Affluent Foragers of the North American Plains: Landscape Archaeology of the Black Hills 9781841713236, 9781407325033

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
PART 1
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
PART II
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7
PART III
CHAPTER 8
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
REFERENCES CITED

Citation preview

Affluent Foragers of the North American Plains Landscape Archaeology of the Black Hills

Marcel Kornfeld George C. Frison Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology University of Wyoming

BAR International Series 1106 2003

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1106 Affluent Foragers of the North American Plains © Marcel Kornfeld and the Publisher 2003 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841713236 paperback ISBN 9781407325033 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841713236 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2003. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A number of people deserve credit for improving the quality of this study. Mary Lou Larson, William D. McCoy, Robert Paynter, R. Brooke Thomas, and H. Martin Wobst read and commented on earlier drafts, while Luann Wandsnider reviewed the present manuscript and in the process clarified my thinking on a number of important issues. All of their comments resulted in tightening up the logic and all were most helpful in getting me through this investigation, and to all, but especially Martin, I am grateful.

also been clarified and new meaning brought into my life during numerous walks with my dog, Marvin Hodder Belzoni. While working on this study George Frison and Chuck Reher have helped me a great deal in tenns of office and laboratory space, computer access, and more generally by being supportive of my efforts. To ·my wife and colleague, Mary Lou, I can only say thanks for tolerating me while working on this study and manuscript, but this does not do justice to your contribution to this study.

This book is partly a result of numerous discussions about off-site, non-site, or distributional archeology with Jim Ebert, Signa Larralde, and Luanne Wandsnider. Their study at Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Wyoming is the first completed "distributional archeology" project in the Plains states. Also helpful in thinking and analyzing spatial distributions and non-site data were Eric Ingbar, Ken Kvamme, and Larry Todd. Eric's advice and tinkering with computer databases was an essential element in completing this analysis. My views of chipped stone and technological organization have profited greatly through discussions with John Cross, George Frison, Mary Lou Larson, David Rapson, Chuck Reher, Ken Sassaman, and Leslie Shaw. Particularly noteworthy as well were numerous discussions with Doug Bamforth, Bill Fawcett, George Frison, and Leslie Shaw about Plains archeology and with Bill the more theoretical and philosophical discussions about the nature of science, archeological theory, and hunter­ gatherers to name a few. Not all of the above support or agree, with my goals and arguments, and there are undoubtedly some that have been left out, to the latter my sincere apologies and anonymous thanks. My thinking has

I also appreciate Kyle Baber's, Terry Fisher's, and Dave McKee's efforts in drafting some of the figures. The Bureau of Land Management (Archeological Overview of Northeast Wyoming, Kornfeld and Reher 1992) funded large parts of data gathering. I am especially appreciative of Alice Tratebas for support of the project. The effort put forth by Jay Mayer, Laura Scheiber, and Jan Wilson on the Northeast Wyoming Overview is most appreciated. Mary Hopkins and the staff of the Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office in Laramie allowed access to state site and survey record. Last but not least this book would never have seen the light of day had Lynda Payne not made numerous revisions and put it in camera ready fonnat. Finally I thank the publishers for their patience while I completed the manuscript.

Marcel Kornfeld George C. Frison Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Department of Anthropology University of Wyoming Laramie, WY 82071-3431 USA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNO WLEDG MENTS L IST OF TABLES

v i i

L IST OF F IGURES

PART I "MAN" THE B ISON HUNTER? P reh is to r ic D ie t sa nd T he i rI mpac t so n S ee ing t h eP a s t O rgan iza t ion o fR e sea r ch T he B ig -game P rocu r emen tP rob lem Why No t "Man t h e H un te r? " G loba l D i s t r ibu t ion o fH un t ing v e r su sG a the r ing E v idence f o rC ommuna l B ison H un t ing E v idence f o rG ene ra l iz ed S ub s is tence Why I sP l a ins F o rag ing E co logy R e levan t?

2 3 3 4 4 4 5 6 6

F o rage r sa nd t h e I n te rp re ta t ion so fP reh is to ry An A l terna t ive P e r spec t ive Af f luen tF o rag ing a nd B road B a sed P la in s E conomy B road B a sed E conomy Af f luen tF o rage r s T he S tudy A rea Wes te rn B la ck H i l l s : T he R eg iona l S ca le D a ta S umma ry

7 7 7 7 8 9 1 0 1 0

2

THE NORTH WEST P LA INS PREH ISTORY H i s tor ya nd S umma ry o fR eg iona lA rcheo logy T empo ra lT rend s P a leo ind ian A rcha ic L a te P reh i s to r ic P ro toh is to r ic A rcheo logy o ft h e We s tern B lack H i l ls S ome Q ue s t ion sA bou tt h e D a taba se

1 I1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 5

3

SUBS ISTENCE , E COLOGY , AND T ECHNOLOGY OF FORAG ING SOC IET IES F o rag ing S oc ie t ies ,S e t t lemen t ,a nd S ub s i s tence R e sou rce s I mp l ica t ion so fR e sou rce S t ruc tu re S pec if i cA s sump t ion sa bou tF o rage rR e sou r ce U se T owa rd aF o rag ing E conomy o ft h e Nor thwe s tP la in s C ons ide ra t ion so fS ca le T echno log ica l O rgan iza t ion o fF o rag ing P rey Mob i l i ty a nd T oo ls t o Make T oo l s : AR ef o rmu la t ion o ft h eP rob lem Ana ly t ica lC ons ide ra t ion s T echno log ica l A t t r ibu te so ft h e w es tern B la ck H i l ls A r t if a c tT ypo logy a nd A r t if ac tA t t r ibu te s AC ons ide ra t ion o fA r t if ac tT aphonomy S pa t ia lD is t r ibu t ion s S umma ry

1 7 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 8 I 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 2

i v

4

THE WESTERN BLACK H ILLS : ENV IRON MENTAL CONTEXT T he G rea tP la in s T he We s te rn B lack H i l ls R eg iona lG eo log ic F ea tu re s D ra inage B a s in s V ege ta t ion a nd t h e Na tu r eo fV ege ta t ive C omp lexe s S umma ry a nd s yn the s is o fG eo logy , D ra inag e B a s in s , a nd V ege ta t ion C l ima to logy S pa t ia l V a r ia t ion o fT empe ra tu re a nd P rec ip i ta t ion T empo ra lV a r ia t ion o fT empe ra tu re a nd P rec ip i ta t ion D i scu ss ion o fR esou rce P red ic tab i l i ty S umma ry

2 3 2 3 2 5 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 9 2 9 2 9 3 1 3 4 3 4

PART I 5

MODEL ING HU MAN FORAG ING I N THE WESTERN B LACK H ILLS I mmob i le R e sou rce so ft h e We s te rn B lack H i l ls F lo ra R e sou rce A bundance : Sma l l F auna R esou rce A bundance Mob i le R e sou rce s L a rge F auna R e sou rce A bundance i nt h e We s te rn B lack H i l l s D ie tB read th a nd Op t ima l D ie t H and l ing T ime B u tche r ing a nd D i s t r ibu t ion o f Mea t S ea r ch T ime O ve ra l l R e tu rn R a te R e sou rce R ank ing a nd D ie tB read th P ropo sed S ub s is tence a nd S e t t lemen t Mode lf o rt h ew e s ter nB lack H i l l sa nd A r cheo log ica l E xpec ta t ion s P rocu remen t S t ra teg ie s Sma l l A n ima ls Mob i le F auna -La rge A n ima ls S eed s T ube r s G reens F ru i t s O the r T empo ra l D imen s ion s We s ter nB lack H i l ls S e t t lemen t -Sub s is tence a nd A rcheo log ica l C o r re la te s T owa rd sA rcheo log ica lE xpec ta t ions S umma ry

3 7 3 8 3 8 3 8 3 9 3 9 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 8 4 9 4 9 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 5

6

S ITES AND F AC IL IT IES ACROSS THE LANDSCAPE N a tu re o ft h eR eg iona l S amp le E nv i ronmen ta l P a t ter n ing o f Ma jo rS i te C ha rac ter is t ics E nv i ronmen ta l A s soc ia t ion so fF ac i l i t ie s E cozone s D ra inage B a s in s V ege ta t ion C ommun i t ie s T opog raph ic F o rma t ion s E nv i ronmen ta l A s soc ia t ion so fG round S tone E nv i ronmen ta l A s soc ia t ion so fS i te a nd A ssemb lage S ize E cozone s D ra inage B a s ins V ege ta t ion C ommun i t ie s S umma ry

5 7 5 7 5 8 5 8 5 9 6 1 6 2 6 2 6 3 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 7

V

7

PREH ISTOR IC T ECHNOLOG ICAL ORGAN IZAT ION AT THE REG IONAL S CALE S i te sa sS amp l ing P o in t s A s semb lage C ompo s i t ion A r t if ac tF requency V a r ia t ion b e tween E cozone s A r t if ac tF requency V a r ia t ion b e tween V ege ta t ion C ommun i t ie s A r t if ac ta nd F ea tu r eR a t io s A r t if ac ta nd T oo l D ive r s i ty A s semb lage S ize , R ichne s s ,a nd Mob i l i ty S i te D ens i ty T empo ra lC hange P ro jec t i le P o in t sa nd H un t ing S t ra teg ie s C hang ing S e t t lemen tS t ra teg ie s P o t te ry a nd F ood P r epa ra t ion S t ra teg ie s S umma ry

6 8 6 8 6 8 6 9 7 2 7 3 7 5 7 6 7 8 8 1 8 1 8 2 8 4 8 5

PART I I 8

WESTERN BLACK H ILLS F ORAGERS R eg iona l L and U se : F ina lT hough t s F o rage rS oc ia l S t ra teg ies i nt h e We s te rn B lack H i l ls F rom S pec ia l is t st oG ene ra l is t s

8 8 8 8 8 9 9 0

APPEND IX A

ED IBLE P LANTS OF THE WESTERN BLACK H ILLS

APPEND IX B

NOTES ON P LANT AND AN I MAL RESOURCES

1 05

APPEND IX C

COD ING GU IDES F OR WESTERN BLACK H ILLS ARCHAEOLOG ICAL DATA

13

R EFERENCES C ITED

9 2

17

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L IST OF TABLES 2 . 1 2 . 2 3 . 1 3 . 2 4 . 1 5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 3 5 . 4 5 . 5 5 . 6 5 . 7 5 . 8 6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3 6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 6 6 . 7 6 . 8 6 . 9 6 . 10 6 . 11 6 . 12 6 . 13 6 . 14 6 . 15 6 . 16 6 . 17 6 . 18 6 . 19 6 . 20 6 . 21 7 . 1 7 . 2 7 . 3 7 . 4 7 . 5 7 . 6 7 . 7 7 . 8 7 . 9 7 . 10 7 . 11 7 . 12 7 . 13 7 . 14 7 . 15 7 . 16 7 . 17 7 . 18 7 . 19 B . 1 B .2 B .3

A n ima l s pec ie sr e cove red f r om w e s tern B lack H i l ls a r cheo log ica l s i te s C ha r red p l an tr ema ins r e cove red f r om w e s tern B lack H i l ls h ea t ing f a c i l i t ie s G ene ra ls o lu t ion s f o rf ood a cqu is i t ion b yf o rage r s C ommon a r t if ac tt ypes f ound i nN o r thwes tP la in sa r cheo log ica l c o l lec t ion s A ve rage mon th ly a nd a nnua la i rt empe ra tu re ( a )a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion ( b ) N umbe ro fp l an t sa nd e d ib le p l an tp a r t s( by g ene ra ) i nd i f f e ren tw e s te rn B lack H i l ls s e t t ing s Wes te rn B lack H i l ls p lan tr e sou r ce ss e lec ted f o rr ank ing B a s ic d a ta o n w e s te rn B lack H i l l sp l an tr e sou rces a nd a bundance a th igh a nd l ow p l an td ens i t ie s F auna lr e sou rce s i nt h ew e s ter nB la ck H i l ls R e sou rce r ank ing b y l ow r e sou r ce a bundance i nk i loca lo r ie sp e rh ec ta r e R esou rce r ank ing b yh igh r e sou rce a bundance i nk i loca lo r ie sp e rh ec ta re R e sou rce r a nk ing b yh and l ing r a te i nk i loca lo r ie sp e rh ou r R e sou rce r a nk ing b yt o ta lr e tur nr a te i nk i loca lo r ie sp e rh ou r S i te s amp le s f r om v a r iou se nv i ronmen ta l s t ra ta T o ta ln umbe ra nd r e la t ive f r equency o ff e a tu re s i nt h ew e s ter nB lack H i l l s s i te s C ompa r ison o fs i tes w i th a nd w i thou tf e a tu re sb ye cozone O ccu r rence o ff e a tu re t ype sb ye cozone C ompa r i son o fo ccu r rence o fs i te sw i th q ua r ry ing f e a tu re sb ye cozone C ompa r i son o fo ccu r rence o fs i te sw i th r ock i mage sb ye cozone C ompa r ison o ff e a tu re o ccu r rence b yd ra inage O ccu r rence o ff e a tu re t ype b yd ra inage C ompa r ison o ff e a tu re o ccu r rence b yv ege ta t ion C ompa r ison o ff e a tu re t ype b yv eg e ta t ion c ommun i ty C ompa r ison o ff e a tu re o ccu r rence b yt opog raphy i ns i te v i c in i ty C ompa r ison o ff e a tu re t ype b yt opog raphy i ns i te v i c in i ty C ompa r i son o fp re sence o fg round s t one b yd ra inage b a s in C ompa r ison o fp resence o fg round s t one b yv ege ta t ion c ommun i ty C ompa r ison o fp resence o fg round s t one b ye cozone A na lys i so fv a r iance f o rs i t es i z e i n m2 b e tween e cozone s A na lys is o fv a r iance f o ra s semb lage s i z eb e tween e cozone A na ly s is o fv a r iance f o rs i te s i ze i n m2 b e tween d ra inage b a s in s A na lys is o fv a r iance f o ra s semb lage s i z eb e tween d ra inage b a s in s A na lys is o fv a r iance f o rs i te s i z e i n m2 b e tween v ege ta t ion c ommun i t ie s A na ly s is o fv ar iance f o ra s semb lag es i ze b e tween v ege ta t ion c ommun i t ie s C ompa r i son o fa r t if ac tc l a s se sb ye cozone C ompa r ison o fa r t if ac tc l a s se sb yv ege ta t ion c ommun i ty A na ly s is o fv a r iance f o ra r t if a c td i ve r s i ty ( 1 1 ' )b e tween s i te sw i th d i f f e ren tt y pe so ff e a tu re s D esc r ip t ive s t a t is t ic s f o rs i t ed en s i ty ( numbe ro fs i te sp e r km 2) S i te d en s i ty b ye cozone ( s i te sp e rk m 2) S i te d en s i ty f o re ach d ra inage b a s in a nd d i v ide A na ly s is o fv a r iance f o rs i te d en s i ty ( p e rk m 2)b e tween e cozone s T empo ra ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s i nt h ew e s ter nB lack H i l ls T empo ra ld i s t r ibu t ion o fc omponen t si nt h ew es tern B la ck H i l l s T ime s pan o fe ach p reh is to r ic p e r iod C ompa r ison o fa l l s i tes f r om e ach t ime p e r iod b yd ra inage b a s in C ompa r ison o fp ro jec t i le p o in tf r equency f r om s e lec ted t ime p e r iod sb yd ra inage C ompa r ison o fa l l s i tes f r om e ach t ime p e r iod b ye cozone C ompa r ison o fp ro jec t i le p o in tf r equency f r om s e lec ted t ime p e r iod sb ye cozone C ompa r ison o fa l l s i te sf r om e a ch t ime p e r iod b yv ege ta t ion c ommun i ty C ompa r ison o fp ro jec t i le p o in t sf r om s e lec ted t ime p e r iod sb yv ege ta t ion c ommun i ty C ompa r ison o fp o t te ry s i te sb yd ra inag e C ompa r ison o fp o t te ry s i te sb yv eg e ta t ion c ommun i ty C ompa r ison o fp o t te ry s i t e sb ye cozone L i s to f mamma ls t ha t may o ccu ri nt h ew e s ter nB lack H i l ls a nd v i c in i ty P a r t ia l l i s to fa mph ib ians a nd r ep t i le st h a tm ay o ccu ri nt h ew e s ter nB lack H i l l sa nd v i c in i ty P a r t ia l l i s to fb i rd st ha tm ay o ccu ri nt h ew es ter nB la ck H i l ls a nd v i c in i ty

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1 5 1 5 1 8 2 1 3 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 2 4 3 4 3 5 0 5 0 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 0 6 1 6 1 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 3 6 3 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 0 7 2 7 7 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9 8 1 8 1 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 3 8 3 8 3 8 4 8 4 8 5 8 5 1 08 1 09 1 09

LIST 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 2 . 1 2 . 2 3 . 1 4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7 4 . 8 4 . 9 4 . 10 4 . 11 5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 3 6 . 1 7 . 1 7 . 2 7 . 3 7 . 4 7 . 5 7 . 6 7 . 7 7 . 8 7 . 9 7 . 10 7 . 11 7 . 12 7 . 13 7 . 14 7 . 15 7 . 16 7 . 17 8 . 1 8 . 2 B . 1

OF F IGURES G loba lv a r ia t ion i nd ependence o n h un ted v e r su sg a the red r e sou rce s We s te rn B lack H i l ls s t udy a r ea N umbe ro fk nown s i te sp e rt own sh ip ( l ef t )a nd n umbe ro fh ec ta re s i n ve s t iga ted ( s u rveyed ) p e rt ownsh ip ( r igh t )i nt h ew e s te rn B lack H i l ls No r thwes tP la ins c u l tu re a r ea S ugge s ted ef ec t so ft a phonom ic f a c to r so nd i f f e ren ta r cheo log ica l a r t if ac t s S chema t ic r ep re sen ta t ion o fs eve ra l o rgan iza t iona l s ca le so ff o rage ri n te rac t ion sa nd t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion G rea tP la ins s how ing ma jo re co log ica l f e a tu re s G eo log ic f o rma t ion sc on ta in ing r aw m a te r ia l f o rt h e manuf ac tu re o fc h ipped s t one i t ems Ma jo rd ra inage b a s in sa nd p e rmanen ts t eams i nt h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l ls V ege ta t ion z ones o fn or thea s t Wyom ing E co log ica la r ea so fn o r thea s t Wyom ing V e r t ica lc ros s -sec t ion sa c ro s st h ew e s ter nB lack H i l ls Wea the rr e co rd ing s t a t ion s i nt h en o r thern p or t ion o ft h ew e s tern B lack H i l l s D rough tp e r iod ic i ty i nt h ree o ft h em a jo rd ra inage sw i th in t h ew es ter nB lack H i l ls s t udy a r ea S ea sona l v a r ia t ion i nt empe ra tu re ( l ine )a nd p rec ip i ta t ion ( ba r s ) Mon th ly p rec ip i ta t ion f o rt h ew e s ter nB lack H i l l s R unn ing a ve rage ( l ine )a nd y ea r ly v a r ia t ion ( ba r s ) i np rec ip i ta t ion f o rt h e w e s ter nB lack H i l ls O p t ima ld i e t mode ls f o rw e s te rn B la ck H i l ls f o rage r s S ea sona l i ty o fp l an tp roduc t ion a nd a va i lab i l i ty f o rp rocu r emen t S ugge s ted s ea sona lv a r ia t ion i nt h ree ma jo rp rocu remen ts t ra teg ies a nd s t o rage R eg iona ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te sw i th g round s t one Mode led r e su l t so fd i ve r s i ty m ea su re u sed i nt h is a na ly s is R e la t ive f r equency o ft oo lt ype sb ye cozone D is t r ibu t ion o ff e a t u re /a r t if ac tr a t io sa c ro s st h ew es te rn B lack H i l ls r eg ion D is t r ibu t ion o ff e a tu re / too lr a t io sa c ro s st h ew e s tern B la ck H i l ls D is t r ibu t ion o ft oo l /deb i tage r a t io sa c ro s st h ew e s tern B lack H i l ls D i s t r ibu t ion o fp o in t / too l r a t io sa c ro s st h e w e s ter nB lack H i l ls F requency d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r t if ac td i ve r s i t ie s i nt h e w e s ter nB lack H i l ls F requency d i s t r ibu t ion o ft oo ld i ve r s i ty i nt h ew es te rn B lack H i l ls R e la t ionsh ip o fa s semb lage r i chne s sa nd s i ze f o rs i te sw i th d if e ren ta r t if ac tc l a s ses R e la t ionsh ip o fa s semb lage r i chne s sa nd s i ze f o rt h ea s semb lage s f r om d i f f e ren te cozone s D is t r ibu t ion o fa r t if ac td ive r s i ty i n d ice sa c ro s st h e w e s ter nB lack H i l ls D is t r ibu t ion o ft oo ld i ve r s i ty i n d ice sa c ro s st h ew e s tern B lack H i l ls F requency o fs i te d en s i t ie sb yt ownsh ip D i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te d en s i t ie sa c ro s st h ew es te rn B lack H i l l s D is t r ibu t ion o fs t anda rd ized s co re s( z sco re s )o fs i te d ens i t ie sa c ro s st h ew e s te rn B lack H i l ls N umbe ro fc omponen t sp e ry ea rf o re ach t ime p e r iod i nt h ew es te rn B la ck H i l ls s i te s amp le R eg iona ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te sw i th p o t tery S ea sona l i ty o fs i xe xcava ted s i te si nt h ew e s ter nB lack H i l ls No r thwe s tP la in sa nd v i c in i ty w i th s upe r impo sed i d ea l ized g roup t e r r i to r ie s B iva r ia te p lo to ft h er e la t ionsh ip o fp l an ty i e ld a nd r e tu rn r a te f o rg ra s se s

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5 9 1 0 1 1 6 1 9 2 4 2 6 2 6 2 8 3 0 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 3 4 3 5 5 1 5 1 5 4 6 4 6 9 7 1 7 4 7 4 7 5 7 5 7 6 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 0 8 1 8 6 8 8 9 0 1 06

I tn ow a ppea r s t h a t an ew l o ok m u s t b e t a ken a t p r eh i s to r ic b i son p rocu r emen t w i th t h e i d ea o f t e s t ing s ome a l t er na t ive h ypo the se s a nd p ropo s ing s ome n ew o ne s . I f , f o r e xamp le , t h e V o re s i te w a s t h e o n ly c ommuna l b i son p r ocu r emen t s i te u s ed b y as i ng le g r oup o fh un te r s a nd i tw a su s ed o na na ve rag eo fo nce i n2 5y ea r s , am an i nh i s l i f e t ime m igh t s e e o n ly t wo o rt h r ee o ft h e se o pe ra t ion s , a n u n l ike ly s i tua t ion . T he r e m u s t h ave b een e i the ra l te rna t ive s i t e s , a l te rna t ive p rocu r emen tm e thod s , o r a l te rna t ive s ub s i s t ence s t ra teg ie s w i th in t h e t e r r i to ry c l a imed b y t h e h un t ing g r oup . G eo rg eC . F r ison 1 978 , p p .244 , P reh i s to r ic H un te r s o f t h eH igh P la in s

D u r ing m o s t o ft h e p e r iod s o fh un t e r -ga the r e r o ccupa t ion o ft h e G r ea t P l a in s , aw ea l th o f a r cheo log ica l e t hnoh is to r ic , a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta i n d ica t e t h a t t h e g r ea t b u lk o f f ood a s w e l l a s m a t e r ia l s n eeded f o r s h e l te r , f u e l , a nd m any c omponen t s o ft e chno logy d e r ive f r om as i ng le s ou r ce : t h e N o r th Ame r ican b i son . . .b i son d om ina ted b o th t h e n a tu ra l f a una a nd t h ed i e t s . D oug la sB amf o r th , 1 988 ,p p . 5 ,E co logy a nd H uman O rgan i za t ion o nt h eG rea tP la in s

i x

CHAPTER I " MAN" THE B ISON HUNTER? T oh ypo the s i ze o nce m o r e , c ommuna lb i son p rocu r emen tw a sa na c t iv i ty t ob r ing s egmen t so ft h es oc ie ty t o g e ther r egu lar ly a nd m ay h a v eh ad s oc ia lb enef i t se v ery b i ta si mpor tan ta st h ee conom ic o ne s( F r i son 1 975 :297 )

B ef o re e mba rk ing o n m y s t udy Iw ou ld l i k e t o make s ome b road , e ven p h i lo soph ica l s t a t emen t s a bou th uman b ehav io r , t h e n a tu re o fc u l tu r e a nd h uman i ty , a nd a n th ropo logy a so ne c l a s so fk now ledg e . A ny ( p r eh i s to r ic )a r cha eo log ica l p ro jec t m u s t b y d ef in i t ion a dd re s s p r eh i s to ry f r om t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd . P r eh i s to ry i sa bou t u nde r s tand ing p a s t p eop le s a nd c u l tu r e s , c on sequen t ly amode o fa n th ropo log ica l k now ledge p roduc t ion ( e .g . , S hank s a nd H odde r 1 995 :12 ) . A s s uch a ny s t udy o fp r eh i s to ry n eed s t oc ome t og r ip s w i th much b igg e r i s sue sa bou tt h en a tu r eo fh uman i ty . B e low I a dop t a d i e t b r ead th m ode l t o g u ide t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd a nd t h i s p e r f o r ce h a s i mp l ica t ion s a bou t h ow Iv i ew h uman i ty . H oweve r , I a dop t t h e d i e t b r ead th m ode l a s ah eu r i s t ic d ev ice , a s af i r s t a pp rox ima t ion o f w ha t w e m igh t e xpec t o f p r eh i s to r ic f o rage r s i n ar e g ion . D ie t b r ead th m ode l s a r e d e r iva t ive s o f o p t ima l f o rag ing t h eo ry . O p t ima l f o rag ing o r a ny s o c iob io log ica l t h eo ry i s u l t ima te ly t o o s imp l i s t ic , m echan i s t ic , a nd r e duc t ion i s t a s a n e xp lana t ion o f h uman s y s tem s . H oweve r , o p t ima l f o rag ing p r ov ide s c l ea r , c onc r e te , e a sy t o g ra sp , a nd r e pea tab le r e su l t s t h a t a r e s e duc t ive t oi n ve s t iga to r s . D ie tb r ead th a nd o p t ima l f o rag ing a pp roache s a r e e l egan t ; n o m a t te r h ow c omp lex a f o rmu la t h e r e i sa lway s s imp l if ica t ion , ar e duc t ion o ft h e s y s t em i t p u rpo r t s t o d e sc r ibe . F o r t h e se r e a son s o p t ima l f o rag ing c anno t a nd s hou ld n o t b e e mb ra ced a s a n e xp lana t ion o f h uman p henomena , b u t a s i nt h e p r e sen t s t udy t h e t h eo ry i s u s ef u l i ng u id ing r e sea r ch ( J och im 1 983 ) , i nc ompa r ing a nd c on t ra s t ing t h e s a t i sf ac t ion o fh uman b i o log ica l s y s tem s t o t h ec u l tu ra lp roce s se s .

t h a tw e i n qu i r ea bou tt h en a tu r e o fh uman s y s tem a td i f f e r en t p l ace s a nd t im e s i nh uman h i s to ry . P e rhap s r e so lu t ion a nd a g r eemen t a bou t t h e n a tu r e o f h uman i ty i si mpo s s ib le , b u t g l o s s ing o ve r t h e i s sue , p r e tend ing o u r s t ud ie s a nd a na ly se s a r e n o t g u ided b y o u r v i ew o fh uman s y s tems , o r h av e n o u l t ima t e e f ec t o n h uman e x i s tence c r ea t e s s t e r i le s c ience . W i thou t s u ch c once rn s w e c an a sk " S c ience f o r w ha t? S c ience f o rw hom? " S c ience , i n my o p in ion , h a st ob e i nt h e s e rv ice o fh uman i ty , f o rt h e g ene ra l b e t te rmen t o ft h e h uman c ond i t ion . Whe the r t h e r e su l t s o f m y i n ve s t iga t ion m ee t t h e se c r i te r ia Il e ave f o ro t he r st oj udge . Ar e la t ed c once rn i so u r v i ew o fs c ience a nd t h e g r ow th o f k now ledge o r e ven t h e k now ledge i n du s t ry a tt h i s p o in t i n h i s to ry ( T raw eek 1 99 1) . T he r i che s t c oun t r ie s , n ame ly t h e U S a nd G e rmany , a r e t o day o n t h e v e rge o f t h e k now ledge / sc ience r e vo lu t ion , ar e vo lu t ion o n ap a rw i th t h e i n du s t r ia l r e vo lu t ion o f o ne h und r ed y ea r s a go . Wh i le i n du s t r ie sa r e m ov ing t ot h i rd a nd f ou r th w o r ld c oun t r ie s ,t h e r i che s tc oun t r ie sa r es ub s id iz ing t h e g r ow th o ft h ek now ledg e i n du s t ry a th ome . A n th ropo logy t oday m u s t b e s e en i nt h e c on tex t o f s u ch k now ledg e g row th , a s mu s t t h i s s t udy . C on sequen t ly , t h e q ue s t ion s p o sed a bove r i se a ga in : S c ience f o rw ha t? S c ience f o rw hom? I ti sc l ea rt o day t h a ts c ience i s n o t n eu t ra l , n o t v a lue f r ee , s o p e rhap s Is hou ld a dd r e s s t h e i n t ended u s e o fm y s t udy . C lea r ly s t a t ing m y i n ten t ion sw i l l n o tp r even tt h ec o -op t ion o ft h e r e su l t s a so f ten h appen s , b u t t os t a t e m y p e r spe c t ive o n t h e s ub jec t a nd t h e u l t ima t e g oa l s o fm y s t ud ie s a s Is e e t h em p rov ide s ap e r spec t ive f o r t h e r e ade r . S oc ia l i n equa l i t ie s c r ea ted b y t h e moder n w o r ld s y s t em a r e u nde s i rab le a nd d e t r imen ta l t oh uman i ty a s aw ho le . S ome i n equa l i t ie s a r e b u i l t o n a nd c on t inue t o b e b u t t r e s s ed b y a n th ropo log ica l " know ledg e " a bou t t h e h uman c ond i t ion i n t h e p a s t ( Conk ey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; P ayn t e r 1 989 ; P ayn t e r a nd M cGu i r e 1 99 1) . Y e tt h ep a s tm ay h ave d if e r ed f r om t h e c u r ren t " know ledg e " c l a im s . A s Ia r gue h e r e , b i g -g ame h un t ing m ay n o t h ave b een o fc en t ra l e conom ic i mpo r tance o nt h eG r ea tP l a in s , a nd c on sequen t ly t h e s o c ia l s t ru c tu r e so f p r eh i s to r ic P l a in s s o c ie t ie s m ay h ave b een mo r e e ga l i ta r ian t h an i si mp l ied b y t h e b i g -game h un t ing e conom ic m od e l s . A t l e a s t o ne o ft h e b i g -game h un t ing m od e ls o n t h e P l a in s a s sume s t h a t c ommuna l b i son h un t ing r e qu i r ed s o c ia l h i e ra r ch ie s , w h ich w ou ld c r ea te a t l e a s t t empo ra ry i n equa l i t ie s . H ow eve r , t h e t r ad i t iona l p i c tu re o fc ommuna l b i son h un te r s i sa n e t hnog raph ic c r ea t ion b a sed o n c on ta c t w i th t h e c ap i ta l i s tw o r ld s y s t em a nd t h e c hang e s w rough tb y t h a t s y s tem ( e .g . , K le in 1 983a a nd 1 983b ) . T o o pen u p t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s o f ad if e r en t p a s t f r om t h a t d eve loped t h rough h i s to r ic r e co rd s o f b i g g ame h un te r s , Ii n ve s t iga t e d i e ta ry s t ra teg ie s o f p r eh i s to r ic N o r thwe s t P l a in s p eop le s a nd p ropo se a na l te rna t ive s ub s i s tence s t ra tegy .

T h rough o r ig in i n m ic roeconom ic s o p t ima l f o rag ing r e k ind le st h e f o rma l i s t sub s tan t iv i s td eba t e ,t h a ti s ,t h e u s eo f t h et h eo ry b r ing sf o r th ab roade ri s su eo ft h en a tu r eo fh uman s y s tem s . O n t h e o ne h and , w e c anno t a c cep t u n ive r sa l h uman r a t iona l i ty , e conom ic o r o t he rw i s e . U n ive r sa l r a t iona l i ty c anno t e xp la in t h e c u l tu ra l d i ve r s i ty , t h e v a r iab i l i ty s e en a r ound u s , t h e v a r iab i l i ty a n th ropo logy a im s t oe xpo se a nd u nde r s tand . P eop le a r e o r gan iz ed d if e r en t ly , c u l tu re s d i f f e r i ns o c ia l d ynam ic s , y e t a l m u s t p rov ide f o r b i o log ica l a nd c u l tu ra lp roduc t ion a nd r e p rodu c t ion t ot h r ive . O nt h eo t he rh and ,t ob o r row ap h ra se f r om H a r r i s( 1979 :23 ) , " Le t F eye rabend s t and b ef o r e t h e o ven s o f D a chau o r t h e d i tch a t My la i a nd s a y t h a t o u r s c ien t if i c u nde r s tand ing o f s o c iocu l tu ra l s y s t em s i su l t ima te ly n o th ing b u t a n ' a e s the t ic j udgement ." T ha ti s ,h ow f a ra r ew ew i l l ing o rs hou ld w eb e w i l l ing t og o i nt h e r e a lm o fc u l tu ra l r e la t iv i sm . T he n a tu re o fh uman d i ve r s i ty a nd c u l tu ra l r e la t iv i sm a r e i s sue sw e h ave t og r app le w i th t o day a s i na ny a ge . S uch i s sue s a r e a tt h e c o r e o f u nde r s tand ing h uman i ty , h uman s y s t em s , c u l tu r e , c u l tu ra ls y s t em s ,h uman b ehav io ro ra ny o t he rn ame w ew i sh t og i ve t o t h e p henomena a n th ropo log i s t s s t udy . T he m a s s a t ro c i t ie s a ga in s t h uman i ty , o n aw o r ldw ide s c a le , d emand

2

P r eh i s to r ic D ie t sa nd T he i rI mpa c t so nS ee ing t h eP a s t

q ue s t ion t h e s p ec ia l i s t p e r cep t ion o ft h e p a s t a nd m y c u r r en t s t udy i sa imed a te l abo ra t ing a nd e n t r ench ing t h e a l t er n a t ive v i ew o fp r eh i s to r ic P l a in sp eop le sa sg ene ra l i s t s .

I d en t if ica t ion o ft h ep r ima ry f ood s ou r ce a nd t h e c on s t i tuen t s o f h uman d i e t h a s b een o ne w ay t h a t p r eh i s to r ian s a nd e t hnog raphe r s h ave c ome t o a n u nde r s tand ing o f h uman b ehav io r . T he a s s ignmen t o f p reh i s to r ic a nd e t hnog raph ic g r oup s t oe i the r s pec ia l iz ed ( f ocu sed o n as i ng le o r af ew r e sou r ce s ) o rg ene ra l iz ed ( d i s t r ibu ted o ve r ab road r a nge o f r e sou r ce s ) s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s i st h en u s ed t or e con s t ruc t s o c ia l a nd i d eo log ica l s y s t em s . I n t h e e a r l ie s t h i s to ry o f a r cheo logy , p r eh is to ry w a s d i v ided i n to a ge s a nd e poch s , a l ong w ha t w a s t hough t t oc on s t i tu t e t h e m a jo r f ood s ou r ce o f t h e t i me , s uch a s m ammo th o r r e ind ee r h un t e r s ( e .g . , T r igg e r 1 9 89 :95 ) . A s m o r e i n f o rma t ion a ccumu la ted o np a s t a nd p r e sen t p eop le s , al o ng t e rm t r end i n a n th ropo log ica l s c ho la r sh ip a bou t f o rag e r s ' h a s b een t o r e p la ce t h e e a r l ie r d e s igna t ion s o f s i ng le s p ec ie s o r s p ec ia l i s t f o rag e r s w i th g ene r a l i s t s .

O rgan iza t ion o fR e sea r ch MY s t udy i sd i v ided i n to t h r ee p a r t s . T he f i r s t p a r t c on s i s t s o f f o u r c hap te r s w h ich c on s ide r t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s p r eh i s to ry , f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s , a nd t h e n a tu re o ft h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s e nv i ronmen t . T he t h r ee c hap t e r s i nt h e s e cond p a r t a r e t h e c o r e o ft h e b ook . I nt h e se c hap te r s Ii n c lude a d i scu s s ion o f t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s r e sou r ce s t ru c tu r e , p r ov id ing a b a s is f o r as ub s i s tence m ode l a nd f o r t h e e xpec ta t ion s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , f o l low ed b y t wo c hap t e r s w i th a na ly se s o f t h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s a r cha eo logy . T he t h i rd p a r t o f t h e m onog raph c on s i s t s o f o ne c hap t e ra nd c onc lude st h ev o lume . T he r e s to fC hap t e r 1 p r e sen t s t h e p rob lem o f i n te rp re t ing p r eh is to r ic e conomy , p rov ide sa na l t er na t ive e conom ic m ode l f o rP l a in sp r eh i s to ry , a nd s k e t che sa no u t l ine f o re va lua t ing t h i sm ode l .

I np r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie sm any e a r ly i n t e rp r e ta t ion so fm ammo th h un te r s ,r e indee rh un t e r s ,r o ed ee rh un t e r s ,b i son h un t e r s , a nd o t he r s h ave b een r ep la ced w i th v i s ion s o fb roade r s p ec t rum f o rag e r s ( Gamb le 1 986 :46 ) . S pec if ica l ly , t h e l owe r a nd m idd le p a leo l i th ic b i g -game h un te r s o f a l s o r t s a nd o f t en s i ng le s p ec ie s s pec ia l i s t s a r e n ow v i ewed a sb road s p ec t rum f o r ag e r sa nd s c avenge r s ( B inf o rd 1 98 1 ; B lumen sch ine 1 987 ; C la rk e 1 976 ; K le in 1 989 :318 ) . F o rt h eu ppe rp a leo l i th ic a nd M e so l i th ic t h i s t r end i s e v iden t i n t h e r e p la cemen t o f i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f h un te r s ( a ga in m o s t ly o f s i ng le s p ec ie s , r e indee r , r o e d ee r , a nd o t he r s ) w i th m o r e g ene ra l ized s ub s i s tence s t ra teg i s t s ( e .g . , C la rk e 1 976 ; K le in 1 989 ; K o r nf e ld 1 996 ; L egge a nd R ow ley -Conwy 1 988 ; Woodman 1 985 :326 -327 ) . C onve r se ly , K le in ( 1 989 :367 ) a r gu e s t h a t t h ed om ina t ion o f as i ng le s pec ie sa t ap a r t icu la rs i t eo rs e r ie s o f s i t e s d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean p rocu r emen t s p ec ia l iz a t ion , b u t m ay i n s tead s i gn if y e nv i ronmen ta l s p ec ia l iza t ion . T ha t i s , t h e p rocu r ed s p ec ie s o ccu r s mo s t c ommon ly i n t h e e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e r ef o r e , g ene ra l ized e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e e nv i ronmen t y i e ld s l a rge ly a s i ng le s p ec ie s . I no t he r w o rd s , t h e a ppa ren t s p ec ia l i s t s a r e a c tua l ly g ene ra l i s t s .

I n c hap te r 2 Is i tua t e t h e c u r r en t s t udy i n p r eh i s to r ic p e r spec t ive t h rough a b r ief r e v iew o f N o r thwe s t P l a in s a r cha eo logy . T he n a tu r e o ft h e d a taba se u sed t o c on s t ruc t t h i s v i s ion o f p r eh is to ry i sq u e s t ioned a t t h e e nd o f t h e c hap t e r . Id i scu s s t h e t h eo r e t ica l a pp roache s t o h uman f o rage r s w i th i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e p r e sen t s t udy i nt h e t h i rd c hap te r . S pec if ic t h eo r ie s a dd r e s s ing f o rag e r m ob i l i ty , t e chno logy ,a nd s ub s i s t ence a r ep r e sen ted . A r t if a c tt y pe sa nd a s semb lage s r e levan t f o r u nde r s tand ing t e chno log ica l o r gan iza t ion a nd f o rd if e r en t ia t ing b i g -game s p ec ia l i s t sf r om g ene r a l is t b road s p ec t rum f o rage r s a r e a l so i d en t if ied i n c hap t e rt h ree . F i na l ly ,t h e f o u r th c hap t e r i s ap r e sen ta t ion o f r e g iona l e nv i ronmen t w h ich d ef ine s t h e r e sou r ce p a r ame t e r s f o rp a s tf o rag ing s o c ie t ie s i nt h es t udy a r ea . T he s e cond p a r to ft h e b ook ( c hap t e r s 5 ,6 ,a nd 7 )c on s i s to f d a ta p r e sen ta t ion a nd a na ly s i s . T he f i f th c hap te r c on s ide r s t h e s p ec if ic h uman s ub s i s t ence r e sou r ce s i n t h e w e s t e rn B la ck H i l l s a nd h ow t h e se s t ruc tu r e t h e e f e c t iv e e nv i ronmen t . T he w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e i s u s ed t op o s tu la te f o rage r d i e t s . I nt h a t c hap te r Ip r e s en t a m ode l o f s p ec if ic p rocu r emen t s y s t em s f o r r e la ted s e t s o f r e sou r ce s p o s tu la ted t o b e i nf o rage r d i e t s a nd s ugg e s t t h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion n ece s sa ry f o r t h eo pe ra t ion o fs u ch s y s tem s . T h i sr e su l t s i n as e r ie s o ft e s t i mp l ica t ion s f o r e va lua t ing t h e p rocu r emen t m ode l . T he s i x th a nd s e ven th c hap te r sp rov ide a na na ly se so ft h ew e s t er n B la ck H i l l s a r cheo log ica l r e co rd . R eg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion s o f a r cha eo log ica la t t r ibu te sa r ee mpha s iz ed , w h i le t e chno log ica l o r gan iza t ion i s i n f e r r ed f r om t h e s pa t ia l s t ruc tu r e o f t h e a r cha eo log ica la s semb lage .

N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian r e sea r che r s h ave a l so r e p laced b i g -game s p ec ia l i s t s( e a r ly m ammo th h un te r s a nd l a te rb i son h un t e r s ; e . g . , S pence ra nd J enn ing s 1 965 ; W i l ley 1 966 ) w i th m o r e g ene ra l iz ed s ub s is tence f o rag e r s ( e .g . , B amf o r th 1 994 ; C o l l in s a nd B ou sman 1 995 ; D incauz e a nd C u r ran 1 983 ; K o r nf e ld 1 988 ; Me l tz e r 1 988 ) . A nd f i na l ly , e t hnog r aphe r s h ave r e p la ced s pec ia l i s t s w i th g r oup s p r a c t ic ing b road s p ec t rum d i e t s . N ea rt ot h er e g ion o ft h i s s t udy , S ho shonean m oun ta in s heep e a te r s ( Tukad ika ) , b uf f a lo e a te r s ( Ku cund ika ) , s e ed e a te r s ( Huk ind ika ) , a nd o t he r s i ng le s p ec ie s c on sume r s a r e n ow v i ewed a s b road s p ec t rum f o rage r s ( e .g . , H u l t i c ran tz 1 96 1 ; S h imk in 1 947 ; S t ewa r t 1 938 ) . A s t h e q uo t e o n t h e r e c to p ag e ( Bamf o r th 1 988 ) s how s , o n t h e G rea t P l a ins a nd e sp ec ia l ly t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s , ab road c r o s s sec t ion o fp r eh i s to r ian s s t i l l v i ew t h e e conomy a s s pec ia l iz ing o n t h e N o r th Ame r ican b uf f a lo . H owev e r , t h e i n c r ea sed u nde r s tand ing o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , c oup led w i th h un te r -ga the r e r t h eo ry i sb eg inn ing t o

P a r tt h r ee c on s i s t s o fo n ly o ne c hap te r( 8 ) a nd c onc lud e s m y i n ve s t iga t ion . I nt h e c onc lu s ion Id i scu s s t h e e f ec t s o ft h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s e co sy s t em s o n t h e d ynam ic s o f p r eh i s to r ic h uman f o rage r s . R eg iona l l a nd u s e , s o c ia l , a nd s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s p rov ide a n a l terna t ive s c ena r io o f N o r thwe s tP l a in sc u l tu ra lb ehav io r .

3

S tud ie s o f l a rge s ca le , i n te r reg iona l p roce s se s o f f o rag ing p opu la t ion s h ave r e cen t ly b een o n t h e c u t t ing e dge o f t h eo re t ica l r e sea rch ( Ba i ley e t a l . 1 989 ; C a shden 1 983 ; F awce t t 1 987 ; H ead land a nd R e id 1 989 ; S ch r i r e 1 984 ; W ie s sne r 1 977 ; Wob s t 1 974 ) . L a rge s c a le p roce s se s c ond i t ion t h e n a tu re o f m ic ro -sca le p henomena , b u t t h e p roce sse s a tt h e t wo s ca le s a r e i n te rdependen t ( e .g . , G e ro 1 990 ) . N ow i s a p a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia te t ime t o r e inve s t iga te l a rge s ca le f o rag ing p roce s se s a nd t h e w e s te rn B lack H i l ls of e r a n o ppo r tun i ty a nd t h e d a ta n ece s sa ry t o e xam ine e conom ic s t ra teg ies a tt h is s ca le .

F o rb is 1 992 ; Wede l 1 983 , 1 986 :22 ) . B i son p rocu remen t h a s r e ce ived t h e mos t t h o rough r e sea r ch o f a ny e conom ic p u r su i t s s t ud ied b y a r cheo log is t s i n t h e P la in s , h a s b een p ub l ic ized m o re o f t en , a nd h a s h ad t h e mo s t e f f o r t t owa rd e xp lana t ion d ed ica ted t o i t( e .g . , A r thu r 1 975 ; B amf or th 1 988 ; D av i s a nd W i l son 1 978 ; F awce t t 1 987 ; F r i son 1 967 , 1 978a ; R ehe r 1 977a ; R ehe r a nd F r i son 1 980 ; R o l l a nd D eave r 1 980 ) . C on sequen t ly , b i son p rocu remen t f o rm s t h e f ounda t ion o f o u r u nde r s tand ing o f p reh is to r ic P l a in s . T h rough a nd rocen t r ic t r an sf o rma t ion , b i son h un t ing p eop le a r e mo rphed i n to " man t h eb i son h un te r " o r mo r e s imp ly man t h e h un te r ( e .g . , C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; H uda cek -Cuf f e 1 998 ) .

T he w e s te rn B la ck H i l ls s t udy a r ea , a s d ef ined h e re , c ove r s a pp rox ima te ly 2 0 ,000 km 2 o r 8 0 x2 50 k m ( s ee b e low ) . A l though s ome m ay c ons ide r 2 0 ,000 km 2 r e la t ive ly s ma l l ( B inf o rd 1 983 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ; T ra teba s 1 985 a nd o t he r s s e e s e a sona l movemen t a t as ca le much g rea te r t han t h is ) , am in ima l c onnub ium o r a pp rox ima te ly 1 75 p eop le , c ou ld o ccupy t h is a r ea a t t h e e s t ima ted a ve rage N or the rn P l a in s p opu la t ion d ens i t ies ( K roebe r 1 939 ; R ehe r a nd F r ison 1 980 ) . T hu s , t h e a r ea i sl a rge e nough t o a ccommoda te t h e s ea sona l r ound s o f s eve ra l f o rag ing g roup s ( band s ) . T he r e cen t p ro l if e ra t ion o f of s i te , n on s i te , o r d i s t r ibu t iona l a r cheo logy p r e sen t s a pp rop r ia te m e thodo log ica l mode ls f o r a na lyz ing l a rge s ca le s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s ( Cam i l l i 1 983 , 1 985 ;E be r t 1 986 ; F o ley 1 977 ;T homa s 1 97 1) .

Why N o t " Man t h e Hun te r? " T he a r cheo log ica l a nd s cho la s t ic v i s ib i l i ty o fb i son h un t ing h a s a l so f o cu sed o n c a ta s t roph ic d ea th e ven t s , c ommon ly i n te rp re ted a s c ommuna l b i son k i l ls . T he e conom ic c en t ra l i ty o f c ommuna l b i son h un t ing a s t h e ma in f o rm o f P la in s b i son e conomy may b e q ue s t ioned f o r t h ree r e a son s . F i r s t , t h e g l oba l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e p ropo r t ion o f h un t ing v e r su s g a the r ing i nv a r iou s p opu la t ion s f a i l s t os uppo r t s uch ap e r spec t ive . S econd , c ommuna l b i son h un t ing s i te s o ccu r r a re ly w hen c ompa red t o t h e e n t i r e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd . A nd t h i rd , t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd o n t h e No r thwe s t P l a ins s ugges t st h a to t he rs ub s is tence p u r su i t sa r e s i gn if ican t .

[ he B ig -game P rocu remen tP rob lem G loba l D i s t r ibu t ion o fH un t ing v e r su sG a the r ing . T he g l oba l d i s t r ibu t ion o ff o rag ing p a t ter n s i so ne o ft h ep r ima ry r e a son s f o r q ue s t ion ing h uman d ependence o n b i g -game h un t ing o n t h e No r thwe s t P la in s . A n umbe r o f y ea r s a go L ee ( 1968 ) d emon s t ra ted t h a th eavy d ependence o nb ig g ame a nd h un ted r e sou rce s o n ly o ccu r s i n e x t reme n o r the rn ( h igh ) l a t i tude s ( F igu re 1 . 1) . B inf o rd 's ( 200 1) e xhau s t ive s t udy o fh un te r g a the re r s d oe s n o t c on t rad ic t t h e e a r l ie r o b se rva t ion . B e lov sky ( 1987 ) e xp la ined L ee 's o b serva t ion ( der ived f r om Mu rdock 1 967 )b y d emon s t ra t ing t ha t t h e h eavy d ependence o n b ig g ame i n n or the rn l a t i tude s c o r r e la tes w i th p r ima ry p roduc t iv i ty w h ich c o r re spond s g loba l ly t ol a t i tude ( s ee a l so E l len 1 982 :56 a nd G amb le 1 986 :34 -39 ) . T he g row ing s ea son i ss ho r t i nn o r ther n r eg ion s , a nd f l o ra l r e sou rce s a r e l i m i ted a nd d i s t r ibu ted i ns uch aw ay t h a t h uman e xp lo i ta t ion i sn o t f e a s ib le . H oweve r , r e cen t ly i th a s b een s hown t h a t s i gn if ican t d ependence o n p l an t s c an a l so o ccu r i nr e la t ive ly n o r the r ly h ab i ta t s ( Hunn 2 000 ) . R ega rd le s s , t h e N o r thwe s t P la in s a r e b e tween 1 , 000 a nd 2 , 000 k m s ou th o f w he re p r ima ry r e l iance o n b ig g ame , p r io r t o E u ropean i n vo lvemen t , i s d ocumen ted e t hnog raph ica l ly i n N o r th Ame r ica . B y t h e t ime t h e e a r l ie s t e t hnog raphe r s r e co rded G rea t P la in s l i f eway s , a l l n a t ive g roup s w e r e h eav i ly i n f luenced b y E u ropean e xpan s ion ( Lew is 1 942 ; Wo lf 1 982 : 176 18 1) . P la in s g roup s p a r t ic ipa ted i ns eve ra l a spec t s o ft h e f u r t r ade , i n c lud ing p rocu r ing h i de s a nd s upp l ie s f o r t h et r appe r s ( K le in 1 983b ) . S uch e conom ic c oncer n s c r ea ted d ependency r e la t ion s b e tween n a t ive p opu la t ion s a nd E u ropean t r ad e r s , c ond i t ion ing t h e s pec if ic s o f s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie st h a tw e re o b se rved a nd r e co rded .

T he r o le o f b ig g ame i n p reh is to r ic f o rag ing s oc ie t ie s t h roughou t t h e w o r ld a nd o n t h e No r th Amer ican G rea t P l a in s i n p a r t icu la r p re sen t s a ma jo r p rob lem f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e e conomy a nd i t s r e la t ion t o s oc ia l f o rma t ion s a nd h uman e vo lu t ion ( A rd rey 1 976 ; B amf o r th 1 988 ; B inf o rd 1 98 1 ; E l len 1 982 ; F awce t t 1 987 ; F reeman 1 975 ; G ough 1 971 ; I s aac 1 978 ; L in ton 1 97 1 ; R ehe r a nd F r i son 1 980 ) . A s t h e t wo q uo te s o n t h e r e c to p age i n d ica te r e sea rche r s d eba te t h e r o le o fb i son v e r su s t h e r o le o fo t he r r e sou rce s i nP l a ins e conom ie s . A cco rd ing t oT e s ta r t ( 1988 ) t h e p rob lem w i th t h e r o le o f b ig g ame i n e conomy i s a f unc t ion o ft wo q ue s t ions : F i r s t , w ha t i st h e r e la t ionsh ip o f e conomy a nd s oc ie ty , a nd s econd , w ha t i st h e r o le o f b ig g ame i ns pec if i c e conom ie s? H e re Ii n ve s t iga te t h e s e cond q ue s t ion i n t h e c en t ra l p o r t ion o f t h e No r thwes t P la ins c u l tu re a r ea , w h i le a s sum ing t ha t e conomy a nd s oc ie ty a r e a lway s r e la t ed a l though s uch r e la t ion s a r e n o t a lways t h e s ame . Ia l so h ope t h e p re sen t s t udy y i e ld s e v idence f o r t h e f i r s t q ue s t ion a nd t h e reby a l low s f o r a mo re i n f ormed d i scou r se a bou tc u l tu ra l s y s tems . B ig g ame h a s h ad a p rom inen t p l ace i n a r cheo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s o f p reh is to r ic e conom ie s b ecau se t h e i r r ema ins a r e t h e mos t a r cheo log ica l ly v i s ib le a nd t o u s t h e mo s t i mp re s s ive , w h i le t h e r ema in s o f o t he r r e sou rce s a r e o f t en o b scu red . V is ib i l i ty i sp a r t ia l ly at a phonom ic f a c to r , w h ich h a s c ond i t ioned i n te rp re ta t ion s o f p r eh is to ry a nd c u l tu ra l p roce s se s ( e .g . , G amb le 1 986 :23 ) i nt h e c on tex t o f v a r iou s i n te l lec tua l m i l ieu s . Ab i son f o cu sed e conomy h a s l o ng b een t hough t t o b e , a tl e a s t b y s ome p r eh i s to r ian s , t h e o n ly o p t ion t os u rv iva l o n t h e No r th Ame r ican P la ins ( e .g . ,

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D EGREES F ROM E QUATOR F igu r e 1 . 1 G loba lv a r ia t ion i nd epend en ce o nh un ted v e r su sg a the r ed r e sou r ce s ,f i shed r e sou r ce sa r en o ti n c luded . A s t h e e t hnog raph ic d ocumen ta t ion r e co rd s ad i e t h eav i ly i n f luenced b y m a rk e t e conomy , t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ap r e c on ta c t d i e tr e qu i r e sc on s ide ra t ion o ft h ee nv i ronmen t w i th in w h ich p r eh i s to r ic f o rage r s m ade al i v ing . O n ab a s ic l e ve l t h e N or thwe s t P l a in s a r e ag ra s s land e nv i ronmen t ( Kuch le r 1 964 ) . G r a s s land s a r e p a r t icu la r ly p l an t r i ch e nv i ronmen t s f o rh uman f o rag e r sb ecau se :

b i son b onebed s i te s ( c ommuna l b i son k i l l s ) c on ta in t h e l a rge s t q uan t i ty o fb i son r ema in s . T he n umbe r o f a n ima l s k i l led a nd b u tche r ed a t b i son b onebed s r a nge s f r om a pp rox ima t e ly o ne d oz en t oh und r ed s ( Fawce t t 1 987 ; F r i son 1 99 1) . E v en a d oz en a n ima l s w ou ld h av e y i e lded l a rge q uan t i t ie s o ff o od , e ven w i th m in ima l b u t che r ing a sa ts ome P a leo ind ian l o ca l i t ie s ( e .g . , T odd 1 987 ; c f . H i l l 2 00 1) . H ow eve r ,c ommuna lb i son k i l ls c omp r i se o n ly 1t o 2% o ft h e a r cheo log ica l s i te s r e po r t ed o n t h e P l a in s ( Fawce t t 1 986 ) , a nd t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s a r e n o e xcep t ion . H e r e , m a jo r s u rvey s h ave r e co rd ed t h ou sand s o fa r cheo log ica l s i t e s a nd a mong t h em o n ly a f ew l a rge b onebed s w h ich c ou ld b e a r gued t op rov ide d i r ec t e v idence o fb ig g ame p rocu r emen t ( Bu r eau o f L and Managemen t 1 984 ; P eeb le s 1 98 1 ; R ehe r 1 979 ; R o l l 1 978 ; T ra t eba s 1 985 ) . A l though w e h ave n o t d eve loped t h e m e thod s t o c ompa r e t h e r e sou r ce v a lue a cqu i r ed a tc ommuna lb i son k i l l st ot h e v a lue a cqu i r ed a tt h e o t he r 9 9% o f t h e k nown s i t e s , Ia s sume t h a t as ub s tan t ia l p o r t ion o fs ub s is t ence w a s a cqu i r ed a tl o ca t ion s o t he r t h an t h e b i son b onebed s a nd m o s t r e sou r ce s f r om t h e se l o ca t ion s w e r e n o t b i son . T hu s , c ommuna l b i son p rocu r emen t o ccu r r ed i n f r equen t ly a nd l i ke ly c on t r ibu ted o n ly af r a c t ion t ot h eo ve ra l ls ub s i s t ence .

m o s to ft h ep r ima ry p roduc t ion i sa va i lab le f o r c on sump t ion b y e i the r t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s o rt h e i ra n ima l p r ey , s i nce l i t t le o f t h e v ege ta t ion i s c ompo sed o f s t r u c tu ra l c omponen t s ( wood , b a rk , e t c . ) . ( Be lov sky 1 987 :5 1) . A l though h uman sc an c on sume n ea r ly a l ly oung g r a s s s hoo t s ( wh ich i sa n i mpo r tan t s p r ing t ime s ou r ce o fv i tam in C ; e . g . , D eave r 1 980 ) a nd m any g ra s s s p ec ie s p rodu ce e d ib le s e ed s a nd r h izome s ,t h eh uman g a s t ro in te s t ina lt r a c tc anno tc onve r t g r a s s i n to u sef u l e ne rgy . H ow eve r , g ra s s land s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s , a r e a l so p a t chy e nv i ronmen t s c r ea t ed b y v a r ia t ion i nt h e s o i l s ub s t ra ta , t o pog raphy , a nd a l t i tude , w h ich c on ta in a v a r ie ty o f p l an t a nd n ume rou s a n ima l r e sou r ce s ( s ee C hap te r s 4a nd 5 ) . H en ce , b ecau se o f t h e l a t i tud ina l l o ca t ion o ft h eN o r thwe s t P l a in sa nd i t sp a t chy g r a s s land b i o tope , f o rag ing s t ra t eg ie s s hou ld e mpha s iz e p l an t sa nd s ma l la n ima ls .

I na dd i t ion , a tl e a s t d u r ing c e r ta in p o r t ion s o fp r eh i s to ry , f o r e xamp le , t h e E a r ly P l a in s A r cha ic P e r iod ( F r i son 1 978a ) , c ommuna l b i son k i l l s a r e g ene ra l ly a b sen t , y e t h un t ing a nd g a the r ing p opu la t ion sc on t inued t oe xp lo i tt h e r e g ion ( F r i son 1 978a :40 -46 ; L a r son a nd F ranc i s 1 997 ) . A nd f i na l ly c ommuna l b i son k i l l s a r e a r gued t o h ave p rov ided m a in ly o ve rw in te r ing r e sou r ce s ( F r i son 1 978a :345 ) . E ven d u r ing

E v idence f o r C ommuna l B i son H un t ing . T he a r cheo log ica l r e co rd c on s t i tu te s t h e s e cond r e a son f o r d oub t ing t h e b i g g am e e mpha s i s i ns ub s i s t ence o n t h e P l a in s . G r ea t P l a in s 5

t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod m o s t b i son b onebed s e xh ib i t w in te r m o r ta l i ty ( Todd 1 99 1) , l e av ing o ne w onde r ing w ha t r e sou r ce s d om ina ted t h e d i e t s t h e r e s t o f t h e y ea r . C on s equen t ly , c ommuna l b i son k i l l s d i d n o t p l ay a m a jo r r o le i ne ve ryday s ub s i s t ence p u r su i t s ,a nd a r et h u su n l ike ly t o h ave b een c en t ra l i n t h e o rgan iza t ion o f p r eh i s to r ic N o r thwe s tP l a in sf o rag ing e conomy .

a r e e n t i r e ly i g no red i nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e a r t . S u ch o ve r s igh t s d ownp lay t h e p o ten t ia l i mpo r tance o f p l an t r e sou r ce sf o rp r eh i s to r ic p eop le s . I ns umma ry , c ommuna l b i g g ame p rocu r emen t d i d n o t f o rm t h e f u lc rum u pon w h ich N o r thwes t P l a in s f o rag ing e conom ie s b a lanced . H uman s u rv iva l r e l ied u pon d ec i s ion s m ad e a bou t m any o t he rr e sou r ce s ( e .g . , K ey se r 1 986 ; L a tady 1 982 ; R ehe r 1 979 ) , y e t e conom ic mode l s b a sed o n c ommuna l b i son p rocu r emen tp l ay ad i sp ropo r t iona te ly l a rg e r o le i nt h ec on s t ruc t ion o fP l a in sp r eh is to ry ( Bende r 1 983 : 1) .

E v idence f o r G ene ra l iz ed S ub s i s tence . A t h i rd r e a son f o r q ue s t ion ing d ependence o n b i g g ame p rocu r emen t i st h e a bundan t e v idence f o r " of s i te " a c t iv i t ie s . T he e n t i re N o r thwe s t P l a in s ( a s i n deed o t he r r e g ion s o f t h e w o r ld ; D ancey 1 974 ; F o ley 1 98 1a ; I s aa c 1 978 ; Wob s t 1 976 , 1 983 ) i sl i t te r ed w i th at h in s c a t t e r o fc u l tu ra l d eb r i s , u sua l ly s t one a r t if a c t s ( Ebe r t 1 986 ; K or nf e ld e ta l . 1 995 ) . Much o f t h e s c a t t e r ed d eb r i s i sl i ke ly t h e p roduc t s o fa c t iv i t ie s o t he r t h an c ommuna l b i g g ame h un t ing , w h ich c oncen t ra t e s a r t if ac t s a t k i l l ,p roce s s ing ,a nd c on sump t ion l o ca t ion s .

Why I sP l a in sF o rag ing E co logy R e levan t? A rgumen t sa bou tt h ec hang ea nd s t ab i l i ty o fc u l tu ra l s y s t em s a nd u s e s o f " know ledg e " a bou t p r eh i s to r ic f o rage r s i no u r s o c ie ty h i ng eo n ar obu s t u nde r s tand ing o ff o rag ing s y s t em s . H ow eve r , o u rk now ledg e o ft h e w o r ld ' s f o rage r s i sb a sed o n e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f s o c ie t ie s l i v ing i n e x t r eme e nv i ronmen t s . T empe ra t e r e g ion f o rage r s a r e p r a c t ica l ly u nknown e t hnog raph ica l ly ( Keene 1 98 1 :2 ) , y e t t h e se s o c ie t ie s p l ay a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h eo r ie s a bou t an umbe r o f c u l tu ra l p roce s se s ( s ee b e low ) . E ven i ft empe ra te f o rage r s w e r e k nown e t hnog raph ica l ly , a r cheo logy p r ov ide s ad a ta b a se w h ich i se spec ia l ly s u i t ed f o r t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f l o ng t e rm c u l tu ra l p r oce s se s i n c lud ing a dap ta t ion t or e sou r ce f l uc tua t ion , e conom ic , a nd e x chang e s t ra t eg ie s ( Row ley -Conwy a nd Z ve leb i l 1 989 :46 ) . T he a r cheo logy o ft empe ra te r e g ion s p rov ide s af i rm b a se w i th w h ich t o a dd r e s s q ue s t ion s a bou t t empe ra t e r e g ion f o rag e r s a s w e l l a s f o rage r s t h roughou t t h e w o r ld . S i nce e t hnog raph ic d a ta c o l lec t ion m e thod s e x t end s a tm o s t o v e r t h r ee d ecade s a nd u sua l ly n o m o r e t h an a f ew y ea r s , l o ng t e rm p roce s se s c ove r ing m u l t ip le g ene ra t ion s c anno t b e o b se r v ed . L ikew i se l a rge s c a le s pa t ia l p roce s se s a r e u nob se rvab le b y e t hnog raphe r s . S imp ly o ne c anno t b e i n t wo p l a ce s a to nce . C on sequen t ly , t h e t h eo ry o f f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s m u s t b e b u i l t i n d i a logue w i th t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd , w h ich a low s t h e e va lua t ion o f i d ea s a bou t c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s o ve r m any g ene ra t ion s a nd o ve r l a rge l a nd s cape s . E conom ic p roce s se s , a l though v a r iab le a mong f o rag e r s , g ene ra l ly h ave c on t inu i ty o ve r g ene ra t ion s . C on sequ en t ly , t h e c umu la t iv e e f f ec t o f l o ng t e rm a nd s pa t ia l ly b r oad e conom ic p roce s se s s hou ld b e o b se rvab le i n t h e a r cheo log ica lr e co rd .

T he c ommuna l p rocu r emen t a nd p roce s s ing o f l a rg e g ame p rodu ce s d en se c oncen t ra t ion s o f l a rge n umbe r s o f b i son b one s a nd b one a nd s t one t o o l s t h a t a r e a r gu ed t or e p r e sen t k i l l a nd p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s ( e .g . , F awce t t 1 987 ) . T he l a rge n umbe r o fp eop le i n vo lved i nc ommuna l b i son p rocu remen t ( e .g . , V e rb icky -Todd 1 984 ) a nd t h e l e ng th o fs i te o ccupa t ion ( e .g . , Y e l len 1 974 ) c omb ine t o c r ea t e l a rg e , d en se h i gh f r equency p eak s i na r cheo log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s m ak ing t h em h i gh ly v i s ib le . I n e f ec t c ommuna l b i son p rocu remen t " c r ea t e s" a r cha eo log ica l s i te s . I n a dd i t ion , m u l t ip le -an ima l p rocu r emen t l o ca t ion s c r ea t e s omewha t s t ab le m ic roenv i ronmen t s ( Todd 1 983 ) , r e su l t ing i n b e t te r p r e se rva t ion a nd s u rv iva l o ft h e f a una l r ema in s t h an a to t he r s i te s . Many s t ud ie so fP l a in sa r cheo logy h ave p o in ted t ot h e u nde r r ep r e sen ta t ion o f p l an t r e sou r ce s ( B rum ley 1 978 ; F r ed lund 1 98 1 ; G re i se r 1 985 ; T ra t eba s 1 985 ) a nd t h e v i s ib i l i ty f a c to r m ay a c coun t , i n p a r t , f o r s u ch u nde r r ep r e sen ta t ion . H ow eve r , t h e P l a in s a r cheo log ica l r e co rd c on t ra s t s w i th t h e d en se a r t if a c t p a t che s t h a t r e p r e sen t c ommuna l b i son k i l ls , a l though t h e s pec if ic c ha ra c te r i s t ic so ft h e c on t ra s ta r e v ague b ecau se n on -pa tch m a te r ia l s a r e p oo r ly s amp led , r e po r ted , a nd a na lyz ed . F o r e xamp le , w hen m o s t k i l l s c on s i s t o f s i ng le , s ma l l t o m ed ium s i z ed a n ima l s , s c a t te r ed o ve r t h e l a nd scape , l i t t le c hance e x i s t sf o rt h ea c cumu la t ion o fa r t if ac t p a tche s , t h a t i s , " s i te s " ( Gamb le 1 986 :20 ) , a l though s u ch s i te s m ay d eve lop o ve rm i l lenn ia o fu s e( e .g . , C am i l l i 1 989 ) . T he p rocu r emen t o f p l an t s l i ke ly p rodu ce s s im i la r l ow d en s i ty d i s t r ibu t ion s a c ro s s l a nd s cape s . My g oa l i s t o i n te rp r e t r e g iona l d i s t r ibu t ion s , c on s i s t ing l a rg e ly o f n on c l u s te r ed o r l ow -den s i ty c l u s te r s o fa r t if ac t s t od emon s t ra te t h e p r e sumed b road s pec t rum o f e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s f o und o nt h eN o r thwe s tP la in s .

T empe ra te r e g ion f o rage r s a r e h i gh ly v a r iab le , a s a r e t h e r e g ion s t h ey i n hab i ted . S i nce a n th ropo logy s e ek s t o e xp l ica t e c u l tu ra l v a r ia t ion , t h e s t udy o f t empe ra t e r e g ion f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s i sa n i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h a t r e sea r ch . F o r e xamp le , f o od p rodu c t ion , s e den t i sm a nd s o c ia l i n equa l i t ie s a l h ave b een o b se rved a mong t empe ra te r eg ion f o rag e r s ( e .g . , K eene 1 98 1 ; K e l ly 1 985 ; P r ice a nd B rown 1 985 ) . A l though n one o f t h e se d eve lopmen t s a r e k nown t o h ave t a k en h o ld o n t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s , e l emen t s o fe a ch h ave b een i n f e r r ed f r om t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd . F o r e xamp le , s o c ia l h i e ra r ch iza t ion h a s b een s e en i n t h e o rgan iz a t ion o f c ommuna l b uf f a lo h un t ing ( Fawce t t 1 987 ; F r i son 1 97 1 ; V e rb icky -Todd 1 984 ) , p l an t p ropaga t ion i s s ugg e s t ed b y m a c ro -f lo ra l a nd m ic ro f lo ra l a na ly se s ( G r e ise r e ta l . 1 98 1 ;

F i na l ly , o ne c an q ue s t ion t h e e conom ic c en t ra l i ty o f b i son t h rough t h e s t udy o f P l a in s r o ck a r t s i t e s . A l though b i son c on s t i tu te a l a rge p ropo r t ion o f a n ima l d ep ic t ion s a ts ome s i te s , o t he rr o ck a r tp ane l sc on ta in s ma l le ra n ima l sa sw e l l a s aw ide v a r ie ty o f s pec ie s ( Key se r 1 984 ; S ud s t rom 1 984 ) . A dd i t iona l ly a nd u nf o r tuna te ly , t h e f ew d ep ic t ion s o fp l an t s

6

G ue rn sey p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 994 ; R ehe r p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 988 ; T ib e sa r 1 980 ) , a nd r e du ced m ob i l i ty h a sb een a r gu ed f r om t h ep r e sence o fp i thou se s( Eak in 1 987 ; F r i son 2 00 1 ; G i lman 1 986 ; L a r son 1 997 ; L a r son a nd F ranc is 1 997 ; N ewb e r ry a nd H a r r i son 1 986 ) . T hu s , a n a na ly s i s o f f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s o n t h e N o r thwe s ter n P l a in s c an c on t r ibu te r e levan t i n f o rma t ion t o t h e c u r r en t d eba te s o f c u l tu ra l c omp lex i ty a nd e vo lu t ion , w i th r ega rd t os u ch t h ing s a sf o od p r oduc t ion , s e den t i sm , a nd s o c ia l i n equa l i t ie s ( e .g . , B u r ch a nd E l lanna 1 994 ; I ngo ld e t a l . 1 988 ; P an t e rB r ick e t a l . 2 00 1) . A t t h e s ame t ime , s i nce t h e se s i gna tu r e s o f c omp lex i ty d o n o t s e em t o h ave b e come e s tab l i shed , N o r thwe s t P l a in s s oc ie t ie s m ay p r ov ide e xamp le s o f r e s i s tance t o c omp lex i ty , a r e la t ive ly u nde r s tud ied a nd p oo r ly u nde r s tood p roce s s i n p r eh is to ry ( e .g . , P ayn te r a nd M cGu i re 1 99 1) .

G r e i se r 1 985 ; K ey se r 1 986 ) . L ack o f" d i rec t " e v idence h a s l e d m any p r eh i s to r ian s t o a rgue t h a t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o mode l p r eh i s to r ic p l an t e xp lo i ta t ion o n t h e No r th Ame r ican P l a in s ( F r ed lund 1 98 1 ; T ra teba s 1 985 ) . As im i la r a r gumen t h a s b een p r e sen t ed i n o t he r w o r ld r e g ions w he r e p l an t r ema in sa r e r a r e ly p r e se rved ( C la rk 1 987 ; P r ice 1 985 ) . O n ly i n a r ea s w he r e p r e se rva t ion i sc on s is ten t ly g ood , s u ch a s r e g ion sw i th d r yc ave s ,d or e sea rche r sr e gu la r ly d i scu s sp l an t f o od s i n p r eh i s to r ic d i e t s ( e .g . , F l anne ry 1 986 ; Ma cNe i sh 1 967 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h em in ima l s o -ca l led d i rec te v idence , av a r ie ty o f i n d i r ec t e v idence m ay b e b rough t t o b ea r o n t h e u nde r s tand ing o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s . I n d i r ec t e v idence c on s i s t s o f t h e p r e sence o f s p ec if ic t o o l t y pe s , s u ch a s g r ind ing ( c f . A dam s 1 999 ) , t r app ing a nd c o l lec t ing i mp lemen t s ( e .g . , F r i son 1 978a :355 ; H ayd en 1 979 : 14 1 ; J ane t sk i 1 979 ; Mu l loy 1 958 ) , r e s idue s o n t h e se i t em s ( Qu igg e ta l . 2 00 1) , c hem ica l r e s idue s i ns o i l s ( Su t ton 1 994 :4 ) , a nd t h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o f h uman r ema in s ( Su t ton 1 994 :5 ) . T ha t i s ,t h e p rocu r emen t a nd p roce s s ing o f c e r ta in p l an ta nd a n ima lr e sou rce sm ay c r ea te s pa t ia lp a t ter n s o f p ho spho r u s , s o i l a c id i ty o r o t he r c hem ica l r e s idue s a t a c t iv i ty l o ca t ion s w h ich may b e d e tec tab le . F u r the r , c on sump t ion o fp l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s b y h uman s m ay b e i n f e r red f r om t h e c omponen t s o fr a re ly p r e ser ved f e ce s ( F ry 1 985 ) , a ga in t h er ema in s f ound o n ly u nde rs pec ia lc ond i t ion s s u ch a sd r y c ave s . F i na l ly , t r a ce e l emen t a nd s t ab le c a rbon i s o tope a nd n i t rog en a na ly s is o f h uman b one c an p rov id e a no the r l i ne o f i n d i r ec t e v idence o f d i e ta ry c ompo s i t ion ( Bum s tead 1 985 ; McGove rn -W i lson a nd Q u inn 1 996 ; P r ice , e ta l . 1 985 ;T ie sz en 1 994 ) .

F o rag e r sa nd t h eI n te rp r e ta t ion so fP r eh i s to ry A no the r r e a son f o r u nde r tak ing t h e a na ly s i s o ft h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s p r eh i s to r ic s ub s i s tence i s t o q ue s t ion s ome c u r ren t i n te rp re ta t ion s o f f o rag ing l i f eway s . A s e ve ry i n t roduc to ry t e x tbook o fa n th ropo logy i n d ica t e s , o ve r9 9% o f h uman e x i s t ence h a s b een s pen t a s f o rag e r s , t h e mo s t p e r s i s ten t a nd s u cce s sf u l o f h uman a dap ta t ion s ( Lee a nd D eVo re 1 968 :3 ; c f . K e l ly 1 985 ) . T o u nde r s tand c u l tu ra l p r oce s se s i nf o rag ing s oc ie t ie s i st ou nd e r s tand s ome p a r t o f o u rc ommon p a s t , a nd p e rhap ss ome i n s t i tu t ion st h a ta r ew i th u se v en t o day ( Keene 1 98 1 :1) . H ow eve r , o u ru nde r s tand ing o ff o rag ing i sh ampe r ed t h rough t h e p e rpe tua t ion o f my th s , w h ich i s w ha t c ommuna l b i son p rocu r emen t m ode l h a s b ecome . T he s t o ry i st o ld ,r e to ld ,a nd r e inco rpo ra t ed i n to t h e l i t e ra tu r e a te ve ry t u rn a nd n eve r q ue s t ioned . T he l a ck o f a ten t ion g i ven t on on -b ig g ame r e sou r ce s i nt h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s i so ne s u ch m i sconcep t ion Ih ope t or emedy w i th t h i s b ook .

I d ea l ly , a l s u ch d a ta s hou ld b e g a the r ed a nd u sed f o r i n f e r r ing e xp lo i ta t ion a nd u t i l iza t ion o fp l an t s a nd a n ima l s . U nf o r tuna t e ly , s o i l c hem ica l a na ly s i s i sn o ta va i lab le f o ra ny N o r thwe s t P l a in s s i te s a nd p r eh i s to r ic h uman f e ce s a r e e xceed ing ly r a r e . H uman b one i sa l so r a r e , w i th o n ly a bou t 7 1 p r eh i s to r ic i n d iv idua l s s pann ing 1 2 ,000 y ea r sr e po r t ed f o r t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s ( F i she r 1 982 ; S che ibe r a nd G i l l 1 996 ) . A dd i t iona l ly , a l c hem ica l a nd i s o tope a na ly se s a r e e xpe r imen ta l m e thod s , r e qu i r ing r e l iab i l i ty t e s t ing , b u t m o s t s i gn if i can t ly t h ey p rov ide i n f o rma t ion t o b e i n f e r r ed a nd i n te rp r e t ed , n o d if e r en t t h an a ny o t he r a r chaeo log ica l d a ta s ou r ce . C lea r ly , s u ch m a ter ia l s c an b e u s ed t oa s s i s t i nt h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s , b u t t h e i r l i m i t ed q uan t i ty a nd r e s t r ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion r e qu i r e s t h e u s e o fo t he r l i ne so fe v idence a sw e l l .

A nA l ter na t ive P e r spec t ive A rcheo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s , e spec ia l ly r e cen t o ne s , h ave r e cove r ed ac on s ide rab le v a r ie ty , b u t am inu scu le q uan t i ty o f p l an ta nd s ma l la n ima lr ema in so nt h eN o r thwe s tP l a in s( e .g . , H abe rman 1 986 ; K ey se r 1 986 ; Sm i th 1 988 ; Wa lke r 1 988 ) . S eed s ( e .g . , G re i se r e ta l . 1 98 1 ; H a r re l l a nd McKe rn 1 986 ; K ey se r 1 986 ; K ey se r a nd D av i s 1 985 ) , p o l len , p hy to l i th s ( T ib e sa r 1 980 ) , s he l lf ish ( Mu l loy 1 954a ) , f i sh , f ow l , i n sec t s ( F r i son a nd H u sea s 1 968 ) , g round s qu i r r e l s (Wa lke r 1 988 ) a nd o t he r s ma l l s i z e r e sou rce s h ave b een r e cove red i n a r cheo log ica l c on tex t s ( s ee a l so F r i son 1 9 78a ; Mu l loy 1 958 ; Wa lke r 1 975 ) . Mo r e r e cen t ly , s p e c if i c a r cha eo log ica l f e a tu r e s h ave b een d e sc r ibed a s p l an t p r o ce s s ing f a c i l i t ie s ( e .g . , F ranc i s 2 000 ; Sm i th a nd McNee s 1 999 ) . H oweve r , w i th f ew e xcep t ion s( Bende r 1 983 ; Wr igh te ta l . 1 980 )p l an t s a nd o t he rs ma l lp ackage r e sou rce sa r es e en a ss upp lemen t ing ap r edom inan t ly b ig g ame d i e t ( e .g . , B rum ley 1 978 ; D eave r a nd D eave r 1 984 ; E cke r le 1 983 ; G r e i se r 1 985 ; R eeve s 1 978 ; R o l l a nd D eave r 1 980 ) . O ne r e a son t h a t p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s a r e s e en a s s upp lemen ta ry i st h a t a tm o s t s i t e s t h e a r cheo log ica l r ema in s o t he r t h an b i g -game a r e e i the r n o t v e ry n ume rou s o r a r e t o ta l ly l a ck ing ( e .g . , F r ed lund 1 98 1 ;

A ff luen tF o rag ing a nd B road B a sed P l a in sE conomy B road B a sed E conomy . B ya s se s s ing t h er o le o fb i gg ame i n N o r thwe s t P l a ins p r eh i s to ry , Ic ha l leng e t h e n o t ion o f" man t h e b i son h un t e r " a nd t h e reby a l so t h e b roade r n o t ion o f " man t h e h un te r ." My g oa l i s t o d e sc r ibe a m o r e c omp r ehen s ive a nd w ha t It h ink i s am o re r e a l i s t ic v i ew o f p r eh i s to r ic e conom ic b ehav io rt h an t h a t p r e sen ted i nm od e l s t h a t f o cu s o n b i son o r b ig g ame h un t ing a s p r ima ry s ub s i s t ence p u r su i t s . Ac omp rehen s ive p e r spec t iv e r e qu i r e s u nde r s tand ing l o ng t e rm a nd s pa t ia l ly e x ten s ive c u l tu ra l 7

p r oce s se s f o r w h ich t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd i se spec ia l ly s u i ted a nd t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd i sl a rg e ly u n i l lum ina t ing . E x ten s ive , l o ng t e rm c u l tu ra l p ro ce s se s i n c lude n ume rou s r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion o p t ion s w h ich m u s t b e c omb ined w i th a pp rop r ia t e s o c ia l s t ra teg ie s t o i n su r e t h e s u rv iva l a nd r e p roduc t ion o fh uman g roup s .

e conomy . I nt h i s s t udy Is e ek t oe xp lo r et h e o rgan iza t ion o f r e sou r ce u s e i nt h e p r eh i s to r ic No r the r n P l a in s . I n o t he r w o rd s , Is e ek e v idence f o ra n a l te rna t ive s ub s is tence s t ra t egy a nd f o rag ing e co logy . S i nce d i r ec t e v idence f o r t h e u s e o f p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s i sn o t w ide ly a va i lab le f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , Ia r gue t h a t h eavy r e l iance o n t h e se r e sou r ce s i mp l ie s s ub s i s tence p roce s se s r e qu i r ing ad i f f e r en t o rgan iz a t ion o ft e chno logy t h an b ig g ame p rocu r emen t ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 980 ; K e l ly 1 985 ; O swa l t 1 976 ; T o r r ence 1 983 ) . T he d if e ren ce i nt h et e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion o fb i g -game v e r su s p l an t a nd s ma l l a n ima l p rocu r emen t h a s as pa t ia l r e f e ren t( Ba i ley 1 983 ; E be r t 1 986 )w h ich Ia r gue c an b e s tb e i n ve s t iga t ed w i th a r t if a c t d i s t r ibu t ion s a c ro s s l a nd scape s ( Fo ley 1 977 ) . S pe c if i ca l ly , t h e l ow d en s i ty , s p a t ia l ly e x ten s ive a r t if a c t d i s t r ibu t ion s m ay b e r e la t ed t o s im i la r ly d i s t r ibu ted r e sou rce s ( i . e . , p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s ) . H oweve r , t h e r e i s m o r e t o t e chno log ica l s t ra teg ie s ; t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion i n c lude s a c omp lex s e t o f r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween r aw m a te r ia l s , s ub s is t ence r e sou r ce s , a nd h uman s o c ia l g roup s . T he r ef o re , t h e m a in t h r u s t o fm y s t udy i st ou nde r s tand t h e n a tu r e o ft e chno logy r e f lec ted i n s u ch l ow d en s i ty a r t if a c td i s t r ibu t ion s .

I n t h i s s t udy , t h e r o le o f s ub s i s t ence r e sou r ce s w i l l b e a s se s sed t h rough t h e c on s t ruc t ion a nd e va lua t ion o f a n a l te rna t ive s ub s i s tence mode l . A n a l ter n a t ive mode l f o r N o r thwe s t e rn P l a in s f o rag ing i sd eve loped b y c on s ide r ing t h e p a rame te r s r e levan t f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f ab road s p ec t rum o fp o ten t ia l r e sou r ce s . B y c on s ide r ing a l e d ib le r e sou rce s i nt h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s , b i son b ecome s o ne o f m any f o od s ou r ce s a va i lab le t o t h e h uman p opu la t ion , a nd t h e e conom ic r o le a nd r e la t ion sh ip s o fa l r e sou rce s c an t hu s b em o r es e cu re ly e s tab l i shed . T he e me rg ing s ub s is tence m ode l i st h en e va lua t ed u s ing t h e s t udy o ft e chno log ica lo rgan iza t ion ,t h er ema in so fw h ich a r e u b iqu i tou s i n t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd o f t h e P l a in s a nd e l sewhe re . B yt e chno log ica lo rgan iza t ion Im ean : . . the s e lec t ion a nd i n teg ra t ion o fs t ra teg ie s f o r m ak ing , u s ing , t r an spo r t ing , a nd d i sca rd ing t oo l s a nd t h e m a t e r ia l s n eeded f o r t h e i r m anuf ac tu r e a nd m a in t enance . S t ud ie s o ft h e o rgan iza t ion o ft e chno logy c on s ide re conom ic a nd s oc ia lv a r iab le st h a t i nf luence t ho se s t ra teg ie s . ( Ne lson 1 99 1 :57 )

Af f luen t F o r ag e r s . T he n o t ion o f a ff luen t f o rage r s h a s i t s o r ig in i nS ah l in s 's " No te s o n t h e O r ig ina l A ff lu en t S oc ie ty" ( 1 968 ; 1 9 72 : 1-39 ) . A s B inf o rd ( 200 1 :23 ) a p t ly s t a t e s , S ah l in s 's m a jo rp o in tw a st op r e sen t a n " impo r tan tc ha l lenge t ot h e i d ea , p r eva len t i nt h e a n th ropo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e i nt h e m id 1 960 s , t h a t l i f e w a s s o d if i cu l t a nd u nce r ta in t h a t h un te r -ga the r e r s h ad n o a l ter na t ive t h an t o s p end a l a va i lab le t i me s e a r ch ing f o rf o od ." T o b e l i be ra t ed f r om t h e c on s tan tf o od q ue s t ,h un te r -ga the re r sw e r es e en t or e ly o n : a n e ga l i ta r ian s o c ia l s y s tem ( n o p e r sona l p rope r ty ) , h i gh m ob i l i ty ( w i t h i n te rm i t ten t a gg rega t ion s ) , f l u id s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion , i mmed ia te f o od c on sump t ion , a nd n o t e r r i to r ia l i ty ( Lee a nd D eVo re 1 968 :12 ; R ow ley -Conwy 2 00 1 :40 ) . T he se c ha ra c te r i s t ic s b ecame t h e h a l lma rk o ft h e O r ig ina l A f f lu en t S oc ie ty ( OAS ) . I tw a s a l r eady c l ea ra tt h e Man t h e H un t e r c onf e r ence ( Lee a nd D eVo r e 1 968 ) , a nd b ecame mo r e s ow i th t ime ( B inf o rd 1 980 ; Woodbu r n 1 980 ) , t h a t t h e n o rma t ive OAS c oncep t f a i led t od e sc r ibe m uch o f h un te r -ga the r e r v a r iab i l i ty . A l l t h e h a l lma rk s o f t h e OAS w e re f o und t oh ave e xcep t ion sa nd t ov a ry a l ong o ne o rm o r e d imen s ion s ( B inf o rd 2 00 1 ; K e l ly 1 995 ) . O n t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s , a f f luence w a s s e en l i nked t o c ommuna l b i son p rocu remen t d u r ing mo s t o f p reh is to ry ( Bamf o r th 1 988 ; I rw in -W i l l iam s a nd H ayne s 1 970 ; Wede l 1 986 :22 ) a nd i n deed b i son w a s a nd s t i l l i ss e en a s t h e o n ly m ean s o f s u rv iva l ( Fo rb i s 1 992 ) . Ii n tend t oa rgue t h a t t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s f o r ag e r s i n co rpo ra ted m o s t OAS c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a s a s u rv iva l s t ra t egy . T hu s Is e e OAS a s a n a dap ta t ion t ol o ca l c ond i t ion s( s en su B inf o rd 2 00 1 ; R aw ley -Conv vy 2 00 1) .

A s T o r r ence ( 1 989 :58 ) i n d ica te s t oo l s " . .a r e u s ed b y p eop le a s ap a r t o f al a rge r s t ra tegy f o r c op ing w i th t h e i r s o c ia l a nd p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t ." B ecau se o f t h e d i f f e r ence s i n t h e r i sk s c onf ron ted b y s pec ia l i s tb ig -game h un te r s v e r su s b road s p ec t rum f o rage r s , at e chno logy d e s igned t o e xp lo i t l a rge h e rb ivo r e s , e s pec ia l ly i n ac ommuna l f a sh ion , i se xpec t ed t o d if e r f r om o ne d e s igned f o r b r oad s p ec t rum r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion ( O swa l t 1 976 ; T o r rence 1 983 ) . C on sequen t ly , t h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s a nd n a tu r e o f h uman t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion c an b e u sed t o d er ive e xpe c ta t ion s f o r t h e a r cha eo log ica lr e co rd . T echno log ica l a t t r ibu te s o f a r t if a c t s , i n c lud ing s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s , a r e u sed t o i n ve s t iga t e t h e t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion o f t h e w e s ter n B la ck H i l l s p eop le s . T echno log ica l r ema in s a r e t h e b y -p rodu c t s o fe conom ic a nd s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s t h a t a r e c ommon ly a va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s ( e .g . , T o r r ence 1 989 ; Mye r s 1 989 :78 ) . Many t o o l s a r e m anuf a c tu r ed o n d u rab le m a te r ia l s , s p ec if ica l ly s t one , a nd s u rv ive i n aw ide r r a nge o f d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t s t h an f ood r ema in s . C on sequen t ly , t o o l s a nd t o o l m anuf a c tu r ing b y -p rodu c t s a r e mo s t a pp rop r ia te s p ec imen s f o rt h ep r e sen ti n ve s t iga t ion .

T h i sp o in to fv i ew , h oweve r , d oe s n o t d eny t h e o r ig ina l i ty o f t h e OAS . R aw ley -Conwy ( 200 1) s ugge s t st h a tt h et wo v i ew s a r e c on t rad ic to r y a nd p r e sen t s" ev idence" s how ing t h a tn on OAS f o rag e r s m ay h ave p r eceded o r w e re a t l e a s t c on tempo ra ry w i th OAS f o rage r s . T h i s d a ta i s u nconv inc ing , w e s imp ly d on o tk now w hen h uman sb ecame c u l tu ra l b e ing sa nd w ha tt h en a tu re o ft h e s o c ie ty w a sa tt h a t

Wh i le t h e a bove d i scu s s ion s ugge s t s t h a t aw ide v a r ie ty o f f l o ra l a nd s ma l l f a una l s p ec ie s w a s e xp lo i ted o n t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s , t h i s s c ena r io o n ly g ene ra t e s q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e o rgan iza t ion o f t h e s ub s i s t ence s t ra t egy a nd

8

t i me ( f o r s ome a rgumen t s s e e M i th en 1 996 ; I s aa c 1 978 ; B inf o rd 2 00 1 :22 ) . B e t h a t a s i tm ay , p a s t N o r thwe s t P l a in s p eop le s p r ov ide o ne e xamp le i no u r q ue s t t ou nde r s tand t h e o r ig ina l a f f lu en ts oc ie ty .

t h e u s e o fe x t en s iv e l a nd scape s . E x ten s ive l a nd scape u s e b y s ma l l , h i gh ly m ob i le g r oup sc r ea te sa r cha eo log ica l s i gna tu r e s o f l ow d en s i ty a r t if a c t d i s t r ibu t ion s w i th f ew h i gh d en s i ty c oncen t ra t ion s . A r cha eo log ica lm e thodo logy i sg ene ra l ly n o t w e l l s u i t ed t oi n t e rp r e tt h i st y pe o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd . H oweve r , e x t en s ive C u l tu r a l R e sou r ce Manag emen t s t ud ie s o ve rt h e p a s t 2 0 y ea r s a r e b eg inn ing t op rov ide d a ta o n l ow d en s i ty a r t if a c t s c a t t e r s o ve r g eog raph ica l ly b road a r ea s . I e xp lo i tt h i sd a ta i nt h ep r e sen ts t udy .

B y t i l ing t h i s b ook " Af luen t F o r ag e r s" Id o n o t i mp ly t h e p r e sence o fa n e x t r eme ly r i ch r e sou r ce b a se , s u ch a s m igh t b e e ncoun t e r ed a l ong t h e N o r thwe s t C oa s t ( Su t t le s 1 968 ) . R a the r , m y p o in t i s , a s w a s S a l l l in s 's ( 1 968 ) , t h a t e ven w i thou t c oncen t ra t ing o n b i g g ame , af o rag ing s o c ie ty c an o rgan ize i t s e lf i n aw ay t h a t l i f e o n t h e P l a in s i sn o t o n ly p o s s ib le , b u t c an b e c on s ide r ed a ff luen t b y f o rag ing s t anda rd s( B i rd -Dav id 1 992 ; S ah l in s 1 9 68 ; 1 972 :1-39 )a nd a s c ompa red t o f ood p rodu c ing s o c ie t ie s ( e .g . , T r igge r 1 989 :32 1) . I no the rw o rd s , Ia r gu et h a tt h eN o r thwe s t P l a in s p r eh is to r i c p eop le w e r e a ff luen t ( n o t r e s t r ic t ed t o ac on s tan t f o od q u e s t ) , n o t a s af u nc t ion o f t h e e x t r eme r i chne s s p rov ided b y b i son ( e .g . , F o rb i s 1 992 ; Wede l 1 986 :22 ) , b u t p r ec i se ly t h e o ppo s i te , b ecau se f o od q u e s t c ou ld b e m e t b y r e ly ing o n ad ive r s i ty o f a va i lab l e r e sou r ce s . D ive r se r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion , h oweve r , r e qu i r ed f o rag e r st oo rgan iz e a l ong t h e l i ne s d e sc r ibed a s t h e OAS ( Row ley -Conwy 2 00 1 :39 -40 ) . C on sequen t ly , mob i l i ty , s o c ia l f l ex ib i l i ty , e ga l i t ar ian i sm , i mmed ia t e f o od c on sump t ion , a nd l a ck o f t e r r i to r ia l i ty w e re t h e m ean s b y w h ich N o r thwe s t P l a in s p eop le sa dap ted t ot h ee nv i ronmen t . T h i sa dap ta t ion r e qu i r e s

T he S t udy A r ea T he s t udy a r ea c ho sen f o r a na ly s i s i st h e w es te rn p o r t ion o f t h e B la ck H i l l s a nd i t s v i c in i ty , ar e g ion n ea r t h e w e s te rn b ounda ry o f t h e N o r th Ame r ican P l a in s a nd w i th in t h e No r thwe s t P l a in s c u l tu r e a r ea ( F igu r e 1 . 2 ) . T he w e s t e rn B la ck H i l l s a r e p a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia te f o r a dd re s s ing t h e r e sea r ch p rob lem f o rt h ree r e a son s : 1 )t h er eg ion i st y p ica l o f t h e P l a in s w i th h i gh e co log ica l d i ve r s i ty ( s ee C hap te r 4 ) ; 2 ) b ecau se o ft h e h i gh e co log ica l d i ve r s i ty t h e r eg ion s i sl i ke ly t o i l u s t ra t e b r oad s p ec t rum f o rag ing ; a nd 3 ) b e cau se p r eh i s to r ic i n hab i tan t s r ema ined f o rage r s t h roughou t p r eh i s to ry , t h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s a r e r e levan t f o r u nde r s tand ing c ond i t ion s o f c hang e a nd c on t inu i ty i n f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s . T he s t udy a r ea a nd t h e h i s to ry o f a r cheo log ica lr e sea r ch a r eb r ie f ly d i scu s sed b e low .

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T he a r cheo log ica l r e co rd o fw e s te rn B la ck H i l l s h a s b een s y s tema t ica l ly i n ve s t iga ted s i nce t h e M i s sou r i R ive r B a s in S u rvey p ro jec t s i n t h e l a te 1 940 s ( e .g . , K o rnf e ld e t a l . 1 995 ; Wede l 1 953 ; Whee le r 1 996 ) . H ow eve r , mo s to ft h e i n ve s t iga t ion s a r e r e cen t , a s soc ia t ed w i th c u l tu ra l r e sou r ce s u rvey s o ft h e e ne rgy b oom y ea r s o ft h e 1 970 s ( La r son 1 978 ) . A l l k nown a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s a nd p ro jec t s t h rough J anua ry 1 988 w e r e r e v iewed a nd t h e d a ta f r om t h em c oded ( Append ix C ) . I nt h e p o r t ion o ft h e w e s t er n B lack H i l l s u nde r a na ly s i s h e re , 1 656 a r cheo log ica l s i te s f o rm t h e k nown a r cheo log ica l r e co rd ( F igu r e 1 . 3 ; s e e K or nf e ld a nd R ehe r 1 992 a nd K or nf e ld 1 9 94 ) . Mo s to ft h e s i te s a r e k nown o n ly f r om s u rf ace m an if e s ta t ion , w h i le 1 5 h ave b een e x cava ted . A t f i r s t g l ance t h e s i te s a ppea r t o p r e sen t a n e xce l len t s amp le f o r ar e g iona l a na ly s i s ; h oweve r , n o ta l s i t e r e co rd s a r e e qua l ly u s ef u l f o r s o lv ing s pec if ic p rob lem s . A sa ne xamp le ,a s semb lag e i n f o rma t ion i sa va i lab le f o r o n ly 8 19 o ft h e 1 656 s i t e s . N eve r the le s s , t h e s amp le i sa pp rop r ia te f o r t h e p r e sen t a na ly s i s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e k nown s i te s a r e n o t e v en ly d i s t r ibu ted t h rough t h er e g ion ,b u ta r ec oncen t r a ted i na r ea sw he r es i te s u rvey s w e r e p e r f o rmed ( F igu r e 1 . 3 ) . H oweve r , a l p a r t s o f t h e s t udy a r ea h ave r e ce ived s ome a r cheo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion ,m ak ing r e g iona l a na ly s i sf e a s ib le .

My t h e s i s t h en i st h a t p r eh is to r ic P l a in s p opu la t ion s w e r e b road s p ec t rum f o rage r s , l i ke mo s th un t e r -ga the r e r s , r a the r t h an b i gg ame ( b i son ) h un te r s a s i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o fc u r r en t P l a in s p r eh i s to ry w ou ld h ave u s b e l ieve . T he p r ob lem i n a na lyz ing a nd i n t e rp r e t ing t h e P l a in s f o rag ing s t r a t eg ie s h a sb een t h el a ck o fa dequa te u nde r s tand ing o ft a phonom ic p roce s se s , r e su l t ing i n ap auc i ty o fp l a n t a nd s ma l l a n ima l r ema in s ( t o b e d i r ec t ly a nd p re sumab ly u namb iguou s ly i n te rp r e t ed i n s ub s i s tence t e rms ) i n t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd c ompa r ed t o t h e m o re f r equen t ly o ccu r r ing a nd a bunda n t b i son r ema in s . S t ud ie s o fp r eh i s to ry h ave , f o r v a r iou s r e a son s , a lowed t h is t a phonom ic f a c t t oo b scu r e t h e v i ew o fP l a in s e conomy . My s t udy c i rcumven t s s u ch t a phonom ic " p rob lem s " b y b a s ing t h e a na ly s i s o n " p roxy d a ta , " t h a t i s ,o n t h e d u rab le a r t if a c t s n o t a f f ec t ed b y t h e t a phonom ic p roce s se s t h a t a f f e c t b one a nd f l o ra l p r e se rva t ion d i f f e r en t ia l ly . B yr e ly ing o nd u rab le a r t if a c t s , t h a t i s , t h e r ema in s o f t e chno logy , a r gumen t s a r e d eve loped l i nk ing t e chno log ica l o rgan iz a t ion , e co logy ,a nd e conomy . H oweve r , w i thou t s u ch a rgumen t s t h e u nde r s tand ing o f P l a in s f o rage r e conomy ( a nd t h e p r eh i s to r ic e c onomy o fo t he r a r ea s ) i sd oomed a s " d i r ec t e v idence " o f m any f o rag ing a c t iv i t ie s d oe s n o t ( a nd i n m any c a se sn eve rd i d )e x i s t . ' The t e rm f o rag e ri su s ed i nt h is s t udy i n s tead o fh un te r -ga the r e rl a rg e ly f o ri t sb r ev i ty a nd b ecau se i ta vo id st h e who ' s -on -f i r s td eba te ( i . e . , g a the r e r -hun t e ro rh un te r -ga the r e r , B ende r 1 978 ) . I td oe s n o ti mp ly t h a t f o rag ing i sm e r e ly a ne x t rac t ive a c t iv i ty w i thou ti mp l ica t ion o f a pp rop r ia t ive a c t ion ( I ngo ld 1 987 :79 ) MONTANA

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CHAPTER 2

THE NORTH WEST P LA INS P REH ISTORY

T he h i s to ry o fh uman o cc upa t ion i n Mon tana -W yom ing a nd e nv iron sh a sb een d i v id ed i n to f i v es ucces s ive p er iod s : T hes ea r eb road s l ic e so ft i me a nd w i th in e ach i sm uch a sy e tu nd ec ipher ed c u l tura lc omp l ex i ty ( Mu l loy I9 58 :204 )

A r cheo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s o ve r t h e l a s t f i f t y y ea r s h ave l a id t h e b a ckg round f o r d ef in ing t h e p r eh i s to r ic f o rag ing e conomy o nt h e No r thwe s t P l a in s ( e .g . , F r i son 1 978a , 1 99 1 ; K or nf e ld e ta l . 1 995 ; Mu l loy 1 958 ; R enaud 1 9 32 ; S t rong 1 9 35 ; Wede l 1 96 1 , 1 983 ) . T h i s c hap t e r p r e sen t s t h e p r eh i s to r ic c on tex to ft h e f o rag ing p opu la t ion so ft h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s a nd a s se s se s t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e d a taba se u s ed t o d eve lop i t . T he c hap t e ri sd i v ided i n to t h r ee s e c t ion s . I nt h e f i r s t s e c t ion Ip r e sen tt h e h i s to ry a nd as umma ry o fr eg iona l a r cheo logy a nd t h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion o fp r eh is to ry . T he m a jo r p a r to ft h i ss e c t ion i sc oncer n ed w i th t empo ra l s e quence sa nd c hang e s , e spec ia l ly a s t h e c hang e s r e la t e t o s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s . I n a s ho r t s e cond s e c t ion , I s umma r iz e t h e a r cheo logy a nd p r eh i s to ry o f t h e w e s ter n B lack H i l l s a nd v i c in i ty , t h e s p ec if i c l o ca t ion o ft h e p r e sen t s t udy ,t os how t h ec l o se r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e B la ck H i l l st ot h e G r ea t P l a in s r eg ion . I n t h e f i na l s e c t ion I p o se s ome q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e d a taba se u s ed t o r e con s t ru c t r e g iona l p r eh i s to ry a nd Ij u s t if y w hy t h e d a taba se i nt h ep r e sen ts t udy i sa pp rop r ia t e f o r d emon s t ra t ing t h e e x i s tence o fp r eh i s to r ic b road s p ec t rum f o rag ing i nt h eB la ck H i l l s .

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T X H i s to ry a nd S umma ry o fR eg iona lA r cheo logy U n t i lt h ee a r ly p a r to ft h e2 06 1 c en tu ry t h e P l a in s( F igu r e 2 . 1) w e re t h ough t t oh ave h ad as ho r t p r eh i s to ry . T he a r ea w a s c on s ide r ed u n inhab i tab le f o r ah o r se le s s n omad ic p opu la t ion ( Wed e l 1 983 :90 ) . T he my th o fr e cen t ly o ccup ied P l a in s h ad o bv iou s u t i l i ty f o r t h e e xpand ing E u roame r ican p opu la t ion , h oweve r ,t h ei d ea o fu n inhab i tab i l i ty b egan t ob r eak d own b y t h e 1 9 30 s . T ha t t h e i d ea o f al o ng d u ra t ion f o r p r e C o lumb ian P l a in s o ccupa t ion a r o s e o n ly a f t e r t h e I nd ian p opu la t ion s h ad b een t h o rough ly d ec ima ted a nd E u roam e r ican s f i rm ly s e t t led i nt h e a r ea i sp r obab ly n o t a c o inc id ence . B y t h en , ap e r cep t ion o fI n d ian s " own ing " t h e l a nd f o r ac on s ide rab le a moun to ft i me p r io rt oE u roame r ican c o lon iz a t ion w a s n o l o ng e r at h r ea tt ot h e d om inan t s oc ie ty . C on s equen t ly , W i l l iam D uncan S t rong , a mong o t he r s ( S t rong 1 935 ; O ve r 1 936 ; R enaud 1 932 ) , f o und r e sonance w hen d emon s t ra t ing t ime d ep th a nd a dap ta t iona l v a r iab i l i ty o nt h eP l a in s .

/

PLAINS

300km F i gu r e2 . 1 N o r thwe s t P l a in s c u l tu r e a r ea . We s ter n B la ck H i l l s s t udy a r ea i sm a rk ed b y t h e b l ack r e c tang le . ( f rom Wede l 1 96 1) t o a no the r , d ef ined o n t h e b a s i s o f af ew c ha ra c t e r i s t ic a r t if a c t s ( e .g . , p ro jec t i le p o in t s , g round s t one , a nd p o t t e ry ) , w e r e a r gued t o r e p r e sen t c hange s i n s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s( F r ison 1 978a ; Mu l loy 1 958 ) . T he f i r s t o ve r v iew o f N o r thwe s t P l a in s p r eh i s to ry w a s Mu l loy ' s ( 1 953 , 1 958 ) . H e s e t o u t t h e c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk , b a sed o n i n ve s t iga t ion s a ts e lec t s t ra t if i ed s i t e s . A l though n o t e xp l ic i t ly a q uan t i ta t ive s t udy , aw ea l th o f q uan t i t a t ive i n f o rma t ion o n d if e r en t p e r iod s ( l eve l s w i th in s i t e s ) a nd s i t e s w a s p r e sen ted . Much o f Mu l loy 's i n f o rma t ion h a s n o t y e t b een f u l ly s t a t i s t ica l ly e va lua t ed . B a sed o n t h e g a the r ed d a ta a nd p r e l im ina ry p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r e con s t ruc t ion s , Mu l loy c onc lud ed t h a t t h e s ub s i s tence " e conomy " f l uc tua ted f r om l a rg e g ame d ependence ( ma in ly b uf f a lo ) t o p l an t a nd s ma l l a n ima l d ependence i nt h e w e s t e rn p a r t o ft h e r e g ion ( c lo se r t ot h e G r ea t B a s in ) , a nd r ema ined d ependen t o n l a rge g ame i nt h e

A l though a c on s ide rab le t i me d ep th o f a bo r ig ina l P l a in s o ccupa t ion w a s a c cep t ed i n t h e 1 930 s , o n ly a f t e r t h e i n ven t ion o fr a d ioca rbon d a t ing t e chn ique si nt h ee a r ly 1 950 s w a s t h e a b so lu te c h rono logy o fa pp rox ima t e ly 1 2 ,000 y ea r s d ef ined ( e .g . , F r i son 1 978a ; W i l ley 1 966 ) . Mu ch o f t h e r e sea r ch o ve rt h e l a s t4 0y ea r sh a sb een g ea r ed t or ef in ing t h e c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk a nd d ef in ing a r cha eo log ica l c u l tu r e s ( Mu l loy 1 958 ; F r i son 1 978a , R eeve s 1 983 ) . A ccompany ing t h e d ef in i t ion s o f a r cheo log ica l c u l tu r e s o r p e r iod s , a r e c ha ra c t e r iza t ion s o f s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s i s tence p r a c t ic e s . S pec if ica l ly ,t r an s i t ion sf r om o ne c u l tu ra lp e r iod

1

d i s t inc t f r om l a t e r p e r iod p o in t s . F o r e xamp le , F r i son a nd B rad ley ( 1980 :2 11) a rgue t h a t f l u t ing o fF o l som p o in t s m ay h ave r i tua l s i gn if icance , a nd T odd ( p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 985 ) s ugges t s t h a t P a leo ind ian p o in t s m ay b e e ncoded w i th m ean ing r e levan t t o p a s s ing i n f orma t ion f r om g ene ra t ion t o g ene ra t ion ( s ee a l so K o rnf e ld e ta l . 2 00 1) . P ro jec t i le p o in t s e ncoded w i th r i tua l o r o t he r s i gn if i cance a r e e xpec ted t o c hange a tq u i t e d i f f e r en t r a te s t han p o in t s n o t e ncoded w i th s uch s ymbo l ism .

e a s t ( c lo se r t o t h e G rea t P la in s ) . R eeve s ( 1983) r ef ined Mu l loy 's b a s ic c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk w i th a w ea l th o f a dd i t iona l t ypo log ica l , s t ra t ig raph ic , a nd c h rono log ica l s t ud ies . T he s e cond a nd o n ly o t he r o verv iew o f N o r thwe s t P la ins p reh i s to ry c ame 2 0 y ea r s l a te r w i th F r ison ' s p ub l ica t ion o f P reh i s tor ic Hun te r s o f t h e H igh P la in s ( 1978a , 1 991) . A l though n on -b ig g ame r e sou rce s a r e d i scu s sed a nd a cco rded a n i mpo r tan tr o le i np reh is to r ic f o rage r a dap ta t ion s , F r i son 's wo rk i se xp l ic i t ly g ea red t owa rd s u nde r s tand ing t h e m ed ium t o l a rge g ame p rocu remen t a nd s ub s is tence s t ra teg ies . P la in sa r cheo log is t s e xpanded c on s ide rab le e f f o r t f r om t h e 1 950s t h rough t h e 1 970 s i n ve s t iga t ing b i son b onebed s ( e .g . , D ibb le a nd L o r ra in 1 968 ; F o rb is 1 962 , 1 968 ; F r ison 1 968a , 1 970 , 1 97 1 , 1 973 ; J ohn son 1 978 ; T odd 1 983 ; Whea t 1 972 , 1 979 ) a nd F r ison a nd R ehe r s pec if ica l ly c on t r ibu ted t o u nde r s tand ing b i son b onebed s t h rough d eve lop ing m e thodo log ie s t o i n te rp re t b i son p opu la t ions f r om f auna l a s semb lage s ( e .g . , F r ison 1 978 1 ) ; R ehe r 1 970 , 1 974 ) . P reh i s to r ic Hun te r s o f t h e H igh P la in s i s t h e c u lm ina t ion o f t h e i n ves t iga t ions o f b i son p rocu remen t s y s tems .

T o my k now ledg e , e v idence o r a rgumen t s d o n o t e x i s t t h a t s ymbo l i sm w a s e ncoded o n p os t -Pa leo ind ian p o in t s . E a r ly A rcha ic a nd l a te r p ro jec t i le p o in t m o rpho log ie s a nd t e chno log ies h ave much l o nge r t ime d ep th s t han P a leo ind ian p o in t s a nd a ny c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk s b u i l t a r ound t h e l a te r p o in t t yp e s a r e n o t a s n ea t a nd t h u s n o t c ompa rab le t o t h e P a leo ind ian c h rono log ie s . T he d if i cu l t ie s w rough t b y v a r iab le r a te s o f t empo ra l c hange , n o d oub t , r equ i re f u r the r t hough t a nd i n ve s t iga t ion . F o r my p u rpo se s h e re , Is umma r iz e t h e m a jo r e ven t s i n No r thwe s t P la in s p reh is to ry . A l though many s umma r ies s t a r t w i th p re -C lov i s , a my tho log ica l C lov i s p rogen i to r , I b eg in w i th t h ef i rm ly e s tab l ished a nd w ide ly a ccep ted C lov is p e r iod a st h ef i r s tw ide sp r ead o ccupa t ion o f al a rge p o r t ion o f t h e Ame r ican c on t inen t .

B ecau se o f al a ck o fi n f o rma t ion , Mu l loy ' sw o rk d id n o t d ea l w i th g ame p rocu remen t t o a ny a pp rec iab le e x ten t , mak ing F r i son ' s wo rk c omp lemen ta ry t o Mu l loy ' s . F r i son r ev ised Mu l loy ' s c h rono logy a nd p rov ided e xp l ic i t mode ls o f s e lec ted a spec t s o f f o rage r s ub s is tence s t ra teg ies . B o th o ve rv iew s a r e b a sed o n t h e r e sea rch o f many p eop le , a l l o f w hom , w i th a f ew e xcep t ion s ( e .g . , B ende r 1 983 ; G a lvan 1 976 ; Wr igh t e ta l . 1 980 ) , h o ld s im i la r v i ew s o fs ub s is tence a nd No r thwe s t P la in s e conomy . I n h i nd s igh t , o ne o f t h e s ho r tcom ing s o f Mu l loy 's a nd F r ison 's mode ls i st h e l a ck o f d e ta i l f o r i n f e r r ing s pec if ic c au se a nd e f ec t r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween r e sou r ce s a nd c u l tu ra l p henomena ( e .g . , E l len 1 982 :20 ) .

P a leo ind ian . S ome t ime a f t e rt h e i n i t ia l e n t ry o fp eop le s i n to No r th Ame r ica , g roup s o ff o rage r s k nown b y t h e c o l lec t ive a r cheo log ica l t e rm o f C lov is w ere " s e t t led " t h roughou t t h e c on t inen t b y 1 ,500 b . p . E v idence o fC lov is g roup s e x i s t s t h roughou tt h eN o r thwe s tP la ins a nd s u r round ing a r ea sa st h e i n i t ia l o ccup ie r s o f t h e l a nd (Worm ing ton 1 957 ; F r i son 1 978a ; K o rnf e ld 1 999 ) . C lov is a nd o t he r P a leo ind ian h un te r -ga the re r s i te s a r e f r equen t ly a s soc ia ted w i th e x t inc t m egaf auna s uch a s mammo th ( e .g . , F r i son a nd T odd 1 986 ; H annu s 1 990 ) , h o r se , c ame l ( Fr ison 1 974 ) , e x t inc t b i son ( F r ison 1 978a : 108 ) , m ed ium s ized f a una s uch a s a n te lope ( F r i son 1 978a : 108 ; H i l l 1 994 , 2 00 1; Wa lke r 1 982 ) , a nd l e s s f r equen t ly w i th s ma l l f a una s uch a s r oden t s ( Co l l in s a nd B ou sman 1 995 ; Wa lke r 1 982 ) . F lo ra l e xp lo i ta t ion i sa l so s ugges ted b yt h e o cca s iona l p re sence o fg r ind ing i mp lemen t s ( F r ison 1 978a :108 ) .

T empo ra lT rend s I na dd i t ion t o u nde r s tand ing t h e c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s o fg ame p rocu remen t , F r ison r ef ined a nd r ev ised t h e c h rono logy o f t h e No r thwe s t P la in s . F o r a n umbe r o f r e a son s t h e c h rono log ica l " f ine t un ing" i sn o t e ven a c ro s s t h e t empo ra l s pec t rum . T he P a leo ind ian P e r iod ( 1 1 ,500 t o 7 , 500 ) c an c onf iden t ly b e d i v ided i n to mo re t h an t h i r teen s pac io t empo ra l c omp lexe s ( o r s ubper iod s ) , t h e A r cha ic ( 7 ,700 t o 2 000 B P )i n to a tl e a s tt h ree , a nd t h e l a s t2 000 y ea r s i n to t wo p e r iod s .

F o l low ing t h e C lov is p e r iod a nd l a s t ing t o a pp rox ima te ly 8 000 b . p . , i s as e r ies o f P a leo ind ian c omp lexe s i n c lud ing G o shen , F o l som , A ga te B a s in , H e l l G ap , C ody , Me tze l , a nd A lde r ( Dav is e ta l . 1 988 ; F r ison 1 99 1 ; F r i son a nd Ma inf o r t 1 996 ; Wo rm ing ton 1 957 ) . T he p o s t -C lov i s c omp lexe s a r e d i s t ingu i shed f r om e a ch o t he r ma in ly o n t h e b a s is o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s t y le s , b u t a f ew o t he r a s semb lage c ha ra c te r i s t ic s s e em t o b e i d io sync ra t ic ; f o r e xamp le , mammo th i s o n ly a s soc ia ted w i th C lov i s a nd G o shen d i agno s t ic s , f i ne ly r e touched t oo l s s e em t o a ccoun t f o r a g rea te r p ropo r t ion o fF o lsom a s semb lage s , a nd C ody k n ive s a ppea r d u r ing t h e C ody p e r iod , a l though t h ey m ay h ave F o lsom a n teceden t s . E x t inc t b i son ( B i son a n t iquu s ) b onebed s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th a l l o f t h e P a leo ind ian t e chno log ica l c omp lexe s , a nd i nf a c tt h ea s soc ia t ion p rov ide s ad ef in i t ion f o r t h e p e r iod (Wo rm ing ton 1 957 :3 ) . B i son

T he d i sp ropo r t iona te " f ine tun ing" o ft h e P a leo ind ian P er iod i nc ompa r ison t oo t he r s i sl i ke ly d ue t ot wo f a c to r s . F i r s t , i n t h e p a s t 2 0 o rs oy ea r s P a leo ind ian s i te s h ave r e ce ived s ome o f t h e mo s t i n ten s ive r e sea rch . T hu s , P a leo ind ian i n ve s t iga t ion s h ave p roduced mo re i n f o rma t ion t han h a s c ome f r om o the r p e r iod s . S econd , t h e c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk i sb u i l t l a rge ly o n p ro jec t i le p o in t mo rpho logy a nd manuf ac tu r ing t e chno logy ( e .g . , F r i son 1 978a ; Wo rm ing ton 1 957 ) , a nd t h e c hange s i nt h e se s e en t h rough t ime . P a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t s m ay b e f unc t iona l ly

1 2

b onebed s r e p r e sen t k i l l a nd /o r p roce s s ing s i te s a nd e xh ib i t e v idence o fb u t cher ing , b u tw h i le a ts ome s i t e s b u tche r ing i s m in ima l( e .g . , F r i son a nd T odd 1 987 )a to t he r s i ti se x t en s ive ( H i l l 2 00 1) . O the r a n ima l s a r e a l so o cca s iona l ly p r e sen t a t P a leo ind ian s i t e s , i n c lud ing a n te lope , d ee ra nd s ma l l r oden t s , b u t a l though t h ey e xh ib i t e v idence o f u t i l iz a t ion , t h e se r e sou r ce s a c coun t f o r a v e ry s ma l l p o r t ion o f t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd ( Dav i s e t a l . 1 9 88 ; H i l l 1 994 , 2 00 1 ; Wa lk e r 1 975 , 1 982 ) . L iv ing s i t e s ( c amp s ) a r e r e la t ive ly u nknown f o r t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod o fp r eh i s to ry , a l though s e v e r a l a r e r e po r ted ( Dav i s e ta l . 1 9 98 ; F r i son 1 978a : 145 ; I rw in -W i l l iam s e t a l . 1 973 ; R obe r t s 1 9 35 ) . T he a s sumed h i gh m ob i l i ty o fe a r ly i n hab i tan t s o fN o r th Ame r ica i su s ed t oe xp la in t h ea b sence o fl i v ing s i te s( Ke l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) .

c hange t h rough t ime . R a the r , ag r ea t d ea l o f v a r ia t ion i s e xh ib i ted b y t h e " a r cha ic " w ay o f l i f e a nd s u ch v a r ia t ion s hou ld b eo fi n te r e s tt op r eh i s to r ian s . Whe the r l a be led t h e P l a in s A r cha ic , M idd le P e r iod ( Mu l loy 1 958 ) , o r Me so ind ian ( Fo rb i s 1 992 ; H ofman 1 997 ) i t s b eg inn ing h a s a lway s b een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e A l t i the rma l C l ima t ic e p i sode ( An t ev s 1 948 , 1 955 ) o r t h e f i ne r c h rono log ica l s ubd iv i s ion s o f t h i s c l ima t ic p henomenon ( e .g . , B ened ic t a nd O l son 1 978 ; B ry son e ta l . 1 970 ) . F i r s t d ef ined i nt h e S ou thwe s t ,t h eA l t i the rma l w a st h ough to fa sa h o t , d ry e p i sode l a s t ing s e ve ra lt h ou sand y ea r s( An t ev s 1 948 , 1 955 ) . C lea r ly t o day a w e s t -w ide A l t i the rma l i s a n i n app rop r ia t e c oncep t ( La r son 1 990 ) . R a the r , av a r ie ty o f c l ima t ic r e g ime s e x i s t ed o n t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s . T he se r e g ime s , b a s ica l ly t h e c on t inua t ion o f p o s t -P le i s tocene c l ima t ic c hang e s , d if e r ed i nd u ra t ion a nd e x ten t a nd f r om r e g ion t or e g ion ( Ba rno sky 1 989 ; B e i swenge r 1 987 ; L a r son 1 990 ; M i l le r 1 992 ) .

F rom p r io r t o 8 500 t o 7 500 y ea r s a go a s e r ie s o f L a t e P a leo ind ian m an if e s ta t ion s f o l low st h eC ody c omp lex o nt h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s . T he L a te P a leo ind ian c omp lexe s i n c lude F r ede r ick , L u sk , P ryo r S t emmed , L ov e l l C on s t r ic ted , J immy A l len , A ngo s tu ra a nd o t he r s , a ga in a l b a sed o n p ro jec t i le p o in t s t y le s . S eve ra l ( i . e . , P ryo r S t emmed a nd L ove l l C on s t r ic ted t y pe s ) a ppea r t o b e r e s t r ic ted p r ima r i ly t o n o r the rn Wyom ing a nd t h e s ou the rn Mon tana moun ta in sa nd f o o th i l l s , w h i le o the r s ( i . e . , J ame s A l len ) a r e f o und i nt h e o pen p l a in s a nd b a s in s . J ame s A l len a nd s eve r a l o t he r p r o je c t i le p o in t s t y le s o ccu r i nb i son b oneb ed s , b u t m any o f t h e l a te r p o in t s , i n c lud ing P ryo r S t emmed a nd L ove l l C on s t r ic t ed ,a r ea s soc ia ted w i th o t he rr e sou r ce s , e ven t h ough o rgan ic r ema in s a r e s c a r ce ( Dav i s e ta t . 1 988 ; F r i son a nd G r ey 1 980 ) . T he B e t ty G r een s i te ( 4 8N0203 )r e p r e sen t so ne w e l l k nown l a te P a leo ind ian m an if e s ta t ion i n N o r thwe s t P l a in sw i th l i t t le f auna lr e p r e sen ta t ion ( G r eene 1 967 ) .

T he A r cha ic h a s b een d i v ided i n to t h r ee s ubpe r iod s i nt h e a r ea o f t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s : E a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te P l a in s A r cha ic ( Ca s se l l s 1 986 ; F r i son 1 978 , 1 99 1) . A s i nt h e p r ev iou s P a leo ind ian p e r iod ,t h et empo ra ld i v i s ion sa r eb a sed o n c hange s i np ro jec t i le p o in t s t y le s , i n c r ea sed p r e sence o f g round s t one ( mano a nd m e ta te ) , a nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o f p o t te ry . G round s t one a ppea r s s po rad ica l ly a tP a leo ind ian s i te s , b u t i sm o r e c ommon a t E a r ly P l a in s A r cha ic s i te s , f r equen t a t M idd le P l a in s A r cha ic s i t e s , a nd p r a c t ica l ly u b iqu i tou sa tL a te P l a in s A r cha ic s i te s o rc omponen t s w i th in s i t e s ( e .g . , Mu l loy 1 9 54a ) . P i t h ou se s w i th i n te r io r s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s a ppea r i n t h e E a r ly P l a in s A r cha ic , a ppa ren t ly s i gna l ing ag r ea te r l a bo r i n ve s tmen t i n af i xed l o ca t ion ( e .g . , L a r son 1 997 ) , b u tt i p i r i ng s a ppea rd u r ing t h e M idd le P l a in s A r cha ic ( F r i son 1 978a :5 1) s ugge s t ing ac hang e i nm ob i l i ty s t ra teg ie s w i th g r ea t e r l a bo r i n ve s tmen t i n to t h e s upe r s t ruc tu r e ( t ip i ) i n s tead o f t h e i n f ra s t ruc tu r e ( La r son 1 997 ) . M idd le P l a in sA r cha ic a l so m a rk s ad rama t ic i n c r ea se i nt h e n umbe r o f h ea t ing /cook ing f a c i l i t ie s ( F ranc i s 2 000 ; F r i son 1 978a :47 ; S m i th a nd McNee s 1 999 ; Wand sn ide r 1 999 ) s ugg e s t ing e i the r ad if e ren tw in te ra dap ta t ion o rm o r e l i ke ly ac hange i nf o od p r oce s s ing , w h ich i sa l so i n d ica ted a t t h e e nd o ft h e L a t e P l a in s A r cha ic b yt h e p r e sence o fp o t te ry ( M i l le r e t a l . 1 987 ; T ibe sa r 1 980 ) . A long w i th t h e se c hange s , F r i son ( 1 978a ) s ugge s t s a c hange i n b i son p rocu r emen tf r om t h ei n t roduc t ion o fb i son c o r ra l sd u r ing t h e M idd le P l a in s A r cha ic t oe x ten s ive u s e o ft h e c o r ra l s d u r ing t h e L a te P l a in s A r cha ic . I n a dd i t ion t o b i son , d ee r , a nd a n te lope , a s w e l l a s av a r ie ty o f r oden t s a r e f o und i n t h e E a r ly P l a in s A r cha ic a nd l a te r a g e o ccupa t ion s ( e .g . , K or nf e ld 1 997 ; Mu l loy 1 954a a nd b ; Whee le r 1 957 ) A l l o f t h e c hange s s ugg e s t a w iden ing s ub s i s tence s y s tem t h roughou tt h eA r cha ic p e r iod .

A r cha ic . T he t e rm A r cha ic h a s h ad av o la t i le h i s to ry i nt h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s ( e .g . , F o rb i s 1 985 , 1 992 ; Whee le r 1 985 ) . T he t e rm w a s b o r rowed f r om t h e e a s t ( W i l ley a nd P h i l l ip s 1 958 ) a nd w a s m ean t t op rov id e ac on t ra s t t ot h e p r ev iou s h un t ing l i f e s t y le o f t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod . T he t e rm " A r cha ic " i mp l ied a b road s pec t rum e conomy ( Ca ldwe l l 1 958 ) , i nw h ich a w ide v a r ie ty o fr e sou r ce s w e r e u s ed , a s c ompa r ed t ot h e p re sumed n a r rowe rP a leo ind ian d ependence o nb i gg ame . S eve ra l r e sea r che r s d i s l ike t h e t e rm A r cha ic u s ed f o r P l a in s p r eh i s to r ic g r oup s ( Fo rb i s 1 992 ; H o fman 1 997 ) . S ome p o in t t ot h e o bv iou s d if e r ence b e tween t h e e a s te rn a nd w e s t er n A r cha ic a nd f i nd i td if i cu l t t oa pp ly t h e s ame t e rm t ob o th ( J enn ing s 1 968 ; W i l ley 1 966 ) . O the r s m a in ta in t h a t t h e r e s imp ly i sn o A rcha ic o n t h e P l a in s , m ean ing t h a t t h e r e i sn o b r oad s p ec t rum f o rag ing e conomy i nt h e r e g ion ( e .g . , F o rb i s 1 985 , 1 992 ; R eeve s 1 973 ; Whee le r 1 9 85 ) . Wh i le t h e l a t te r m ay b et r ue f o r s ome o ft h e mo s t n o r the r ly P l a in s a r ea s , t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd o f t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s s ugg e s t s a b road s p ec t rum e conomy t h roughou t t h e p e r iod c u r ren t ly c a l led A r cha ic ( F r i son 1 978a ) a nd p e rhap s b ef o r e a nd a f t e r t h e A r cha ic a s w e l l . T he a r gumen t a bou t t h e A r cha ic a s r e p r e sen t ing ab road s p ec t rum f o rag ing s e rve s a s ac a ta ly s t f o r t h e p r e sen t s t udy . Is e e a n " a r cha ic " w ay o fl i f e ( b road s p e c t rum s ub s is tence ) a s c ha ra c t e r iz ing a l o f P l a in s p r eh i s to ry , a l though Id o n o t i mp ly t h a t t h e r e h a s b een n o

L a t e P r eh i s to r ic . F rom a pp rox ima te ly 1 700 t o 3 00 B P , t h e L a te P r eh i s to r ic p e r iod i s t h e l a s t t o ta l ly i n d igenou s ( non -Eu roame r ican i n f luenced ) c u l tu ra l c omp lex o n t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s . T he p e r iod i sm a rked b y t h e i n t roduc t ion o f s eve ra l n ew t o o l t y p e s a nd a f u r the r i n tens if i ca t ion o f b i son p rocu r emen t . Sma l l p ro jec t i le p o in t s , s t ea t i t e v e s se l s , 1 3

s t one mau l s , a nd n ew t ype s o f p o t te ry ma rk a c hange i n i mpo r tan t a spec t s o f t h e c u l tu ra l s y s tem ( F r ison 1 978a :62 -69 ) . A l l i n d ica te a d ra s t ica l ly d i f f e ren t mean s o f r e sou rce p rocu r emen ta nd f ood p roce s s ing .

s omewha t t e nuou s f o r t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e P ro toh i s to r ic p e r iod , b u t h i s to r ica l r e co rd s a re mo re a bundan t a s mo re r e cen t t ime s a r e r e ached . R ehe r ( 1977b , 1 979 ) a nd R ehe r a nd F r i son ( 1 980 ) c omp i led t r iba l d i s t r ibu t ion s f r om s eve ra l p e r iod s ( AD 1 400 1600 , AD 1600 1700 , AD 1700 1800 , a nd AD 1800 1850 ) . T he g roup s o ccupy ing t h e w e s te rn B lack H i l l s a r e t h e f o l low ing : P la in s A pache ( AD 1400 1600 ) , S ho shone , K iowa a nd C row ( AD 1600 1700 ) , a nd T e ton -Dako ta S i oux a nd C heyenne ( AD 1700 1800 a nd AD 1800 1850 ) . T he a r cheo log ica l e v idence o fP ro toh i s to r ic f o rage r s i n t h e w e s te rn B lack H i l ls u ndoub ted ly i n c lude s d eb r is f r om t h eo ccupa t ion o fo ne o ra l l o ft h e se t r iba l g roup s ( e .g . , K or nf e ld e ta l . 1 995 ) .

P o t te ry , i nd ica t ing ac hange i nf ood p roce s s ing a nd p e rhap s s t o rage , i s p r e sen t i n s eve ra l d if f e ren t f o rm s a nd w i th a n umbe r o fd i f f e ren t d eco ra t ion s . S eve ra l p o t te ry t ype s h ave f a i r ly d i s t inc t s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ions a nd s ome a r e t hough t t o c o r re spond t oh i s tor ic t r iba lg roup s ( e .g . , H an son 1 998 ) . T he p o t te ry t ype s i n c lude Wood land , I n termoun ta in T rad i t ion ( Sho shonean ) , Mandan T rad i t ion ( C row ) , U ppe rR epub l ican , a nd D isma l R ive r( Apa che ) ( F r ison 1 978a :64 -69 ; Gunne r son 1 960 ; R ehe r 1 97 1) .

A s t h e P ro toh i s to r ic p e r iod c on t inued , E u ropean i n f luence i mpac ted n a t ive p eop le s t o ag rea te r d eg r ee . A dd i t iona l i t em s w e re e xchanged b y t r ade r s , t r appe r s , e xp lo ra to ry a nd m i l i ta ry e xped i t ion s a nd o t he r c on tac t s . Mo s t a bo r ig ina l g roup s c ame i n d i rec t c on tac t w i th E u ropean a nd E u roamer ican p eop le s a nd i n many i n s tance s t h e a bo r ig ina l s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence b ecame c l o se ly t i ed t o E u ropean e conom ic r e la t ion s( e .g . , K le in 1 983b ; Wo lf 1 982 ) .

T he s ma l l p ro jec t i le p o in t s , s t a r t ing w i th t h e A von lea t ype , s i gna l t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e u se o ft h e b ow a nd a r row . A s a t oo l , t h e b ow a nd a r row i sa rgued t ob e mo r e v e r sa t i le t h an t h e a t la t l , s i nce i tc an b e u sed i n s eve ra l t ype s o f h un t ing s t ra teg ie s ( F r i son 1 978a :224 ) . A lso , t h e r o le o ft h e b ow a nd a r row a s aw eapon mu s t n o t b e n eg lec ted . T he i n t roduc t ion o f w eapon ry m ay m a rk t h e b eg inn ing o f , o r c hange s i n , w a rf a re ( e .g . , S che ibe r a nd G i l l 1 996 ) . P opu la t ion d en s i t ie s a ppea r t oh ave b een h ighe r t h an b ef o r e a nd s uch c ond i t ions c ou ld c on t r ibu te t oc hang ing w a rf a re p rac t ice s .

A rcheo logy o ft h e We s tern B lack H i l l s I n t h e w es t e rn B la ck H i l ls ( F igu re 1 . 2 ) , t h e s pec if ic g eog raph ic f o cu s o fm y s t udy , o ve r 1 ,000 y ea r s o fh uman o ccupa t ion h ave a l so b een d ocumen ted ( Ca s se l l s 1 986 ; F r ison 1 984 ; K o rnf e ld e t a l . 1 995 ; K o rnf e ld a nd R ehe r 1 992 ) . A l though e v idence o f av a r ie ty o ff o rag ing s t ra teg ie s i sp re sen t b i son i ss e en a sa n i mpor tan t s ub s i s tence r e sou r ce

P ro toh is to r ic . T he P ro toh is to r ic p e r iod b eg in s w i th t h e o n se t o fE u ropean i nf luence o n t h e Nor thwe s tP la ins . I n i t ia l ly t h is i n f luence w a s i n d i rec t , t h e r e su l t o f t h e d i sp lacemen t o f g roup s o n t h e e a s t c oa s t b y E u ropean s c aus ing c rowd ing o f g roup s t owa rd s t h e w e s t ( Lew is 1 942 ; Wo lf 1 982 ) . T he d i sp laced e a s ter ng roup s h ad a n a dvan tage o ve rt h e t r ibe s t o t h e w e s t , b ecau se t h ey c ou ld s ecu re E u ropea n t e chno logy ( gun s a nd h o r se s ) , a l low ing e a s tern g roup s g rea te r m eans o f p u sh ing t h e o u t ly ing t r ibe s f a r the rw e s t . T he s i tua t ion i nt h e N or thwe s t P la ins w a s mo r e c omp lex , w i th s ome t r ade i t em s a r r iv ing i n i t ia l ly f r om t h e s ou thwes t . N ever the le ss , E u ropean i n f luence w a s f e l t i n ad om ino f a sh ion f r om o ne g roup t ot h e n ex t . E u ropean i t ems s l ow ly e n te red t h e h and s o f o u t ly ing g roup s . T he i n t roduc t ion o f s uch i t ems f r equen t ly r e su l t si nm a jo rs oc ia l g roup r eo rgan iza t ion , e i the r s t reng then ing o r d e s t roy ing t h e p o s i t ion o fo ne g roup v i s a v i sa no the r( e .g . , O l ive r 1 962 ) , a so ccu r red i no t he rr eg ion o f t h e w o r ld ( Sha rp 1 952 ) . E u ropean i n f luence p roduced ma jo r s oc ia l u pheava l sa mong P l a in s f o rage r s mak ing t h e h i s to r ica l P l a in s I nd ian s oc ie t ie s q u i te u n l ike t h e i r p r eh i s to r ic c oun terpa r t s ( K le in 1 983a ) . B ecau se o f t h e E u ropean i n duced c hange s , t h e e t hnog raph ica l ly r e co rded P la in s g roup s make p oo r a na logues f o r i n te rp r e t ing t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd o r r e con s t ruc t ing p reh is to r ic c u l tu ra l s y s tem s . E u ropean i t em s mos t f r equen t ly e ncoun te red i n a bo r ig ina l s i te so ft h eP ro toh is to r ic p e r iod a nd h av ing ag rea t d ea l o fi nf luence o nt h e a bo r ig ina l p opu la t ion s a r e t h e h o r se , t r ade b ead s , a nd m e ta l p ro jec t i le p o in t s ( F r ison 1 978a :74 ) . T rade b ead s a nd m e ta l p ro jec t i le p o in t s a r e k nown f r om t h e w es tern B lack H i l ls ( e .g . , K or nf e ld e ta l . 1 995 ) .

t h roughou t t h e k nown p reh is to ry ( Ca s se l ls 1 986 ) . Ab i son b onebed i sp r e sen ti nt h e w e s ter nB lack H i l l s e ven d u r ing t h e A l t i the rma l c l ima t ic e p isode w hen t h e se t ype s o f s i te s a r e r a r e i nt h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd o ft h e P la in s ( Fawce t t 1 987 ) . T he H awken s i t e , l o ca ted w i th in t he w e s ter n B lack H i l ls , a c ommuna l b i son p rocu remen t l o ca t ion , i s t h e o n ly A l t i therma l b i son b onebed k nown f r om t h e Nor thwe s ter n P l a in s ( F r i son e t a l . 1 976 ) . Hun t ing o f o t he r g ame i s c ommon ly n o t ed a s w e l l , w i th d ee r a nd a n te lope r ema in s p r e sen t i nt h e K eyho le a r ea o ft he w es te rn B lack H i l ls a nd a t n ume rou s o t he r s i t e s ( F r i son 1 978a ; K or nf e ld e t a l . 1 995 ; Mu l loy 1 954a ; Whee le r 1 957 ) . An te lope p rocu remen t i sa l so e v idenced a tt h en ea rby M is sou r i B u t te sa n te lope t r ap ( F r i son 1 978a ) a nd b y t h e p re sence o f t he se a n ima l s i n o t he r a r cheo log ica l d epo s i t s ( Kor nf e ld 1 997 ; L ipp inco t t 1 996 ) . T he c on s ide r ab le l a bo r t h a t mu s t h ave b een s pen t c ons t ruc t ing a nd m a in ta in ing t he M issou r i B u t te s a n te lope t r ap h i n t s a t t h e i mpo r tance o f t r app ing f a c i l i t ie s f o r t h e f o rag ing g roup so ft h er eg ion . T he u se o fs ma l la n ima l si sa l so d ocumen ted i ds i te s f r om t h e w es ter nB lack H i l l s . T he r ema ins o fr abb i t s ,g ophe r s , g round s qu i r re l s a nd av a r ie ty o ff ow l s ugges t p rocu remen t o fs ma l l a n ima ls ( Kor n f e ld 1 997 ; Mu l loy 1 954a ; Whee le r 1 957 , 1 996 ) . N ea r ly e ve ry e xcava ted s i te c on ta in s s ome e v idence o f s ma l l a n ima l s , a t l e a s t s ome o f w h ich i si n te rp re ted a s r e p re sen t ing f o od r ema in s( Tab le 2 . 1) .

S t a r t ing w i th t h e v e ry l a s tp a r t o ft h e L a te P reh i s to r ic P e r iod ( a bou t AD 1 400 ) c hange s i n t r iba l d i s t r ibu t ions o n t h e N o r thwes t P la in s c an b e t r aced . T rac ing o f t h e t r ibe s i s

1 4

T ab le 2 . 1 A n ima l s p ec ie sr e cov e r ed f r om t h ew e s te rn B lack H i l l s a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s . D a ta a r e f r om Whee le r ( 1 957 ) .

T ab le 2 . 2 C ha r r ed p l an t r ema in s r e cove r ed f r om w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s h ea t ing f a c i l i t ie s . P l an t s a r e a s s igned s e a son o f u s e b a sed o n r i pen ing o f t h e p a r t u s ed ( f rom L a tady a nd D ueho lm 1 985 a nd T rue sda le e ta l . 1 987 ) .

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5

i n f o rma t ion s i te s " b ecau se t h ey p rov ide a d i ve r s i ty o f e v idence a bou t t h e p a s t , w h i le F r ison ( 199 1) c a l l s t h em k ey s i te s . H oweve r , r a the r t h an p rov id ing " h igh i n f o rma t ion ," k ey s i te s p rov ide l ow i n f o rma t ion f r om t h e p e r spec t ive o f s e t t lemen t s y s tem s a nd l a nd scape u t i l iz a t ion e spec ia l ly w hen t h e se a r e e x ten s ive s u ch a s i sa r gued f o r h e r e . S imp ly , k ey s i te s c on ta in i n f o rma t ion o n as i ng le n ode i n as e t t lemen t r ound ( s ome t ime s m u l t ip le n ode s t h roughou t t h e y ea r ) , a nd m o re i n f o rma t ion o n t h e s ame o r d i f f e r en t n ode s t h rough l o ng t i me s pan s . W i th a n u nchang ing , s pa t ia l ly f l ex ib le s e t t lemen t s y s tem t h e e n t i re r a nge o fn ode s m ay e ven tua l ly b ecome ap a r t o fs u ch a" h igh i n f o rma t ion " s i te . B u t n ode s i ns uch s i t e s a r e o f t en n o t s e pa rab le , n ode s a r e n o t t h e s o le l o c i o f a c t iv i ty , n o r d o t h ey n ece s sa r i ly r e p r e sen t m oda l s t ra t eg ie s . R e l iance o n k ey s i t e s f o r r e g iona l i n t e rp r e ta t ion s i sa na logou s t o r e l iance o n d a ta g a the r ed f r om t e s t u n i t s ( t e lephone b oo th s ) f o r i n te rp r e ta t ions o f e n t i r e s i t e s ( e .g . , F l anne ry 1 976 ) .

M ed ium Mamma l D ee r( i nc lud ing w h i te ta i l ) P rongho rn L a rg e Mamma l B i son F l o ra l r ema in s , p re sen t a t s ome w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s s i te s , s ugge s t t h e u se o f p l an t s a s w e l l . B e l le R ock she l t e r c on ta ined w i ld p lum p i t s , p o s s ib ly o r ig ina t ing o n t h e t e r ra ce o f t h e B e l le F ou rche R ive r i mmed ia t e ly b e low t h e s i t e (Whee le r 1 9 57 ) . O f t h e m o r e t h an s e ve ra l d oz en h ea r th s f l oa t ed f r om t h e K eyho le m ic ro r eg ion , s e ve ra l e d ib le p l an t r ema in sh ave b een r e cove r ed ( Tab le 2 . 2 ; s e ea l so K or nf e ld e t a l . 1 995 ) . T he p lan t r ema in s i n c lud e p r ick ly p ea r a r eo le s , a nd t h es e ed so fp ond e ro sa p i ne , C henopod ium , Ama lanch ie r a nd C ruc if i rae ( La tady a nd D ueho lm 1 985 ) . Af ew o ft h e p l an t s s ugg e s t s p r ing t o l a t e s umme r f o od p rocu r emen t ( La tady a nd D ueho lm 1 985 ) , b u t a l a t e r , f a l l -w in t e r c o l lec t ion i sn o t e x c luded a s an umbe r o f f l o ra l s pec ie s r ema in u s ab le t h roughou t t h e y ea r ( W r igh t e ta l . 1 980 ) . I n a l , t h e p l an t r ema in s f o rm a v e ry m ino r p a r t o f t h e a r cheo log ica lr e co rd w h ich h a sb een r e cove r ed .

T he f a c t t h a t n ode s a r e n o t t h e s o le l o c i o f a c t iv i ty i sa p a r t icu la r ly a cu te p rob lem w i th f o rage r s w ho s p end a c on s ide rab le a moun t o f t ime o u t s ide c amp s ( e .g . , R a i 1 990 : 13 ; Woodbu r n 1 968 :51) o r o t he r l o c i o f c oncen t ra ted a c t iv i ty . P r eh i s to r ic f o rage rs t ud ie s o f t en o ve r look t h eu s eo f t h e l a rge l a nd scape s , ap rob lem w h ich i sp a r t ia l ly c r ea t ed b y s i ng le s i te m e thodo log ie s a nd o u r w e s t er n ( Eu ropean /Eu roame r ican ) b i a se s a bou t s i t e , s e t t lemen t s a nd l a nd scape s( H i r sch a nd O 'Han lon 1 995 ) . T ha t i s ,w e s t er n e r s l i ve i n c onf ined s p a ce s ( hou se s , t own s , e t c . ) a nd o u r s e t t lemen t s y s tem i sp e r ce ived a s as e r ie s o f r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween s u ch u n i t s . I ti sv e ry l i ke ly t h a t f o rage r s u s e a nd p e r ce ive s p ace q u i te d i f f e r en t ly , y e t b y i g no r ing b road a r ea l s t ud ie s w e c on t inu e t oi mpo se o u r own s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s o nt h ep a s t .

S ome Q ue s t ion sA bou tt h eD a taba se T he d a taba se f o r t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f N o r thwe s t P l a in s p r eh i s to ry j u s t i n t roduced i sl a rge ly ap rodu c t o fn ume rou s s i ng le s i t e i n ves t iga t ion s . T he i n f o rma t ion i sa l so b a sed e n t i r e ly o n s i te s , t h a t i s , d en se r c oncen t ra t ion s o f a r t if ac t s , w i thou t ac on s ide ra t ion o f a r t if a c t s b e tween t h e p a t che s ( Ebe r t 1 9 86 ; F o ley 1 98 1 b ;I s aa c 1 98 1 ; s e e D unne 1 1 1 992 a nd E be r t 1 986 f o r v a r ia t ion i nd ef in i t ion o fs i t e s ) . A s i no t he r p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld , a r cheo log i s t s " . .have t r ad i t iona l ly r e l ied o n av e ry l i m i ted n umbe r o f s i t e s w i th u nu sua l ly r i ch a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s . . ." ( Keene 1 98 1 :2 ) , w h ich g i ve s a b i a sed v i ew o f p r eh i s to ry ( G r e i se r 1 985 :123 ) . T homa s ( 1985 )h a sr e cen t ly c a l led s u ch s i te s" h igh

A no the r p rob lem w i th s i ng le s i te i n ve s t iga t ion s i s t h a t , a l though r ema in s o f b i g g ame , s ma l l a n ima l s , a nd p l an t s s ugge s t t h e u t i l iz a t ion o f a l s u ch r e sou r ce s , t h e se r e s idue s a r e h eav i ly a nd u neven ly a l te r ed f o r e a ch r e sou r ce ( F igu r e 2 . 2 ) b y t a phonom ic p roce s ses ( Ef remov 1 940 ) . I n ve s t iga t ion so ft a phonom ic p roce s se s a r e a n i mpo r tan tp a r t o f mod er na r cheo log ica l m e thodo logy a nd t h e e f ec to ft h e se p roce s se s o n t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s s i t e s w i l l h ave t ob e 1 5

QUANT ITY

e va lua ted t o u se t h e f ood r ema in s t o r e con s t ruc t e conom ic s t ra t eg ie s . H oweve r , f ood r ema in s a r e o n ly o ne p o s s ib le e n t ry p o in t f o rs ub s i s tence a na ly s i s a nd m yr e sea r ch c hoo se s t or e ly o na va i lab le p roxy e v idence i nt h ef o rm o ft e chno logy t os t udy t h ee conom ic s t ra teg ie so fN o r thwe s tP l a in s f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s . F i na l ly , r e g iona l p r eh i s to ry w r i t t en f r om t h e s i ng le i n ten s ive ly i n ve s t iga ted o r k ey s i te , e ven w hen c on s ide r ing s i t e s i nt h e r e g iona l c on tex t , f a i l st op e r ce iv e s i t e s a sp a r t so f r e g iona l s y s tem s . As i te spec i f ic f o cu s m a sk s t h e v a r iab i l i ty t h a t i s p r e sen t , t h e l ow d en s i ty a r ea s o f ar e g ion t h a t c on s t i tu t et h eb u lk o ft h e l a nd scape . Y e t ,t h e s ub s i s t ence a nd t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion o ff o rage r s i sr e g iona l ly o r ien ted . R e sou r ce s ( f ood a nd o t he r ) a r e d i s t r ibu ted o ve r l a rge a r ea s a nd d ec i s ion s a bou tp rocu r emen t mu s tc on s ide rw he r e , w hen a nd h ow t h e r e sou r ce s w i l l b e p rocu r ed . P rocu r emen t d ec i s ion s r e qu i r e t h e i n t ima te k now ledg e o fb road r e g iona l l a nd scap e s . A r t if a c t r i ch n ode s o n s u ch l a nd scape s e xh ib i t a g r ea t d ea l o f n o i se r a the r t h an a c l ea r p i c tu r e o f r e g iona l t e chno log ica lo rgan iza t ion .

b i son s ma l l l a n t

T I ME

amma l

med ium mamma l X

F i gu r e2 . 2 S ugge s t ed e f ec t so ft a phonom ic f a c to r so n d if e r en ta r cheo log ica la r t if a c t s .

A r cheo log i s t s h ave s pen t t o o l i t t le t i me i n ve s t iga t ing w ha t c ou ld b e c a l led " h igh i n f o rma t ion " l a nd scape s ( Dunne l l a nd D ancey 1 983 ; E be r t 1 986 ; F o ley 1 977 , 1 98 1a , 1 98 1b ) a nd t h e m e thodo logy f o r d i s t r ibu t iona l r e sea r ch i s s t i l l i n i t s i n f ancy . T o s upp lemen t t h e a r cheo log ica l ly r i ch s i t e s i nt h e i n ve s t iga t ion so fN o r thwe s tP l a in s , m yr e sea r ch r e l ie sl a rge ly o n t h e n eg lec t ed l owe r d en s i ty a r t if a c t d i s t r ibu t ion s f o und o ve rm u ch o ft h el a nd scape . T he r e a r e s e ve ra l a dvan tage s t od a ta f r om l ow d en s i ty s i te s o ve rb road a r ea s . F i r s t , a sa r gued a bove , f o rag e r s u s e b road r e g iona l l a nd scape s a nd t h i s t y pe o fl a nd scape u t i l iza t ion i s c ha ra c te r i s t ic o f v a r ia t ion b e tween f o rag ing s y s tem s ( s ee C hap te r3 ) . I ts e em s s e lf -ev iden tt h a t i fl a nd scape u t i l iza t ion d if e r en t ia te s f o rage r s , l a nd scape s c a le d a ta a r e m o s t a pp rop r ia te f o r c ha ra c te r iz ing h uman f o rag ing s y s tem s ( e .g . , Wob s t 1 983 ) . S econd , b ecau se t h e a r t if a c t s r e co rded o n r e g iona l s u r vey s a r e d u rab le , t h e t a phonom ic f a c to r s t h a t r e su l t i nd e s t ruc t ion o fo rgan ic r ema in s d o n o t a f ec t t h em . C on sequen t ly ,d u rab le a r t if a c td i s t r ibu t ion i smo r eu b iqu i tou s o ve r t h e l a nd scape a nd o ve r v a r ia t ion i n l a nd scape s . Whe r ea so rgan ic r e s idue a s soc ia ted w i th p a s th uman s y s t em s m ay b e u n r ecove rab le o r v e ry e xpen s ive t o r e cove r f r om l a rge a r ea s o f t h e l a nd scape , a nd p o s s ib ly u n in t e rp r e tab le , d u rab le a r t if ac t s a r e a nd h ave b een r e la t ive ly e a s i ly r e cove red .

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CHAPTER 3

S UBS ISTENCE , ECOLOGY , AND TECHNOLOGY OF FORAGING SOC IET IES

P r im i t iv ec ommun i sm : T h i sr e f e r st ot h ec o l l ec t iv er i gh tt ob a s ic r e sou r c e s , t h ea b s enc eo fh e r ed i ta ry s t a tu so r a u tho r i ta r ian r u l e , a nd t h ee ga l i ta r ian r e la t ion sh ip st h a tp r ec ed ed e xp lo i ta t ion a nd e conom ic s t ra t if i ca t ion i n h uman h i s to ry . ( L eacoc k1 983 :394 )

Much o ft h e p r ev iou s r e sea r ch o n P l a in s p r eh is to ry i sn o t b a sed o ne xp l ic i tt h eo ry o fh uman f o r ag ing s o c ie t ie s . R a the r , t h e r e sea r ch r e l ie s o n b o th e t hnoh i s to r ic a c coun t s a nd t h e d i rec t h i s to r ica l a pp roach t op r eh i s to ry ( S t rong 1 935 ; Wede l 1 9 38 ) o r o n t h e q u in te s sen t ia l , s imp l if ied , h omog en ized , ! Kung o r S ho shone t y pe h un te r -ga th e r e r s . T he f o rme r i s s imp ly u n r ea l i s t ic a s a mode l f o r p r eh i s to ry g i ven t h e E u roame r ican o r ig in o fs ome e t hnoh i s to r ic c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s ( e .g . , K le in 1 983a ; S ecoy 1 953 ) , a nd a sh i s to ry w a s w r i t ten t os a t i sf yt h e n eed s o ft h e c o lon iz ing p opu la t ion . T he l a t t e r r e p re sen t s a" t y ranny " o f t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd (Wob s t 1 978 ) , p ay ing i n suf f i c ien t a t ten t ion t o t h e t o ta l i ty a nd v a r iab i l i ty o f h un t ing a nd g a the r ing s o c ie t ie s . My s t udy b eg in s w i th a n o u t l ine o f s e lec t ed t h eo r e t ica l c oncep t s r e ga rd ing f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s , p r e s en ted i n t h i s c hap te r . A spec t s o fh uman f o rag ing t h eo ry c once rned w i th r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e a nd t h e r e la t ion o f r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e t o f ood a cqu i s i t ion s t ra teg ie s a nd t e chno log ica l o r gan iza t ion a r e r e v iewed b e low .

p henomenon , e t c . ) m ake s a no the r o ccu r r ence m o r e o r l e s s l i k e ly ( Hodde r a nd O r ton 1 976 :174 ) . H ence s p a t ia l a u toco r r e la t ion m ean s t h a t v a r ia t ion i n o ne p l a ce h e lp s t o p r ed ic tt h ec ha ra c t e r i s t ic so fv a r ia t ion i na no the rp l a ce o nt h e l a nd scape . S pec if i ca l ly , Wob s t ( 1982 ) s ugge s t s t h a t f o rag e r r e l iance o n t h e p opu la t ion f i s s ion /f u s ion o p t ion i n g a in ing a c ce s s t o r e sou r ce s v a r ie s w i th t h e d eg ree o f r e sou rce a u toco r r e la t ion . Whe r e t h e r e sou r ce s v a ry h i gh ly ( l ow a u to r co r r e la t ion ) , p eop le p e r iod ica l ly d i spe r se a nd a gg r ega t e , m a t e s e lec t ion i ss p read o u t w ide ly a c ro s s s pa ce a nd m a t ing n e two rk sa r er e la t ive ly o pen . T he a r gumen ts ugge s t st h a tt h e h i ghe rt h er e sou r ce a u toco r r e la t ion , t h e l e s s u t i l i ty t h e r e i si n v a ry ing g r oup s i z e f o r t h e p u rpo se o f d i s t r ibu t ing p eop le a mong r e sou r ce s( s ee H a rpend ing a nd D av i s 1 977 f o rs im i la r a r gumen t s ) . L e s s e mpha s i s o n v a ry ing g roup s i z e r e su l t s i n m o r e c l o s ed a nd c on s t r ic t ed m a t ing n e two rk s ( e .g . , J och im 1 98 1 :160 ) . O n t h e o t he r h and , B inf o rd ( 1980 ) s howed t h a t s e t t lemen t s ub s i s t ence s t ra teg ie s v a ry a l ong t h e a x i s o f r e sou r ce i n cong r u i t ie s ( no t a u toco r r e la ted r e sou r ce s ) . B inf o rd 's a r gumen t s ugge s t s t h a t t h e mo r e i n cong ruou s ( l e s s a u toco r r e la t ed ) t h e r e sou r ce s , t h a t i s , t h e g r ea t e r t h e s e a sona l i ty a nd p a t ch ine s s o ft h e e f f ec t ive e nv i ronmen t , t h e l e s s f o rag e r s d epend o n r e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty ( mov ing b a se c amp t o f o od ) a nd t h e m o r e t h ey d epend o n l o g i s t ica l m ob i l i ty ( mov ing f o od t ob a se c amp ) b y t h e m ean s o ft a sk s p ec if i cl o g i s t ica lg r oup s .

F o rag ing S o c ie t ie s . S e t t lemen t ,a nd S ub s i s t ence R e sou r ce s E co logy i st h e s y s tem o fr e la t ion sh ip s b e tween a n o rgan i sm a nd i t s e nv i ronmen t ; o t he r s p ec ie s , c on spec if ic s , a nd i n an ima t e o b jec t s . H uman e co logy , u n l ik e e co logy o f t h e o t he r b i o log ica l o rgan i sm s i s m ed ia t ed b y s ymbo l s o r m ean ing a ta ched t ot h ing sa nd b ehav io rt h a ta r et h eb a s is f o r a l h uman s o c ie t ie s . T he ref o re , f o rag ing ( i n t h e s en se u sed h e r e , h un t ing a nd g a ther ing ) i ss t r ic t ly ah uman e n t e rp r i se , i mp ly ing m o r e t h an p r eda t ion a nd c o l lec t ing , t h e l i f e s u s ta in ing a c t iv i t ies o fa l o rgan i sm s( I ngo ld 1 987 ) . N ame ly h uman f o r ag ing i mp l ie s i n ten t iona l i ty , " as e lf -con sc iou sne s s a nd a c o r r e spond ing a wa r ene s s o f t i me p a s t a nd f u tu r e " ( I ngo ld 1 9 87 :95 ) , a f e a tu r e l a ck ing f r om t h e f e ed ing s t ra t eg ie s o f o t he r o rgan i sm s . S e t t lemen t a nd s ub s i s tence s t ra t eg ie s , t e rm s g ene ra l ly a pp l ied o n ly t oh uman s , a r e t h e s oc ia l s t ru c tu re s o fh uman e co logy , t h a t i s ,t h e w ay h uman s a r e r e la t ed t o t h e i r e nv i ronmen t , i n c lud ing o t he r h uman s . T he q uo t e a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s c hap t e r c ap tu r e s s ome i mpo r tan t a s pec t s o f s uch r e la t ion sh ip s i n o ne c l a s s o f f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s .

R e s id en t ia l m ob i l i ty ( B inf o rd 1 980 )m ean st h a tt h ee n t i r ec o r e s iden t ia l g r oup m ove s f r om o ne r e sou rce p a t ch t oa no the r a sr e sou r ce s a r e u s ed u p . L og i s t ica l m ob i l i ty m ean s t h a tt h e c o re s id en t ia l g roup r ema in s i no ne p l a ce ( g ene ra l ly a mong m od er nf o rag e r s n o m o r e t h an s e ve ra l r e s iden t ia l m ove s p e r y ea ra r e d ocumen ted ) , w h i le v a r iou s t a sk g roup s r a ng e a way f r om t h e l a rge r g r oup t o p rocu r e s pec if i c r e sou r ce s . C on sequ en t ly , g roup s p r a c t ic ing r e s iden t ia l ly m ob i le s t ra teg ie s c r ea t e o n ly b a se c amp s ( l oca t ion s o fc o r e s iden t ia l g roup r e s idence ) ,w h i le m ov ing a r ound t h e l a nd scape . U nde r r e s id en t ia l m ob i l i ty b a s e c amp s g ene ra l ly l o ok s im i la r t o e a ch o t he r , t h e e n t i r e g roup o ccup ie s e a ch c amp f o r t h e l e ng th o ft i me d e te rm ined b y t h e c ha ra c te r o ft h e r e sou r ce . R e sou r ce e x t ra c t ion , d ome s t ic , a nd c r af ta c t iv i t ie st a k e p l a ce a te a ch s i t e ,c r ea t ing av e ry r e pe t i t ive a r cheo log ica lr e co rd .

I mp l ica t ion so fR esou rce S t ruc tu re O ve r t h e p a s t 1 00 y ea r s , t wo t h eo r e t ica l a pp roa che s c an b e f ound i nf o rage r s t ud ie s . O ne a pp roa ch d ea l s w i th f o rag e r s ' a b i l i ty t o f i nd m a te s ( Ty lo r 1 88 1) , w h i le t h e o t he r i s c once r n ed w i th t h e i rw ay o fm ak ing al i v ing ( Mo rgan 1 877 ) . R ecen t ly b o th a pp roa che s h ave r e la t ed f o rag e r v a r iab i l i ty t o r e sou r c es t r uc tu re ( Denne l l 1 985 :5 ) .

O n t h e o t he r h and , g r oup s p r a c t ic ing l o g is t ica l ly m ob i le s t ra teg ie s c r ea te a v a r ie ty o f o t he r t y pe s o f l o ca t ion s , i n c lud ing s p ec if i c r e sou r ce p rocu r emen t a nd e x t ra c t ion c amp si na dd i t ion t ot h eb a s ec amp . T he n umbe ro fd i f f e r en t t y pe s o fe x t ra c t ion l o ca t ion s w i l l v a ry r e la t ive t ot h e n umbe r o f d if e r en t t y pe s o f r e sou r ce s . A dd i t iona l ly , o t he r s p ec ia l iz ed s i te sa r ec r ea t ed ,s u ch a sc ache s , a nd p rocu r emen t a nd c on sump t ion a r e s e pa ra t ed i n t i me . U nde r l o g i s t ica l m ob i l i ty b a se c amp s ( r e s iden t ia l s i t e s ) a r e f ewe r , l o g i s t ica l

Wob s t ( 1 982 , 1 993 ) s ugge s t s t h a t f o rag e r s o c ia l f o rma t ion s v a ry i nr e la t ion t or e sou r ce a u toco r r e la t ion . A u toco r r e la t ion m ean st h a tt h e p re sence o ro ccu r r ence ( o fa n i t em , r e sou r ce ,

1 7

w e l l d ocumen ted a mong f o r age r s ( Lee 1 979a ) . T he f i s s ion -f u s ion o p t ion o f f o rag ing p opu la t ion s c an a l so b e s e en a s s e r v ing t h e f u nc t ion o fa l low ing m embe r s m ax imum a c ce s s t or e sou r ce s . I th a s b een s ugg e s t ed t h a t s u ch ef i c ien cy i s n o t n ece s sa r i ly r e la ted t o d ec rea s ing s ub s i s tence c o s t s , b u tc an b e s e en a s aw ay o f m ax im iz ing t h e a va i lab le s o c ia l t i me ( Gamb le 1 986 :46 ) .

s i te s a r e l o ca t ion s o fv a r iou s a nd d i f f e r en t a c t iv i t ie s , a nd t h e c ompo s i t ion a nd s i z e o f s o c ia l u n i t s o ccupy ing d i f f e r en t t y pe so fs i te s v a ry a l ong an umbe ro fa xe s . F o re xamp le , t h e r e qu i remen t s o fe x t ra c t ion a nd p roce s s ing o fr e sou r ce s , t h e l e ng th o ft i me n ece s sa ry f o rp rocu r emen t ,t h ec ond i t ion a tt h e r e s iden t ia l c amp , a r e a mong t h e f a c to r s c ond i t ion ing t h e c ha rac te r o fl o g i s t ica l l o ca t ion s . L og i s t ica l mob i l i ty c r ea te s m uch mo r e c omp lex s e t t lemen t s y s tem s t h an r e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty . Ma t ing d ynam ic s , d emog raphy , a nd f i s s ion /f u s ion p r oce s se s a r e i n teg ra t ed w i th s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s i s tence i ns t r uc tu r ing f o rage r s oc iocu l tu ra l s y s tem s ( e .g . , k i n sh ip , l a bo r , e x change , a nd o t he r p roce s se s ) . T ha t i s , s o c ia l s t ra teg ie s m u s t b e o rgan ized t oa l low a nd e nhance p eop le sa b i l i t ie st os o lve t h e p rob lem o fr e sou r ce a cqu i s i t ion ( Tab le 3 . 1) . S u ch s o lu t ion s a r e f ound i n s pec if i c w ay s o f " mapp ing o n " t o r e sou r ce s ( B inf o rd 1 980 ) . T he " mapp ing o n " t o r e sou r ce s i n t h e e t hnog raph ic p r e sen t i s a c omp lex p roce s s a r t icu la t ing m a te r ia l , s o c ia l a nd i d eo log ica l c u l tu ra l s phe r e s ( e .g . , W ie s sne r 1 977 ; s e e a l so R appapo r t 1 967 f o r an on h un te r g a the re r c a se ) a nd t h e r e i sr e a son t ot h ink t h a t t h e s e s ame e l emen t s a r t icu la t ed i n t h e p a s t . Mob i l i ty ( e .g . , f i s s ion /f u s ion , r e s iden t ia l / log i s t ica l ) a nd s t o rag e a r e a mong t h e m echan i sm s t h rough w h ich s u ch a r t icu la t ion i s a c comp l i shed ( e .g . , R ow ley -Conwy a nd Z ve leb i l 1 989 ) . T hu s , f o rage r e co logy , o r t h e l i nkage s b e tween s ub s i s t ence a nd g eog raphy ( Pa rk ing ton 1 986 :202 ) ,p r ov ide a ne n t ry p o in t f o rt h ea na ly s i so fN o r thwe s tP l a in sf o rag ing p opu la t ion s .

T ab le 3 . 1 G ene ra l s o lu t ion s f o r f o od a cqu i s i t ion b y f o rage r s f o r p rob lem s c r ea ted b y v a r ia t ions i n r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e . S ome a dap ted f r om Wob s t( 1 982 ) . P ROBLEM C u r ren tr e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty

SOLUT IONS Mon i to ra nd g a the ri n f o rma t ion a tl o ca lg r oup l e ve l .

F u tu re r e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty

Mon i to ra nd g a the ri n f o rma t ion a ti n te r se t t lemen t l e ve l

R e sou rce p a tch s i ze v a r ia t ion

a )p opu la t ion s i ze v a r ia t ion , e xe rc ise f i s s ion /f us ion o p t ion ) . b )v a r ie ty o fo p t iona l r e sou rce s .

S pec if ic A s sump t ion sa bou tF o rag e rR e sou r ce U se G iven t h e t h eo r e t ica l s k e t ch p r e sen t ed a bove , i nm y s t udy s e ve ra l a s sump t ion s a bou t f o rage r s ' u s e o f r e sou r ce s g u ide t h ed eve lopmen to ft h ea l t e rna t ive mode lo fN o r thwe s tP l a in s e conomy :

L eng th o fp roduc t ion p e r iod s ho r t

T empo a nd m ob i l i ty : h igh mob i l i ty ( r eady t om ove a t momen t ' sn o t ice )

D u rab i l i ty o ft h er e sou r ce q u ick e xhau s t ion

Va ry t h en umbe ro fo p t ion s a va i lab le : Va r ie ty o fo p t ions , h ence i n f orma t ion a nd mon i to r ,a nd h igh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty .

Wea the rl im i t sm ob i l i ty

a )S to re b ) L oca te n ea re me rgency ( c r i t ica l )r e sou rce s .

A SSUMPT ION 1 :E cozone s h ave d i f f e r en t p o ten t ia l s ub s i s tence r e sou r ce s , o r r e sou r ce s a va i lab le i n d i f f e r en t s e a son s ( Payn t e r a nd T ho rbahn 1 975 ; T homa s 1 97 1 ;J och im 1 976 ; K eene 1 98 1) .

L im i ted s pa t ia l ly s t ab le

a )S to re a nd d epend o nm ob i le r e sou rce s( l og i s t ica l s t ra t egy ) . b ) E x t reme r e s iden t ia lm ob i l i ty ; move t ok i l l i mmed ia te ly .

A SSUMPT ION 2 : F o rage r s e xp lo i t t h e v a r iou s e cozone s t h rough d i f f e r en t " s t ruc tu ra lp o se s " ( Gea r ing 1 962 ) . I no t he r w o rd s , t h e e cozone s a r e e xp lo i t ed b y i n d iv idua l s p l ay ing d if e r en t r o le s i n f o rm ing t a sk g r oup s , a nd i n p rocu r ing , p roce s s ing a nd c on sum ing r e sou r ce s . F o rma t ion o f t a sk g roup s c ond i t ion s t h e s t ru c tu r eo ft h es e t t lemen ts y s t em .

c )C omb ina t ion o fs ma l lg roup s i ze a nd l o g is t ica l s t ra tegy .

T owa rd aF o rag ing E conomy o ft h eN o r thw e s tP l a in s I n mo s tt empe r a t e ( s ea sona l b u t n on -ex t r eme ) e nv i ronmen t s , b i oma s s p rodu c t ion i sh i gh ly t empo ra l ly p r ed ic tab le , m a in ly c oncen t ra t ed d u r ing t h e g r ow ing s e a son . A l though p roduc t ion i ss e a sona l , r e sou r ce s m ay b e a va i lab le f o r a c on s ide rab le p e r iod o f t ime f o l low ing p r oduc t ion , c r ea t ing s i gn if ican t c on sequence s f o r e xp lo i ta t ion ( i . e . , h uman p roduc t ion i nt h e s e n se u sed b y I ngo ld 1 9 87 ) . F o r e xamp le , c a t ta i l r oo t s , r o se h i p s , a nd s e ed s s uch a sj u n ipe r a nd i n d ian r i ce g r a s s( Ba ch 1 997 )a mong o t he r s , r ema in o nt h ep l an tf o r al o ng p e r iod o ft i me a f t e rt h ep l an ts t op si t ss e a sona lg r ow th .

A SSUMPT ION 3 : F o rag e r s a t t emp t t o m in im iz e p rocu r emen t c o s t s ( J och im 1 976 :20 ) , p rov id ing o t he r s oc ia l o b l iga t ion s c an b e m e t u nde r s u ch c ond i t ion s . Mov ing c amp t o ar e sou r ce p a t ch a nd s t ay ing t h e re u n t i l t h e p a tch i s " exhau s t ed , " t h en m ov ing t oa no the r p a tch r a the rt h an c a r ry ing f ood g r ea t d i s tance s i s 1 8

O n t h e o t he r h and , s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou r ce s i n t empe ra t e , d r y e nv i ronmen t s i sh i gh ly v a r iab le . E spec ia l ly i mpo r tan t i st h e s ca le o f s pa t ia l a u to co r r e la t ion r e la t ive t o f o rage r p opu la t ion d en s i ty a nd o r gan iza t ion , b ecau se f o rag e r s m u s t a r t icu la te t h e i r s o c ia l s t ra t eg ie s w i th t h e s t ruc tu re o ft h e r e sou r ce s . T he s c a l e o fa u toco r r e la t ion h a s n o tb een c on s ide red i ns t ruc tu r ing f o r ag ing s o c ia l f o rma t ion s , b u t i ti si n tu i t ive ly c l ea rt h a t s c a le i s ar e levan td imen s ion o f v a r iab i l i ty . When Wob s t ( 1 982 , 1 993 ) a r gue s f o r a r e la t ion sh ip b e tween r e sou r ce a u to co r r e la t ion a nd p opu la t ion f l ex ib i l i ty , h e i mp l ie s t h a t s u ch r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r ing i sa ta s c a le g r ea t e r t h an a ny l o ca l p opu la t ion . H oweve r , o t he r s c a le s o f s p a t ia l s t ruc tu r e mu s t a l so a r t icu la te w i th s o c ia l s t ra teg ie s a nd t h e n a tu r e o ft h i s a r t icu la t ion i si mpo r tan t f o r u nde r s tand ing f o rage re co logy ( Row l ey -Conwy a nd Z ve leb i l 1 989 ) .

k ey s i te s , t h e " t e lephone b oo th s" o n t h e l a nd scap e f o r c ha rac te r iz ing r e g iona l s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s . T he p r e sen t a na ly s i s i su n ique i nt r an sf o rm ing c onven t iona l ly c o l lec t ed a r cha eo log ica l i n f o rma t ion i n to c on t iguou sr e g iona ld a ta .

mac ro-reg ion l ong t e rm-

r eg ion , t ong « t e rm a nnua l I n terac t ions . s e t t lemen t r ound p lus d ay t o d ay

g ene ra t iona l. I n te rac t ions

A s i n a l t empe ra te r e g ion s , b i oma s s p roduc t ion o n t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s i s s e a sona l a nd h ence t empo ra l ly p r ed ic tab le , b u t t h e n a tu re o f t h e s p a t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f p rodu c t ion i si nq ue s t ion ( s ee C hap t e r4 ) . Wha t i so fi n te r e s t i sw h ich r e sou r ce s a nd r e sou r ce c omb ina t ion s a r e c o r r e la ted a nd a t w ha t s pa t ia l s c a le s . T he N o r thwe s t P l a in s a r e a m o sa ic /pa t chy e nv i ronmen t w i th af ew l a rge ( e qu i l ib r ium o r K se lec t ed , P i anka 1 978 )a nd m any s ma l l ( o ppo r tun i s t ic o rr s e lec t ed ) s p ec ie s , e xh ib i t ing a g r ea t d ea l o f v a r ia t ion i n b ehav io r ( mob i l i ty , a gg r ega t ion , h ab i ta t u s e , e t c . ) . T he e nv i ronmen ta l p a tch ines s a nd s p ec ie s b ehav io r c r ea te c omp lex s p a t ia l p a t te rn s o f r e sou rce s w h ich a f f ec t a p opu la t ion ' s a b i l i ty t o p r ed ic t r e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty . P r ed ic tab i l i ty i si mpo r tan t b ecau se i ti n f luence s p rocu remen t s u cce s s o r s e cu r i ty , w h ich i sa r gu ed t o b e am a jo r f a c to r c ond i t ion ing r e sou rce c ho ice ( J o ch im 1 98 1 :9 1) . T he a r t icu la t ion o f h uman s o c ia l s t r a teg ie s a nd r e sou r ce p r ed ic tab i l i ty i sm ed ia ted b y t h e t e chno logy d e s igned f o r e xp lo i ta t ion o f as pec if ic r e sou r ce s t ru c tu r e . T echno log ica l o rgan iz a t ion c an t h en b e i n ve s t iga t ed w i th t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd , t h u s p rov id ing i n f o rma t ion f o r i n f e r ence s a bou t N o r thw e s tP l a in sf o rag ing s o c ie t ie s .

I n te rac t ions

t a lero-n ta lon , d ay t o d ay s u rv iva l s ad I r e »n 10 1 10 1 16

F i gu r e3 . 1 S chema t ic r e p r e sen ta t ion o f s e ve ra l o rgan iza t iona l s c a le s o f f o rag e r i n te ra c t ion s a nd t e chno log ica lo rgan iza t ion . F e chno log ica lO rgan iza t ion o fF o rag ing L ink ing t h e t h eo re t ica l p r epo s i t ion s d i scu s sed a bove t ot h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd c an b e d one i ns e ve ra l w ay s , b u t s i nce t h e d om inan t a r t if ac t s i n t h e r e co rd a r e t e chno log ica l r ema in s , t h e mode l s o f t e chno log ica l o rgan iz a t ion o f f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s p rov id e s u ch a l i nk ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 977 ; H i t chcock a nd B a r t ram 1 998 ; K e l ly 1 985 ; O swa l t 1 973 ; T o r r ence 1 983 , 1 989 ) . Mo s t a r gumen t s i nt h e se m ode l s a r e b a sed o n t h e v a r ia t ion i nr i sk a s soc ia ted w i th p rocu r emen t . S pec if i ca l ly , d i f f e r en t d eg r ee s o f r e sou r ce a u toco r r e la t ion ( i ncong ru i t ie s ) c r ea te v a r ia t ion i nt h e a moun t o ft i me s t r e s s a s soc ia ted w i th f o od p rocu remen t . When r e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty i sh i gh ly a u to co r r e la t ed , d ec i s ion s h ave t o b e m ade a bou t w h ich r e sou r ce s t o p ro cu r e a nd t h e c ho sen r e sou r ce s m u s tb e s t o r ed f o r f u tu re u s e . When r e sou r ce s a r e n o t h ig h ly a u toco r r e la t ed , d ec i s ion s a bou t p rocu r emen t a r e l e s s c r i t ica l a nd n o s t o rag e i sn ece s sa ry ( o f c ou r se s t o rag e m ay b e ac ho sen s t ra t egy f o r s o c ia l r e a sons ; e . g . , I n go ld 1 987 :207 -2 10 ) . T o r r ence ( 1989 ) a nd o t he r s a r gue t h a t i n r e g ion s w he r e t ime s t r e s s i s af a c to r ( whe r e r e sou r ce s a r e a u toco r r e la ted ) , t o o l s a r e c on s t ruc ted t o i n su r e as u cce s sf u l p rocu r emen to ft h ec r i t ica lr e sou r ce d u r ing i t ss ho r tp e r iod o f a va i lab i l i ty . T hu s , s p ec if i c t o o l s a r e m anuf a c tu red a head o f t ime ( g ea r ed u p ) a nd s t o r ed ( c u ra t ed ) f o r t h e t i me o f p rocu r emen t . When t ime s t r e s s i sn o t af a c to r ,t o o l sn eed n o t b e m anuf a c tu red a head o ft i me ( t hu s n o g ea r ing u p ) a nd a r e g ene ra l ly d i sca rded a f t e r u s e ( i . e . , e xped ien t u se o ft o o l s , n o c u ra t ion ) .

C on s id e r a t ion so fS ca le F o rt h e p r e sen t s t udy Ih ave c ho sen al a rg e s p a t ia l s c a le f o r a na ly s i s( s e eC hap te r 1 ;C la rke 1 979 ) . I n te r e s ti nl a rge s c a le i st h eo u tg row th o fs e t t lemen ta nd c ommun i ty p a t te rn s t ud ie s ( e .g . , W i l ley 1 956 ) , w h ich h ad t h e i ro r ig in " a t as em ina r o n t h e f u n c t iona l a nd e vo lu t iona ry i mp l ica t ion s o f s u ch p a t te rn ing h e ld u nde rt h ec ha i rman sh ip o fR icha rd B ea rd s ley i n 1 955 ( Bea rd s ley e ta l . 1 955 ) " ( T r igg e r 1 989 :286 ) . T he w e s te rn B la ck H i l ls a r e s pa t ia l ly b r oad e nough t oe ncompa s s t h e e n t i r e a nnua l s e t t lemen t r ound a nd t h u s a l e l emen t s o f f o rage r t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion . I n f a c t , t h e s t udy a r ea m ay e ncompa s s a nnua l r ound s o fs e ve r a l r e s iden t ia l o r l o ca l g roups ( F igu r e 3 . 1 , a l so s e e F i gu re 7 . 2 ) . T he s i gn if i cance o f l a rg e s c a le ( r eg iona l o r a nnua l r o und ) a na ly se s i s w e l l e s tab l i shed i n a n th ropo logy a nd a r cheo logy a nd t h i s a na ly t ica l s c a le h a s p roven a u s ef u l f o r i n te rp r e t ing p r eh i s to ry i n m any a r ea s o f t h e w o r ld ( Campbe l l 1 968 ; J ohn son 1 9 77 ; Wob s t 1 976 ) . H ow eve r , d e ta i led , c on t iguou s d a ta h a s r a r e ly b een a va i lab le t o s t udy l a rge r e g iona l l a nd scap e s . R a the r , t h e u sua l m e thod h ad b een t o r e ly o n

B leed ( 1 986 )u s e ss im i la rl o g ic t oe xp la in t o o l d e s ign . When t ime s t r e s s ( r i sk ) i si n vo lved i np rocu remen t , B leed ( 1 986 ) a r gue s t h a t t o o l s a r e d e s igned f o r r e l iab i l i ty t h a t i st oe n su r e s u cce s s i n p rocu r emen t . O n t h e o t he r h and , i n s i tua t ion s w i thou t t i me s t r e s s , t o o l d e s ig n s e n su re e a sy t o o l k i t m a in t enance . 1 9

B inf o rd 1 962 :2 19 ) . H ow d oe s t i me s t re s s a f f ec t t h e p roduc t ion a nd h ow d oe sp roduc t ion v a ry w i th t ime s t r e s s?

T he r e a r e s e ve ra l p o ten t ia l p rob lem s w i th a r gumen t s b a sed o n r i sk . F i r s t , d e sp i te s ome o f T o r r ence ' s ( 1989 :65 ) b r ief c ommen t s t o t h e c on t ra ry , h e r a r gumen t s a r e l a rg e ly d e s igned t o d ea l w i th p rocu r emen t t o o l s , y e t much o f o u r a r cheo log ica l r e co rd ( p robab ly t h e w o r ld o ve r ) , e spec ia l ly t h e r ema in s o fc h ipped s t one , i sc ompo sed o fm anuf a c tu r ing t o o l s ( o r t o o l s t om ake t o o l s ; e . g . , H ayden 1 978 ) . S econd , h e r a r gumen t s i mp l ic i t ly o r e xp l ic i t ly d i cho tom iz e a n ima l s ( a t l e a s t l a rg e h e rb ivo r e s ) a nd p l an t s . T ha t i s , t h e l o g ic a s sume st h a t l a rge p r ey s pec ie sa r et h er e sou r ce s c r ea t ing t h e r i sk ( t ime s t r e s s ) s i tua t ion b ecau se t h ey a r e mob i le , w h i le p l an t sa r e s t a t iona ry a nd c an b eg a the r ed a ta ny t ime ( J och im 1 976 ; T o r r ence 1 989 :59 ; c f . I n go Id 1 987 ) . T hu s , t ime s t r e s s a r gumen t s a r e g ene ra l ly a pp l ied t o i n ve s t iga te a n ima l p rocu remen tt e chno logy ( e .g . , B leed 1 9 86 ; Mye r s 1 989 ) a nd n o t p l an t p ro cu remen t . E xcep t i n c e r ta in e x t reme e nv i ronmen t s ( e .g . , n o r the rn l a t i tude w i th l a rge h e rd m ig ra t ion s ) , t h e p rocu r emen t o f many p l an t s i sj u s t a s t ime s t re s sed a st h e p rocu r emen t o f mo s t a n ima l s , i fn o t mo r e s o . T ha t i s , m any p l an t s pec ie s mu s t b e h a rve s ted s ho r t ly a f t e r m a tu ra t ion f o r an umbe r o fr e a son s ( r o t , c ompe t i t ion f r om o t he r s pec ie s , e t c . ) . T hu s , t o o l s t o p r ocu r e p l an t s mu s t b e a va i lab le a tt h e t ime t h e r e sou rce i sr e ady t o p rocu r e , a nd m anuf a c tu r ing a n a r rowhead i s n o l e s s c onven ien t t h an m anuf a c tu r ing a b a ske t i f o ne i s p u shed f o r t ime ! C on sequen t ly , Ib r ie f ly r e o rgan iz e t h e t ime s t re s s ( r i sk ) a r gumen t i no rd e rt od ea l w i th p l an t s a sw e l l a sa n ima l s a nd i no rde r t od ea l w i th m anuf a c tu r ing a nd m a in tenance t o o l s , t h eb u lk o fo u ra r cheo log ica l s amp le .

P roduc t ion o c cu r s d u r ing p e r iod s o f t i me o t he r t h an t h a t w hen e ngag ed i n s ub s i s t ence a c t iv i t ie s , w hen t h e r e i sn o p r e s su r e t o p r ocu r e f ood r e sou rce s ( " down t ime " o r " dead t i me" w i th r e spec t t o s ub s i s tence ; B inf o rd 1 979 ; G ou ld 1 980 :14 ; K e l ly 1 985 :148 ; L ee 1 979a :456 ) . T hu s , m anuf a c tu r ing t o o l s a r e l a rge ly i n f o rma t ive a bou t t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fd own t ime i nt h e s e t t lemen t s y s t em . H ow i s d own t ime d i s t r ibu t ed t h roughou t t h e s y s tem? Among l o g i s t ica l ly o r gan iz ed g roup s , d own t i me t e nd s t o b e c oncen t ra ted i ns e a son w hen t h e g roup d epend s o n s t o r ed r e sou r ce s ( e .g . , t h e c l o the s s ew ing s e a son , D ama s 1 9 72 : 13 ) . Among r e s id en t ia l ly o rgan ized g roup s d own t ime i ss p r ead o u t t empo ra l ly t h roughou t t h e y ea r a nd s pa t ia l ly o v e r t h e s e a sona lt e r r i to ry . A na ly t ica l C on s id e ra t ion s T echno log ica l A t t r ibu te s o f t h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s . T echno log ica l a t t r ibu te s a r e c ommon ly e xp re s sed t h rough a r t if a c t t y po log ie s ( e .g . , B o rde s 1 96 1) o r t h rough s p ec if ic c h a ra c t e r i s t ic s( a t t r ibu te s ) o fa r t if a c t s ( e .g . , S pau ld ing 1 960 ) . I nt h e f o rme r s e n se , p r e sen ce , a b sence , a b so lu t e f r equency , p ropo r t ion s o rd i s t r ibu t ion s o fa r t if a c t c l a s se s a r e a tr ibu te s a nd v a r iab le so ft h et e chno log ica l s y s t em . I nt h e l a t t e rs e n se , s p ec if i c c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f a r t if a c t s , s u ch a s l e ng th s , e dge a ng le s , e dge s h ape s , p l a tf o rm c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , a nd s oo n a r e a t t r ibu te s o f t h e t e chno log ica l s y s tem . Iu s e t h e f o rme r a t t r ibu te s ( s e e A ppend ix C a nd D ) i n t h e p r e sen t i n ve s t iga t ion b e cau se a r t if a c t t y po log ie s a r e t h e o n ly t e chno log ica l a t r ibu te a va i lab le i nt h e s t a t e a r ch iv e s , s o u r ce o f t h e d a ta f o r t h i s s t udy (Wyom ing S t a te H i s to r ic P r e se rva t ion C u l tu ra l R eco rd sO ff ice ) .

P r ey Mob i l i ty a nd T oo l st o Make T oo l s : AR ef o rmu la t ion o f t h eP rob lem A sf a ra sr i sk o rt ime s t re s si sc once rned ,p r ey mob i l i ty i sn o t a n i s sue , o rr a the r mob i l i ty i si ne f f ec t ac r ude m ea su r eo ft h e a moun t o f t i me d u r ing w h ich a r e sou r ce c an b e p rocu red b ef o r e i ti sn o l o ng e r a va i lab le . Mob i le p r ey a r e n o mo r e r e s t r ic ted i n t h e t ime t h a t t h ey a r e a va i lab le ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fm ig ra t ing h e rd s , e . g . , c a r ibou ) t h an l e s s mob i le o r i mmob i le p r ey ( p lan t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s ) . A s i n d ica ted a bove mo s tp l an t s m u s tb e c o l lec ted w i th in as ho r t p e r iod o f m a tu ra t ion , w h i le l a rge a n ima l c an b e t r a cked e ven i ft h e a n ima l f l ee s f r om t h e i n i t ia l e ncoun te r . T hu s , p l an t s c au se t ime s t re s s , r a the r t h an mob i le p r ey ( a t l e a s t t h e l a rge n on b i son a n ima l so ft h e P l a in s ; h ow b i son f i ti nt h i s i s ad if i cu l t q ue s t ion b ecau s e o f t h e c on t rove r sy s u r round ing b i son h e rd ing h ab i t s , s e ec ommen t sb e low ) .

A r t if a c t T ypo logy a nd A r t if ac t A t t r ibu t e s . T he a r t if a c t c l a s s if ica t ion a dap t ed f o r t h i s s t udy c on s i s t s o f t h e a r t if ac t t y pe s c ommon ly r e cogn iz ed i n t h e N o r the r n P l a in s a r cheo log ica l a na ly se s ( e .g . , F r ison 1 991 ; F r i son a nd Ma inf o r t 1 996 ; Mu l loy 1 9 58 ; R eeve s 1 983 ) o r s l igh t ly m od if ied f r om s u ch a na ly se s( Tab le 3 . 2 ) . A l though a r t if a c t s , s u ch a se nd s c r ape r s , l i ke ly h ave as pec if i c f u nc t ion a nd m o s t r e sea r che r s i d en t if y t h em c on s is ten t ly ( e .g . , F r ison 1 9 87 ; H onnea 1 965 ; R eeve s 1 983 ) , t h e t y po log ica l s c heme m ixe s m o rpho log ica l ( p e rhap s i n c lud ing s t y l i s t ic ) a nd f u n c t iona l c a tego r ie s ( T r a t eba s 1 985 ) . M ix ing o f m o rpho logy a nd f u nc t ion d i s t r a c t s s omewha t f r om t h e u t i l i ty o f t h e c l a s s if ica t ion s y s tem i n i n te rp r e t ing t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion ,h oweve r ,t h ea c ce s s ib i l i ty o ft h e d a ta m o r et h an m ake su pf o rt h i ss ho r t com ing . I no t he rw o rd s ,t h ed a ta f r om al a rg e n umb e r o f s i te s i sr e ad i ly a va i lab le i n t h e S t a t e H i s to r ic P r e se r va t ion O ff i ce F i le s ( Wyom ing S HPO ) a nd w a sc od ed o n to t h ec ompu t e rd i rec t ly f r om t h er e co rd s .

I n co rpo ra t ing t i me s t re s s i n to u nde r s tand ing manuf a c tu r ing t o o l v a r iab i l i ty i s mo r e d if i cu l t , b u tp e rhap s m o re i mpo r tan t f o r m ak ing i n f e r ence s f r om t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd i nt h e P l a in s a nd e l sewhe r e . L ee ( 1 979a :272 -277 ) h a s d ocumen ted t h a t f o rag e r s s p end a g r ea t d ea l o f t i me i n m anuf a c tu r ing a c t iv i t ie s . A l though p rocu r emen tt o o l sa r eo n ly o ne i t em t h a t i sm anuf a c tu r ed , a l l manuf a c tu r ed i t em s c an b e g rouped u nde r t h e b road c a tegor y o f t o o l s . I n o t he r w o rd s , g if t s p roduced f o r t r ad ing p a r tne r s ( o rnamen t s , e t c . ) a r e s oc ia l t o o l s i n as e n se t h a t t h ey a i d i n s u rv iva l b y c r ea t ing o b l iga t ion s , n e two rk s , e t c . ( s oc ia l s t o rage , s e e R ow ley C onwy a nd Z ve leb i l 1 989 :50 , o r s o c io t echn ic a r t if a c t s s e e

A C on s ide ra t ion o f A r t if a c t T aphonomy . A c t iv i t ie s a r e c ommon ly i n t e rp r e t ed f r om a r t if a c t s a t f i nd l o ca t ion s . H oweve r , s u ch i n t e rp re ta t ion s a r e b a s ed o n q ue s t ionab le a s sump t ion s . T aphonom ic p r oce s se sa f ec ta r t if a c tc l a s se s i n d if e r en t w ay s . E xped ien t t oo l s a r e , b y d ef in i t ion , m anuf a c tu r ed , u s ed a nd d i sca rded " a tt h es ame l o ca t ion , "a nd 2 0

T ab le 3 . 2 C ommon a r t if a c tt y p e s f ound i nN o r thwe s t P l a in sa r ch eo log ica lc o l lec t ion s .

p o t en t ia l ly a l t o o l s , r e ga rd le s s o f t h e l a bo r i n ve s t ed i n m anuf a c tu r ing ,m ay b ec u ra ted .

C h ipp ed S t one D eb i tage P r ima ry " l a rg e "w i th c o r t ex S econda ry " l a rg e "w i th l e s sc o r tex T e r t ia ry " l a rge "w i th n oc o r t ex R e touch " sma l l " ,g ene ra l ly n oc o r tex U t i l iz ed i t em s( g ene ra l ly f l ak e s ,b u tn on -f lake sc an b eu t i l ized a sw e l l , i . e . ,c hunk s ,s ha t te r ) R e touched i t em s( g ene ra l ly f l ak e s ,b u tn on -f lake s c a nb er e touched a sw e l l , i . e . ,c hunk s , s ha t te r ) S poke shave ( no t che s ) G r ave r( s pu r s ) S c rape r S ide E nd V a r iou sc omb ina t ion s B i f a ce C o r e C hoppe r P r o jec t i le p o in t G round S t one M ano ( hand s t one ) M e ta te ( g r ind ing s l ab ) P a le t t e S haf ts moo the r B ead P eck ed s t one H amme r s tone M ano p ecke r B one Aw l N eed le B ead S he l l B ead

O the rt o o l c ha ra c te r is t ic s , s p ec if i ca l ly u s e l i f e a nd p o r tab i l i ty a l so a f ec t f i nd l o ca t ion s . U se l i f e i n co rpo ra te s s e v e ra l a spec t s o f t o o l t r a jec to ry , i n c lud ing b r eakag e , r emanuf a c tu r ing a nd d i sca rd . F o r e xamp le , i fw e a s sume t h a t t o o l s a r e m o r e l i k e ly t ob r eak d u r ing u se , t h en , u n le s s t h ey c an b e r e cyc led i n to o t he r p roduc t s , t o o l s w i l l b e d i sca rd ed a tt h e l a s t u s e l o ca t ion ( a s sum ing t h ey w e r e n o t b roken i nt r an spo r t ) . D i sca rd a tt h e l a s tu se l o ca t ion i sl i ke ly a l so t h e c a se w i th p o t te ry ; r e ga rd le s s o f w he r e t h e p o t t e ry w a sm anuf a c tu red , a nd r e ga rd le s sw he the ri tw a sc u ra t ed ,t h e f i nd l o ca t ion ( i fb roken ,w h ich i st h ec a se w i th m o s t i fn o ta l p o t te ry f r om t h e w e s t e rn B la ck H i l l s ) s hou ld c o r r e la t e w i th t h e l a s t u s e a nd d i sca rd l o ca t ion . R emanuf ac tu r ing o fs t one t o o l s i s a c omp lex p roce s s , e s pec ia l ly w hen e dg e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a r e c on s ide r ed , w h ich a r e e xpec ted t oc hang e t h rough at o o l 's l i f e( e .g . , D ibb le 1 987 ; F r ison 1 968b ;J e l inek 1 976 ) . R emanuf ac tu r ing c an c omp le te ly c hang e at o o l ' s t r a jec to ry , p o s tpon ing d i sca rd a nd a f ec t ing f i nd l o ca t ion u n t i lr emanuf a c tu r ing i sn ol o nge rd e s i rab le . P o r tab i l i ty i sr e la ted t ot a phonomy d if e ren t ly . F o rage r s a r e l i m i ted i n h ow much t h ey c an m ove b e tween o ccup ied l o ca t ion s ( e .g . , b a se c amp a nd b a se c amp o r b a se c amp a nd e x t ra c t ive l o ca t ion ) . T hu s , a ny h eavy o b jec t s n ece s sa ry f o r p rocu r emen t , p roce s s ing o rm anuf a c tu r ing w i l l b e s t o r ed f o r f u tu r e u s e i ft h e f u tu r e u s e o f al o ca t ion c an b e a n t ic ipa t ed ( s i te f u rn i tu r e s en su B inf o rd 1 979 :263 -264 ) . T he m a in h eavy o b jec t s i nt h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s a nd e l sewhe r e a r e g round s t one t o o l s , w h ich c an b ee xpec ted t oh ave b een u s ed , c a ched , r e u sed , a nd d i sca rded ( i f n o t s t i l l i n s t o rag e ) i n r e cu r r en tu s el o ca t ion s . S pa t ia lD i s t r ibu t ion s S pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd a s soc ia t ion s o f t o o l s a nd m anuf a c tu r ing b y -p rodu c t s a r e r e levan t a t t r ibu t e s o f t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion ( Ke l ly 1 985 , 1 988 ) . A n u nde r s tand ing o f t e chno logy i s a r r ived a t t h rough t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r t if a c t c l a s se s a t a m a c ro sca le . T he a na ly s i so fs pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion so fs i t e sa nd a r t if a c t s a t b o th m a c ro - a nd m ic ro sca le s , i s s t anda rd a r cheo log ica l p rocedu r e a s s e en i n t h e wo rk s o f C la rk e ( 1 979 ) a nd m o r e r e cen t ly H ie ta la ( 1 984 ) , C am i l l i ( 1 983 , 1 989 ) , C am i l l i a nd E be r t( 1992 ) , K ro l l a nd P r ice ( 1 99 1) a nd o t he r s . H ow eve r , t h e a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s a nd t h e m ean ing i mpa r t ed t od i s t r ibu t ion s a nd s c a le s o fp a t te rn ing a r e b y n o m ean s s imp le o r s t ra igh tf o rwa rd . A cco rd ing t oC la rk e , t h e mo s t e xp l ic i t s pa t ia l t h eo r ie s i n a r cheo logy a r e e conom ic w i th g eog raph ic s ub theo r ie s ( C la rke 1 979 :476 ) . T he p rob lem i s t h a t t h e u nde r ly ing ( e conom ic ) t h eo r ie s a r e i d ea l iz ed a nd d i s rega rd c u l tu ra l ly c ond i t ioned n on -econom ic f a c to r s ( C la rke 1 979 :470 ; c f . B e t t inge r 1 99 1 : 105 111) . G eog raph ica l s pa t ia l t h eo r ie s a r e b a sed o n m od e l s o f o p t im iza t ion f r om i n du s t r ia l s o c ie t ie s ( C la rke 1 979 :477 ) . C la rk e a nd o t he r s c onc lude t h a t a r cheo log is t s h ave t ob u i ld t h e i r o wn s p a t ia l t h eo r ie s , a nd , i n f a c t , t h e t h eo r ie s o f f o rag ing s o c ie t ie sr e v iewed a bove h ave s pa t ia l i mp l ica t ion s .

P o t t e ry ( s eve ra lt yp e s ) p r e sumab ly w i th in ar e la t ive ly s ho r t s pan o ft ime . C u ra ted t o o l s , o n t h e o t he r h and , r ema in i nt h e t e chno log ica l s y s tem f o r s om e t i me , a nd t h u s t h e m anuf a c tu r ing , u s e a nd d i sca rd l o ca t ion s a r e l i ke ly n o t " i somo rph ic " ( B inf o rd 1 977 :34 ) . I d en t if i ca t ion o f c u ra ted i t em s , h oweve r , i s ac omp lex p rob lem . A na ly s t s c ommon ly a s sume t h a t c h ipped s t one t o o l s w i th g r ea te r l a bo r i n ve s tmen t a r e c u ra ted , w h i le t h o se w i th l i t t le i n ve s tmen t a r e e xped ien t ( c f . L a r son 1 990 :109 ) . B a s ing i d en t if i ca t ion o f c u ra t ion o n l a bo r i n ve s tmen t n o t o n ly i g no re s t h e d ef in i t ion o f c u ra t ion ( B inf o rd 1 977 :34 ) , b u t i g no re st h e f u tu r e u t i l i ty o f at o o l . I ti st h e a n t ic ipa t ed u t i l i ty o f at o o l w h ich c ond i t ion s i t s c u ra t ion s t a tu s , r a the r t h an i t s m anuf a c tu r ing p roce s s ( e .g . , L a r son 1 990 :23 1) . F o r e xamp l e , af l ake u s ed i n b u t che r ing m ay b e c a r r ied f o r m on th s u n t i l i ti sn o l o ng e r u s ef u l . H oweve r , t o m any a r ch eo log i s t s mo rpho logy b e l ie s e xped iency . A s u s e c an b e a n t ic ipa t ed f o r a l l c l a s se s o ft o o l s , It h e r ef o r e a s sume t h a t 2 1

T he o rgan iza t ion o fs ub s i s tence s t ra t eg ie sb a sed o nt h eu se o f p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s h a s i mp l ica t ion s f o r t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion a t t h e r eg iona l s c a le . A cco rd ing t o C la rke ( 1979 :467 ) , o ne m ay a n t ic ipa te o r s e a r ch f o r s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween a r t if ac t s a nd a r t if ac t s ( AA ) a nd a r t if a c t s a nd r e sou r ce s ( AR ) . T o a c cep t t h e p r e sen t h ypo the s i s , s u ch r e la t ion sh ip s mu s t d emon s t ra t e t h e h igh l e ve l o fd ependence o n p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s i n P l a in s d i e t s . S pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween a r t if a c t s a nd b e tween a r t if a c t s a nd r e sou r ce s p rov ide i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion a nd c on sequen t ly f o rm t h e b a s i s f o rt h ep r e sen ts t udy . S umma ry T h i s c hap te r b egan w i th a r e v iew o f t wo l o ng e s tab l i shed t h eo r e t ica l a pp roa che s e xp la in ing h un te r -ga the r e rv a r iab i l i ty . O ne a pp roa ch f o cu se so nf o rage r sn ece s s i ty o ff i nd ing m a te s , w h i le t h e o t he r e mpha s iz e s t h e i r n eed t o m ake a l i v ing o r s ub s i s tence e conomy . I n b o th a pp roa che s f o rag e r v a r ia t ion i sa r gued t o b e c ond i t ioned b y r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e , w h ich v a r ie s t h rough t ime a nd s pa ce . C on sequen t ly , e co log ica l z one s ( e cozone s ) p rov ide f o r d if e r en t ia l r e sou r ce p o s s ib i l i t ie s a nd c ond i t ion t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e e nv i ronmen t . B a sed o n t h i s , Ia r gu ed t h a t , a sa l t empe ra te e nv i ronmen t s , t h e N o r thwe s t P l a in s a r e s e a sona l h ence t h ey p rov ide u neven t empo ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou r ce s . A long w i th t h e p a tchy n a tu re o ft h e e nv i ronmen t , t h e s e a sona l i ty e f ec t sp r ed ic tab i l i ty o fr e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty . T he r e la t ion o f r e sou r ce p r ed ic tab i l i ty a nd o rgan iza t ion ( s oc ia l s t ra teg ie s ) i s m ed ia ted b yt e chno logy . It h an r e v iewed s e ve ra l c oncep t s l i nk ing h un t e r -ga the re r t e chno logy t or e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e , n ame ly t ime s t r e s s a nd r i sk m anag emen t a nd f o und t h e se a rgumen t s t o b e c once rned w i th p rocu r emen t t o o l s , w h i le t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i s l a rg e ly c ompo sed o f m anuf ac tu r ing t o o l s . T o l i nk m anuf a c tu r ing t o o l s t o r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e , Ir e f o rmu la te t h e p rob lem , b u t k eep t ime s t r e s s a nd r i sk a s c ond i t ion ing v a r iab le s . Ia r gued t h a t t o o l s t o m ak e t o o l s p rov ide i n f o rma t ion o n d own t ime o r t h e t i me w hen s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s a r e n o t o ccu r r ing . T hu s i n as pa t ia l s e nse t h e q ue s t ion s o f i n te r e s t t o m y s t udy c once rn t h e l o ca t ion o f d own t ime o nt h el a nd scap ea nd i nr e la t ion t oo t he ra c t iv i t ie s .

2 2

CHAPTER 4

THE WESTERN BLACK H ILLS : ENV IRON MENTAL CONTEXT

T here a r et i mber i s land sc rown ing t h em oun ta in st h a tr i se a bov et h ep la in . T h e B lack H i l l sa r ea ne xamp l e . T he l e v e ll a nd i sb ar r en a nd t r ee l e s s , at r ue p la in ( W ebb 1 931 :28 )

T he e nv i ronmen t c on s is t s o f t ho se t h ing s c r ea ted b y t h e f o rces o f n a tu re ( i nc lud ing h uman s ) , b u t t h e ef ec t ive

H o locene p e r iod w h ich c or re spond s t o mos t o f t h e s u rf ace a r cheo logy d i scussed i nc hap te r s 6a nd 7 .

e nv i ronmen t f o r h uman s i st h e s ub se t o f s u ch t h ing s w i th w h ich h umans i n terac t a nd wh ich t h ey u sua l ly mod if y ( E l len 1 982 :14 ) . T he ef ec t ive h uman e nv i ronmen t i s t hu s a

T he G rea tP la in s

c u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t . C ha rac ter is t ics o f t h e e nv i ronmen t a r e c r uc ia l c omponen t s o fa r cheo log ica l s t ud ies f o r a tl e a s t t h ree r e a son s . F i r s t , t he e nv i ronmen t f o rm s ap a r t o ft h e c on tex t f o r t h e i n d iv idua l a nd g roup b ehav io r . S econd , t h e

T he g ene ra l c a r ica tu re o ft h e G rea t P la ins o f Nor th Ame r ica i s av a s t e xpanse o fg en t ly r o l l ing l a nd scapes e x tend ing f o r h und red s o f m i les i n a l l d i rec t ions . Wa l te r P resco t t Webb ( 1931 :7 )d escr ibes t h ep la ins e nv ironmen ta s " . .cha rac te r ized

a r cheo log ica l r eco rd i s c r ea ted t h rough n ume rous g eomorph ic a nd o the r p rocesses a nd u nde r s tand ing t h ese p roces se s a i d s i nt he i n terp re ta t ion o ft h e p a s t . T h ird , mo s t e nv ironmen ta l p rocesses a r e t r aceab le t h rough i n dependen t d a ta s e t s f r om t hose t r ack ing t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd . I n t h i s c hap te r Ip resen t a spec t s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t t h a t a r e e xpec ted t o b e mos t r e levan t f o r h uman f o rag ing s t ra teg ies o n t h e P l a ins . T hese c ons t i tu te a tl e a s t ap a r t o ft h e h uman e f ec t ive e nv i ronmen t , a nd i n c lude r eg iona l g eo log ica l f e a tu res ,d ra inage b as in s , v ege ta t ion , a nd c l ima te .

b y ap l ane , o r l e ve l , s u rf ace , i st r ee less , a nd i ss ub -hum id ." T hese l a ndscapes a r e c ove red w i th h omogeneous g ra ss land s g razed b y h uge h e rd s o fl a rge h e rb ivo res . W i l ley ( 1966 :311) s t a te s : T er ra in t h roughou t t h e r eg ion i s a lmos t u n if orm ly f l a t , w i th e l eva t ion g ene ra l ly r i s ing g radua l ly f r om e a s t t o w es t . T a l l p ra i r ie g ra sses c ove r t h e e a s ter n p a r t o ft h e P la in s , a nd h e re t h e r i ve r v a l leys , w h ich f l ow s ou th a nd e a s t i n to t h e M iss iss ipp i s ys tem , a r e w ooded . T o t h e w es t t h e p ra ir ie g ra sses g ive w ay t o t h e s ho r te r p la in s g ra s ses , a nd r a inf a l l b ecomes p rog ress ive ly l e ss . N a tu ra l f ood r e sou rces w ere l e ss v a r ied o n t h e P l a ins t h an i nt h e E a s tern Wood land s , b u t t h e l a ck o fv a r ie ty w a s c ompensa ted f o r b y t h e q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o f t h e b ig h e rd a n ima ls o f t h e g ra ss lands . . .

A l though a l l e a r th s c iences c an b e u sed t o c ha rac te r ize t h e e nv ironmen t , g eo logy , g eog raphy , a nd c l ima to logy p rov ide t h e mos tr e levan t i n f orma t ion f o ra na lyz ing t h e a r cheo log ica l r e cord ( e .g . , B u tze r 1 982 ; D incauze 1 987 :256 , 2 000 ) . G eo logy f o rm s t he b a s ic s ubs t ra te o n w h ich l i v ing t h ings , i n c lud ing h umans , l i ve . A long w i th a f f ec t ing g eog raph ic a nd c l ima to log ica l p rocesse s , g eo log ic f e a tu res d i rec t ly e f f ec t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c er ta in r e sou rces , s u ch a s r aw ma te r ia l f o r c h ipped s t one p roduc t ion . G eomo rph ic p roces se s s uch a s s o i l f o rma t ion a nd v ege ta t ion h ave i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e s ubs is tence r e sou rces a va i lab le t o h uman p opu la t ions , a s w e l l a s f o r t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd . C l ima to log ica l p rocesses l i kew ise a f ec t t h e s ea sona l a nd l o nge r t e rm d i s t r ibu t ion a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f s ub s is tence r e sou rce s , e spec ia l ly i n a r id e nv ironmen t s , a s w e l l a s t h e f o rma t ion o ft h e a rcheo log ica l r e co rd .

Mo re r e cen t ly t h e P la ins a r e d e scr ibed a s c ons is t ing o f a " . .mono tonou s u n if orm i ty i n t opog raphy , f l o ra , a nd f a una t h roughou t t h e r eg ion , f a c to r s t h a t d o i n deed s e t i ta pa r t f r om t h e r e s t o f Nor th Ame r ica . . ." ( Bamfor th 1 988 :3) . S uch a p i c tu re t yp if ies e a r ly d esc r ip t ions o f many p la ins a r ea s t h roughou t t h e wo r ld ( e .g . , t h e Nor th Ame r ican P la ins , e a s t

I n t h e f o l low ing c hap te r r eg iona l e co log ica l a nd b o tan ica l s t ud ies , a s w e l l a s s pec if ic b io log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ics o f t h e

A f r ican P la ins , o r t h e v a s t R u ss ian P l a in ) . T he " P la ins " , h oweve r , a r e a mo re c omp lex a nd d iver se e n t i ty t h an t h is s imp le p i c tu re s ugges t s .

b io ta , f o rm t h e b as is f o r ad i scu ss ion f o r f o rag ing r e sou rce s t ruc tu r e o ft h e w es te rn B lack H i l ls . I nt h e p r esen t c hap te r , t h e b a s ic e nv i ronmen ta l c on tex t i s a dd re s sed . A l though n ume rou s c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion s o ccu r red i n t h e P la ins t h roughou t p reh is to ry ( Ba rnosk i 1 989 ; B e i sw inge r 1 987 ;

A l though v a s t g ra s s land s c ove r t h e Nor th Ame r ican P la ins , t h e r eg ion i n c ludes a v a r ie ty o f o the r b io topes ( She lf o rd 1 963 ) . Ma jo r r i ve r v a l ley s d i ssec t t h e P la ins a t i regu la r i n terva ls ( F igu re 4 . 1) , p re sen t ing r i pa r ian a nd a s soc ia ted v ege ta t ion c ommun i t ies , s ome t imes d ozen s o f m i les i n w id th . C on t ra ry t o W i l ley ' s s t a temen t a bove , s uch w ooded d ra inages a r e a s much ap a r t o ft h e w es tern a s o ft h e e a s ter n P l a ins . S ome o f t h e b e s t k nown r i ver s a r e t h e A rkan sa s , Smokey H i l l , R epub l ican , P l a t te , N iob ra ra , C heyenne ,

L ew is 1 985 , R e ide r 1 985 , 1 989 ) , n o c hange s i nc ommun i ty c ons t i tuen t s a r e d ocumen ted i nt h e p o l len r e co rd ( Cumm ing s 1 994 ; Ma rkg raf a nd L ennon 1 986 ) , f auna (Wa lke r 1 987 ) , a nd o t he r e nv i ronmen ta l ly s en s i t ive b io ta t h roughou t t h e H o locene , e ven d u r ing t h e A l t i therma l . I n f a c t , Ma rkg raf a nd L ennon ( 1986 ) a rgue f o r b a s ica l ly t h e s ame c l ima t ic r eg ime f o r a pp rox ima te ly 1 3 ,000 y ea r s i n p or t ion s o f t h e w es tern G rea t P la ins . C onsequen t ly , modern b i ogeog raph ic

Wh i te , L i t t le M issou r i , Y e l low s tone a nd M issou r i . H oweve r , i n nume rab le s ma l l f e ede r s t reams p rov ide s im i la r e co log ica l d i ve r s i ty . I n a dd i t ion , a n umbe r o f u p land a r ea s a r e i n te r spe r sed t h roughou t t h e P l a in s e i the r j u t t ing i n to t h e

s t ud ies c an b e u sed a s a n a pp rox ima t ion o f p a s t e nv i ronmen t s a nd h ence r e sou rce s , e spec ia l ly f o r t h e l a te r

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T he N or th Ame r ican G rea tP la ins s how ing ma jo re co log ica l f e a tu re s .

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r a nge s ( Thor nbu ry 1 965 ) . T he B la ck H i l l s a r e p e rhap s t h e b e s tk nown ,b u t Me sa d e Maya i nn o r thea s t er nN ew Mex ico , t h e H o lco lm H i l l s i n C o lo rado , s e ve ra l u p land s o f n o r thea s t er n C o lo rado a nd s ou thea s te rn Wyom ing , t h e S mokey H i l l s o f K an sa s , C yp r e s s H i l l s o f S a ska tchewan , P i ne R idg e i nN eb r a ska a nd S ou th D ako ta , s e ve ra l u p land s o n t h e Mon tana -Dako ta b o rde r , a nd t h e P i ne B r eak s i n s ou ther n M on tana p rov ide i mpo r ta n t e co log ica l d i ve r s i ty w i th in t h e P l a in s . A l l t h e se u p land s a r e c ove r ed , a l be i t t oa d if e ren t e x t en t , w i th w ood land v ege ta t ion c ommun i t ie s . F i na l ly , t h e P l a in s i n c lude c e r ta in b r oad a r ea s w i th d i s t inc t v ege ta t ion a nd a s soc ia ted r e sou r ce s , s u ch a s t h e N eb ra ska S and H i l l s ( B leed a nd F lowe rday 1 998 ; S he lf o rd 1 963 ) . A l though t h e se f e a tu r e s v a ry i n s h ap e a nd s i ze , t h ey c on t r ibu t ea ne l emen to fc omp lex i ty a nd e co log ica l d i ve r s i ty a t as c a le o f d ozen s o f k i lome t e r s o r l e s s , as c a le q u i te r e levan tt oh uman f o rage r s .

R eg iona lG eo log ic F ea tu r e s G eo log ic f e a tu r e s p a r t ia l ly c on t ro l s o i ls a nd u l t ima te ly p l an t a nd a n ima lr e sou r ce s , i na dd i t ion t od e te rm in ing t h e l o ca t ion o f t o o l s t one o u t c rop s . T he w e s te rn B lack H i l l s a r e c ha ra c t e r iz ed b y av e ry c omp lex b ed rock g eo logy w i th n ea r ly e ve ry m a jo rg eo log ic e r as pann ing mo r et h an ab i l l ion y ea r s r e p r e sen ted ( B rown 1 970 :8 ) . T he B la ck H i l ls u p l if t , a d omed a n t ic l ine c en te r ed i n w e s ter n S ou th D ako ta , d e te rm ine s t h e b ed rock g eo logy o f n o r thea s t Wyom ing ( F enneman 1 931) . T he n o r thwe s ter np o r t ion o ft h e e l ip t ica l s h aped B la ck H i l l s c ove r s t h e e n t i r e n o r thea s ter n p o r t ion o f t h e s t udy a r ea . P a leozo ic , Me sozo ic , a nd C enozo ic e r a d epo s i t s a r e p r e sen t i nn o r thea s t Wyom ing , w i th Me sozo ic p r edom ina t ing . S eve ra l g eo log ic f o rma t ion s f r om t h e se e r a s p roduce s t one r e sou rce s r e levan t t o t h e p r eh is to r ic p opu la t ion ' s t e chno logy ( e .g . , C hu r ch 1 990 , 1 994 ; M i l le r 1 99 1 ;T ra t eba s 1 985 ) .

T he We s t e r nB lack H i l l s T he P a leozo ic E r a , M i s s i s s ipp ian , P enn sy lvan ian , a nd P e rm ian a g e f o rma t ion s ( F igu r e 4 . 2 ) c on ta in c he r t s a nd q ua r tz i t e s , w h ich w e r e e xp lo i t ed b y n a t ive p opu la t ion s . M i s s i s s ipp ian a nd P enn sy lvan ian a ge f o rma t ion s o u t c rop a l ong t h es ou ther nb o rde ro ft h es t udy a r ea , w he r es ub s tan t ia l a bo r ig ina l c he r t q ua r r ie s ( p a r t s o f S pan i sh D igg ing s q ua r ry s y s tem , s e eb e low )a r e l o ca ted i nt h e H a r tv i l le , C love r ly , a nd o t he r f o rma t ion s . T he se s ame f o rma t ion s o u tc rop i n ab and s u r round ing t h ec o r eo ft h eB la ck H i l ls , i nt h ee a s ter np o r t ion o f t h e p ro jec t a r ea , a nd t h e se w e r e a l so e xp lo i ted p r eh i s to r ica l ly ( Chu r ch 1 990 , 1 994 ) .

T he w e s t er nB lack H i l l s s t udy a r ea , a sd ef ined h e re , i n c lude s t h e w es t er np o r t ion o ft h e B lack H i l l s a nd t h e G r ea t P l a in s p hy s iog r aph ic p rov ince ( B la ck s tone 1 988 : F igu r e 2 ; F enneman 1 9 31) . T he h i gh P l a in sp o r t ion o ft h eG r ea tP l a in s i sp a r t icu la r ly w e l l d eve loped i nt h e v i c in i ty o fL u sk , a tt h e s ou the rn e dge o f t h e s t udy a r ea g r ad ing i mpe r cep t ib ly e a s twa rd t ot h e N eb r a ska s a ndh i l l s ( B la ck s tone 1 988 :8 ) . T o t h en o r th ,t h eh i gh P la in sh ave b een t r unca t ed b yt h er emova l o f C enozo i c a ge d epo s i t s t h rough h eadwo rd e r o s ion o ft h e C heyenne R ive r a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s , c r ea t ing t h e H a t C r eek B reak s ( w e s twa rd e x t en s ion o ft h e P i ne R idg e ; B la ck s tone 1 988 :8 ) .

T he Me sozo ic E r a f o rma t ion s ( J u ra s s ic a nd C r e ta ceou s a g e ) y i e ld p e rhap s t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t r aw m a te r ia l f o r c h ipped s t one t o o l s i n t h e r e g ion . T he L ako ta a nd F a l l R ive r f o rma t ion s i n t h e B la ck H i l l s U p l if t a nd c o r r e la ted f o rma t ion s i nt h e H a r tv i l le U p l if t , a s w e l l a st h e a s soc ia ted S undance a nd Mo r r i son f o rma t ion s w e r e e xp lo i ted p r eh i s to r ica l ly f o r t o o l s t one . P o r t ion s o f t h e l a rge s t a bo r ig ina l q ua r r ie s i nN o r th Ame r ica , t h e S pan i sh D igg ing s ( e .g . , D o r sey 1 900 ; H o lme s 1 9 19 ; R ehe r 1 99 1) a r e l o ca t ed o n t h e s ou ther n b o rde r o ft h e s t udy a r ea . T he I n yan K a r a g r oup q ua r tz i te s u r round ing t h e B la ck H i l l s w a s a l so e xp lo i ted . T he Mo r r i son f o rma t ion , y i e ld ing s i l ic if i ed s i l t s tone , i sp e rhap st h e mo s tw ide sp read o ft h e r aw m a t e r ia l s ou r ce s , b u t t h e s t one q ua l i ty v a r ie s g r ea t ly f r om o u tc rop t o o u tc rop . Mo r r i son a nd S undance f o rma t ion s a l so o u tc rop i n a n e l ip se a l ong t h e o u te rp e r ime t e r o ft h e B la ck H i l ls u p l if t ( Chu r ch 1 990 , 1 994 ) .

T he s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o fb i o t ic c ommun i t ie s f o rm t h e r e levan t r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e f o r ah uman f o rag ing p opu la t ion . Mode rn p l an t c ommun i t ie s d eve loped b y a bou t 1 3 ,000 b . p . i n t h e P owde r R ive r B a s in ( Ma rkg raf f a nd L ennon 1 9 86 ) , a nd t h e moder n d i s t r ibu t ion o f s ma l l m amma l s a ppea r s b y a t l e a s t 8 000 b . p . i n t h e s ou the rn p o r t ion s o f t h e B la ck H i l l s ( Wa lke r 1 982 ) . Nume rou s s t ud ies s u gg e s t t ha t ar e la t ive ly s t ab le s p a t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f b i o t ic c ommun i t ie s e x i s ted s i nce t h e e nd o ft h e P l e i s tocene a nd c e r ta in ly f r om t h e Med i the rma l ( 5 000 b . p . ) t o t h e p r e sen t . C on sequen t ly t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f moder n v ege ta t ion c ommun i t ie sp rov ide s av i ew o fp a s td i s t r ibu t ion s a nd t hu so ft h es pa t ia ls t ruc tu re o ft h es ub s i s t ence r e sou rce s . T he s t udy a r ea i sg eog raph ica l ly d i v e r se . T he l owe s tp o in ti n t h e s t a t eo f Wyom ing ( 9 70 m a . s . 1 . , B la ck s tone 1 988 :2 ) i sa t ap o in t w h e r e t h e B e l le F ou r che R ive re n t e r s S ou th D ako ta . A l though n o h igh m oun ta in s e x i s t i n t h e s t udy a r ea , t h e w es t e r nB l a ck H i l l sr i se s ha rp ly t ot h es ou th a nd s ou thea s to f t h e l ow e s t p o in t , r e a ch ing 2 029 m a . s . l . a t Wa r ren P eak s i n t h e B ea r lodg e Moun ta in s a nd as l ig h t ly l owe re l eva t ion n ea r O 'Ne i l P a s s p roduc ing a n e l eva t ion d if e r ence o f mo r e t h an 1 000 m . A l though t h e e l eva t ion d if e r ence i sn o t a sg r ea t a s f a r the r t ot h e w es t i nt h e R ocky Moun ta in s , t h i s d if e rence n eve r th e le s s a f f ec t st h e e f f ec t ive f o rag ing e nv i ronmen t . F o r e xamp l e , e l eva t iona l v a r ia t ion d e te rm ine sm o i s tu r e , w h ich i n t u rn r e gu la t e sv ege ta t ion .

T he C enozo ic E r a ( Lowe r a nd U ppe r T e r t ia ry ) F o r t U n ion a nd Wh i te R ive r f o rma t ion s a l so c on ta in r aw m a te r ia l u t i l iz ed p r eh i s to r ica l ly . T he F o r t U n ion F o rma t ion o u t c rop s a l ong t h e w e s t e rn p o r t ion o f t h e s t udy a r ea . S i l ic if ied s e d imen t f r om t h i s f o rma t ion ( M i l le r 1 99 1) w a s e xp lo i t ed w ide ly . T he Wh i t e R ive r f o rma t ion , t h e m a jo r o u t c rop o f w h ich o ccu r s a l ong t h e H a t C r eek B r eak s , c on ta in s t h in ly b edded c he r t s( M i l le r 1 99 1) . F i na l ly , l ow f r equenc ie s o f u sab le r aw m a te r ia l s e x i s t i n s e conda ry d epo s i t si nm o s t , i fn o ta l ,o ft h es t udy a r ea . T he 2 5

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F i gu r e4 . 2 G eo log ic f o rma t ion s c on ta in ing r aw m a te r ia l f o r t h e m anuf a c tu r e o fc h ipped s t one i t em s i nt h e w e s ter nB la ck H i l l s .

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a l f l ow d i r ec t ly i n to t h e M i s sou r i . T he N iob ra ra a nd t h e L i t t le M i s sou r i r i ve r s o r ig ina te i n t h e s t udy a r ea , t h e h eadwa te r s o ft h e B e l le F ou r che a nd C hey enne a r e s l igh t ly f a r the r t o t h e w e s t , w h i le t h e P la t te b eg ins i n C o lo rado , h und r ed so fm i le ss ou th o ft h es t udy a r ea .

s e conda ry d epo s i t s c on ta in av a r ie ty o fr aw m a te r ia l t y pe s , m o s t , i f n o t a l o f w h ich w e r e u t i l ized b y a bo r ig ina l p opu la t ion s . H oweve r , s i nce t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e s e conda ry d epo s i t s i s m o r e u np r ed ic tab le t h an t h e r aw m a te r ia l s d i scu s sed a bove , a f o rag ing p opu la t ion ' s t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion l i ke ly v a r ied a cco rd ing t ow h ich r aw m a te r ia l s p r edom ina t e i nt h e l o ca l a r ea , ag eo log ic f o rma t ion w i th r aw m a t e r ia l i np r ima ry c on tex to rs e conda ry d epo s i t s .

A r id i ty p l ay s a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt h e n a tu r e o ft h e d r a inag e b a s in s . A r id i t y m an if e s t s i t s e lf p a r t ia l ly i nt h e q uan t i ty o f p e rmanen t s t r eam s p r e sen t i nt h e s i x d r a inag e b a s in s . F o r e xamp le , m uch o ft h e C heyenne a nd N iob r ara R iv e r b a s in s c on ta in n op e rmanen ts t r eam s , w h i le t h e B e l le F ou r che R ive r c on ta in s n ume rou s o ne s . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e p e rman en t s t r eam s f l ow o u t o ft h e B la ck H i l ls i nt h e n o r thea s t p a r t o f t h e s t udy a r ea a nd a r e l i k e ly a s soc ia t ed w i th a r ea s o f c oncen t ra t ed g r oundwa te r( R e cha rd 1 957 :33 ) . Mo s to ft h e se f l ow i n to t h e B e l le F ou r che R ive r , w h i le af ew f l ow i n to t h e C heyenne .

G eo log ic f o rma t ion s w i th r aw m a te r ia l i np r ima ry c on tex t a r e r a the rc ommon i nt h e B la ck H i l l s U p l if t , H a r tv i l le u p l if t a nd a l ong t h e w e s te rn e dge o ft h e s t udy a r ea . H e re o ne i s g ene ra l ly w i th in 5k m o f ap r ima ry s ou r ce . R aw m a te r ia l i n s e conda ry c on t ex t i sa bou t t h e o n ly m a t e r ia l i n t h e l a rge m idd le p o r t ion o f t h e s t udy a r ea , i n t h e C heyenne R ive r d r a inage . I nt h i s a r ea ad i s tance o f mo r e t h an 2 5 k m m ay h ave t ob e t r ave led t or e a ch ap r ima ry r aw m a te r ia l o u tc rop . H oweve r , a l o f t h e g eo log ic f o rma t ion s d i scu s sed a bove w e r eu t i l ized p r eh i s to r ica l ly .

I n s umma ry , p e rmanen t w a t e r s ou r ce s ( s t ream s ) c a n b e e xpec ted t o p l ay a r o le i n c ond i t ion ing t h e t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion o f af o rag ing p opu la t ion s a sa l p eop le l i k e t o l o ca te t h e i ra c t iv i t ie si nr e la t ion t os uch c r i t ica lr e sou r ce s .

D ra inag e B a s in s S i x r e g iona l ly i mpo r tan t b a s in s d r a in t h e s t udy a r ea ( F igu r e 4 . 3 ) . F rom n o r th t o s ou th t h e se a r e t h e L i t t le M i s sou r i , P owde r R ive r , B e l le F ou r che , C heyenne , N iob ra ra , a nd P l a t te R ive r s . T he B e l le F ou r che a nd C heyenne c i r c le t h e B la ck H i l l s o n t h e n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s r e spec t ive ly , t h en j o in a nd f l ow i n to t h eM i s sou r i R ive r . T he o t he rd r a inage s

V eg e ta t ion a nd t h eN a tu r eo fV ege ta t ive C omp lexe s B ed rock g eo log y , t h e e l ip t ica l s hape o ft h e B lack H i l l s , a nd c l ima te a f ec t t h e r e g iona l v eg e ta t ion ( F igu r e 4 . 4 ) . O n t h e b roade s t s pa t ia l s c a le , t h e p o r t ion o f t h e N or thwe s t P l a in s 2 6

u nd e r i n ve s t iga t ion h e r e c on s i s t s o f s e v e ra l s ub type s o f g r a s s land s , f o r e s ted u p land s , a nd s t r eam b ank c ommun i t ie s . S i n ce a l o ft h e se s ub type sa r ef ound i nt h eB la ck H i l l su p l if t , a l though i n d if e ren t p ropo r t ion s t h an o n t h e r e s t o f t h e p l a in s , a nd t h e B la ck H i l l s a r e c en t ra l t ot h e s t udy a r ea , t h e B la ck H i l l s v eg e ta t ive e co logy i sd e sc r ibed a sa n e xamp le o f t h e b r oad e r N o r thwe s t P l a in s p a t ter n . T he w e s te rn B lack H i l l sa nd v i c in i ty a r e c ha ra c te r iz ed b yt h r ee m a jo rv ege ta t ive c omp lexe s : R ocky Moun ta in C on if e rou s F o r e s t , D ec iduou s F o r e s t ,a nd N o r the rn G r ea tP l a in sG ra s s land ( F ro i land 1 978 ) .

w hea tg ra s s , g r een n eed leg r a s s , b l ue g r amma a nd b uf f a lo g r a s s . O the r i mpo r tan t s p ec ie s o f t h e g r a s s land c omp lex i n c lude y u cca , p r ick ly p ea r , s ageb ru sh , a nd a n umbe r o f g r a s s s p ec ie s ( e .g . , I n d ian r i ce g ra s s i n s a ndy a r ea s ) . G ra s s land d om ina te s t h e v eg e ta t ion c omp lex o f t h e R ed V a l ley ( i n s ide t h e h ogba ck ) a nd i ss t i l l p r e sen t i n s e ve ra l l a rg e o pen " p ra ir ie " a r ea s w i th in t h e c o r e o ft h e B la ck H i l l s (Weedon a nd Wo lken 1 990 : 129 ) . T he N o r the rn G r ea t P l a in s G ra s s land g r ad e s i mpe r cep t ib ly i n to t h eo pen p l a in s ,b u tt h ev eg e ta t ive c ha ra c te r i s t ic s c hang e d epend ing o n t h e d i r ec t ion f r om t h e B la ck H i l l s . T he h i gh P l a in sl i et ot h es ou th a nd s ou thwe s to ft h eB la ck H i l l su p l if t , b u t e r o s ion h a s r emoved mu ch o f t h e t e r t ia ry d epo s i t s i mmed ia t e ly s ou th a nd s ou thwe s t o f t h e H i l l s . T h i s d if e r ence i n g eomo rpho log ic c ha ra c t e r p roduce s t wo s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t g r a s s land v ege ta t ion z one s . I mmed ia t e ly a d jacen t t ot h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s a nd l a rge ly r e s t r ic ted t o t h e C heyenne R ive r D ra inage , t h e d om inan t g r a s s land s p ec ie s i n c lude w e s te rn w hea tg r a s s , b l ue g r amma , n eed le a nd th r ead , p r a i r ie s a nd r eed , b i gs ag eb ru sh , a nd g r ea sewood . F a r t he rt ot h es ou th , o nt h es t i l l u ne roded t e r t ia ry h igh p l a in s , t h e d om inan t s p ec ie s a r e p r a i r ie s a nd reed , b l ue g r amma , n eed le -and th r ead , l i t t le b l ue s t em , s a nd s ag eb ru sh a nd f r inged s a g ewo r t . T o t h e w e s t o ft h e B la ck H i l l s b a s in t y pe g r a s s land s e x i s t , w h i le t ot h e e a s t , o ne q u ick ly r e a che s t h e m ixed g r a s sp l a in s .

T he R ocky Moun ta in C on if e rou s F o r e s t , a l so k nown a s t h e B la ck H i l l s P onde ro sa P i ne F o re s t , c ove r s 9 5% o f t h e f o r e s t ed a r ea w i th in t h e B lack H i l l s U p l if t ( Weedon a nd Wo lk en 1 990 :124 ) . P ond e ro sa p i ne o r We s t e rn Y e l low P ine i st h e d om inan tt r ee s pec ie s o ft h is c omp lex , b u t o t he rt r ee s , s h rub sa nd h e rb sa gg r ega t e i nd if e r en tc omb ina t ion st of o rm a tl e a s t f o u r v ege ta t ive c ommun i ty s ub type s (Weedon a nd Wo lk en 1 990 :125 ) . T he f i r s t v eg e ta t ive c ommun i ty , P inu s p ond e ro sa / A rc to s taphy lo s u va -ur s i o ccu r s m a in ly i n t h e c en t ra l c o re a r ea o ft h e B la ck H i l l s . C ommon g round j un ipe r , b ea rbe r ry , c r eep ing c eda r , a nd O r egon g r ape a r e a mong t h e p rom inen t u nde r s to ry p l an t s . D oug la s f i r d om ina t e s t h e h i ghe s t e l eva t ion s , w he r e n o r th -f a c ing s l ope s c on ta in w h i te s p ruce ( Ma r r io t t 1 985 :26 ) a nd c an b e d e sc r ibed a s a l p ine i n c ha r a c te r .

Sma l l a n ima l s a r e r e la t ive ly r a r e i nt h e g r a s s land s c ompa r ed t o o t he r z one s ( Wa lke r , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion s , 1 994 ) , w h i le l a rge m amma l s i n c lude p r ima r i ly b i son ( p r eh i s to r ica l ly ) a nd a n te lope . H oweve r , b ecau se o f h e rd s i z e a nd r a ng e , b i son c ou ld b e a b sen t f o r e x tended p e r iod s f r om l a rg e a r ea s , p e rhap s mo r e t h an 2 0 ,000 m2, ( S ee A ppend ix ) a n a r ea l a rge r t h an t h e p r e sen t s t udy a r ea t h a t m igh t b e i n hab i t ed b y n ume rou s f o rag ing b and s . A n t e lope , o n t h e o t he r h and , n e i the r m ig ra te a s f a r a s b i son , n o r a gg r ega t e i nl a rg e h e rd s a nd a r e t h u s m o r e u b iqu i tou s i nt h e r e g ion .

T he s e cond s ub type ,P inu sp ond e ro sa /And ropogon s copa r iu s i sc ommon i n t h e s ou ther n B la ck H i l l s a nd a l ong s ou th f a c ing s l ope s a tl owe r e l eva t ion s o ft h e c en t ra l a r ea . L i t t le b l ue s t em , y ucca , a nd f r ing ed s ag e c omp r i se s ome o f t h e c ommon s p ec ie so ft h i sc omp lex . T he t h i rd s ub type , P inu s p ond e ro sa /J un iperu s s copu lo rum o ccu r s f r equen t ly i n t h e s ou the rn B la ck H i l l s . R ocky m oun ta in j un ipe ra l so g row sa l ong d ry e rb r eak si no t he rp a r t s o ft h e B la ck H i l l s . T he u nde rg row th o f t en c on s i s t s o fl i t t le s e ed r i ceg ra s s , f r inged s ag e , b l uebe l l s , c u r ran t s ( R ibe s s pp . ) , m oun ta in m ahogany ,a nd s kunkb ru sh s uma c( Rhu ss pp . ) .

F i na l ly , t h e D ec iduou s F o r e s t v eg e ta t ive c ommun i ty o ccu r s a l ong d r a inag e s i nt h e n o r thwe s t e rn f o o th i l l s a nd a l ong t h e m o r e x e r ic s l op e s ( Weedon a nd Wo lken 1 990 : 127 ) . T h i s c ommun i ty i sd om ina t ed b yb u ro ak ( s im i la rt og ambe l o ak ) , b u t c on ta in s aw ide v a r ie ty o fo t he r t r ee s p ec ie s . A l though m ode rn a g r icu l tu r a l p r a c t ice s h ave g r ea t ly a l t e r ed t h e u nde r s to ry , p r eh i s to r ica l ly t h e s t r eam b ank h ab i ta t s po r t ed d en se s h rub v eg e ta t ion w i th n ume rou s e d ib le s p ec ie s , s ome t ime s o ccu r r ing i nd en se c l u s t e r s ( e .g . , c a t ta i l , L a tady a nd D ueho lm 1 985 :82 ) . Sma l l a n ima l s a r e c ommon i nt h e D ec iduou s F o r e s t , p e rhap s m o s t n ume rou s o fa ny e cozone s . S ome h i ber na t e ( Ro l l a nd D eave r 1 980 :86 ) a nd a r e t h u s f o und i nl owe rd en s i t ie s i nt h e w in t e r , b u t t h e h i b er na t ion i s t r u e o fo t he re cozone sa sw e l l . I nt h e s umme rd ee rc omp r i se t h e p r ima ry l a rg e m amma l i nt h e D ec iduou s F o r e s t , b u tt h ey m ig ra t e t o l ow e r e l eva t ion d r a inage s i nw in te r , l e av ing t h e h i ghe re l eva t ion sw i thou tl a rg em amma l sf o rt h es e a son .

F i na l ly , t h e f ou r th s ub type , P inu s p ond e ro sa /Que rcu s m ac roca rpa o ccu r s i nt h e n o r the rn B la ck H i l l s ( Bea r lodge Moun ta in s ) . P r edom inan t ly b u r o ak , b u t a l so o t he r s h rub s ( Sa ska toon s e rv ice -be r ry , c hokeche r ry , O r egon g r ape , a nd w i ld s p i ra ea )o ccu r i nt h i s v ege ta t ive s ub comp lex . B i r ch a nd a s pen f o re s t s o f t en s u r round t h e h i ghe s t p eak s i na l o ft h e v eg e ta t ive s ub type s ( Ma r r io t t 1 985 :26 ) . S ma l l a n ima l s a r e q u i t en ume rou si nt h eP inu sp ond e ro sa /Que rcu sm ac roca rpa e nv i ronmen t( Wa lke r , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion s ) , w h i le d ee r a nd e l ka r et h ep r ima ry l a rg em amma ls p ec ie sf o und . T he n ex t m a jo r v ege ta t ive c omp lex , t h e N o r the rn G r ea t P l a in s G ra s s land , i si n t e r spe r sed w i th t h e c on if e rou s f o r e s t . T he d om inan ce o ft h eg r a s s land i n c r ea se sa so ne m ove sf r om t h e B la ck H i l l s c o r e o u twa rd . T he N o r the rn G r ea t P l a in s G ra s s land c on s i s t s o f " mode ra te ly d en se s ho r t o r m ed ium t a l l g r a s se s , f o rb s a nd l ow s h r ub s " ( Weedon a nd Wo lk en 1990 : 128 ) . D om inan t g r a s se s i n c lude w e s te rn

Two c ha r a c t e r i s t ic s o ft h e a r ea s s u r round ing t h e B la ck H i l l s a r e r e levan t a s pec t s o f r e sou r ce s t ru c tu r e . F i r s t , t h e 2 7

WOODLAND SPEC IES : DOUGLAS F IR AND ENGELMANN SPRUCE GRASSLAND SPEC IES : T IMBER OATGRASS , I DAHO F ESCUE , GREEN NEEDLEGRASS , K ENTUCKY B LUEGRASS .

WOODLAND SPEC IES : PONDEROSA P INE , B URR OAK . GRASSLAND SPEC IES : WESTERN V VHEATGRASS , B IG B LUESTEM , L ITTLE B LUESTEM , NEEDLE -AND -THREAD , S IDEOATS GRAMMA , K ENTUCKY B LUEGRASS , CHOKECHERRY , SN O WBERRY , MOUNTA IN MAHOGANY , AND NUMEROUS FORBS

WOODLAND SPEC IES : PONDEROSA P INE , J UN IPER , COTTON WOOD GRASSLAND SPEC IES : WESTERN WHEATGRASS , GREEN NEEDLEGRASS , L ITTLE B LUESTEM , PRA IR IE SANDREED , NEEDLE -AND -THREAD , B IG SAGEBRUSH , LO W RABB ITBRUSH , GREASE WOOD

WOODLAND SPEC IES : COTTON WOOD ON LO W LAND S IES . GRASSLAND SPEC IES : WESTERN V VHEATGRASS , B LUE GRAMMA , NEEDLE -AND -THREAD , PRA IR IE SANDREED , B IG SAGEBRUSH , GREASEVVOOD

W OODLAND SPEC IES : COTTON WOOD ON LO W LAND S ITES . GRASSLAND SPEC IES : P RA IR IE SANDREED , B LUE GRAMMA , NEEDLE -AND -THREAD , L ITTLE B LUESTEM , SAGEBRUSH , F R INGED SAGEV VART .

u r

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F igu re 4 . 4

V ege ta t ion z one so fn or thea s t Wyom ing ( USDA 1 973) . f u r ther d i f f e ren t ia ted b y s o i l s ubs t ra te a nd o t he r f a c to r s ( e .g . , t h e S and H i l ls o fN eb ra ska ) .

P onde rosa P i ne F o re s t e x tend s i nv a r iou s s i ze p a tches i na l l d i rec t ions f r om t h e B lack H i l ls . T o t h e n o r thwes t a r e t h e P i ne B reak s o f s ou the rn Mon tana , t o t h e s ou thea s t i st h e m a in p or t ion o fP ine R idge , t ot h e s ou th a r e s eve ra l a r ea s o f

T he a bove d e scr ip t ion s ugges t s ap a tchwo rk o ft h ree ma jo r a nd n ume rou s m ino r e co log ica l z ones , d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e ma jo r z one s b e ing h eav i ly i nf luenced b y e l eva t ion .

p i ne b reak s ( Ha t C reek , H a r tv i l le U p l if t , P ine B luf f s a nd s o o n ) , a nd t ot h e w es t a r e a l so s eve ra l p i ne c ove red b u t te s a nd e ven tua l ly t h e R ocky Moun ta ins . S econd , t h e g ra s s lands n o t o n ly d if e r i n a l l d i rec t ions f r om t h e B lack H i l ls , b u t a r e

A l though t h e g ra ss land p a tche s a r e m uch l a rge r o n t h e o pen p l a in s t han i nt h e B lack H i l ls ( r eve r s ing t h e f o res t /g ra s s land 2 8

r a t io o f t h e B la ck H i l l s u p l if t ) , t h e p a t chy n a tu r e o f t h e e nv i ronmen t i n t roduce s d i ve r s i ty t o t h e r e g ion . B o th t h e p a tch ine s sa nd t h ep onde ro sa p i ne e cozone p r e sen ted t h eb e s t e nv i ronmen t s i nt e rm s o fr e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty t o af o rag ing p opu la t ion . A sF r i son ( 1988 :100 )i n d ica te s ,f o o th i l l sp rov ide " a w ide r a nge o f h uman p l an t f ood r e sou r ce s t h a t i n c lude r oo t s , t u be r s , s e ed s , b e r r ie s , g r een s a nd f r u i t , " a nd a low f o r m o r e a l te rna t ive s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s t h an t h e o pen P l a in s . I n t h is r e ga rd t h e B la ck H i l l s a r e e s sen t ia l ly o ne l a rge f o o th i l l sz one ,w i th s ma l le re x ten s ion si n to t h eP l a in s .

v a r ia t ion c o r r e spond s r ough ly t o r e g iona l t o pog raphy , w i th t h e l owe s t h i gh t empe ra tu r e s o ccu r r ing a th i gh e l eva t ion s o f t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s , e spec ia l ly i n t h e B ea r lodge Moun ta in s n o r th o fS undance , a nd t h e h i ghe s t t empe ra tu r e s r e po r t ed a t t h e l owe s t e l eva t ion s , s pec if i ca l ly i n t h e C heyenne R ive r B a s in . J anua ry t empe ra tu r e v a r ia t ion a l so c o r r e spond s r o ugh ly t ot o pog raphy , b u t n o t a ss imp ly a st h e J u ly p a t te rn . C o ld a i r m a s se s f l ow t owa rd l ow e l eva t ion s , h ence t h e b a s in s e xh ib i t l ow t empe ra tu r e s i nJ a nua ry . T he J anua ry h i gh t empe ra tu re s , h oweve r , a r e n o t a s w e l l c o r r e la ted w i th e l eva t ion a sJ u ly h igh s .

As e n se o ft h e s c a le o ft h e p a tch ine s s c an b e g l eaned f r om t h e m a jo r e cozone s ( F igu r e 4 . 5 ) . A5 0 100 k m t r an sec t i n t h e n o r ther n p a r t o f t h e s t udy a r ea c r o s scu t s 4 5 m a jo r e co log ica l z one s( F igu r e4 . 6 ) ,w h i le as im i la rt r an sec t i nt h e c en te ro ft h es t udy a r ea c r o s scu t so n ly t wo e cozone s( Powde r R iv e r B a s in a nd r i pa r ian ) . S im i la r r a ng e s c an b e f ound e l sewhe r eo nt h eG r ea tP l a in s .

R eg iona l t o pog raphy mo r e t h an o t he r a spec t s o ft h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen tc on t ro l sp r ec ip i ta t ion . T he h i gh m oun ta in a r ea s r e ce ive t h eg r ea t e s ta moun to f mo i s tu r e , w h i le t h e l ow b a s in s a nd v a l ley s r e ce ive t h e l e a s t . Wh i le t h e w e s te r n B la ck H i l ls d o n o t e xh ib i t t h e g r ea te s t p r ec ip i ta t ion v a r ia t ion i n t h e r e g ion ( s ee Manne r 1 986 :79 ) , t h e v a r ia t ion i ss ub s t an t ia l , w i th t h e e a s t e r n a nd s ou thea s te rn s i de o f t h e s t udy a r ea r e ce iv ing 3 05 mm ( 1 2" ) a nnua l ly a nd t h e h i ghe r e l eva t ion s o ft h ew e s ter nB la ck H i l l sr e ce iv ing mo r et h an 5 08 mm ( 2 0 " ) a nnua l ly . T h e p r ec ip i ta t ion v a r ia t ion c l o se ly p a ra l le l s t h e e l eva t iona l v a r ia t ion o fb i o t ic c ommun i t ie s . T he l ow a r ea s a r e g r a s s land s , t h e f o o th i l l s o ft h e B lack H i l l s a r e p ond e ro sa p i ne s a vanna , w h i le t h e h i ghe s t a nd w e t t e s t e l eva t ion s a r e a l p ine c ommun i t ie s( F igu r e4 . 6 ) .

S umma ry a nd s yn the s i s o f G eo logy , D ra inag e B a s in s , a nd V eg e ta t ion T h e d a ta f r om g eo logy , d r a inage b a s in s a nd v ege ta t ion i n d ica te s t h e p r e sence o f ag r ea t d ea l o fe co log ica l d i ve r s i ty i nt h ew e s ter nB la ck H i l l s . B y c omb in ing s o i l , g eo logy , a nd t o pog raphy , t h e m a jo r v eg e ta t ive a s so c ia t ion s w e r e b roken d own a nd g rouped i n to 1 0e co log ica lz one s -ecozone s( F igu re 4 . 5 ) . F rom s ou th t o n o r th t h e z one s a r e : H a r tv i l le U p l if t , H igh P l a in s , H a t C reek B r eak s , P owd e r R ive r B a s in , M i sce l laneou s u p land s ( Low D en s i ty Wood land s ) , P owde r R ive r /B la ck H i l l s f oo th i l l s t r an s i t ion , B la ck H i l l s P rope r , B la ck H i l l s F oo th i l ls , B la ck H i l l s G ra s s land s , a nd P i ne B r eak s . A dd i t iona l e co log ica l d i ve r s i ty i sc r ea t ed b y t h e m a jo rd r a inage sa nd s eve ra lo ft h e i rt r ibu ta r ie sw h ich c on ta in l a rg ea moun t so fa luv ia ls o i l ,g ene ra l ly i n d ica t ive o fm a s s ive r i pa r ian c ommun i t ie s . T he e cozone s t h en c on s t i tu te s t h e g ene ra l c ha ra c ter i s t ic s o f t h e w e s ter n B la ck H i l ls e nv i ronmen t t h a t a r e e xpec ted t o b e s i gn if ican t f o r c ond i t ion ing f o rage rs e t t lemen ta nd s ub s i s t ence s t ra teg ie s .

T he s c a le o fp r ec ip i ta t ion c ova r ia t ion i se ven m o r e i mpo r tan t t h an t h e e l eva t iona l e f ec t s o n p r ec ip i ta t ion , b ecau se p r ec ip i ta t ion c ova r ia t ion a f ec t s t h e p o ten t ia l r e spon se s o f f o rag e r m ob i l i ty p a t ter n s ( s ee s umma ry b e low ) . L ong te rm p r ec ip i ta t ion r e g ime s c an b e a dd r e s sed t h rough t r ee r ing a na ly s i s o rf r om mode rn c l ima t ic d a ta . T r ee r i ng s i n d ica te a g ene ra l P l a in s w ide c ova r ia t ion i n p r ec ip i ta t ion o ve r l o ng t ime s pan s ( S tock ton a nd Meko 1 983 ) . H ow eve r , s amp le s f o r s u ch i n te rp r e ta t ion c ame f r om w ide ly s c a t t e r ed a r ea s ( ove r 2 00 k m f r om e a ch o t he r ) . A l though o ne c an o b se rve t h e p r e sence o r a b sence o f c ova r ia t ion a t al a rge ( P la in s w ide ) s c a le , s ma l le r s c a le c ova r ia t ion , s u ch a s w ou ld b e r e levan t t o al o ca l b and , i si mpo s s ib le t o s e e u s ing t h e se s ame d a ta . Moder np r ec ip i ta t ion d a ta , h oweve r , p rov ide t h e s ma l le rs c a le p e r spec t ive . A s sum ing t h a t mode rn c ond i t ion s a dequa te ly r e p r e sen t t h e p a s t , p a s t c ova r ia t ion c an b e a s se s sed a t as c a le d e t e rm ined b y t h e s pa c ing o f d a ta c o l lec t ion s t a t ion s ( s ee F igu r e 4 . 7 ) . B a sed o n s t r eam f l ow d a ta o n al i t t le l a rge r s c a le t h an i n d iv idua l d a ta c o l lec t ion s t a t ion s , t h e t h r ee Wyom ing c l ima t ic d i v i s ion s c ove r ing t h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s i n d ica t e t h a t a l though d r ough t o ccu r r ence s g ene ra l ly c ova ry , t h ey d o n o t a f e c t a l a r ea s e qua l ly ( Manne r 1 986 :123 ) . F o re xamp le ,t h e 1 9 30 sd r ough t h ad a lmo s t n o e f ec t o n t h e L i t t le M i s sou r i a nd C heyenne /N iob ra ra d r a inage s , w h i le t h e B e l le F ou r che d r a inage s uf e r ed a m a jo r d rough t ( F igu r e 4 . 8 ) . T he m id 1 950 s , o n t h e o t he r h and s aw am a jo r d rough t i nt h e L i t t le M i s sou r i d r a inage w i th m ode ra te e f ec t s i n t h e o t he r t wo d r a inag e s . D u r ing t h e 1 960 s , t h e L i t t le M is sou r i h ad m a jo r d roug h t s a ga in f o r s e ve ra l y ea r s i n ar ow , w h i le t h e B e l le F ou r che d r a inag e h ad am ode ra te d rough t f o r o n ly o ne y ea r a nd t h e C heyenne /N iob ra ra d r a inage s h ad o ne y ea r o fm a jo r d rough t w i th m od e ra t e e f ec t s i n e a r l ie r a nd l a t e r y ea r s .

C l ima to logy L ike o t he r a spec t s o f t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s , c l ima te i s e x t r eme ly v a r iab le a nd c omp lex ( B rown 1 970 : 14 ) . C l ima te i s d ef ined a s " t he l o ng t e rm a gg r ega t e o f a tmo sphe r ic c ond i t ion s r e p roduced b y d ay to -day w ea the r . I ti n c lude s a ve r age s , e x t r eme s , v a r iab i l i ty a nd t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s . . ." ( Ma r tne r 1 986 :x i ) . S ome o ft h e c on t ro l l ing a spe c t so fc l ima t er e levan tt of o rage rs t ud ie sa r et empe ra tu r e a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion , b ecau se t h ey a f ec t t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fb i o ta . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t h e c a se i n a r id e nv i ronmen t s w hen w a t e r d ef i c i t c a n h ave s e ve r e a nd i mmed ia t e c on sequence s o n b i o t ic a c t iv i ty . L ik e o t he r e nv i ronmen ta l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s d i scu s sed a bove , c l ima te i s l a rg e ly c on t ro l led b yt h e B la ck H i l l su p l if t . S pa t ia l V a r ia t ion o f T empe ra tu re a nd P r ec ip i ta t ion . T he w e s ter n B la ck H i l l s a r ea i so ne o ft h e w a rme s t p a r t s o ft h e s t a t e o f Wyom ing ( B rown 1 970 :27 ) , w i th t h e h i ghe s t m ax imum t empe ra tu r e s r e a ch ing 4 4 -46 ° C . J u ly t empe ra tu r e 2 9

PARKLAND

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BLACK H ILLS MOUNTA INS

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PO WDER R IVER BAS IN /BLACK H ILLS FOOTH ILLS TRANS IT ION

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M ISCELLANEOUS UPLANDS ( LO W DENS ITY W OODLANDS )

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HARTV ILLE UPL IFT

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F i gu re 4 . 5 H i l l s .

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H igh P la ins G rass land : P ra i r ie S and reed , B lue G ram ma , N eed le-and T h read , L i t t le B lues tem , S and S ageb rush , F nnged S agewa r t

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S ou thern F oo th i l ls : P onderosa P ine a nd J un ipe r H igh Moun ta ins : D oug las F i ra nd E ng iemann Spruce

*

N o r the rn F oo th i l ls : P onde rosa P ine a nd B u r r Oak R ipa r ian D ra inages : Co t tonwood

F igu r e 4 . 6 V er t ica l c ross -sec t ions a c ro s st h e w es tern B lack H i l ls . Nor th sou th c r o s s -sec t ion i so nt h e e a s tern b orde ro f Wyom ing ( t op ) , e a s t -wes tc ros s s e c t ion i sa tT ownsh ip 4 3 N o r th ( bo t tom ) . No te c or respondence o fv ege ta t ion t ype a ss hown i nF igu re 4 .4 a nd e l eva t ion . F ina l ly , i n 1 980 t h e L i t t le M issou r i h ad amode ra te d rough t , t h e C heyenne /N iobra ra d ra inage h ad a s l igh t d rough t , w h i le t h e B e l le F ou rche h ad n o d rough t . A long w i th o the r e nv ironmen ta l v a r iab le s t h a t a f ec t t h e c l ima te , t empe ra tu re a nd p rec ip i ta t ion p a t terns p roduce t wo b a s ic c l ima t ic r eg imes i nt h e w es te rn B lack H i l ls : s t eppe a nd a l p ine ( Brown 1 970 ) . T he a l p ine c l ima t ic r e g ime i sd ef ined a s H um id C on t inen ta l w i th C o ld S umme r s ( M i l le r 1 994 ) . F o r h un te r -ga the re r s t h e a l p ine c l ima te b r eak s t h e h omogene i ty o ft h e s u r round ing s t eppe . A lso i mpo r tan t f o r h un te r -ga the re r s a r e t h e n ume rou s m ic roc l ima tes i n t h e t r an s i t ion z one b e tween t h e P la ins s t eppe a nd t h e B lack H i l ls a l p ine r e g imes . T empo ra l V a r ia t ion o f T empe ra tu re a nd P rec ip i ta t ion . T o mode l t empo ra l c l ima t ic v a r ia t ion , d a ta w e re g a the red f o r e i gh t w ea the r r e co rd ing s t a t ions i nt h e w es tern B lack H i l ls ( F igu re 4 .8 ) , at r ansec t r e ach ing f r om t h e B lack H i l ls i nt h e e a s t t o t h e P owde r R ive r B a s in i n t h e w es t . T h ir ty y ea r a ve rage s ( 19511981) o f m ean mon th ly t empe ra tu re ( Tab le 4 . 1a ) a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion ( Tab le 4 . 1b ) w e re c o l lec ted f o r s e ven s t a t ions ( A lva , C o lony , S undance , U p ton , Moo rc ro f t , D i l l inge r a nd G i l le t te ; NOAA 1 982 ) , w h i le a ve rages f r om 1 94 1 t h rough 1 970 w e re u sed f o r H u le t t b ecau se o f

F igu re 4 . 7 Wea the r r e co rd ing s t a t ions i n t h e n or thern p or t ion o f t h e w e s tern B lack H i l ls . R ound d n d ica te o t s i l o ca t ion o fs t a t ion s .

i n comp le te r e co rd ing d u r ing t h e 1 951-80 p e r iod ( NOAA 1 973 ) .

3 1

p r oduce h eavy s p r ing p r ec ip i ta t ion . D u r ing t h e se s t o rm s , w a rm m o is t a i r i sd rawn f r om t h e s ou ther n T exa s G u lf a r ea i n to t h e m id con t inen t . T h i s s t o rm p a t t er n i sm o s t a c t ive d u r ing t h e m on th s o f A p r i l a nd May . T he s ou the r n a nd s ou thea s t e rn p o r t ion so ft h eB la ck H i l l sr e ce ive much o ft h e i r p r ec ip i ta t ion f r om t h e se h um id e a r ly s p r ing s t o rm s . M ay i s t h e m on th o f m ax ima l p r ec ip i ta t ion i n t h e s ou the rn B l a ck H i l l s , w h i le J u ne i st h e m on th o fh i ghe s tp r ec ip i ta t ion i nt h e n o r the rn a r ea s i n Wyom ing . T he n o r ther n B la ck H i l l s r e ce ive 5 7% o ft o ta l p r ec ip i ta t ion i nt h e s p r ing a nd s umme r a so ppo sed t o6 9% i nt h e s ou the rn p o r t ion s . I nt h e n o r ther n s e c t ion s , p r e c ip i ta t ion f a l ls i nt h e f o rm o f s now d u r ing t h e w in t e rm on th s . D u r ing t h e w in t e r , h um id s t o rm s o r ig ina t ing i nt h e N o r th P a c if ic a i r m a s s p a s s o ve r t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t h e B lack H i l l s . T he u p l if t o f t h e i s o la t ed m oun ta inou s t e r ra in c r ea te sc ond i t ion sf a vo r ing h eavy s nowf a l l f r om t h e se s t o rm s .

P OWDER , L ITTLE 1 40 . & T OUNGE B ELLE F OURCHE

CHEYENNE & N IOBRARA

F i gu r e4 . 8 D rough t p e r iod ic i ty i nt h ree o f t h e m a jo r d r a inage s w i th in t h e w e s t e rn B lack H i l l s s t udy a r ea . S ca le o n s i de i n d ica t e s m on th s w i th b e low a ve rag e r u nof f( f rom Ma r t ne r 1 986 ) . N o t e t h e d rough t o ft h e 1 930 s a f ec ted t h e r u nof fo n ly i nt h eB e l le F ou r che d r a inage ,w h i le t h ed rough t s o ft h e 1 950 s , 1 960 s a nd 1 980 s a f ec t ed a l d r a inage s b u t n o t e qua l ly .

T hunde r s to rm s p roduce a lmo s t a l o f t h e s umme r p r ec ip i ta t ion . B ecau se t h unde r s to rm s a r e u np r ed ic t ab le i n t h e i rc i r cu la t ion o rp r ec ip i ta t ion p a t te rn s , s ome a r ea s r e c e ive s i gn if ican t r a inf a l l f r om a s t o rm , w h i le a n a d jacen t a r ea r e ce ive sn op r ec ip i ta t ion .

V a r ia t ion i n r a inf a l l a nd t empe ra tu r e a ve rag e s o n s e ve ra l t empo ra l s ca le s c an b e s e en i n ac ompa r i son A nnua l r a inf a l l r a ng e s f r om ah i gh o f5 82 mm p e ry ea rt o al ow o f3 25 mm p e ry ea ro ve r ad i s tance o fl e s st h an 6 0k m( Tab le 4 . 1b ) . T he s e a sona l d i s t r ibu t ion o f p r ec ip i ta t ion b e tween r e co rd ing s t a t ion s a l so v a r ie s ( F igu r e 4 . 9 ) , a l though t h e b u lk o f p r ec ip i ta t ion f o ra l s t a t ion s o ccu r s i nt h e s p r ing ( Ap r i l , May a nd J une ) .

A l though t h ew e s te rn B la ck H i l l sd i f f e rc l ima t ica l ly f r om t h e P owde r R ive r B a s in , t h ey r e ta in e l emen t s o f t h e s em i -a r id c l ima t e . T he v a r ia t ion i na nnua l p r ec ip i ta t ion a moun t s a nd p r ed ic tab i l i ty o fs e a sona l r a inf a l l p a t ter n s i sc ha ra c te r i s t i c o f am a rg ina l a r id e nv i ronmen t ( T r ewa r tha 1 957 ) . Two y ea r s o f r a ndom ly c ho sen w ea the r d a ta w e r e p l o t t ed a ga in s t t h e a ve rag e p r ec ip i ta t ion p a t ter na tD ev i l ' s T owe r ( F igu r e 4 . 10 ) . T he a c tua l y ea r ly p r ec ip i ta t ion p a t ter n s d if e r ed r a d ica l ly f r om t h e 2 5 y ea rn o rm s . T h i sp a t ter no fw ide v a r ia t ion f r om t h e a ve rage c ha ra c te r ize s m any B lack H i l l s r e co rd ing s t a t ion s( O r r 1 9 59 ) . Ac y c l ic p r ec ip i ta t ion p a t te r n o fd r ough t a nd w e t y ea r s a l so e x i s t s ( F igu r e 4 . 11) . O r r s t a te s t h a t t h i s p a t te rn c ha ra c t e r iz e sr e co rd ing s t a t ion s f r om t h e P l a in st ot h e h i ghe s te l eva t ion s . H ea l so n o te st h a t :

T empe ra tu re v a r ied s ub s tan t ia l ly b e tween s t a t ion s . C o lony h ad t h eh ighe s ta nnua la ve rag ef o rt h ee i gh ts t a t ion so f7 . 9 °C ( Tab le 4 . 1a ) , w h i le A lva h ad t h e l ow e s t m ean a nnua l t empe ra tu re w i th 5 . 4 ° C . T he y ea r ly t empe ra tu r e c ur ve f o r a l l o ca t ion s v a r ie s l i t t le , f o l low ing a p a t t e rn o f c o ld l o ng w in te r s a nd w a rm s umme r s . L ow s o f3 7 .2 ° C i nt h e w in t e r m on th sa nd h i gh so f3 5 ° Cd u r ing t h es umme rm on th sa r en o t u ncommon . T he l e ng th o ft h e g row ing s ea son v a r ie s a mong r e co rd ing s t a t ion s . T he g row ing s e a son a tD ev i l ' s T ow e r i s c on s i s ten t ly s ho r t e r t h an H u le t t , Moo rc rof t o r S undance ( M i l le r 1 994 ) . T he se v a r ia t ion s i n g r ow ing s e a son a f ec t v ege ta t ive p a t t e rn ing .

d r y c y c le s a r e n o t c ons i s ten t ly d r ie r i n r e la t ion t oa ve rage p r ec ip i ta t ion a tl owe r e l eva t ion s t a t ion s t h an a th i ghe r s t a t ion s n o r a r e w e t c yc le s c on s i s ten t ly a ny w e t te r i n r e la t ion t o a v e rage p r ec ip i ta t ion ( O r r 1 959 ) .

T he a moun t , s e a sona l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f r a inf a l l v a r ie s c on s ide rab ly t h roughou t t h e a r ea . A lva r e ce ive s c on s ide rab ly m o r ep r ec ip i ta t ion t h an a ny o ft h e o t he rs t a t ion , p o s s ib ly r e f lec t ive o f i t s h i gh e l eva t ion i n t h e B ea r lodg e Moun ta in s . A t A lva , mo s t p r ec ip i ta t ion i sc oncen t ra ted i n t h e s p r ing , a nd i td ec r ea se sr a p id ly b yt h e e nd o fJ une , w h i le a tC o lony r a inf a l l i n c r ea se s t h roughou t May , J une , a nd J u ly , w i th as ma l ld ec r ea se i nA ugu s ta nd S ep tembe ra nd amode s t i n c rea se i np r ec ip i ta t ion i nO c tobe r .

S ub s i s tence r e sou r ce s a r e a va i lab le f o r al o ng e r t i me f r ame d u r ing t h e y ea r i n a n a r ea w i th c on s ide rab le a t t i tud ina l v a r iab i l i ty t h an i n at o pog raph ica l ly h omog eneou s r e g ion . A l so , a n e nv i ronmen t w i th a d i ve r se r a nge o f p l an t s a nd a n ima l s a dap t ed t o aw ide r a nge o f e co log ica l p a rame t e r s m ay p rov ide am ea su r eo fs e cu r i ty d u r ing p e r iod so fc l ima t ic d e t e r io ra t ion , a sn o t a l c ommun i t ie s w ou ld b e i mpa c t ed t o t h e s ame d eg r e e ( d e B oe r 1 97 1 ; R edd ing iu s 1 97 1) . I ft r u e , t h ee co tona l b ounda ry a r ea n ea rt h e w e s ter nB la ck H i l l sm ay h ave p l ayed as i gn if i can tr o le i np r eh i s to r ic a dap ta t ion t ot h e a r id N o r thwe s t P l a in s e nv i ronmen t , b ecaus e d e sp i t e t h e u np r ed ic tab i l i ty o fd rough t p e r iod ic i ty , t h e r e sou r ce s p r e s en t o n e co tone s c ou ld h ave s e rved a s b uf f e r s a ga in s t h a r sh c ond i t ion s .

E l eva t ion , h oweve r , i s n o t t h e s o le f a c to r d e te rm in ing p r ec ip i ta t ion p a t t er n s i n t h e B la ck H i l ls ( O r r 1 959 ) a nd a d ja cen t p l a in s . Amoun t s a nd s e a sona l d i s t r ibu t ion o f p r ec ip i ta t ion v a ry f r om n o r th t os ou th i nt h e B la ck H i l l s( O r r 1 959 ) . D if f e r en t t y pe s o f s t o rm s a nd t h e d i r ec t ion s f r om w h ich f r on t s o r ig ina te d e te rm ine p r ec ip i ta t ion p a t ter n s . Ma r i t ime t r op ica la i r -ma s se si n t rude o n to t h eN o r the rn P l a in s u sua l ly f r om t h e s ou thwe s t ( B ry son e ta l . 1 970 ; O r r 1 959 ) , w i th s t o rm c en te r s l o ca ted s ou thea s t o ft h e B la ck H i l l s t h a t 3 2

T ab le 4 . 1 A ve rage mon th ly a nd a nnua la i rt empe ra tu re ( a )a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion ( b )f i gu re s f o rs e lec ted s t a t ion sn ea r K eyho le R ese rvo i r . T empe ra tu re m ea su red i nd eg ree sF ah renhe i t( da ta f r om NOAA 1 982 a nd NOAA 1 973) . a )t empe ra tu r e M O NT H L oca t ion S t a t ion :

o f J

F

M

A

M

J

J

A

S

0

C o lony

1 9 .6

2 5 .6

3 1 .5

4 3 .9

5 5 .0

6 4 .8

D i l l ing e r

1 8 .3

2 4 .6

3 0 .8

4 1 .7

5 2 .3

6 2 .2

G i l le t t e

2 0 .2

2 6 .2

3 1 .8

4 2 .4

5 2 .8

H u le t t *

2 1 .3

2 5 .8

3 1 .5

4 3 .5

Moo r c rof t

1 8 .5

2 4 . 1

3 0 .9

4 2 .0

S undance

1 9 . 1

2 4 .3

3 0 .2

U p ton

1 6 . 1

2 2 .4

3 0 .3

N

D

7 2 .8

7 1 .4

6 0 .4

7 0 .4

6 8 .4

5 7 .3

6 2 .3

7 0 .6

6 9 .0

5 8 .7

5 3 .5

6 2 . 1

6 9 .9

6 8 . 1

5 2 .9

6 2 .6

7 0 .7

6 9 .0

4 1 .3

5 1 .9

6 1 .4

6 8 .8

4 2 .2

5 3 .0

6 3 . 1

7 0 .8

A nn .

4 9 .4

3 4 . 1

2 5 .4

4 5 .8

3 1 .0

2 2 .7

4 3 .8

4 7 .9

3 2 .7

2 5 .0

4 5 .0

5 7 .4

4 7 .6

3 3 .7

2 5 .4

4 5 .0

5 7 .9

4 6 .6

3 1 .5

2 2 .8

4 4 . 1

6 7 .5

5 7 .5

4 6 .9

3 1 .7

2 3 .5

4 3 .7

6 8 .6

5 7 .7

4 5 .7

2 9 .8

2 0 .3

4 3 .3

4 6 .2

b )p r e c ip i ta t ion M ONTH L o ca t ion o f s t a t ion

E l eva t ion

J

F

M

o

A

M

J

1

A

S

A lva 5 SE

4 390

7 9

9 4

1 42

2 84

3 87

3 9 1

2 07

1 89

1 59

1 43

12

9 8

2 2 .85

C o lony

3 553

. 3 3

. 4 4

0 . 66

1 . 43

2 . 49

2 . 9 1

1 . 65

1 . 45

1 . 13

0 . 95

0 . 53

. 3 9

1 4 .36

D i l l inge r

4 306

. 3 9

. 5 3

0 . 58

1 . 5 1

2 . 60

2 . 47

1 . 49

1 . 19

1 . 03

0 . 80

0 . 44

. 4 5

1 3 .48

G i l le t t e

4 556

. 5 8

. 6 3

0 . 78

1 . 76

2 . 72

3 . 11

1 . 35

1 . 32

1 . 24

1 . 05

0 . 7 1

. 6 0

1 5 .85

H u le t t

3 756

. 6 4

. 6 2

0 . 89

1 . 82

2 . 66

3 . 30

1 . 54

1 . 39

1 . 48

0 . 94

0 . 77

. 6 5

1 6 .70

Moo r c rof t

4 275

. 3 7

. 4 3

0 . 44

1 . 11

2 . 57

2 . 59

1 . 42

1 . 24

1 . 0 1

0 . 70

0 . 43

. 4 5

1 2 .76

S undance

4 750

. 5 8

. 7 0

0 . 79

1 . 77

2 . 80

3 . 50

1 . 72

1 . 6 1

1 . 30

0 . 86

0 . 69

. 6 2

1 6 .94

U p ton

4 26 1

. 4 1

. 5 2

0 . 52

1 . 45

2 . 58

2 . 76

1 . 75

1 . 47

0 . 95

0 . 77

0 . 52

. 5 6

1 4 .26

F

M

A 1 1 1 . 1 . 1

•

0

0 1 1

! 1111 .1!!!!

0

COLONY

4.

N

D

d ill!!!

D ILL INGER

G ILLETTE S E

-00 *

4.

I .

a •

_

J i

M

A nn .

A

M

J

J

A

0

MOORCROFT

O

N

D

1 1 J P IW

1 1 A M J

1 I

1 1 1 1 1 A 0 0 8 1 0

1 1 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 I A A 1 0 . 1 J A 0 0

U PTON

S UNDANCE

1

F

M

A I A

1 1 1 1 1 1 J A I O N D

HULETT ( AVG . 1 941 -1970 )

F igu re 4 . 9 S ea sona l v a r ia t ion i nt empe ra tu re ( l ine ) a nd p rec ip i ta t ion ( ba r s ) a ts eve ra l w ea the r r e co rd ing s t a t ion s i nt h e w es te rn B la ck H i l ls . S ca le f o rp rec ip i ta t ion i so n t h e l ef ti ni n che s , s ca le f o rt empe ra tu re i so n t h e r i gh t i nd eg ree s F ah renhe i t ( f rom M i l le r 1 994 ,d a ta f r om NOAA 1 973 , 1 982 ) . 3 3

h e rb ivo r e s , b u tm o r es p ec if ica l ly p l an tr e sou r ce s f o r ah uman f o rage r s .

5-

F i na l ly , t h e s p a t ia l s c a le o f p r ec ip i ta t ion c ova r ia t ion i so f i n te r e s t , i n -a s -much a s p r ec ip i ta t ion a f ec t s r e sou r ce p roduc t iv i ty a nd t h u s t h e mob i l i ty o p t ion s o f af o rag ing p opu la t ion . O n ar e la t ive ly b road s c a le , t h e t h r e e m a jo r d r a inage s o ft h e s t udy a r ea ( s ee F i gu r e 4 . 8 ) h ave ag ene ra l c o -occu r r ence o fd rough tc ond i t ion s ,b u tt h e d rough ts e ve r i ty v a r ie s b e twe en t h em . When o ne d r a inage s uf f e r s am a jo r d rough t , a n a d jo in ing d r a inage m ay e xpe r ience o n ly am ino r d rough t o r p o s s ib ly n o d rough t a ta l . C lea r ly u nde r s u ch c ond i t ion s p l an t p rodu c t iv i ty w i l l c ova ry , b u t o n ly w eek ly . T ha t i s , w hen p l an t p roduc t ion i no ne d r a inage i sr e du ced , p l an t p roduc t iv i ty i na no the r d ra inag e i sl i k ew i se l e s sened , b u t l e s s s e ve r e ly a nd t h e r e i s ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a tp rodu c t iv i ty i s n o ta f ec ted a ta l . H oweve r , ac ompa r i son o ft o ta lr e du c t ion i np roduc t ion i sl i ke ly s i gn if ican t f o r s ub s is t ence r e sou r ce s . G iven t h e p r e sence o fg ene ra l c ova r ia t ion i np roduc t ion , b u t o bv iou s d if e r ence s i n s e ve r i ty , f o rage r s c an u s e f l ex ib le s o c ia l o rgan iz a t ion t or e d i s t r ibu t e t h e i r p opu la t ion o ve r t h e l a nd scape .

3

o f

P rec ip ita t ion

4

-

J

F

M

A

I

J

J

A

S

O

N

D

-

a verage month ly p rec ip itat ion ( NA00 . 1954-90 )

-

1 9 7 1

mon th ly p rec ip i tat ion

( NA00 .197 1 )

1 974 mon th ly p rec ip itat ion ( NA00 , 1974 )

F i gu r e4 . 10 Mon th ly p r ec ip i ta t ion f o r t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s . T h i r ty y ea r m on th ly a ve rag e s ( t h ick l i ne ) a nd t wo r a ndom ly c ho sen y ea r s ( t h in a nd d o t t ed l i ne ) ( M i l le r 1 994 , d a ta f r om NOAA 1 973 a nd 1 982 ) .

S umma ry T he N o r th Ame r ican P l a in sa r ea ne co log ica l ly v a r ied r e g ion , w i th c omp lex i n t e ra c t ion s b e tween g eo logy , c l ima t e , a nd b i o t ic p roduc t iv i ty . T he r e sou r ce s a va i lab le f o r h uman f o rage r s i nt h ew e s t er nB la ck H i l l sv a ry a l ong s eve ra l s pa t io t empo ra l a xe s . T he se a xe s u nde r l ie t h e r e g iona l r e sou r ce s t r uc tu r e , w h ich f o rm s a c on tex t f o r h uman e conom ic b ehav io r .

D i scu s s ion o fR e sou r ce P r ed ic tab i l i ty T o al a rge e x t en t t empe ra tu r e a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion d e t e rm ine p l an tp roduc t iv i ty , w i th p r ec ip i ta t ion b e ing e s pec ia l ly c r i t ica l i n N o r th Ame r ican g ra s s land s ( B rown 1 977 ) . Mon th ly t empe ra tu r e v a r ia t ion l i m i t s t h e p e r iod o f p o ten t ia l p l an t g r ow th t o t h e w a rme r mon th s , m id -May t o m id -Sep t embe r ( Ma r tne r 1 986 :62 -64 ) , b u t p r ec ip i ta t ion d e te rm ine s w he the r g r ow th w i l l o ccu r . T he m o i s tu r e a va i lab le i n s p r ing a nd e a r ly s umme r i se spec ia l ly c r i t ica l f o r p l an t p roduc t iv i ty ; i f p l an t g row th d oe s n o t b eg in a t t h i s t ime , f u l l g r ow th i s u n l ike ly t ob e r e a ched b ef o r e t h e e nd o ft h e g r ow ing s e a son . Y ea r ly p r ec ip i ta t ion f i gu re s( F igu r e4 . 10 )i n d ica te t h a ts p r ing a nd e a r ly s umme r m o i s tu r e c an b e q u i te v a r iab le , t h u s a f ec t ing t h ep o ten t ia lp roduc t iv i ty f r om y ea rt oy ea r .

T he s pa t io tempo ra l s t r uc tu r e o f f o od r e sou r ce s h a s b o th c on s tan t a nd av a r iab le c omponen t . E nv i ronmen ta l z ona t ion i st h e c on s tan t c r ea ted b y e l eva t iona l v a r ia t ion a nd l o ca t ion o f w a te r s ou r ce s , w h ich f o rm d if e r en t b i o t ic c ommun i t ie s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape . T en s u ch b i o t ic c ommun i t ie s ( e cozone s ) a r e r e cogn ized i n t h e w e s t e rn B lack H i l l s . H uman s m ay b e e xpec t ed t oi n teg ra te t h e r e sou r ce s f r om t h e v a r iou s e cozone s i n to t h e i r e conom ic s t ra teg ie s . S ea sona l v a r ia t ion i nr e sou r ce p r oduc t ion i sa l so ac on s tan t a s p ec t o f r e spu r ce s t ru c tu r e i n t empe ra t e e nv i ronmen t s a nd i s i n co rpo ra t ed i n to e conom ic s t ra teg ie s .

H oweve r , l o ng te rm v a r ia t ion i n p r ec ip i ta t ion i s a l so s i gn if ican tt ot h e o ve ra l l p rodu c t iv i ty ( F igu r e 4 . 11) . F o rt h e ! Kung i n t h e K a laha r i , y ea r s w i th 1 5% t o 3 0% l e s s p r ec ip i ta t ion t h an a ve rage c on s t i tu te a d r ough t ( Lee 1 979a : 112 ) , a nd y ea r s w i th l e s s t h an 3 0% o f a ve rage m o i s tu re c on s t i tu te as eve r e d rough t . Wh i le t h e P l a in s a r e n o t t h e K a laha r i , p l an t p rodu c t iv i ty i nb o th r e g ion s i sw a t e r d ependen t . T hu s as im i la rr e duc t ion i nr e sou r ce s i se xpec ted f r om s ame s c a le d rough t s . O nt h e P l a in s ,y ea r sw i th b e tween 1 5% a nd 3 0% o ft h e a ve rag e mo i s tu r e a nd y ea r s w i th l e s s t h an 3 0% o f t h e a ve rage o ccu r e ve ry s i x a nd s e ven y ea r s r e spec t ive ly . P l an t p roduc t iv i ty s hou ld d ec l ine s i gn if i can t ly d u r ing t h e se y ea r s . I nt h e d rough t o ft h e 1 9 30 s , s ome p a r t s o ft h e P l a in s s aw ar e duc t ion i np l an tc ove rag e f r om 8 9% t o 5% i no n ly f i ve y ea r s( Bamf o r th 1 988 :35 ) . S u ch ar e duc t ion a f ec t s n o t o n ly t h e a va i lab i l i ty o ff o od s f o rp l an t d ependen t

T he v a r iab le c omponen t o f r e sou r ce s t ru c tu r e i s m o r e i n t e r e s t ing . A s s hown i nt h i s c hap t e r , p l an t p roduc t ion i s l a rge ly a f u nc t ion o f m o i s tu r e w h ich v a r ie s a l ong s e ve ra l s pa t io tempo ra l s c a le s . O n ar e la t ive ly l a rg e s pa t ia l s c a le , a s b e tween t h e m a jo r d r a inage b a s in s o f t h e s t udy a r ea , t h e e f ec t s o fd rough t s a r e n o t f e l t e qua l ly . T ha t i s , w h i le o ne d r a inage i si ns e ve r e d rough t , o t he r s m ay o r m ay n o t b e s o a f ec ted . B ecau se o fd rough tp e r iod ic i ty , t h e m a jo rd r a inag e b a s in s of e r o p t iona l r e sou r ce s f o r h uman f o rage r s d u r ing e me rgency s i tua t ion s . T empo ra l ly ,t h e v a r ia t ion i nd rough tp e r iod ic i ty r e su l t s i ns i x y ea r ( 1 5 -30% ) a nd s e ven y ea r ( >30% ) c yc le s o f b e low a ve rage p r ec ip i ta t ion . O ne r e spon se o f h uman f o rag e r s t o 3 4

s u ch a r educ t ion i n mo is tu re , a nd t h e ref o re r educed f ood r e sou rces , w ou ld b e t o e mp loy o p t iona l e conom ic s t ra teg ie s . F o rage r s c ou ld a vo id t empo ra r i ly f ood p oo r a r ea s b y

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3 5

CHAPTER 5

MODEL ING HUMAN FORAG ING I N THE WESTERN B LACK H ILLS

L ook ing a tt h ea r ea o ft h eN o r thwe s t e rn P la in sa s aw ho l e , i ti sd i f f icu l tt od ec id ew h ich e conom ic o r i en ta t ion , h un t ing o rg a th er ing , a c tua l l yp rov id ed t h em o s tf ood ( F r i son I9 78a :364 ) A l though h un t ing h a sb e en s t r e s s ed i nt h i ss t ud yo fpr e h i s to r ic a dap ta t ion so nt h eN o r thwe s t ern P la in s , t h et r u e n a tur eo ft h ec u l tu ra lg ro up si n vo l v ed w i l ln e ve rb ef u l l yu nd e r s tood u n t i lt h er e la t i ve i mpo r tance o fpl an tf ood t ot he i re conomy i sk nown ( F r i son I9 78a :369 , e mpha s i sa dd ed )

T h i sc hap t e ra c comp l i she st h r ee t h ing s : 1 )r e sou r ce s t ruc tu r e o f t h e w e s t e rn B la ck H i l l s i s d i scu s sed , e mpha s iz ing a va i lab i l i ty , a bundance , a nd e xp lo i ta t ion ef i c iency ; 2 )b i son a nd l a rge g ame a r e s how t ob en e i the rt h e mo s ta bundan tn o r t h e m os t ef i c ien t ly e xp lo i tab le r e sou r ce s i n t h e w e s ter n B la ck H i l l s ,c ha rac te r i s t ic st h a tw ou ld r a nk t h em h i gh o n t h e l i s tf o rh uman d i e t s ; a nd 3 ) amode l o f ap rocu r emen ts y s t em a nd a r cheo log ica l c o r re la te s t h a t w ou ld f o l low f r om t h e d ynam ic so fs u ch as y s tem a r ep ropo s ed .

c on s t ra in t s t h ey p l a ce o n f o rag e r s ( J och im 1 976 ) . F o r e xamp le , al a rge l o ca l p opu la t ion o fs ma l l a n ima l s m ay p l ay ar o le i nd ec i s ion s a bou t b a se c amp l o ca t ion c ommen su ra te w i th ap l an t r i ch v ege ta t ion c ommun i ty . I na dd i t ion , p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima ls ( wh ich f o l low a n r se lec ted p opu la t ion c u rve ) r e bound f r om c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion s much f a s t e r t h an l a rg e g ame ( s pec ie s t h a t f o l low K se lec ted p opu la t ion i n c r ea se ) . S i nce c l ima t ic c yc l ic i ty i s a c on t inuou s p henomenon i nt h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s , p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s a r e m o r e f r equen t ly a bundan t r e la t ive t o t h e l a rg e g ame a nd t h u s i nt h e l o ng r un a r e mo r e a c ce s s ib le t of o rage s u t i l iz ing t h em .

T he r e a son f o r t h e f i r s t g oa l i st h a t i mp l ic i t ly o r e xp l ic i t ly l a rg e g ame ( b i son ) a r e t h ough t t o c on s t i tu te t h e m o s t a bund an t a nd ef i c ien t ly e xp lo i tab le r e sou r ce o n t h e G r ea t P l a in s ( e .g . , A r thu r 1 975 ; B amf o r th 1 988 ; D eave r 1 980 ; G r e i se r 1 985 ; R ehe r a nd F r i son 1 9 80 ) , y e t n o o ne h a s f o rma l ly e va lua ted b i son a bundance a nd e xp lo i ta t ion ef i c iency v i s -a -v i s t h e o t he r r e sou r ce s . B i son h ave b een p e r ce ived t o b e s uch a n o ve rwhe lm ing r e sou r ce i n e ve ry r e spec t , t h a t a ny e va lua t ion i sd eemed u nnece s sa ry ( e .g . , D odg e 1 884 ; Webb 1 931 :42 ; Wede l 1 986 :22 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip o f t h is p e r cep t ion , t h a t i s , t h e a bundance o f n a tu r a l r e sou r ce s , w i th t h e Ame r ican p syche a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e c ap i ta l i s t s y s t em i sw e l l k nown , ( e .g . , T oqu ev i l le 1 945 [or ig ina l 1 835 ] , T u rne r 1 9 14 ; Webb 1 952 ) . T he d i scu s s ion o f r e g iona l r e sou r c e p a rame t e r s p rov ide s a b a se l ine f o rt h e w e s t e rn B lack H i l l ss ub s i s tence mod e l . T he g oa l s o ft h e p r e sen t c hap te r a r e r e a ched t h rough e s t ima t ing t h e a bundance a nd e xp lo i ta t ion ef i c iency o f p rocu r ing a b r oad c r o s s sec t ion o ft h ea va i lab le r e sou r ce s .

O ve ra l l r e sou r ce a bundance a nd p rocu r emen t c o s t s v a ry t empo ra l ly a nd s pa t ia l ly a c ro s s t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s . I n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r s Ii n d ica ted s ome o f t h e b a sa l s pa t ia l a nd t empo r a l c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s a f ec t ing r e sou rce s . I n t h i s , c hap te r , Ie s t ima t e t h e v a r ia t ion i nr e sou r ce a bundance a nd p rocu remen t c o s t s . T he e s t ima te s a r e f o r h i gh a nd l ow r e sou r ce d en s i t ie s , w h ich c an b e u s ed f o rc a lcu la t ing o ve r a l l r e sou r ce a bundance a nd t h u s e s tab l i sh p a rame te r s f o r a h uman f o rag ing s y s t em . E s t ima te s o fh and l ing t i me s a nd a r a nge o fi n te rpa t ch e ncoun t e r r a te s ( s ea r ch c o s t s ) w h ich a r e p a r t ia l ly a f u nc t ion o f r e sou r ce a bundance , a r e u s ed t o c on s t ruc tt h ed i e tb r ead th mode l . My r e sou r ce p a rame te r e s t ima t e s a r e b a sed o n c oncep tua l s c heme s e s tab l i shed b y s eve ra l s ub s i s tence mode l s , w h ich r a nk t h e v a lue o f t h e a va i lab le r e sou r ce s f o r h uman c on sume r s ( e .g . , J och im 1 976 ; K eene 1 98 1 ; R e idhead 1 98 1 ; S imm s 1 984 ) . T h e p a rame te r e s t ima te s u t i l iz e s ome c a lcu la t ion s f r om t h e se m ode l s , e spec ia l ly t h e m ode l s i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft h eN o r thwe s tP l a in s , w he r e e co log ica l c ond i t ion s a r e s im i la r ( e .g . , D eave r 1 980 ; S imm s 1 984 ) , b u t a l so u s e s p ec if i c w e s t e rn B la ck H i l l s d a ta o n r e sou r ce s ( e .g . , L a tady 1 982 ; L a tady a nd D ueho lm 1 985 ; Ma r r io t t 1 985 ; U .S . D epa r tmen t o ft h e I n t e r io r 1 979 ) . H oweve r , a s sump t ion s i n t h e o t he r m ode l s c au se l a rge a n ima l s t o b e f a vo r ed o ve r s ma l l g ame a nd p l an t s , w h i le m y mode l d eve lop s a l ter na t ive a s sump t ion s t o e l im ina te t h e b i a s . F o r e xamp le , S imm s ( 1984 :142 ) c a lcu la te s h and l ing t ime a s t h e c omp le t e p roce s s ing o fp l an t sb u to n ly f i e ld b u t che ry o fa n ima l s ,w h i le D eave r ( 1 980 :87 -88 ) a s sume s e qua l d i s tance t r ave led ( i . e . , p u r su i t o r i n t e rpa tch e ncoun te r r a te s ) f o r t h e a cqu i s i t ion o f a n ima l s a s d if e r en t a s g round s qu i r r e l a nd b i son . D eve lop ing a l ter na t ive a s sump t ion s b a sed o n r e l iab le e t hnog raph ic e v idence p roduce s am o r e r e a l i s t ic a nd ac l o se r r a nk ing o fr e sou r ce s .

T o a ccomp l i sh t h e t h ree g oa l s p r opo sed , t h i s c hap t e r i s d i v ided i n to f i ve m a jo rs e c t ion s : 1 ) ad i scu s s ion o fi mmob i le r e sou rce s ; 2 ) a d i scu s s ion o f m ob i le r e sou r ce s ; 3 ) a p r e sen ta t ion o f r e sou r ce a bundance ; 4 ) am ode l o f d i e t b r ead th ; a nd 5 ) amode l o fp rocu r emen t s t ra t eg ie s a nd t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l c o r r e la t e s i n t h e w e s t er n B la ck H i l l s . T he f i r s tt wo s e c t ion s a r eb a sed o n a bundan te co log ica l d a ta w e l l e xp r e s s ed b y R icha rd L ee ' s ( 1968 :40 ) o b se rva t ion t h a t " . .hun t ing i s ah igh r isk , l ow r e tu rn s ub s i s t ence a c t iv i ty , w h i le g a the r ing i s a l ow r i sk , h igh r e tu rn s ub s i s t ence a c t iv i ty . " T he i mpo r tance o f t h e h un t ing v e r su s g a the r ing d i s t inc t ion f o r f o rag e r e xp lo i ta t ion s t r a teg ie s i s s e en i n N o r ther n P a iu te s ubd iv is ion s o f" t h ing s t h a t a r e e a t en " i n to " t h ing s t h a t g row i np l ace " a nd " t h ing s t h a t m ov e " ( e .g . , T homa s 1 983 :40 ) . T h i s m ean s t h a t p ro cu r emen t o f p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima ls ( wh ich d o n o t m ove v e ry m uch ) , b o th b e ing r e s t r ic t ed i nd i s t r ibu t ion , i sr e la t ive ly p r ed ic tab le a nd r i sk f r ee , w h i le p rocu r emen to fl a rge g ame , b ecau se t h ey c an c hang e t h e i r l o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion , i s much mo re u np red ic tab le a nd v e ry r i sky . C on sequen t ly , p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s a r e s im i la rt oe a ch o t he r i nt e rm s o fs t ruc tu ra l

A l though K eene ( 198 1 :10 ) a nd R e idhead ( 198 1 :42 ) a r gue t h a t a bundance a nd e ne rgy ef i c iency , a s m ea su r ed i n

3 7

c a lo r ie s , a r e n o t t h e o n ly r e levan t r e sou r ce a t t r ibu te s f o r h uman s , Ia s sume f o r m y a na ly s i s t h a t c a lo r ie s p rov ide s uff ic ien t c u r r ency t o m ode l r e sou r ce p a rame te r s ( s ee a l so S imm s 1 984 :52 ) . A s ac o ro l la ry a nd a s h a s b een a r gued , o t he r n ece s sa ry n u t r ien t s ( e .g . , v i tam in s , p ro te in s , a nd s o o n F AO 1 974 ; K eene 1 98 1 : 134 ; NRC 1 974 ; R e idhead 1 98 1 :54 5 9 )a r ea cqu i r ed t h rough i t em sa l ready i nt h e d i e t( e .g . , P yke e ta l . 1 977 ) .

T ab le 5 . 1 N umb e ro fp l an t sa nd e d ib le p l an tp a r t s( b y g ene ra ) i n d i f f e r en t w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s s e t t ing s . a ) A l l e d ib le p l an t g ene ra o ft h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s b r ok en d own b y s e t t ing s ; b ) P l an t w i th e d ib le r o o t s b rok en d own b y s e t t ing ; c )P l an t s w i th e d ib le s e ed s b r ok en d own b y s e t t ing ; d ) P l an t s w i th e d ib le l e ave s b roken d own b y s e t t ing ; e ) P l an t s w i th e d ib le f l owe r s b rok en d own b y s e t t ing . A l l s e t t ing sf r om Ma r r io t t( 1 985 ) . a )A l l e d ib le p l an tg ene ra ( n=2 13 )

Wha t f o l low s i sn o t m ean t a s ad ef in i t e r e sou r ce r a nk ing m ode l f o r t h e w e s t e rn B la ck H i l l s . D a ta f o r s uch amode l , e s pec ia l ly w i th r e ga rd t op l an t s , i su nava i lab le . F o re xamp le , s p ec if ic p l an tp roduc t ion f i gu r e s o ri n f o rma t ion o n s pa t ia l o r t empo ra l v a r ia t ion b e tween p l an t c ommun i t ie s a r e o f t en e s t ima te s ( s ee A ppend ix B ) . H ow eve r , Iw ou ld a r gue w i th J o ch im ( 1983 :159 )t h a tm any o p t ima lf o rag ing mode l sg i ve a f a l se i mp r e s s ion o fp r ec i s ion . My g oa l r a the ri st os how t h a t w ec an t h ink o ft h ew e s te rn B la ck H i l l s ,a nd b ye x t en s ion t h e G r ea t P l a in s , a s ar a the r h e te rogeneou s e nv i ronmen t f o r a h uman f o rag ing p opu la t ion , a n e nv i ronmen t t h a t c ou ld b e e xp lo i ted t h rough an umbe ro fd i f f e r en te conom ic o p t ion s .

Moun ta ins F oo th i l ls P owde rR ive rB a s in S e t t ing u nknown

Numbe r 1 32 1 52 8 6 1 0

P e r cen t 6 2 7 1 4 0 5

b )P lan t sw i th e d ib le r oo t s( n=58 g ene ra )

Moun ta ins F oo th i l ls P owde rR ive rB a s in S e t t ing u nknow n

I mmob i le R e sou r ce so ft h e We s te rn B la ck H i l l s F l o ra a nd s ma l l f a una a r e c on s ide r ed i mmob i le ( o r a tl e a s t r e la t ive ly i mmob i le ) ac ha ra c te r i s t ic t h a t s t ru c tu r e s t h e i r u se b y h uman s . I no rde rt oe s t ima t e t h e a bundance o ff l o ra a nd s ma l l f a una , i n f o rma t ion i sg a the red o n p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s , p roduc t iv i ty a nd e ne rgy y i e ld s .

Numbe r 4 0 4 6 2 2 1

P e r cen t 6 9 7 9 3 8 2

c )P lan t sw i th e d ib le s e ed s( n=70 g ene ra )

Moun ta ins F oo th i l ls P owde rR ive rB a s in

F l o ra . T he s t udy a r ea c on ta in s a pp rox ima te ly 6 00 p l an t s p ec ie sw h ich w e r ee i the ru t i l iz ed b yt h en a t ive p opu la t ion o r a r e k nown t o b e u sef u l ( Append ix A ) . T he p l an t s i n c lude t r ee s , s h rub s , g r a s se s , f o rb s , f u ng i a nd l i chen s ; p roduc ing e d ib le s e ed s , t u be r s , p o l len , p od s , p e ta l s , o r o t he r e d ib le p o r t ion s . A l though a f ew o f t h e s p ec ie s p rov ide o n ly m ed ic ina l , r e l ig iou s , o r o t he r n on -f ood f u nc t ion s , m o s t a r e e d ib le .

Numbe r 4 3 5 7 3 5

P e rcen t 6 1 8 1 5 0

d )P lan t sw i th e d ib le l e ave s( n=26 g ene ra )

Moun ta ins F oo th i l ls P owde rR ive rB a s in

T he B la ck H i l l s F oo th i l l s e cozone c on ta in s t h e l a rge s t n umbe r o f u s ef u l s p ec ie s , f o l lowed b y B la ck H i l l s p rope r , w h i le t h eP owde rR ive rb a s in c on ta in st h e f ewe s t( Tab le 5 . 1a t oe ) . E d ib le p o r t ion s( r oo t s , s e ed s , l e ave s , f r u i t s /f lowe r s )a r e d i s t r ibu ted i n t h e s ame f a sh ion , e xcep t t h a t t h e e d ib le f r u i t s / f lowe r sp o r t ion sa r ee qua l ly c ommon i nt h e B la ck H i l l s f o o th i l l s a nd m oun ta in s ( B la ck H i l l s p rope r ) . A l though t h e r e g ion i sr i ch i n v a r ie ty , m any s p ec ie s a r e t o o s pa r se ly d i s t r ibu ted o rp rov ide i n adequa te r e tu rn s t ob e o fv a lue t oa h uman p opu la t ion . I n a dd i t ion , f o r ag e r s g ene ra l ly k now m any mo r e p l an t s t h an t h ey e a t r e gu la r ly a nd o n ly as ma l l p o r t ion o ft h er e gu la r ly u s ed p l an t sc on s t i tu te st h eb u lk o ft h e d i e t( Lee 1 979a ; S i lbe rbaue r 1 981 ;T anaka 1 980 ) .

Numbe r 2 1 2 1 I1

P e rcen t 8 1 8 1 4 2

e )P lan t sw i th e d ib le f l owe r s( n=34 g ene ra )

Moun ta ins F oo th i l ls P owde rR ive rB a s in

Numbe r 2 4 2 1 1 4

P e rcen t 7 1 6 2 4 1

d om inan ts p ec ie s( a pp rox ima t e ly 4 . 5% o ft h et o ta l s p ec ie s i n t h es t udy a r ea ; T ab le 5 . 2 ) . F o r l e s s c ommon s pec ie s , d en s i ty i n f o rma t ion i sg ene ra l ly n o ta va i lab le . L e s sc ommon s p ec ie s d o n o t a dd s ub s tan t ia l ly t o o ve ra l l r e sou r ce a bundance a nd t h e r ef o r e a r e l e s s r e levan t f o r p r eh i s to r ic e conom ie s , a l though s u ch p l an t s m ay p rove u sef u l f o r c e r ta in b a ckup s t ra teg ie s .

R e sou rce A bundance . B a sed o n e s t ima t e s o fp l an t d en s i t ie s a nd p l an tp roduc t ion , o ve ra l l a bundance o fp l an tr e sou r ce s i s p r e sen ted i nk i loca lo r ie sp e rh ec ta r e . S e lec t ion o ft h es p ec ie s u s ed t oe s t ima te p l an ta bundance i sb a sed o nt h e a va i lab i l i ty o fp l an td en s i ty i n f o rma t ion . My c a lcu la t ion sd on o ti n c lude a l k nown e d ib le s p ec ie s b ecau se m any s p ec ie s l a ck d en s i ty d a ta . D en s i ty i n f o rma t ion i sa va i lab le f o r2 4c ommon a nd

T he r e g iona l p l an t s u rvey l i t e ra tu re u sua l ly p r e sen t s p l an t d en s i t ie sf o re a ch p l an ta s soc ia t ion ( e .g . ,a luv ia lt e r ra ce

3 8

T ab le 5 . 2 We s te rn s e lec t ed f o rr a nk ing . S PEC IES A g ropy ron S pp A l l ium S pp Ame lanch i er a l n if o l ia A t r ip l ex S pp C henopod ium E lymu sS pp H e l ian thu sS pp J un ipe ru sS pp K oe l er ia S pp Muh lenbe rg ia a sper if o l ia O pun t ia p o lyacan tha O ry zop s i sS pp P inu sp ond e ro sa P runu sS pp R hu sS sp R ibe sS pp R o sa S pp S c irpu sS pp S ymphor i ca rpo so cc id en ta l i s T ypha l a t if o l ia P o l len T ypha l a t if o l ia R oo t s Y ucca g lauca

B la ck

H i l l s

p l an t

T o ta l r e sou r ce a bundance ( k i loca lo r ie s p e r h ec ta r e ) w a s t h en e s t ima t ed f o r e ach h e c ta r e r e p r e sen t ing l ow a nd h i gh p l an t d en s i t ie s ( Tab le 5 . 3 c o lumn ia nd j ) . T he c a lcu la t ion w a s b a sed o nt h ef o rmu la :

r e sou r ce s

CO MMON NA ME Whea tg ra s s W i ld O n ion S er v ice B e r ry S a l tbu sh , S had sca le G oo sef oo t , P igweed W i ld rye , S quag ra s s S unf lowe r , S eve ra lT ype s C ommon J un ipe r ,R ocky Moun ta in J un ipe r J uneg r a s s Muh l i P r ick ly P ea r I nd ian R iceg ra s s P onde ro sa P i ne P lum sA nd C he r r ie s Smoo th S uma c , S kunkb ru sh S umac C u r ran t ,G oo sebe r r ie s W i ld R o se B u l ru sh ,T u le S nowbe r ry , Wo lfb e r ry C a t ta i l C a t ta i l S oap Weed , Y ucca

A =( D m x1 0 ,000 xW p xKp)

w h e r e :

A =a bundance i nk i loca lo r ie sp e rh ec ta r e D . d en s i t ie sp e rs qua r em e t e r( e i the rc o lumn eo r0 1 0 ,000 = c on s tan t t o p r oduce v a lue f o r h ec ta r e d en s i ty ( 10 ,000m 2) W p =w e igh to fe d ib le p o r t ion o fe a ch p l an t( c o lumn g ) Kp =k i loca lo r ie sp e rk i log ram o fe ach p l an t( c o lumn h ) T he t o ta l r e sou rce a bundance w a s t h en d i v ided b y 4t o c omp en sa te f o r c r op l o s s , c ompe t i t ion f r om o t he r a n ima l s , a nd y ea r ly i regu la r i ty o fp roduc t ion ( e .g . , K eene 1 98 1 :62 ; R e idhead 1 98 1 :48 ) . T h i s i s av e ry r ough c a lcu la t ion b a sed o n c r op l o s se s a nd c ompe t i t ion v a ry ing f r om a n a ve rag e o f 5 0% ( R e idhead 1 98 1 : 168 )t oa n e x t reme o f 1 00% f o ra cor n s ( Keene 1 98 1 :65 ) , a nd y ea r ly p roduc t ion w he r e f r om 2 0% t o 8 1% o fp l an t s m ay y i e ld i na ny o ne y ea r ( Keene 1 98 1 :62 , 7 6 ) . T he r e su l ti s ar a ng eo fv a lue sf r om p l an t st o ta l ly a b sen t t oo t he r s c on t r ibu t ing 1 0 ,725 K i loca lo r ie s p e r h ec ta r e a tl ow p l an td en s i t ie s . A th i gh p l an t d en s i t ie s t h e r a ng e p e rh ec ta r e i s4 . 78 t o5 47 ,500 k i loca lo r ie s . Sma l l F auna . Sma l l f a una a r e d ef ined h e r e a s m amma l s w e igh ing a n a ve rag e o f 3k g o r l e s s , t h a t a r e r e la t ive ly i mmob i le b ecau se o fs ma l l s i z e a nd r e s t r ic ted h ome r a nge s . I no t he r w o rd s , o ne c an c amp n ex t t oa n a bundan t p a tch o f s ma l l a n ima l s a nd e xp lo i t t h em j u s t a s o ne m ig h t e xp lo i t p l an t r e sou r ce s . I mmob i l i ty c l ea r ly s epa ra te s s ma l l f r om l a rg e f a una , t h e l a t te r h av ing t h e a b i l i ty t o f l ee m any m i le s a nd p o t en t ia l ly o u to fe a sy r e a ch o ff o rage r s .

g r a s s sh rub a s soc ia t ion ) w i th in e a ch m a jo r v ege ta t ion z one ( e .g . , g r a s s land sageb ru sh c ommun i ty o r am o r e i n c lu s ive e co log ica l c a tego ry ) . T he f r a c t ion t h a t a n a s soc ia t ion r ep r e sen t s w i th in a n e n t i r e z one g ene ra l ly i sn o t p r e sen ted , m ak ing a n a c cu ra te e s t ima te o f p l an t a bundance f o r t h e w ho l e z one v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le . B y e s t ima t ing t h e r a nge i n g ene ra l a bundance u s ing t h e l owe s t a nd h i ghe s t p l an t d en s i t ie s i na ny p l an t a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e B la ck H i l l s a nd t h eP owde rR ive rB a s in ( Tab le 5 . 3 c o lumn s ea nd f ) ,t h e o ve r a l l a bundance f o rt h e p oo re s t a nd r i che s tp o r t ion s o ft h e r e g ion a r ee s tab l i shed .

A t l e a s t 9 9 s p ec ie s o fs ma l l a n ima l s e x i s t i nt h e B la ck H i l l s ( Append ix B , T ab le s B . 1-B .3 ) , i n c lud ing m amma ls , b i rd s a nd l i za rd s , b u t e xc lud ing i n sec t s . A l though p r eh i s to r ic f o rag ing m ay h ave u t i l iz ed a l s p ec ie s ( i nc lud ing i n sec t s , e . g . , F r i son a nd H u sea s 1 968 ) , t h e p r e sen t a na ly s i s u s e s n i ne s ma l l m amma l s p ec ie s c on s ide r ed e conom ica l ly t h e m o s t i mpo r tan tb y e t hnog raph ic s ou r ce s i nt h e a d jacen t r e g ion s o f N o r th Ame r ica ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) .

I n a dd i t ion t o p l an t d en s i t ie s , a n e s t ima t e o f r e sou r ce a bundance ( k i loca lo r ie s p e r h ec ta r e ) m u s t c on s ide r p l an t p roduc t iv i ty . P roduc t ion f i gu r e s f o r e d ib le p l an t s o f t h e w e s t er nB la ck H i l l s a r e n o t a va i lab le , a nd e s t ima te s h e r e a r e b a sed o n t h e s ame o rs im i la r s p ec ie s i no t he rr e g ion s , w hen a va i lab le ( Tab le 5 . 3 c o lumn g ) o r a r e o t he rw i se c a lcu la ted ( s ee A ppend ix B ) . C a r e w a s t a k en t o a vo id i n f la t ing e s t ima t e s . I n f a c t , m y f i gu re s m ay b e r a the r g ro s s u nd e r e s t ima te s .

R e sou rce A bundance . T he e s t ima t ion o f s ma l l a n ima l a bundance f o rh uman f o rage r s r e qu i re s s eve ra l t y pe s o fd a ta i na dd i t ion t ot h a tu s ed f o rp l an ta bundance . S pec if ica l ly ,t h e p ropo r t ion o f e d ib le l i ve w e igh t ( e .g . , S t ah l 1 982 ; Wh i t e 1 953 ) a nd c u l l r a t e o rt h e p ropo r t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion t h a t c an b e e xp lo i t ed w h i le e n su r ing ac on t inu i ty o fs upp ly , m u s t b e k nown f o r a l a n ima l r e sou rce s . C onsequen t ly , t h e f o l low ing d i scu s s ion a pp l ie s t o b o th s ma l l , i mmob i le a nd l a rg e ,m ob i le s p ec ie s( wh ich a r ed i scu s sed s epa ra te ly b e low ) , s i nce e d ib le l i ve w e igh t a nd c u l l r a te a r e p e r t inen t f o r a l a n ima l s .

F ina l ly , t h e c a lo r ic v a lue o f p l an t s mu s t b e k nown t o c a lcu la t e r e sou r ce a bundance . Ig ene ra l ly u s e p ub l i shed v a lue s , b u t i n an umbe ro fc a se s Ie s t ima te t h e c a lo r ic v a lu e f r om s im i la r p l an t s o r p l an t p a r t s ( e .g . , r oo t s , s e ed s ; s e e A ppend ix B ) . F o rA g ropy ron s pp . a nd K oe l e r ia s pp . , m a jo r g ra s s s p ec ie s , t h e c a lo r ic v a lu e i s e s t ima t ed u s ing t h e m idpo in t v a lue s o fG r ea t B a s in g r a s s v a r ie t ie s c a lcu la ted b y S imm s( 1 984 )( Tab le 5 . 3 c o lumn h ) .

T he l i ve w e igh t o ft h e s ma l l a n ima l s r a nge s f r om 4 0 gt o3 k g ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) . H ow ev e r , t h e p ropo r t ion o f e d ib le l i ve w e igh tr a nge sf r om a ne s t ima ted 5 7% t o1 00% ( s ee a l so 3 9

T ab le 5 . 3 B a s ic d a ta o nw e s te rn B la ck H i l l sp l an tr e sou r ce sa nd a bundance a th i gh a nd l ow p l an td ens i t ie s , a )c ommon n ame o fp l an t ;b )s i z eo fp l an tp a tch s amp led b yS imm s( 1984 ) i ns qua r em e t e r s( m )o ra c r e s( a ) ; ca nd d )l ow a nd h i g hd en s i ty o fp l an t s r e spec t ive ly i np a t che s s amp led b y S imm s ; ea nd 0 l ow a nd h i gh d en s i t ie s r e spec t ive ly o fp l an t s i nw e s t e r n B la ck H i l l s ; y i e ld o fe a ch p l an t i nk i log ram s ; h )c a lo r ie s y i e lded b y e a ch k i log ram o fp l an t ; ia nd j )o ve ra l l a bundance o fp l an t s p e r h ec ta r e a tl ow ( i )a nd h igh ( j )p l an td en s i t ie s ( c o lumn s ea nd fm u l t ip l ied b y c o lumn g ) ; o ve ra l l y i e ld p e rh ec ta r e i nc a lo r ie s a t l ow ( k ) a nd h i gh ( 1 ) p l an t d en s i t ie s ( c o lumn s ia nd jmu l t ip l ied b y c o lumn h ) ; a nd k i loca lo r ie s y i e lded p e r h ou r o fp l an t e xp lo i ta t ion . D a ta i sf r om av a r ie ty o fs ou r ce s ,s e eA ppend ix B f o ra l t h es ou r ce su s ed a nd o t he rd e ta i l so ft h ec a lcu la t ion s .

PL A NT

COMMON NAME

S imm s p a tch

S imm s l ow

DE NSI T Y

S imm s h i gh

WBH l ow

WBH h i gh

K g / p l an t

K ca l / k g

A bund . i nk g /hec t L ow H igh

A bund . i nK ca l /he L ow H igh

K ca l / h ou r

a B u lru sh ,T u le

1 00m

C a t ta i l

5 0a

S a l tbu sh , S had sca le

6 00a

1 0 .00

3 0 .00

3 . 30

0 . 00 12

3 050

0 . 00000

1 9 .8

0 . 00

6 0390

1 00 1

3 0

4 0

7 . 40

0 . 00 12

1 040

0 . 00000

4 4 .4

0 . 00

4 6 176

6 055

0 . 15

0 . 15

0 . 00 100

0 . 25

0 . 0700

2 900

0 . 35000

8 7 .5

1 0 15 .00

2 53750

1 17

P l um sa nd C he r r ie s

0 . 10000

0 . 55

0 . 0050

7 53

2 . 50000

1 3 .8

1 882 .50

1 0354

4 33

S nowbe r ry , Wo lfbe r ry

0 . 00020

3 . 47

0 . 0330

6 50

0 . 03300

5 72 .6

2 1 .45

3 72 158

4 33

S e rv ic eB e r ry

0 . 20000

0 . 60

0 . 0330

6 50

3 3 .00000

9 9 .0

2 1450 .00

6 4350

4 33

P onde ro sa P i ne

0 . 04000

0 . 10

0 . 0 100

4 880

2 . 00000

5 . 0

9 760 .00

2 4400

3 52

W i ld R o se

0 . 00004

1 . 87

0 . 0330

2 50

0 . 00660

3 08 .6

1 . 65

7 7 138

4 33

C u r ran t ,G oo sebe r r ie s

0 . 00004

0 . 60

0 . 0330

6 50

0 . 00660

9 9 .0

4 . 29

6 4350

4 33

P r ick ly P ea r

0 . 00200

2 . 00

0 . 0060

4 20

0 . 06000

6 0 .0

2 5 .20

2 5200

4 20

S oap Weed , Y ucca

0 . 00 100

0 . 35

0 . 1340

1 90

0 . 67000

2 34 .5

1 27 .30

4 4555

3 800

7 . 40

0 . 0020

3 340

0 . 00000

7 4 .0

0 . 00

2 47 160

1 98

0 . 00004

2 . 00

0 . 00 10

9 56

0 . 00020

1 0 .0

0 . 19

9 560

1 43

0 . 50

0 . 00 12

2 800

0 . 00000

3 . 0

0 . 00

8 400

7 52

C a t ta i l

5 0a

3 0 .00

4 0 .00

W i ld O n ion W i ld rye , S quag ra s s

3 75m -2a

0 . 15

1 0 .00

I n d ian R ic eg ra s s

1 00a

0 . 40

0 . 75

S uma c

0 . 00004

3 . 80

0 . 0004

2 740

0 . 00008

7 . 6

0 . 22

2 0824

3 47

0 . 00004

0 . 07

0 . 0330

6 50

0 . 00660

1 .6

4 . 29

7 508

4 33

0 . 05

0 . 0 100

2 145

0 . 00000

2 . 5

0 . 00

5 363

4 33

1 . 70

0 . 0040

3 627

0 . 08000

3 4 .0

2 90 .16

1 233 18

1 088 3 97

J un ip e r G oo sef oo t , P igweed

0 . 00400

J uneg ra s s

0 . 00040

5 . 43

0 . 0004

3 040

0 . 00080

1 0 .9

2 . 43

3 30 14

Whea tg ra s s

0 . 006 10

5 3 .50

0 . 0004

3 040

0 . 0 1220

1 07 .0

3 7 .09

3 25280

3 97

1 5 .00

0 . 0040

3 650

2 . 00000

3 00 .0

7 300 .00

1 095000

4 86 2 28

S unf lowe r

6 00m

0 . 75

1 . 00

0 . 10000

D rop se ed s , S aka toon

4 -50m

3 0 .00

5 0 .00

0 . 60000

F ox ta i l B a r ley

1 5 18m

1 0 .00

4 0 .00

Muh l i

S ego L i l ly

1 90 .00

0 . 000 1

2 420

0 . 00000

14 .0

0 . 00

2 75880

5 . 10

0 . 000 1

2 420

0 . 36000

3 . 1

8 7 1 .20

7 405

2 28

0 . 60

0 . 0007

3 070

0 . 00000

2 . 0

0 . 00

6 17 1

2 06

0 . 00

0 . 00 10

9 56

0 . 00020

0 . 0

0 . 19

1 0

1 43

0 . 00004

A ppend ix B ) . T he s ma l le s t t h r ee s p ec ie s ( 1 3 l ined g round s qu i r r e l , N o r ther n p ocke t g ophe r , a nd m ic ro tu s ) a r e c on s ide r ed t o b e 1 00% e d ib le b ecau se c on s ide rab le e t hnog raph ic e v idence e x i s t st os ugg e s tt h a ts u ch a n ima l sa r e n o t i na ny s en se b u tche red , b u t a r e c ommon ly u s ed w ho le ( Gou ld 1 980 :22 ; S t ah l 1 982 ; S t ewa r ta nd S t ah l 1 977 ; S t ewa r t 1 938 ) . C on sequen t ly , t h e e d ib le w e igh t o f s ma l l a n ima ls r a ng e sf r om 4 0 gt o1 . 8k g( Tab le 5 . 4 ) .

( e .g . , D amu th 1 98 1) , p rov ide a n ima l p opu la t ion d en s i ty f i gu r e s u s ed i nm y a bundance c a lcu la t ion s . F o r s e ve ra l o f t h e s ma l l a n ima l s p ec ie s , h oweve r , p opu la t ion d en s i ty w a s e s t ima ted o n t h e b a se s o f p r ima ry s t ud ie s w he r e a n ima l p opu la t ion s w e r en o ts epa ra t ed i n to s pec ie s . T o e s t ima t et h e d en s i ty o f e a ch s pec ie s , t h e a l lome t r ic p r inc ip le o f c o r r e la t ion b e tw een b ody s i z e a nd d en s i ty w a s u s ed ( e .g . , D amu th 1 98 1) . T he d en s i ty o f t h e s i x s ma l le s t s p ec ie s ( g round s qu i r r e l , b u shy t a i led w ood r a t , 1 3 l ined g r ound s qu i r e s , p l a in s p ock e t g ophe r , n o r ther n p ocke t g ophe r , a nd v o le s )f o rw h ich n os p ec if i c d en s i ty d a ta w e r e a va i lab le f r om p r ima ry s t ud ie s , t h e o ve ra l l d en s i ty o fs ma l l a n ima l s ( 9 540 i n d iv idua l s /km ; D epa r tmen t o ft h e I n te r io r 1 979 :R2 -56 ) w a s d i v id ed p ropo r t iona l ly b a sed o n t h e a lome t r ic b ody s i z e /den s i ty r e la t ion sh ip d eve loped b yD amu th ( 198 1 :700 ) :

T he e ne rgy a va i lab le f r om a n ima l s i s p r e sen ted i n k i loca lo r ie s . An umbe ro fd if e ren t v a lue s a r e a va i lab le , b u t m y e s t ima te s f o r s ma l l a n ima l s a r e b a sed l a rge ly o n R e idhead ' s ( 198 1 :55 ) s e a sona l a ve rage s f o r s qu i r r e l s , t h e a n ima l m o s t s im i la r t o t h e s e ven s ma l le s t a n ima l s i n t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s ( s ee A ppend ix B f o r d e ta i l s o f e a ch s p ec ie s ) .

l o gD= -0 .75 ( logW )+4 .23 w he r e : D =p opu la t ion d en s i ty p e rs qua re k i lome t e r W =w e igh to ft h ea n ima l i nk i log ram s

P r ima ry s t ud ie s ( e .g . , U .S . D epa r tmen to ft h e I n t e r io r 1 979 ) , g ene ra l r e g iona l s umma r ie s ( Bu r t a nd G ro s senhe ide r 1 976 ; J .J one s e ta l . 1 983 ) , o r e s t ima te s b a sed o n a n ima l e co logy 4 0

L a rge F auna . F ou r l a rge h e rb ivo res ( b ison , b ighorn s heep , d ee r , a nd p ronghorn ) o ccu r mo s t c ommon ly i na r cheo log ica l a nd p a leon to log ica l a s semb lage s f r om t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e B lack H i l ls . E lk , moo se , a nd b ea ra r e t h ree o t he r l a rge f a una o ft h e B lack H i l ls , w h ich a r e n o tt hough tt oh ave c on t r ibu ted g rea t ly t o p r eh is to r ic d i e t s . E lk i s r a re ly f ound i n a r cheo log ica l s i tes o f t h e s t udy a r ea a nd v i c in i ty a s a s ubs is tence r e sou rce ( F r ison 1 978a :273) a nd i sc ommon o n ly i n s e lec ted e nv ironmen t s w i th a ccess t o h igh s umme r p a s tu res . Moose , o n t h e o t he r h and , a ppea r s t o h ave b een a bsen t f r om Nor thwes t P l a ins p r io r t o e a r ly h i s to r ic t ime s , t hu s i ta l so i sn o t as i gn if ican t p reh is to r ic r e sou rce . B ea r , a l though c on t r ibu t ing t o f o rage r d i e t s u nde r e x t reme c ond i t ions , a nd e ven t h en r e la ted t o r i tua l e ven t s (Wa tanabe 1 972 ) , r a re ly s e rves a s ap r ima ry s ub s is tence s ou rce f o r f o rage r s b ecause o fi t s omn ivo rou s d i e ta nd s omewha t h i ghe r p l acemen to nt h et r oph ic l e ve l t h an t h e h erb ivo res c on s ide red h e re a nd e l sewhe re .

B a sed o n t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f p opu la t ion d ens i ty a nd a n ima l b ody s i ze , 3 9% o f t h e 9 540 s ma l l a n ima ls i n e ach s qua re k i lome te r s hou ld b e m ic ro tus ( n=3721) , 2 3% s hou ld b e n o r thern p ocke t g ophe r ( n=2194 ) , a nd s o o n f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e s ma l l mamma ls ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) . T o i n su re u n in ter rup ted e xp lo i ta t ion , a n ima l p opu la t ions mus t b e m a in ta ined a t r e la t ive ly c ons tan t l e ve ls , t h e refo re a l lowab le c u l l r a te s f o r ap ar t icu la r s pec ie s s hou ld n o t b e e xceeded ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) . P o ten t ia l c u l l r a te c a lcu la t ions a r e d e r ived f r om l i f e s pan ( o r p er iod o f f e r t i l i ty ) , n umbe r o f n ewbor n p e r b i r th e p isode ( i .e . , s i ng le , t w ins , e t c . ) , n umbe r o fb i r ths p e rs ea son , a nd l e ng th o fi mma tu r i ty ( e .g . , R e idhead 1 98 1 :43) . T he s ma l les t a n ima ls a r e e s t ima ted t o h ave c u l l r a te s a s h igh a s 9 8% , b a sed o n t h e t h eo re t ica l p o ten t ia l o f v o le s t o mu l t ip ly f r om 1 00 p a i r t o 8 900 i n d iv idua ls i n o ne s ea son ( J ohnson a nd J ohnson 1 982 :333) . T he c u l l r a te t h en i sa l t h e a n ima ls e xcep t f o r t he 1 00 o r ig ina l p a i r . T he c u l l r a te s o ft h e o the r a n ima ls w e re b a sed o n t hose c a lcu la ted b y R e idhead f o r s ame o r s im i la r s pec ie s ( Re idhead 1 98 1; s e e A ppend ix B ) .

E s t ima tes o fa bundance o fl a rge a nd m ed ium s i ze f auna w e re d e r ived b y u s ing t h e s ame g ene ra l p rocedu res a s s ma l l mamma ls ( above , T ab le 5 . 4 ) . Mos t o f t h e v a lues f o r d ee r , b ighorn s heep , a nd a n te lope w e re d e r ived f r om t h e s ou rces c i ted a bove o r f r om S imms ( 1984 ; s e e A ppend ix B ) , b u t t h e re w e re s ome mod if ica t ions t oS imms ' e s t ima tes a nd t h ese a nd o t he r e s t ima tes w a r ran t c ommen t s . S pec if ica l ly , e ne rgy y i e ld e s t ima tes ( Ca l /kg ) u sed h e re a r e t h e m idpo in t o f s e a sona l v a r ia t ion c a lcu la ted b y R e idhead ( 1981 :54 ) , w h ich a r e s ubs tan t ia l ly h ighe rt h an S imms 's ( t he s ame w a s t r ue f o r s ma l l a n ima ls d i scussed a bove ) . T he m idpo in to fR e idhead 's e s t ima tes , It h ink , p rov ide mo re a ccu ra te a ve rage e ne rgy y i e ld s f o rt h e w e s tern B lack H i l ls mode l , t han S imms 's .

T he o ve ra l l a bundance o fs ma l l a n ima ls w a s e s t ima ted u s ing t h ef o l low ing f o rmu la : A = W a xPh X C a w he r e : A =a bundance i nk i loca lo r ies p er h ec ta re W a =e d ib le w e igh t i nk i log rams Dh = d en s i ty p e rh ec ta re Ca =c u l l r a te f o re ach a n ima l T he s ma l l a n ima l a bundance r a nge s f r om 4 2 t o 1 5 ,660

R e sou rce Abundance i nt h e Wes tern B lack H i l ls

K i loca lo r ies p e r h ec ta re . U n l ike p l an t s , o n ly o ne s e t o f a bundance v a lues w a s c a lcu la ted f o r a n ima ls . U s ing t h is v a lue t h e a bundance o fv a r iou s s ma l l a n ima l s pec ies c an b e c ompa red t oe ach o t he r , a sw e l l a st ot h e a bundance o fp lan t s a nd l a rge , mob i le f a una .

T he 4 2 w es te rn B lack H i l ls r e sou rce s a r e r anked a cco rd ing t o t h e i ro ve ra l l a bundance i nK i loca lo r ies p e rh ec ta re ( Tab le 5 . 5 a nd 5 . 6 ) . S ince b o th h igh a nd l ow p lan t d ens i t ies w e re e s t ima ted ( Tab le 5 . 3) , s ome s ense o f s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r ia t ion o f r e sou rce a bundance c an b e a ch ieved b y

Mob i le R esou rce s

c a lcu la t ing p roduc t iv i ty u nde r t h e t wo d if f e ren t d ens i ty c ond i t ions .

Mob i le r e sou rces a r e d ef ined a st hose t h a t h ave t h e a b i l i ty t o move o u t o f ac onsume r 's ( humans ' ) f o rag ing r a nge . L a rge t e r re s t r ia l f auna c omp r ise t h e mob i le r e sou rce s i nt h e w es tern B lack H i l ls . B ecau se o f t h e i r a b i l i ty t o move o u t o f t h e f o rag ing r ange , l a rge f auna a r e q ua l i ta t ive ly d i f f e ren t a nd mo re r i sky t op rocu re t h an t he i mmob i le r e sou rces d i scus sed a bove . A t l e a s t f ou r med ium s i ze mamma ls a r e a l so c on s ide red mob i le ( b eave r , p o rcup ine , ma rmo t , a nd musk ra t ) f o r t h e p resen t e s t ima tes o f r e sou rce a bundance . A l though n o t a s mob i le a s l a rge f auna , t h e f ou r m ed ium m amma ls

P lan t s a ccoun t f o r mo s t a bundan t r e sou rces u nde r c ond i t ions o f h igh p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s , w h i le a n ima ls a ccoun t f o r t h e mos t a bundan t r e sou rce s u nde r c ond i t ions o f l ow p l an t p opu la t ion d ens i ty . U nde r c ond i t ions o f h igh p l an t p opu la t ion d ens i ty t h et op 1 5 r e sou rces a r e p lan t s , w h i le o n ly t wo o u t o f2 0 a nd t h ree o u t o f2 5 t op r e sou rces a r e a n ima ls . O n t h e o t he r h and , u nde r l ow p l an t p opu la t ion d ens i ty , t h ree o ft h e t op 1 0 , e i gh t o ft h e t op 2 0 , a nd 1 6 o ft h e t op 2 5 mo s t a bundan t r e sou rces a r e a n ima ls . C lea r ly , u nde r l ow p l an t d ens i t ies , t h e p l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou rces a r e mo re m ixed i n t h e h i ghe r r e sou rce r a nk s . I ti sa l so n ecessa ry t or emembe r t h a t e s t ima tes f o r a n ima ls a r e n e i the r a tl ow o r h igh d en s i ty b u ta tm ean d ens i ty i nb o th mode ls . F ru i t a nd s e ed p roduce r s a r e i n term ixed among t h e t op p l an t p roduce r s . Y ucca p ods a nd w i ld o n ion , t h e o n ly a bundan t n on -f ru i t o r n on -seed p roduce r s , a r e t h e 1 3 `h a nd 1 9t h ( r espec t ive ly ) mos t a bundan t

o ccu r i n s uch l ow d ens i t ies , a nd i n v ery r e s t r ic ted h ab i ta t s t h a t t h e a rgumen t p r esen ted i nt h e p rev iou s s e c t ion a bou t t h e s im i la r i ty t op l an t r e sou rces d oes n o t a pp ly . I no t he r w o rd s , w h i le t h e i r f l igh t p a t tern i s mo re s im i la r t o s ma l l t han t o l a rg e f auna ( i . e . , h i d ing i nt he n ea res t h o le w hen p u r sued ) , t h e i r d ens i t ies a r e n eve r h igh e nough t o b e c ons ide red i n d ec i s ions a bou tc amp l o ca t ion .

r e sou rces a th igh p lan td ens i ty .

4 1

T ab le 5 . 4 F auna l r e sou r ce s i nt h e w e s ter n B lack H i l l s . a )c ommon n ame o fs pec ie s ; b ) a pp rox ima t e l i ve w e igh t i n k i log ram s o f o ne a n ima l ; c ) p o r t ion ( % ) o f a n ima l w h ich i se d ib le ; d ) w e igh t o f e d ib le p o r t ion i nk i log ram s ; e ) a n ima l p opu la t ion d en s i ty , i n n umbe r o f i n d iv idua l s p e r s qua r e k i lome te r ; t )c u l l r a t e , t h e p o r t ion o f t h e p opu la t ion t h a t c an b e e xp lo i ted w i thou t d im in i sh ing t h e p opu la t ion d en s i ty ; g )a bundance o fe xp lo i tab le p o r t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion i nk i log r am s p e r h ec ta r e ; h ) a ve rag e g roup s i z e ; i )d i spe r s ion i n dex i sb a sed o n d i v id ing g r oup s i z e ( h ) b y d en s i ty ( e ) ; j ) e ne rgy i nt h e k i loca lo r ie sy i e lded b ye a ch k i log ram o fm ea t ; P u r su i tT ime 1 ,o rt h et ime i tt a k e st ot a ke d own a na n ima l o nce e ncoun te r ed i s p r e sen ted i nh ou r s p e r i n d iv idua l ( k ) a nd h ou r s p e r k i log ram ( I ) ; P roce s s ing T ime 1o r t h e t i me i tt a ke s t of i e ld b u t che r a n a n ima l i sa l so p r e sen ted i nh ou r sp e ri n d iv idua l( m )a nd h ou r sp e rk i log ram ( n ) ; H and l ing T ime i sf r om S imm s 1 984 ,e xcep ta s i n d ica ted i nt h e t e x t ; P u r su i t T ime 2( PU2 ) i st h e i n t e rpa t ch e ncoun t e r r a te , t h e r a t e a tw h ich ag roup c an b e e xpec t ed t ob e e ncoun te red b a sed o nt h e d i spe r s ion i n dex , t h i s i sp r e sen ted i nh ou r sp e r i n d iv idua l ( r ) a nd h ou r s p e rk i log ram ( s ) ; P roce s s ing T ime 2( PR2 ) -R e t r ieva l i n c lude st h ef i na lp roce s s ing ,m ea td i s t r ibu t ion ,e nd r e tu rn ing t h ea n ima lt o ac en t ra l f o rag ing l o ca t ion , t h i s i sp r e sen ted i n h ou r s p e r i n d iv idua l ( t ) a nd h ou r s p e r k i log ram ( u ) ; T o ta l R e tu rn r a t e i n h ou r s p e r i n d iv idua l a nd k i loca lo r ie sp e rh ou ri sp r e sen ted i nc o lumn s ua nd w r e spec t ive ly . D a ta i sf r om av a r ie ty o fs ou r ce s , s e eA ppend ix B .

L ive w t k g / in

S pec ie s

%

E d ib le k g / id

D en s i d /km

C u l l RATE

A bund k g /he

H e rd S IZE

D ispe r k i n / he

E ne rgy C a l /kg

a B ison

6 00 ,00

4 1

2 25 .00

6 . 00

0 . 03

0 . 405

5 00

8 3 .3333

D ee r

1 25 .00

5 0

3 4 .00

1 3 .00

0 . 08

0 . 354

5 0

3 . 8462

1 900

B igho rn s heep

1 75 .00

5 0

3 4 .00

1 . 00

0 . 08

0 . 027

2 0

2 0 .0000

1 900

7 0

A n te lope

5 0 .00

5 0

2 4 .00

1 2 .00

0 . 12

0 . 346

B eave r

2 0 .00

6 0

1 4 .00

0 . 10

0 . 30

0 . 004

P o rcup ine

2 100

5 . 8333

1 900

5

5 0 .0000

2 000

1 4 .00

5 8

5 . 00

0 . 10

0 . 30

0 . 002

1

1 0 .0000

2 000

Ma rmo t

3 . 40

5 7

1 . 80

3 . 00

0 . 50

0 . 027

8

2 . 6667

2 000

J a ck rabb i t

3 . 00

8 0

1 . 00

9 9 .00

0 . 50

0 . 495

1

0 . 0 10 1

1 360

C o t ton ta i l

1 . 10

8 0

0 . 60

5 49 .00

0 . 50

1 . 647

1

0 . 00 18

1 360

Mu sk ra t

1 . 10

6 7

0 . 90

8 . 00

0 . 50

0 . 036

7

0 . 8750

174

P ra i r iedog

1 . 10

8 0

0 . 90

1 250 .00

0 . 50

5 . 625

0 . 6000

2 784

0 . 00 13

2 784

P l a in sp o cke tg ophe r

0 . 35

9 0

0 . 32

7 63 .00

0 . 50

1 . 22 1

G round s qu i r r e l

0 . 30

9 0

0 . 29

8 59 .00

0 . 50

1 . 246

B u shy -Ta i led w ood ra t

0 . 30

9 0

0 . 30

8 59 .00

0 . 50

1 . 289

7 50 1 2 00 1

0 . 2328

2 784

0 . 00 12

2 784

1 3 -L ined g round s qu i r re l

0 . 17

1 00

0 . 17

1 240 .00

0 . 50

1 . 054

1

0 . 0008

2 784

N o r the rn p ocke tg ophe r

0 . 08

1 00

0 . 08

2 194 .00

0 . 98

1 . 720

1

0 . 0005

2 784

M ic ro tu s

0 . 04

1 00

0 . 04

3 72 1 .00

0 . 98

1 . 459

1

0 . 0003

2 784

P URSU IT T IME 1 S PEC IES

h r s / in A

h r s /k

P ROCESS T I ME 1

HANDL ING T I ME

P U2 INTERPATCH

h r s / in

h r s /kg

h r s /kg

h r s / ind

C a l /h r

h r s /kg

P R2 -RETR IEVAL h r s / in

h r s /kg

TOTAL R ETURN h r s / C a l / k g

h r

1

B i son

2 . 00

0 . 0 1

0 . 68

0 . 003

0 . 0 1

1 76306

3 750 .00

1 6 .67

4 33 .33

2 . 28

1 8 .95

I I

D ee r

1 . 00

0 . 03

0 . 27

0 . 008

0 . 04

5 0866

1 73 .08

5 . 09

5 . 00

0 . 50

5 . 62

3 38

B igho rn s heep

1 . 00

0 . 03

0 . 32

0 . 009

0 . 04

4 8939

9 00 .00

2 6 .47

2 6 .00

1 . 11

2 7 .62

6 9

A n t e lope

1 . 00

0 . 04

0 . 17

0 . 007

0 . 05

3 8974

2 62 .50

1 0 .94

7 . 58

0 . 67

1 .65

1 6 3

B eave r

0 . 50

0 . 04

0 . 10

0 . 007

0 . 04

4 6667

2 250 .00

9 0 .00

6 5 .00

4 . 64

9 4 .69

2 1

P o rcup ine

0 . 25

0 . 05

0 . 08

0 . 0 16

0 . 07

3 0303

4 50 .00

9 0 .00

1 3 .00

2 . 60

9 2 .67

2 2

Ma rmo t

0 . 12

0 . 07

0 . 03

0 . 0 17

0 . 08

2 4000

1 20 .00

6 6 .67

3 . 47

1 . 93

6 8 .68

2 9

J a ck rabb i t

0 . 03

0 . 03

0 . 03

0 . 030

0 . 06

2 2667

0 . 50

0 . 50

0 . 50

0 . 50

1 . 06

1 283

C o t ton ta i l

0 . 03

0 . 05

0 . 02

0 . 033

0 . 08

1 6320

0 . 50

0 . 83

0 . 50

0 . 83

1 . 75

7 77

Mu sk ra t

0 . 03

0 . 03

0 . 02

0 . 022

0 . 06

2 1132

3 9 .38

4 3 .75

1 . 14

1 . 26

4 5 .07

2 6

P ra i r iedog

0 . 03

0 . 03

0 . 02

0 . 022

0 . 06

5 0 112

0 . 50

0 . 56

0 . 50

0 . 56

1 . 17

2 386

P l a in sp ocke tg ophe r

0 . 03

0 .09

0 . 02

0 . 063

0 . 16

1 78 18

0 . 50

1 . 56

0 . 50

1 . 56

3 . 28

8 48

G round s qu i r re l

0 . 03

0 . 10

0 . 02

0 . 069

0 . 17

1 6 147

0 . 50

1 . 72

0 . 50

1 . 72

3 . 62

7 69

B u shy ta i led w ood ra t

0 . 03

0 . 10

0 . 02

0 . 067

0 . 17

1 6704

0 . 50

1 . 67

0 . 50

1 . 67

3 . 50

7 95

1 3 l ined g round s qu i r r e l

0 . 03

0 . 18

0 . 00

0 . 000

0 . 18

1 5776

0 . 50

2 . 94

0 . 50

2 . 94

6 . 06

4 59

N o r ther nP ocke tg ophe r

0 . 02

0 . 25

0 . 00

0 . 000

0 . 25

1 136

0 . 50

6 . 25

0 . 50

6 . 25

1 2 .75

2 18

M ic ro tu s

0 . 02

0 . 50

0 . 00

0 . 000

0 . 50

568

0 . 50

1 2 .50

0 . 50

1 2 .50

2 5 .50

1 09

4 2

T ab le 5 . 6 R e sou rce r ank ing b yh igh r e sou rce a bundance i nk i loca lo r ie sp e rh ec ta re . D a ta i sf r om t a b le s 5 . 3 a nd 5 . 4 , s e eA ppend ix B f o ro r ig ina l s ou r ce s .

T ab le 5 . 5 R e sou rce r ank ing b y l ow r e sou r ce a bundance i n k i loca lo r ie s p e r h ec ta re . D a ta f r om T ab le 5 . 3 a nd 5 . 4 , s e e A ppend ix B f o ro r ig ina ls ou rce s . COMMON NA ME

K ca l /hec t

COM MON NA ME

P ra i r ie d og S e rv ice b e r ry P onde ro sa p i ne N o r the rn P ocke tg ophe r M ic ro tu sa nd f r iend s S unf lowe r B u shy ta i led w ood r a t G round s qu i r re l P l a in sp ocke tg ophe r 1 3 l ined g round s qu i r re l C o t ton ta i l P lum sa nd c he r r ie s B ison J a ck rabb i t D ee r A n te lope S a l tbu sh ,S had sca le D rop seed ,S aka toon G oo sef oo t ,P igweed S oapweed ,y ucca Ma rmo t B ig H or ns heep Mu sk ra t P r ick ly p ea r Whea tg ra s s S nowbe r ry , Wo lfbe r ry B eav e r P o rcup ine W i ld r o se S umac C u r ran t ,G oo sebe r r ie s J uneg ra s s I nd ian r i ceg ra s s W i ld o n ion S ego l i l y Muh l i F ox ta i lb a r ley J un ipe r C a t ta i lp o l len B u l ru sh ,t a le C a t ta i lr oo t s W i ld rye , S quag ra ss T o ta l I nT housands o fK i loca lor ie s

1 5660 .00 1 0725 .00 4 880 .00 4 788 .75 4 060 .83 3 650 .00 3 587 . 18 3 467 .6 1 3 398 .7 1 2 934 .34 2 239 .92 9 4 1 .25 8 50 .50 6 73 .20 6 71 .84 6 56 .64 5 07 .50 4 35 .60 1 45 .08 6 3 .65 5 4 .00 5 1 .68 4 2 .26 1 9 .50 1 8 .54 1 0 .73 8 . 40 3 . 00 2 . 15 2 . 15 2 . 15 1 . 22 0 . 11 0 . 10 0 . 10 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 00 6 5

S unf lowe r5 47500 .00 S nowbe r ry , Wo l fbe r ry Whea tg ra s s Muh l i S a l tbu sh , S had sca le C a t ta i l r oo t s W i ld r o se G oo sef oo t , P igweed S e rv ice b e r ry C u r ran t ,g oo sebe r r ie s B u l ru sh ,t a le C a t ta i lp o l len S oapweed ,y ucca P r ick ly p ea r J uneg ra s s P ra i r ie d og P onde ro sa p i ne I nd ian r i ceg ra s s P lums a nd c he r r ie s No r ther nP ocke tg ophe r W i ld o n ion W i ld rye , S quag ra s s M ic ro tu sa nd f r iend s S umac D rop seed , S aka toon B u shy ta i led w ood r a t G round s qu i r re l P la in sp ocke tg ophe r F ox ta i lb a r ley 1 3 l ined g round s qu i r re l C o t ton ta i l B i son J un ipe r J ack rabb i t D ee r A n te lope Ma rmo t B ig H o rn s heep Mu sk ra t B eave r S ego l i l y P o rcup ine T o ta l I nT housand so fK i loca lor ie s

4 3

K ca l /hec t

1 86078 .75 1 62640 .00 1 37940 .00 1 26875 .00 1 23580 .00 1 00278 .75 6 1659 .00 3 2 175 .00 3 2 175 .00 3 0 195 .00 2 3088 .00 2 2277 .50 1 9500 .00 1 6507 .20 1 5660 .00 1 2200 .00 1 04 12 .00 5 176 .88 4 788 .75 4 780 .00 4 200 .00 4 060 .83 3 753 .75 3 702 .60 3 587 .18 3 467 .6 1 3 398 .7 1 3 085 .35 2 934 .34 2 239 .92 8 50 .50 8 12 .50 6 73 .20 6 7 1 .84 6 56 .64 5 4 .00 5 1 .68 4 2 .26 8 . 40 4 . 78 3 . 00 1 713746

Wh i le o n ly a n a ve rage p opu la t ion d en s i ty w a s c a lcu la ted f o r a n ima l s , a n ima l s r ank q u i t e d i f f e r en t ly w hen c ompa r ed t o h i gh a nd l ow p l an t p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s . W i th l ow p l an t d en s i t ie s , a bundance r ank ing d i s t r ibu t e s a n ima l s t h roughou t t h e v a r iou s r e sou r ce s , w i th p ra ir ie d og t h e t h i rd m o s t a bundan t r e sou r ce ( Tab le 5 . 5 ) . S even s ma l l a n ima l s i n te r spe r sed w i th af ew p l an t s f o l low t h e p r a i r ie d og i nt h e t o p 1 0r ank ed r e sou r ce s . T he h i ghe s t r a nked l a rg e m amma l i sb i son , w h ich i sr anked 1 3 `h a nd i sf o l lowed b yj a ck rabb i t , d ee r , a nd a n t e lope . T he r ema in ing s ma l l a nd l a rge a n ima l s a nd p l an t sa r e i n te rm ixed , e xcep tt h a tp l an t s c omp r i se t h e 1 4 l e a s ta bundan tr e sou r ce s .

p o in t d emon s t ra t ing t h e e x i s tence m ax im iz ing a mong h uman f o rage r s .

o f u n ive r sa l

e ne rgy

T he d i e tb r ead th mod e lu s ed h e re w a s m od if ied f r om S imm s ( 1 984 ; o r ig ina l ly f r om C ha rnov a nd O r ian s 1 973 ) . T he m ode lp r ed ic t st h a ti n : a f i ne g r a ined e nv i ronmen t w he r e r e sou r ce s a r e e ncoun te r ed a t r a ndom , a p r eda to r w i l l t a ke a r e sou r ce o n ly i ft h e e ne rge t ic r e tu rn s f r om p u r su ing a nd h and l ing a r e sou r ce a r e g r ea te r t h an t h e b enef i t s g a ined f r om s e a r ch ing f o r , p u r su ing , a nd h and l ing h i gh e r r a nked r e sou r ce s ( i . e . , t h o se y i e ld ing h i ghe r c a lo r ic r e tu rn s p e r u n i t t i me u pon e ncoun te r ) . T h i s mode l i su s ed t op r ed ic t t h e o rd e r i nw h ich r e sou rce s w i l l b e a dded t o o r d e le t ed f r om t h e d i e t . ( S imm s 1 984 :32 -33 )

A t h i gh p l an t d en s i t ie s p l an t s a r e much m o r e a bundan t t h an m o s ta n ima l sw i th t h ep ra i r ie d og ,t h e m o s ta bundan ta n ima l , r a nk ing 1 66 1 ( Tab le 5 . 6 ) . T he r e s t o ft h e s ma l l a nd l a rge f a una a r e a t r e la t ive ly l ow a bundance , w i th p o r cup ine r e p r e sen t ing t h e l ow e s t r a nked r e sou r ce a nd s ago l i l y t h e l owe s tr anked p l an tr e sou r ce . A t l ow p l an t d en s i t ie s t h e o ve ra l l p roduc t ion o fb o th p l an t s a nd a n ima l s i s6 4 ,533 K i loca lo r ie s p e rh ec ta r e , w h i le a th i gh p l an t d en s i t ie s i ti s1 , 7 13 ,746 ,000 K i loca lo r ie s p e r h ec ta r e . A s a n a s id e , a tl ow p l an t d en s i t ie s , 3 25 h ec ta r e s ( 3 .25 k m 2) a r en ece s sa ry t op rov ide s uf i c ien tc a lo r ie sf o r af o rage rb and ( n=25 ) f o r o ne y ea r , w h i le a th igh p l an t d en s i t ie s o n ly 0 . 0 1 h ec ta re s w ou ld s uff i ce ( a s sum ing 2 300 K i loca lo r ie s / p e r son /day ) . T he h i gh p l an t d en s i ty e s t ima te s r ep r e sen t t h e u n l ik e ly s i tua t ion w he r e a l r e sou r ce s a r e a tp eak p rodu c t ion i no ne p l ace . S uch ac ond i t ion i sn o te xpec t ed t oo ccu r . F o r t h e r e s t o f t h e c hap te r , l ow p l an t d en s i ty e s t ima te s a r e a s sumed t or e f lec tt h er e a l i ty o ft h e w e s t e rn B la ck H i l l s , a nd e ven t h e se l ow e s t ima te s m ay b e r e duced a s much a s 9 0% d u r ing r e gu la r ly s paced d rough t s ( e .g . , B amf o r th 1 988 :34 3 5 ) , t h a t , o f c ou r se , w ou ld b e t h e p o in t o f r e levance t o f o rag ing p opu la t ion s . A l though t h e l ow p l an td en s i t ie sm ay m o r e a c cu ra te ly r e f lec t t h e w e s te rn B la ck H i l l s e co logy , r e sou r ce r a nk ing s b a sed o n t h e i r a bundance i n d ica te s t h a t a sp l an t d en s i t ie s c hang e , t h e r e la t ive r a nk ing o fr e sou r ce s t o e a ch o t he r c hange s . T hu s , s p ec if ic r e sou r ce r a nk ing s d i f f e ra c ro s s t h e l a nd scape ( Tab le 5 . 3 c o lumn s ka nd 1 ) . I n o t he r w o rd s , h i gh ly a bundan t r e sou r ce s u nde r l ow p l an t d en s i ty c ond i t ion s m ay b e r e la t ive ly u nabundan t u nde r h i gh p l an t d en s i ty c ond i t ion s a nd t h er e ve r se .

A l though t h e P l a in s a r e n o t af i ne g r a ined e nv i ronmen t w i th r a ndom ly d i s t r ibu t ed r e sou r ce s , t h e mod e l s t i l l p rov ide s a g ene ra l c ha ra c t e r iz a t ion o fr e sou rce u s e , w h ich c an l a t e r b e r e f ined i fd eemed u s ef u l . T he d i e t b r ead th m ode l p rov ide s a s p ec if i cr e la t ion sh ip a mong s eve ra l v a r iab le s : R (E 1) E /T I + E= T= R ,= E ,= =

ER1( h1)

t o ta lc a lo r ie sa cqu i r ed f r om f o rag ing f o rag ing t ime ( s ea r ch+hand l ing ) t h ee n coun t e rr a t e . T he n umbe ro fu n i t so fr e sou r ce , e ncoun t e r ed i n au n i to fs ea r ch t ime ( i nh ou r s ) c a lo r ie s a va i lab le i n a u n i t o f r e sou r ce , ( i n k i log ram s ) h and l ing t i me p e ru n i to fr e sou r ce,

T hu s , r e sou r ce , w i l lo n ly b e i n c luded i nt h ed i e ti f : E /T