Index

R

--

15.6

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

15.5

--

--

--

17.4

L

--

15.7

--

--

15.7

--

--

--

16.2

--

--

--

15.7

--

Radio-humeral Index

R

--

77.0

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

78.3

L

--

75.4

--

--

--

--

--

--

78.6

--

--

82.2

73.9

--

Appendix B. Table 1e. Measurements of the upper extremity: Ulna (in mm) ULNA Variable

Spec no

6b

8

12

13

16a

17

30a

32

33

36a

36b

39

sex

M

M

F

F

M

F

F

?M

M

F

M

M

side

Maximum length

R

--

--

275

262

--

--

--

268

--

--

--

310

L

285

--

270

--

322

--

309

--

--

297

280

--

Physiological length

R

--

--

240

--

--

--

--

--

--

277

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

272

--

--

260

--

--

Semilunar notch height

R

--

--

26

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

24

--

--

--

24

24

--

--

22

24

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

--

--

--

14

--

--

18

12

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

12

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

--

--

--

12

--

--

14

14

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

14

--

--

Mid-shaft circum

R

--

--

--

44

--

--

--

40

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

32

--

--

--

--

--

--

42

--

--

Subsigmoid dia (ant - post)

R

--

28

20

23

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

27

20

--

--

--

25

--

22

25

--

--

Subsigmoid dia (transverse)

R

--

25

19

18

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

25

20

--

--

–

20

--

20

20

--

--

300

Appendices

Appendix B. Table 2a. Measurements of the lower extremity: Innominate (in mm) INNOMINATE

spec no

11

12

16a

16b

18a

18b

19

23

24

36a

40

(os coxae)

sex

M

F

M

?M

M

M

M

?M

M

F

M

Variable

side

Maximum height

R

--

--

--

205

--

--

216

--

--

--

205

L

--

197

232

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Maximum breadth

R

--

135

155

--

--

--

154

--

--

--

148

L

--

137

153

--

--

--

--

--

--

127

--

Acetabulum dia (sup-inf)

R

50

--

--

--

--

52

58

--

--

--

53

L

--

49

--

--

53

--

--

50

53

52

--

Sciatic notch width

R

--

--

--

--

--

52

34

--

--

45

--

L

--

58

--

--

53

--

--

38

--

--

--

Innominate breadth- height Index

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

71.3

--

--

--

72.2

L

--

69.5

65.9

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Ischium length

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

73

Ischio-pubic length

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

92

301

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Appendix B. Table 2b. Measurements of the lower extremity: Femur (in mm) FEMUR Variable

spec no side

sex

1

6a

11

12

13

16a

16b

18a

18b

18c

F

F

M

F

F

M

?M

M

M

M

Maximum length

R

--

--

--

--

--

530

498

--

505

537

L

--

--

--

465

--

--

--

--

--

--

Bicondylar length

R

--

--

--

--

---

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

459

--

--

--

--

--

--

Bicondylar width

R

--

--

--

69

--

75

76

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

68

--

--

--

80

--

--

Head diar (ant-post)

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

48

--

Head dia (vertical)

R

46

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

43

--

--

--

50

--

--

Subtrochant dia (ant-post)

R

26

26

23

25

23

--

26

--

--

30

L

--

--

--

26

--

--

--

--

--

28

Subtrochant dia (med-lat)

R

34

32

29

28

29

--

31

--

--

33

L

--

--

--

29

--

--

--

--

--

33

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

29

31

28

28

27

36

--

--

--

38

L

--

--

29

28

--

35

--

37

36

--

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

28

25

25

24

26

30

--

--

--

28

L

--

--

24

24

--

29

--

29

29

--

Mid-shaft circum

R

95

89

83

81

82

102

--

--

--

106

L

--

--

80

83

--

98

--

104

100

--

Robusticity Index

R

--

--

--

--

--

19.2

--

--

--

19.7

L

--

--

--

17.8

--

--

--

--

--

Pilastric Index

R

103.6

124.0

112.0

116.7

103.8

120.0

--

--

--

135.7

L

--

--

120.8

116.7

--

120.7

--

127.6

124.1

--

Platymeric Index

R

76.5

81.3

79.3

89.3

79.3

--

83.9

--

--

90.9

L

--

--

--

89.7

--

--

--

--

--

84.8

302

Appendices

Appendix B. Table 2b (cont’d). Measurements of the lower extremity: Femur (in mm) FEMUR Variable

spec no side

sex

19

20a

20b

22

23

24

25

25a

26

28

M

?F

M

M

?M

M

?M

?

F

M

Maximum length

R

--

--

503

453

--

--

515

--

--

--

L

--

453

503

454

505

505

--

--

--

--

Bicondylar length

R

--

--

--

449

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

497

448

--

--

--

--

--

--

Bicondylar width

R

88

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Head dia (ant-post)

R

--

--

--

--

--

44

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

51

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Head dia (vertical)

R

--

--

--

--

48

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Subtrochant dia (ant-post)

R

27

--

29

24

25

27

30

--

--

--

L

--

28

31

25

25

28

29

--

--

--

Subtrochant dia (med-lat)

R

34

--

33

31

32

34

37

--

--

--

L

--

34

32

27

33

35

34

--

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

--

34

39

--

31

34

39

27

31

36

L

--

33

38

29

32

34

37

--

--

33

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

--

27

28

--

29

30

28

25

25

26

L

--

30

28

25

27

29

28

--

--

27

Mid-shaft circum

R

--

96

105

--

95

98

107

--

89

96

L

--

98

106

87

96

97

--

--

--

94

Robusticity Index

R

--

--

20.9

--

--

--

20.8

--

--

--

L

--

21.6

21.1

19.2

19.0

19.2

--

--

--

--

Pilastric Index

R

--

113.3

139.3

--

106.9

113.3

139.3

108.0

124.0

138.5

L

--

125.9

135.7

116.0

118.5

117.2

132.1

--

--

122.2

Platymeric Index

R

79.4

--

87.9

77.4

78.1

79.4

81.1

--

--

--

L

--

82.4

96.9

92.6

75.8

80.0

85.3

--

--

--

303

Holocene Foragers of North India: The Bioarchaeology of Mesolithic Damdama

Appendix B. Table 2b (cont’d). Measurements of the lower extremity: Femur (in mm) FEMUR Variable

spec no side

30a

30b

32

33

34

36a

36b

37

39

F

M

?M

M

M

F

M

F

M

sex

Maximum length

R

--

--

--

--

--

493

486

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

490

--

--

--

Bicondylar length

R

--

--

--

--

--

480

475

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

483

--

--

--

Bicondylar width

R

--

--

--

--

--

68

69

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Head dia (ant-post)

R

--

--

--

--

--

42

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

42

--

--

--

Head dia (vertical)

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Subtrochant dia (ant-post)

R

25

25

23

--

--

25

25

29

27

L

25

--

--

--

--

25

23

27

--

Subtrochant dia (med-lat)

R

33

28

25

--

--

27

28

29

37

L

32

--

--

--

--

30

29

30

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

32

33

28

--

--

30

26

36

32

L

32

32

--

35

32

29

27

36

31

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

27

24

21

--

--

23

24

25

29

L

26

24

--

28

28

25

24

25

29

Mid-shaft circum

R

94

90

78

--

--

83

82

98

97

L

97

89

--

94

95

85

90

95

94

Robusticity Index

R

--

--

--

--

--

16.8

16.9

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

17.3

--

--

--

Pilastric Index

R

118.5

137.5

133.3

--

--

130.4

108.3

144.0

110.3

L

123.1

133.3

--

125.0

114.3

116.0

112.5

144.0

107.0

Platymeric Index

R

75.8

89.3

92.0

--

--

92.5

89.3

100.0

73.0

L

78.1

--

--

--

--

83.3

79.3

90.0

--

304

Appendices

Appendix B. Table 2c. Measurements of the lower extremity: Tibia (in mm) TIBIA

spec no

9

12

13

16a

16b

22

23

24

25

36a

36b

37

Variable

side

?

F

F

M

?M

M

?M

M

?M

F

M

F

sex

Maximum length

R

--

382

364

447

426

--

--

(430)

425

424

--

--

L

--

381

--

--

423

--

435

(425)

--

421

417

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

--

27

28

--

33

--

--

--

--

29

--

--

L

--

27

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

29

--

--

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

--

21

20

--

--

--

--

--

--

20

--

--

L

--

27

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

20

--

--

Mid-shaft circumference

R

--

76

76

--

--

--

--

--

--

79

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

76

--

--

Proximal epiphyseal width (med-lat)

R

--

67

--

74

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

77

68

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

71

--

--

Distal epiphyseal width (med-lat)

R

--

42

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

41

--

--

L

--

42

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

42

--

--

Nutrient foramen dia (ant-post)

R

--

31

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

32

--

--

--

35

--

--

35

31

--

37

Nutrient foramen dia (trans)

R

--

23

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

23

--

--

--

25

--

--

23

21

--

26

Robusticity Index

R

--

19.9

20.9

--

--

--

--

--

--

18.3

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

18.1

--

--

Platycnemic Index

R

--

74.2

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

71.9

--

--

--

71.4

--

--

65.7

67.7

--

70.3

Tibia-femoral Index

R

--

--

--

84.3

85.5

--

--

--

82.5

86.0

--

--

L

--

81.9

--

--

--

--

86.1

84.2

--

85.9

85.8

--

Appendix B. Table 2d. Measurements of the lower extremity: Fibula (in mm) FIBULA

spec

12

13

23

27

28

30a

36a

39

Variable (M/S)

sex

F

F

?M

M

M

F

F

M

side Maximum length

R

371

353

425

370

368

413

--

412

L

--

--

--

--

--

417

402

--

Mid-shaft dia (ant-post)

R

--

16 (max)

--

--

--

--

--

19 (max)

L

13

--

--

--

--

--

14

--

Mid-shaft dia (med-lat)

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

11

--

Mid-shaft circumference

R

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

L

--

--

--

--

--

--

43

--

305

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Abbreviations: IUPPS = International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences

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