Gurudakshina: Facets of Indian Archaeology: Essays presented to Prof. V. N. Misra 9781841717234, 9781407328768

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Editorial
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
Virendra Nath Misra: Archaeologist and Human Being
Annotated Bibliography of Prof. V.N. Misra's Research Publications (1962-2005)
Situating V.N. Misra in Indian Archaeology: A Historiographical Account
A Morphometric Study of the Palaeolithic Industries of Bhimbetka, Central India.
Early Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in the Tirupati Valley, South India
Early Settlement Patterns in Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh
Microlithic sites in Tarafeni valley, Midnapur district, West Bengal: A view in hindsight
A Re-examination of the Upper Palaeolithic 'Damin Industries', Bansloi River Basin, Jharkhand
Prehistoric Pottery Industries along the 'Lost' Sarasvati River of the Great Indian Desert.
Archaeological Explorations in Kumaun Himalayas
Chalcolithic Ceramics of Balathal: A Diachronic Study
Pre and Protohistoric Settlement Pattern of the Middle and Lower Ganga Valley
From Archaeology of Indo-Roman Trade to Indian Ocean Archaeology
The Early Historic and Early Medieval Archaeology of Bogra District, Bangladesh
Early Historic Balathal: An Artefactual Approach
Early Historic Ceramics of Mewar with Special Reference to Balathal, Udaipur, Rajasthan
Archaeozoological Aspects of the Prehistoric Cultures of Western India
Prehistoric Settlement Pattern of South-Central Ganga Valley: An Ethnoarchaeological Perspective
Evolution of Society and Culture of Orissa- Based on a Synthesis of Archaeological, Historical, Linguistic and Anthropological Data

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SOUTH ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY SERIES EDITED BY ALOK K. KANUNGO

No. 2

Gurudakshina: Facets of Indian Archaeology Essays presented to Prof. V .N. Misra Edited by

Alok Kumar Kanungo

BAR International Series 1433 2005

BAR

PUBLISHING

E d i tor ia l A s r ega rd s M i s ra j i 's o wn p ub l ica t ion s , k eep ing i n v i ew t h e i r n umbe r a nd d i ve r s i ty o f t h eme s , I d ec ided t oi n v i te t wo s pec ia l ly w r i t ten p ape r s : o ne a n a nno ta ted b ib l iog raphy o fa l lh i sw r i t ing sb yD r . P .P . J og leka r , a nd t h e o the r a n e va lua t ion o f h i s p o s i t ion i n t h e I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t b y P rof . K .K . B a sa . Imy se lf h ave w r i t ten ap i ece o n M i s ra j i a sa na r chaeo log i s ta nd h uman b e ing . S ome o ve r lap a mong t h e se t h r ee p ape r s i su navo idab le . H oweve r , t h e r e a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e r en ce s i n o u r a pp roache s . My p ape r b a s ica l ly g ive s a c h rono log ica l a ccoun t o fM i s ra j i 's r e sea r ch c a r ee r wh i le J og leka r h igh l igh t s t h e m a in p o in t s o f e ach o f h i s m a jo r p ub l ica t ion s . A nd B a sa a t temp t s a n e va lua t ion o ft h e v a r iou s a spec t s o fM i s ra j 's w o rk . I n a l l t h e se t h r ee p ape r s , M i s ra j i b e ing t h e c o r e s ub jec t ,j u s t ice c ou ld o n ly b e d one b y s cho la r s who h ave n o t b een h i s s t uden t s b u t k now h im a nd h i s w o rk w e l l .

T oday P rof . V .N . M i s ra ( M i s r a j i ) c omp le te s 7 0 y ea r s o fh i s l i f e . H e i so ne o ft h e mo s t r e spec ted a r chaeo log i s t s o f I nd ia , h av ing a p rof ound k now ledge o f a r chaeo logy , a n th ropo logy a nd a nc ien t l i t e ra tu r e . I n h i s c a r ee r o f n ea r ly h a lf a c en tu ry i na r chaeo logy , h e h a s s upe rv i sed r e sea r ch o f2 5 P h .D . s t uden t s , a nd d i s se r ta t ion s o f an umbe r o fM .A . a nd M . P h i l . s t uden t s o n d i ve r se t o p ic s i n f i e ld s l i k e P a laeo l i th ic , Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic , C ha lco l i th ic , R ock A r t , H a rappan C iv i l iza t ion , H is to r ica l a r chaeo logy , b ronz e s , c e ram ics , a nd e t hnoa r chaeo logy . I nt h e se d ay so fg row ing n a r row s pec ia l iza t ion M i s ra j ii so ne o ft h es ma l ln umbe ro f a r chaeo log i s t s i n t h e c oun t ry t o h ave s uperv i sed r e sea rch i n s u ch a d i ve r se r ange o f s ub jec t s . T ha t p romp ted m e t o e d i t av o lum e o u t o f P h . D . d i s ser ta t ion s c omp le ted u nde r h i s g u idance . U n f o r tuna te ly , o ne o f M i s ra j i 's s t uden t s , S .C . N anda i s n o mo r e . A lmo s t a l l h i s s t uden t s a r e e mp loyed i nd i f f e r en t a cadem ic p o s i t ion s i nI nd ia , B ang ladesh a nd N epa l . T h i sh a s i t s p lu s a sw e l l a s m inu s p o in t s ; t h e p lu s b e ing t h a t a l a r e a cad em ica l ly o r ien ted a nd m any o ft h em a r e a c t ive i n r e sea r ch ; t h e m inu s p o in t s a r e t h a t s om e h ave d i ver ted t h em se lve s t o r e sea r ch a r ea s q u i te d i f f e r en t f r om t h e i rP h .D . t o p ic , a nd s om e a r e f u l ly o ccup ied w i th t h e a dm in i s t ra t ion o f t h e i r i n s t i tu t ion s . B u tt h en who w ou ld n o tl i ke t or e f r e sh h i s /he r m emo ry o f d oc to ra l r e sea r ch? A nd t ho se m emo r ie sl e dt ot h is v o lum e .

Ih ad t hough t o ft h i sv o lum e w hen M i s ra j i a t ta ined t h e a ge o f6 5 y ea r sa nd Iw a sj u s ts t a r t ing my P h .D . b u t Id id n o t d a r e t o a sk f o r p ape r s f r om s uch s en io rp eop le a nd t h ough t Is hou ld w a i t u n t i l Ia m b e t te r e qu ipped t o e d i t s uch a v o lum e . Is t a r ted i n v i t ing t h e p ape r s o n D iwa l i d ay i n Novembe r 2 004 . N o s oone r h ad Is en t o u t t h e i n v i ta t ion s t o t h e p o ten t ia l a u tho r s , I s t a r ted g e t t ing o verwhe lm ing r e spon se . T h i s n a tu ra l ly r e f lec t s t h e r ega rd wh ich M i s r a j i 's s t uden t s h ave f o r h im . N o t m any p eop le m ay b e k now ing t h a t t wo o f t h e c on t r ibu to r s , K a ty D a la l a nd K u ru sh D a la l , a r e mo th e ra nd s on . T h i sm ay w e l lb et h eo n ly e xamp le a nywhe r e t h a t p a r en t a nd c h i ld h ave d one P h .D . u nde rt h e s am e t e ache r . A l though Is ha r ed t h e i d ea o ft h i s v o lum e o n ly w i th t h e c on t r ibu to r s , t h e w o rd s l ow ly g o t o u t a nd m any o f M i s ra j i 's a dm i r e r s w an ted t o c on t r ibu te t o t h e v o lum e . H oweve r , I e xp la ined t ot h em t h a t Iw an ted t h e v o lume t ob e r e s t r ic ted o n ly t o t h e c on t r ibu t ion s o f M i s ra j i 's s t uden t s , t h e e xcep t ion s b e ing t h e t wo i n v i ted c on t r ibu t ion sa nd o ne o f my o wn 2.

T h e v o lum e i sp u rpo se ly d e s igned i n s uch aw ay t h a t a l l t h e p ape r s a r e b a sed o n t h e P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion s o ft h e c on t r ibu to r s , a nd d i v id ed i n to t wo p a r t s ; P a r t Ic ove r s t h e g i s t o ft h e t h e s i s , a nd P a r t Ic ove r st h ec hange sa nd i mp rovem en t sw h ich t h e a u tho r w ou ld h ave m ade i fh e / she w e r e t o d o t h e s am e r e sea rch t oday . T h i s p a r t w a s n o t m anda to ry f o rs cho la r sw ho g o tt h e i rd eg r ee i nl a s t f i ve y ea r s ' . If e l t t h a t av o lum e o ft h i s k ind w i l l p robab ly b e u sefu l t o a l l s t ud en t s o f a r chaeo logy a nd c an b e w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted . T h i s w i l l a l so m ake a va i lab le t o s cho la r s a l l t h e r e sea r ch d one u nde r M i s ra j ii no ne p l ace , a nd a l so g i ve s om ei d ea o ft h e k i nd o f r e sea r ch t h a t h a s b een c a r r ied o u t a tt h e D eccan C o l lege .

T he 1 7 p ape r s b y M i s ra j i 's P h .D . s t uden t s c ove r t h ep e r iod f r om t h eP a laeo l i th ic t ot h e e a r ly h i s to r ic t im e i nI nd ia , a nd o ne p ape r o n t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod o f B ang ladesh ( Rahman ) . R eg ion -w i se i n I nd ia , t h r ee p ape r s a r e r e la ted t o s ou th ( J aya ra j ,

S ha ik A bdu l Munaf , c o -au tho rw i th J a cob S .J aya R a j i sn o t a s t uden t o fM i s r a j i b u t o fJ a cob w ho d i d t h e l i b ra ry w o rk f o rt h e p ape r .

IT hough s om e a u tho r s h ave f i n i shed t h e i r P h .D . e a r l ie rt h an 5 y ea r s b u t h ave n o t w r i t ten t h e I nd p a r t d ue t o v a r iou s u navo idab le r e a son s .

2

I

R a ju a nd R eddy ) ; t h r ee t o n o r th ( An sa r i , H ogue a nd K ha rakwa l ) ; o ne t oc en t r e ( A lam ) ; f ou rt ow e s t ( Dandeka r , K u ru sh D a la l , M i sh ra a nd T homa s ) ; o ne t o n o r thwe s t ( Ka ty D a la l ) ; a nd t h r ee t o e a s t ( Akh i le sh , B a sak a nd P anda -Roy ) . S un i l G up ta 's p ape r i sn o t l im i ted t o ap a r t icu la r r eg ion . I nt e rm s o f c u l tu r a l p er iod s , f i ve p ape r s a r e r e la ted t o p r eh is to ry i . e .P a leo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic ( Akh i lesh , A lam , B a sak , J aya ra j , a nd R a ju ) ; t h r ee t o P ro toh i s to ry ( Ka ty D a la l , K ha rakwa l a nd M i sh r a ) ; t wo t oP r eh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry t o ge the r( Hogue a nd R eddy ) ; f ou r t oE a r ly H i s to r ic ( Ku ru sh D a la l , D and eka r , G up ta a nd R ahman ) ; o ne t o A r chaeozoo logy ( Thoma s ) ; a nd o ne t o E thnoa r chaeo logy ( An sa r i ) . P anda -Roy 's p ape r c ove r s t h e p e r iod f r om t h e p r eh i s to r ic t ot h e e a r ly h i s to r ic .

o f l i t h ic p a t ter n s .

S haf iqu l A lam r e po r t s t h e t ypo log ica l , t e chno log ica l , f unc t iona l a nd s t y l i s t ic v a r iab i l i ty a mong t h e P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l i ndu s t r ie s o f B h imbe tka i n c en t ra l I nd ia o n t h e b a s i s o f a d e ta i led m e t r ica l a na ly s i s . H e a l so a t temp t s t o e xp la in t h e f o rm a t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a t t h es i te .

A nup M i sh ra g i ve s a n a ccoun t o f t h e v a r ied c e r am ic s f ound i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s a t B a la tha l , a nd d i scu s se st h ec hange st h rough t im e .

t e chno logy ,

a nd

p r eh i s to r ic

l a ndu se

K a ty D a la l 's p ape r d i scu s se s t h e E a r ly a nd Ma tu r e H a r appan c e r am ic s o f t h e G hagga r ( Sa r a sva t i ) v a l ley w i th s p ec ia l r e f e r ence t ot h e s i t e o fB in jo r . S h e w a s t h e f i r s t p e r son t o d i scove r H ak r a Wa r e s h e rd s i nt h eG hagga rv a l ley . J . S . K h ar akwa l s umma r ize s t h e r e su l t s o f h i s d i scove r ie s o f r o ck a r t , c i s t b u r ia l s a nd a r ch aeom e ta l lu rg ica l s i te s i nt h e K um aun r e g ion o f t h e H im a laya s . H e s ugge s t s t h a t K ha sa s w e r e t h e p robab le a u tho r s o f t h e se b u r ia l s , a nd K umaon p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt h e d i f fu s ion o fm e ta l t e chno logy a nd u rban iza t ion p roce s s i nt h e G anga V a l ley .

V .R . R eddy r e po r t s h i s d i scove r ie s o f al a rge n umbe r o f Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic , a shmound , a nd m ega l i th ic s i t es , a nd e xcava t ion o ft h e a shmound a t P a lavoy i nt h e s em i -a r id r e g ion o fA ndh ra P rade sh . P a lavoy h a s y i e lded a v e ry i n te r e s t ing b one t o o l i n du s t ry .

J a cob J aya ra j a nd A bdu l Munaf d i scu s st h e c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion d u r ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p e r iod s i nt h e T irupa t i v a l ley , A ndh ra P rade sh i n t h e c on tex t o f t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing , d r a inage p a t te rn , r aw m a te r ia l a nd o t he r r e sou rce s , a nd u se a na log ie s o f t h e s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s o f t h e Y anad ih un te r -ga the re r sa nd f i she rm en l i v ing i nt h e s am er e g ion .

M .M . H oque 's p ape r g i ve s a n a ccoun t o f t h e s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s d u r ing t h e p r eh i s tor ic a nd p ro toh i s to r ic p e r iod s i n t h e M idd le a nd L ow e r G anga V a l ley i n t h e c on tex t o f l a nd scape , s o i l s , c l im a te , w a te rs ou r ces , f l o ra a nd f a una .

D .R . R a ju 's p ape rs umma r i se s h i s i n ve s t iga t ion s o f t h e r i ch U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te s l o ca ted a l ong p e rmanen t w a te r p oo l s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley i n A ndh ra P rade sh , a nd e xp la in s t h e i r l o ca t ion w i th t h e h e lp o ft h e u se o ft h e s ame w a te rr e sou r ces b y t h eY anad ih un te r -ga the r e r sa nd f i she rm en .

S un i l G up ta w r i tes o n t h e h i s to r iog raph ica l f r am ewo rk o ft h e e a r ly m a r i t ime t r ade i nt h e I nd ian O cean . H e a t temp t s t or e con s t ruc t , p r im a r i ly f r om a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , a spec t s o f s e a b or n e c omme r ce b e tween I nd ia a nd t h eR om an Emp i r e . S . S .M . R ahman a t temp t s ar e con s truc t ion o f t h e c u l tu r a l h i s to ry a nd s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s i n t h e B og ra d i s t r ic t , B ang ladesh d u r ing t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic a nd E a r ly Med ieva l p e r iod s m a in ly o nt h e b a s i so fh i so wn f i e ld w o rk .

B i shnup r iya B a sak e xam ines t h e m ic ro l i th ic s i t e s i n t h e T a raf en i v a l ley i n n o r th -we s t M idnapu r i n Wes t B enga l a nd t e l l s u s a bou t h e r o ngo ing w o rk i nt h e a r ea w h ich f o cu se s o n p r eh i s to r ic l a nd u se p a t ter n s .

K u ru sh D a la l r e po r t s h i s s t udy o ft h e n on -ce r am ic m a t e r ia l r ema in s , i n c lud ing t wo i n te r e s t ing t e r r aco t ta s e a l ing s , f r om E a r ly H i s to r ic B a la tha l . A cco rd ing t o h im B a la tha l , l o ca ted o n an o r th s ou th t r ade r ou te , w a s am a jo r c en t r e o f t h e p roduc t ion o fi r on o b jec t sa nd t h e i rt r ade .

K um a r Akh i le sh r e v iew s t h e p r e sen t s t a tu s o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in ' i n du s t r ie s o f t h e B an s lo ir i ve rb a s in , J ha rkhand o nt h e b a s i s o ff i nd s f r om h i s f i e ld w o rk . T he s t udy e xam ine s t h e s t r a t ig raph ic c on tex t o f t h e s i t e s a nd a r tef ac t s , n a tu re o fa r tef ac t a s semb lages , i n te r -s i te v a r iab i l i ty

I

A bh i j i t D andeka r 's p ape r a t temp t s t o u nde r s tand t h e l o ca l t r ad i t ion s o f p o t t e ry s hape s a nd t e chno logy i nt h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod a tB a la tha l i nR a ja s than i nr e la t ion t os u r round ing r e g ion s .

u nd iv ided c oa s ta l d i s t r ic t s o fP u r i a nd G an jam , a nd i n land d i s t r ic t o fS amba lpu r i nO r i s sa o n t h e b a s i s o f g eog raph ica l , a r chaeo log ica l , h i s to r ica l , e t hnog raph ic , a nd l i ngu i s t ic d a ta .

P .K . T homa s w r i te s o n t h e r o le o ff auna l r ema in s i nt h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s ub s i s tence p a t ter n s o f t h e Me so l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic c ommun i t ies o f w e s ter n I nd ia . H i s s t udy w a s t h e f i r s t i n I nd ia o f t h et o ta l f auna lr em a in s f r om a na r chaeo log ica l s i te ( Bago r ) . H e a l so d i scu s se s t h e m e thodo log ica l a dvances i n a r chaeozoo log ica l r e sea r ch , w i th s p ec ia lr e f e r ence t ow o rk a tt h eD eccan C o l lege .

A l l t h e p ape r s i nt h e v o lum e w e r e s en t t od i f f e r en t r e f e ree s a nd a l l o f w hom h ave b een mo s t c oope ra t ive . It h ank D r s . K i sho re K . B a sa , Ku ldeep K . B han , R av i K o r i se t ta r , M .L .K . Mu r ty , S .B . O ta , V inod N au t iya l , G au tam S engup ta , V .H . S onawan e , a nd R ak e sh T ewa r i f o r s pa r ing t h e i r t im e t or e ad t h e p ape r s a nd g ive t h e i r c omm en t s . I am g ra tef u l t o R av i M i s ra f o r p roof r e ad ing ; S h r i ikan t P r adhaan f o r m ak ing t h e s ke tches o f p rof e sso r s K .N . S ha rma , D .N . Ma jumda r , H .D . S anka l ia a nd V .N . M i s r a ; T rup t i Mo r e f o r a r ch iva l h e lp ; a nd S hah ida A n sa r i f o r l i s ten ing a nd d i scu ss ing e ve ryday o nt h i sv o lum et h rough o u tt h e y ea r .

S hah ida An sa r i h a s a t temp ted ar e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e s e t t lem en t a nd s ub s is ten ce p a t ter n s d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic p e r iod s i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l G anga V a l ley o n t h e b a s i s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta c o l lec ted b y a r chaeo log is t s o f t h e A l lahabad Un ive r s i ty a nd h e r o wn e x ten s ive f i e ld w o rk a mong t h e p r im i t ive c ommun i t ie s o f K o l s , Mu saha r sa nd Ma l lah so ft h er eg ion .

Ia m g r a tef u l t o J ohn a nd E r ica H edges f o r a g r ee ing t op ub l i sh t h i s v o lume i nt h e BAR s e r ie s a nd b r ing ing i to u ti n as ho r tt ime .

T am a P anda -Roy h a s a t temp ted t ot r ace t h e s oc io c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion i n t h e a r ea c ove r ed b y t h e

D r .A lok Kuma rK anungo D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te PUNE —4 11 0 06 , I ND IA Ema i l : a l ok_kanungo @yahoo .com 1 7t hA ugu s t2 005

I I

L i s to fC on tr ibu tor s 1 .

A lok Kuma rK ammgo D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA a l ok_kanungo @yahoo .co ln

2 .

K isho rK . B a sa I nd i ra G andh iR a sh tr iya Manav S ang raha laya S ham la H i l ls ,B hopa l4 62 0 13 , I ND IA h omosap ien @sancha rnet in

3 .

P ramod P .J og leka r D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA p rm jog @yahoo .co . in

4 .

Md . S haf iqu lA lam D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy 2 2 / 1 , B lock -B ,B aba rR oad Mohammedpu r , Dhaka -1207 BANGLADESH a r chaeo logy @agn ion l ine .com

5 .

J a cob S .J aya R a j D ep t . o f An th ropo logy S r iV enka teswa ra Un ive r s i ty T i rupa t i 5 17 5 02 , I ND IA j a cobs j @yahoo .co . in

6 .

S ha ik A bdu l Munaf D ep t . o f An th ropo logy Un iver s i ty o f Hyde rabad Hyde rabad 5 00 0 46 , I ND IA s amunaf 28 @yahoo .co . in

7 .

D . R .R a ju D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy a nd A r ch i tec tu re P .S . T e lugu Un iver s i ty S r isa i lam 5 18 1 01 , Andh ra P rade sh , I ND IA d r ra ju tu @ red if fma i l .com

8 .

B ishnup r iya B asak D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy , C a lcu t ta Un ive r s i ty C /o A . Gup ta , 2 28 K endua Ma in R oad F l 4 02 , K o lka ta 7 00 0 84 , I ND IA mun2000 @v sn l .ne t

9 .

Kuma r Akh i lesh D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA

1 0 .

K a ty F e roze D a la l ( n ee K a ty N a r iman F renchman ) 2n d f l oo r , Manga lam H ou se 3 8 , Wa lchand H i rachand Ma rg Mumba i4 00 0 01 , I ND IA k ae tayun @ red if fma i l .com

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1 .

J e ewan S . Kha rakwa l I n s t i tu te o fR a jas than S tud ies R a jas than V idyapee th Uda ipu r3 13 0 01 , I ND IA k ha rakwa l@ red if fma i l .com

1 2 .

Anup M ish ra D ep t . o f Anc ien tH is to ry a nd C u l tu re M .J .P . R oh i lkhand Un iver s i ty , B a re i l ly 2 43 0 06 ,U .P . , I ND IA r n ish raanup @ red if fma i l .com

1 3 .

V . R am iR eddy D ep t . o f An th ropo logy C /o Hou se No . 9 80 ,A l ipo re R oad NGOs C o lony ,T i rupa t i 5 17 5 07 , I ND IA v ram i reddy @ho tma i l .com

1 4 .

M .M . H ogue D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy ,J ahang irnaga r Un ive r s i ty S ava r , Dhaka 1 342 , BANGLADESH p awanka r ju @yahoo .com

1 5 .

S un i l Gup ta A l lahabad Mu seum ,A l lahabad 2 11 0 02 , I ND IA s un i lcharu @ho tma i lcom

1 6 .

S hah S . Mos taf izu rR ahman D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy ,J ahang i rnaga r Un ive r s i ty S ava r , Dhaka 1 342 , BANGLADESH r ahman l @dhaka .ne t

1 7 .

Ku ru sh F e roze D a la l D ep t . o fH er i tage S tud ies ,K .C . C o l lege C /o Manga lam Hou se , 2n d F loo r 3 8 , Wa lchand H i rachand Ma rg Mumba i4 00 0 01 ,I ND IA k u ru shda la l @gma i l .com

1 8 .

Abh i j i tD andeka r D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA a r_dandeka r@ red if fma i l .com

1 9 .

P .K . T homa s D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA d eccanco l lege @vsn l .com

2 0 .

S hah ida An sa r i D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA s hah i_an sa r i @ho tma i l .com

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T ama P anda R oy D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy ,D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te C /o AC 8 2 , S a l tL ak e C i ty Ko lka ta 7 00064 ,I ND IA t ama tama @ red if fma i l .com

V I

Con ten ts E d i tor ia l L i s to fC on t r ibu to r s V .N . M i s ra a tG i lund C on ten t s 1 .

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A lok Kuma rK anungo

1 30

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P ramod P .J og leka r

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Md . S haf iqu lA lam

9 0 -113

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J acob S .J aya R a j & S ha ik Abdu l Munaf

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D . R . R a ju

1 26 -146

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M ic ro l i th ic s i tes i nT a raf en iV a l ley ,M idnapu rD is t r ic t , Wes tB enga l : aV iew i nH ind s igh t

B ishnup r iya B a sak

1 47 -149

AR e -exam ina t ion o ft h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in I ndu s t r ies ' ,B an s lo iR ive rB a s in , J ha rkhand

Kuma rA ldü lesh

1 50 -157

P reh is tor ic P o t te ry I ndu s t r ies a l ong t h e ' Los t ' S a ra sva t iR ive ro ft h eG rea tI nd ian D eser t

K a ty F e roze D a la l

1 58 -166

1 0 . A rchaeo log ica lE xp lo ra t ion si n Kumaun H ima laya s

J e ewan S . Kha rakwa l

1 67 -184

1 . C ha lco l i th ic C e ram ics o fB a la tha l : AD iach ron ic S tudy

Anup M ish ra

1 85 -193

1 2 . P re -a nd P ro to -H is tory o fS ou th - Wes ter n Andh ra P radesh

V . R am iR eddy

1 94 -203

1 3 . P re a nd P ro toh is to r ic S e t t lemen tP a t ter no ft h e M idd le a nd L ower G anga V a l ley

M .M . Hogue

2 04 -210

1 4 . F rom A rchaeo logy o fI ndo -Roman T rade t o I nd ian O cean A rchaeo logy

S un i l Gup ta

2 11-217

1 5 . A rchaeo log ica li nves t iga t ion i nB og ra D is t r ic t ,B ang ladesh

S hah S .M . R ahman

2 18 -238

1 6 . E a r ly H i s to r ic B a la tha l : An A r tef ac tua l App roach

Ku ru sh F e roze D a la l

2 39 -250

1 7 . E a r ly H is to r ic C e ram ics o f Mewa rw i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t oB a la tha l , Uda ipu r , R a ja s than

Abh i j i tD andeka r

2 51-272

1 8 . A rchaeozoo log ica lA spec t so ft h eP reh is tor ic C u l tu res o f Wes te r nI nd ia

P .K . T homa s

2 73 -286

1 9 . P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen tP a t ter no fS ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley : An E thnoa rchaeo log ica lP e r spec t ive

S hah ida An sa r i

2 87 -328

2 0 . E vo lu t ion o fS oc ie ty a nd C u l tu re o fO r issa B ased o n aS yn thes is o fA r chaeo log ica l , H is tor ica l , L ingu is t ic a nd An th ropo log ica lD a ta

T ama P anda R oy

3 29 -345

3 .

4 .

5 .

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9 .

V I I

V irendra N a th M i sra : A rchaeo log i s ta nd Human B e ing A lok Kuma rK anungo K anpu r . KNS p e r suaded VNM t o s t udy s oc io logy a so ne o fh i s s ub jec t s ( t he o the r sb e ing H is to ry a nd E ng l i sh l i t e r a tu r e ) . VN M p a s sed h i s B .A . e xam ina t ion i n 1 955 i nt h e f i r s t d i v i s ion , t h e o n ly s t uden t i nt h r ee c o l lege s a tK anpu r a tt h a t t im e t o g e t t h i s d i s t inc t ion . I n 1 954 h e p a s sed t h e P ra thama c e r t if ica te e xam ina t ion i nS an sk r i t f r om t h e G ove rnm en t S an sk r i t C o l lege , B ana ra s ( now S ampu rnanand S an sk r i t U n ive r s i ty , V a r ana s i ) . H e s t ood f i r s t a mong a l l t h e s u cce s sf u l s t uden t s a nd w on af ou r -yea r g ove rnm en t s cho la r sh ip t op u r sue f u r the rs t ud ie si nS an sk r i t .

I .B ackground ( Educa t ion ) V i r end ra N a th M i s ra ( VNM ) w a s b o rn o n 1 7t h A ugu s t 1 935 i n af a rm ing f am i ly i n K handau l i v i l lage i nF a r rukhabad d i s t r ic t o fU t ta rP rade sh . I n 1 951 h eb ecame t h e f i r s ts t ud en tf r om h i sv i l lage t o p as sH igh S choo l f r om R a s tog i S choo l ( l a te rK . R . R a s tog i I n te r C o l lege ) , F a r rukhabad . Wh i le s t udy ing f o r h i s I n te rm ed ia te c e r t if i ca te , VNM p r iva te ly s t ud ied f o r t h e V i sharad e xam ina t ion o f H ind i S ah i tya S amme lan , A l lahabad a nd p a s sed i t i nt h ef i r s td iv i s ion .

Af t e r t h e B .A . r e su l t s w e r e o u t , K . N . S ha rma a dv i sed VNM t os t udy A n th ropo logy f o r h i s M .A . a tL ucknow Un ive r s i ty w he re t h e D epa r tmen t w a s h eaded b yt h e r enowned a n th ropo log i s tP rof . D . N . Ma jumda r . A cco rd ing ly , VNM j o ined L ucknow Un ive r s i ty i n 1 955 . I n r e cogn i t ion o f h i s p e rf o rmance a t t h e B .A . e xam ina t ion , h e g o t B u r sa ry s cho la r sh ip o f L ucknow U n ive r s i ty f o r t wo y ea r s . H e p a s sed t h e M .A . e xam ina t ion i n 1 957 i nt h e f i r s td i v i s ion , a nd s t ood f i r s ti no rde ro f m e r i t i nh i s c l a s s . F o rt h is p e rf o rm ance h e w on t h e P and i t J agpa l K r i shna G o ld Meda l . Du r ing t h i s p e r iod h e a l so p a s sed t h e P urva Madhyama e xam ina t ion i n S an sk r i t f r om t h e G over nm en t S an sk r i tC o l lege ,B ana r a s .

V .N . M is ra

Af t e r p a s s ing t h e I n te rm ed ia te e xam ina t ion i n 1 953 , VNM j o ined t h e D .A .V . C o l lege , K anpu r ( t hen a ff i l ia ted t o A g ra Un ive r s i ty ) i n t h e s am e y ea r t o s t udy f o r t h e B .A . d eg r ee . H i s H ind i t e ache r , P t . B rahm anand S ha s t r i , e ncou raged h im t o c on t inue h i s s t ud ie s a nd h e lped h im t o g e t a dm i s s ion i n to t h e c o l lege . A nd t o c on t inue h i s s t ud ie s i nS an sk r i t , as ub jec th e h ad s t ud ied d u r ing t h e I n te rm ed ia te , S ha s t r i j i a r r anged f o r VNM t o j o in aS an sk r i tV idya laya a nd s t ay i ni t sh o s te l . H i s S an sk r i tt e ache r ,t h el a te P t . V a ikun th N a th S ha s t r i , av e ry e rud i te s cho la r a nd a n i n sp i r ing t e ache r , i n t roduced VNM t o h i s s on , K a i la s N a th S ha rma w ho w a s h ead o f t h e D ep t . o f S oc io logy a t t h e DAV C o l lege , a nd l a te r r e t i r ed a s p rof e s so r o f s oc io logy f r om t h e I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fT echno logy ,

K .N . S ha rma

1

Du r ing h i sM .A . c ou r se , VNM , a l ong w i th a l l o the r s t uden t s o f h i s c l as s , c a r r ied o u t t wo w eek s c ompu lso ry f i e ld w o rk i nt h e t r iba l v i l lage o fJ ha ro i n Dudh i t a h s i l o f M i rzapu r d i s tr ic t . I mmed ia te ly a f te r h i s M .A . e xam ina t ion w a s o ve r , Ma jumda r d i spa tched VNM a nd h i s c l as sma te , J . S . B handa r i , t o d o f i e ld w o rk among t h e t r iba l c ommun i t ies i n Dudh i t a h s i l . H e s pen t t wo mon th s ( du r ing May J u ly ) c o l lec t ing d a ta o n s oc ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan iza t ion o f t h e t r ibes l i ke G ond s , Kha rwa r s , C he ros a nd K orwa s , t h e l a s t a n Au s t ro -A s ia t ic s peak ing c ommun i ty a nd o ne o ft h e mos tp r im i t ive t r ibes i nI nd ia .

i n s t i tu ted U .G .C . r e sea rch s cho la r sh ip o fR s . 1 50 / p er mon th . A t L ucknow VNM h ad r e ad V incen t Sm i th 's a r t ic le o nA .C .L . C a r l ley le 's d i scover ies o f Me so l i th ic ma te r ia l a nd r o ck p a in t ing s i nM i rzapu r d i s t r ic t o f U t ta r P radesh ( U .P . ) , a nd G rahame C la rk 's b ook s Me so l i th ic A ge i n B r i ta in a nd Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen to fN or thern E urope , a nd w a s a t t rac ted t ot h is p e r iod . H e w an ted t ow o rk o n t h e Meso l i th ic o fM i rzapu r f o r h i s P h .D . , b u t t oa vo id m i sunde r s tand ing w i th P rof . G .R . S ha rma o f A l lahabad Un iver s i ty , who w a s w o rk ing i n t h e s ame g ene ra l a r ea , S anka l ia a dv i sed VNM t ow o rk i nR a ja s than wh ich w a s v i r tua l ly at e r ra i n cogn i ta f o rp r eh is to ry .

D .N . Ma jumda r H .D . S anka l ia

I . E n try i n to A rchaeo logy : F ie ld Work i n R a jas than A f te r h e r e tu rned f r om f i e ld w ork i n J u ly , VN M w a s a ppo in ted a s al e c tu r e r i n t h e An th ropo logy d epar tmen t , a nd h ad t o t e ach P reh is tor ic A rchaeo logy a nd S oc ia l An th ropo logy t oB .A . a nd M .A . s t uden t s . A s t h e re w a s n o p rope r ly q ua l if ied t e acher t o t e ach p r eh is to ry , Ma jumda r a dv ised VN M t o g o t o D eccan C o l lege ( s hor t f o r D eccan C o l lege P os t -G r adua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te ) , P une a nd d o P h .D . i np r eh is tory u nde r t h e g u idance o f t h e em inen t a r chaeo log is t , H .D . S anka l ia , a nd c ome b ack t o L ucknow t o t e ach t h is b ranch . A cco rd ing ly , VNM w en tt oP une i nJ une 1 958 o na mon th ly s cho la r sh ip o f R s . 8 0 / - o f f e red b y t h e D eccan C o l lege . A f te r s ome t ime h e g o t t h e n ew ly

VNM p a r t ic ipa ted i n S anka l ia 's e xcava t ion o ft h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te o fN avda to l i i n Madhya P radesh d u r ing D ecembe r , 1 958 , a nd f r om t h e re p roceeded t oC h i t tau rga rh i nR a ja s than i nJ anua ry , 1 959 , a nd e xp lo red P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n t h e G ambh i r i a nd B e rach r i ve r s . F rom C h i t tau rga rh ( Ch i to rga rh ) h e w en t t o P a l i i n w es ter n R a ja s than ( a c ros s t h e A rava l l i h i l ls ) t o e xp lo re t h e r i ve r L un i a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ies . I n t ho se d ay s s t one a ge r e sea rch w a s d one a lmos t e xc lu s ive ly i n r i ve r v a l ley s b ecau se r i ve r s p rov ided n a tu ra l ly e xpo sed g eo log ica l d epos i t s i n wh ich o ne c ou ld f i nd s t one t oo l s a nd a n ima l f o s s i ls i n s t ra t if ied c on tex t s , a nd f r om w h ich o ne c ou ld a t temp t ar e con s t ruc t ion o f p a s t c l ima tes a nd l a ndf onn s . VNM c a r r ied o u t f i e ld

2

VNM r e ca l l s m any e xpe r ience s o fh i s f i e ld w o rk . I n t ho se d ay s t r an spor t s y s tem i n R a ja s than w a s v ery p oo r ly d eve loped . On ly i mpo r tan tt own s w e r e c onnec ted b y b u s , a nd o f ten VNM h ad t ot r ave l b y t r a in a to dd t ime s , i n c lud ing i nt h e n i gh t , a nd w a i t a ts ma l l s t a t ion s t i l l s un r i se t o b e a b le t o w a lk t o t h e r i ve r b ed f o r e xp lo ra t ion . H e w ou ld s t ay i n d haram sha las ( i nn s ) w he r e t h e r oom s o f t en h ad n o d oo r s ,p anchaya t o ff ice s , s choo l s , e t c . L uck i ly , h i s t h ing s w e r e n eve r s t o len a nd t h e p eop le h e m e t w e r e g ene ra l ly v e ry h e lpf u l a nd h o sp i tab le . Mo s t I nd ian s , e spec ia l ly i n r u r a l a r ea s , h ave a p ecu l ia r h ab i t o f m ak ing p e r sona l e nqu i r ie s f r om a ny p e r son t h ey m ee t t h e f i r s t t im e . VNM w a s a l so o f ten a sk ed w ho h e w a s , w he re a nd t ow ha t c a s te h e b e longed , a nd w ha t h e w a s d o ing i n t h e c oun t ry s ide o fR a ja s than . When h e t o ld a bou t h i s s e a r ch f o r p r eh i s to r ic r ema in s a nd h i s e duca t ion , q u i te a f ew p e r son s t h ough t t h a t h e w a s b luff ing ; s om e t hough t t h a t h e w a s l o ok ing f o r h e rba l m ed ic ina l p l an t s . T he p opu la r i mage o f ah i gh ly e duca ted p e r son i nr u ra lI nd ia , a tl e a s ti nt h e 1 950 s , w hen f o r a n e duca ted p e r son f i nd ing e mp loym en t w a s n o t ap rob lem , w a s t h a t h e s hou ld b e h av ing a w e l l -pa id a nd c om f o r tab le j ob i n ac i ty . T he r u ra l p eop le f ound i ti mpo s s ib le t ob e l ieve t h a t ap e r son h o ld ing a nM .A . d eg r ee s hou ld b e w ande r ing a l one t h rough s andy r i ve r b ed s i n s e a son s o f e x t r eme h ea t a nd c o ld . E ven m any w e l l -educa ted p eop le h ave l i t t le i d ea o fa r chaeo logy . O ne s en io re ng inee r o f t h e R a ja s than ( now I nd i ra G andh i ) C ana l d i r ec t ly a sk ed VNM w hy t h e G ove rnm en t w a s w a s t ing money o n an on -p roduc t ive s ub jec t l i ke a r chaeo logy .

w o rk i nt h i s a r ea a sw e l l a st h e v a l ley s o ft h e r i ve r B ana s a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s i n e a s ter n R a ja s than f o r t h ree s ucce s s ive s e a son s a nd d i scove r ed 1 4 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 1 8 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( t he l a t te r mo s t ly i nt h eL un ib a s in ) a nd f ou r Meso l i th ic s i t es , b es ide s e xam in ing an umbe r o fo t he r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s w h ich h ad b een d i scove r ed b y M .N . D e shpande , S .R . R ao a nd K .N . P ur i o ft h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ( AS I ) i nv a l ley s o f t h e C hamba l a nd B ana s r i ve r s a nd t h e i rt r ibu ta r ies a r ound C h i t tau rhga rh . T he a r tef ac tua l m a te r ia l a nd Q ua te rna ry g eo log ica l o b serva t ion s f o rm ed ap ar t o f VNM 's P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion , e n t i t led S t one A ge C u l ture so fR a jpu tana p repa r ed u nde rt h eg u idance o f H .D . S anka l ia a nd s ubm i t ted t o P oona U n ive r s i ty i n J u ly 1 961 . T he d i sse r ta t ion w a s e xam ined b y t h e l a te F .E . Z eune r a nd C .B .M . McBur n ey o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon , a nd C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty , r e spec t ive ly , a nd h e g o t h i s d eg r ee i n 1 962 . Wh i le p r epa r ing h i s d i s se r ta t ion , VNM w ro te a c omp r ehen s ive a r t ic le o n t h e P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry o f w e s ter n R a jpu tana ( a s R a ja s than w a s c a l led t h en ) . T h i sw a sp ub l i shed i nV o l . 2 1 o ft h eB u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l lege i n1 962 .

VNM w ou ld e a t w ha teve r f ood h e c ou ld g e t . T he w o r s tp rob lem w a so fw a te r ,p a r t icu la r ly i nw e s ter n R a ja s than , w he re s e t t lem en t a r e l o ca ted a t l o ng d i s tances , w a te r i ss c a r ce a nd o f ten b rack ish . O n m any o cca s ion s t h e w a te r t h a t h e c a r r ied t o t h e f i e ld w ou ld r un o u t a nd h e w ou ld b e f o r ced t o d r ink h i gh ly b rack i sh a nd u nc lean w a te r f r om p oo l s i nt h e r i ve r b ed s . Much l a te r h e l e ar n t t h a t t h i s s t agnan t w a te r h a rbou r ed h ookwo rm w h ich w ou ld g e t i n to t h e b ody o f ap e r son a l ong w i th w a te r , g row i n s ide t h e b ody t oc on s ide r ab le l e ng th a nd f i na l ly b u r s t i t s w ay o u t f r om s om e p a r t o ft h e b ody . I t h ad t o b e s l ow ly p u l led o u t c au s ing e no rmou s p a in t o t h e p e r son . B ecau se o f t h e p o l lu ted w a te r t h i s w a s ac ommon a i lm en t i nt h a t p a r t o f R a ja s than . L uck i ly VNM d i d n o t g e t t h i s p a inf u l d i sea se . H e s t i l l r emembe r s t h e j oy a nd e xc i tem en t h e f e l t a f t e rf i nd ing t h e f i r s t s t one t o o l s i nt h e L un i b ed , b ecau se h e w a s n o t a ta l l s u re o f

V .N . M is ra w i th h i sg uru N .D . S anka l ia a tD eccan C o l lege 1 98 1

3

f i nd ing a ny th ing i nt h e w a ter les s r eg ion o fw es tern R a jas than .

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I I . B ack t oL ucknow Un ivers i ty Wh i le VNM w a s d o ing h i s P h .D . , S anka l ia o f f ered h im a l e c tu re r 's j ob a t t h e D eccan C o l lege b u t VNM g ra tefu l ly d ec l ined i t b ecau se h e w a s c omm i t ted t o Ma jumda r t o g o b ack t o L ucknow . T o VNM 's i ll u ck , Ma jumda rs udden ly e xp i red o n 3 1 s t may 1 961 , a nd n ow a b l ank f u tu re s t a red

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VNM i n t h e f a ce . I n t h is h ou r o f c r i s i s , K .S . Ma thu r , VNM 's c o l league a t L ucknow d u r ing 1 957 -58 , a ppea red a s ad iv ine f i gu re . H e w ro te t o VNM t h a t h e w a s a wa re o f DNM 's p rom i se o f a j ob t oh im ( VNM ) a tL ucknow Un ive r s i ty , a nd h e w ou ld s e et oi tt h a t VNM g e t so ne . Ma thu rk ep th i s p rom i se a nd VNM g o t a nA s s is tan t P rof es so r 's j ob a tL ucknow Un ive r s i ty a nd j o ined i to n 1 5t h J u ly 1 961 .

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I V .P une a ga in Meanwh i le , Un ive r s i ty G ran t s C omm is s ion ( UGC ) c r ea ted a n ew l e c tu re r sh ip ( i n P reh is to r ic A rchaeo logy ) i n P une Un ive r s i ty 's D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy l o ca ted a t t h e D eccan C o l lege a nd h eaded b y S anka l ia . S anka l ia o f f e red t h is j ob t o VNM who g ra tefu l ly a ccep ted i t , a nd a f te r s p end ing o ne a cadem ic y ea r a tL ucknow ,j o ined i t o n 2 6 J u ly , 1 962 . VNM p r ef er red P une t o L ucknow b ecau se o fb e t ter r e sear ch f a c i l i t ies a nd a tmosphe re , a nd a l so b ecau se a f ter Ma jumda r 's d ea th h i s c omm i tmen t f o r L ucknow w a s o ve r . I n 1 968 h e b ecame a R eade r a nd H ead o f t h e D epa r tmen ta nd c on t inued i nt h o se p os ts u n t i l 1 981 when h e j o ined t h e D eccan C o l lege . Du r ing t h is p e r iod , b es ides d o ing t e ach ing a nd r e sea rch , VN M p as sed t h e c e r t if ica te c ou r se e xam ina t ion s i n F rench a nd G e rman f r om P oona Un ive r s i ty a nd Max Mue l le r B havan ( Goe the I n s t i tu te ) , r e spec t ive ly i n 1 966 a nd 1 971 , b o th i n f i r s t d i v i s ion , a nd a l so d i d ac ou r se i nR u ss ian i nP oona Un ive r s i ty .

B es ides t h e h app iness o ff i nd ing s t one t oo ls i nt h e s em i -a r id r eg ion o f Ma rwa r , VNM w as l u cky o n a no the r c oun t . H e h ad g iven c op ies o f h i s d i s ser ta t ion f o r b ind ing t o ab inde r i n D eccan G ymkhana a r ea a nd h ad b rough t t h em b ack o n t h e e ven ing o f 1l t h J u ly 1 961 . E a r ly n ex t mo rn ing t h e n ew ly b u i l t P an she t d am b u r s t a nd l a rge p a r t s o f P oona c i ty , i n c lud ing t h e s hop whe re h e h ad g i ven h i s d i sse r ta t ion f o rb ind ing , w e re s ubme rged u nde r d eep w a te r . H ad h e n o t c o l lec ted t h e c op ies t h e p rev iou s e ven ing , t h ey w ou ld h ave b een w a shed a way b y t h e f l ood , a nd i t wou ld h ave b een a d i sa s te r f o r VN M b ecau se h e w ou ld h ave t o p r epa re t h e d i s ser ta t ion o nce a ga in f o r wh ich h e h ad n o f i nanc ia lr e sou r ces , a nd t h ej ob p rom ised b y Ma jumda ra tL ucknow w i l l a l so b e i nj eopa rdy .

V . F ur ther f i e ld w ork i nR a jas than I mmed ia te ly a f te r j o in ing t h e D eccan C o l lege , VNM s pen t t wo mon th s ( Sep tembe r -Oc tobe r , 1 962 ) a t t h e I nd ian Mu seum , C a lcu t ta , a nd e xam ined a l l t h e s t one a ge c o l lec t ion s t h e re . O f p ar t icu la r i n te res t w ere t h e c o l lec t ion s o f g round s t one t oo ls f r om n o r thea s t I nd ia wh ich w e re t o ta l ly d i f f e ren tf r om t hose o fp en in su la rI nd ia .

r e .

A f te rt h a t h e r e sumed f i e ld w o rk i nR a ja s than , a nd t h is t ime c oncen t ra ted o n t h e B erach b a s in i n Mewa r , p ar t icu la r ly t h e d i s t r ic t s o f U da ipu r , C h i t tau rga rh a nd B h i lwa ra . H e d i scove red a n umbe r o f L ower a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ,

4 1 .4 . r t oo

V .N . M is ra s i t t ing o n ag r ave l c l if f o f t h e R ena r i ve r , P a l i d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than 1 959 .

4

Meso l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i t lüc s i te s i nt h e v a l ley s o f t h e B e rach , G ambh i r i a nd Wagan r i ve r s . M ic ro l i th ic s i te s w e r e q u i te c ommon a nd o ccu r r ed o n r o cky g round w he r e r aw m a te r ia l —c r yp to c r y s ta l l ine s i l ica a nd q ua r tz — w a s a va i lab le . C ha lco l i th ic s i te s , wh ich b e longed t o t h e A ha r C u l tu r e , a t t h a t t im e k nown o n ly f r om t h e e xcava ted s i te so fA ha ra nd G i lund , a nd af ew s i te s d i scove r ed b y K .N . P ur i o f t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ( AS I ) , w e r e l o ca ted b o th a l ong t h e r i ve r b ank s a nd a way f r om t h em . T he se w e r e c ha rac te r ized b y , a mong o the r e l em en t s , p a in ted B lack -and -Red Wa r e ( BR W ) , T an Wa r e , wh ich h ad d i s t inc t H a rappan a ff in i ty , a nd a T h in R ed Wa r e ,a l lo fv e ry h i gh q ua l i ty .

T i lwa ra i n B a rm e r d i s t r ic t i n w e s te rn R a ja s than , a nd B ago ri nB h i lwa ra d i s t r ic ti ne a s te rn R a ja s than . A st r ia l d ig s a tt h ese s i te s p roved p rom i s ing , i nt h e f o l low ing f ou r y ea r s VNM e xcava ted t h em o n a l a rge r s c a le j o in t ly w i th t h e D epa r tm en t o f A r chaeo logy a nd Mu seum s o f t h e R a ja s than G ove rnm en t ,J a ipu r . V I I I . E xcava t ion a tT i lwara T he s i te o fT i lwa ra i sl o ca ted o n al ow s and d une a bou t t wo km a way f r om t h e s ou ther nb ank o ft h e L un ir i ve ra tt h ee a s ter ne dge o ft h eT ha rd e se r t . T o r e ach t h e s i te t h e e xcava t ion t e am m embe r s ( c omp r i s ing VNM , C .G . P adva l a nd L ak shaman Ma ta l f r om P une , a nd V i jay K uma r a nd H .C . M i sh ra f r om J a ipu r ) h ad t o t r ave l b y t r a in t o B a lo t ra a nd f r om t h e r e w a lk s eve r a l km t h rough t h e w ide s andy b ed o ft h e r i ve r a nd w ade t h rough t h e w ide s t r e tch o fs ha l low w a te rw h ich w a s b i t ing c o ld i nw in te r . F o ra l lt h ep u r cha se so ne m embe ro f t h et e am h ad t og ot oB a lo t r aa tl e a s tt w ice aw eek . T h et e am s t ayed i nt h e G ove rnm en tD ak B unga low a nd h ad t ow a lk a bou tt h r ee km t ot h es i te a nd b ack e ve ry d ay . T he s i te wh ich h ad ad epo s i t o fo n ly 6 0 c m y i e lded a r i ch a nd h igh ly e vo lved g eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry m ade o n c he r t a nd q ua r tz i n t h e l owe r l e ve l s a nd m ic ro l i th s a s soc ia ted w i th w hee l m ade p o t te ry a nd i r on t o o ls i n t h e u ppe r l e ve l s . T he e v idence s howed t h a t i nt h i sb ackwa te r r e g ion u se o fm ic ro l i th s p e r s i s ted w e l l i n to h i s to r ic p e r iod .

V I .E xp lora t ion i nU .P . Du r ing 1 964 -65 VNM a na lyzed t h e m a te r ia l f r om R a ja s than f i e ld w o rk a nd w ro te s eve ra l a r t ic le s f o r d i f f e r en t j ou rna l s ( s ee l i s t o f p ub l ica t ion s i n P .P . J og leka r 's p ape r ) a nd a monog raph e n t i t led P re a nd P ro toh i s to ly o ft h e B erach B a s in , S ou thea s t R a ja s than , wh ich w a s p ub l i shed b y t h e D eccan C o l lege i n 1 967 . H e a l so p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e p r eh i s to r ic e xp lo ra t ion s i nt h e N a rmada v a l ley a nd i n t h e e xcava t ion s a t t h e N eo l i th ic s i t e o f T ekka lako ta i nK a rna taka a nd t h ee a r ly h i s to r ic s i te o f T r ipu r i i n Madhya P rade sh , a l l u nde r t h e l e ade r sh ip o f H .D . S anka l ia . D u r ing t h e s umm e r v aca t ion ( May -June ) w hen VNM u sed t og o t oh i s h om e i n U .P . , h e e xp lo red s eve ra l s i tes o f t h e e n igma t ic c oppe r h oa rd s a s w e l l P a in ted G r ey Wa r e ( Pa VV ) a nd l a te r c u l tu re s i n H a rdo i , F a r ru ld iabad , S hah jahanpu r , a nd K anpu r d i s t r ic t s . T h rough e nqu i r ie s f r om l o ca lp e r son s h e f ound o u t t h a t c oppe r h oa rd s a ts i te s l i k e D haka , S a r thau l i , I nd i lapu r , S heo ra jpu r , N ak r ah iya a nd Madnapu r w e r e f ound d u r ing a c t iv i t ie s l i k e p l ough ing , c ana l d i gg ing , g round l e ve l ing , a nd j u s t c a sua l d i gg ing , a nd t h ey w e r e n o t a s soc ia ted w i th h ab i ta t ion s i te s . H ea l so e xp lo r ed PG W a nd r e la ted s i te sa tK amp i l , F a r rukhabad , a nd S ank isa i nF a r rukhabad d i s t r ic t , J a jmau i nK anpu r d i s t r ic t , a nd S hampu r i nH o rdo i d i s t r ic t .

I X .E xcava t ion a tB agor T he s i te o fB ago r i sl o ca ted o n al ow d une o n t h e l ef tb ank o ft h e K o tha r i r i ve r , a bou to ne km e a s t o f t h e l a rge v i l lage o f B ago r . T he s i te i sk nown a s Maha sa t i b ecau se R a jpu t w om en c omm i t ted s a t i ( immo la ted t h em se lve s o n t h e p y r e s o f t h e i r h u sband s ) h e r e a nd S h iva s h r ine s h ave b een b u i l t o n t ho se s po t s . W i th t h e h e lp o f S a tya P raka sh , D i rec to r o fA r chaeo logy a nd Mu seum s , R a ja s than , t h e e xcava t ion t e am ( c omp r i s ing s am e m embe r s a s a t T i lwa ra ) g o t a ccommoda t ion i n t h e M ica We lf a r e C en t r e i n s ide t h e v i l lage . Mang i L a l S ha rma , al o ca l C ong r e s s w o rke r a nd a v e ry r e sou rcef u l p e r son , w a s o fg r ea t h e lp i na r rang ing l a bou r a nd s o lv ing a l l k ind s o f p rob lem s . A t h i s i n i t ia t ive t h e w o rke r s i nt h e e xcava t ion w ou ld h o s t af e a s t o f t r ad i t iona l Mewa r i d i she s , wh ich t h ey t h em se lve s p repa r ed , t ot h e e xcava t ion t e am a tt h e e nd o f e ach s e a son 's e xcava t ion , a nd l a te r w ou ld c a r ry t h e t e am i n ap roces s ion t h rough t h e v i l lage a ccompan ied b y mu s ic a nd t h row ing o f c o lou r . VNM g e t sn o s ta lg ic wh i le r e ca l l ing t h ea f f ec t ion o f

V I I .E xp lora t ion i n Gu jara ta nd R a ja s than I n 1 966 VNM a nd L .S . L eshn ik o ft h e H e ide lbe rg Un ive r s i ty , We s t G e rmany c a r r ied o u t e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion s i n R a ja s than a nd G u ja ra t , m a in ly t o t e s tL e shn ik 's h ypo the s i st h a te a r ly a g r icu l tu r em ay h ave b egun i n t h e f oo th i l l r e g ion o f t h e A rava l l i moun ta in s . D u r ing t h e e xp lo r a t ion s , a pa r t f r om m any s ma l l m ic ro l i th ic a nd l a te r s i tes , t h ey d i scove r ed t wo i mpo r tan t Me so l i th ic s i te s a t

5

t h e s imp le v i l lage p eop le . S ome t wen ty y ea r s l a te r , w hen , a l ong w i th s om e o f h i s c o l league s o f t h e B a la tha le xcava t ion , h e v i s i ted B ago ra ga in , h ew a s m obbed b y t h e w o rk e r s w ho s pon taneou s ly l i f ted h im a nd d anced w i th j oy .

b on e b ead s . A nd f i na l ly , t h ey c ame i n to c on tac t w i th i r on u s ing p eop le a nd l e a rn t t h e u se o f i r on t o o l s a nd w eapon s a nd w hee lm ade p o t te ry . I ti sb y t h i s p roces s t h a t mo s t o fI nd ia 's s t one a ge h un te r g a the r e r s h ave b een a s s im i la ted i n to t h e m a in s t r eam s oc ie ty .

T he s i te w a s e xcava ted o ve r a n a r ea o fa bou t 2 20 s qmf o rt h r ee y ea r s ( 1968 -70 ) , e ach y ea rf o ra bou t t h r ee m on th s . B ago rr ema in st h e l a rge s t Me so l i th ic s i te e xcava ted s of a ri nI nd ia .

X . S r iL anka I n 1 969 VNM p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e S econd I n ter na t iona l C onf e rence o f A s ian A r chaeo logy o rgan ized b y t h e S r i L ankan G ove rnm en t 's D epar tmen t o f A r chaeo logy a t C o lombo , a nd p r e sen ted a p ape r o n h i s w o rk a tB ago r . H e w a s a l so a b le t ov i s i tt h e f amou s S r i L ankan Me so l i th ic s i te s o fB e l i L ena A thu la , B e l i L ena K i tuga la , a nd B a tadomba L ena , a nd m ade f r i end sh ip w i th S i ran D e ran iaga la w ho l a te r d i s t ingu i shed h im se lf a st h e l e ad ing a r chaeo log i s t o f S r i L anka . VNM a ga in v i s i ted S r i L anka i n 1 990 t o p a r t ic ipa te i n t h e i n ter n a t iona l c onf e r ence o rgan ized b y t h e D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy o f t h e S r i L anka G ove rnm en t t o c e leb ra te t h e c en tena ry o f i t s f ounda t ion .

VNM r e ca l l s t h a t t h ey u sed t op r epa r e t h e s i te f o r p ho tog raphy t h e p r ev iou s e ven ing , a nd n ex t m o rn ing i nt h e c h i l ly w in te r h e w i l l r e ach t h e s i t e b ef o r e s un r i se t o t a k e p ho tog raph s b ef o r e l o ng s hadow s f e l l o n t h e e xcava ted t r ench . L ak shman Ma ta l w a s a n e xce l len t c ook a nd a n e x t rao rd ina ry p e r son . H e d e r ived g r ea tes t h app ine s s b y m ak ing o t he r p eop le h appy . H e w ou ld e n te r ta in e ve ry v i s i to rt ot h e c amp w i th t e a a nd s nack s . S ome t ime s h e w ou ld c a r ry e ven ing s nack s t o t h e s i te a nd w ou ld m ee tt h et e am m idway a si tw a sr e tur n ing t o t h e c amp . H e w ou ld i n s i s t t h a t t h e t e am m embe r s e a tt h es nack sa t aw e l li n af i e ld l e s tt h ey g e tc o ld .

X I . Hom iB habha F e l low sh ip a nd E urope I n 1 970 VNM w a s a wa rded a H om i B habha F e l low sh ip t o s t udy E u ropean p r eh i s to ry . H e v i s i ted al a rge n umbe ro fa r chaeo logy d epa r tm en t s , mu seum s a nd e xcava t ion s , s t ud ied s t one t o o l c o l lec t ion s , a nd m e t m any l e ad ing a r chaeo log is t s i n I s rae l , I t a ly , F rance , G e rm any , U .K . , t h e N e the r land s , D enma rk , a nd C zecho s lovak ia . H e g ave l e c tu re s o nI nd ian p r eh i s to ry a ts eve ra lp l ace s , a nd p a r t ic ipa ted i nF ranco i s B o rde s ' e xcava t ion a t P ech d e l 'Aze a nd H en ry d e L um ley 's e xcava t ion a t G ro t te d e L aza r e t i n F r ance . A s F r ench p r eh is to ry i s l a rge ly c ave p r eh is to ry , i n F rance VNM w a s o f ten a sk ed w he the rt h e r e w e r e c ave s i n I nd ia , a nd i fs o , h e s hou ld l o ok f o r e v idence o f p r eh is to r ic o ccupa t ion t h e r e . H e r e tur n ed t o I nd ia w i th a d e te rm ina t ion t o l o ok f o r a nd e xcava te a c ave s i te . O n c omp le t ion o f t h e f e l low sh ip VNM p r epa r ed amonog raph o n Me so l i th ic A ge i nI nd ia , a nd s ubm i t ted i tt o H om i B habha F e l low sh ip s C ounc i l .

T he c u l tu ra l s equence o ft h e s i t e w a s d i v ided i n to t h r ee p ha se s . P ha se Iy i e lded am ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry , a n ima l b on e s , a nd o ne h uman b u r ia l c on ta in ing a n a du l ts k e le ton l a id i na ne x tended p o s i t ion . P ha se I y i e lded , b e s ide s m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry a nd a n ima l b one s , h andmade a nd p oo r ly b aked p o t te ry d eco ra ted w i th i n c i sed d e s ign s , a nd t h r ee h uman b u r ia l s w i th t h e b ody b u r ied i n af l exed p o s i t ion . W i th t h e b u r ia l s c oppe r o b jec t s , c omp le te c l ay p o t s , b ead s o fs em i -p r ec iou s s t one s a nd b one , a nd a n ima lb ones , o r ig ina l ly p robab ly p l aced a sc hunk s o f m ea t , w e r e f ound a s o f f e r ing s . I n P ha se I I m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry a nd a n ima l b one s d ec l ined i n q uan t i ty , a nd w hee l m ade p o t te ry o f t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod a nd i r on t o o l s a ppea r ed . B ago r w a s t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n I nd ia f r om w h ich e n t i r e a n ima l b one m a te r ia l w a s c o l lec ted . I tw a s s y s tem a t ica l ly s t ud ied b yP .K . T hom a sw ho g o th i s P h .D . d eg r ee o nt h es t udy . B ago r h a s p rov ided e xce l len t e v idence o f t h e p roce s s o f a ccu l tu ra t ion i n p r eh i s to ry . T he f i r s t s e t t le r s a tt h e s i te w e re p r ima r i ly h un te r -ga the r e r s , b u t w e r e a l so h e rd ing s h eep /goa t a nd b r eed ing c a t t le . W i th t h e p a s sage o ft ime t h e r o le o fh un t ing d ec l ined a nd t h a to fd om e s t ic a n im a l si n c r ea sed . A t al a te rs t age t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s c am e i n to c on tac t w i th s e t t led f a rm ing p eop le f r om w hom t h ey o b ta ined p o t te ry , c oppe r o b jec t s , a nd s t one a nd

X I I .B h imbe tka Af t e r h i s r e tur n f r om E u rope VNM w a s c on t inuou s ly t h ink ing o f e xcava t ing a s t one a ge c av e s i te . T he o ppo r tun i ty c am e i n1 972 w hen V .S . Wakanka r , w ho h ad d i scove red t h e s i te o f B h imbe tka i n 1 957 , w an ted t o e xcava te i ta nd r e que s ted H .D . S anka l ia f o r D eccan C o l lege t o c o l labo ra te i nt h e p ro jec t . S anka l ia a sked VNM t o

6

u nde r tak e t h e e xcava t ion o n b eha lf o ft h e D eccan C o l lege .

s t one a ge h un te r -ga the r e r s i n hab i ted t h e a r ea f o r a t l e a s t ah und r ed t h ou sand y ea r sa nd p robab ly m o r e . Wakanka r a nd Y a shodha r Ma thpa l , w ho c a r r ied o u t c omp r ehen s ive s t ud ies o f t h e r o ck a r t o f t h e s i te , c l a s s if i ed t h e s he l te r s i n to a t h r ee t ie red s chem e . T he f i r s tt i e rc on s i s t s o fe i gh tm a in g roup s o r a r ea s w h ich h ave b een n umbe r ed I -V I I I . E ach a r ea h a s b een d i v ided i n to s uba rea s o r c l u s te r s w h ich h ave b een n umbe r ed A , B , C , e t c . A nd i n e ach c l u s te rt h e s h e l te r s h ave b een n umbe r ed 1 ,2 , 3 ,e t c . T hu s e ach s he l te rb ea r s at h r ee t ie r n umbe r , f o r e xamp le , I IF -23 . I n 1 972 V .S . Wakanka r b egan e xcava t ion a t t h e s i te a nd d ug i n s eve ra l s he l te r s f o r f i ve s e a son s . I n 1 973 V .N . M i s ra , a s s i s ted b y r e sea r ch s cho la r s Y a shodha r Ma thpa l , P .K . T hom a s , S .C . N anda , D .R . R a ju , Ma ldd ian L a l a nd N ived i ta B oga , a nd s eve ra l m embe r s o ft h e t e chn ica l s t af f , s t ar ted e xcava t ion a nd d ug t h ree s he l te r s , n am e ly I IF -23 , I IF -13 , a nd IB -33 f o r f i ve s e a son s .

Ap a r t o fB h imbe tka h i l l , t h e s he l t e r s a r e a tt h e b o t tom o ft h e m ono l i th ic r o ck s 1 973

B h imbe tka ( 70 ° 3 7 ' E : 2 2° 5 0 ' N ) i sn am e o f ah i l l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i te c omp lex i nR a i sen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh . T he n am e i s d e r ived f r om B h ima , o ne o f t h e P andava h e roe s o f t h e Mahabha ra ta e p ic , w ho , a cco rd ing t o l o ca l b e l ief , s p en t s om e t im e i nt h e c ave s o nt h e h i l l d u r ing t h e p er iod o ft h e i r e x i le . T he h i l l i ss i tua ted a bou t 4 5 km s ou th o f B hopa l a nd 3 5 km n o r th o f H o shangabad , a nd a bou tt wo km s ou th o ft h et r iba l v i l lage o f B h iyanpu r w h ich i s l o ca ted o n t h e s ou the rn s i de o f t h e Mumba i -De lh i r a i l l i ne a nd h i ghway r unn ing p a ra l le l t o i t .T he h i l l p o s se s se s o ve r 2 00 c ave s a nd r o ck sh e l te r s , s om e o f w h ich c on ta in e v idence o fo ccupa t ion b y s t one a ge m an a nd a lmo s t a l o f t h em c on ta in p a in t ing s d a t ing f r om t h e s t one a ge t o h i s to r ica l p e r iod . S eve r a l o t he rh i l ls i nt h ev i c in i ty o fB h imbe tka a l so c on ta in c av e s a nd r o ck she l te r s a nd t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f t h e se i n t h e a r ea i s o ve r 1 000 . T he c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s h ave b een f o rm ed b y n a tu ra l w ea ther ing i n t h e s of t V indhyan s and s tone . T he h i l l s a nd v a l ley s a r e c ove r ed b y af a i r ly t h ick d ry d ec iduou s v ege ta t ion , w h ich c on ta in s o ve r 3 0 s p ec ie s o ft r ee s , p l an t s a nd c r eepe r s h av ing e d ib le l e ave s , f l owe r s , f r u i t s , s e ed s , r oo t s a nd t u be r s . T he f o r e s t a l so h a rbou r s ar i ch w i ld l if e , i n c lud ing h e rb ivo r es a sw e l l a sc ar n ivo r e s . As e a sona l s t r eam f l ow s b y t h e e a s ter ne dge o ft h e h i l l a nd an umbe r o fp e r enn ia l s p r ing s a r e f ound i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e h i l l . T he s t r eam a nd t h e s p r ing s m ee t t h e w a te r n eed s o fh uman a s w e l l a s a n ima l ( bo th w i ld a nd d om es t ica ted ) p opu la t ion s . T he t r iba l p eop le , m a in ly G ond s , p r inc ipa l i n hab i tan t s o f t h e a r ea , e x ten s ive ly e xp lo i t t h e w i ld p l an t f ood r e sou rces . B h imbe tka t hu s h a s a l t h e i n g r ed ien t s —f ood , w a te r a nd s h e l te r —r e qu i r ed t o s u s ta in ah un t ing g a the r ing w ay o f l i f e , a nd i ti sn o s u rp r i se t h a t

VNM 's c amp w a s l o ca ted i n s ide t h e f o re s t a tt h e f oo t o ft h e h i l l . I n t h e e ven ing s t h e c amp i nma tes w ou ld s i t a r ound a b ig f i re a nd h ave l i ve ly d i scu s s ion s o n v a r iou s a r chaeo log ica l t o p ic s i n a v e ry t r anqu i l a tmo sphe r e . T he r e w a s q u i te ab i t o f w i ld l if e i nt h e f o r e s t , a nd s amba r , n i lga i a nd w i ld b oa r w ou ld o f t en v i s i t t h e c amp . T he re w a s a l so a l a rge t r oupe o fl a ngu r s w ho se a g i le j ump ing o nt h e t r ee s a nd o the r a spec t s o f b ehav iou r t h e c amp i nma te s o f ten g o t t o w a tch . S nake s , i n c lud ing c ob ra s , p o sed a s e r iou s d ange r a nd o cca s iona l ly p y thon s w e r e a l so s i gh ted . S co rp ion s w e r e v e ry c ommon a nd ab ig n u i sance , a nd i nt h e e ven ing s w hen e xcava t ion t e am s a t d own o n ac a rpe t t o c a ta logue t h e d ay 's f i nd s , t h ey w ou ld m ake ar i ng o f DDT a r ound t h e c a rpe t t op r even t t h e s co rp ion s f r om c r aw l ing o nt oi t .H oney b ees f r om n ume rou s b eeh ive sw e r ea l so ab i gn u i sance .

O ne o ft h e s h e l te r s a tB h imbe tka o ve r look ing t h e g r een v a l ley 1 974

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T he s i te w a s l o ca ted a bou t t wo km f r om t h e r oad . T he e xcava t ion t e am h ad n ot r an spor t o ft h e i r own . T hey wou ld t r ave l b y t r a in f r om P une t o H oshangabad a nd b y ag ove rnmen t b u s f r om t h e re t o Bh iyanpu r , a nd t h en w a lk t h et wo km d i s tance t o

l o ca l H ind i n ew spape r s a s w e l l a s f u l l leng th a r t ic les b y VNM i nt h e I nd ian E xpre ss D a i ly a nd D harmayug , ap re s t ig iou s H ind i w eek ly , d id a l o t t op opu la r ize t h e s i te . F o re ign p res s a l so g ave al o t o fc ove rage t or ock p a in t ing s .

t h e s i te . B h iyanpu r , b e ing as ma l l s e t t lemen t o fn o c on sequence , w a s n o t ar e gu la r b u s s t op , a nd t h e d r ive rw i l l s t op t h eb u s o n ly o nt h e t e am m embe r s ' r eques t . T he l a ndma rk f o r a l igh t ing f r om t h e b u s w a s t h e r a i lway g a te . S ome t im es t h e m embe r s a r r ived l a te i nt h e n igh t a nd t h e i rg ues s f o rl o ca t ing t h e g a te t u rned o u t t o b e m is judged . O n s uch o cca s ion s t h e b u s w i l l o ver shoo t t h e g a te a nd t h e m embe r s w i l l h ave t o w a lk a head o r b ack t o i t . T here w a s n o w e l l -def ined p a th t o t h e h i l l , a nd t h e re w e re o cca s ion s when s ome o f t h e t e am m ember s wou ld f o rge t t h e p a th a nd g e t l o s t f o r h ou r s a nd e ven tua l ly l o ca te t h e c amp w i th t h e h e lp o f t h e wh i te c o lou r o f t h e c amp t e n t s . T he t e am m ember s w i l l l e ave t h e i r b aggage i nc ha rge o ft h e r a i lway g a teman , who w a s mo s t c oope ra t ive , a nd s end o ne o ft h e w o rke r s i nt h e mor n ing t ob r ing i t t ot h e c amp . Wr i t ten i n s t ruc t ion st ot h is e f f ec tw e re s en tt oa l l wou ld b ev i s i to r st ot h e s i te . F o rc a r ry ing t h e c amp e qu ipmen t f r om t h e r oad t ot h e c amp t h e t e am w i l l h i re b u l lock c a r t s . F o r t h e c a r t t o r e ach

I l u n tc r s a nd t h e i r g ame , Meso l i th ic p a in t ing s a t B h imbe tka 1 975

Al a rge n umbe ro fa r chaeo log i s t s f r om u n ive r s i t ie s a nd o the r i n s t i tu t ion s v i s i ted t h e s i te d u r ing e xcava t ion s a nd s ome p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h em . T he v i s i tor s i n c luded H .D . S anka l ia , B .B . L a l , M .N . D eshpande , G .R . S ha rma , D .P . A g rawa l , S .P . Gup ta , T .C . S ha rma , V .D . M isra , R .K . V a rma , K .T . R eddy a nd K .C . T r ipa thy . F o re ign a r chaeo log is t s , who v i s i ted t h e e xcava t ion s , i n c luded p rof e sso r s H en ry a nd M -A . d e L um ley a nd D r . J .R . L ukac s . I n D ecembe r 1 978 , a bou t 5 0 a r chaeo log is t s f r om Nor th Amer ican , E u ropean ,

t h e c amp t h et e am h ad t or emove l o t so fr o ck s f r om t h e p oo r ly d ef ined t r ack . T hey w ou ld m a rk t h e t r ack o n b o th s i des b y p a in t ing s e lec ted r o ck s i n wh i te a s ag u ide f o rt h em se lves a nd t h ev i s i to r s . F o rw a te rt h e t e am d epended o n t h e n a la ( s ea sona l s t r eam ) . A f te r i td r ied u p i n F eb rua ry - Ma rch , t h e e xcava to r s w ou ld d ig aw e l l i n i t s b ed . T he w a te r w a s n o t v e ry c l ean a nd h ad t o b e b o i led f o r c on sump t ion . F o r tuna te ly , n one o f c amp i nma tes ( t he re w ou ld b e 1 5 -20 o ft h em a ta ny t ime ) n o ra ny o f t h e h und r ed s o f v i s i to r s , i n c lud ing f o r e igne r s , d eve loped a ny s t omach p rob lem .

A f r ican , a nd P ac if ic c oun t r ies , who h ad c ome t o I nd ia t op ar t ic ipa te i nt h e I n ter n a t iona l c onf e rence o f An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c ience s a t N ew D e lh i a nd I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is tory A ssoc ia t ion s ympo s ium o n I ndo -Pac if ic p r eh i s to ry a t D eccan C o l lege , P une , v i s i ted t h e s i te . B ecau se o f i t s s e t t ing i n af o res t , c ompa ra t ive ly e a sy a ccess ib i l i ty , r i ch r o ck a r t , a nd v i s i t s o fm any s cho la r s d u r ing h i s e xcava t ion s , VNM r e ga rd s B h imbe tka a s t h e mo s t m emo rab le o fh i s e xcava t ion c amp s .

T he t e am w ou ld b e c amp ing a t t h e s i te f o r 2 3 mon th s e very y ea r . A s t h e n ew s o ft h e e xcava t ion s t ar ted a ppea r ing i nt h e p r es s , p eop le f r om B hopa l a nd o the r n ea rby p l aces s t a r ted v i s i t ing t h e s i te , p a r t icu la r ly o n S unday s a nd o the r h o l iday s . On t h ese d ay s s ome o ft e am m embe r sw ou ld d oub le u p a s g u ides a nd w i l l s pend s eve ra l h ou r s i n g iv ing l e s son s i n e l emen ta ry p reh is tory , e xp la in ing t h e e xcava t ion a nd s t one t oo ls , a nd s how ing t h e f a r f l ung p a in ted s he l te r st ot h ev i s i to r s . T h is o fc ou r se i n te rf ered w i th t h e e xcava t ion w o rk b u t a s a r chaeo log is t s t h e e xcava to r s d i d n o t m ind t h e s a cr if ice b ecau se i th e lped i nc r ea t ing a na wa renes s a bou t a r chaeo logy . R epor ts a bou tt h e e xcava t ion i n

T he m a jo r f i nd ing s o f t h e e xcava t ion s i n t h ree s he l te r sa r eb r ie f ly s umma r ized b e low . X I Ia . I I F -23 An a r ea o f5 2 s q . mw a s e xcava ted i nt h is s he l te r , a nd a m ax imum d epos i t o f 3 . 80 m w a s e ncoun te red . T he s he l te r y i e lded a n u nb roken c u l tu ra l s equence f r om L a te A cheu l ian t o t h e t r an s i t ion f r om Meso l i th ic t o C ha lco l i th ic a nd f i na l ly t oI r on A ge .

8

L ay e r s 1 3 y i e lded Me so l i th ic m a te r ia l . L aye r 1 p roduced ag eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry m ade o n c ha lcedon ic s i l ica , as ma l l q uan t i ty o f q ua r tz i te f l ak e s , b l ades a nd m ic rob lade s , h amm e r s , g r inde r s a nd q ue rn s o fb a sa l t , o cca s iona l s t one b ead s , s ma l l q uan t i ty o fh i gh ly f r agm en ta ry p l a in r e d a nd g r ey p o t te ry , a nd r a r e b one p i ece s . L aye r 2h ad c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l s im i la rt ol a ye r 1b u t w i thou t p o t te ry a nd b ead s , a nd i t s s t on e i n du s t ry w a sr i che rt h an t h a t o f l a y e r 1 .I n l a ye r 3t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry w a s q uan t i ta t ive ly s ma l le r .

d epo s i t o f a bou t 6 0 c m . F ou r l a ye r s w e r e r e cogn ized i n t h e d epo s i t a nd i n t h e u ppe r t h ree l a ye r s an umbe r o f a shy p a tches o f 2 5 -30 c m d i ame te r w e r e o b served . T he t op t wo l a ye r s w e r e r i ch i nm ic ro l i th s a nd c on ta ined p l a in g r ey a nd r e d p o t she rd s . M ic ro l i th s w e r e f ewe ri nl a ye r s 3 -4 , a nd p o t te ry w a s a b sen t . T he m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry o ft h i s s he l te r d i f f e r s f r om t h a t o fI IF -23 b y t h e a b sence o fl a rge b l ade s . O ne i n comp le te a nd p oo r ly p r e se rved h uman b u r ia l , l a id i n af l exed p o s i t ion , w a s f ound i nl a ye r 2 . A s e cond b u r ia l c on s i s ted o f o n ly a f ew f r agm en t so ft h e s ku l l .

L aye r 4h ad n o m ic ro l i th s b u t c on ta ined q ua r tz i te f l ak e s ,b l ade sa nd s c rape r so fU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic o r l a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t y pe . L aye r 5y i e lded a t y p ica l M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage c omp r i s ing L eva l lo i s f l ake s , b l ade s , aw ide v a r ie ty o f s i de s c r ape r s , af ew e nd s c rape r s a nd r a r e b i f ace s . L ay e r s 6 -8 y i e lded a t y p ica l L a te A cheu l ian a s semb lage .

X I Ic . S he l ter IB -33 T h i s s he l te r i s l o ca ted a bou t o ne km t o t h e s ou thea s t o ft h e m a in B h imbe tka h i l l . I th ad o n ly Me so l i th ic d epo s i t w h ich w a s n ea r ly 1 . 50 m t h ick a nd c on s i s ted o ff i ve l a ye r s . L aye r s 1 2 y i e lded a m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry a nd p l a in g r ey a nd r ed p o t she rd s . L aye r 3 y i e lded a r i ch m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry , a nd C ha lco l i th ic p o t she rd s , t h e l a t te ro n ly i n t h e u ppe r p a r t . Two h uman b u r ia ls , l a id i n a n e x tended p o s i t ion ,w e r e f ound i nt h i sl a ye r . L aye r4 h ad n o p o t te ry a nd f ewe r m ic ro l i th s . I ty i e lded t h r ee h um an b u r ia l s .

P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s a r e m ade o f o r thoqua r tz i te . H eavy d u ty t o o l s , l i ke b i f aces , w e r e m ade o ft ough ,d a rk q ua r tz i te w h i le l i gh td u ty t oo l s l i ke s c rape r s a nd p o in t s , w e r e m ade o f s of t , y e l low i sh q ua r tz i te . T he A cheu l ian i n du s t ry i s d om ina ted b y f l ake t o o ls l i k e s c rape r s , p o in t s , a nd d en t icu la tes w h ich a ccoun t f o r n ea r ly 8 % o ft h e c o l lec t ion w h i le b i f ace s c on s t i tu te o n ly 1 2% . T h e r a t io o fc l eave r st oh andaxe si s3 : 1 . A l lt h ec l eave r s a nd mo s to ft h eh andaxe s a r e m ade o n f l ake s . O ve r 1 2% o f a l l f l ak e s a r e m ade b y t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t ry d ev e lop s i n s i tu o u t o f t h e A cheu l ian , a nd i s c ha rac te r ized b y av a r ie ty o f f l ake t o o l s l i ke s c r ape r s , p o in t s , d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s t h ough b i f aces c on t inue i nt h e e a r ly p ha se . T he L eva l lo i s t e chn ique c on t inue s t o b e d om inan t b u t as i zab le p ropor t ion o ft h e s c rape r s a r e m ade o n n a tu ra l f l a t p i ece s o fr o ck . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i sa c on t inua t ion o f , b u t s hor te r t h an , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . I t s s i gn if ican t n ew f e a tu re s a r e ah igh p e r cen tage a nd m o r et yp ica ln a tu r e o fe nd s c rape r s , a nd t h e a ppea rance o f s ho r t , t h in b l ade s , m ic rob lade sa nd o cca s iona lb u r in s .

T h is s he l te r h ad t h e m ax imum Me so l i th ic d epo s i t a tB h imbe tka , a nd t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry s howed e vo lu t ion i n r e spec t o f r educ t ion i n t h e s i ze o f b l ade s a nd mo re s y s tem a t ica l ly p roduced m ic ro l i th s . A l l t h e b u r ia l s w e re l a id i na n e x tended a nd s up ine p o s i t ion , a nd w e r e p oo r ly p r eserved . G r ind ing s t one s , g round h aema t i te p i eces , a n t le r p i ece s , a nd b one t o o l s w e re p l aced w i th t h e b u r ia l s a sg r ave g ood s .

N ex tt ot h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e , t h e e v idence f o rt h e Me so l i th ic a t B h imbe tka i sv e ry r i ch . T h is w a s f ound i na l lt h et h r ee s he l te r sd ug b y VNM . e E nac t ing s t one t oo l m ak ing i n as he l te ra tB h imbe tka 1 974

Xlb .I IF -13 T h i s s he l te r i sl o ca ted o n t h e m a in B h imbe tka h i l l a bou t 1 00 m t o t h e s ou thea s t o f I IF -23 . I th as a f l oo r a r ea o f a bou t 5 00 s q . m , a nd a h ab i ta t ion

R ad ioca rbon d a te s f o r U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic o ccupa t ion a tB h imbe tka r ange f r om c .

9

1 7 ,000 BP t o c .2 000 BP ( unca l ib ra ted ) . B es ides , c ave o ccupa t ion s t h e re a r e a l so a n umbe r o f r i ch o pen a i r P a laeo l i th ic s i tes a t a nd a round B h imbe tka .

r i gh tu pt ot h e mou th o fs ome o ft h e m a in c aves b y o ne 's o wn t r an spo r t . X I I I . Aus tra l ia a nd I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is tory A s soc ia t ion ( IPPA ) I n 1 969 J a ck G o lson o f t h e A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty ( ANU ) , C anber ra , w h i le o n h i s w ay t o U .K . , m ade a b r ief v i s i t t o P une , a nd d i scu ssed w i th H .D . S anka l ia a nd VNM t h e q ues t ion o f p o s s ib le r e la t ion sh ip b e tween A u s t ra l ian a nd I nd ian m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies a nd b e tween t h e Au s t ra l ian d ingo a nd I nd ian p ar iah d og . N ex t y ea r G o lson i n v i ted VNM t op resen t ap aper o n I nd ian I n ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies a tt h e e i gh th m ee t ing o ft h e F a r E a s tern P r eh is tory A ssoc ia t ion ( FEPA ) , w h ich w a s t ob e h e ld i nJ anua ry , 1 971 a t ANU , u nde rt h e a u sp ices o f t h e 2 8t h I n terna t iona l C ong res s o f O r ien ta l is t s . VNM a nd s eve ra l o the r I nd ian a r chaeo log is t s l i ke B .B . L a ! , A .K . N a ra in , D .P . Ag rawa l a nd A .K . Ghosh p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e m ee t ing . A tt h is m ee t ing i tw a s s ugges ted b y W .G . S o lhe im , P res iden to fF EPA a nd o t he rs cho la r st h a t S ou th A s ian a r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld a c t ive ly p ar t ic ipa te i n F EPA a c t iv i t ies , a nd t o e xp res s t h i s e n la rged g eog raph ica l s cope o ft h e A s soc ia t ion t h e n am e o fF EPA s hou ld b e c hanged t o I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is tory A s soc ia t ion ( I PPA ) . T he i d ea w a s f u r the r d i scu ssed d u r ing an ea r ly t wo -week t ou r o f A u s t ra l ian a r chaeo log ica l s i te s t h a t c ove red t h e s t a tes o f V ic to r ia , S ou ther n Au s t r a l ia , N ew S ou th Wa les , Wes ter n Au s t ra l ia a nd T asman ia . T he n ew n ame a nd c on s t i tu t ion w e re f o rma l ly a pp roved a t t h e n i n th m ee t ing o fF EPA wh ich w as h e ld u nde r t h e a u sp ices o f t h e n in th C ong ress o f t h e I n ter n a t iona l Un ion o fP reh is tor ic a nd P ro toh is to r ic S c ience s a t N ice . A t t h is m ee t ing VNM w a s e l ec ted a s am embe r o f t h e I PPA e xecu t ive . H e o f f e red t o h os t t h e f i r s t c onf e rence o f I PPA a t D eccan C o l lege , P une i nD ecembe r 1 978 a s ap a r t o f , a nd i mmed ia te ly a f te r , t h e I X th C onf e rence o f t h e I n terna t iona l Un ion o f An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences wh ich w a s s chedu led t ob e h e ld a tN ew D e lh i i nt h e s ame mon th . VNM w a s V ice -P res iden t o f I PPA d u r ing 1 981-84 a nd P re s iden td u r ing 1 985 -88 .

I n a dd i t ion t o i t s s t one a ge h ab i ta t ion d epos i t s , B h imbe tka i sk nown f o r i t s r i ch w ea l th o fa nc ien t p a in t ing s , wh ich h a s m ade i t a m a jo r t ou r is t a t t rac t ion . T he p a in t ing s a r e f ound o nt h ew a l ls a nd c e i l ings a nd i nt h e n i ches o ft h e s he l te r s . T hey a r e m ade mos t ly i n r ed a nd wh i te p igmen t s a nd o ccas iona l ly a l so i ny e l low a nd g r een . A l though a n umbe r o f c h rono log ica l s t ages h ave b een r e cogn ized b y d i f f e ren t i n ve s t iga to r s , b road ly t h e p a in t ing s c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo s t ages : P r eh is tor ic a nd H is to r ic . T he p a in t ing s o ft h e f i r s t s t age a r e d om ina ted b y w i ld a n ima ls a nd h un t ing s c enes . L es s f r equen t ly s c enes o f f i sh ing , p l an t f ood c o l lec t ing , h oney c o l lec t ing , a nd c e remon ia l a nd r e l ig iou s s ub jec t s a r e a l so s hown . T hese p a in t ings a r e r ema rkab ly n a tu ra l is t ic a nd a r e m a rked b y v i ta l i ty a nd v i gou r . P a in t ing s o f t h e l a te r p er iod a r e o f as t y l ized n a tu re a nd ma in ly d ep ic t p roce ss ion s w i th m en r i d ing c apa r isoned h o r ses a nd e l ephan t s , a nd b a t t le s c enes i n wh ich w a r r io r s f i gh t w i th s pea r s , s wo rd s , s h ie ld s , a nd b ow s a nd a r row s . H aema t i te n odu les w e re g round t o p roduce p igmen t f o r m ak ing p a in t ing s . T he p r esence o f s uch n odu les w i th g round f a ce t s i n h ab i ta t ion d epos i t s o n t h e f l oo r s o f t h e s he l te r s p rov ides c l ea r p roof t h a t t h e p a in t ings w e re made b yt h ep eop le w ho d we l ti nt h e s he l te r s .

_ — A r c h a e o l o gi s te xam in ing s t one t oo ls a tB h imbe tka ( V .N .

M is ra i n t h e c en t r e ) . T hey a r e c ove red w i th c l o th a s ap ro tec t ion a ga ins tt h e m enace o fh oney b ees 1 976

Du r ing h i s s t ay a t C anber ra a nd t h e l o ng a r chaeo log ica l t ou r o f Au s t ra l ia VN M h ad a n o ppor tun i ty t o m ee t a nd make f r iends w i th m any a r chaeo log is ts f r om a l a rge n umber o f c oun t r ies , p ar t icu la r ly Au s t ra l ia . No tab le among t h em w e r e D .J . Mu lvaney , J a ck G o lson , I s abe l McBryde , R hy s J ones , B e t ty Meehan , C o l in G roves , a nd

E ven tua l ly , a s t h e f ame o f B h imbe tka g r ew , a nd t ou r is t t r aff i c i n c rea sed , t h e Madhya P rade sh g ove rnmen tb u i l t am e ta l led r o ad f r om t h e h ighway t ot h e s i te ( s evera l y ea r s a f te rt h e e xcava t ion s w e re o ve r ) a nd o ne c an n ow c omf or tab ly r e ach t h e s i te

1 0

P e t e rB e l lwood f r om Au s t ra l ia , a nd W .G . S o lhe im f r om t h e USA

y ounge r c o l league s p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e f i e ld w o rk . I n 1 980 t h e t e am w a s j o ined b y G u rd ip S ingh , w e l l -known p a lyno log i s t , a nd R .J . Wa s son , g eomo rpho log i s t , b o th o f ANU , C anbe r ra f o r p a r t ic ipa t ion i nf i e ld w o rk . Wa s son 's m a in i n te r e s t w a s i nt h e s t udy o ft h e mo rpho logy a nd f o rma t ion p roce sse s o f t h e s and d une s , a nd h e w a s v e ry h appy t ov i s i ta nd s t udy t h ed une f i e ld so ft h eT ha r . Ms . C la i r e G a i l la rd , ap r eh i s to r ian f r om t h e I n s t i tu t d e P a leon to log ie Huma in e a tP a r is ,t o ok a c t ive p a r t i n t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e A cheu l ian s i te o f S ing i T a lav a tD idwana .

X IV . L everhu lme V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip a nd Au s tra l ia a ga in I n 1 975 D .J . Mu lvaney w a s i n s t rum en ta l i n VNM b e ing o f f e red t h e L eve rhu lm e V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip a t t h e ANU , w h ich h e a va i led d u r ing J u ly D ecembe r 1 977 . T he f e l low sh ip g ave VNM a n o ppo r tun i ty t o e xam ine r i ch s t one t o o l a nd e t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion si nm any mu seum s i nN ew S ou th Wa le s , S ou th Au s t ra l ia , a nd We s te rn A u s t r a l ia ; v i s i t an umbe r o f a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s , i n c lud ing as e cond v i s i t t oL ak e Mungo a nd o t he r s i te s i nt h e W i l land ra L ake s y s tem , p a r t ic ipa te i n s eve ra l c onf e r ence s , i n c lud ing o ne o n t h e c on serva t ion o fr o ck a r t a tP er th , a nd v i s i t al a rge n umbe r o f r o ck a r t s i te s i n We s ter n Au s t r a l ia a s p a r t o f at ou r w h ich f o l lowed t h e c onf e r en ce . O n t h i s t o u r t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i n c luded a n a bo r ig ina l a r t i s t ,w ho k new t h e my tho logy b eh ind t h er o ck a r t v e ry w e l l , a nd a c ted a s av e ry i n f o rm a t ive g u ide . VNM a l so g ave l e c tu r e s o n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry , i n c lud ing r ock a r t , a tC anbe r r aa nd o t h e rp l a ce s . H e a l so t o ok a dvan tage o f t h e v i s i t t o d i scu s s t h e p l ann ing o f t h e I PPA s ympo s ium t o b e h e ld a t P une i n 1 978 , w i th a n umbe r o f a r chaeo log i s t s , i n c lud ing J ack G o l son , J ohn Mu lvaney , R hy s J on e s ,a nd I s abe l McB ryde .

T h e t e am c a r r ied o u t e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion o ve r a l a rge p a r t o f t h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id z one i n t h e d i s t r ic t s o f S i roh i , J a lo r e , P a l i , A jm e r , J odhpu r , N agau r , B a rme r , J a i sa lm e r , a nd B ikane r , a nd s t ud ied t h e mo rpho logy o f s and d unes , e xam ined c o l luv ia l a nd a l luv ia l d epo s i t s , a nd l o ca ted a n umbe r o fP a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s . Mo s t o f t h e i r i n ten s ive w o rk w a s c oncen t ra t ed a r ound t h e D idwana t own i nN agau rd i s t r ic t . E xcep t i nt h e v i c in i ty o f A rava l l i h i l l s , t h e e n t i r e r eg ion t o t h e w e s t o ft h e se h i l ls i sc ove red b y s and s hee t s a nd s and d une s , t h e i r s i ze s t ead i ly i n c r ea s ing a s o ne p roceed s a way f r om t h e h i l l s t owa rd s t h e w e s t a nd n or th . I nh i s e a r l ie r e xp lo ra t ion s VNM h ad l o ok ed f o r a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l i n r i v e r b ed s a nd s e c t ion s , a nd o nr ock o u tc rop s . T h i st im eh el o oked f o ri ti nc o l luv ia l d epo s i t s a nd o n s and d une s a way f r om r i ve r s . A n ew a nd i mpo r tan t f i e ld o f P a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch w a s o pened w hen B ima l G hose , a g eomo rpho log i s t a t CAZR I , s howed VNM a nd R a jagu ru s om e s t one t oo l sw h ich h e h ad f ound n ea rJ aya li nN agau rd i s t r ic t . When R a jagu ru a nd VNM v i s i ted t h e p l ace , t h ey w e r e s u rp r i sed t o f i nd a n e x ten s ive a nd u nu sua l ly t h ick d epo s i t o f h eav i ly r o l led b ou lde r s a nd p ebb le s i n a n a r ea wh ich w a s s eve ra l h und red km a way f r om a ny r i ve r t h a t c ou ld h ave f o rm ed i t . S ub sequen t e xp lo ra t ion l e d t o t h e d i scove ry o f m any P a laeo l i th ic s i te s o nt h i sg rave lr i dge b e tween J aya l a nd D idwana .

XV .B ack t oR a ja s than I n 1 977 , m a in ly b ecau se o f t h e i n s i s tence o f h i s c l o se f r iend , D .P . A ga rwa l o f P hy s ica l R e sea rch L abo ra to ry ( PRL ) , A hm edabad , VNM , a l ong w i th h i s g eo log i s t c o l league , S .N . R a jagu ru , r e sum ed r e s ea r ch i n R a ja s than , t h i s t im e m a in ly t o u nde r s tand t h e e vo lu t ion o ft h e e nv i ronm en t o ft h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id r e g ion ,k nown a sT ha rd e se r t , o n t h ew e s ter ns i d e o ft h eA rava l l is . T hey e n l i s ted t h e c oope r a t ion o fR .P . D h i r , aw e l l k nown p edo log i s t o f t h e C en t ra l A r id Z one R e sea rch I n s t i tu te ( CAZR I ) o fJ odhpu r . T h i s p ro jec t l a s ted f o r e i gh t y ea r s . E ve ry y ea r VNM a nd R a jaguru , a l ong w i th s om e o f t h e o t he r m embe r s o ft h e r e sea rch t e am l i k e P .K . T hom a s , D .R . R a ju , S .C . N anda , Makkhan L a l , a nd H ema R aghavan , w ou ld t r ave l b y r o ad t oJ odhpu r , s t opp ing o n t h e w ay f o r ad ay o r t wo a t PRL f o r d i scu ss ion s w i th D .P . A g rawa l a nd h i s c o l league s , a nd c amp ing f o r af ew d ay s a t CAZR I f o r d i scu s s ion s w i th R .P . D h i r a nd h i s c o l league s . I n t h e i n i t ia l y ea r s o f t h e p ro jec t VNM 's t e am a l so h ad c o l labo ra t ion w i th t h eJ a ipu r b r anch o f t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ( GS I ) w ho se D i r ec to r , S ub ro to S inha a nd an umbe ro fh i s

Wes ter n R a ja s than h a s al a rge n umbe r o f l a k es w h ich a r e d ry t oday b u t w e r e c a r ry ing f r e sh w a te r i nt h e p a s t . I nt h e 1 960 s G u rd ip S ingh h ad s t ud ied t h e s ed im en t s o f t h r ee o f t h e se l a k e s , n am e ly S ambha r , D idwana , a nd L unka ran sa r , a nd f ound t h a tb e low t h e s u rf ace t h ey c on ta ined ad a rk b l ack , f i ne ly l am ina ted c l ay d epo s i t w h ich w a s r i ch i n p o l len g ra in s . F rom t h e s t udy o fp o l len h e d educed t h a t i n t h e p a s t t h e r e g ion o ft h e l a k es e n joyed a much h igh e rr a inf a l l w h en t h e p o l len r i ch c l ay w a s

1

d epo s i ted . S ub sequ en t ly , t h e c l ima te b ecame d ry a nd s andy d epo s i tw a sf o rm ed o ve rt h ec l ay s .

e a s ter n a nd n o r ther n e dge s o f t h e q ua r ry . Two c u l tu r a l h o r izon s w e r e r e cogn ized : o ne b e tween s u r f ace a nd 1 5 c m , a nd t h e o t h e r b e tween 1 5 c m a nd 1 . 20 m . T h e a s semb lage o fH o r izon 1 ,m a rk ed b y s ma l l f l ak e s a nd f l ak e t o o ls , i s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic wh i le t h a t o fH o r izon 2 ,c ha rac te r ized b y h andaxes , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s a nd p o lyhed ron s , r e p r e sen t s a n e a r ly s t age o f t h e A cheu l ian . C oncen t ra t ion o f a r tef ac t s b e tween 4 0 c ma nd 8 0 c md ep th f r om t h e s u rf ace a nd p r e sence o f ah a rd c a lc r e te l a ye r b e low 8 0 cm s ugge s t s o ccupa t ion o n ad ry l a nd s u rf ace a l ong s ide aw a te r c ou r se .

I n 1 980 d u r ing av i s i tt oD idwana l a k e w i th S ingh , Wa s son a nd R a jaguru VNM n o t iced aq ua r ry i na d ep re s s ion k nown a s S ing i T a lav w h ich i s s e pa ra ted f r om t h e l a ke b y al a rge d une . O n e xam ina t ion h e f ound A cheu l ian t oo l si ne x t r em e ly f r e sh c ond i t ion l y ing o n t h e s u rf ace o ft h e q ua r ry a nd e xpo sed i n t h e c l if f s . F u r the r e xp lo ra t ion s i n t h e r e g ion l e d t o t h e d i scove ry o f m any q ua r r ie s w h ich y i e ld ed A cheu l ian a s w e l l a s M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s . T he d epo s i t o f t h e q ua r r ie s c on s i s t s o f ac a lca reou s l o am wh ich i s q ua r r ied b y t h e P ub l ic Wo rk s D epa r tm en t f o r s p r ead ing a l ong r o ad s i de s , a nd b y t h e v i l lage p eop le f o rm ak ing l im eb yb u rn ing i t ,a sw e l l a sf o r m ak ing h ou se f l oo r s , a nd a s mo r ta r f o r j o in ing s t one s i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f h ou ses a nd o t he r s t ruc tu re s . M ic ro l i th s w e r e f ound o nt h e s u rf ace o f v i r tua l ly e ve ry d une i nt h ed e ser t .

F iv e q ua r tz c r y s ta l s , s how ing s om e d e l ibe ra te m od if i ca t ion , f ound i nt h i s d epo s i t , w e r e p robab ly b rough t t o t h e s i te b y m an f o r t h e i r c u r io s i ty o r a e s the t ic v a lue . T h e r e su l t s o ft h e se d i g s a nd c o l lec t ion s f r om t h e q ua r ry s e c t ion s s howed t h a t s t one a r tef ac t s i nt h e l o am o ccu r o n ly i n l o ca l iz ed c l u s te r s . T h i s c l u s ter ing c an o n ly b e d ue t oh um an a c t iv i ty , a nd n o t t o n a tu ra l a genc ies ; t h e l a t te r w ou ld h ave p roduced a r a ndom d i s t r ibu t ion . Mo s t o f t h e a r tef ac t s a r e r ema rkab ly f r e sh , c l ea r ly s how ing t h a t t h ey w e re m anuf ac tu r ed , u sed a nd d i sca rd ed a tt h e e dg e o f al a ke , p oo l o r s ha l low s t r eam c hanne l , a l ong w h ich A cheu l ian g roup s c amped , a nd g o t i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e f i ne -g ra ined s ed im en t s w hen w a te r l e ve l r o se d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son . T hey a r e m ade o f c oa r se t o m ed ium -g r a ined q uar tz i te a nd v e in q ua r tz wh ich w e r e q ua r r ied f r om t h e s eve r a l h i l l s i n t h e a r ea a nd o cca s iona l ly o b ta ined a s p ebb le s f r om a n e xposu r e o ft h e J aya l g r ave l r i dge o ra na nc ien t s t r eam b ed e xpo sed a tt h a tt im e .

I n a dd i t ion t o t h e e xp lo ra t ion s , t h e t e am a l so c a r r ied o u t e xcava t ion s a t J aya l , C hha jo l i , S ing i T a lav , I ndo la -k i -Dhan i , B anga r C ana l a nd i n D idwana l a k e . T hese a r eb r ie f ly d e sc r ibed b e low . XVa .J aya l T he s i te i sl o ca ted a bou tt wo km t ot h e s ou th o ft h e t own o fJ aya l ( 27 ° 1 3 ' N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) . F ou r 1m s q . t r enche s w e r e d ug o n t h e t op a nd s l ope s o f t h e g r ave l r i dge . L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s c omp r i s ing c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s , s c rape r s , h andaxe s , f l ak es a nd c o r e s ,m ade o fq ua r tz i te , w e r e f ound i n4 0 c m t h ick g r ave l d epo s i t 6 0 cm b e low t h e s u rf ace . T he a b sence o fc l eave r s a nd L eva l lo i s f l ak es s ugge s t s t h e a s semb lage t o b e e a r ly A cheu l ian .

A r tef ac tua l m a te r ia l f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a nd f r om t h e d eb r i s o f s eve ra l t a nk s d ug i n t h e Am a rpu ra l o am s how s t wo t e chno log ica l s t age s i n t h e A cheu l ian i ndu s t ry : a n e a r l ie r o ne c on s i s t ing m a in ly o f c o r e t o o l s c ompr i s ing c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t oo l s , s phe ro id s , p o lyhed ron s , h andaxe s , c l eave r s , s i de s c rape r s , f l ake s a nd c o r e s , a nd a b sence o f L eva l lo is t e chn iqu e ; a nd a l a te r a nd m o r e d eve loped o ne , c ha rac te r ized b y s ma l le r , t h inne r a nd mo r e s ymm e t r ica l h andaxe s , al a rge r p ropo r t ion o f f l ake s a nd f l ak e t o o ls , o cca s iona l c l eave r s , a nd t h e u se o fs of th amm e r a nd L eva l lo i s t e chn ique so ff l ak ing .

XVb .C hha jo l i T h ree s ma l l t r enche s w e r e d ug o n t h e g r ave l r i dge n ea r C hha jo l i v i l lage , t wo km s ou thwe s t o f t h e J aya l t r enche s . L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s s im i la r t ot h o se o fJ aya l w e r e f ound i nt h e g r ave l a t1 . 10 1 . 30 m , 1 . 50 -1 .80m , a nd 1 . 90 -2 .30 m d ep th sb e low t h es u rf ace . XVc . S ing i T a lav S ing iT a lav i s al a rge s ha l low d ep r es s ion a bou tt wo km w es t o fD idwana t own . T he re i s al a rge l o am q ua r ry a tt h e s ou thea s t er n e dge o ft h e d ep re s s ion . I n t h e s e c t ion s o f t h e q ua r ry a s w e l l o n i t s f l oo r m any f r e sh A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s c an b e s e en . F ou r t r enche s o f 4x4m w e r e d ug i n t h e l o am a tt h e

XVd . I ndo la -k i -Dhan i A t I ndo la -k i -Dhan i , o ne km w e s t o f S ing i T a lav , d i gg ing w a s d one i nt h e l o am d epo s i t t o ad ep th o f

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5 . 15 m , a nd i tw a s d i v i s ib le i n to s i x l a ye r s . S tone a r t ef ac t s o ccu r r ed i n a l t h e l a ye r s b u t ap a r t o f l a ye r s 4a nd 5 ( 3 .85 -4 .45 m ) w a s s t e r i le . T h r ee a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon s w e r e r e cogn ized . H o r izon 3( 4 .46 — 5 . 05 m )y i e lded av e ry s ma l la nd a t yp ica l a s semb lage . H o r izon 2 ( 1 .86 — 3 . 85 m ) y i e lded a l a rge r c o l lec t ion , c omp r i s ing p o in t s , s c rape r s , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s ,p o lyhed ron s , k n ives , a nd h andaxes . T he h ighe rp ropo r t ion o ff l ake t o o l s a nd s m a l le r s i ze o f t oo l s i n c ompa r i son t o t ho se o f S ing i T a lav s ugge s t s t h i s a s semb lage t o b e l a te A cheu l ian i nc ha rac te r .

t h e se s t ud ies t h ey r e con s t ruc ted t h ec l im a t ic h i s to ry o ft h el a ke o ve rt h el a s t 1 5 ,000 y ea r s . O n t h e b a s i s o ft h e s t ra t ig raph ic o bserva t ion s a nd f i nd s o fs t one t o o l s f r om e xp lo ra t ion s o ft h e J aya l g rave l r i dge , l o am q ua r r ies a t S ing i T a lav , Ama rpu ra a nd m any o t he rp l ace s , a sa l so i nw e l l s , a nd o nd une s u rf ace s a nd r a i l r o ad c u t t ing st h rough d une s a tn um e rou s p l aces , w e l l s a nd t r enche s i n s a l ine p l aya s , e xcava t ion s m en t ioned a bove , a nd t wo s pec ia l ly d ug w e l l s i n t h e D idwana l a k e , R a jagu ru a nd VNM i d en t if ied t h ree Q ua te rna ry g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s , n am e ly J aya l , Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana , t h e l a s t c on s is t ing o ft wo u n i t s —a n e a r l ie r a eo l ian a nd al a te r l a cu s t r ine . T he c l ima t ic , h yd ro log ica l , l a ndf o rm a nd c u l tu ra l h i s to ry r evea led b y t h e se f o rma t ion s c an b e b r ief ly s umma r ized a sf o l low s .

XVe .B angar C ana l( 16 R ) T he mo s t i mpo r tan t g eo log ica l d epo s i t f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e c l ima t ic h i s to ry o f t h e T ha r i s s and d unes , w h ich a r eb road ly o ft wo t y pe s : a c t ive o ne s , wh ich a r e s t i l l b e ing f o rm ed , a nd f o s s i l o r b u r ied o ne s , wh ich w e r e f o rm ed i nt h e p a s t , a nd a r e n ow s t ab le a nd c ove r ed b y v ege ta t ion . T he d une s w e r e f o rm ed w hen t h e c l ima te w a s d ry a nd t h e w ind a c t iv i ty s t rong , a nd t h ey w e r e s t ab i l ized w hen t h e c l ima te w a s c ompa ra t ive ly h um id a nd w ind a c t iv i ty l ow . T he h i s to ry o f s and d une f o rma t ion c an b e u nde r s tood o n ly b y d igg ing t h rough t h e s and . B u t s and , b e ing al o o se d epo s i t , i sp rone t oc o l lap s ing d u r ing d i gg ing . F or tuna te ly , VNM a nd R a jagu ru f ound a d une i n w h ich t h e s and w a s q u i te c ompac t a nd h a rd . D u r ing t h e f am ine o f 1 940 -4 1 t h e B anga r f am i ly o fD idwana h ad d ug a c ana l t h rough t h e d une s t o b r ing m on soon w a te r t o at a nk a tD idwana . T he c ana l a nd i t s b ank s a r e s t i l l w e l l p r e se rved . VNM a nd R a jagu ru e xcava ted a n ea r ly 2 0 m d eep s t epped t r ench t h rough t h e d une a bou t t wo km w es t o f S ing iT a lay . T he e xcava ted p rof i le r e vea led s eve ra l a l te rna t ing h o r izon s o fl o o se a nd h igh ly c ompac ted s and , wh ich r e p r e sen ted p ha se s o fa r id a nd h um id c l ima te , r e spec t ive ly . T h ep rof i le a l so y i e lded s t one a s semb lage s o f L owe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s . I th a s b een d a ted b y D .P . A g r awa l a nd A .K . S inghv i o f PRL t h rough r a d ioca rbon , T L a nd U r an ium /Tho r ium d ecay s e r ies t e chn ique s f r om a bou t 4 00 ,000 B P t o c . 6 , 000 B P . T he 1 6 R e xcava t ion h a s m ade a n u nu sua l ly i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion t o o u r u nde r s tand ing t h e c l im a t ic a nd c u l tu ra l h i s to ry o f t h eT ha rd e ser t .

2 0 md eep t r ench i nt h es and d une a t1 6R , D idwana 1 982

D u r ing t h eN eogene a nd e a r ly Q ua ter n a ry t h e T ha r r eg ion h ad a n i n teg ra ted a nd p owe rf u l d r a inage s y s tem wh ich d epos i ted t h e e x ten s ive a nd t h ick g r ave l b ed s o ft h e J aya l F o rma t ion . S ub sequen t ly t h i s f o rma t ion w a s t e c ton ica l ly u p l if t ed , a nd i t a s sum ed i t s p r e sen t f o rm o f r o l l ing t opog raphy t h rough e r o s ion . N eogene t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty i s b e l iev ed t oh ave d i srup ted t h e i n teg ra ted d r a inage s y s tem , a nd r e p laced i tw i th l ow e ne rgy , s ha l low

VNM a nd h i s t e am d ug t wo w e l l s i nt h e D idwana s a l t l a k e t o c o l lec t s amp le s f o r p a lyno log ica l a nd g eochem ica l s t ud ie s w h ich w e r e c a r r ied o u t b y G u rd ip S ingh a nd R .J . Wa s son , r e spec t ive ly . F rom

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s t r eam s f l ow ing t h rough w ide f l ood p l a in s d o t ted w i th n um e rou s l a ke s a nd p l aya s . I n t h e se w a te r b od ies c a lca r eou s l o am o ft h e Am a rpu ra f o rma t ion w a s d epo s i ted e x ten s ive ly . S t rong a eo l ian a c t iv i ty l e d t o t h e f o rma t ion o f i r r egu la r l i nea r a nd l o ng i tud ina l d un es o nt h e d ef unc t f l ood p l a in s . T he d unes f a vou r ed t h e f o rma t ion o f p an s i n w h ich m a r ls a nd c a lca r eou s c l ay s w e r e d epo s i ted . T he c l ima te d u r ing t h i sp e r iod w a se s sen t ia l ly s em i -a r id b u t i t w a s i n te r rup ted b y s eve ra l e p i sode s o f i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l w h ich l e d t ot h e s t ab i l iza t ion o f d une s .

t o a m e l io ra te f r om a r ound 1 5 ,000 B P , a nd t h e r e w a s ap a r t icu la r ly s i gn if i can t i n c r ea se i n r a inf a l l b e tween 6 , 000 a nd 4 , 000 B P w h en l a k es w e r e f u l l w i th f r e sh w a te r . P l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou r ce s i n c r ea sed i n r e spon se t o e nhan ced r a inf a l l , a nd m o r e f ood r e sou r ce s l e d t o af a s t g row th i nh um an p opu la t ion . T h i s i sc l ea r ly r ef lec ted i n t h e l a rge n umbe r o f m ic ro l i th ic s i t es a l o ve r t h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id z one . I nf a c t , i fo ne c l imb s ad une a lmo s t a nywhe re i nt h e d e se r t a nd s e a r ch es c a r ef u l ly , o n e i ss u r e t of i nd af ew m ic ro l i th s a nd b roken a n ima l b one p i ece s .

S t one a ge h uman g roups f r om t h e E a r ly A cheu l ian s t age o nwa rd s c amped o n t h e s u rf ace o ft h e J aya l g r ave l r i dge a nd e xp lo i ted t h e a bundan t s upp ly o f q ua r tz i te f o r m ak ing t h e i rt o o l s . T hey a l so c amped a l ong t h e s ha l low s t r eam s , l a k es a nd p oo ls i nt h e f l ood p l a in s , o n l ow h i l l s , a nd o n s t ab le d une s u rf aces . T he a r tef ac t s f r om c amp s o n h i l l t o p s a nd s l opes w e r e w a shed d own b y r a inwa te r a nd g o t i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e c o l luv ium a t t h e f oo t o f t h e h i l l s . T ho se f r om c amp s a l ong s t r eam s , l a k es a nd p oo l s w e re i n co rpo r a ted i nt h e m a r l s o rc a lca r eou s c l ayey d epo s i t s f o rm ed i nt h e se w a te r b od ie s , a nd t h o se o fc amp s o n d une s u rf ace s g o t b u r ied u nde r f r e sh d epo s i t ion o fs and . I n a l t h e se l o ca t ion s t h e a r tef ac t sh ave b een p re se rved i n ar ema rkab ly f r e sh c ond i t ion .

D u r ing t h i s l o ng f i e ld w o rk VNM h ad m any m emo rab le e xpe r ience s . H e f ond ly r em embe r s t h e a cadem ic h e lp a nd v a luab le s ugge s t ion s g i ven t o h im a nd h i s c o l league s a nd h o sp i ta l i ty e x tended t o t h em b yD r s . H .S . Mann a nd K .A . S hankar n a rayan , s u cce s s ive d i rec to r s o f CAZR I , a nd t h e i r c o l leagu es l i ke B ima l G ho se , S en , a nd Ama l K a r . H e i sp a r t icu la r ly g r a tef u l t ot h e w a rm h o sp i ta l i ty o f P rof D .P . A g rawa l a t PRL a nd o f p rof e s so r s R .P . D h i r a nd I s hwa r P raka sh a t CAZR I . H e a l so m e t a n umbe r o f n omad ic h un t ing -ga the r ing , e n t er ta in ing , d rug -d i spen s ing , a nd o t he r g roup s , a nd l e ar n t al o t a bou t t h e n ob le p eop le a nd t h e r i ch c u l tu r eo fR a ja s than . A n umbe r o f I nd ian a nd f o r e ign a r chaeo log i s t s v i s i ted D idwana a nd s aw t h e e xcava t ion s a tS ing i T a lav a nd B anga r c ana l . Among t h e l a t te r w e r e D e smond C la rk , J ohan K amm inga , Ma r t in J on e s , a nd I .M . C rawf o rd , t h e l a s t t h ree f r om t h e u n ive r s i t ie s o f ANU , L a T robe , a nd We s ter n A u s t ra l ia .

S tone a ge s i tes o fd i f f e r en t s t ages h ave b een f ound w ide ly i n t h e d e se r t , a s f a r w e s t a s B anne r a nd J a i sa lm e r , a nd Me so l i th ic s i t e s h ave b een f ound e ven i nt h eB ikane rd i s t r ic t . D u r ing t h eU ppe rP l e i s tocene c l ima te b ecame m o r e d ry b u t t h e re w e r e p e r iod s o f i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l d u r ing t h e l o ng d ry p e r iod . T he se a l te rna t ing d ry a nd w e tp ha se sa r er e p r esen ted i nt h e f o rm o fl o o se a nd c ompac t s and h o r izon s i n t h e B anga r c ana l p rof i le . S t r eam s k ep t s h if t ing t owa rd s t h e w e s t . A n umbe ro fp a laeochanne ls o fv a ry ing s i ze s e x i s t ing i nt h en o r thwe s ter np a r to ft h e d e ser tt e s t if yt ot h is . VNM a nd R a jagu ru h ave l o ca ted a t l e a s t t h r ee e x t r em e ly w ide c hanne ls b e tween J a i sa lme r a nd R amga rh , 10 km n o r th o f J a i sa lm e r . A long t h e n o r ther nb ank o ft wo o ft h ese c hanne ls M idd le to U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s w e r e f ound n ea r S anu a nd Moka lv i l lage s .

XV I . L ucknow a ga in , a nd F u lbr igh tF e l low sh ip I n 1 983 VNM w a s o f f e r ed ap rof e s so r sh ip i nt h e D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy a t L ucknow U n ive r s i ty , a nd h e j o ined i ti n S ep tembe r o f t h e s am e y ea r . H oweve r , h e f ound t h e r e sea r ch f a c i l i t ie s i n adequa te a nd t h e a cadem ic a tmo sph e r e n o t v e ry c onduc ive , a nd c am e b ack t o P une i n A ugu s tn ex ty ea r . I n t h e s am e y ea r h e w a s s e lec ted f o r aS en io r F u lb r igh t F e l low sh ip , a nd h e a va i led i t d u r ing J anua ry - May 1 984 a t t h e D epa r tm en t o f A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f C a l if or n ia ( UC ) , B e rk e ley . D u r ing h i s v i s i t h e c o l lec ted m a ter ia l o n S ou th A s ian a r chaeo logy f r om l i b ra ry s ou r ce s , a nd g ave l e c tu r e s o n S ou th A s ian a r chaeo logy a t s e ve ra l u n ive r s i t ie s , i n c lud ing UC , B e rke ley , P enn sy lvan ia ( Ph i lade lph ia ) , V i rg in ia

G eoch em ica l a nd p a lyno log ica l d a ta f r om t h e D idwana a nd o t he r s a l t l a k e s , a nd w ea the r ed h o r izon s o f t h e y ounge s t d une s , i n c on junc t ion w i th C -14 a nd T L d a te s , s how t h a t c l ima te b egan

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Ab i gge r e xcava t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t a tS amnapu r . T he s i te i sl o ca ted o n t h e t o pmo s t t e r r ace o f t h e N a rm ada wh e r e i ta bu t s ac he r ty q ua r tz i te o u tc rop o ft h eV indhyan h i l l s . T he a r tef ac t s , wh ich o ccu ri n a5 0 -70 cm t h ick r ubb le d epo s i t b u r ied u nde r s i l t , h ave b een e xpo sed b y e r o s ion b y r a in w a te r . T hey a r e r em a rkab ly f r esh a nd a r e c l ea r ly i n ap r ima ry c on tex t . T he a s semb lage c on s i s t s m a in ly o ff l ak es a nd av a r ie ty o fs c rape r s , k n ive s a nd d en t icu la tes . T h e p r e sence o f m any c o r e s a nd f l ak ing d eb r i s s how s t h a t t h e t o o ls w e r e m anuf ac tu r ed a tt h e s i te , a nd g o t b u r ied u nde r s i l t d u r ing a n a gg rada t iona l p ha se o f t h e N a rm ada . T he a bsen ce o f b i f aces , w h ich o ccu r i n ad epo s i t s eve r a l m e t r e s b e low t h e r ubb le , a s w e l l a s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic t oo l s c l ea r ly s how s t h e a s semb lage t o b e o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a ge . T he s t one a ge p eop le a ppea rt oh ave c ho sen t h e l o ca t ion f o rt h e i r c amp ing b ecau se i tw a s w e l l a bove t h e n o rma l f l ood l e ve l o f t h e N a rmada , w a s c l o se t o r i ch s ou rce o f r aw m a te r ia l i n t h e c he r ty q ua r tz i te o u tc rop , a nd h ad e a sy a cce s s t o t h e a n im a l a nd p l an t f ood r e sou r ces o f t h e p l a teau a nd t h e f l ood p l a in . S amnapu r i so ne o ft h e f ew p r im a ry c on tex t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te si nI nd ia .

( Cha r lo t te sv i l le ) , S an ta C ruz , W i scon s in ( M i lwauk ee ) , C o rn e l l ( I thaca ) , a nd O r egon ( Eugene ) . T he s t ay a t B e rk e ley g ave VNM a n o ppo r tun i ty t o h ave p l en ty o f i n te r ac t ion w i th em inen t s cho la r s l i k e J .D . C la rk , D ona ld J ohan son ( of L ucy f am e ) , T im Wh i te , G eo rge D a les a nd s eve ra lo t he r s . XV I I .N armada V a l ley N a rm ada v a l ley , p a r t icu la r ly i t s c en t ra l p a r t b e tween N a r s inghpu r a nd H o shangabad , h a s p r eserved t h ick a l luv ia l d epo s i t s o f M idd le P l e i s tocene t o H o locene . T hey a r e e x t rem e ly r i ch i n a n im a l , p a r t icu la r ly , m amma l ian f o s s i l s , a nd P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic a r tef ac t s . An umbe r o f p a laeon to log i s t s , g eo log is t s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s h ave i n ves t iga ted t h e se d epo s i t s f r om 1 830 s o nwa rd s . A l though al o t o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l h a s b een c o l lec ted , f ew p r ima ry s i t e s h ave b een f ound . A s r ega rd s h uman p hy s ica l r ema in s , t h ey a r e r e p r esen ted b y as i ng le i n comp le te c r an ium f ound b y A run S onak ia a t H a thno r a n ea r H oshangabad . Du r ing t h e m id 1 960 s VNM h ad p a r t ic ipa ted i n f i e ld w o rk i nt h e N a rmada v a l ley i n ap ro jec t l e d b y H .D . S anka l ia , a nd h e w a s f am i l ia r w i th t h e k nown g eo log ica la nd a r chaeo log ica l h i s to ry o ft h e v a l ley . I n 1 986 ,h e , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd G .L . B adam d ec ided t o c a r ry o u t f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion s i n t h e v a l ley . O the rp a r t ic ipan t s i nt h e p ro jec t w e r e R .K . G an joo , V .G . S a the , S a lahudd in a nd S haf iqu l A lam . T he o b jec t ive s o f t h e p ro jec t w e r e : a ) t o s e a r ch f o r h uman f o s s i l s ; b ) r e con s t ruc t p a laeoc l ima t ic a nd p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry o f t h e r e g ion ; a nd c ) t o r e la te s t one t o o l i ndu s t r ie s w i th p a laeoc l ima t ic p ha se s . T he t e am w o rk ed f o r f i ve s e a son s f r om 1 986 t o 1 990 , e xp lo r ed al a rge a r ea i nN a r s inghpu r d i s t r ic ta nd d i scove r ed s eve r a l P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i t ic s i te s , t h e mo s ti mpo r tan t b e ing t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e o f S amnapu r ( 2 3° 0 6 ' 1 7" N ; 7 9° 0 7 ' 3 0" E ) a nd t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f K e rpan i ( 2 3° 0 4 ' 3 7" N ; 7 9° 0 9 ' 3 0" E ) , b o th l o ca ted o n t h e N a rmada r i ve r . T h e t e am c oncen t ra ted i t s w o rk a r ound D evakacha r v i l lage , l o ca ted a t t h e c on f luence o f S he r a nd V a ru r ewa r i ve r s , b o th t r ibu ta r ie s o f t h e N a rmada , a nd a t S amnapu r . Sma l l e xcava t ion s a tG ua r igha t o n t h e S he r a nd T a layagha t o n t h e V an i rewa i n t h e g r ave l ly s and b e long ing t ot h e U ppe rG roup o ft h e N a rmada s t ra t ig r aphy , a tt h e b a se o ft h e e xpo sed s e c t ion , y i e lded r i ch M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s a nd f o s s i l s o f av a r ie ty o f a n ima l s .

XV I I I . E xcava t ion a tB a la tha l B a la tha l w a s o ne o f t h e n ine s i tes o f t h e A ha r C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e wh ich VNM h ad d i scove red i n Mewa r d u r ing h i s 1 962 -64 e xp lo ra t ion s . T he q ue s t ion o f e xcava t ing a ny o f t h e se s i t e s d id n o t a r ise a s h e g o t b u sy i n o t he r p ro jec t s d e sc r ibed a bove . H ow eve r , i n 1 989 R a ja s than V idyapee th ( a d eem ed u n ive r s i ty ) , U a ipu r i n v i ted h im t o d e l ive r G ou r ichand H i rachand O jha Memo r ia ll e c tu r es . O n t h a t o cca s ion V ice -Chance l lo r o f t h e V idyapee th , K .K . V a sh is th e xp r e ssed a d e s i r e t o e s tab l i sh a n a r chaeo logy d epa r tm en t i n h i s u n ive r s i ty a nd s o l ic i ted VNM 's h e lp . VNM t o ld V a sh i s th t h a t s i nce a r chaeo logy w a sp r im a r i ly af i e ld s c ience ,t h e b es t w ay t ot r a in h i s s t af fw ou ld b e t oc a r ry o u t a j o in t e xcava t ion b y t h e D eccan C o l lege a nd t h e V idyapee th . Af t e r a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e s i te s d i scove r ed b y VNM , B a la tha l w a s s e lec ted o n t h e g round st h a t : ( 1 ) i tw ou ld a dd t oo u rk now ledge o f t h e Aha r c u l tu r e wh ich w a s t i l l t h en m a in ly b a sed o ne xcava t ion s o f Aha ra nd G i lund ; ( 2 ) w a sn o tt oo b ig a nd t h e r ef o r e m anageab le ; ( 3 ) w a s f a i r ly i n tac t ; a nd ( 4 ) w a s c onnec ted w i th U da ipu rb y am e ta l led r oad . T h e s i te c ove r s a n a r ea o fa bou t f i ve a c r es a nd h a s ah ab i ta t ion d epos i t o f a bou t s even m . I t w a s h o r izon ta l ly e xcava ted f o r s even s e a son s ( 1994 -

1 5

2 000 ) b y VNM , V .S , S h inde a nd R .K . Mohan ty o f t h e D eccan C o l lege , a nd L a l i t P andey a nd J .S . K ha rakwa l o f t h e R a ja s than V idyapee th . T hey w e re a s s i s ted b y an umbe r o f t h e i r c o l league s , i n c lud ing M .D . K a ja le , P .K . T homa s , P .P . J og leka r , A nupam a K sh i r saga r , a nd A ra t i D e shpande , s eve ra l m embe r s o ft h e t e chn ica l s t af f , a nd an umbe ro fr e sea rch s cho la r sf r om t h e D eccan C o l lege . T he f i nd s f r om t h e e xcava t ion m o r e t h an f u lf i l led t h e e xcava to r s ' e xpec ta t ion s . T he e xcava t ion s h ave p roduced e v id ence o f t wo c u l tu r a l p e r iod s , v i z . C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic . T hey a r e s epa ra ted b y as t e r i le l a ye r o f a bou to n em e t re t h ickne s s .

b l ack -and r ed w a r e , t h ick r e d s l ipped w a r e , a nd g r ey w a r e , t h e l a t te r t wo d eco r a ted w i th i n c i sed d e s ign s . I n P ha se B n ew a nd f i ne r c e ram ic s l i ke t h in r ed w a re a nd t a n w a r e m ade o fv e ry f i ne c l ay a nd b ak ed a t a h igh t empe ra tu r e a nd h av ing d i s t inc t ive s hape s w e r e i n t roduced . T he t a n w a r e h a s c l o se a f f in i ty w i th H a rappan p o t te ry i nf a b r ic a nd s hape s . T h i s w a r e a nd t h e c on s t ru c t ion o ft h e e nc lo su r e w e r e p robab ly i n sp i r ed b y t h e c on tac t o f t h e B a la tha l p eop le w i th t h e H a rappan p eop le o f G u ja r a t . T h e s ub s is tence e conomy o f t h e B a la tha l p eop le c on s i s ted o f c u l t iva t ion o f w hea t , b a r ley , g r een g r am , b l ack g r am , c ommon p ea ,j u jube a nd m i l le t s a nd d ome s t ica t ion o f c a t t le , b uf f a lo , s h eep , g oa t a nd p ig . T he w i ld a n ima l s e xp lo i ted b y t h e p eop le i n c luded n i lga i , b l ackbuck , f ou r -hor n ed a n te lope , c h i ta l , s amba r , w i ld b oa r , h a r e , mongoo se , s eve ra l s p ec ie s o f b i rd s , f i sh a nd t u r t le . T he t e chno logy m a in ly c on s i s ted o f c oppe r t oo l s t h ough o cca s iona l ly s t one b l ades a nd m ic ro l i th s w e r e a l so u sed .

T he C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod , d i v i s ib le i n to t wo p ha se s , A a nd B , i s c ha rac te r ized b y r i ch e v idence o f a r ch i tec tu r e , c e ram ic s , c oppe r t e chno logy , t e r raco t ta o b jec t s , s t one a nd s t ea t i te b ead s , a nd p l en t if u l e v idence o f a n im a l b one s a nd p l an t r ema in s . T he a r ch i tec tu r e c on s i s t s o f r e s iden t ia l s t ruc tu r e si nt h eo u te ra r ea a nd af o r t if ied e nc lo su r e i nt h e c en t r e o ft h e s e t t lem en t . I ts how s i n c ip ien t p l ann ing a s t h e t h r ee e xpo sed r e s iden t ia l c omp lexes a r e d i v ided b y a2m w ide s t r ee ta nd a1 m w ide l a ne . S t ruc tu r es a r e m ade o f s t one , mud b r ick a nd mud a nd r ange f r om s ma l l s i ng le r oom h ou se s t o l a rge mu l t i room ed c omp lexe s . T he h ou se s h ave o ve rg round a nd u nde rg round s t o rage b in s , k i tchen s w i th U shaped c hu lhas , a nd g r ind ing s t one s . T he f o r t if ied e nc lo su r e i s o f r ough ly r e c tangu la r s hape w i th w a l l s m ea su r ing 3 7 m i n e a s t -we s t d i rec t ion a nd 2 5 m i n n o r th -sou th d i rec t ion . T he i r w id th r a nges f r om 4 . 5 t o 5m a nd h e igh t f r om 3 . 5 t o 4m . T he c o r e o ft h e w a l l s i s m ade o f mud a nd t h e s i de s u pt o aw id th o f1 . 25 m o fs t on es . O n a l l t h e c o rne r s t h e r e a r e r e c tangu la r o rs qua r eb a s t ion s . T he e nc lo su r e c ove r s a na r ea o f a r ound 6 00 s q . ma nd i sf i l led f r om b o t tom t ot o p w i th b u rn t c ow d ung a nd c ow d ung c ake s . N o e n t rance t ot h e e nc lo su r e h a s b een l o ca ted a nd i t s f unc t ion r em a in s e n igma t ic . I t mu s t h ave r equ i r ed c on s ide rab le m anpowe rf o rq ua r ry ing a nd t r an spo r t o fs t one s a nd a c tua l c on s truc t ion o ft h e e nc lo su r e . T h i s w i l l b ep o s s ib le o n ly b y a n a ccep ted a u tho r i ty l i k e ac ommun i ty c h ief w ho c ou ld m ob i l ize t h e r equ i r ed l a bou r .

O f t h e t h ir ty ( c a l ib ra ted ) r a d ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic d epo s i t , 2 5 a r e s t r a t ig raph ica l ly c on s i s ten t a nd r a nge f r om 3 700 -3620 BC t o2 200 1 800 BC , m ak ing B a la tha l c on tempo ra ry w i th E a r ly a nd Ma tu r e H a rappan c u l tu re s a nd t h e o l de s t k nown v i l lage i nI nd ia . T h e s i t e w a s a bandoned b e tween 1 800 a nd 1 500 BC a nd r e occup ied b y i r on u s ing p eop le a r ound 4t h c en tu ry BC a nd r em a ined i no ccupa t ion u n t i l c . 3r d c en tu ry AD T he E a r ly H i s to r ic o ccupa t ion i s c ha rac te r ized b y e v idence o f i r on w o rk ing a nd a r i ch a nd v a r ied a s semb lage o f i r on t o o l s a nd w eapon s . T he a r ch i tec tu r e c on s i s ted o f s ma l l w a t t le a nd d aub h ou ses w i th t e r raco t ta d r a in s a nd r i ng w e l l s . S eve r a l t e r raco t ta s e a l s w i th B r ahm i s c r ip th ave b een f ound i nt h i sp e r iod .

T he f o r t if ied e nc lo su r e w a s b u i l to nt o p o fn ea r ly 2 m t h ick C ha lco l i th ic h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t . T he p r e f o r t if i ca t ion d epo s i t ( Pha se A ) r e p re sen t s a n e a r l ie r p ha se o fo ccupa t ion w he r ea st h e d epo s i ta bove a nd o u t s ide t h e f o r t if ica t ion r e p r e sen t s al a te r p ha se . T he e a r l ie rp ha se i sc ha rac ter ized b y w h i te p a in ted

C ha lco l i th ic a r ch i tec tu r eo fB a la tha l 1 996

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F iv e s t uden t s , n am e ly A nup M i sh r a , K u ru sh D a la l , A bh i j i t D andeka r , a nd D eba sh r ee D a sgup ta o ft h e D eccan C o l lege a nd N ico le B o iv in o f C amb r idge h ave p r epa r ed t h e i r P h .D . t h e ses o n t h e m a te r ia l f r om B a la tha l .

c onc re te t omb s ) among t h e Mu r ia G ond s o fB a s ta r i n M .P . ( now C hha t t i sga rh ) , a nd c a r r ied o u t e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s among t h e B h i l s , B an ja ra s , a nd K a lbe l iya si nR a ja s than .

X IX .E thnograph ic R e search B ecau se o f h i s r u ra l b ackg round VNM h ad a f e e l ing o fr e spec t a nd s ympa thy f o r t h e r u ra l a nd t r iba lp eop le f r om t h eb eg inn ing . H i s e xpe r ience o f f i e ld w o rk a mong t h e t r iba l p eop le a s M .A . s t uden t , a f te r c omp le t ing h i s M .A . e xam ina t ion , a nd a s aL ec tu r e r i n An th ropo logy a t L ucknow U n ive r s i ty , a nd e xamp le o f h i s t e ache r , D .N . Ma jumda r , h ad i n c r ea sed h i s i n te r e s t i n t r iba l e t hnog r aphy . A s h e b ecam e m o r e a nd mo r e a wa r e o f t h e i mpor tance o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy i nt h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta , h i s i n te r e s t i n e t hnog raphy d eepened . Du r ing h i se xp lo ra t ion sa nd e xcava t ion s h e w ou ld a lway s c o l lec t i n f o rma t ion a bou tr u ra l a nd t r iba l s oc ie t ie s f r om w o rk e r s i nt h e e xcava t ion a nd o t he r p eop le w hom h e m e t i n v a r iou s c on tex t s . I f w h i le t r ave l l ing b y r o ad h e w ou ld s e e ag roup c amp ing b y t h e r o ad s ide , h e w ou ld i n s tan t ly r e cogn ize t h em t ob e s om e k ind o f n om ad s , a nd w i l l s t op a nd s p end s om e t im e w i th t h em t o e nqu i r e a bou t t h e i r i d en t i ty , o ccupa t ion , s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion , e t c . H e h a s as pec ia l i n te re s t i n h un t ing -ga the r ing p eop le , a nd w ou ld a lway s m ak e e nqu i r ie s a bou tt h e e x i s tence o fs uch p eop le i nt h e a r ea d u r ing h i s e xp lo ra t ion a nd e xcava t ion w o rk . V i l lage m en a nd w om en e mp loyed i ne xcava t ion s w e r e am a jo r s ou r ce o fe t hnog r aph ic i n f o rma t ion , a nd w ou ld e n thu s ia s t ica l ly a n swe r q ues t ion s a sk ed t ot h em . B y s u ch e nqu i r ies i nt h e D idwana a r ea h e c am e t o k now a bou t t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i ty o ft h eV an V ag r i s a bou t whom n o th ing w a s k nown f r om t r ad i t iona l s ou r ce s l i ke g aze t tee r s a nd c en su s r e po r t s . T he se p eop le w e r e v e ry s hy a nd s c a red o f s t range r s , p a r t icu la r ly a f te r t h e g ove rnm en t 's f o r ced v a sec tomy p rog ramme d u r ing t h e 1 970 s . H oweve r , w i th p e r seve rance a nd t h rough t h e h e lp o f l o ca l p e r son s w hom t h e V an V ag r i s t r u s ted , VNM w a s a b le t o e s tab l i sh e xce l len t r a ppo r t w i th s eve ra l i n f o rm an t s , a nd c o l lec t e x t r em e ly i n te r e s t ing d a ta o n h un t ing t e chn ique s a nd t e chno logy , g am e h un ted , s oc ia l o r gan iza t ion , a nd r e l ig ion . VNM a l so c a r r ied o u t d e ta i led s t ud ie s o f t h r ee o t h e r h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i t ie s , n ame ly P a rdh i s a nd K uchbandh iya s i nM .P . , j o in t ly w i th Ma l t i N aga r , a nd K an ja r s i n U .P .H e a l so s t ud ied t h ep r ac t ices o fd i spo sa lo ft h e d ead a nd r a i s ing o f m emo r ia l s t ruc tu r e s ( wood , s t one a nd c emen t c onc r e te p i l la r s a nd c emen t

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VNM s ay s t h a t t h e e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f a l s imp le ( non indu s t r ia l ized ) s oc ie t ies , a nd p ar t icu la r ly o ft ho se p r ac t i s ing ah un t ing -ga the r ing e conomy , h ave g r ea t r e levance f o r a r chaeo logy . K now ledge o ft h e i r t e chno logy , h un t ing a nd p l an t f ood g a the r ing t e chn ique s , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , r e l ig ion , a nd i n te rac t ion w i th o t he r c ommun i t ie s p rov ide s u s v e ry v a luab le c l ue s f o r i n te rp r e ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd u nd e r s tand ing t h e b ehav iou r o f p a s t s o c ie t ie s . O ne o f t h e m any e xamp les o f t h e a pp l ica t ion o f e t hnog r aph ic a na logy t oa r chaeo logy c an b e c i ted f r om w e s te rn R a ja s than . I nt h i s r e g ion m ic ro l i th ic s i tes a r e v e ry c ommon , o ccu r r ing m a in ly o n s and d une s a nd o cca s iona l ly o n r o cky s u rf ace s . T hey c ove r a r ea s o fv a ry ing s i zes , f r om a bou t 3 0 -40 s q . mt os eve r a l h und r ed s q . m , a nd t h e n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s v a r ie s f r om af ew s co re s t os eve ra l t h ou sand . O bv iou s ly , m any o f t h e se s i t es r e p r e sen t e ph eme ra l o ccupa t ion s b y s ma l l g roups . As i gh tw h ich i sv e ry c ommon i nt h e r e g ion t oday i so fs m a l l g roup s o f p eop le b e long ing t on omad ic c ommun i t ie s l i ke t h e V an V ag r i s , K a lbe l iya s , B h i l s ,J og i s , a nd B an ja ra s ,

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T he a r ea w he r eV .N .M i s ra h a sc a r r ied o u tf i e ldwo rk s

m ov ing i n t h e c oun t ry s id e o r c amp ing o n s and d un e si ns m a l lg r oup s . T h ey s t ay i no n ep l a ce f o ra f ew d ay so rw eek sf o rw o rk o nt empo r a ry p ro jec t s , h un t ing , p r ov id ing e n t e r ta inm en t t o l o ca l p eop le , w a t ch ing c r op s o f f a rm e r s ,e t c . T h ey b u i ld v e ry

f l im sy h u t s , a nd l e ave s om e t r a ce s o f t h e i r o ccupa t ion i n t h e f o rm o f h ea r th s , d i sca rd ed o b jec t s , e t c . T h e s e e xamp le s s u gg e s t t h a t t h e m ic ro l i th ic s i te s p robab ly r e p r e sen t s ho r t s t ay s o f n om ad ic Me so l i th ic h un t e r -ga th e r e rg r oup s .

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XX . P ar t ic ipa t ion i n c onf erence s , s em inar s , e t c . a nd v i s i t sa broad VNM h a sp a r t ic ipa ted a nd p r e sen ted p ape r si no ve r f i f ty n a t iona l a nd i n te rna t iona l c onf e r ences , s em ina r s , s ympo s ia , w o rk shop s , e t c . O f t h e i n te rna t iona l c onf e r ences , e t c . t h e m a jo r o ne s a r e l i s ted i nA ppend ix F .

( i ) I nd ian P reh i s tory 1 964 I n 1 964 H . D . S anka l ia o rgan ized t h e f i r s t n a t iona l s em ina r o n p r eh is to ry a nd p ro toh i s to ry o f I nd ia , a nd n om ina ted VNM a ss e c r e ta ry t ol o ok a f t e r t h e o rgan iza t iona l w o rk . T he s em ina r h ad a p a t ter n q u i te d i f f e r en t f r om n o rma l s em ina r s /conf e rence s . F o r ty a r chaeo log i s t s a c t ive ly e ngaged i n f i e ld a nd /o r l a bo ra to ry r e sea rch w e r e i n v i ted f o r p a r t ic ipa t ion . P ape r s o n 1 0 t o p ic s o n wh ich m ax imum r e sea r ch w a s b e ing d one o r wh ich w e r e c on s ide r ed p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t f o r r e sea r ch , w e r e i n v i ted f r om e xper t s i nt ho se f i e ld s . E ach o f t h ese p ape r s w a s s en t t o as e lec t g roup o fs cho la r s f o r s ubm i t t ing w r i t ten c omm en t s i n a dvance . S ix teen y oung r e sea r ch s cho la r s f r om d i f f e ren t i n s t i tu t ion s w e r e i n v i ted t oe nab le t h em t oi n te rac t w i th s en io r s cho la r s . T he p ape r s w e r e d i scu s sed i n m ax imum p o s s ib le d e ta i l o ve r ap e r iod o f e i gh t d ay s ( f rom 2 4t h t o3 1s tM ay ) . E ve ry p a r t ic ipan tw a s g i ven a n o ppo r tun i ty t oc omm en t o nt h e p ape r s . I n t h e e nd a l l t h e c ommen t s w e r e s ubm i t ted t o t h e a u tho r s o f t h e p ape r s , who w e re a sk ed t o s ubm i t w r i t ten r e p ly t o t h e c omm en t s . T he p roceed ing s w e r e e d i ted b y VNM a nd M .S . Ma te a nd w e r e p ub l i sh ed b yt h e D eccan C o l lege i n1 965 u nde rt h e t i t le , I nd ian P r eh i s tory : 1 964 . T he b ook c on t inued t ob e i nd em and e ven a f te r t h r ee d ecade s a nd w a s r e p r in ted i n1 995 .

V .N . M is ra w i th J .D . C la rk a nd T im Wh i te ( t o l ef t ) a nd Mr s . C la rk ( t or i gh t ) , I UPPS C onf e r en ce a tF o r l i , I t a ly 1 996

I na dd i t ion t ot h e se c onf e r ence r e la ted v i s i t s , VNM v i s i ted s eve ra l o the r c oun t r ie s f o r o t he r p u rpo se s . I n 1 979 h e w en t t o G r eece u nde r t h e I ndo -G r eek c u l tu ra l e xchange p rog ramm e , s aw m any f amou s a r chaeo log ica l s i tes a nd mu seum s o n t h e m a in land a s w e l l a s i n C r e te , a nd g ave l e c tu r e s o n I nd ian a r chaeo logy i nt h e A rchaeo logy D epa r tm en t o ft h e Un ive r s i ty o f A then s . O n t h i s o cca s ion h e a l so v i s i ted E gyp ta nd s aw t h ep y ram id sa tG iza a nd t h e C a i ro mu seum . I n 1 982 h e w en t t o E th iop ia a s a m embe ro ft h e i n ter n a t iona l e xped i t ion l e d b y J .D . C la rk f o r s e a r ch o fE a r ly Man . I n 1 986 a nd 1 994 h e v i s i ted B ang ladesh o n b eha lf o f t h e F o rd F ounda t ion , f i r s tt im et op r epa r e af e a s ib i l i ty r epor t f o r e s tab l i sh ing a D epa r tm en t o f A r chaeo logy a t J ahang ir n aga r Un ive r s i ty , S ava r , D haka , a nd s e cond t im e t o r ev iew t h e p rog r e s s o f t h e D epa r tm en t w h ich w a s e s tab l i shed i n 1 987 . T he n ew ly e s tab l i shed d epa r tm en t s en t f ou r o f i t s l e c tu r e r s , M .M . H ogue , S .S .M . R ahm an , S . Ah san , a nd A .B . P au l t o d o t h e i r P h .D . a t t h e D eccan C o l lege . T he f i r s t t wo w o rk ed u nde r t h e s uperv i s ion o f VNM , a nd t h e o t he r t wo u nde r t h e s uperv i s ion o fS .N . R a ja gu ru a nd V .S . S h inde .

( i ) S ympos ium o n I ndo -Pac if i c P reh i s tory 1 978 I n 1 977 , a s am embe r t h e n a t iona l o rgan iz ing c omm i t tee o f t h e X th I n te rna t iona l C ong r e s s o f An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c ience s ( ICAES ) , wh ich w a st ob eh e ld a tN ew D e lh i i nt h e s e cond w eek o fD ecembe r 1 978 , VNM h ad o f f e r ed t o o rgan ize ap o s t -Cong re s s s ympo s ium o n I ndo P ac if ic p r eh i s to ry a s t h e f i r s t c onf e r ence o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P r eh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion ( I PPA ) a tt h e D eccan C o l lege , P un e . T he s ympo s ium w a s h e ld o n 1 9 -21 D ecembe r 1 978 . O ne h und red a nd t wen ty two s cho la r s f r om 1 3 c oun t r ie s p a r t ic ipa ted i n i t ,t h e m ax imum p a r t ic ipan t s b e ing f r om I nd ia , Au s t ra l ia , USA , U .K . F rance a nd C anada . S even ty f i ve p ape r s , d i v ided i n to f ou rs e c t ion s a nd c ove r ing t h e e n t i re r ange o f I ndo -Pac if ic p reh i s to ry , w e r e p r e sen ted a tt h e s ympo s ium . T he a b s t rac t s o f a l l t h e p ape r s , a nd i n s om e c a ses f u l l p ape r s , w e r e e i the r m a i led t o t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i n a dvance o r g i ven b y h and a tt h e I CAES i nN ew D e lh i . E ve ry e ven ing t h e p a r t ic ipan t s w e re e n ter ta ined b y p rog r amm e s o f I nd ian c l a s s ica l mu s ic a nd d ance b y w e l l -known a r t i s t s . T h e p roceed ing s o f t h e s ympo s ium , e d i ted b y VNM a nd P e te r B e l lwood ,

XX I .O rgan iza t ion o fC onf erence s VNM h a s b een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e o rgan iza t ion o f an umbe r o f c on f e ren ce s . T he i mpor tan t o ne s o f t h em a r et h ef o l low ing .

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t h e l a t te r s e c re ta ry o fI PPA , w e re p ub l ished u nde r

c ou ld n o t c a r ry a n e x t ra c oach . T hey o f f e red t o a t tach t h e c oach t o a no the r t r a in wh ich w a s o fn o u se . I n d espe ra t ion , a t t h e l a s t momen t , VNM d ec ided t o s e ek t h e h e lp o f t h e r a i lway m in is te r , Madhu D andawa te , a nd w en t t o h i s r e s idence a nd m e t h i s p er sona l s e c r e ta ry ( PS ) . T o VNM 's g r ea t r e l ief t h e P S s a id t h a t h e w i l l a r range ac oach t ob e a t tached t ot h e GT E xp re ss . T he o n ly p rob lem w as t h a t n o F i r s t C la s s c oach w as a va i lab le a nd h ence a s e cond c l a ss c oach , wh ich h a s o n ly h a rd w ooden b er th s , w i l l b e a t tached . VNM h ad n o c ho ice b u tt o g r a tefu l ly a ccep t wha t w a s o f f ered . T he t r ave l a gency n ow m ade amend s f o rt h e i r e a r l ie r l a p se . I t s en t t wo o f i t s emp loyees , w i th m a t t resses a nd c l ean l i nen a nd a l l a r rangemen ts f o r t e a /cof f ee a nd f ood u p t o B ombay . T he d e lega tes a r r ived a t B hopa l o n 1 7 D ecember mo rn ing . H e re VNM 's f r iend s , B .M . P ande , S uper in tend ing A rchaeo log is t o ft h e AS I , a nd M .D . Kha re , D i rec to ro fM .P . S t a te A r chaeo logy D epa r tmen t , a tB hopa l , h ad a r ranged f o rt h e d e lega tes t ob e t r ea ted a s S t a te Gues t s , a nd a l l h o sp i ta l i ty , i n c lud ing ad inne r a tI t a ra s i b y t h e C o l lec to r o fH oshangabad , w e re p rov ided t ot h em . T he p a r t ic ipan ts c ou ld s e e t h e e xcava ted t r enches a nd r o ck p a in t ing s a tB h imbe tka o n 1 7 D ecembe r a nd t h e N a rmada Q ua terna ry s e c t ion s a t Ho shangabad t h e n ex t d ay . T hey l e f t I t a ras i i nt h e a f ter noon o f 1 8 D ecembe r a nd a r r ived a t P une e a r ly i nt h e mor n ing o f 1 9 D ecembe r ,j u s t i nt ime f o rt h e i n augu ra t ion .

t h e t i t le o f R ecen t A dvance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P reh i s tory b yO xf ord IBH ,N ew D e lh i i n1 985 . VNM r e ca l ls a n u nf o rge t tab le e xper ience a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ympos ium . H e h ad o f f e red t o o rgan ize a v i s i t f o r t h e p a r t ic ipan t s t o B h imbe tka a nd N a rmada v a l ley s i tes a t Hoshangabad o n t h e w ay f r om N ew D e lh i , a f te rt h e I CAES e nded o n 1 6 D ecembe r , t o P oona . A l a rge n umbe r o f p a r t ic ipan t s , ma in ly f r om o ve r sea s c oun t r ies h ad w e lcomed t h e v i s i t a nd s en t money t o c ove r t h e t r ave l e xpen ses f r om N ew D e lh i t o P une b y t r a in . VNM h ad e n t ru s ted t h e t r ave l a r rangemen t s t o a r e pu ted t r ave l a gency i nP une , wh ich h ad , i nt ur n , a s s igned t h e j ob t o i t s D e lh i b ranch . Howeve r , when VN M r e ached D e lh i o n 8D ecembe r , h e l e ar n t t o h i s h o r ro r t h a t t h e a gency h ad m ade n o a r rangemen t s . H e w as i n ap an ic a s h i s r e pu ta t ion a nd c r ed ib i l i ty w e re a ts t ake , a nd u n les s t h e t r ave l a r rangemen t s w e re made q u ick ly , t h e p a r t ic ipan t s w i l l n o t b e a b le t o r e ach P une i n t ime , wher e a l l a r rangemen t s f o r t h e s ympo s ium h ad b een m ade . H e m e t s en io r r a i lway o ff ice r s w i th a r eques t t o a t tach as pec ia l c oach t o GT E xp res s , t h e o n ly t r a in whose s chedu le c ou ld c a r ry t h e d e lega tes t o B hopa l , d e tach t h e c oach t h e re f o r 2 4 h ou r s , a nd t h en a t tach i tt o a no the r t r a in wh ich w ou ld c a r ry t h e d e lega tes t o B ombay o n w ay t o P une . T he o ff icer s , h oweve r , t o ld VN M t h a t t h e GT E xp res s a l ready h ad i t s f u l l l o ad o fc oaches a nd i t s e ng ine

X th I CAES : P os t -P lena ry S ympo s ium o n l u do -P . . 1c li c P r eh is tory . D eccan C o l lege 1 978 S tand ing i s t r ow ( l ef t t or i gh t ) : P .R . K u lkam i , D .K . B ha t tacha rya , M .D . K a ja le , C . H igham , I .G love r , K . P addayya , B . Mur ty , S .W . C h i ta le , S .N . R a jaguru , S .C hak raba r t i , J .J acobson , P .C . P an t , C .P . G rove s , P . B e l lwood , I .M . C rawf o rd , K . G o I lan , V . P raka sh , D . M i l le r , W . Meecham , D .W . O r ch is ton , S .C . Ma l ik , S . J . H a l lam ; l i nd r ow : K . K au l , A .K . G ho sh , S .P . G up ta , M . B ha t tacha rya , T .C . S ha rma , K .L . Meh r a , C .E . D o r tch , V .VM . R ao , D . R a ju , R . S e t ta r , B .P . B opa rd ika r , P .S i ngh , P .R a jend ran , G . K uma r , Y .H . S i no to , R . O h t suka , K .R . B a r z , W . Ay re s , S .G . S upeka r , M r s . A u re s ; t urd r ow : Z .C oope r , S .P andya , N . B oga , V . J aya swa l , S . Wad ia , R . R ay , V .S . Wakanka r , G . P re s land , M r s . Why te , R .O . Why te , G .L . B adam , M . Maf aa t ,A . K uma r , R .V . J o sh i , B . B ronson , R .P . S oe jono , K .A .R . K ennedy , A .V .N . S a rma , S .S unda r a , S .N . R ao , R .S . P appu , V . C hapman S i t t ing I s t r ow : B . A l lch in , 1 . McB ryde , D . J . Mu lvaney , G .R . S ha rma , W .G . S o lhe im I t , M .A . d e L um ley , H .de L um ley , S .B . D eo , J .D . C la rk , H .D . S anka l ia , V .N . M is ra , K .R . A lu r , J . G o lson , P .E .L . Sm i th , F . I k awa -Sm i th , P .G rove s ; l i nd r ow : L . Modoko ro , I .L im , V . M is ra , Y . Ma thpa l , J . S . C h ingunde , D .R . R a ju , M . N aga r , M . L a l , R .P . P andey , Z . H u sa in , N . C hande r , S .C . N anda , C . G r ig son , J .K amm inga , S .K . R ay , V . B udho l ia , D . Sm i th .

( i i ) Wor ld A rchaeo log ica l C ongres s -3(WAC 3 ) 1 994 T he o rgan iza t ion o f Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l

s p l i t i nt h e I n terna t iona l Un ion o f P r eh is tor ic a nd P ro toh is to r ic S c iences ( IUPPS ) o n t h e q ues t ion o f p a r t ic ipa t ion o f a r chaeo log is t s f r om S ou th A f r ica

C ong re ss (WAC ) w a sb or ni n 1 986 o u t o f as t ormy

a nd I s rae l i n t h e c ong res s a t S ou thamp ton . Af t e r

2 0

t w ice a w eek . H e s pen t n ea r ly a y ea r o n t h e p r epa ra t ion s a nd o rgan iz ing o ft h ec onf e r ence .

P e te r U cko , who w a s t o o rgan ize t h e c ong r es s , e xp r es sed h i si n ab i l i ty ,u nde rp r e s su r ef r om L abou r P a r ty d om ina ted o rgan iza t ion s , t o a ccep t t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f S ou th A f r ican a nd I s rae l i a r chaeo log i s t s , I UPPS d i sowned t h e c ong r e ss . B u t b yt h en U cko h ad g one s of a rw i th p r epa ra t ion sf o r t h e c onf e r ence t h a t i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le f o r h im t o a bandon i t . H e t h e r ef o r e w en t a head w i th o rgan iz ing i tu nde r t h e h u r r ied ly f ounded Wo r ld A r chaeo log ica l C ong r e s s . O n U cko 's r eque s t I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( IAS ) a nd I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ies ( I SPQS ) b ecam e , a mong o t h e r o rgan iza t ion s , s pon so r s o f t h e WAC -1 . Makkhan L a l , ay oung I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t , who w a s i nE ng land a tt h a t t im e , a s s i s ted i n o rgan iz ing WAC -1 , a nd o ve r 5 0 I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s p a r t ic ipa ted i n i t . A f te r h i s r e tu rn t oI nd ia L a lt ook i n i t ia t ive i ne s tab l i sh ing a n I nd ian c hap te r o f WAC , a nd l o bb ied w i th s en io r a r chaeo log i s t s f o r o rgan iz ing t h e t h i rd c onf e r ence i nI nd ia . W i th t h e i n i t ia t ive t a ken b yB .B . L a l , S .P . G up ta , D .P . Ag rawa l , VNM a nd af ew o t he r s , t h e AS I a g r eed t o b e t h e h o s t a nd s en t af o rm a l i n v i ta t ion t o J a ck G o l son , P r e s iden t o f p a r en t WAC , i n 1 991 f o r h o ld ing WAC -3 i n I nd ia , a nd t h i s w a s a ccep ted b y t h e p a r en t b ody . A n o rgan iz ing c omm i t tee w a s s e t u p w i th B .B . L a l a s P r e s iden t , M .N . D e shpande a nd B .K . T hapa r a s V ice -P r e s iden t s , M .C . J o sh i , D i r ec to rG en e ra l , A S I a s S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l , Makkhan L a l a s T rea su r e r , a nd s eve ra l o the r s , i n c lud ing VNM , a s m embe r s . Meanwh i le , M .C . J o sh ir e t i r ed o n3 1s tM a rch , 1 993 a s DG , AS I , a nd t h e r ef o r e c ea sed t ob e S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l . H e w a s s ucceeded b y ab u r eauc ra t who w a s u nf or tuna te ly n o t v e ry c oope ra t ive w i th t h e c omm i t tee . T he P r e s iden t a nd V ice -P re s iden t st h en a sk ed VNM t o a ccep t t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o f S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l . VNM p o in ted o u t t ot h em t h a t b ecau se o fh i sa dm in i s t ra t ive j ob a sD i r ec to ro ft h e D eccan C o l lege , a nd a l so b e ing b a sed i nP un e , i t w i l l n o t b e p o s s ib le f o r h im t o d o j u s t ice t o t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h e p o s i t ion o fS ec r e ta ry G ene ra l , mo r e s o b ecau se WAC -3 w a s t ob e h e ld i nD e lh i . H oweve r , b ecau se o ft h e i n s i s tence o ft h e se s en io r a r chaeo log i s t s h e r e luc tan t ly a ccep ted t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty .

Unf o r tuna te ly , t h e c onf e r ence g o t b ese t w i th p o l i t ic s f r om t h e v e ry b eg inn ing . As ma l l g roup o f h i s to r ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s w e r e o b ses sed t h a t t h e i s sue o f t h e d emo l i t ion o f t h e B abr i Ma s j id ( wh ich h appened i nD ecembe r 1 992 ) s hou ld b e a m a jo r s ub jec t o f d i scu s s ion d u r ing t h e C ong r e ss . T he o rgan ize r sw an ted t oa vo id i tb ecau se i tw a s a n e mo t iona l ly c ha rged i s sue a nd h ad b een g i ven a c ommuna l c o lou r . I th ad l e dt oc ommuna lr i o t s a nd l o s s o fm any l i ve s a nd p roper ty . D i scu s s ion o ft h i s i s sue w ou ld p u sh t h e l e g i t ima te a nd s e r iou s a cad em ic s ub jec t s o f t h e C ong re s s i n to t h e b ackg round a nd v i t ia te t h e a cadem ic a tmo sph e re . S om ep eop le c r ea ted al o to fd i s tu rbance d u r ing t h e r eg i s t ra t ion o fd e lega te s o n t h e v e ry f i r s t d ay a nd a ga in d u r ing t h e p l ena ry s e s s ion . A s e c t ion o ft h e E ng l i sh p r e s s d ep ic ted t h e o rgan iz ing c omm i t tee a s c ompo sed o f H indu f undam en ta l i s t s , wh ich w a s t o ta l ly u n true . B ecau se o ft h e a dve r se p ropaganda i nt h e E ng l i sh p r e s st h e P r e s iden t o fI nd ia w ho h ad e a r l ie r a g r eed t oi n augu ra te t h e C ong r e s s d ec l ined t od os oa tt h el a s t mom en t . T h e re w e r e o t he rp rob lem s a sw e l l . T he o rgan ize r s h ad n op rope ro ff i ce i nD e lh i . T h e m ake sh if to ff ice i nP u rana Q i la d i d n o t e ven h ave at e lephone , a nd s e c r e ta ry g en e ra l h ad t o s ha r e t h e p hone w i th t h e A S I o ff i ce i n t h e s ame p rem i se s . Many p a r t ic ipan t s , s pec ia l ly f r om o ve r sea s , w e re p u t t o g r ea t i n conven ience i n c on tac t ing t h e C ong r e ss o ff ice . A l so , an umbe ro ff o r e ign p a r t ic ipan t s c ame w i thou t av i sa a nd w e re s t r anded a t t h e a i rpor t . VNM s pen t a l o t o f t ime i n c on tac t ing t h e a u tho r i t ie s i n t h e H om e M in i s t ry t o o b ta in g ove rnm en t c l ea r ance f o r t h e se d e lega te s t o p a r t ic ipa te i n t h e C ong r e s s . A l toge the r , t h e c onf e rence t u rn ed o u t t o b e ac hao t ic a f f a i r a nd b rough t ab ad n am e t o t h e o rgan ize r s a nd t h e c oun t ry . ( i v ) I n troduc t ion o f A f r ican Cu l t ivar s i n to S ou th A s ia C e r ta in m i l le t s l i k e b a jra ( Penn i se tum t y pho id e s ) , j owa r ( Sorghum b i co lor ) , a nd r a g i ( E leus ine c oracana ) p l ay a v e ry i mpor tan t r o le i nt h e f ood e conomy o fs em i -a r id a nd e ven s ub -hum id r eg ion s o fS ou th A s ia . T he se m i l le t s a r e b e l ieved t ob e o f A f r ican o r ig in . H oweve r , t h e e xac t t im e a nd p roce s s o f t h e i r i n t roduc t ion i n to S ou th h ave n o t b een c o r r ec t ly i d en t if i ed . Mau r iz io T o s i , a n em inen t a r chaeo log i s t a nd t h e d i r ec to r o f t h e

A s S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l VNM w a s e x -of f ic io c onv ene r o fa l l t h e c omm i t tee s . H e h ad t op r epa r e t h e a genda a nd m inu tes o ft h e m ee t ing s o fa l l t h e c omm i t tee s a nd s end t h em t ot h e m embe r s . A s a l l t h em ee t ing sw e r eh e ld i nD e lh i , f o ra lmo s ta ny ea r h e h ad t o t r ave l f r equen t ly t o D e lh i , s om e t ime s

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I t a l ian Emba s sy C u l tu ra l C en t r e , N ew D e lh i i nt h e l a te 1 980 s a nd e a r ly 1 990s , a nd K .L . Meh ra , a f o rm e r s c ien t i s t o f t h e I n te rna t iona l B u r eau o f P lan t G ene t ic R e sou rces ( IBPGR ) , N ew D e lh i , d i scu s sed t h i s s ub jec t w i th VNM o n s eve ra l o cca s ion s d u r ing 1 989 -90 a nd s ugges ted t oh im t o o rgan ize aw o rk shop f o r at ho rough d i scu s s ion o f t h e i s sue . A cco rd ing ly , VNM o rgan ized a n i n te rna t iona l w o rk shop o n 7 -8 D ecembe r 1 991 a t t h e D eccan C o l lege o n ' P r eh i s to r ic C on tac t s b e tween S ou th A s ia a nd A f r ica : T he D i spe r sa l o f P lan t C u l t iva r s a l ong t h e No r th I nd ian S eaboa rd ' . T he p a r t ic ipan t s i n c luded , b es ide s T os i , Meh ra a nd VNM , M .D . K a ja le f r om D eccan C o l lege , K .S . S a ra swa t f r om B i rba l S ahn i I n s t i tu te o f P a laeobo tany , L ucknow , R .K . A ro ra f r om I BPGR , N ew D e lh i , L o r enzo C o s tan t in i f r om I sMEO , R om e , S ando r B okony i f r om B udapes t , P h i l ippe G own f r om CNRS ,P a r i s ,a nd f a cu l ty m embe r sa nd r e sea rch s cho la r s o ft h e A r chaeo logy D epa r tm en t o f D eccan C o l lege . T he p roceed ing s o f t h e w o rk shop , wh ich a l so i n c lude t h e s pec ia l ly i nv i ted p ape r sb yM .R . Mugha l f r om L aho r e , P ak i s tan a nd S ee tha N . R eddy f r om Wi son s in , USA , e d i ted b y VNM a nd M .D . K a ja le , h ave b een p ub l i shed b yt h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s i n2 003 , P un e , u nde rt h e t i t le ,I n t roduc t ion o fA f r ican C rop si n to S ou th A s ia .

V .N . M i s ra w e lcom ing t h ed e lega t e so ft h eS oc ie t ie s 1 999

V .N . M is r a w i th S .P . G up ta d u r ing C onf e r en ce a t D eccan C o l lege 1 999

XX I I . VN M a nd t he D eccan C o l lege F rom 1 962 t o 1 981 VNM w a s o n t h e s t af fo ft h e P oona Un ive r s i ty D epa r tm en to fA r chaeo logy , f i r s t a sl e c tu r e r( 1962 -68 ) a nd t h en a sR eade ra nd H ead o ft h e D epa r tm en t( 1968 -81 ) . I n 1 981 h ej o in ed t h e D eccan C o l lege a s p rof e s so r o f p r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy . H eb ecam eJ o in tD i r ec to ri n1 986 a nd D i r ec to ri n 1 990 . H e r e t i r ed f r om t h e l a t te rp o s t o n 3 1 A ugu s t2 000 .

( v )J o in tC onf erence o ft hree s oc ie t ie s T h e I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( IAS ) , T h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s ( I SPQS ) , P une , a nd t h e I nd ian H i s to ry a nd C u l tu r e S oc ie ty ( IHCS ) , N ew D e lh i , h ave b een h o ld ing t h e i r a nnua l c onf e rence j o in t ly r i gh t f r om t h e t im e o f t h e i r i n cep t ion s . I n 1 999 VNM o rgan ized t h e j o in t c onf e ren ce o f t h e s oc ie t ies a t t h e D eccan C o l lege t oc o inc ide w i th t h e D iamond J ub i lee o ft h ec o l lege a s aR e sea rch I n s t i tu te . I tw a s o ne o ft h e mo s t l a rge ly a t tended c onf e r ence s . O n t h i s o cca s ion s en io ra r chaeo log i s t s S .P . Gup ta , J . P . J o sh i a nd V .D . M i s ra , a nd p a s t s t uden t s o ft h e o ld ( p r e 1 934 ) D eccan C o l lege , N .B . G odbo le , M .V . D e shpande , N .V . B apa t a nd K .G . B hadbhade w e r e f e l ic i ta ted . D r . S t a t i ra Wad ia w a sf e l ic i ta ted f o rh e r v ery i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e e d i t ing o f Man a nd E nv ironmen t . S .P . Gup ta d e l ive r ed t h e H .D . S anka l ia Memo r ia l l e c tu r e a nd K .N . D ik sh i t d e l ive r ed t h e P r e s iden t ia l a dd r e s s o f I SPQS . A l a rge n umbe r o fp ape r s w e re p re sen ted d u r ing t h e c onf e rence .

S om e o f t h e s a l ien t d eve lopm en t s a nd e ven t s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f h i s d i rec to r sh ip a r e g iv en b e low . ( i ) D eemed Un iver s i ty S ta tus I n 1 983 t h e t h en D i rec to ro ft h e I n s t i tu te , S .B . D eo a pp l ied t o t h e UGC f o r g r an t ing t h e D eem ed Un iv e r s i ty s t a tu s t ot h e I n s t i tu te . T he UGC s en t a n e xpe r t c omm i t tee i n 1 985 f o r i n spec t ion o f t h e I n s t i tu te , a nd t h e c omm i t tee r e comm ended t h e g r an t ing o ft h e d eem ed u n ive r s i ty s t a tu s , s ub jec tt o t h e f o rma t ion o f a r eg i s te r ed s oc ie ty a nd m emo randum o f a s soc ia t ion f o r r unn ing t h e I n s t i tu te . T h is r e comm enda t ion p osed a s e r iou s p rob lem b ecau se t h e I n s t i tu te i s r un b y t h e g ove rnm en t o f Maha ra sh t ra u nde r t h e B ombay H igh C ou r t D ec r ee o f 1 938 , a nd f o rma t ion o fn ew s oc ie ty w a s l e ga l ly n o t f e a s ib le . B y t h i s t im e D eo h ad r e t i r ed a nd M . K . D hava l ika rs ucceeded h im a s

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D i r ec to r . D hava l ika r b rough t t h e p rob lem t o t h e n o t ice o ft h e UGC b u t i tt ook al o t o fe xp la in ing a nd c o r r e sponden ce t o c onv ince t h e UGC n o t t o i n s i s t o n t h e f o rm a t ion o f ar e gd . s o c ie ty . F ina l ly , t h e M in i s t ry o f HRD , G ov t . o f I nd ia , o n t h e r e comm enda t ion o ft h e UGC , g r an t ed t h e s t a tu s i n Ma r ch 1 990 , a nd a sk ed t h e I n s t i tu te t of r ame n ew R u le s a nd B ye law s f o r t h e f un c t ion ing o f t h e U n ive r s i ty . O n D hava l ika r 's r e que s t , t h e C ha i rman o f t h e I n s t i tu te 's C ounc i l o f Managem en t , P rof . S .C . G up te , a ppo in ted af ou r -m embe rc omm i t tee t o f r am e t h e d r af t r u le s a nd b ye law s . D hava l ika r r e t i r ed a sD i r ec to ri n May 1 990 a nd w a s s ucceeded b y VNM . Af t e r an umbe ro fs i t t ing st h e c omm i t tee p r epa r ed t h e d r af t s . T hese w e r e t h en p l aced b ef o r e t h eC ounc i l o f Managem en t , w h ich e xam ined t h em t h o rough ly o ve r s eve ra l s i t t ing s l a s t ing n ea r ly s i x mon th s . T he R u le s w e r e t h en s ubm i t ted t o t h e UGC a nd t h e S t a te G ov t . a nd t h e B ye law s o n ly t o t h e S t a te G ov t . f o r t h e i r a pp rova l . O b ta in ing t h is a pp rova l p roved t ob e av e ry t o ugh t a sk b ecau se t h e UGC w an ted t h e I n s t i tu te t o h ave c omp le te a u tonomy a nd t h e S t a te G ov t . w an ted t oh ave t o ta l c on t ro l . I tr equ i r ed a l o t o f c o r r e spond en ce a nd m any v i s i t s b y VNM t o D e lh i a nd Mumba i t o p e r suade t h e s en io r o ff ice r s o f t h e t wo o rgan iza t ion s t o d i lu te t h e i r s t and s s o t h a t a m ee t ing g round c ou ld b e f ound . F ina l ly , t h e r u le s w e r e a pp roved i n J u ly 1 994 a nd t h e I n s t i tu te s t a r ted f unc t ion ing a s aD eem ed U n ive r s i ty . O n D hava l ika r 's r e qu e s t t h e S t a te G ov t . h ad a g reed t o c r ea te s eve ra l n ew t e ach ing a nd n on teach ing p o s t s , a ppo in tm en t s t o wh ich w e r e m ade a f te r t h e I n s t i tu te s t a r ted f unc t ion ing i ni t sn ew c apac i ty .

g r an t s , t h e l a s t i n1 992 , t h e t o ta l a moun t e xceed ing 8 00 ,000 U S S . Ma ry Z u rbu chen , o ne o f J o sh i 's s ucce s so r s , w a s a l so v e ry s uppo r t ive . T he se g r an t s w e r e u t i l ized f o r a cqu i s i t ion o f s oph i s t ica ted r e sea rch e qu ipm en t l i k e X -Ray D if f r ac tom e te r , A tom ic A b so rp t ion S pec topho tome te r , an umbe ro f m ic ro scope s , s eve ra lv eh ic le s f o rf i e ld w o rk , b ook s a nd j our n a l s f o r t h e l i b ra ry , f o r d o ing f i e ld w o rk , f o rp ub l ica t ion , f o re s tab l i sh ing ac ompu t ing c en t r e f o r s t af f a nd s t ud en t s , a nd f o r s end ing f a cu l ty m embe r s f o r a dvanced t r a in ing i n o ve r sea s i n s t i tu t ion s a nd f o r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n i n ter na t iona l c onf e r ences . T he g r an t s h ave m ade a s ub s tan t ia l c on t r ibu t ion t ou pg rad ing r e sea rch f a c i l i t ie s a nd t o t h e q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o ft h e r e sea r ch o u tpu t o f t h e d epa r tm en t .

V .N . M i s r a w i th C . S ub raman iam , G ove rno r o f Maha r a sh t r a a nd S .C . G up te , V ice -Chance l lo r , P une U n iv e r s i ty i nL okmanya B a lG angadha rT i lak 's r oom a tD eccan C o l lege 1 99 1

( i ) T he F ord F ounda t ion O ne o ft h e m any m emo rab le e xper ience s o f VNM a tt h e D eccan C o l lege w a s h i s c on tac t w i th t h e F o rd F ounda t ion . I n 1 981 V .C . J o sh i , t h en P ro jec t O ff ice rw i th t h eF ounda t ion a tN ew D e lh i , a nd o ne o f t h e f i ne s t p e r son s VNM h a s m e t , e xp r e s sed a d e s i r e t o m ee t t h e l a t te r . T he i r m ee t ing l a te r i n J o sh i 's o ff ice l e d t o VNM j o in ing t h e e xped i t ion l e d b y d i s t ingu i shed a r chaeo log i s t J .D . C la rk f o r s e a r ch o f e a r ly m an i n E th iop ia i n 1 982 . S ub sequen t ly , VNM i n v i ted J o sh i t o v i s i t t h e D eccan C o l lege , m ee t h i s c o l league s a nd s e e t h e r e sea r ch w o rk b e ing d one i n a r chaeo logy . J o sh i v i s i ted t h e I n s t i tu te i ne a r ly 1 983 a nd w a s h igh ly i mp r es sed b y t h e r e sea r ch o u tpu t a nd p o ten t ia l o f t h e d epa r tm en t . H i s v i s i t l e d i n 1 983 t o t h e F ounda t ion g i v ing ag r an t o fn ea r ly 3 00 ,000 U S $ t o t h e d epa r tm en t f o r a ugm en ta t ion o f r e sea r ch f a c i l i t ie s . L a te r , t h e F ounda t ion g ave f ou r mo r e

V .N . M is r a w i th P .C . A lexand e r , G ove rno r o f Maha ra sh t ra a nd M r s . A lexande ra tD eccan C o l lege 1 994

( i i ) U n iver s i ty G ran t sC omm i s s ion ( UGC ) T he UGC r e gu la te s t h e s t anda rd s o f h i ghe r e duca t ion a nd p rov ide s f und ing f o ru n ive r s i t ie s a nd c o l lege s . I n s t i tu t ion s a nd d epa r tm en t s p erf o rm ing b e t te r a r e g iven s pec ia l a nd h i ghe r g r an t s . I n 1 972 t h e UGC h ad r e cogn ized t h e a r chaeo logy d epa r tm en t o f t h e I n s t i tu te f o r S pec ia l A s s i s tance P rog ramme ( SAP ) a nd i n 1 985 t h i s s t a tu s w a s

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u pg raded t o C en t re o f Advanced S tudy ( CAS ) . Du r ing t h ep er iod o f VN M 's d i rec to r sh ip , t h e w o rk o ft h e CAS w a s e va lua ted b y e xper t c o mm i t tees i n 1 992 a nd 1 998 . T he c omm i t tees g ave s upe r la t ive r epor t s , a nd o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e po r t s t h e UGC s anc t ioned s ubs tan t ia l g r an t s t ot h e d epa r tmen t f o r a cqu is i t ion o f l a bo ra to ry e qu ipmen t , b ook s a nd j ou rna ls , t wo v eh ic les f o r f i e ld w o rk , a nd f o r f i e ld wo rk , p ub l ica t ion , a nd h i r ing o fs e c re ta r ia l s t af f . I t

t h e b a r rack s w er e m ean t t o b e t empo ra ry s t ruc tu res , t h ey s l ow ly s t a r ted d ecay ing a nd h ad t o b e p u l led d own a s t h ey b ecame u n saf e f o r l i v ing . A s ac on sequence mos t o ft h e c ampu s w a s s l ow ly r e duced t o emp ty a nd b a r r en r o cky l a nd . VNM s uccessfu l ly p e r suaded t h e S t a te F o res tD epa r tmen t t op l an t t r ees o ve r t h e e n t i re v acan t l a nd . T h i s h a s m ade t h e c ampu s g reen a nd b eau t ifu l , a nd h a s r e duced p o l lu t ion f r om t h e g row ing n umber o f v eh ic les wh ich u se t h e r oad p a s s ing t h rough t h e

a l so s anc t ioned t wo n ew p os t s o f l e c tu re r i n b ioa rchaeo logy a nd c ompu te r a r chaeo logy . Du r ing t h e I X th F ive Y ea r P lan t h e UGC p rov ided s ubs tan t ia l f und s t ot h e I n s t i tu te f o rt h e a cqu is i t ion o f l a bo ra to ry e qu ipm en t , b ook s a nd j ou rna ls , f o r e x ten s ion o f a r chaeo logy a nd l i b ra ry b u i ld ing s , r enova t ion o f o ld b u i ld ing s , c ompu ter iza t ion a nd n e two rk ing o ft h el i b ra ry , a nd p u rcha se o f ac a r .

c ampu s . T he t r ees a l so p rov ide f u e l w ood ( t h rough i l ega l f e l l ing ) t o p oo r i nma tes o f t h e c ampu s a s w e l l a s t o r e s iden t s o f c o lon ies i mm ed ia te ly o u t s ide t h e c ampu s . XXI I I . I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Qua ternary S tud ies ( I SPQS ) a nd Man a nd Env i ronmen t (ME ) T he I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( IAS ) w a s f ounded a t V a rana s i i n 1 966 a t t h e i n i t ia t ive o f P rof . A .K . N a ra in , a nd i t i mmed ia te ly s t a r ted h o ld ing i t s c onf e rence a nd p ub l ish ing i t s j ou rna l , P ura ta t t va , e ve ry y ea r . H oweve r , a f te r af ew y ea r s i tb ecam e c l ea r t h a t t h e I AS a nd P ura ta t t va , w i th t h e i r t h ru s t o n p ro toh i s to ry a nd e a r ly h i s tor ic a r chaeo logy , w e re u nab le t o d o j u s t ice t o p reh is tory wh ich w a s af a s t g row ing b ranch o f I nd ian a r chaeo logy . T heref o r e , i n1 975 S .P . G up ta , D .P . A g rawa l ( DP ) , VNM , S .C . Ma l ik a nd a f ew o the r c o l leagues e s tab l ished t h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Q ua terna ry S tud ies ( I SPQS ) t o p romo te r e sea rch i np reh is to ry , Q ua terna ry s t ud ies , h uman e vo lu t ion , a nd e thnoa r chaeo logy . I n i t ia l ly , t h e S oc ie ty 's o ff i ce w a s l o ca ted a t PRL , Ahmedabad , a nd DP w a s g ene ra l s e c re ta ry . T he o ff i ce w as s h if ted t o D eccan C o l lege , P une a f te r VNM b ecame g ene ra l s e cr e ta ry i n 1 981 . T he S oc ie ty s t a r ted h o ld ing i t s a nnua l c onf e rence j o in t ly w i th I AS f r om 1 976 , a nd b r ing ing o u t i t s own j our n a l , Man a nd E nv ironmen t , i n 1 977 w i th VNM a se d i to r . Du r ing 1 982 -84 ( Vo ls . V -V I I ) a nd 1 985 -88 ( Vo ls . V I I I -X I I ) DP a nd D .K . C hak raba r t i w e r e e d i to r , r e spec t ive ly . F rom 1 989 VNM h a s b een e d i to r . H e w a s a l so g ene ra l s e cre ta ry o ft h e S oc ie ty f r om 1 981 t o2 000 , b u t f o r ag ap o ft h ree y ea r s when S .N . R a jagu ru h e ld t h i s p os t . F rom 2 001 h eh a sb een c ha i rman o ft h e S oc ie ty .

( i v ) D eccan C o l lege Emergency R e l ief F und L ike a l l p ub l ic i n s t i tu t ion s i n I nd ia , D eccan C o l lege t oo h a s a l a rge s t reng th o f p eon s , w a tchmen , a nd o the r c a tego r ies o f emp loyees whose s a la r ies a r e l ow . Mos t o f t h em a r e h a rd ly a b le t o make a ny s av ing s , a nd i n s i tua t ion s o f i lness o r o t he r u nexpec ted p rob lem s , t h ey a r e f o rced t ob o r row money f r om t h e i r p rov iden t f und a nd s t af f w e lf a re a s soc ia t ion f und , b o th o f wh ich t h ey h ave t or e fund i ni n s ta l lmen t s . B es ides , o f ten t h ey h ave t o b o r row money f r om b ank s a nd money lender s a t h igh r a te s o f i n te r es t , a nd a l so f r om t h e i r b e t te r p a id c o l league s i n t h e C o l lege . VN M , who w a s a l so o f ten a pproached f o r l o an s a nd g ave t h em , w as c on t inua l ly t h ink ing o ff i nd ing s ome w ay t oh e lp t h ese p eop le . F ina l ly h e t hough t o f e s tab l ish ing a n eme rgency r e l ief f und t h rough c on t r ibu t ion s f r om t h e e mp loyees . F rom t h is f und n eedy emp loyees w i l l b e g iven a n on refundab le g ran t i n c a se o f eme rgenc ies l i ke s e r iou s i lness a nd d ea th . H e a ppea led t o t h e emp loyees a nd t h e r e spon se w a s g ood . O ve r t h e y ea r s h e lp h a s b een g i ven f r om t h e f und t o an umbe ro fp e r son s . ( i v ) A f f ore s ta t ion o ft he c ampus D eccan C o l lege h as al a rge c ampu s o f 1 25 a c r es . B e ing a s pec ia l ized r e sea r ch I n s t i tu te w i th s ma l l s t uden t a nd s t af fs t reng th s i ti su nab le t ou t i l ize a l l t h e l a nd . Du r ing Wo r ld Wa r I t h e c ampu s w a s t a k en o ve r b y t h e I nd ian A rmy f o r e s tab l ish ing a n o ff i ce r s t r a in ing s choo l a nd w a s i n A rmy 's p os sess ion f o r a bou t t e n y ea r s . Du r ing t h is p er iod t h e a rmy b u i l t al a rge n umbe r o f b a r rack s f o r i t s s t af f . T hese b a r rack s b ecame t h e p roper ty o f t h e I n s t i tu te a f t er t h e a rmy v aca ted t h e c ampu s i n 1 949 , a nd w e re u sed f o r h ou s ing i t s s t af f . B u t a s

D eve lop ing t h e S oc ie ty a nd i t sj our n a l h ave b een a m iss ion f o r VNM , a nd h e h a s d evo ted al o t o ft im e a nd e ne rgy f o r t h is p u rpose . A f te r h e t ook o ve r a s g ener a l s e c re ta ry , l i f e m embe r sh ip o f t h e S oc ie ty g r ew f a s t , a nd n ow s t and s a r ound 5 00 . I n 1 989 h e o b ta ined a g ran t o f 4 5 ,000 US $ f r om t h e F o rd

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V .N . M is r a b e ing f e l ic i ta ted a t t h e S o c ie t ie s c onf e r ence a t T i rupa t i2 003

F ounda t ion f o r m ak ing t h e j ou rna l b i annua l a nd i mp rov ing i t s e d i to r ia l a nd p r in t ing q ua l i ty . Man a nd E nv ironmen t i st h e o n ly r e f e r eed a r chaeo logy j ou rna l i n S ou th A s ia a nd r e ce iv e s c on t r ibu t ion s f r om l e ad ing a r chaeo log is t si nI nd ia a nd o u t s ide . I n r unn ing t h e S oc ie ty a nd t h e J ou rna l , VNM i s a s s is ted b yc ompe ten ts ma l lt e am s .

XX IV . VN M a s An thropo log i s t VNM c am et oa r chaeo logy f r om a n th ropo logy , a nd t h roughou t h i s a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch h e h a s r e ta ined h i s i n te re s ti na n th ropo logy , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e l i f eway s o ft h e r u r a l a nd t r iba l p eop le , a nd i n t h e f o rma t ion o fI nd ian s oc ie ty . H e f i rm ly b e l ieves t h a t t h e e x i s t ing I nd ian s oc ie ty h a s e vo lved n o t o n ly f r om i t s h i s to r ica l a n teceden t s b u t a l so f r om p r eh i s to r ic a nd p ro toh i s to r ic o ne s . I n h i s v i ew much o f t h e e no rmou s b i o log ica l , e conom ic , t e chno log ica l , m a te r ia l c u l tu re , s oc ia l , l i ngu i s t ic , a nd r e l ig iou s d i ve r s i ty s e en i nt h e c oun t ry c an b e s a t i sf ac to r i ly e xp la ined o n ly w i th t h e h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . H e a l so b e l ieve s t h a t a r chaeo logy c an b e m ean ingf u l o n ly i fi ti su sed t o u nde r s tand t h e p r e sen t s oc ie ty . F o rt h is r e a son , t h e a r chaeo log i s t s hou ld n o t o n ly b e f am i l ia r w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta b u t a l so w i th t h a t o ft h e l i v ing s oc ie ty . I ti sb ecau se o f t h is c onv ic t ion t h a t h e s pend s a c on s ide r ab le t im e i n c o l lec t ing i n f o rm a t ion a bou t t h e c u l tu r e o ft h e p eop le l i v ing i n t h e a r ea whe r e h e d oes a r chaeo log ica l f i e ld w o rk . O ne o f t h e mo s t f a vou r i te t op ic s o f h i s l e c tu r e si s' P reh i s to r ic r oo t so fI nd ian s oc ie ty ' .

V .N . M is ra w i th V .S . P a thak a nd o t he rd e lega t e sa tt h eS o c ie t ies c onf e r ence a tG o r akhpu r 1 995

VNM w a s i n s t rum en ta l i n e s tab l ish ing t h e H .D . S anka l ia Memo r ia l L ec tu r e a nd t h e H .D . S anka l ia Y oung A r chaeo log i s t Awa rd t h rough t h e S oc ie ty . O the r a wa rd s g i ven b y t h e S oc ie ty , w i th t h e e s tab l i sh ing o fw h ich h e w a s a s soc ia ted , a r e Ma l t i N aga r Awa rd f o r E thnoa r chaeo logy , a nd R .K . S ha rma Awa rd f o rE xce l lence i nA rchaeo logy . T he l a s t t wo a wa rd s h ave b een e s tab l ished f r om t h e d ona t ion s g iven b y t h e s cho la r s a f t e r w hom t h ey a r e n amed . T he S anka l ia Memo r ia l l e c tu re i s p ub l i shed i n ME i n t h e i s sue i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing t h e l e c tu r e . T he H .D . S anka l ia Y oung A r chaeo log i s t Awa rd a nd Ma l t i N aga r Awa rd f o r E thnoa r chaeo logy a r e g i ven f o r r e sea r ch p ape r s p r e sen ted a tt h e S oc ie ty 's c onf e rence a nd a d judged b e s tb yi n dependen tp ane l so fj udge s . T he S anka l ia Awa rd i sr e s t r ic ted t o s cho la r s b e low 3 5 y ea r s o f a ge , a nd t h e N aga r Awa rd c an a l so b e g i ven f o r p ub l i shed w o rk .

VNM g i ve s c r ed i t f o r h i s modes t a cadem ic a ch ievem en t s t o h i s t e ache r s a nd t o t h e D eccan C o l lege . Among t h e f o rm e r h e i s p a r t icu la r ly i n deb ted t of ou r : P and i t B rahm anand S ha s t r i , who e ncou r aged h im t o g o f o r c o l lege e duca t ion a nd h e lped h im g e t a dm i s s ion i n to D .A .V . C o l lege , K anpu r ; P rof . K .N . S ha rma , w ho a dv i sed h im t o s t udy a n th ropo logy a tM .A . ; D .N . Ma jumda r a nd H .D . S anka l ia , b o th o fw hom i n cu lca ted i nh im t h e s p i r i t o fh a rd w o rk a nd d ed ica t ion , a nd Ma jumda r a l so f o r a dv i s ing h im t od o r e sea r ch i np r eh i s to ry , wh ich b ecam e h i s l i f e l ong w o rk . S anka l ia , t h ough p hy s ica l ly f r a i l , w a s e x t r em e ly e n e rge t ic , i ndu s t r iou s a nd t o ta l ly d evo ted t oa r chaeo logy . H e w a s a l so e x t r em e ly s imp le , u na s sum ing , d i sc ip l ined a nd w e l l o rgan ized . B yh i s e xamp le , h e w a s ag r ea t s ou r ce o fi n sp i r a t ion t o VNM . A s b o th o ft h em w e r e l i v ing o nt h e c ampu s o ft h e I n s t i tu te , t h ey w e r e i n c on tac t w i th e ach o t he r e ven o n h o l iday s . D eccan C o l lege p rov ided VNM t h e b e s t f a c i l i t ies f o r r e sea rch a va i lab le i n a ny i n s t i tu t ion o f h uman i t ie s a nd s oc ia l s c ience s i n I nd ia : aw e l l e qu ipped a nd w e l l -managed l i b ra ry , f und s f o r r e sea r ch , q ua l if i ed t e chn ica l s t af f , f r eedom t o c hoo se t h e s ub jec t , g eog raph ica l a r ea a nd t im e o f

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o n e 's r e sea r ch p ro jec t s , a c ondu c ive r e sea r ch e nv i ronm en t w i th m any c ompe t en t a nd d ed ica ted c o l leagu e s a nd s t ud en t s , a nd ap l a ce w h e r e l e ad ing s cho la r s f r om a l o v e r t h e w o r ld w e r e r egu la r v i s i to r s a nd d e l iv e r ed l e c tu r e s . H e c on s id e r s h im se lf v e ry f o r tuna t e t h a t m any l e ad ing a r chaeo log i s t s , b o th f r om I nd ia a nd o u t s id e , h av e v i s i t ed h i s h om e . H e i sp a r t icu la r ly h appy t h a t h e h ad S .N .R a jagu ru a sh i sc o l leagu ei nt h eR a ja s than a nd N a rm ada v a l ley p r o jec t s . R a jagu ru i st o ta l ly d evo ted t oh i s w o rk , e x t r em e ly i n du s t r iou s , h on e s t a nd u na s sum ing . VNM l e a rn t al o t o fQ ua te rn a ry g eo logy f r om h im . H e i sa l so h appy t h a t h e g o t a n umbe r o f b r igh t , h on e s t a nd h a rd w o rk ing s t ud en t s f o r d o ing d oc to r a l r e sea r ch u nde r h i s s upe rv i s ion . Mo s to ft h em g o tj ob s i na r cha eo logy . O n e h a s r e t i r ed a s ap rof e s so r , f i v e a r e w o rk ing a s p rof e s so r s a nd s e ve r a l o t h e r s i n o t h e r p o s i t ion s , i n c lud ing t h r e e a tt h e D eccan C o l leg e . VNM i s a l so h appy t h a t h e h a s g o t an umbe r o fl o ya l a nd c a r ing f r iend s , n o tab le a mong w hom a r e V i shwa Mohan a nd P .K . T ewa r ia tL u cknow , S . P . G up ta a t D e lh i , D .P . A g rawa l a tA hm edabad , l a t e K .T .M . H egd e a tB a roda , a nd S .C . G up te a tP un e . P rof . G up te a sC ha i rm an o ft h e C oun c i l o f Managem en t o fD eccan C o l leg e a nd a sP r e s id en to ft h eD eem ed U n ive r s i ty , e x t end ed u nqua l if i ed s uppo r t t o VNM i ns ev e r a l c r i s e s h e h ad t of a ce a sD i r ec to r o ft h e I n s t i tu t e . VNM i si n d eb t ed t o al a rg e n umbe r o f m embe r so ft h e a r cha eo log ica la nd a n th ropo log ica l c ommun i t ie s —e l d e r s , c on tempo r a r ie sa nd j un io r sw ho h ave g i ven h im t r em endou s a f f ec t ion . F ina l ly , h e f e e l s e x t r em e ly g r a tef u l t o h i s w if e w ho h a s t a k en c a r e o ft h e h om e , l e av ing h im f r ee t op u r su e h i s r e sea r ch , a nd c h ee r f u l ly e ndu r ed l o ng p e r iod s o f s e pa ra t ion w h i le h e w a s a way o n f i e ld w o rk , f e l low sh ip s , c onf e r en ce s , a nd o t h e r a c ad em ic a s s ignm en t s .

A sk ed i fh e h a s a ny r e g r e t s , a nd i fh e w a s g i v en a c han ce , w ou ld h e d ot h ing s d i f f e r en t ly , VNM s a y s t h a t h i s m a in r e g r e t i st h a t h e d evo t ed t o o m u ch t im e t o f i e ld w o rk , a nd a c c ep t ed m embe r sh ip o f t o o m any c omm i t t ee s . T h i s l e f t h im i n ad equ a t e t im e f o r a na ly s i s o fd a ta , w r i t ing a nd p ub l ica t ion . H i s a dv ice t oy ounge r s cho la r s i s : d on ' t t a k e u p a s e cond p ro jec t u n t i l y ou h av e c omp le t e ly f i n i sh ed t h e f i r s t o n e , a nd t r y t o r e s i s t t h e t emp ta t ion o f m embe r sh ip o ft o om any c omm i t t ee s . XXV . VN M a s aHuman B e ing B y t empe r am en t VNM i ss imp le , u na s sum ing a nd i n f o rm a l , a nd l e a s t c on sc iou s o fh i s a cad em ic o r a dm in i s t ra t ive s t a tu s . O n h i s l e t t e rh ead o rv i s i t ing c a rd h eh a sn eve ru sed D r . o rP rof .b ef o r eh i sn am e o r a c ad em ic d eg r ee s a f t e r i t . A s h ead o f t h e d epa r tm en t o f a r ch aeo logy a nd d i r ec to r o f t h e I n s t i tu t e , h e w a s e a s i ly a c ce s s ib l e t o e ve ry b ody w ho w an t ed t o s e e h im — b e i t as t ud en t , l ow e r c l a s s e mp loy ee o r a ny v i s i to r . H e w ou ld o f f e r a c h a i r t o e v e ry p e r son w ho w en t t o s e e h im , a nd h a t ed t ok eep p eop le s t and ing , a si sc ommon w i th a dm in i s t r a to r s i n I nd ia . H e w ou ld a l so o f f e r t e a / cof f ee t oe ve ry v i s i to r a nd b y g i v ing c ompany t ot h em e nd ed u p d r ink ing s e v e r a l c up s e ve ry d ay . H i s h om e h a s b een a s w e lcom e ap l a ce a s h i s o ff i ce ,a nd s t ud en t sa nd s t af fm embe r sw e r ef r ee t o v i s i t h im a ta ny h ou r e ven o nh o l iday s . E ven a f t e r h i s r e t i r em en t q u i t e af ew s t uden t s a nd c o l leagu e s c on t inu e t ov i s i t h im . A s D eccan C o l lege d i d n o t h av e ag u e s t h ou se , h i s h om e s e rv ed a s ag u e s t h ou s e f o r m any v i s i to r s t ot h e C o l l eg e . H e w ou ld f r ee ly m ix w i th s t ud en t s a nd e mp loyee s i re spec t ive o f t h e i r s t a tu s , p a r t i cu la r ly d u r ing f e s t iva l sl i k eH o l ia nd i mm e r s ion o fG an e sh i d o l s . VNM i sa lway s p o l i t e a nd r e spec tf u l t oo t h e r s , i n p a r t icu la rt ot h o se l e s s p r iv i leged t h an h im , a nd i s v e ry c on sc iou s o f n o t h u r t ing t h e f e e l ing s o f a nybody . H e i sp a r t icu la r ly r e spec tf u l t o w om en , i re sp ec t iv e o f t h e i r a g e o r s t a tu s . H e h a s d eep r e spec t f o rh i s t e ach e r s , e l d e r s a nd f o rp eop le w ho h ave h e lped h im i ns om ew ay o rt h eo t h e r . H ef e e l s m o s th appy i nt h ec ompany o fs imp le a nd i n nocen t p eop l e l i k e t h e w o rk e r s i n h i s e xcava t ion s a nd i n f o rm an t s i n e t hnog r aph ic e nqu i r ie s . VNM a l so d e r iv e sh app in e s sb yb e ing a b le t oh e lp o t h e r s , a nd h a s h e lped m any n eedy p eop le b y l e nd ing t h em m oney , s t ud en t s i ng e t t ing f e l low sh ip s a nd g r an t s , a nd c o l leagu e s i ng e t t ing f und ing f o r c onf e r en ce s , e t c . I nr e tu rn , h e h a s r e ce iv ed p l en ty o fk i ndn e s s , h e lp a nd h o sp i ta l i ty f r om n um e rou s s t ud en t s a nd p rof e s s iona l c o l leag u e s a l o ve r t h e c oun t ry a nd

P r inc ipa l N .D . N aga rwa la , af o rme r s t uden t o f t h e p r e 1934 D eccan C o l lege ,f e l ic i ta t ing V .N .M i s r a 1 995

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1 0 .

o u t s ide , a nd h e g r ea t ly c he r i she s t h e c on s ide ra t ion s hown t oh im b ys om any p eop le .

1 . B e ing b o rn i n av i l lage o nt h eb ank o f al a rge r i ve r , R amganga , VNM l e a rn t s w imm ing a t av e ry e a r ly a ge , a nd i sv e ry f ond o fi t .I nf a c t , i fh e s e e s ar i ve r o r l a ke , h e c an ' t r e s i s t j ump ing i n to i t . When h e w a s d i gg ing a tS amnapu r i nt h e l a te 1 980 s , h e h ad t oc r o s s t h e N a rmada t w ice e ve ry d ay b y b oa t . I n t h e e ven ing wh i le r e tu rn ing t o h i s c amp h e w i l l i n va r iab ly s w im i nt h er i ve r . H e h a s a l so b een f ond o fw a lk ing . U p t oa lmo s t t h e a ge o fs i x ty y ea r s h e u sed t op l ay b adm in ton e ve ry d ay . I nh i s y ou th h e w a s a l so f ond o f p l ay ing c hes s . Unf o r tuna te ly , f r om 2 004 h e i sn o t k eep ing g ood h ea l th b ecau se o f t h e p ro s ta te p rob lem , a nd t h i s h a s s eve r e ly r e s t r ic ted h i s movem en t . B u ts t i l lh e s p end sa tl e a s t t e n h ou r s e ve ry d ay i nr e ad ing a nd w r i t ing , a nd i n a n swe r ing e -ma i l sa nd l e t te r s .

1 2 .

1 3 .

V i s i t ing P rof es so r sh ip i n A n th ropo logy , N o r th E a s ter nH i l l Un ive r s i ty , S h i l long , 1 985 N a t iona l F e l low sh ip , I nd ian C ounc i l o f H i s to r ica lR e sea r ch ,N ew D e lh i , 2 000 -2003 D .N . Ma jumda r Meda l f o r F i e ld Wo rk i n A n th ropo logy , I nd ian S oc ia l S c ience A s soc ia t ion ,2 002 Em er i tu s F e l low sh ip , U n ive r s i ty G ran t s C omm i s s ion ,N ew D e lh i , 2 003 -2005

B . S pec ia lL ec ture sd e l ivered VNM h a s d e l ive r ed i nv i ted l e c tu r e s i na r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy i n m any I nd ian a nd f o re ign u n ive r s i t ie s . I na dd i t ion , h eh a sd e l ive r ed f o l low ing s pec ia lo cca s ion l e c tu r es . 1 . Madho j i S c ind ia Memo r ia lL ec tu r e , S choo l o f Anc ien t I nd ian H i s to ry , C u l tu r e & A r chaeo logy , J iwa j i Un ive r s i ty , Gwa l io r , Novembe r 1 978 2 . D r . K .S . Ma thu r Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty , L ucknow ,D ecembe r 1 978 3 . P rof . D . S en . Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , I nd ian A n th ropo log ica l S oc ie ty , C a lcu t ta ,J u ly 1 987 4 . P rof . R a jaba l i P andey Memo r ia l L ec tu re , D epa r tm en t o f A nc ien t I nd ian H i s to ry , C u l tu r e & A r chaeo logy , R an i D u rgawa t i V i shwav idya laya , Ma r ch 1 988 5 . Mahamahopadhyaya G ou r i shanka rH i rachand O jha Memo r ia l l e c tu r e s , R a ja s than V idyapee th , U da ipu r , O c tobe r 1 989 6 . D r . V . S . Wakanka r Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , R ock A r tS oc ie ty o fI nd ia ,A g ra , O c tobe r 1 992 7 . F ounda t ion D ay Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , Wad ia I n s t i tu te o f H ima layan G eo logy , D eh radun , J une 1 996 8 . P rof . M . R . S ahn i Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , P a laeon to log ica l S oc ie ty o f I nd ia , L ucknow , O c tobe r 1 996 9 . Z amo ra E ndowm en t L ec tu r e , D epa r tm en t o f An th ropo logy , K a rna taka Un ive r s i ty , D aharwad , Ma r ch 1 998 1 0 . G o lden J ub i lee L ec tu r e , E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty ,L ucknow , A p r i l 1 998 1 . S i r R . G . B handa rka r Memo r ia l L ec tu re , B handa rka rO r ien ta l R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te , P une , Augu s t 1 998 1 2 . UGC E x ten s ion l e c tu r e s , D epa r tm en t o f Anc ien t I nd ian H i s to ry , C u l tu re & A rchaeo logy , B ana ra s H indu Un ive r s i ty , V a rana s i ,J anua ry 2 001 1 3 . UGC E x ten s ion l e c tu r e s , D epa r tm en t o f A n th ropo logy , P t . R .S . S huk la U n ive r s i ty , R a ipu r ,D ecembe r2 00 1

l k

V .N . M i s ra i nh i ss t udy a th om e2 00 1

APPEND ICES A . S cho lar sh ips ,F e l low sh ip s ,P r ize s ,e t c . 1 . S cho la r sh ip , G ove rnm en t S an sk r i t C o l lege , B ana ra s , 1 954 -56 2 . B u r sa ry S cho la r sh ip , L ucknow Un ive r s i ty , 1 955 -57 3 . P and i t J agpa l K r i shna G o ld Meda l , L ucknow Un ive r s i ty , 1 957 , f o rs t and ing f i r s ti no rde ro f m e r i ti nM .A . e xam ina t ion i nA n th ropo logy 4 . UGC J un io rR e sea rch F e l low sh ip , 1 958 -61 5 . H o rn iB habha F e l low sh ip , 1 970 -71 6 . L eve rhu lm e V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip , Au s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty , C anbe r ra , A u s t ra l ia , 1 977 7 . S en io r F u lb r igh t F e l low sh ip , Un ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia ,B e rk e ley ,U SA , 1 984 8 . C o r r e spond ing Membe r , I s t i tu to I t a l iano p e r i lMed io e dE s t remo O r ien te ( I s ME0 ) ,R om e , I t a ly , 1 994 9 . V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip i n A r chaeo logy , A l lahabad U n ive r s i ty , 1 981 a nd 1 988

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1 9 .

C . L is to fP h .D . s t uden t s F o l low ing s t uden t s h ave c a r r ied o u t t h e i r P h .D . r e sea rch u nde rt h e s upe rv is ion o f VNM 1 . 1 968 . V . R am i R eddy . P re a nd P ro toh is tory o fS ou thwes ter n Andh ra P radesh . 2 . 1 972 . Ms . K a ty N . F renchman . P reh i s tor ic

3 .

4 . 5 .

6 .

7 .

8 . 9 .

1 0 . 1 .

1 2 .

1 3 . 1 4 .

1 5 .

1 6 .

1 7 .

1 8 .

2 0 .

2 1 .

P o t tery I ndu s t r ies a l ong t h e " Los t" S a ra swa t i R ive ro ft h eG rea tI nd ian D eser t . 1 977 . P .K . T homa s . A rchaeozoo log ica l A spec t s o f t h e P reh is to r ic C u l tu res o f Wes ter nI nd ia . 1 978 . Y a shodha r Ma thpa l . P reh is tor ic R ock P a in t ing so fB h imbe tka C en t ra lI nd ia . 1 982 . D .R . R a ju . E a r ly S e t t lemen t P a t te r n s i n C uddapah D is t r ic t , Andh ra P rade sh : A P a laeoan th ropo log ica l S tudy . 1 982 . Makkhan L a l . E a r ly Human C o lon iza t ion P a t te r n s i n t h e G anga -Yamuna D oab ( w i th s pec ia l r e f e rence t o K anpu r D i s t r ic t ) . 1 983 . J acob S . J aya ra j . E a r ly Hun te r g a the rer s Adap ta t ion s i nt h e T i rupa t i V a l ley , S ou th I nd ia . 1 984 . S .C . N anda . S tone Age C u l tu res o f I nd rava t iB a s in Ko rapu tD is t r ic t , O r issa . 1 984 . Z ar ine C ooper . P reh i s to r ic H ab i ta t ion P a t ter n s a r ound C h i t rako t F a l ls , B a s ta r D is t r ic t , Madhya P radesh . 1 988 . V i jay S ingh . R ock P a in t ing s o f S aga r R eg ion , Madhya P radesh . 1 990 . Md . S haf iqu l A lam . A Mo rphome t r ic S tudy o f P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ies o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia . 1 993 . M .M . H ogue . P re a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t ter n s o ft h e M idd le a nd L ower G anga V a l ley . 1 994 . J . S . Kha rakwa l . A rchaeo log ica l E xp lo ra t ion i nt h e Kumaon H ima laya . 1 998 . B ishnup r iya B a sak . P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t ter n s o f t h e T a raf en i V a l ley , M idnapore D is t r ic t , Wes tB enga l . 1 998 . S un i l G up ta . R oman E gyp t t o P en in su la r I nd ia : A rchaeo log ica l P a t ter n s o f T rade i s t C en tu ry B .C . t o 3rd C en tu ry A .D . 1 999 . S hah S uf i Mos taf izu r R ahman . A rchaeo log ica l I nves t iga t ion i n B og ra D is t r ic t , B ang ladesh ( f rom E a r ly H i s tor ic t o E a r ly Med ieva lP er iod ) . 1 999 . Ma la Ma iya Ma l la . A s t udy o f t h e N epa lese B ronzes f r om Anc ien t t o Med iaeva l P er iod s . 1 999 . B .S . H a r ishanka r . P reh is tory a nd E a r ly H i s tory o f S ou th K e ra la w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t oK o l lam .

2 2 .

2 3 .

2 4 .

2 5 .

2 000 . Anup M ish ra . C ha lco l i th ic C e ram ics a t B a la tha l , D is t r ic t Uda ipu r , R a ja s than . 2 001 . B a la ram T r iap thy . A rchaeo logy o f B oudh d i s t r ic t , O r is sa w i th S pec ia l R ef erence t ot h eE a r ly H is to r ic S e t t lemen tP a t ter n . 2 001 . S hah ida An sa r i . P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t ter n o f S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley : An E thnoa rchaeo log ica lP e r spec t ive . 2 001 . Ku ru sh F e roze D a la l . ' Ea r ly H is tor ica l S e t t lemen t o f S ou ther n R a ja s than ( Mewa r ) w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t o B a la tha l : An A r tef ac tua lA pp roach ' . 2 001 . Abh i j i t D andeka r . ' Ea r ly H i s to r ic C e ram ics o f Mewa rw i th S pec ia lR ef e r ence t o B a la tha l , D is t r ic t Uda ipu r , R a ja s than ' . 2 003 . T ama P anda . E vo lu t ion o fs oc ie ty a nd C u l tu re o f O r is sa , b a sed o n aS yn thes is o f A rchaeo log ica l , H is to r ica l , L l ingu is t ic a nd An th ropo log ica ld a ta . 2 005 . Kuma r Akh i lesh . AR e -exam ina t ion o f t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in I ndu s t r ies ' , B an s lo iR ive rB a s in , J ha rkhand .

V .N . M is r a w i th t h e e d i to ro ft h e v o lum e ( t o h i s l e f t ) a nd t h r ee g ene r a t ion s o f h i s s t uden t s , P .K . T homa s , P .P . J og leka r a nd D av id T e t so ( t oh i sr i gh t ) .

D .A s soc ia t ion w i th a cadem ic s oc ie t ie s VNM h as b een l i f e m embe r o f t h e f o l low ing a cadem ic s oc ie t ies : 1 . E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk c u l tu re s oc ie ty , L ucknow 2 . I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ,N ew D e lh i 3 . I nd ian An th ropo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion , N ew D e lh i 4 . I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic & Q ua ter n a ry S tud ies , P une 5 . R ock A r t S oc ie ty o fI nd ia ,A g ra 6 . S oc ie te P reh is to r ique F ranca ise , P a r is 7 . C u r ren t An th ropo logy , C h icago

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E .A ssoc ia t ion w i th j ourna ls ( a )E d i to r Man a nd E nv ironmen t , J our n a l o f t h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ies , P une ( 1977 ) .

1 0 . 1 . 1 2 .

( b )C o -Ed i to r T he E as tern A n thropo log i s t , J ou rna l o f t h e E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty , L ucknow ( 1981-86 ) .

1 3 .

1 4 . ( c ) Membe r , E d i to r ia l Adv iso ry B oa rd 1 . J ourna l o ft h e S ara t C hand ra R oy I n s t i tu te , R anc lü . 2 . T he A n thropo log i s t , J ou rna l o f t h e I nd ian An th ropo log ica lA ssoc ia t ion , D e lh i . 3 . T he E as tern A n thropo log i s t , J ou rna l o f t h e E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty , L ucknow . 4 . Manav ( H ind i ) , J ou rna l o ft h e E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty ,L ucknow . 5 . L' A n thropo log ie ,P a r is . 6 . J ourna lo fW or ld P reh i s tory , N ew Y o rk . 7 . T he Ho locene , C a rd if f ,U .K . 8 . A s ian P er spec t ive s ,H awa i i , USA . 9 . G eoar chaeo logy ,W i ley , USA . F . 1 . 2 .

3 . 4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

8 . 9 .

1 5 .

1 6 .

1 7 .

1 8 .

1 9 .

P ar t ic ipa t ion i n ma jor i n terna t iona l c onf erence s ,S ympos ia ,e t c . S econd C onf e rence o n A s ian A rchaeo logy , C o lombo , S r iL anka , Augu s t 1 969 . E igh th C ong res s o ft h eF a rE a s ter nP reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , C anbe r ra , Au s t ra l ia , J anua ry 1 971 S ympo s ium o n R ad ioca rbon a nd I nd ian a r chaeo logy ,T IFR , Mumba i , Ma rch 1 972 . N in th C ong res s o f t h e An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences , C h icago , Augu s t S ep tembe r 1 973 . N in th C ong ress o ft h e I n ter n a t iona l Un ion o f P reh is to r ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c iences , N ice , F rance , S ep tembe r 1 977 . T he Au s t ra l ian Mu seum , S ydney , 1 50 t h Ann ive r sa ry s ympo s ium , S ydney , Au s t ra l ia , Augu s t 1 977 . F or ty -e igh th C ong re s s o f t h e Au s t ra l ia a nd N ew Z ea land A s soc ia t ion f o r t h e Advancemen t o f S c ience , Me lbour n e , Au s t ra l ia , S ep tembe r 1 977 . S ympos ium o n C on serva t ion o f R ock A r t , P er th , Au s t ra l ia , S ep tembe r 1 977 . T en th C ong res s o f t h e An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences ,N ew D e lh i , D ecember 1 978 .

2 0 .

2 1 .

2 2 .

2 3 .

2 4 .

2 5 .

2 6 .

F i r s t C ong re ss o ft h e I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , P une ,D ecembe r 1 978 . F i r s t C ong res s o f Human P a laeon to logy , N ice ,F rance , O c tobe r 1 982 . I ndo -Sov ie t J o in t S em ina r o n C oppe r -Bronze Age C u l tu res o f I nd ia a nd C en t ra l A s ia , A l lahabad Un ive r s i ty , F ebrua ry 1 982 . E leven th C ong r es s o f t h e An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences , Quebec a nd V ancouve r , C anada , 1 983 . I ndo -U .S . S ympo s ium o n P rob lem s o f t h e A r id Z one , CAZR I , J odhpu r , J anua ry 1 985 . Twe lf th C ong ress o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P reh i s tory A s soc ia t ion , P enab lanca , T he P h i l ipp ines , J anua ry -Februa ry 1 985 . E igh th C ong res s o ft h e E u ropean A s soc ia t ion o f S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log i s t s , A a rhu s , D enma rk ,J u ly 1 985 . S ympos ium o n P a laeoc l ima te , P hy s ica l R esea rch L abo ra to ry ( PRL ) , Ahm edabad , D ecembe r 1 986 . T he L onges t R eco rd : Human C a ree r i n A f r ica . C onf e r ence i n Honou r o fJ .D . C la rk , Un ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia , B e rke ley , A pr i l 1 986 . C onf e rence o n O ld P rob lem s a nd N ew P er spec t ives o n t h e A rchaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia , Un ive r s i ty o f W iscon s in - Mad ison , USA , Novembe r 1 986 . T h ir teen th C ong res s o f t h e I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , J apanese S oc ie ty f o r O cean ic S tud ies , a nd N a t iona l Mu seum o f E thno logy , O saka a nd T okyo , S ep tembe r 1 987 . S em ina r o n N ew A rchaeo logy a nd I nd ia , I nd ian C ounc i l o f H is to r ica l R esea rch , N ew D e lh i , O c tobe r 1 988 . S em ina r o n E nv i ronm en ta l C hange a nd Human R e spon se : T he F i r s t Two M i l l ion Y ea r s , D eccan C o l lege , P une , D ecember 1 990 S em ina r o n T owa rd s t h e S econd C en tu ry o f A rchaeo logy i n S r i L anka , C o lombo , J u ly 1 990 . F ou r teen th C ong ress o f t h e I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , Yogyakar ta , I ndones ia , Augu s t -Sep tembe r 1 990 . S ympos ium o n t h e E thnoa rchaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia , C ambr idge , U .K . , S ep tember 1 991 . S ympos ium o n t h e 5 0 t h Ann iver sa ry o f t h e L ubbock L ake L andma rk , L ubbock , T exa s , USA ,O c tobe r 1 992 .

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2 7 .

2 8 . 2 9 . 3 0 .

3 1 .

3 2 .

3 3 .

3 4 .

Twe lf th C onf erence o f t h e A ssoc ia t ion o f

6 .

S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log is t s , Un ive r s i ty o f H e ls ink i ,F in land , J u ly 1 993 . Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l C ong res s - 3 , N ew D e lh i , D ecembe r 1 994 . S econd C ong ress o ft h e K .R . K ama I n s t i tu te , B ombay , J anua ry 1 995 . T h ir teen th C ong ress o f t h e E u ropean A ssoc ia t ion o f S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log is t s , C ambr idge ,U .K . , J u ly 1 995 . T h i r teen th C ong res s o f t h e I n ter na t iona l Un ion o f P reh is tor ic a nd P ro toh i s to r ic S c iences , F o r l i , I t a ly , S ep tembe r 1 996 . Dua l C ong ress o ft h e I n ter n a t iona l Un ion f o r t h e S tudy o fP a laeon to logy a nd I n ter n a t iona l Un ion o f Human B io log i s t s , S un C i ty , S ou th A f r ica , J une -Ju ly 1 998 . F if teen th C ong res s o f t h e E u ropean A ssoc ia t ion o f S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log is t s , L e iden , T he N e ther land s , J u ly 1 999 . S even teen th C ong ress o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is tory A ssoc ia t ion , T a ipe i , T a iwan , S ep tember 2 002 .

7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 .

1 3 .

1 4 .

G . S ome o ther p os i t ions o fr e spons ib i l ity h e ld 1 . Membe r o f t h e c omm i t tee wh ich d i d t h e i n i t ia l p l ann ing o f t h e N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man ( now I nd i ra G andh i R a sh t r iya Manav S ang raha laya ) , B hopa l , i n 1 976 , a nd l a te r o f i t s S am i t i a nd e xecu t ive c omm i t tee . VN M w as a s soc ia ted w i th t h e Mu seum i n o ne c apac i ty o ro t he rf o ra bou t2 5 y ea r s . 2 . Membe r , UGC P ane lo n An th ropo logy ( 1980 3 . 4 .

5 .

1 5 .

8 3 , 1 985 -88 ) . Membe r , UGC P ane l o n H is to ry a nd A rchaeo logy ( 1990 -92 ) . Membe r , E xecu t ive C omm i t tee ( 1976 -80 ) , V ice -P res iden t ( 1981-84 ) a nd P res iden t ( 1985 -88 ) , I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion . Member , Adv i so ry C omm i t tee , An th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ( 1976 -80 ) .

1 6 .

1 7 . 1 8 .

3 0

P res iden t , An th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy s e c t ion , I nd ian S c ience C ong ress , B anga lo re , 1 987 . Member , I nd ian C ounc i l o f H is tor ica l R esea rch ( 1991-97 ) . Membe r , S t and ing C omm i t tee , A s soc ia t ion o f I nd ian Un ive r s i t ies , ( 1997 -99 ) . Member , C en t ra l Adv i so ry B oa rd o f A rchaeo logy ( 1998 -2002 ) . Membe r , S c ien t if ic Adv iso ry C omm i t tee , D ep t . o fC u l tu re , G ov t . o fI nd ia ( 1999 -2002 ) . Membe r , C en t ra l S an sk r i t B oa rd ( 1999 2 002 ) . Member , A cadem ic C ounc i l , P une Un ive r s i ty , M .S . Un ive r s i ty o f B a roda , B ana ra s H indu Un iver s i ty , a nd Un ive r s i ty o f T r ivand rum . Member , B oa rd o f Managemen t( 1998 -2002 ) , a nd V ice -P r es iden t ( 2004 ) , I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty . Member , UGC R ev iew C omm i t tee , S pec ia l A ss i s tance P rog ramm e , D epa r tm en t o f H is to ry , M .S . Un ive r s i ty o f B a roda ( 1996 9 1) , D ep t . o fA IHC & A rchaeo logy , B ana ra s H indu Un ive r s i ty , A l lahabad Un ive r s i ty , a nd HNB Un ive r s i ty , S r inaga r ( Ga rhwa l ) ( 2002 0 4 ) . Membe r , UGC Adv iso ry C omm i t tee , S pec ia l A ss is tance P rog ramme , D ep t . o f A IHC & A r chaeo logy , HNB Un ive r s i ty , S r inaga r ( Ga rhwa l ) ( 2002 -04 ) , M .S . Un ive r s i ty o f B a roda ( 2002 -04 ) , D epa r tmen t o f H i s to ry , S amba lpu r Un ive r s i ty ( 1999 -2002 ) . Membe r , B oa rd o f Managem en t , N a t iona l Mu seum I n s t i tu te ( Deemed Un ive r s i ty ) , N ew D e lh i( 2002 -04 ) . Membe r , I nd ian I n s t i tu te o f Advanced S tudy S oc ie ty , S im la ( 2002 -04 ) . C onvene r , UGC X P lan V i s i t ing C omm i t tee , V idya saga r Un ive r s i ty , M idnapo re a nd Maha r sh i D ayanand S a ra swa t i Un ive r s i ty , A jm e r .

Anno ta ted B ib l iography o fP rof .V .N .M i sra 's R e search P ub l ica t ion s( 1962 -2005 ) P .P . J og leka r B ackground P rof e s so r V .N . M i s r a b egan h i s a cadem ic c a r ee r n ea r ly h a lf ac en tu ry a go . T hough i n i t ia l ly t r a ined i nS an sk r i ta nd A n th ropo logy , h eh a s d evo ted mo s t o f h i s c a r ee r t o t h e s t udy o f p r eh i s to ry , p ro toh i s to ry , t r iba l e t hnog raphy , a nd e vo lu t ion o f I nd ian s oc ie ty . B es ide s h i s i n d iv idua l w r i t ing s , h e h a s c o l labo ra ted w i th an umbe r o fh i s c o l league s a nd s t uden t s t o w r i te s eve ra l h und r ed p age s i n E ng l i sh a nd H ind i . T hese i n c lude b ook s , e d i ted v o lum e s , r e sea r ch a r t ic le s , s ho r t n o tes , p opu la r a r t ic le s , b ook r e v iew s , r em in i scence s , a nd o b i tua r ie s . H oweve r , t h i s a nno ta ted b i b l iog raphy i s l im i ted t o o n ly t h e r e sea rch a r t ic le s i nE ng l i sh . A l i s t o f a l o t he r p ub l ica t ion s h a s b een g iven i n S ec t ion I I .

j un io r t o c ommen t o n h i s p e r sona l i ty . I n f a c t , h e b egan h i s c a ree r b ef o re Iw a s b o rn . Iw ou ld o n ly d a re t ov oca l i se wha t Ig a ined f r om h im . A l l t h e se y ea r s I f ound h im t o b e e ncou rag ing a nd s uppor t ive , y e t u ncomp rom i s ing o n i s sues o f c o r r ec tne s s a nd p r ec is ion w r i t ing . T h i s w o rk i sa n a t temp tt ot h ank h im f o ra l lt h a t . S eve ra l o f P rof . M i s ra 's s t uden t s a nd c o l leagues h e lped m e i n t h i s t a sk o f c o l lec t ion , r e ad ing a nd a nno ta t ion . Ia m g r a tef u l t o D r s . S .N . R a jagu ru , P .K . T homa s , S he i la M i sh ra , A .K . K anungo , a nd S .G . D eo . A lso P rof . D .P . A g rawa l a nd D r . J . S . K ha rakwa l h e lped m e i n p rocu r ing a c oup le o f p ho tocop ies f r om t h e i r c o l lec t ion s . It h ank t h em b o th .

I nt h is a nno ta ted b i b l iog raphy e ach a r t ic le h a sb een g i ven as e r ia ln umbe rb a sed o nt h en am eo ft h ef i r s t a u tho r i n c a se o f mu l t i -au tho r a r t ic le s . E xcep t a f ew , mo s t o ft h e a nno ta t ion s a r e b e tween 1 50 -300 w o rd s . H oweve r , t h e s i ze o f t h e a nno ta t ion d oes n o t r ef lec t t h e s i ze o f t h e o r ig ina l a r t ic le . T h e o r ig ina lw o rd sa nd t e rm su sed b yP rof . M i s ra o rh i s c o -au tho r s h ave b een r e ta ined c omp le te ly , y e t t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s en tences f o r t h e p u rpo se o f c ompac t ing t h ec on ten ti sn ew .

S ECT ION I S ummary o fa r t ic le s V -00 1 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 962a . P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t ry o f t h e B ana s , E a s ter n R a jpu tana , J our na l o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB ombay 3 4 -35 : 1 38 -160 . T he m idd le r e aches o fr i ve rB ana s ( Ham i rga rh a nd T onk ) , i n E a s ter n R a jpu tana ( Ra ja s than ) w e re e xp lo r ed b e tween 1 958 a nd 1 961 .N ine P a laeo l i th ic s i te s w e r e f ound : H am i rga rh , S arupgan j , Mandp ia , B igod , J aha jpu r , D eo l i , B an tha l i , Mahuwa a nd T onk . B e s ide s t h e se , a t N a thdwa r a a s i ng le h andaxe l ike t r iangu la r p ebb le t oo l w a s f ound . No f o s s i l s w e re e ncoun te red d u r ing t h e e xp lo ra t ion . T he a r t ic le d i scu s ses t h e s t r a t ig raph ic c on tex t s , a nd t h e r aw m a te r ia lu sed f o rm ak ing t h e t o o l s . N ine ty s i x t oo l s w e r e c o l lec ted o f w h ich 2 7 w e r e r e cove r ed i n s i tu . T he c o l lec t ion c on ta ined c hoppe r s a nd s c r ape r s m ade f r om p ebb le s a nd f l ake s ( 3 3 ) ,h andaxes ( 3 5 ) , c l eave r s( 7 ) , f l ak es ( 12 ) , a nd c o r es ( 9 ) . Twe lve p ebb le c hoppe r / sc rape r s h ave b een d esc r ibed a l ong w i th t h e m ea su r em en t s a nd i lu s t ra ted . S im i la r ly , s eve ra l o t he r t o o l t y pe s a r e a l so d e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . E xcep t o ne , a l l t oo l s a r em ade o fm ed ium t of i ne -g r a ined q ua r tz i te . H eavy s t one h amm e r t e chn ique w a s u sed t om ak e mo s t o f t h e f l ake s a nd a f ew h andaxes o f c r ude v a r ie ty . L igh ts t one h amm e rt e chn iqu ew a sp e rhap s e mp loyed t o p roduce p ebb le t o o l s , mo s t o f t h e h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . A s ma l l n umbe r o f h andaxe s e xh ib i t s of tf l ak e s c a r s w he r e f l ake sw e re r emoved b y t h e " cy l inde r h amm e r t e chn ique " a s

A l though I h ave l e a rn t af ew s k i l l s f r om P rof . M i s ra , Ia m n o t h i s f o rm a l p up i l . Ia m s t uden t o f h i s s t uden t , D r . P .K . T hom a s . T he re a r e t wo r e a son s w hy Ih ave d ec ided t od ot h i s a nno ta t ion . I c am e t oD eccan C o l lege i n 1 987 f r om t wo e n t i r e ly d i f f e r en t d i sc ip l ine s o fb io logy a nd s t a t i s t ic s . S ince t h en I h ave b een r e ad ing a bou t h i s to ry , a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy i n c onnec t ion w i th m y d a i ly w o rk a sw e l l a s f o r my p e r sona l i n te r e s t i nt h e se s ub jec t s . If ound t h a t e ven e a r ly a r t ic le s o f P rof . M i s ra s how h i s a na ly t ica l a t t i tude , m e t icu lou sne s s , m e thodo log ica l r i gou r ( b ef o r e i t w a s f o rm a l ly d i scu s sed i nt h e se w o rd s i nt h e f o rm o f N ew A r chaeo logy ) , a nd c a r ef u l ly d ev i sed l o g ica l s t ru c tu r e o f a r gum en t . If e l t i te ven mo r e c on sp icuou s ly w hen Ir ev iew ed I nd ian p r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie s t o l o ok f o r m e thodo log ica l r i gou r a nd q uan t i ta t ive f r am e o f m ind ( J og leka r 2 002 i n A r chaeo logy a nd H i s tor iog raphy I V - e d i ted b y S . S e t ta r a nd R av i K o r ise t ta r ) . Ih ave h ad a l o ng a s soc ia t ion w i th P rof . M i s ra a s aj un io r c o l league i n t h e I n s t i tu te a nd a s a n e d i to r o f h i s a cadem ic b aby "M an a nd E nv ironmen t " . I nr e a l i ty , Ia m t oo

3 1

T he a u tho r f avou r s c on t inua t ion o f u s ing t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy o n t h e g round t h a t i t i s p r ec ise a nd e a sy t ou nde r s tand .

d escr ibed b y L eakey . T echno log ica l ly t h e B anas i mp lemen t s a r e n o t o f a dvanced t ype . T he p ebb le t oo ls a r e c rude . H andaxes a r e mos t ly a symme t r ica l a nd t h ick . T hese a r e ma in ly b e long ing t o t h e A bbev i l lean t ype a nd a f ew o f E a r ly t o M idd le A cheu l ian s t age .

V -004 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 963 . Two S t one Age S i tes o n t h e R ive r C hamba l , R a ja s than , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -Gradua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 2 2 : 1 56 -169 .

V -002 : M is ra , V .N . 1 962b . P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu re o f Wes ter nR a jpu tana , B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l lege P os t -Gradua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 2 1 : 8 6 -156 .

E a r l ie r M .N . D eshpande ( J AR 1 953 -54 ) a nd S .R . R ao VAR 1 955 -55 ) h ad d e sc r ibed p reh i s to r ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e C hamba l , a m a jo r r i ver i n R a ja s than . T hese f i nd s w e re n o t s t ud ied i n d e ta i l a nd t h e ref o re t h e a u tho r s e xp lo r ed t h e r i ve ra t Ko ta a nd R awa tbha ta i n 1 961 . T h i s a r t ic le d escr ibes a r chaeo log ica l d i scover ies a tt wo s i tes -K o ta ( 2 5° 1 0N ; 7 5° 5 2 E )a nd R awa tbha ta ( 48 km u ps t ream o f K o ta ) . A f ew a r tef ac t s f r om b o th t h e s i tes a r e d escr ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . N ine ty -s ix a r tef ac t s w e re f ound f r om g r ave l s p read n ea r t h e r a i l b r idge a t K o ta . T hese i n c lude 6 2 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls s uch a s p ebb le c hoppe r s , s c rape r s , h andaxes , c l eave r s , c o res a nd f l akes . S ix M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s ( Leva l lo i s f l akes ) , a nd 2 3 Meso l i th ic t oo ls ( po in t s , s c rape r s , b l ades , f l ak es a nd c h ips ) w e re a l so f ound a t K o ta . T he m ic ro l i th s w e r e w ashed d own f r om s ome n ea rby Meso l i th ic s i te , a nd w e re made o f c ha lcedony . A l l t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo l s a r e made o fq ua r tz i te . T h i s r aw m a ter ia l w a s a va i lab le a bundan t ly i n t h e f o rm o f r ounded p ebb les . Mos t o ft h ese t oo ls w e re r o l led i nv ary ing d eg rees , a nd w i thou t much p a t ina t ion . S .R . R ao h a s r e po r ted p resence o f t h ree t e r races n ea r P ra tap S aga rD am a tR awa tbha ta . T he a u tho r s d id n o tf i nd a ny g rave l o r s i l t d epos i t ion i n t h e a r ea . F ive M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e r e f ound h e r e . T hese s u rf ace f i nd s i n c lude t wo h andaxes , a nd t h ree p ar t ly /fu l ly wo rked f l ake s . T hese f l ake s a r e s im i la r t ot ho se f ound a tK o ta .

T hough a d jo in ing a r ea s s uch a s Gu ja ra ta nd e a s ter n R a jpu tana w e re i nves t iga ted , t i l l t h e m id 1 950s w es ter n R a jpu tana w a s t e rra c ogn i ta i n I nd ian p reh i s to ry . T he a r t ic le p rov ides p hy s iog raph ic a nd g eo log ica l b ackg round t o t h e em ergence o f p reh i s to r ic c u l tu res , a nd d i scu sses t h e p rob lem o f f i gu r ing o u t c l ima t ic c ond i t ion i n t h e p a s t . R ive r L un i w a s e xp lored f r om i t s s ou rce t o S amda r i i n t h e m idd le r e aches d u r ing 1 958 -1960 f i e ld s e a son s . T h is a r t ic le r epo r t s a r chaeo log ica l f i nd ing s a t 1 7 s i tes l o ca ted o n r i ve r L un i a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ies s uch a sJ o jr i , Guh iya a nd S uk r i . P a laeo l i th ic p eop le u sed t wo t ype s o fr aw ma te r ia l : q ua r tz i te , s and s tone a nd s i l iceou s m a ter ia ls , a nd l a va r ock s s uch a sr hyo l i te a nd f e lspa rp o rphy ry . Mos t o ft h e t oo ls w e re m ade o n f l akes u s ing f ou r t ypes o f p r ima ry f l ak ing t e chn iques , v i z , s t one h ammer , t o r to ise c o re , p unch a nd c y l inder h amme r . T he P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t ry o f t h e L un i b a s in c on s is t s m a in ly o fs c rape r s , p o in t s , f l akes a nd b l ades . R ep resen ta t ive t oo ls o f a l l t h e t ypes a r e d escr ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . T he a r t ic le p rov ides q uan t i ta t ive i n f orma t ion i n t h e f o rm o f t a b les . Mea su remen t s o f t h e i lu s t ra ted s pec imen s a r e r e co rded . T he p l ace o f Wes te r n R a japu tana P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n t h e c on tex t o f I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic p ha ses a nd i t st e rm ino logy i sd i scu ssed i nd e ta i l . V -003 : M is ra , V .N . 1 962c . P rob lem s o f T e rm ino logy i n I nd ian P reh is to ry , E as tern A n thropo log i s t 1 5 (2 ) : 12 -124 .

V -005 : M is ra , V .N . 1 964 . P a laeo l i th s f r om D is t r ic t Uda ipu r R a ja s than , J ourna l o ft h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB ombay 3 6 -37 : 5 5 -59 .

A t l e a s t t h ree s ys tem s o f n am ing S tone Age c u l tu res w e re b e ing u sed : ( 1 ) t h e E u ropean w ay o f d i v id ing t h e S tone Age i n to P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic ; ( 2 ) t h e S ou th A f r ican m e thod o f r e cogn iz ing E a r ly , M idd le a nd L a te S tone Ages ; a nd ( 3 ) c l a s s if y ing c u l tu res i n to s imp le s e r ies a sI ,I a nd I I . B ecau se p reh is to r ic s t ud ies i n I nd ia w e re i n a n e a r ly s t age , t h e a u tho r f e l t t h e n eed t o h ave a f r esh l o ok a t s uch t e rm ino log ies . I mpor tan t f e a tu res , v i ew s o fv ar iou s s cho la r s , a nd t h e c r i t ic ism s o fa l l t h et h r ee s y s tem s a r e d i scu ssed .

T he a u tho r e xp lo red r i ve r B e rach a nd p ar t icu la r ly t h e r e g ion f r om Uda ipu rt ot h e e a s ta sf a ra s Ako la . N ine P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h ree s i te s : N a thdwa ra ( 2 ) , D abok ( 1 ) a nd Kher i ( 6 ) . T hese t oo ls a r e d escr ibed a nd m ea su remen t s a r e p rov ided . T he a r tef ac t s f r om N a thdwa ra c ompr ise o ne l a rge a nd t h ick f l ake o f m icaceou s q ua r tz i te , a nd o ne l e af -shaped p ebb le c hoppe r . T he a r tef ac t s f r om Kher i i n c lude t h ree h andaxe s , o ne p ebb le c hoppe r a nd t wo f l akes . As i ng le r ound s c rape r o f

3 2

f i ne -ga in ed q ua r tz i te w a s r e cov e r ed f r om D abok . T he a ge o f t h e t o o l s i st h e s am e a s t h a t o f t h e h andaxe -c leave r i n du s t r ie s i n p en in su la r I nd ia . A l though t h e c o l lec t ion i sl im i ted , i tb e long st ot h e Mad r a s ian f a c ie s .

a s s igned t o Meso l i th ic o n ly o n c u l tu ra l b a ses . H e a g r ee s t o B .K . T hapa r ' s s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e Meso l i th ic s t one i n du s t r ie s a nd t ho se o f N eo l i th ic /Cha lco l i th ic c u l tu r en eed sf u r the ri n ve s t iga t ion .

V -006 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 965a . G ov indga rh , a P a laeo l i th ic S i te i n We s te rn R a ja s than , J ourna l o f t h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB ombay 3 8 : 2 05 -208 .

V -008 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 966 . S tone A ge R e sea r ch i n R a ja s than -A R ev iew , i n S t ud ie s i n P r eh i s to ry : R ober tB ruce F oo te Memor ia l V o lume ( D . S en a nd A .K . G ho sh E d s . ) , p p . 1 22 -130 . K o lka ta : F i rm a K .L . Mukhopadhyaya .

T h i s a r t ic le p re sen t s r e su l t s o f t h e e xp lo ra t ion c a r r ied o u t( 1959 a nd 1 961) i nt h eA jm e rd i s t r ic to f R a ja s than . A r ea u p s t r eam o ft h e c onf luen ce o ft h e r i ve r s S a ra swa t i a nd S aga rma t i w a s e xp lo r ed . N ea r t h ec onf luence a tG ov indga rh ,P a laeo l i th ic a r t ef ac t s w e r e f ound i n as e c t ion o n t h e r i gh t b ank o f S aga rm a t i . A l l f ou r t oo l s c o l lec ted f r om t h i s s e c t ion a r e d e sc r ibed . T he se c ompr i se a l ong c l eave r o f q ua r tz i te ( L= 11 .7 c m ) , a much r o l led m in ia tu r e c l eave r ( L=8 .5 c m ) o f d a rk -b rown q ua r tz i te , c omp le te ly f r esh p o in ted c hoppe r ( L= 12 .5 cm ) o f wh i t ish -b rown q ua r tz i te a nd u n ro l led r e c tangu la rf l ak e s i de s c rape r( L= 11 .0 cm ) o fw h i t i sh -b rown q ua r tz i te . T he t oo l s a r e o fL owe r P a la eo l i th ic t ype . S ince t h e e v idence w a s l im i ted , n og ene ra l iza t ion sw e re a t temp ted .

T h r ee d i scove r ie s o f h i s to r ica l i mpo r tance i n R a ja s than a r e t ho se o f A .C . C a r l ley le ( 1871-73 ) , C .A . H eck e t t o f t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia , a nd S e ton -Ka r r i n 1 925 a tJ ha lawa r . T h i s a r t ic le c on ta in s h i s to r ica l r ev iew o fS tone A ge r e sea rch i n R a ja s than . I th igh l igh t s i mpor tan t e v idence o f a l l t h e p ha se s o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e a r chaeo logy o f Meso l i th ic c u l tu r e f ound i nt h e B e rach b a s in i n U da ipu r , C h i to rga rh ( Ch i t tau rga rh ) a nd B h i lwa r a d i s t r ic t s . V -009 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P r eh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry , i nR ev iew o fI ndo log ica lR e sear ch i n L a s t S even ty -f ive Y ear s ( P .J . C h inmu lgund a nd V .V . M i ra sh i E d s . ) , p p . 3 51 -425 . P une : C ha r i t rako sh Manda l .

V -007 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 965b . Me so l i th ic P ha se i nt h e P r eh is to ry o f I nd ia , i n I nd ian P reh i s to ry : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) , p p . 5 7 -85 . P une : D eccan C o l lege .

T he m a in p u rpo se o f t h i s a r t ic le i st o r ev iew o f r e sea rch i n I nd ian p r e - a nd p ro toh i s to ry . C lo se c onnec t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd a nc ien t l i t e ra ry t r ad i t ion s i s e mpha s ised . T he r ev iew o f p reh i s to r ic r e sea r ch h i gh l igh t s c on t r ibu t ion s m ade b y R .B . F oo te , L .A . C am rn iade , M .C . B u rk i t t , Y a le -Camb r idge e xped i t ion i nP un jab a nd K a shm i r ( 1939 ) , a nd H .D . S anka l ia ' s a nd h i s s t uden t s ' w o rk a l l o ve rI nd ia . T he m ean ing a nd s c ope o ft h e t e rm s P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry i nI nd ian c on tex t , a nd v a r iou s S t one A ge c u l tu r es a r e d i scu ssed . T he m a jo r c u l tu ra l s t age s i np r eh i s to ry a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l . T he se i n c lude S tone A ge c u l tu r es , t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se , a nd t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion . R e su l t s o fr e cen t e xcava t ion s a tt h e H a rappan s i tes o fL o tha la nd K a l ibangan a r ed i scu s sed . T h e s p r ead o f t h i s c i v i l iza t ion , c l ima te , c h rono logy , a nd i t s c on tac t s w i th We s t A s ian c i v i l iza t ion s a r e e xam in ed . T he c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o ft h ep os t -Ha rappan c u l tu r e s a nd t h e " Da rk A ge " o f I nd ian h i s to ry f o rm s l a rge p or t ion s o f t h i s r e v iew a r t ic le . T he t op ic s d ea l t w i th a r e t h e C eme te ry H c u l tu re a nd t h e J huka r c u l tu r e ( Pun jab a nd S ind ) , c oppe r h oa rd s a nd PG W e v idence f r om G anga v a l ley , t h e A ha r c u l tu re a nd i t s c e ram ic s , t h e J orwe c u l tu r e o f

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s ac omp r ehen s ive r e v iew o f t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu ra lp ha se i nI nd ia . I tc on ta in s a t h o rough d i scu s s ion o f t h e m ean ing o f t h e t e rm s s uch a s Me so l i th ic a nd m ic ro l i th s . T he p l ace o ft h e Me so l i th ic i n I nd ian p r eh i s to r ic c on tex t , d i s t r ibu t ion o f s i te s , c h rono logy , a nd e co log ica l b a ckg round o ft h i s c u l tu ra l p ha se a r e e xam ined i n d e ta i l . T he e v idence a bou tv a r iou st oo lt y pes f ound f r om s eve ra l s t a te s i n I nd ia i s c omp i led a nd c r i t ica l ly e xam ined . A l so t h e e v idence o f o the r a r tef ac t s l i ke p o t te ry , s t one o b jec t s a nd c oppe r t o o l s . T he a r t ic le i sf o l low ed b y c omm en t sb yH .D . S anka l ia , B .K . T hapa r , K .V . S ounda ra R a jan , R .K . V a rma , G .R . S ha rma , G .C . Mohapa t ra , K .A .R . K ennedy , A .K . G ho sh , P .C . P an t , a nd S .P . G up ta . T h e se s cho la r s h ave r a i sed s eve ra l q ue s t ion s a nd h ave c i ted p i ece s o f e v iden ce f r om o the r w o rk s . T he q ue s t ion s w e re r e la ted t o s e t t lem en t p a t ter n , r o ck s he l te r s , p a in t ing s , h uman r ema in s , a nd a n ima lr ema in s .A tt h ee nd t h ea u tho rh a sr e p l ied t o t h e q ues t ion s . H e p o in ted o u t t h a t mo s t o f t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s a r e o ne -pe r iod s i te s a nd h ave t ob e

3

V -012 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 969 . E a r ly V i l lage C ommun i t ies o f t h e B ana s B a s in , R a ja s than , i n A n thropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy : E s say s i n Memor y o f V err ier E lw in ( M .C . P radhan e t a l . E d s . ) , p p . 2 95 -310 . Mumba i : O xf o rd Un ive r s i ty P re ss .

n or ther n D eccan , t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu re o fs ou the rn D eccan , a nd t h ep rob lem o fa sh mound s . V -010 : M is ra , V .N . 1 968a . M idd le S tone Age i n R a jas than , i n L a P reh i s to ire : P rob lems e t T endance s ( F ranco is B o rdes a nd D . d e . S onnev i l le B ordes E d s . ) , p p . 2 95 -302 . P a r is : C en t re N a t iona l d e l aR eche r che S c ien t if ique .

T he a u tho r p o in t s t o at im e g ap b e tween t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion a nd t h e b eg inn ing o fh i s tor ica l p er iod . T h is g ap i s f i l led b y s eve ra l C ha lco l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic c u l tu res . T h is a r t ic le p rov ides t h e b ackg round o fp re I ron Age c u l tu res i n R a jas than a nd a b r ief s umma ry o f p r ev iou s i nves t iga t ion s . T he a u tho r d i scu s ses a l ter n a te t e rm s t ob e u sed f o r t h e n ew ly d i scove red C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re a nd s ugges t s t ha t t h e n ame ' Aha r c u l tu re ' i s mo re a p t t h an t h e n ame ' B ana s c u l tu re ' . A l though t h e k now ledge o ft h i s c u l tu re i sl im i ted , i t s i mpo r tan t k nown f e a tu res a r e d esc r ibed . T hese i n c lude e co log ica l s e t t ing , s e t t lemen t p a t te rn , t e chno log ica l b a se , a r ch i tec tu re , c e ram ics , t e r raco t ta o b jec t s a nd e conomy . T he a ff in i ty o ft h e s i tes s uch a s Aha ra nd G i lund w i th t hose o f Wes tA s ia s ugges t st h e i re a r ly d a tes . W i th t h e h e lp o fa va i lab le r ad ioca rbon d a tes f r om Aha rt h e c h rono logy o ft h e s i tes i sd i scu s sed .

R ecen t ly a n ew p ha se o f P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re , n ame ly t h e M idd le S tone Age h a s b een f ound i n R a ja s than . T h is c u l tu r e i si n te rmed ia te b e tween t h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic ( Ea r ly S tone A ge ) a nd t h e Meso l i th ic ( La te S tone Age ) . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ides as umma ry o f e v idence f o r t h e e x i s tence o f t h e M idd le S tone Age i n R a ja s than . T he e v idence i s d escr ibed i n s e c t ion s a bou t t h e p hy s ica l s e t t ing o f R a jas than , t h e s t ra t ig raphy , t h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage ( t he L un i i ndu s t ry ) a nd i t s c ha rac te r is t ics . T he M idd le S tone Age i sp receded b y aw e l l -deve loped E a r ly S tone Age c u l tu re whe re t h e t oo ls w e re h andaxes , c l eaver s , p ebb le c hoppe r s a nd s c rape r s . T hese t oo ls a r e m a in ly made o f q ua r tz i te a nd r a re ly s and s tone . I nt h e M idd le S tone Age t h e r aw ma ter ia l u sed w a s s i l iceou s r o ck s b es ides q ua r tz i te a nd s and s tone . T he p ropor t ion o f f l ake t oo ls i n c rea sed i n t h is p er iod . T he t wo c u l tu ra l p ha ses a r e mo re c l ea r ly d i s t ingu ished i n t h e p ropo r t ion o f r e touched f l ake t o o l s . I t i s c onc luded t h a t b o th t ypo log ica l ly a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l ly t h e M idd le S tone Age e vo lved f r om t h eE a r ly S tone Age i nt h is r eg ion .

V -013 : M is ra , V .N . 1 970a . C u l tu ra l S ign if icance o f T h ree C opper A r row -Head s f r om R a ja s than , I nd ia , J ourna lo fN ear E as tern S tud ie s2 9 (4 ) : 2 21-232 . T h r ee c oppe r a r rowhead s f ound a t B ago r i n R a ja s than a r e d i scu ssed . T hese u n ique f i nd s w e re e xcava ted d u r ing 1 968 -69 f r om t wo h uman b u r ia ls o fP ha se I ( Cha lco l i th ic ) a tB ago r ( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) . A r rowhead n os . 1a nd 2 a r e o f c oncave b ased t ype whe rea s A r rowhead n o . 3i so fb a rbed v a r ie ty . T hese h ave b een c ompa red w i th t hose f ound f r om H a rappan c on tex t s a nd f r om s i tes o u t s ide I nd ia . T he b a rbed t ype w a s f ound t o b e mo re c l ose t o t h e A egean a nd C aucasu s r eg ion t ypes ( of a l a te r d a te t h an t h e H a rappan p er iod ) . C oncave -ba sed a r rowhead s a r e k nown f r om P e r s ia a nd T ran scauca s ia . T he s t udy c onc luded t h a tB ago r ma rk s t h e e a s ter n l im i t o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ese t ypes o f a r rowh ead s . S tone p ro to types o f a r rowhead s a r e c o mp le te ly a bsen t i n I nd ian S ubcon t inen t a nd t h e ref o re , i t i s d i ff icu l t t o p inpo in t t h e e xac t s ou rce o ft h e a r rowhead s f ound a tB agor o ra tt h eH a rappan s i tes .

V -011 : M is ra , V .N . 1 968b . L a te S t one Age i n R a jas than , P roceed ing s o f t h e R a jas than H i s tory C ongre s s , J odhpu r S ess ion , p p . 1 6 -22 . J a ipu r : R a jas than H is to ry C ong res s . R esea rch d u r ing l a s t f i f teen y ea r s h a s b rough t t o l i gh t 7 3 s i tes o f L a te S tone Age i n R a ja s than o f wh ich o n ly n ine a r e f ound o nt h ee as ter ns i de o ft h e A rava l l is . I n e a s ter n R a ja s than mos t o ft h ese s i tes a r e l o ca ted o n s t ony e l eva t ion s o n t h e g ne is s ic p l a teau o f Mewa r . R aw m a ter ia l u sed f o r t h e m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies c on s i s t s o f c her t , q uar tz i te , q ua r tz a nd c ha lcedony . A rchaeo log ica l f i nd s f r om t h ree s i tes ( N imbahe ra , Mandp ia a nd B ago r ) a r e d escr ibed i nd e ta i l . I nw es ter nR a jas than af ew s i tes a r e b e t te r k nown t h an o the r s . T hese a r e S o ja t , D hane r i , J adan , K anawa s a nd T i lwa ra . T he e v idence f r om K anawas s ugges t s c on t inu i ty o ft h e M idd le S tone A ge t r ad i t ion i n to t h e L a te S tone A ge . T he a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l f r om t h e s i te o f T i lwa ra i nB a rme rd i s t r ic th a sb een d escr ibed .

V -014 : M is ra , V .N . 1 970b . E v idence f o r aN ew C ha lco l i th ic C u l tu re i n S ou th R a ja s than , I nd ian A n t iquar y( Th i rd S er ies )4 ( 1-4 ) : 8 5 -95 .

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c h ipped p i eces o f wh ich 8 6 .5 % w e r e f l ak es a nd c o r es . T he p ropo r t ion o f w a s te w a s mo r e a nd f i n i shed t o o l s w e re o n ly 1 . 5% . Mo s t o f t h e t oo l s w e r e m ade o f r hyo l i t e ( h igh ly s i l iceou s v o lcan ic r ock ) . A t o ta l o f 2 61 p o t she rd s w a s r e cove r ed wh ich c on ta in ed R ed Wa r e ( 7 1 .64% ) a nd G rey Wa r e . A f ew s he rd s a r e d e sc r ibed . O the r f i nd s i n c luded s t on e p i ece s , k anka r b lock s , b ak ed c l ay l ump s , ap i ece o f i r on n a i l , a nd a n ima l b on es . Mea su r em en t s o ft h et o o l s f r om b o th t h e s i tes w e r e t ak en a nd t h e a r t ic le p rov ides s umm a ry s t a t i s t ic s o f s e lec tp a r am e te r s . F ive r ad ioca rbon d a tes a r e g iven i nt h ep o s t sc r ip t .

I nr e la t ion t on ew ly e xcava ted s i t e o fB ago r( 1968 1 970 )t h e e v idence o fp o t te ry a nd c oppe ro b jec t s i s d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l . T he e a r l ie s t s e t t le r s a tB ago r w e r e p u r e ly h un te r -ga th e r e r s w h i le t h e r e i s e v idence o f f ood p roduc t ion i n P ha se I . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic p ha se w hen c ompa r ed t ot h ose f r om A ha r s how t h a t t h e t wo c u l tu r es a r e d i f f e r en t . T h e c oppe r a r rowh ead s w e re c ompa r ed t ot h e H a rappan a r rowhead s f ound a t s eve r a l s i te s ( e .g . H a r appa , Moh en jo -da ro , C hanhu -da ro , S u tk agen -do r ) . O n ly t wo m ino r d i f f e r ence s w e r e n o t iced . T h e B ago r a r rowhead s a r e l i ke ly t o b e long t o t h e m idd le o f t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium BC T he a u tho rs ugge s t st h a tt h e B ago r a nd H a rappan a r rowhead s c ou ld h ave b een d e r ived i n dependen t ly f r om t h e s am eo rd i f f e r en ts ou rces .

V -016 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 971b . Two L a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lem en t s i n R a ja s than - a B r ief R ev iew o f I nve s t iga t ion s , P oona U n iver s i ty J ourna l ( Hum an i t ie s ) 3 5 : 5 9 -79 .

V -015 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 971a . Two M ic ro l i th ic S i te s i nR a ja s than -A P r e l im ina ry I nv e s t iga t ion ,E as tern A n thropo log i s t2 4 (3 ) : 2 37 -288 .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s as umma ry o f e xcava t ion r e su l t s o b ta ined a tt wo Me so l i th ic s i te s ( Bago r a nd T i lwa ra ) i n Wes ter nR a ja s than . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s a tB ago r s uch a s p o t te ry , m ic ro l i th s , c oppe r o b jec t s , i r on o b jec t s , o rnam en t s , s t one o b jec t s , s t ruc tu ra lr ema in s a nd h uman b u r ia l s , a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l . T he r e la t ive c h rono logy o f t h e t h r ee p ha se s o fo ccupa t ion a tB ago rw a sp r e sen ted i nt h e e a r l ie r a r t ic le ( 1971 ) . H e r e w i th f i ve r ad ioca rbon d a te s i ti ss ugge s ted t h a t P ha se Ir ange s f r om c . 5 000 t o 2 800 BC , w he r ea s P ha se I p e rhaps e x tend st ot h e m idd le o ft h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC T he f auna l s t ud ies d one b y D .R . S hah a nd K .R . A lu r s howed t h a t b o th a n im a l h u sband ry a nd h un t ing w e r ep rac t i sed t oge the ri nP ha se I .

Two n ew s i t e s -B ago r a nd T i lwa ra - w e r e d i scove r ed d u r ing e xp lo ra t ion ( i n 1 967 ) i n S ou th G u ja ra t a nd t h e L un i R ive r i nR a ja s than . L im i ted d i gg ing w a s d one a tb o th t h e se s i t es . B ago r ( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) y i e lded a t o ta l o f 8 546 s t one a r tef ac t s o f wh ich mo r e t h an 7 4% c am e f r om a4 5 c mt h ick h o r izon ( 60 -105 c md ep th ) . At o ta l o f3 62 f i n i shed t oo l s i n c lude s b l ade s , t r iang le s , t r apezes , c r e scen t s , p o in t s , s c r ape r s , n o tched f l ak es , b u r in s a nd b o r e r s . B ago r m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry i s t y po log ica l ly h i gh ly e vo lved a nd s im i la r t ot h a t o f L anghna j i nG u ja ra t . S eve r a l f r agm en ted p o t she rd s ( 9 97 ) w e r e f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion a nd t h e i r v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion w a s u n even . Mo s t o f t h e se ( 96 .20% ) c am e f r om t op 7 5 c md epo s i t . T he w a r es w e r e c l a s s if i ed i n to t h r ee t y pe s ( A -C ) . A f ew s he rd s a r e d e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . O the r a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s f r om B ago r w e r e s ma l l f r agm en t s o fb u rn t b r ick s f r om t op 5 0 c m d epo s i t , s t one o b jec t s s u ch a s h amm e r s t one s ( 3 ) , r ubbe r s ( 3 ) a nd q ue rn s ( 2 ) , a nd a s i ng le s o ck e ted i r on a r rowhead ( l eng th 6 . 7 c m ) f ound a tt h e d ep th o f6 0 c m . E xcep t i nt o p 3 0 c m , a n ima l b one s ( 3098 g ) w e r e f ound a ta l l d ep th s . O n t h e b a s i s o f r e la t ive c h rono logy , B ago r o ccupa t ion w a s d i v ided i n to t h r ee p ha se s : I( b ef o re 2 000 BC ) , I( c . 2 000 BC ) a nd I I( 500 BC t o2 00 AD ) .

A tT i lwa ra a l so t h em ic ro l i th ic s i t e o ccu r s i n as and d une . I nt h ec en t ra lp o r t ion a na r ea o f1 6 x5m w a s e xcava ted whe r e h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t w a s a bou t 9 0 cm . T he m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry i se s sen t ia l ly s im i la r t ot h a t o fB ago r . T h e m a in t o o l t y pes w e r e b l ades w i th f l a t r e touch , b lun ted b ack b l ades , a nd s ymm e t r ic a nd a symm e t r ic p o in t s o n b l ade s , c r e scen t s , t r iang le s a nd t r apeze s . No c oppe r t oo ls w e r e f ound a tT i lwa ra . T i lwa ra p o t te ry i se n t i r e ly whee l -made a nd d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t a tB ago r . R ed Wa r e a nd G r ey Wa r e s he rd s a r e a lmos t e qua l i n p ropo r t ion . T he f a una l m a ter ia l s t ud ied b y D .R . S hah p o in t s t o am ix tu r e o f d om es t ic a nd w i ld f a una . S phe r ica l s t one b a l l sf ound i nt h e e xcava t ion p o s s ib ly w e re u sed f o rh un t ing .

T he m ic ro l i th ic s i te a tT i lwa ra ( 2 5° 5 1 ' N ; 7 2° 5 0 ' E )i ss i tua ted o nt h el ef tb ank o fr i ve rL un i . As ma l l t r ench ( 3 .5 x 2 . 5 m ) l o ca ted i nt h e c en t ra l p or t ion o ft h e mound w a s d ug . T h e h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t w a s m a in ly c onf in ed t o5 0 c m . E xcava t ion y i e lded 7 79

V -0 17 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 971c . S t one O b jec t s f r om N avda to l i , i n C hako l i th ic N avda to l i ( H .D .

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T h is

S anka l ia , S .B D eo a nd Z .D An sar i ) , p p . 3 23 -350 . P une : D eccan C o l lege .

a r t ic le

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o f

p r eh is to r ic r e sea rch c onduc ted i n I nd ia f o r a bou t t wo d ecades . T hough n o h uman r ema in s p r io r t o a bou t 3 000 BC h ave b een f ound , e v idence o f P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu res i sf ound a tm any s i tes i nI nd ia . T he s t ud ies r ev iewed i n c lude t h ose o fp ebb le too l S oan c u l tu re (Wes t P ak is tan ) , A cheu l ian c u l tu re o f p en in su la r I nd ia a nd i t s a s soc ia ted f auna l r ema in s , f l ake too l i ndu s t r ies o f R a ja s than , U t ta r P radesh ,

Mo re t h an 1 500 s t one o b jec t s w e re f ound a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te o fN avada to l i i n Madhya P radesh . T h is a r t ic le r epo r t s a na ly s is o ft h ese s t one o b jec t s e xc lud ing b l ades . S ix t ypes o f s t one o b jec ts w ere f ound . T hese c o mpr ise 3 6 r i ng s t ones , 6 20 s l ing b a l ls , 3 38 h amme r s t ones , 3 1 h amm er s t one -anv i ls , 4 00 g r ind ing s t ones a nd 6 7 q uer n s . A l l t h ese w e re t h o rough ly e xam ined w i th r e spec t t or aw m a ter ia l , s i ze , s hape , w e igh t , s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t s , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in t h e e xcava ted t r enches . R ing s t ones a r e m ade o f av a r ie ty o f ma ter ia l s l i ke q ua r tz i te , s and s tone , b a sa l t a nd q uar tz . T he a r t ic le d i scu s ses e v idence a ga in s t t h e ' we igh t t h eory ' r e la ted t ot h ef unc t ion o ft h es l ing b a l ls .

G u ja ra t , Madhya P radesh a nd t h e D eccan . I n s eve ra l a r eas t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t r ies a r e f o l lowed b y b l ade a nd b u r in i n du s t r ies . T he a u tho r o p ine s t h a t t h ese b l ade a nd b ur in i ndu s t r ies r e p resen t t h e c u l tu re o f Moder n Man i nI nd ia . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te i n t h e Ku rnoo l d i s t r ic t i s d i scu s sed p o in t ing t h a t e v idence o f t h is p ha se i s s c an ty . V -020 : M is ra , V .N . 1 972 -73 . N ew L igh t o n t h e Meso l i th ic P er iod i n I nd ia f r om E xcava t ion s a t B ago ri nR a jas than , T he R e searcher 1 2 -13 : 1 14 .

V -018 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 972a . P reh is tor ic B u r ia ls f r om B ago r , R a ja s than , i nA r chaeo log ica l C ongre s s a nd S em inar P aper s ( S .B D eo E d . ) , p p . 5 8 -65 . N agpu r : N agpu r Un ive r s i ty

A b r ief a ccoun t o f e xcava t ion c onduc ted a t t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f B ago r i n Wes te rn R a ja s than i s

T he ma in f o cu s o f t h is a r t ic le i st o d esc r ibe t h e h uman b u r ia ls f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion a t B ago r ( 25° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4° 2 3 ' E ) , aMeso l i th ic s i te i n R a ja s than . A s umma ry o f a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t , t h ree p ha ses o f o ccupa t ion a nd a n ima l b ones i s p rov ided . F ive h uman b u r ia l s w e re f ound . B u r ia l I f ound a t ad ep th o f 1 . 20 m c on ta ined t h e s ke le ton o f a n a du l t . T he b ody w a s l a id o n i t s b ack a nd a s ma l l s t one w a sk ep to ve rt h e f a ce . No o b jec t sw e re f ound o the r t h an a f ew a n ima l b ones f ound n o rma l ly w i th h ab i ta t ion d ebr is . B u r ia l I( a t 1 . 10 m d ep th ) c on ta ined p oo r ly p rese rved s ke le ta l e l emen t s o f a n a du l t . T he g rave g ood s w e re f ou r c l ay p o t s , ac oppe rs pea rhead , ac oppe r a r rowhead , ac oppe r a w l , b ead s ( 3 5 ) a nd a n ima l b ones . B u r ia l I I ( a t 0 . 88 m d ep th ) w a s n o t w e l l -prese rved a nd i t c on ta ined as ma l l c a r ina ted p o t k ep t o ve r t h e f a ce . B u r ia l I V f ound a t0 . 98 m d ep th i sb es t p reserved among t h e f i ve b u r ia l s . T he b ody w a s l a id i nf u l ly e x tended p os i t ion i nN -S d i rec t ion . T her e w e re n o b u r ia l g ood s h er e . B u r ia l V f ound a t 1 . 0 m d ep th h ad a c i rc le o f s t ones o n t h e s u rf ace c ove r ing i t . T h is b ur ia l c on ta ined s eve ra l o f f e r ings o ne l a rge a n ima l b one , c l ay p o ts ( 8 ) a nd c oppe r a r rowhead s ( 2 ) . T he a r rowhead s h ave t wo p a ra l le l h o les n ea r t h eb a se . V -019 : M is ra , V .N . 1 972b . E vo lu t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu res i n I nd ia , i n T he O r ig in o f Homo S ap iens ( F ranco is B o rdes E d . ) , p p . 16 -120 . P ar is : UNESCO .

p rov ided . A c ompac t a r ea o f 2 0 x 1 2 m w a s s e lec ted f o r e xcava t ion whe re t h ree c u t t ing s w e r e d ug ( ma rked E t oG ) . T he m ic ro l i th s f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion a r e c ompa r ed t ot h ose f ound o u t s ide I nd ia . T he a r t ic le c on ta in s ad i scu ss ion o f t h e e conomy o f B ago r p eop le . T he B ago r c u l tu r e b e long s t o aw ide r c u l tu re c omp lex t h a t e x tend s t o No r th G u ja ra t p l a in a nd t o t h e L un i b a s in . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re i nt h ev a l ley s o f Wagan a nd K adma l i r i ver s i mmed ia te ly p recedes t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu re a tB ago r . T he b l ade e l emen t i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re i s t o o u nde rdeve loped t o b e a nces t ra l t o t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry o fB ago r . V -021 : M is ra , V .N . 1 973a . P rob lem s o f P a laeo e co logy , P a laeo -c l ima te a nd C h rono logy o f t h e M ic ro l i th ic C u l tu res o f Wes ter n I nd ia , i n R ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy ( D .P . A g rawa l a nd A . Gho sh E d s . ) , p p . 5 8 -72 . Mumba i : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR esea rch . T h is a r t ic le c ove r st h e m ic ro l i th ic r ema in s f ound i n t h ree a r ea s i nw es ter nI nd ia n ame ly Nor th Gu ja ra t , S ou th -wes t R a ja s than a nd S ou th -ea s t R a jas than . T he m a ter ia l r ema in s f r om L anghna j , B ago r , T i lwa ra a nd P avaga rh ( c en t ra l Gu ja ra t ) a r e d i scu s sed i n r e la t ion t o t h e e co log ica l c ond i t ion s a nd c l ima te i n t h e p a s t . T he n a tu re o f h uman o ccupa t ion a nd t h e f o rma t ion o f s and d unes

3 6

V -024 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 973 . Twen ty -f iv e Y ea r s o f I nd ian P reh i s to ry ( 1947 1 972 ) -A R ev iew o fR e sea r ch , i n Man a nd S oc ie ty ( K .S . Ma thu r a nd S .C . V a rm a E d s . ) , p p . 1 54 . L ucknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty .

s howed t h a ts and w a sg e t t ing d epo s i ted s e a sona l ly . T he a s soc ia ted f a una s ugges t s t h a t a n o pen t ho rny f o r e s t a nd t h in s o i l c ove r e x i s t ed . T he a r t ic le a l so c on ta in s d i scu s s ion a bou t c h rono logy a nd i nve s t iga t ion s a r ound t h e l a k e s i nR a ja s than . I ti s c onc luded t h a tf o rs eve ra lt hou sand so fy ea r sN o r th G u ja ra th ad p e rhap s much d r ie rc l ima te t h an t oday .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s a n o verv iew o fe xcava t ion a t t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o fB ago r( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) i n e a s ter n R a ja s than . T en t r ench e s o f 4 x4 m a nd f i ve t r enche so f4 x2 m w e r ed ug i nt h ec en t r eo ft h e Maha sa t i mound . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s a t B ago r d i scu s sed e a r l ie r ( 1971) a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l a l ong w i th t h e c h rono logy o ft h r ee p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion a tB ago r . T he a r tef ac t si n c lude av a r ie ty o fm ic ro l i th s , c oppe r o b jec t s ( 5 ) , i r on a r rowhead s ( 2 ) , p o t te ry o ft wo m a in f a b r ic s . P ha se I p o t te ry ( Type A ) i sg r i t ty a nd m ade o f m icaceou s c l ay . P ha se I I ( t ype B ) p o t te ry i se n t i r e ly d i f f e r en t a nd h a sn o c onnec t ion w i th t ype A p o t te ry . F ive b u r ia l s w e r ef ound ( t h r ee i nP ha se I a nd o ne e ach i nP ha se Ia nd I I ) . I n p ha se Ib u r ia l n o g r ave g ood s w e re f ound , a l though af ew a n im a l b one s w e r e f ound i n t h e v i c in i ty . B u r ia l s o f b o th P ha se s Ia nd I a r e p oo r ly p re served . B u r ia l s o f P ha se I c on ta in o f f e r ing s i nt h e f o rm o fp o t te ry , or n am en t s , m e ta l o b jec t s a nd a n im a l s b on e s , t h e l a s t n o d oub t o r ig ina l ly k ep t a sc hunk s o fm ea t . P ha se I I b u r ia l , b ecau se o f t h e a s soc ia t ion o f am ed ieva l c o in , i s c on s ide r ed t o b e o f al a te r p e r iod a nd i ta c tua l ly d oe s n o t b e long t oP ha se I I . An ima l r ema in s a nd v a r iou s a spec t s o ft h e f ood e conomy a r e d i scu s sed . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t i n i t ia l s e t t le r s a t B ago r w e r e h un te r s a nd h e rde r s , b u t l a te r t h e r o le o f h un t ing d ec l ined a nd p a s to ra l i sm i n c r ea sed .

T h i s a r t ic le g i ves a c omp rehen s ive r e v iew o f p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nI nd ia f r om 1 947 t o 1 972 . A s e c t ion o n t h e r e sea rch b ef o r e 1 947 i n c lude s w o rk s o f C o l . Meadow s T ay lo r ( 1842 ) , H .P . L e Me su r ie r ( 186 1) a nd c on t r ibu t ion s m ade b y t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia . S eve ra l s em ina r s a nd c onf e r ence s o rgan ized , e spec ia l ly a f t e r 1 960 p rov ided o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r s cho la r s t o d i scu ss t h e e m e rg ing a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem s . A l so t h e i mpo r tan ce o fp ub l ica t ion s b yp eop le l i k e D .H . G o rdon , S tua r t P iggo t t , H .D . S anka l ia , B r idge t a nd F .R . A l lch in a nd W .A . F a i r serv i s J r . i s h i gh l igh ted . A l l t h e m a jo r c u l tu r a l s t age s i n p r eh is to ry a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l a l ong w i th a t ho rough d i scu s s ion o ft h e S tone A ge t e rm ino logy . T he c u l tu r e -w i se r e v iew o f r e sea r ch c on ta in s s e c t ion s d ea l ing w i th A cheu l ian c u l tu r e , Q ua ter n a ry s t ud ies , t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e Meso l i th ic p ha se , e m e rgence o fs e t t led v i l lage l i f e , t h e p r e -Ha rappan c u l tu r e s i n n o r thwe s t I nd ia , B u rzahom N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e , t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion a nd i t s c ha r ac te r i s t ic s ( ch rono logy , s p r ead a nd d ec l ine ) , N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o f S ou th I nd ia a nd t h e a shmound s . T he a r t ic le a l so i n c lude s ar e v iew o f e xp lo ra t ion s a nd e xcava t ion s r e la ted t o t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e s o ft h e D eccan , C en t ra l I nd ia a nd R a ja s than , t h e Mega l i th ic r ema in s , p ro toh i s to r ic a r t , i mpo r tance o f e t hnoa r chaeo logy , m e ta l lu rgy , h uman r em a in s , a n ima l r ema in s , p l an t r ema in s , r ad ioca rbon d a t ing . Au tho r s c on c lude t h a t s o f a r t h e w o rk w a s m o re o ft h e e xp lo ra t ion t y pe a nd p e r ta ined t oc o l lec t ion o fa r tef ac t s , a nd s ugges t t h a t mo r e h o r izon ta l e xcava t ion s a r e n eeded i n f u tu r e .

V -023 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 973c . A N ew P r eh i s to r ic C e ram ic f r om R a ja s than , E a s t a nd W e s t 2 3 (3 -4 ) : 2 95 -305 .

V -025 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 974a . A r chaeo log ica l a nd E thnog raph ic E v idence f o rt h e H af t ing a nd U se o f M ic ro l i th sa nd R e la ted T oo l s ,P ura ta t t va 7 :3 12 .

T h i sa r t ic le i sa im ed a td e sc r ib ing t h ep o t te ry f ound a tt h e Me so l i th ic s i te o fB ago r ( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) i ne a s ter nR a ja s than a nd i t s p l ace i np r eh i s to r ic c e r am ic t ypo logy . A l so , as umma ry o fe xcava t ion , t r enches , a r tef ac t s a nd g en e r a l o b se rva t ion s a tt h e s i t e i sp rov ided . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t h e c e ram ic f ound a tB ago ri sd i s t in c t ive a nd b e n am ed " Bago r w a r e " . T he m a in f e a tu r e so ft h i sw a r e a r ed e sc r ibed a nd af ew p o t sa r e i lu s t ra ted .

A t s eve ra l p l ace s i n I nd ia p r eh i s to r ic t o o l s a r e f ound . T he m ic ro l i th ic t oo l s ( e .g . s pea rhead s , a r rowh ead s , s i ck le s a nd k n ive s ) d i scove r ed i n a bundance a t m any s i te s a r e b e ing d e sc r ibed . H oweve r , o u rk now ledge o ft h eu se o ft oo l s , a nd o f t h e i r f unc t ion i s l im i ted . I n r e cen t y ea r s a r chaeo log i s t s h ave f o cu sed t h e i r a t ten t ion o n s uch i s sue s . Many o f t h e se m ic ro l i th s w e r e h af ted i n s u i tab le s haf t s . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s s eve ra l

V -022 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 973b . B ago r -A L a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lem en t i nN o r th -W es t I nd ia , W or ld A r chaeo logy 5 ( 1) : 9 2 -110 .

3 7

e xamp le so fs uch u sage f r om a l lo ve rt h ew o r ld a nd h i gh l igh t s i mpo r tance o f e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s i n i n te rp r e t ing t h et oo lu se i nt h ep a s t .

V -027 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976a . T h e A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock she l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia ,P ura ta t t va 8 :1 3 -36 .

V -026 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 974b . H i s to ry a nd A rchaeo logy — N eed f o r aN ew U nde r s tand ing , P rachya P ra t ibha 2 ( 1) : 8 14 .

T he s i te o f B h imbe tka ( 22 ° 5 0 ' N ; 7 7° 3 7 ' E ) i s l o ca ted i nt h eR a i sen d i s t r ic to f Madhya P r ade sh i n C en t ra l I nd ia . S eve ra l c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s a r e s c a t t e red i nt h e V indhyan h i l l s o f wh ich a bou t 5 00 c on ta in p a in t ing s o n t h e i r w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s . V .N .

Ag ene ra lp i c tu re o fI nd ian p ub l ic p e r cep t ion a bou t t h ep a s ti st h a th i s to ry i sm a in ly t h es t o ry b u i l tf r om w r i t t en r e co rd s . I ti s ac ommon b e l ief t h a th i s to ry i s c oncer n ed w i th k ing s , b a t t le s a nd d a te s . T h i s i s m a in ly d ue t o t h e w ay h i s to ry i st a ugh t i n o u r e du ca t iona ls y s tem . T h ep e r iod o fm an ' sp reh i s to r ic p a s t i sv a s t a nd o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h i s p e r iod i s e n t i r e ly d epend en t o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l d i scove r ie s a nd e xcava t ion s . T he a u tho r s how s t h e i mpo r tan t r o le t h a t a r chaeo logy p l ay s i nh i s to r ica l r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p a s t . I n We s ter n c oun t r ie s a r chaeo logy i s i n c r ea s ing ly b ecom ing p opu la r . A l though a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty i n I nd ia i s q uan t i ta t ive ly mo r ei nt h an many o th e rc oun t r ie s , i t i so f t en l im i ted t o a cadem ic c i rc le s . T he n eed t o e duca t e p ub l ic w i th e xh ib i t ion s o fa n t iqu i t ie s a nd p opu la ra r t ic le si sh igh l igh ted .

S i t e B h imbe tka ,( s he l te rI IF -24 ) Madhya P rade sh L a l i tpu r ,U t ta rP rad e sh C h i rk i -Neva sa , Maha ra sh t ra A nangwad i ,K a rna taka A damga rh , Madhya P rade sh Mahadeo P ipa r ia , Madhya P rade sh Ku l iana ,O r i s sa H un sg i ,K a rna taka

M i s ra e xcava ted a n a r ea o f5 2 m2 i n s ide t h e r o ck s h e l te r I I F -23 f o rt h r ee y ea r s ( 1973 -1975 ) . I n a l l e i gh t l a ye r s w e r e r e cogn i sed i n 3 . 80 m t h ick d epo s i t . T he a r tef ac t a s semb lage ( n=4705 ) c on s i s ted o f f l ak e s ( 1378 ) , c o r es ( 1 55 ) , c h ip s ( 1 260 ) a nd d eb r i s ( 183 ) b e s ide s t h e s haped t o o l s ( 1 50 1) . T he i ndu s t ry b e longed t o t h e A ch eu l ian c u l tu r e . T he p ropo r t ion o f s i de sc rape r s a nd o t he r n on -b if ace t oo l s w a s mo r e ( n= 1322 ) wh i le t h e h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a ccoun ted f o r o n ly 1 79 s pec im en s . T he a r t ic le d e sc r ibe s a nd i lu s t ra te s t h e a r t ef ac t s a nd p rov ide s s t a t i s t ica l d a ta o f t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in t h e d epo s i t . T he m a te r ia l r em a in s f r om t h i sr o ck s he l te rw e r e c ompa r ed w i th f o l low ing o the rA ch eu l ian s i te s .

G eo -co -ord ina te s 2 2 ° 5 0 'N ; 7 7 °3 7 'E

S tud ied /Excava ted b y V .S . Wakanka r

2 4 °4 2 'N ; 7 8 °2 5 'E 1 9 °3 0 'N ; 7 4 °5 0 'E 1 6 ° 1 5 'N ; 7 5 °4 0 'E

R . S ingh ( 1965 )

2 2 ° 2 3° 2 2° 1 6 °

4 5 ' 0 6 ' 0 4 ' 2 7 '

N ; N ; N ; N ;

7 7 °43 'E 7 9 ° 1 6 'E 8 6 °3 9 'E 7 6 °3 1 'E

V -028 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976b . E co log ica lA dap ta t ion s

G . C o rv inu s( 1966 -68 ) R .S .P appu ( 1965 ) R .V .J o sh ia nd M .D .K ha r e( 1964 ) S .G . S upeka r( 1963 a nd 1 965 ) N .K . B o se a nd D . S en K .P addayya

m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry . T he f i nd s f r om t h e r o ck s h e l t e r s i t e o fL ekhah ia ( 24 ° 3 0 ' 5 "N ; 8 2° 3 2 ' E ) , a nd B h imbe tka i n C en t ra l I nd ia w e re e xam ined . T en s i t e s d i scu s sed f r om G anga V a l ley i n c lude J h i r i , G a rha , S a ra i N aha r R a i , Ku rha a nd B icch ia . T h i s s t udy h igh l igh t s t h e n a tu re o f h um an a dap ta t ion s a tt h e e nd o ft e rm ina l S t one Age . T h e h un te r -ga the r e r sh ave a dap ted t od i ve r se e co log ica l s e t t ing s s uch a s t h e r o cky p l a in s o f Mewa r a nd h i l ly -f o r e s ted a r ea s o f C en t ra l I nd ia . T h e t e chno log ica l e qu ipm en ta nd t h e e conom ic p a t te rn s o ft h e se h uman g roup ss how v a r ia t ion .

D u r ing t h e T e rm ina l S tone Age i n We s te rn a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i nE co log ica lB ackg round s o fS ou th A s ian P reh i s to ry ( K .A .R . K ennedy a nd G . P o s seh l E d s . ) ,p p .2 8 -51 . I t haca : C o rn e l l Un ive r s i ty . T h e L a te S ton e A ge ( Me so l i th ic p ha se ) r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nG u ja ra t , R a ja s than , Madhya P rade sh a nd t h e G anga V a l ley i n U t ta r P rade sh h a s b een r e v iewed . P hy s iog raph ic b ackg round o f a l l t h e se r e g ion s h a s b een p rov ided . Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e s i te s e xam in ed f r om Gu ja ra t w e r e L anghna j , Akha j , V a la sana a nd H i rpu ra . T he s i te s o f B ago r , P achpad ra s a l t b a s in a nd T i lwa ra f r om R a ja s than h ave b een c ompa r ed t oo t he r s i te s . A r cha eo log ica l f md s i nr e la t ion t ot h e r ad ioca rbon d a te s d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l f r om t h e se s i tes i n c lude a n im a lb one s a nd

V -029 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976c . P r eh is to ry a nd P a laeo env i ronm en t i n R a ja s than , i n A r chaeo logy a nd P a laeoenv ironmen t i n W e s te rn I nd ia ( D .P .

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A g rawa l a nd B .M . P ande E d s . ) , p p . 3 1-54 . N ew D e lh i : C oncep t .

S ub rahm anyam a nd N . R ame san E d s . ) , p p . 3 45 -59 . H yde rabad : G ove rnm en to fA ndh ra P rade sh .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s ab r ief a ccoun t o fp r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nR a ja s than a nd t h e f e a tu r es o f t h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic t ot h e Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e s . A l so , e m e rgence o fe a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s a nd t h e e v idence o f OCP a nd PG W c u l tu r es a r e d i scu s sed . T he e nv i ronm en t o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod h a s b een e xam ined u s ing p edo log ica l a nd p a lyno log ica l d a ta . G u rd ip S ingh ' s s chem e o f c l ima te c hanges i sd i scu s sed . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t h e r ew a s a ni n c r ea se i nr a inf a l l a tt h eb eg inn ing o f t h e H o locene p e r iod . H oweve r , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence d oe s n o t p o in t t o av e ry w e t c l ima te . T he re i s n o t a dequa te i n f o rm a t ion t o s uppo r t G u rd ip S ingh ' si n f e r ence a nd t h e r ef o r e , i ts hou ld b e c on s ide r ed a s aw o rk ing h ypo the s is . A t t h e e nd o f t h i s a r t ic le t h e a u tho r ' s r e p l ie s t o q ue s t ion s r a i sed b yS ub r a ta S inha a nd K .T .M . H edge a r ea l so g i ven .

T h i s a r t ic le s umma r ises r e su l t s o f p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nR a ja s than s of a rb yg i v ing a n i n t roduc t ion t o t h e g eog raph ic s e t t ing . P r eh i s to r ic c u l tu r es i n R a ja s than a r e d i v ided i n to f o l low ing p ha se s : e a r l ies t h un te r -ga the r e r s ( t he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ) , a dvanced h un te r -ga the r e r s ( t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) , f i na l h un te r -ga the r e r s ( t he Me so l i th ic ) , b eg inn ing o f s e t t led v i l lage l i f e ( t h e C ha lco l i th ic ) , b eg inn ing o f u rban l i f e ( t he I ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion ) , a nd t h e e xpan s ion o f s e t t led v i l lage l i f e ( t he I r on A ge ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s f r om t h e s i t es o ft h ese p e r iod s a r e d i scu s sed b y g iv ing t h e i rn a tu r e , c h rono logy , f e a tu r es a nd s p r ead . V -032 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 977 . E vo lu t ion o ft h e P a t ter n o f H uman S e t t lem en t i n t h e A r id a nd S em i -a r id R eg ion , i n D e ser t if ica t ion a nd i t s C on t ro l ( P .L . J a i swa l , R . S ingh , N .N . C hhab ra a nd K . S unda ra r aman E d s . ) , p p . 1 0 -24 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i lo fA g r icu l tu ra lR e sea r ch .

V -030 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976d . E v idence o f C u l tu r e C on tac t b e tween T e rm ina l S t one A ge H un te r g a the r e r s a nd C on tempo ra ry F a rm e r s , i n A r chaeo log ica lC ong re s sa nd S em inar : 1 972 ( U .V . S ingh E d . ) , p p . 15 121 . Ku ruk she t ra : Ku ruk she t r a U n ive r s i ty .

D ue t or e cen t p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch i ti sp o s s ib le t o v i ew t h e p roce s s o f h uman e vo lu t ion a nd c o lon iza t ion i n a r id a nd s em i -a r id p a r t s o f I nd ia . T he f o cu s h a s b een o n w o rk d one i n G u ja ra t , R a ja s than a nd H a ryana . T he r ev iew o fr e sea r ch i s r e la ted t o t h e h uman c u l tu r e s d u r ing t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd Me so l i th ic p ha se s . A l so t h e c hanges d ue t o f ood p roduc t ion a nd s e t t led l i f e d u r ing t h e C ha lco l i th ic -B ronze A ge a nd t h e I r on A ge w e r e e xam ined . T he e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s d u r ing t h is p e r iod a nd t h e h uman a dap ta t ion s a r e d i scu s sed . T he a u tho r c onc lude s t h a t i ti sd i ff icu l t t or e conc i le t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence k nown s o f a r a nd t h e c l ima t ic p i c tu r e p r esen ted b y G u rd ip S ingh .

T h i sa r t ic le p rov ide s at ho rough r e v iew o fr e sea r ch o n t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu re s i te s f r om We s te rn a nd C en t ra l I nd ia . M ic ro l i th s w e re u sed u n t i l t h e e a r ly c en tu r ie s o ft h e C h r i s t ian e r a . A l though t h e d a ta i s n o t v o lum inou s , i ti sa dequa te t o i n f e r a bou t t h e m ic ro l i th -u s ing c ommun i t ie s a tt h e e nd o ft h e L a te S t one A ge . Whe r eve r t h e m ic ro l i th -u s ing c ommun i t ie sw e r el i v ing c l o se t oc oppe r / i ron -u s ing s e t t led f a rm e r s , t h ey o b ta ined m e ta l t oo l s , p o t te ry a nd o t he ro b jec t s . T hough i r on t o o l sw e r e a cqu i r ed , t h e e conomy c on t inued t ob e d ependen t o nh un t ing a nd g a the r ing o r t h e se p eop le p a r t ia l ly a dop ted f ood p rodu c t ion . T he s i te s d i scu s sed f r om G u ja ra t a nd R a ja s than a r e L anghna j , B ago r a nd T i lwa ra . T he a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s f r om s eve ra l s i te s i n Madhya P rad esh a r e e xam ined . T he se i n c lude B h imbe tka a nd P u t l i K a r a r ( Ra i sen d i s t r ic t ) , A damga rh ( Ho shangabad d i s t r ic t ) a nd D o ro thy D eep r o ck she l te r s i te n ea r P achm a rh i . B es ide s t h e se , T odd ' sr e por to nm ic ro l i th s f ound o nS a l se t te I s land o nt h ew e s tc oa s th a sb een d i scu s sed .

V -033 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a . P r eh i s to r ic C ave a r t o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nC onser va t ion o fR ock A r t( C . P ea r son E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -70 . C anbe r ra : I n s t i tu te f o rt h e C on se rva t ion o fC u l tu r a l Ma te r ia l . Mo r e t h an 9 0 p e r c en t r o ck a r t s i te s k nown s o f a r a r e f ound i nt h e s and s tone h i l l s ( t he K a imu r s , t h e V indhya s a nd t h e Mahadeo ) o fC en t r a l I nd ia . T he s i t e o f B h imbe tka i n R a i sen d i s t r ic t ( Madhya P rade sh ) i st h e r i che s t a mong t h e se w he r e mo r e t h an 2 00 c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s h ave b een f ound . A lso , mo re t h an 5 00 s uch p l ace s i na d jo in ing h i l l s h ave p a in t ing s . E xcava t ion s o f s om e s e lec t r o ck -

V -031 : M is r a , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 976 . P r eh i s to r ic B ackg round o f R a ja s than , i n S oma sek hara S arma C ommemora t ion V o lume ( R .

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s he l te r s s how t h a t h uman s h ave o ccup ied t h ese p l aces f r om A cheu l ian t o Meso l i th ic t ime s . B a sed o n s t y le a nd s uper impo s i t ion , t h e p a in t ing s w e re c l a s s if ied i n to t wo c u l tu ra l -ch rono log ica l p ha ses ( p reh i s tor ic a nd h i s tor ic ) . T he c on ten t s , s ub jec t s , p a in t ing s t y les a nd d a t ing o f t h ese r o ck a r t s pec im en s h ave b een d esc r ibed . T he p a in t ing s a t B h imbe tka a r e i n v a r iou s s t ages o f p r eserva t ion . T hese n eed c on serva t ion e f f or t s s i nce b o th h uman a nd n a tu ra l f a c to r s a r e r e spon s ib le f o r t h e i r d es t ruc t ion .

V indhyan H i l ls ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P radesh ) . T he a u tho r s h ave d escr ibed t h e l o ca t ion , f o res t c ove r , c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s , p eop le l i v ing n ow a nd h i s tor ica l e v idence ( i . e . G up ta i n scr ip t ion s a nd P a rama ra t emp le r u in s ) a va i lab le f r om t h is a r ea . P a in t ing s a r e f ound o nt h e w a l ls a nd c e i l ings o ft h e r o ck s he l te r s a s w e l l a s o n v er t ica l c l if f f a ces . B a sed o n s t y le , c o lou r a nd s uper impos i t ion 1 6 l a ye r so fp a in t ing sh ave b een r e cogn ised . T he s t udy o f 1 33 c aves o n t h e m a in B h imbe tka h i l l r evea led t h a t 1 6 c o lou r s h ave b een u sed a nd 1 2 p a in t ing s t y les c ou ld b e i d en t if ied . T hese h ave b een g rouped i n to 9 c h rono log ica l a c t iv i ty u n i t s : P ha ses A t o E ( P reh is to r ic ) , P ha se F ( t ran s i t iona l /Cha lco l i th ic ) a nd P ha ses G t o I( H is tor ic p er iod ) . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ides a d i scu s s ion a bou t t h e r e la t ive c h rono logy , p a in t ing t e chn ique s a nd c on ten t s o f p a in t ings o fv a r iou sp ha ses .

V -034 : M is ra , V .N . 1 978b . A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , B u l le t in o f t h e I ndo P ac i f ic P reh i s tory A ssoc ia t ion 1 :1 30 -173 . T h is a r t ic le p rov ides a b r ief r ev iew o f t h e e xcava t ion c onduc ted a tt h e s i te o fB h imbe tka ( 22 5 0 ' N ; 7 7 3 7 ' E ) , l o ca ted i n t h e R a isen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P radesh i n C en t ra l I nd ia . I t i s m a in ly c once rned w i th t h e r ock s he l te r I I F -23 . S eve ra l o ther A cheu l ian s i tes h ave b een u sed t o c ompa re t h e r e su l ts o f B h imbe tka e xcava t ion . T hese a r e L a l i tpu r ( U t ta r P radesh ) , C h i rk i -Neva sa ( Maha ra sh t ra ) , Adamga rh a nd Mahadeo P ipa r ia ( Madhya P radesh ) , Ku l iana ( Or is sa ) a nd Anangwad i a nd Hun sg i( Kar n a taka ) .

V -037 : M is ra , V .N . 1 980 . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock -She l ter I IF -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia - A P re l im ina ry S tudy , A u s tra l ian A r chaeo logy 8 :6 3 -106 . T h i s a r t ic le p resen t s r e su l t s o f t h e e xcava t ion c a r r ied o u tb y t h e a u tho r i n s ide t h e r ock sh e l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka ( 22° 5 0 'N ; 7 7° 3 7 'E ) i nC en t ra l I nd ia ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l s t ra t ig raphy , t o o l t ypes a nd t h e i r f r equenc ies , t e chn iques o f t oo l p roduc t ion a nd o the r f e a tu res h ave b een d escr ibed . D e ta i led i n f o rma t ion i sp rov ided i nf o rm o fe l abo ra te t a b les , l i ne d raw ings , a nd p ho tog raph s . B h imbe tka A cheu l ian i ndu s t ry i s c ha rac ter ised b y l ow p ropor t ion o f b i f aces , h i gh s t anda rd o f w orkman sh ip i n b i f ace p repa ra t ion s a nd h igh p ropo r t ion o f c l eaver s t o h andaxes . T h is i n du s t ry h a s c l o se s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e Mou s ter ian o f A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion . T he a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l f r om r ock -she l te r I I F -23 h a s b een c ompa red t o t h a t f r om r ock -she l te r I I F -24 e xcava ted b y V .S . Wakanka r a t B h imbe tka a nd s evera l o the r I nd ian s i te s . T he o the r s i tes u sed f o r c ompa r i son a r e C h i rk i -Neva sa ( Maha ra sh t ra ) , L a l i tpu r ( U t ta r

V -035 : M is ra , V .N . 1 978c . E xp lo ra t ion s i nA jme r a nd J a ipu r D is t r ic t s , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 :7 4 . A s ap a r t o f t h e mu l t i -d isc ip l ina ry p ro jec t o n t h e e a r ly man a nd h i s e nv ironmen t i n n o r th -wes ter n I nd ia , t h e a u tho r a l ong w i th h i s c o l leagues S .N . R a jaguru a nd P .K . T homa s , e xp lo red A jm e r a nd J a ipu r d i s t r ic t s o f R a jas than i n 1 976 . E xposed f l uv ia l s ed imen t s i nt h eu ppe rr e aches o fr i ve rL un i a nd s and d unes ( a eo l ian s ed imen ts ) w e re i n ves t iga ted . Two g enera t ion s o f s and d unes w e re r e cogn ised . Meso l i th ic s i tes w e re f ound o n t h e d ef la ted p o r t ion s o ft h e o lde r s and d unes a tN awa , a nd o n t h e o ld t e r race o ft h e S a ra swa t i r i ve r n ea r G ov indga rh . O the r s i tes e xp lo red w er e B udha P u shka r a nd B ena ra . P re l im ina ry o bserva t ion s s ugges t t h a t t h e c l ima te w as e x t reme ly d ry d u r ing t h ec l o s ing p ha se o ft h eP le is tocene . V -036 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Y . Ma thpa l 1 979 . R ock A r t o fB h imbe tka R eg ion , C en t ra l I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t3 :2 7 -33 .

P rade sh ) , Anangwad i a nd Hun sg i ( Ka rna taka ) , Mahadeo P ipa r ia a nd A damga rh ( Madhya P radesh ) , a nd Ku l iana ( Or issa ) . T he a ppend ix b y S .N . R a ja gu ru p rov ides s ed im en to log ica l o bserva t ion s , f o ss i l e v idence f r om N a rmada R ive r a nd c onc lu s ion s a bou t t h e p a laeoenv ironmen t a t B h imbe tka .

I n 1 958 V .S . Wakanka r d i scove r ed t h e r i ch c omp lex o f r o ck a r t s i tes a t B h imbe tka i n t h e

V -038 : M i sra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .J . Wa sson , G . S ingh a nd D .P . A g rawa l 1 979 -80 . F u r the rL igh t

4 0

A -040 : A g rawa l , D .P . , P .S . D a t ta , Z ah id Hu s sa in , R .V . K r i shnamu r thy , V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd P .K . T homa s 1 980 . P a laeoc l ima te , S t ra t ig raphy a nd P r eh is to ry i n N o r th a nd We s t R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o ft h e I nd ian A cad emy o f S c ience s 8 9 ( 1) : 5 1-66 .

o n L owe r P a laeo l i th ic O ccupa t ion a nd P a la eoenv i ronmen t i n S em i -a r id Z on e o f R a ja s than ,P ura ta t t va 1 : 1 -18 . I n 1 979 V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jaguru a nd D .P . Ag rawa l d i scove r ed aL owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te n ea r J aya l ( 27 ° 1 3 ' N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) i nN agau r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than . T oo l s w e r e f ound t o ad ep th o f0 . 50 m i np r im a ry g rave la nd t od ep th so fs eve ra lm e t r e s i n t h e r e -depo s i ted g r ave l . O n t h e b a s i s o f s ed im en to log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l d a ta t h e g rav e l r i dge ( 1 5 km l ong ) o n wh ich a r tef ac t s a r e s c a t t e r ed h a s b een d a ted t e n ta t iv e ly t o t h e E a r ly P l e i s tocene . I n 1 980 t h e a u tho r sd i scove r ed a no the r A ch eu l ian s i te a tD idwana ( 37 ° 2 4 ' N ; 7 4 ° 3 5 ' E ) , a l so i n N agau r d i s t r ic t . T h i s a r t ic le d e sc r ibe s t h e s t a t e o fp r e serva t ion o ft h e l o ca l i t ies n ea rD idwana ( S ing i T a lav , Am a rpu ra a nd I ndo la k i D han i ) , t h e s t ra t ig raphy , a nd a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s . T he a s semb lage ( n= 130 ) c on ta in ed t oo ls ( h andaxe s , s c r ape r s a nd c hoppe r s ) a s w e l l a s d eb i tage . T he s i te s o fD idwana a r e l o ca ted i nl ow -ene rgy f l uv ia l f o rma t ion a nd i n p r im a ry c on tex t . T he a r t ic le p rov ide s a d i scu s s ion o f e nv i ronm en t a r ound D idwana d u r ing t h eA cheu l ian c u l tu re .

T he a u tho r s p rov ide a b r ief r ev iew o f p r ev iou s p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l r e sea r ch c a r r ied o u t i n R a ja s than . Q ua te rna ry f o rma t ion s i nR a ja s than a r e o ff l uv ia la nd a eo l ian o r ig in . T he f o s s i lg r ave lr i dge a t J aya l i n N agau r D i s t r ic t i so ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t Q ua te rna ry f o rma t ion s s o f a r r e co rded i n t h i s r eg ion . Ar i ch p a laeo l i th ic s i te h a s b een d i scove red i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e g r ave l r i dge . T h i s a r t ic le d i scu s se s d a ta a bou t p a s t c l ima te c hanges c om ing f r om mu l t ip le s ou rce s . I t i s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e o sc i l la t ion s h ave b een b e tween a r id a nd s em i -a r id p ha se s r a the r t h an b e tween s em i -a r id a nd h um id p ha se s . A -041 : A g rawa l , D .P . , R .P D h i r , R .V . K r i shnamu r thy , V .N . M i s ra , S .C . N anda a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 980 . Mu l t ip le E v idence f o r C l im a t ic C hange i nR a ja s than , i nA r id Z one R e sear ch a nd D eve lopmen t ( H .S . Mann E d . ) , p p . 1 18 . J odhpu r : S c ien t if ic P ub l i she r s .

V -039 : M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , D .P . A g rawa l , P .K . T hom a s , Z . Hu sa in a nd P .S . D ana 1 980 . P r eh is to ry a nd P a laeoenv i romn en t o f J aya l , We s te rn R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 4 : 1 9 3 1 .

T o u nde r s tand p a laeoc l ima t ic c hange s i n R a ja s than , q ua r tz g r a in s f r om k ankar -ba sed a nd k ankar f r ee d epo s i t sw e re e xam ined . T he t e chn ique o fS EM ( s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy ) w a s u sed . T he m a in f o cu s o f t h e w o rk w a s o n t h e s i te s o f C h i ra i , C hamu a nd G ud la i t h a t a r e l o ca ted n ea r J odhpu r . A l so , t h e B ap B ou lde r s f r om B ap n ea r J odhpu r w e re s t ud ied . T he f i nd ing s s howed t h a t t h e r e i sn o p o s s ib i l i ty o fg l ac ia t ion e x tend ing i n to R a ja s than d u r ing t h e Q ua ter na ry . M ine ra log ica l a nd c hem ica l a na ly se s o f Ma lha r R ann s ed im en t s s ugge s ted t h a t l a k e l e ve l s i n t h e p a s t f l uc tua ted s i gn if ican t ly . T h e c l im a te s equ ence f ound i n t h i s s t udy m a tche s w i th t h ose i n n o r th R a ja s than a nd K a shm i r .

I n 1 979 a t e am o f s c ien t i s t s a nd a r cheo log i s t s s t ud ied t h e e x ten s ive g r av e l r i dge n ea r J aya l ( Nagau rd i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) w i th t h e a im t oc o l lec t e v idence o fe a r l ie s t h um an o ccupa t ion i nt h a t a r ea . T he g eo log ica l s e t t ing , v a r iou sr ock u n i t s , o r ig in o f t h e g rave l , n a tu r e o f Q ua ter n a ry f o rm a t ion s n ea r J aya l ( 27° 1 3 'N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) a nd p robab le a ge o fi t s d epo s i t ion h ave b een d e sc r ibed . S eve ra l s ma l l t r enche s ( 1 x 1m ) w e r e d ug a t J aya l . A l l t h e a r tef ac t s w e r e m ade o fq ua r tz i te . O ft h e t o ta l 4 56 a r tef ac t s , mo s t ( 82 .02% ) w e r e f l ak e s a nd c o r e s . T he f i n i shed t o o l s i n c lude s c rape r s , h andaxe sa nd a s i ng le c l eave r . T r ia l e x cava t ion w a s c onduc ted a t t h r ee p l aces o n t h e g r ave l r i dge a tC hha jo l i wh e r e t o o l s w e r e f ound i nt h r ee g r ave l l a ye r s . Ma in t o o l t y pe s w e r e s c rape r s , h andaxe s , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s , d en t icu la te s , k n ive s a nd t r unca ted f l ak e s . A l so , c on t ro l led s u rf ace c o l lec t ion ( n=433 ) w a s d one f r om a n a r ea o f 4x4m o n t h e m id s lope o fa g r ave lr i dge n ea rR a ta N ad ip ond .

V -042 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 981 . T h eP r eh i s to r ic R ock A r t o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , J ourna l o f t h e N a t iona l C en t re f or t h e P erf orm ing A r t s 1 0 ( 1) : 1 1 6 . A .C .L . C a r l ley le i n 1 867 -68 f i r s t d i scove r ed r o ck p a in t ing s i n I nd ia . T he a u tho r p rov ide s ab r ief r ev iew o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r o ck a r t s i te s i n g ene r a l a nd w o rk d one s i nce t h en . S eve ra l r o ck s h e l te r s a nd c ave s a tB h imbe tka i nR a i sen d i s t r ic t

4 1

( Madhya P radesh ) h ave p a in t ings o n t h e w a l ls a nd c e i l ing s . E xcava t ion s o f af ew r ock -she l te r s h ave p roved t h a t h uman s h ave o ccup ied t h ese s i nce t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t im es ( mo re t h an 1 00 ,000 y ea r s ) . T he l o ca t ion s , c o lou r s u sed , b ackg round o f t h e p a in t ing s , t h em es , n a tu re o f d ep ic t ion s , mo t iva t ion b eh ind t h e p a in t ing s , p a in t ing t e chn iques , s t a te o fp rese rva t ion a nd c h rono logy o f t h e r ock a r t a r e d escr ibed . T he s ub jec t s o ft h e e a r ly a r t a tB h imbe tka a r e r e la ted t on a tu re , a n ima ls a nd h un t ing -ga ther ing w ay o f l i f e . P a in t ing s o f P ha se V I s how t r an s i t ion b e tween t h e e a r ly h un t ing g a ther ing e conomy a nd t h e s e t t led f a rm ing e conomy . T he p a in t ing s o fP ha ses I -V a n teda te t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC T he p a in t ings o fP ha se V I I I X ( 500 BC t o AD 1 000 ) a r e m any b u t p oo r i n q ua l i ty . T he s ub jec t s o ft h e se p ha ses a r e mo re o f ten b a t t le s c enes , r oya l p rocess ion s , e l ephan t s , h o r se r i der s a nd s o ld ie r s .

b e c a r r ied b y t h e m ig r a to ry d unes . C a lc ium c a rbona te o ccu r s a s a t h in c ru s t a t t h e t op i n d ica t ing d une s t ab i l i sa t ion , a nd a s d i sc re te u n i t s o f r oo t -ca s t s w i th in t h e d une p rof i le . R ep re sen ta t ive s amp les o f r oo t -ca s t s w ere e xam ined . B a sed o n t h e s t udy o ft h e c a rbona tes , a m ode l f o r p a laeoc l ima te c hanges d u r ing p a s t 6 000 y ea r s h a s b een p r esen ted . T he s t ab i l isa t ion o f t h e d une o ccu r red a r ound 6 500 y ea r s B P s ugge s t ing a w e t p ha se . Af t e r a r e la t ive ly d r ier p ha se t h e c ond i t ion s b ecame w e t ter a ga in f r om a bou t 5 000 y ea r s B P . T h i s p ha se c on t inued u n t i l 3 000 y ea r s B P a nd h ad m ino r f l uc tua t ion s . T he mo s t s i gn if ican t s h if t f r om t h e d ry t ow e t p ha se p e rhaps t o ok p l ace b e tween 5 000 a nd 4 500 y ea r s a go . T hese r e su l ts w e re i n a g reemen t w i th t hose b a sed o np o l len d a ta . V -045 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 981 . T he M ic ro l i th ic I ndu s t ry o f B ago r , R a ja s than , i n C u l tura l C on tour s o fI nd ia ( V .S . S r ivas tava E d . ) , p p . 6 11 . D e lh i : A bh inay .

K -043 : K ennedy , K .A .R . , C .B . B u r row a nd V .N . M is ra 1 981 . D en ta l Mu t i la t ion s f r om P reh is tor ic I nd ia C urren tA n thropo logy 2 2 (3 ) : 2 85 -86 .

Du r ing t h e e xcava t ion a t t h e Meso l i th ic s i te o f Human s ke le ta l r ema in s f r om t h e r ock -she l ter s i te o f B h imbe tka , R a isen d i s t r ic t i n Madhya P radesh w e re e xam ined . V .N . M i s ra e xcava ted t h e s ke le ton o fa n a du l t ma le f ound i nb u r ia l n o . 4i n 1 977 . T he b ody w a s l a id i n s up ine p o s i t ion . T he p e r son w a s 2 3 -27 y ea r s o fa ge a tt h e t ime o fd ea th . T he g rave g ood s w ere ap a r t ia l ly g round a n t le r f r agm en t a nd r ubb ing s t one . T h is s ke le ton a nd f i ve o t he r s a r e a s s igned t o 8 000 BP T he i n c iso r s s howed i n ten t iona l mu t i la t ion ma rk st e rmed l i nes o rg roove p a t ter n mu t i la t ion s . T he i n c isor s w e re d e l ibe ra te ly e ng raved . T he d en ta l o pe ra t ion s e em s t oh ave b een p erf o rmed u s ing a m ic ro l i th o r as ha rp a nd h a rd e dge .

B ago r( Ra ja s than ) a n a r ea o f2 24 m2 w a s d ug . T he r e su l t s o f t h is w o rk a r e d esc r ibed . T he s t udy i n c ludes t h e m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry , c h rono logy b a sed o n r a d ioca rbon d a tes , h or izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t s . B ago rm icro l i th ic i ndu s t ry h as b een c ompa red t o t h ose f r om o ther s i tes s uch a s Mandp ia o n r i ve rB ana s n ea rB agor , N imbahe ra o nr i ve rK adma l i , L anghna j , K anawa sa nd S o ja t . V -046 : M is ra , V .N . 1 982a . T he E vo lu t ion o fB lade E lem en t i n t h e S tone I ndu s t r ies o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy : N ew P er spec t ive s ( R .K . S ha rma E d . ) , p p . 7 13 . D e lh i : Agam .

K -044 : K r ishnamu r thy , R .V . , D .P . Ag rawa l , V .N . M is ra a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 981 . P a laeoc l ima t ic I n f e rences f r om t h e B ehav iou r o f R ad ioca rbon D a tes o f C a rbona tes f r om S and Dunes o f R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o ft h e I nd ian A cademy o f S c ience s9 0 (2 ) : 1 55 -160 .

R ock s he l te r I I F -23 a t t h e s i te o f B h imbe tka ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P radesh ) i nC en t ra l I nd ia w a s e xcava ted d u r ing 1 973 -75 . T he h ab i ta t ion d epos i t ( 3 .90 m ) w a s d iv is ib le i n to e i gh t l a ye r s . T he e xcava t ion y i e lded a t o ta l o f 3 2036 a r tef ac t s made o n q ua r tz i te . T hese i n c lude h andaxes , c l eave s , b l ades , m ic rob lades , f l akes , c h ips a nd d ebr is . T hese a r tef ac t s b e longed t ov ar iou s c u l tu ra l p ha ses : A cheu l ian ( 58 .46% ) , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 26 .56% ) , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 7 .87% ) a nd Meso l i th ic ( 7 .11 % ) . Me t r ica l a na ly s is o f t h e a r tef ac t s i sp rov ided i n t a bu la r f o rma t . T he s t udy r evea led t h a t ( 1 ) t h e p ropo r t ion o fb l ades i n crea ses s t ead i ly f r om t h e A cheu l ian t o t h e Meso l i th ic p ha se , a nd ( 2 ) t h e re w a s r educ t ion i n s i ze o f t h e

A l though r ad iome t r ic d a t ing h a s b een d one e a r l ie r u s ing p edogen ic c a rbona tes t os t udy t h e p roces s o f p edogenes is , c a rbona tes h ave b een u sed o n a l im i ted s ca le a s t h e i nd ica to r s o f p a laeoc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s . S uch a p oss ib i l i ty w a s t e s ted u s ing p edogen ic c a rbona tes f r om t h e s and d une a tB udha P u shka r ( 26° 3 0 ' N , 7 4° 3 6 ' E ) i n R a ja s than . T he s i zes o ft h e c a rbona tes i nt h ed une w ere t o ol a rge t o

4 2

b l ade s a nd m ic rob lade s d u r ing t h e s am e t ime p er iod .

D idwana i n t h e T ha r D e se r t , I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t6 :7 2 -86 .

V -047 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 982b . B ago r : t h e A r chaeo log ica l S e t t ing , i n B agor a nd T i lwara : L a t e Me so l i th ic C u l ture s o fN or thwe s tI nd ia I :T he H uman S ke le ta lR ema ins ( J .R . L uk ac s , V .N . M i s ra a nd K .A .R .K ennedy E d s . ) , p p . 9 -26 . P une : D eccan C o l lege .

I n ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u t n ea r D idwana i n N agau r d i s t r ic t ( R a ja s than ) a nd s ubsequen t ly t wo s i te s ( S ing i T a lav a nd I ndo la -k i D han i ) w e r e e xcava ted . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s d i scu s s ion o n Q ua ter n a ry s t ra t ig raphy a nd a s soc ia ted P a laeo l i th ic m a te r ia l i nt h r ee g eo log ica l F o rma t ion s ( D idwana , Ama rpu ra a nd J aya l ) . A rchaeo log ica l m a te r ia l f r om o t he r s i te s s u ch a s S ing i T a lav Q ua r ry ( n=215 ) , Am a rpu ra ( n=41 ) , B angu rC ana l( n= 131 ) ,J ank ipu ra ( n=221) , K o l iya I ( n=258 ) , K o l iya I ( n=63 ) , Manga lpu r a ( n=91) , S hyampu ra ( n= 14 ) , a nd J enana ( n=31) i sb r ief ly d e sc r ibed . W i th t h e h e lp o f n ew a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l a nd f i e ld o b se rva t ion s , t h e a u tho r s h ave p re sen ted ap i c tu r e o fm an land r e la t ion sh ip d u r ing t h e Q ua ter n a ry .

T he s i te o fB ago r i nd i s t r ic t B h i lwa r a ( Ra ja s than ) w a s e xcava ted b y V .N . M i s ra f r om 1 968 t o 1 970 . F ive h um an b u r ia l s w e r e f ound . T he se w e r e e xam ined i n d e ta i l b y K .A .R . K ennedy a nd J .R . L ukac s . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s d e ta i l s o f t h e e xcava t ion , s t ra t ig raphy , c h rono logy , c u l tu ra l s equence a nd h um an b u r ia l s . O n e h uman s ke le ton b e longed t oP ha se I( c a l . 5 400 -5000 BC ) a nd t h r ee w e r e f ound f r om P ha se I ( c a l . 4 600 -3200 BC ) . T h e f i f th s k e le ton w a s f r om t h e L a te H i s to r ic p er iod a nd n o tc onnec ted w i th t h e h ab i ta t ion a tt h e s i te .

G -050 : G a i l la rd , C . , D .R . R a ju , V .N . M i s ra a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 983 . A ch eu l ian O ccupa t ion a t S ing i T a lav i n t h e T ha r D e se r t : aP r e l im ina ry R epo r t o n 1 982 E xcava t ion , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 7 : 12 -130 .

V -048 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 982 . E nv i ronm en t d u r ing t h e Q ua t e rna ry P e r iod i n Wes te rn I nd ia . P roceed ing s o f t h e W ork shop o n P rob lem s o fD e ser t s i nI nd ia p p . 1 29 -140 . J a ipu r : G eo log ica lS u rvey o fI nd ia .

T he A cheu l ian s i te o fS ing i T a lav n ea rD idwana i n t h e T ha rD ese r t o fR a ja s than w a s e xcava ted e a r l ie r i n 1 981 . I t r a i sed a q ue s t ion a bou t v a r iab le p r eserva t ion o f a r tef ac t s ( f r e sh i n l a ye r s 3 -4 a nd r o l led i n l a ye r 5 ) . T o f i nd o u t a n swe r s t o s eve ra l q ue s t ion s r e la ted t oh uman o ccupa t ion , o ccu r r ence o fk anka r b lock s , e vo lu t ion o fl i t h ic t oo l s a nd e nd o f t h e h uman o ccupa t ion t h e s i te w a s e xcava ted a ga in i n 1 982 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s i n f o rm a t ion o n s t ra t ig raphy , t o o l t y po logy , r aw m a te r ia l u sed f o r m ak ing t oo l s , a nd q uan t i ta t ive i n f o rma t ion g a the red d u r ing s e cond s e a son ' s d i gg ing . I t i s c onc lud ed t h a t t h e A ch eu l ian s i t e o fS ing i T a lav -1 w a s o f t en f l ooded a nd w a s o ccup ied t h r ice . T h e f r e sh a r tef ac t sa r ep e rhap si nt h e i ro r ig ina ll o ca t ion .

T h i s a r t ic le p r e sen t s n ew g eoa r chaeo log ica l e v idence r e la ted t o w e s ter n I nd ian Q ua te rna ry e nv i ronm en t s . F ou r a r ea s f r om t h e s em i -a r id p a r t s o f R a ja s than a nd s ou ther n S au ra sh t ra h ave b een t a k en a s e xamp le s . T he se w e re ( 1 ) t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s f r om t h e L un i B a s in i n We s ter n R a ja s than , ( 2 ) t h e Me so l i th ic s i t e o f T i lwa r a i n B a rm e rd i s t r ic to fR a ja s than , ( 3 )t h e Me so l ih t ic s i te o f B ago r o n r i ve r K o tha r i i n B h i lwa ra d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than , a nd ( 4 ) t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te o f Um r e th i i n H i ran V a l ley ( Sau ra sh t ra ) . T he e v idence p o in t s t h a t h um an o ccupa t ion i n t h e se r e g ion s b egan i n t h e m id -P le i s tocene . T he c ompo s i te s t ra t ig raphy o f t h e Q ua te rna ry F o rm a t ion s u p t o4 4 md ep th f r om t h e s u rf ace h a s b een p rov ided . R .N . G ho sh r a i sed aq ue s t ion a bou t t h e c onc lu s ion r ega rd ing w ind b l own s and . T he r e p ly g i ven w a st h a tm ic romo rpho log ica lt e chn iqu e h a sb een u sed t os t udy a eo l ian s ed im en t s .

A -051 : A g r awa l , D .P . , S .K . G up ta , V .N . M is ra , R .K . P an t , S .K . T andon a nd A .B . V o ra 1 983 . A N a t iona l G r id f o r E nv i ronm en ta l R e sea r ch a nd P lann ing , Man a nd E nv ironmen t7 :7 8 -86 . T hough i nr e cen t y ea r s s eve ra l s t ud ie s c once rn ing e nv i ronm en th ave b een d one , t h e r e a r et wo l a cunae -( 1 ) d ea r th o fa ccu ra te d a ta a nd ( 2 ) l a ck o fh o l is t ic a pp roach . F ou r m a in f a c to r s c onnec t ed t o e nv i ronm en ta l c hange a r e c l ima t ic , t e c ton ic , a n th ropogen ic a nd b io t ic , a nd p o l lu t ion . T o o ve rcom e t h e p rob lem s f a ced i n e nv i ronm en ta l

V -049 : M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , D .R . R a ju , H . R aghavan a nd C . G a i l la rd 1 982 . A ch eu l ian O ccupa t ion a nd E vo lv ing L and scape a r ound

4 3

s t ud ies , t h e a u tho r s h ave s ugges ted t o c r ea te a n a t iona l g r id o f r e sea rch c en t res a nd d a ta b ank s . T h is p roposed g r id a l so i n c lude s s ma l l mu seum s a nd a s soc ia ted t e ache r -s tuden t c ommun i t ies t h a t c an s e rve a s t h e m a in c en t res f o r p eop le 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h e e nv i ronmen ta l r e sea rch a nd p l ann ing .

h ypo thes is . H e s ugges ted t h a t t h e c l ima te f l uc tua ted t h roughou t t h e H o locene . T hese f l uc tua t ion s w e re r e la ted t o em ergence o f a gr icu l tu re , i t s e xpan s ion , a nd g row th a nd d ec l ine o fH a rappan c i v i l isa t ion . T h is a r t ic le i sc en t r ed o n t h ree i s sues : r e -exam ina t ion o f a l l a va i lab le d a ta ( a rchaeo log ica l , p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l a nd h yd ro log ica l ) t ot e s t Gu rd ip S ingh 's h ypo the s i s , t h e e v idence f o r d i f fu s ion o f H a rappan s e t t lemen t s i n a nd a r ound R a ja s than , a nd p os s ib le g ap b e tween t h e H a rappan c u l tu r e a nd P a in ted G r ey Wa re c u l tu re . I ti sc onc luded t h a t t h e r e i sn o d a ta f r om n or thwe s t I nd ia t o s uppor t G u rd ip S ingh 's h ypo thes i s t h a t r a inf a l l f l uc tua t ion s p l ayed a d ec is ive r o le i n t h e o r ig in , s p r ead , g row th a nd d ec l ine o ft h e f a rm ing -ba sed c u l tu res i nt h i sr eg ion . I n s tead , i ti s t h e c hanges i n t h e c ou r se s o f t h e D r ishadva t i a nd S u t le j r i ve r s a nd c on sequen t d ry ing u p o f t h e S a ra swa t i r i ve r , a l ong wh ich H a rappan s e t t lemen t s w e re m a in ly l o ca ted , t h a t p l ayed t h e mos t i mpor tan t r o le i nt h e r i se a nd f a l l o ft h i sC iv i l iza t ion .

W-052 : Wa sson , R .J . , S .N . R a ja gu ru , D .P . Ag rawa l , V .N . M is ra , R .P . Dh i r , A .K . S inghv i a nd K . K ameswa ra R ao 1 983 . G eomo rpho logy , L a te Qua te rna ry S t ra t ig raphy a nd P a laeoc l ima to logy o f t h eT ha r Dunef i e ld , Z e i t schr if tf ur G eomorpho log ie ( N .F . )4 5 : 17 -151 . T o u nde r s tand t h e g eomo rph ic e vo lu t ion o f t h e T ha rD eser t d une -f ie ld s , s and d une d ynam ics , t h e i r s t ra t ig raphy a nd p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing w e re s t ud ied . T he f a c to r si n vo lved i nt h e d eve lopmen to f d unes , l i ke s ed imen t s ou r ces , f o rma t ive w ind r eg ime a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o fv a r iou s s and d une t ypes s uch a s p oo r ly o rgan ised d unes , p a rabo l ic d unes , a nd l i nea r d unes h ave b een d escr ibed . Maps o ft h e s t udy a r ea w e re p repa red u s ing LANDSAT i mage ry a nd g round c heck s i ns ou ther na nd e a s ter n p ar t s o ft h e d e se r t . A rchaeo log ica l a nd r ad iome t r ic e v idence f r om s and d une s a t L anghna j ( Gu ja ra t ) , B ago r , T i lwa ra , Ama rpu ra , B udha P u shka r a nd R ang Maha l ( Ra ja s than ) h a s b een u sed . A lso , d a ta f r om B ahawa lpu r i nP ak i s tan a nd o the r s i tes h ave b een d i scu s sed . T he d une s and s w e re l a rge ly d e r ived f r om l o ca l a l luv ia l s ou rces w i th a l i t t le c on t r ibu t ion o f t h e f i ne s and d e r ived f r om t h e A rab ian S ea c oa s t . C omb ined e v idence s howed t h a t t h e d une s w e re a ccumu la t ing f r om a t l e a s t 2 0 ,000 B P . T he d unes g o t s t ab i l ised b y t h e m idd le t o t h e l a te H o locene . T he T ha r s and d unes w e re f o rmed u nde r t h e i n f luence o f s umme r mon soon w ind s . T he c on t inua t ion o f t h e d une b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty f r om t h eL a s t G lac ia l Max imum ( mean a ge 1 8 ,000 B P ) i n to t h e H o locene h a s n o p a ra l le ls i n o t he rd eser t so ft h ew o r ld .

V -054 : M is ra , V .N . 1 985a . T he A cheu l ian S ucces s ion a tB h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nR ecen t A dvance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P reh i s tory ( V .N . M is ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -47 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH A lmos t a l l t h e P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l m a ter ia l i s f ound i n s e conda ry g eo log ica l c on tex t s s uch a s e r oded r i ve r g r ave ls a nd s u rf aces o fr o ck o u tc rop s . T he t o o l c o l lec t ion s a r e o f ten r andom a nd w i thou t v e r t ica l r e f e rences . I n r e cen t y ea r s ( 1972 -1977 ) e xcava t ion s w e re d one i n t h e r o ck -she l te r s a t B h imbe tka ( 22° 5 0 ' N ; 7 7° 3 7 ' E ) , as ma l l h i l l i n t h e V indhyan r ange o f C en t ra l I nd ia . A cheu l ian d epo s i ts w e re f ound i n r o ck -she l ter s I I F -23 , I I F -24 , I A -29 a nd I I A -30 . O f t h ese I I F -23 p rov ided a c omp le te s equence o f h uman o ccupa t ion f r om l a te A cheu l ian t o l a te Meso l i th ic p er iod s . T h ickness o f t h e h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t w as 3 . 80 m a nd d iv is ib le i n to e i gh t l a ye r s . A t o ta l o f 3 2026 a r tef ac t s w ere e xam ined o f wh ich 1 8721 b e longed t o t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu re o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 8 505 t ot h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , 2 522

V -053 : M is ra , V .N . 1 984 . C l ima te a s aF ac to r i n t h e R ise a nd F a l l o f H a rappan C iv i l isa t ion : E v idence f r om R a ja s than a nd B eyond , i nF ron t ier s o ft h e I ndus C iv i l i sa t ion ( B .B . L a l a nd S .P . Gup ta E d s . ) ,p p . 4 61-489 .N ew D e lh i : B ook sa nd B ook s .

t o t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd 2 278 t o t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod . A r tef ac t s w e re c l a s s if ied i n to 6 6 c l a sse s a cco rd ing t o t h e t y po logy o f F ranco is B o rde s . Quan t i ta t ive d a ta f o r v a r iou s a r tef ac t c l a sses h ave b een p rov ided i nt a bu la rf o rma t s .

B ased o n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a bou t f i f ty y ea r s a go i tw a s p roposed t h a tt h e c l ima te i nB a luch is tan a nd S ind d u r ing t h e I ndu s c i v i l isa t ion p e r iod w a s mo r e w e t t h an i t i s a t p resen t . G u rd ip S ingh u sed p a lyno log ica l e v idence a nd p roposed a d i f f e ren t

V -055 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 985b . M ic ro l i th ic I ndu s t r ies o f I nd ia , i n R ecen t Advance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c

4 4

P reh i s to ry ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P .B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 11-122 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ides a g l imp se o f t h e p r eh is to r ic r o ck a r t s i te o f B h imbe tka i n R a i sen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh . T he d i scu s s ion a bou t a n t iqu i ty o f r o ck a r t a nd af ew w o r ld -f amou s r o ck a r t s i te s i n S pa in a nd F rance h a s b een i n c luded . T he a u tho r h a s s umma r ised t h e r e su l t s o f e xcava t ion s c onduc ted i n s om e r o ck she l te r s . H e a l so h a s d i scu s sed h un t ing a nd g a the r ing p r ac t ice s o f p r esen t -day t r iba l c ommun i t ies s uch a st h e G ond s t h a tl i ve i nt h ev i c in i ty o ft h ep a in ted s h e l te r s .

T hough m ic ro l i th ic t e chno logy o r ig ina ted f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ies o f t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene , i t s d eve lopm en t a nd d i f fu s ion a l o ve r I nd ia t o ok p l ace o n ly d u r ing t h e H o locen e . S eve ra l w e l l -p r e served m ic ro l i th ic s i te s a l ong w i th o rgan ic r em a in s h ave b een f ound . T h i s a r t ic le i sb a sed o n 2 7 e xcava ted m ic ro l i th ic s i t e s . T he a spec t s d i scu s sed c omp r i se s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s i te s a nd t h e i r d emog r aph ic i mp l ica t ion s , t e chno logy , m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies , d i spo sa l o ft h e d ead , a r t a nd r e la t iv e c h rono logy o f t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s . Mo s t o ft h e m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s b e long t o av e ry d ev e loped s t age a nd t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t c an b e s e en a t av e ry f ew s i te s . T he r e i se v idence f o r a ccu l tu ra t ion o ft h e m ic ro l i th ic p eop le t h rough t h e i rc on tac t sw i th mo re a dvan ced c ommun i t ie s .

V -058 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 986 . E nv i ronnem en t e t C u l tu r e d e l ' Homme P r eh i s to r ique d an s l e D e se r t d u T ha r , R a ja s than , I nde .L 'An thropo log ie 9 0 (3 ) : 4 07 -437 . T he T ha r D ese r t i s as pec if ic e n t i ty d ue t o i t s g eog raph ic a nd g eomo rpho log ica l s e t t ing a nd c l ima te ( s em i -a r id t oa r id ) . T he Q ua te rna ry s t ud ie s c a r r ied o u t h e r e a r e i n te r e s t ing f r om p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l p o in t o f v i ew s i nce h uman s h ave o ccup ied t h i s d ry r eg ion f r om t h e A cheu l ian t im es . W i th h e lp o f d e ta i led s t udy o f t h e r eg ion a r ound D idwana ( Ra ja s than , I nd ia ) i tw a s p o s s ib le t o r e con s t ruc t t h e m a in f e a tu r e s o f t h e p a laeoenv i ronmen t . T he s and d un e s w e r e a l r eady f o rm ing w hen L owe rP a laeo l i th ic h uman so ccup ied t h a t a r ea . T he i nhab i tan t s u sed a va i lab le w a te r a nd o the rr e sou rce s . T he p eop le l i ke t oday m a in ta ined a c er ta in d eg r ee o f e qu i l ib r ium w i th t h e i r s u r round ing N a tu r e a nd l i ved i n t h e h a rd a r id c ond i t ion s o f t h e p a s t . T h i s a r t ic le s umma r i se s r e su l t s o f al ong te rm mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry p ro jec t i n vo lv ing f i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry s t ud ie s r e la ted t o p a laeoenv i ronmen t , c hang ing c l im a t ic c ond i t ion s a nd h uman r e spon se st ot h ese c hange s .

G -056 : G a i l la rd , C . , V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jagu ru , D .R . R a ju a nd H . R aghavan 1 985 . A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion a t S ing i T a lav i n t h e T ha r D e ser t : a P r e l im ina ry R epor t o n t h e 1 981 E xcava t ion , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e sear ch I n s t i tu te 4 4 : 1 4 1-152 . T h e s i te o f S ing i T a lav , l o ca ted n ea r D idwana i n t h e T ha r D e se r t o f R a ja s than , w a s e xcava ted i n 1 981 . At r ench o f 4 x4 m w a s d ug u p t o 1 . 30 m d ep th . T he t r ench y i e lded p r eh i s to r ic i n du s t r ie s a t t h r ee l e ve l s , w he r e t h e u ppe r a nd t h e l owe r o nes c on s i s ted mo s t ly o fr o l led d eb r i s . T he m idd le l e ve l c on ta ined f r e sh t o o ls o fd i ve r se t ype s . O ft h e f i ve l a ye r s e xcava ted , t o o ls f r om l a ye r 3a nd 4 ( 50 cm t h ickne ss ) w e r e s t ud ied a nd p oo led ( n= 148 ) . L ay e r s 3t o 5p robab ly c o r r e spond t o t h e m idd le p a r t o f Ama rpu ra F o rma t ion . T he a r t ic le d e sc r ibes v a r iou s a r tef ac t t ypes , t h e i r f r equenc ie s , r aw m a te r ia l u sed , t e chn iques o f t o o l m anuf ac tu re , w e igh t a nd m ea su rem en t s . B o th t h e h o r izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft h e a r tef ac t s w e r e s t ud ied . Mo s t t yp ica l t oo l s w e re h andaxes . T he s ma l l t oo ls w e r e s i de s c r ape r s a nd f r on t e nd s c rape r s . T he a s semb lage c on s i s t ing o f ah igh p ropo r t ion o f r e touched t o o l s s ugges t s t h a t S ing i T a lav w a s a c amp s i te b e s ides b e ing a w o rk shop s i te . T he a s semb lage p o in t s t o a n e a r ly s t age o f t h e A cheu l ian p e r iod .

V -059 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 986 . C u l tu r a l A dap ta t ion s i n I nd ia d u r ing T e rm ina l P le i s tocene a nd E a r ly H o locen e T im e s , i n T he P le i s tocene P er spec t ive s V o l . 2 , p p . 1 36 . S ou thamp ton : Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l C ong r e s s . T h is r ev iew a r t ic le p r e sen t s t h e s t o ry o f h um an a dap ta t ion s d u r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e is tocene a nd t h e E a r ly H o locen e i n I nd ia . T he d i scu s s ion i n c lude s t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce o f t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se a nd t h e v a r ie ty o f e co log ica l n i che s o ccup ied b y h uman sd u r ing t h eE a r ly H o locen e .

V -057 : M i s r a , V .N . 1 986 . B h imbe tka : R e f lec t ion s o fL if ei nC ave A r t . S c ience A ge 4 (6 ) : 1 7 -26 .

H -060 : H ema , R . , D .R . R a ju , S .N . R a jagu ru , V .N . M i s ra a nd V .G . P a ra sha r 1 986 . A N o te o n t h e M ine ra log ica l S tudy o fs om e S and D une s f r om t h e

4 5

T ha r D eser t , B u l le t in o ft h e Deccan C o l lege P os t G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 4 5 : 3 5 -46 .

c o l lec t ion s f r om s i tes n ea r D idwana a r e mo re e vo lved t h an t h ose f r om C h i rk i -Neva sa a nd Hun sg i .

T he p rob lem o f t h e a ge a nd o r ig in o f t h e T ha r D eser t i s t h e b ackg round t o t h is a r t ic le . Two a l ter n a t ive t h eor ies a bou t t h e o r ig in o f t h e s and d unes a r e d i scu s sed . T hese a r e ( 1 ) t h e o r ig in f r om t h e R ann o f Ku tch a dvoca ted b y s cho la r s l i ke D .N . Wad ia ( 1961) , a nd ( 2 ) t h e l o ca l s and s ou rce s ugges ted b y Wa sson e ta l . ( 1983 ) . S and s amp les w e re c o l lec ted f r om n ine s i tes . T he s ou rce o fd une s and w a s d e te rm ined u s ing g ra in s i ze d i ame te r a na ly s i s , h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s is a nd w ea ther ing i ndex . T he l i thos t ra t ig raphy o f t h e l ow d une s i te ( 2 .5 m ) o f L anghna j w a s c ompa red t o t h a t o ft h e h igh d une ( 15 m ) s i te o f D idwana . T he r e su l t s s ugges ted t h a t t h e T ha r D eser t s and h a s l o ca l o r ig in . B a sed o n l ow w ea the r ing i ndex a nd p er s is tence o fu n s tab le m ine ra l s i ti sp os tu la ted t h a t t h e c l ima te w a s e s sen t ia l ly d ry d u r ing t h e ma jo r p ar to ft h eL a te P le is tocene .

V -062 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 987a . E vo lu t ion o f t h e L and scape a nd Human Adap ta t ion i n t h e T ha r D eser t . P res iden t ia l Add re ss , A n th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy S ec t ion o f I nd ian S c ience C ong res s , B anga lore , P roceed ing s o ft h e 7 4 th I nd ian S c ience C ongres sP a r tI : 1 24 . T h is p res iden t ia l a dd ress p rov ides a n i n -dep th r e v iew o f p a laeoenv ironmen ta l a nd p reh i s tor ic r e sea rch c onduc ted i nt h eT ha rD e ser to fR a ja s than . I t i n t roduces t h e p r esen t -day g eog raph ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing o f t h e a r id r eg ion i n R a ja s than a nd e a r l ier r e sea r ches i n a r chaeo logy , p a laeoc l ima te , Qua ter n a ry g eo logy , g eomo rpho logy a nd r e la ted d i sc ip l ines . T he a u tho r b rough t t o l i gh t e v idence o f p r eh is tor ic c u l tu r es ( du r ing 1 961-1971) b y e x ten s ive f i e ld s t ud ies . E vo lu t ion o f t h e d ese r t e nv i ronmen t h as b een d i scu ssed a l ong w i th t h e t h ree m a jo r Q ua ter n a ry g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s ( J aya l , Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana ) . T he a dd ress d i scu s ses t h e n a tu re o f h uman a dap ta t ion s t o t h e c hang ing e nv i ronm en t . E xcep t d u r ing t h e h ype r -a r id U ppe rP l e is tocene ( c . 2 5000 -13000 BP ) s u rf ace w a te r w a s a lway s a va i lab le i nt h e T ha rD eser t . J u s t b ef o re t h e e nd o f t h e P l e is tocene a r ound 1 3000 B P c l i ma te b egan t o am e l io ra te . T he Meso l i th ic h un ter -ga the re r s p e rhaps a ppea red a tt h i s t ime , b u t t h ey s p read i n t h e d eser t o n ly d u r ing t h e m id -Ho locene p e r iod ( 6000 -4000 BP ) .

G -061 : G a i l la rd , C . , D .R . R a ju , V .N . M is ra a nd S .N . R a jaguru 1 986 . H andaxe A s semb lage s f r om t h e D idwana R eg ion , T ha r D eser t , I nd ia : A Me t r ica l Ana ly s is , P roceed ing s o ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 2 : 1 89 -214 . A tD idwana i nN agau rd i s t r ic t ( Ra ja s than ) a r tef ac t s o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p er iod h ave b een r e cove red f r om s eve ra l l o ca l i t ies . U s ing D e rek R oe 's m ea su remen t s cheme at o ta l o f1 81 h andaxes f r om 1 0 l o ca l i t ies w e re s t a t is t ica l ly e xam ined . T he l o ca l i t ies w e r e I ndo la -k i -Dhan i ( n=8 ) , Ama rpu ra ( n=4 ) , J ank ipu ra ( n=17 ) , J aya l ( n=52 ) , K o l iya H i l l ( n=64 ) , K o l iya s u rf ace ( n= 10 ) , B and lav k i -Ta lav ( n=21) , a nd S u rb i T a lav ( n=5 ) . H andaxes f r om a f ew o ther s i te s w e re a l so i n c luded i n t h e s t udy mak ing at o ta l o f 3 01 p i eces . B es ides t h e p r ima ry v a r iab les l i ke l e ng th , w id th , t h icknes s , L /B r e a t io a nd L /T r a t io , v a r iou s i nd ice s w ere c ompu ted a nd s hape d i ag ram s w e re m ade . F ac to r a na ly s is a nd c l u s ter d i ag ram s w e re c on s t ruc ted t o c ompa re t h e h andaxes . I tw a s f ound t h a t among t h e s i tes n ea r D idwana S ing i T a lav s e em s t ob e t h e o l des t whe re t h e h andaxes a r e l a rge , c rude a nd w i th ma ss ive b u t t s . Ko l iya H i l l s l ope , J aya l a nd J ank ipu ra f o rm o ne g roup . T hese a r tef ac t s , g ene ra l ly o ccu r r ing i n t h e m idd le o f t h e s equence p e rhaps r e p resen t t h e m idd le o rt h e l a te p hase o ft h e A cheu l ian . F rom t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana F o rma t ion s a t B and lav k i -Ta lav t h e h andaxes a r e s ma l le ra nd b e t te rt r i mmed . T hese m ay b e c a l led a s b i f ac ia l p o in t s r a the r t h an h andaxes . T he

V -063 : M is ra , V .N . 1 987b . M idd le P le is tocene Adap ta t ion s i n I nd ia , i n P le i s tocene O ld W or ld : R eg iona l P er spec t ive s ( O lga S of f e r E d . ) , p p . 9 9 14 .N ew Yo rk : P l enum P res s . A l though r e sea rch o ft h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod b egan i nt h em idd le o ft h en ine teen th c en tu ry , mo re d a ta h ave b een g ene ra ted d u r ing t h e l a s t t h r ee d ecades . S eve ra l n ew p ro jec t s h ave b een c a r r ied o u ti nt h e S on v a l ley , K a shm i ra nd t h eT ha rD ese r t . Due t on ew i n fo rma t ion g a thered f r om g eo log ica l , s ed im en to log ica l , p a laeon to log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s , f o cu s h as n ow s h if ted f r om t ypo log ica l d escr ip t ion t o p a laeoenv i ronmen t a nd h uman a dap ta t ion s . T he o ccu r rence o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l p ha se i sk nown f r om a l l o ve r I nd ia e xcep t t h e G anga P la in , v ery h um id p ar t s o f t h e Wes ter n Gha t s a nd n o r th -ea s t I nd ia . T he c u l tu ra l e v idence o f h uman s d u r ing t h is p ha se i s

4 6

r ev iewed o n ar e g iona l b a s i s . T h e r e g ion s f r om w h ich h uman a dap ta t ion s a r e d i scu s sed i n c lude t h e K a shm i r V a l ley , t h e S iwa l ik H i l l s , t h e s em i -a r id r e g ion o fn o r thwe s tI nd ia , n o r ther np a r t o fG u ja ra t , C en t ra l I nd ia , t h e D eccan P la teau , a nd t h e s ou thea s ter nc oa s ta lr e g ion .

s h ee t s . I nt h e e x t r em e w es ter np a r tt h e r a inf a l l i sa s l ow a s 1 00 mm p e r y ea r . Human s h ave o ccup ied t h e d ese r t s i nce t h e e a r ly A cheu l ian p e r iod . T he d e l ica te b a lan ce b e tween e nv i ronmen t a nd h uman s e s tab l i shed s eve ra l t h ou sand y ea r s a go i s n ow b e ing u p se t . T he a u tho r s h igh l igh t t h e i mpo r tance o fk now ing t h e e nv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry o ft h e d e se r t . T he r e su l t s o f mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t i n l a s t f i ve y ea r s h ave b een s umma r i sed . F if ty p r eh i s to r ic s i te s h ave b een l o ca ted o n s and d un e s a nd i n f l uv ia l s ed im en t s d u r ing i n ten s ive s u rvey s . T he o ccu r r ence o f u nd i s tu rbed P a laeo l i th ic s i tes w a s f ound i n te r e s t ing . E xcava t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u t a tJ aya l a nd D idwana ( Nagau r d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) . B a sed o n t h e r e su l t s o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l s t ud ies t h e e nv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry o f t h e T ha r d ese r t a nd t h e h um an p opu la t ion s l i v ing t h e r e f o r l a s t o ne m i l l ion y ea r s o rs oh a sb een t r aced .

V -064 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 987 . H i s to ry o f E nv i ronm en t a nd Man i n t h e T ha r D e se r t ,I ndo log ica J a ipurens ia 1 :1 7 -31 . T h e T ha r D e se r t o f We s ter n R a ja s than h a s v e ry s c an ty r a inf a l l ( 100 -500 mm p e r a nnum ) . F o r t h e p rope r u se o f p r e sen t -day l im i ted r e sou r ces a k now ledge o f t h e p a s t h uman -env i ronm en t i n te r ac t ion i sn ece s sa ry . E x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t , a nd s eve r a l s i te s n ea r J aya l a nd D idwana w e r e e xcava ted . T he a u tho r s h ave a dd re s sed f o l low ing q ue s t ion s : h ow a nd when d id t h e d ese r t c om e u p , w a s t h e e nv i ronm en t f l uc tua t ing o r w a s i tc on s tan t , h ow d id h uman s a dap tt od e se r tc ond i t ion sa nd h ave t h ey p l ayed a ny r o le i nt h e f o rm a t ion a nd e xpan s ion o ft h e d e ser t . T h e h i s to ry o f a r id i ty a s s e en i n t h e s and d une p rof i le s h a s b een c o r robo ra ted b y t h e s t udy o f s ed im en t s d epo s i ted i n t h e s a l t l a k e a tD idwana . V e ry h a r sh d ry c l ima te o f t h e T ha r D e ser t e nded p robab ly 7 000 y ea r sa go .

V -067 : M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd H ema R aghavan 1 988 . L a te M idd le P l e i s tocene E nv i ronm en t a nd A cheu l ian C u l tu r e a r ound D idwana , R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o f t h e I nd ian N a t iona lS c ience A cademy 5 4A (3 ) : 4 25 -438 . A s ap a r t o f mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rch b e tween 1 980 a nd 1 985 s eve ra l A cheu l ian s i te s w e r e i nve s t iga ted a r ound D idwana i nN agau r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than . T h i s w o rk w a s f o cu s sed o n e xp lo ra t ion a nd e xcava t ion o ft h e s i tes , m app ing o fQ ua ter na ry s ed im en t s , b u i ld ing o f s t ra t ig raph ic s equences , c hem ica l a nd mo rphom e t r ic a na ly s i s , a nd d a t ing o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon s u s ing v a r iou s r ad iom e t r ic t e chn iqu e s . T h r ee m a jo r Q ua ter na ry g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s n o t iced ( J aya l , Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana ) h ave b een d i scu s sed . T he s i te s a r e i n p r ima ry c on tex t . T he t o o l a s semb lage s b e long t o t h e e a r ly s t age o f t h e A cheu l ian t e chno logy . T he c o r e t o o l s a r e mo r e a nd r e touched t o o l s a r e i nl ow p ropo r t ion . T h ese f i nd s b a sed o n l i tho s t ra t ig raphy a nd r a d iom e t r ic d a t ing m e thod s ( C -14 , U /Th a nd T L ) h ave b een d a ted t o l a te M idd le P l e i s tocene . T he a eo l ian m embe r o f D idwana F o rm a t ion r evea led p r e sen ce o f a c id ic s o i l s . I n a l l t h e f o rma t ion s c a lc ium c a rbona te o ccu r s p ro l if i ca l ly a nd g r adua lw eak en ing o ff l uv ia l s y s tem s . A l lt h e se f e a tu r e s i n d ica te t h a tt h e c l ima te d u r ing t h e M idd le P l e i s tocene w a s s em i -a r id t oa r id .

V -065 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 988 . S ign if icance o f V e r teb ra te R ema in s f r om A r chaeo log ica l s i tes i n t h e A r id a nd S em i -A r id Z one s o fN o r thwe s t I nd ia , i n E cophy s io logy o f D e se r t V er tebra te s ( P .K . G ho sh a nd I s hwa r P raka sh E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -57 . J odhpu r : S c ien t if ic P ub l i she r s . O u t o f s om e 9 0 a r chaeo log ica l s i te s e xcava ted i n t h e a r id a nd s em i -a r id z on e s o fn o r thwe s t I nd ia w e h ave i n f o rm a t ion a bou t f a una l r ema in s f r om 2 8 s i te s . T h i s a r t ic le g i ve s t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e f auna l r ema in s a nd b r ing s t o n o t ice t h e s i gn if icance o f f a una l s t ud ies i n a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion . A t o ta l o f5 1 v e r teb ra te s pec ie s h a s b een f ound f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . T he r e i s a r ema rkab le c on t inu i ty i nv e r teb ra te f a una o ft h e a r id a nd s em i a r id r e g ion s o f I nd ia d u r ing t h e l a s t t e n t hou sand y ea r so rs o . V -066 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 988 . H i s to ry o f E nv i ronm en t a nd Man i n t h e T ha r D e ser t ,J ourna lo fE co log ica lS oc ie ty 1 :7 16 .

H -068 : R aghavan , H em a , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 989 . R ad iom e t r ic D a t ing o f aQ ua ter n a ry

Mo s t o ft h e s u rf ace o ft h e T ha r D e ser t o f Wes ter n R a ja s than i s c ove r ed b y s and d unes a nd s and

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Dune S ec t ion , D idwana , E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 9 -22 .

R a ja s than ,

Man

a nd

T he t e rm Meso l i th ic i n I nd ia d eno tes t h e c u l tu ra l s t age r e p resen ted b y m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies n o t a s soc ia ted w i th c e ram ics a nd g ene ra l ly a n teda t ing f a rm ing ba sed r u ra l c u l tu re s . T h is e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry d escr ibe s b o th q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive i n f o rma t ion o ft h is c u l tu ra l s t age . T hough i ti sn o t p os s ib le t o s ay whe the r t e chno logy w a s r e spon s ib le , e v idence p o in t s t o p henom ena l e xpan s ion o fh uman p opu la t ion d u r ing t h is p ha se . T he Meso l i th ic m a ter ia l c u l tu re h as b een d escr ibed u s ing i n f o rma t ion f r om v a r iou s s u rf ace s i te s b es ides t h a t f r om n ine e xcava ted s i tes : B ago r , T i lwa ra , L anghna j , L ekhah ia , S a ra i N aha r R a i , B h imbe tka , Adamga rh , B i rbhanpu r , a nd S anganka l lu . T he p o in t s c ove red i n c lude

T h is a r t ic le p r esen t s r e su l t s o f a pp l ica t ion o f r ad iome t r ic d a t ing ( C -14 , U /Th a nd T L )t e chn iques u s ing p edogen ic c a rbona tes a nd q uar tz g ra in s f r om as t ab i l ized s and d une n ea r D idwana i n N agau r d i s t r ic t o fR a ja s than . T he Meso l i th ic t oo ls o ccu r red o n t h e s u rf ace o f l i thoun i t I .U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e re w i th in l i thoun i t I ( 5 -6 m d ep th ) a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e r e d i s t r ibu ted r andom ly b e tween 9 a nd 1 3 m . L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t sw e re f ound a t1 7 .20 m a nd 1 8 .40 m w i th in l i thoun i t I I . T he d a te o n p edogen ic c a rbona tes f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic l e ve l w a s 2 6 ,210± 2 200 ( 1700 ) BP . T he T L a ge f o rt h e c oa r se f r ac t ion o f t h e d epos i t s f r om 1 7 t o 1 8 m d ep th s w a s 1 63 ,000± 2 1 ,000 BP . T h ree s amp les ( f rom 1 2 .65 , 1 4 .25 a nd 1 8 .60 m d ep th ) o fp edogn ic c a rbona tes w ere a na ly sed u s ing U /Th s e r ies m e thod . I tw a s c onc luded t h a t t h e a eo l ian p rocesses o n t h e e a s tern ma rg in o f t h e T ha r D ese r t a r e a t l e a s t 2 00 ,000 y ea r s o ld .

s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t , c h rono logy , e nv ironm en ta l s e t t ing , s t one t oo l a s semb lages , t oo l t ypo logy , b io log ica l r ema in s , t h e m e thod o f d i spo s ing t h e d ead a nd d eg ree o fs eden t ism . V -071 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989c . B ana s C u l tu re , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G hosh E d . ) , p p . 9 6 -98 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l .

V -069 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989a . S tone Age I nd ia : An E co log ica l P e r spec t ive , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (1) : 1 7 -64 .

T h i s e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry p rov ides a r ev iew o f e v idence o fC ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re o nt h e B anas r i ve r i nt h e Mewa r r eg ion o fR a ja s than . N ea r ly 5 0 s i tes o ft h e B ana s o r Aha r c u l tu re a r e k nown o f wh ich t wo ( Aha r a nd G i lund ) h ave b een e xcava ted . T he e v idence i n t e rm s o f s e t t lemen t s i ze , s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s , c e ram ic a s semb lages , b ead s , a nd t e r raco t ta o b jec t s h a s b een s umma r ised . R e la t ive c h rono logy o fB ana s c u l tu re s how st h a ti ta n teda tes t h e Ma lwa c u l tu re a nd p o s tda tes t h e H a rappan c u l tu re .

T he a u tho r i n t h is r ev iew p aper b eg in s w i th why e co log ica l k now ledge a bou t e a r ly h uman s oc ie t ies i s m eag r e . T he eme rgence o f h uman s i n w o r ld c on tex th as b een a dd re ssed i nr e la t ion t ot h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu res i n I nd ia - t h e S ohan ian r e p resen ted b y p ebb le t oo ls a nd t h e A cheu l ian r e p resen ted b y b if aces , p ebb le t oo ls , s c rape r s , f l akes , b l ades a nd c o res . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i tes i n E u rope , A f r ica , C en t ra l A s ia a nd N ea r E a s t a r e a s soc ia ted w i th r ema in s o f N eande r tha l h uman s . S tone t oo ls o f t h is p er iod f ound i n t h e I nd ian S ubcon t inen t a r e s im i la r t o t h ose f ound i n E u rope a nd o the r a r ea s . T he e v idence c oncern ing t h e e nv i ronm en t d u r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e is tocene , Upper P a laeo l i th ic s oc ie t ies a nd t h e h uman a dap ta t ion s h a s b een r e a s sessed . T he h un t ing -ga ther ing c o mmun i t ies o f t h e e a r ly a nd m idd le H o locene a r e c o l lec t ive ly a s s igned t o t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod . A l l e v idence o f t h e se Meso l i th ic s oc ie t ies a va i lab le s o f a r h a s b een c r i t ica l ly r e -exam ined .

V -072 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989d . D eser t , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G hosh E d . ) , p p . 1 97 -201 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . T he d ese r t o r a r id z one o fI nd ia c ove r s a n a r ea o f 3 17090 km2 o f wh ich 8 2% l i es i n R a ja s than a nd G u ja ra t . F i r s t s i gn if i can t a r chaeo log ica l d i scover ies i nt h e d eser tb egan i nt h e e a r ly 1 940s . E xp lora t ion s a nd e xcava t ion s b rough tt ol i gh t s eve ra l p reh is to r ic c u l tu ra l p ha se s . C r i t ica l e xam ina t ion o f t h e d a ta o b ta ined f r om v ar iou s d i sc ip l ines h a s b een u sed t o o u t l ine a p i c tu re o f t h e p a laeoc l ima t ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l h i s to ry o f t h e d eser t . T h is e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry n o tes t h a to n ly af ew s e cu re C 1 4 d a tes a r e a va i lab le . A t t h e e nd o ft h e T e r t ia ry a nd t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e Qua terna ry p er iod s ,

V -070 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989b . Meso l i th ic C u l tu res , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I :S ub jec t s ( A . Ghosh E d . ) , p p . 3 7 -43 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh iram Manoha r la l .

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V -075 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 989g . B h imbe tka , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o f I nd ian A r chaeo logy I : A G aze t teer o f E xp lored a nd E xcava t ed S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -73 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l .

w e s te rn p a r t o f R a ja s than h ad a d r a inage o r ig ina t ing i n t h e H ima laya s a s w e l l a s t h e A rava l l i s . E v idence f o r t h e a gg r ada t ion ( s ed im en t s u p t o 1 00 m t h ickn es s ) h a s b een f ound . P robab ly d u r ing t h e M idd le P l e i s tocen e t h e d ra inage s t a r ted g e t t ing d i so rgan i sed a nd b y t h e U ppe r P l e i s tocene i tb ecam e t o ta l ly d i sfunc t iona l . T he S tone A ge h um an s ( Ach eu l ian ) a ppea r ed h e re b ef o re t h e d r a inage b ecame c omp le te ly e x t inc t . B yt h e e nd o f t h eA cheu l ian o re a r ly U ppe rP l e i s tocene t h e d e ser t b ecam e e x t r em e ly a r id a nd c on t inu ed t ob e h ype r a r id d u r ing t h e l a te rp a r t o ft h e U ppe rP l e i s tocen e . A t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e H o locen e c l ima te b ecam e w e t .

T h i s e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry p rov ide s i n f o rma t ion a bou t a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t a t B h imbe tka r ock she l te r c omp lex ( R a i sen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P rade sh ) . T h e s i te w a s d i scove r ed b yV .S . Wakanka r i n 1 957 a nd w a s e xcava ted o n al im i ted s c a le b y K .D . B a jpa i a nd S .K . P andey i n 1 971 . T h i se n t ry c ove r sf i nd ing so fe xcava t ion c a r r ied o u t b y V .N . M i s ra a nd V .S . Wakanka r b e tween 1 974 7 5 . T he d i scu s s ion i n c lud e s b a s ic i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e B h imbe tka h i l l s , t ype s o f r o ck -she l te r s , s t ra t ig raphy o f e xcava ted t r ench es , c u l tu ra l s equence ,t oo la s semb lage s a nd p a in t ing s .

V -073 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 989e . E co logy a nd S e t t lem en t P a t t er n , i nE ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 2 85 -287 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l .

V -076 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 989h . H uman A dap ta t ion s t o t h e C hang ing L and scape o ft h e I nd ian A r id Z one D u r ing t h e Q ua te rna ry P e r iod , i n O ld P rob lem s a nd N ew P er spec t ive s i nt h eA r chaeo logy o fS ou th A s ia ( J .M . K enoye r E d . ) , I : 3 20 . W i scon s in A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s . Mad i son : U n ive r s i ty o f W i scon s in - Mad ison .

A l though d a ta a r e f a r f r om a dequa te , s om e i n f o rm a t ion a bou t h uman s e t t lem en t s , n a tu r e o f h um an a dap ta t ion s a nd e co log ica l c ond i t ion s s i nce t h e e a r ly P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod o f S tone A ge i s a va i lab le . I n t h i s e ncyc lopa ed ic e n t ry t h e a u tho r h a s s umma r i sed t h e i n f e rence s a bou t s e t t lem en t s a t s ev e r a l s i tes a l l o ve r I nd ia t h a t i n c lude Mahe shwa r a nd B h imbe tka ( Madhya P radesh ) , Khyad ( Ka rna taka ) , K and iv l i ( Maha r a sh t ra ) a nd S a r a i N aha r R a i ( U t ta r P rade sh ) , a nd S o ja t , B ago r , T i lwa ra a nd N aga r i ( R a ja s than ) .A ne xp lana t ion f o r t h e e xpan s ion o f h um an s e t t lem en t s i n to n ew r eg ion s a nd mo r e i n ten s ive e xp lo i ta t ion o fk nown e co log ica lz one sh a sb een p rov id ed .

T he p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s o ft h e I nd ian a r id a nd s em i a r id z one h ave b een r ev iewed . T he r e v iew s howed t h a t p r esen t -day c l ima te , h yd ro logy a nd l a nd scape a r e d i f f e r en t f r om t ho se i n t h e L a te T e r t ia ry a nd E a r ly Q ua terna ry p e r iod s . Many c hange s o ccu r r ed i nt h i s l ong p e r iod s uch a sw eak en ing a nd e ven tua l e x t inc t ion o fH ima layan r i ve r s , t e c ton ic u p l if t ing o f g rave l b ed s o f t h e J aya l F o rma t ion i n R a ja s than , f i l l ing o fb a s in s b y a l luv ia l s ed im en t s , c app ing o f a l luv ia l p l a in s b y a eo l ian d epos i t s a nd i n c r ea se i n a r id i ty . T he d e se r t z one w a s e x ten s ive ly o ccup ied b y h uman p opu la t ion s d u r ing t h e L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p er iod s . Du r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene t h e r eg ion e xpe r ienced e x t r em e a r id i ty . B ecau se o f s h r inkage o f r e sou r ce s , h uman o ccupa t ion b ecam e s pa r se d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . T he c l ima te w a s ma rk ed ly h um id d u r ing t h e m id -Ho locene . T he Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s r e sponded d ynam ica l ly t o t h e c hanged c l im a te a nd s p read i nt h e d e se r t . B y 2 000 BC a r id c ond i t ion l i k e t ho se o f t oday c am e i n to e x i s tence . A b sence o fs t r eam s o ve r m any p a r t s o f t h er e g ion i nh ib i ted i n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r eu n t i l a bou t t wo t hou sand y ea r s a go . B u t a va i lab i l i ty o f p a s tu r es i nr e s t o ft h e d ese r t f a vou r ed p a s to ra l i sm . H oweve r , t h e a nc ien t p a t te rn o f h un t ing a nd

V -074 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 989f . B ago r , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o f I nd ian A r chaeo logy I : A G a ze t teer o f E xp lored a nd E xcava t ed S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 3 4 -37 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . T h i s e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry c ove r s t h e f i nd ing s o f i n v e s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t a tt h e p r eh i s to r ic s i te o f B ago r i n R a ja s than . B ago r ( d i s t r ic t B h i lwa ra ) i s l o ca ted o nt h el e f tb ank o fr i v e rK o tha r i , at r ibu ta ry o f r i ve r B ana s . E xcava t ion w a s c onduc ted o n t h e Maha sa t id une ( 200 x 1 50 m a nd h e igh t 6m ) whe r e 2 0 x1 0 ma r ea w a s d ug . T h e t o ta l t h ickne s s o ft h e d epo s i t w a s 1 . 5 m i n wh ich o ccupa t ion o f t wo p ha se sw a sf ound . P ha se Ih a sb een p l aced b e tween 5 000 a nd 2 500 BC a nd P ha se I b e longed t o 5 00 BC t o AD 2 00 .

4 9

g a ther ing c on t inued a nd i ss i l l s u rv iv ing t o s ome e x ten t .

H un te r -ga the re r c o mmun i t ies a r e l i v ing i n t h e G anga P la in s s i nce t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod f o r s eve ra l t hou sand s o f y ea r s . T i l l t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e B r i t ish r u le h uman g roups l i v ing at r ad i t iona l ly p r e -ag r icu l tu ra l w ay o f l i f e h ad r e la t ive f r eedom . D u r ing t h e g ene ra l l aw a nd o rde r d ec l ine s i tua t ion a t t h e e nd o f t h e Mugha l r u le s ome o f t h ese c ommun i t ies t ur n ed t o c r ime . I n t h e d en se ly p opu la ted a l luv ia l G anga P la in s t h e a bor ig ina l p eop le d o ing h un t ing -f o rag ing a r e e xpec ted t o b e c omp lex ly a s s im i la ted i nt h e n ew s o c ia l o rde r t h a t em e rged a f t e r s e t t led l i f e . B u t t h e p i c tu r e i n t h e u ppe ra nd m idd le G anga V a l ley s how st h a t i ti sn o t a lway s t h e c a se . I n t h is a r t ic le t h e a u tho r s h ave s t ud ied s eve ra l h un te r -ga the re rp eop les s uch a st h e B ahe l iya s , B anga l i s , K an ja r s , B adh ik s , B awa r iya s , B han tu s , H abu ra s , S an s iya s , a nd B er iyas . U s ing h i s tor ica l s ou rces a nd f i e ld o b se rva t ion s v a r iou s s oc ia l -cu l tu ra l a spec t s o f t h ese c ommun i t ie s w e re i n ves t iga ted . T hese i n c lude s e t t lemen t p a t ter n , p opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion , o ccupa t iona l h i s tory , s ub s is tence , t e chno logy o fh un t ing , c r im e , a t t i tude o f t h e g ove rnmen t a genc ies a nd i n te rac t ion w i th t h e l a rge r s oc ie ty . T he p roces s o f a s s im i la t ion o f t h e se c on t inuou s ly mov ing p opu la t ion s i n to t h e c a s te s y s tem h a s b een t r aced . S om e s ec t ion s o f t h e se c ommun i t ies w ere a s s im i la ted i n to t h e h i e ra rch ica l c a s te s y s tem a nd w er e a s s igned a s o c ia l r ank a cco rd ing t ot h e s e rv ices t h ey p rov ided H oweve r , t h e a ccu l tu ra t ion o f t h ese p eop le i s a c on t inuou s a nd o ngo ing p roce ss .

V -077 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989 i . V an V ag r is : Nomad ic Hun ter s o f Wes tern R a ja s than , i n C hang ing P er spec t ive s o fA n thropo logy i nI nd ia ( S .C . T iwa r i E d . ) , p p . 2 85 -311 . N ew D e lh i : T oday a nd T omor row ' s . V an V ag r is ( Van V av r is o r V an V ao r is ) a r e a s em i -nomad ic h un t ing p eop le f ound i n t h e s em i -a r id r eg ion o fw es ter n R a ja s than . No th ing i s k nown a bou t t h ese p eop le f r om p ub l ished s ou rces . T he re a r e t wo o the r c ommun i t ies i n R a ja s than B ag r is a nd B aor is w i th n ames s im i la rt ot h a t o ft h e a n V agr is . H oweve r , t h e V an V agr i s a r e t o ta l ly d i f f e r en t f r om b o th o f t h em . T hey l i ve a lmos t e n t i re ly b y h un t ing -ga ther ing , a nd u n l ike many o t he r h un ter -ga the re r s , d o n o t i ndu lge i n c r ime . T h is a r t ic le s umma r ises r e su l t s o f f i e ldwo rk c onduc ted b e tween 1 979 a nd 1 985 t o g a in a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c u l tu re o f t h is c ommun i ty . T he a u tho r h a s d escr ibed t h e c ommun i ty 's h ab i ta t , d emog raphy , s e t t lem en t p a t ter n , p hys ica l a ppea rance , d r ess , or n amen t s , s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion , ma r r iage c u s tom s , s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies , h un t ing t e chno logy , r e l ig ion a nd r e la t ion s w i th o the r c ommun i t ies . V -078 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Y a shodha r Ma thpa l 1 989 . R ock A r t , i nE ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . Ghosh E d . ) , p p . 2 79 -284 . N ew D e lh i : Mun s lü ram Manoha r la l .

V -080 : M is ra , V .N . a nd S uman P andya 1 989 . Me so l i th ic O ccupa t ion a r ound Dhan su ra , D is t r ic t S aba rkan tha , Gu ja r a t , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 4 (1) : 1 23 -128 .

A .C .L . C a r l ley le w a s t h e f i r s t i n I nd ia t o d i scover ( i n 1 867 -68 ) p a in t ing s o n t h e w a l ls a nd c e i l ing s o f r o ck -she l te r s , a nd t oa s s ign p reh is to r ic a n t iqu i ty t o t h em . A t p resen t 1 50 r ock -a r t s i tes ( g rouped i n to 1 9 a r eas ) a r e k nown o f wh ich a m a jo r i ty a r e s i tua ted i nt h e h i l ly r eg ion s . T h is e s say p rov ides a s umma ry o f r e sea rch f i nd ing s a bou t r ock a r t i n I nd ia . T he t op ics a dd ressed b y t h e a u tho r s a r e g eog raph ic l o ca t ion s , s t a te o f p reserva t ion , c o lou r a nd s t y le , s uper impos i t ion , r e la t ive c h rono logy , c on ten t s , mo t ives b eh ind t h e p a in t ing s a nd s i gn if icance o f t h ese s t ud ies i n I nd ian p r eh is tor ic c on tex t .

T h e a l luv ia l p l a in o fn o r thea s ter nG u ja ra t i sk nown f o r r i ch c oncen t ra t ion o f Meso l i th ic s i tes . T h ree n ew s i tes w e re d i scovered n ea r t h e t own o f Dhan su ra ( 13° 2 0 ' 5 0 " N ; 7 3° 1 5 ' 1 0 " ) i n t h e S aba rkan tha d i s t r ic t . T he e v idence o f t h e Me so l i th ic o ccupa t ion w a s f ound b u r ied i n s and d une s a t t h ree l o ca l i t ies a nd g o t e xposed d ue t o q ua r ry ing a c t iv i ty . T h is a r t ic le p resen t s a p r e l im ina ry r e po r t a bou t l o ca t ion , s t ra t ig raphy a nd a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l f ound a t t h ese l o ca l i t ies ( Dhan su ra I I I I ) . T he s t one a r tef ac t a s semb lages a t t h e t h ree l o ca l i t ie s a r e h omogeneou s w i th r e spec t t o t h e i r s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t , r aw m a te r ia l , t y po logy , s t a te o f p reserva t ion a nd t e chn ique o f m anuf ac tu re .

V -079 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t iN aga r 1 989 . Hun te r g a the re r s i n a n Ag rar ian S e t t ing : T he N ine teen th C en tu ry S i tua t ion i n t h e G anga P la in s , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 7 -64 .

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w e r e b rough t a ppea rance .

V -081 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 989 . P a laeoenv i ronm en t a nd P r eh i s to ry o f t h e T ha r D ese r t , R a ja s than , I nd ia , i n S ou th A s ian A r chaeo logy 1 985 ( K a r en F r if e l t a nd P e r S o ren sen E d s . ) , p p . 2 96 -320 . C openhagen : S cand inav ian I n s t i tu te o fA s ian S tud ie s .

b ecau se

o f

t h e i r

a t t rac t ive

G -083 : G a i l la rd , C , V .N . M i s r a a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 990 . C ompa ra t ive S tudy o f T h r ee S e r ie s o f H andaxe s -O ne f r om R a ja s than a nd Two f r om A ndh ra P radesh , B u l le t in o f t h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e sear ch I n s t i tu te 4 9 : 1 37 -144 .

T he e a r l ie s t r e co rd o fh um an p r e sence i nt h e T ha r D ese r t c on s i s t s o ft h e e a r ly A cheu l ian a s semb lage s f ound n ea r D idwana ( R a ja s than ) . A s ap a r t o ft h e p ro jec t t o u nde r s tand t h e p r eh i s tor ic s e t t lem en t s a nd t h e e nv i ronm en t , s eve ra l f i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry s t ud ie s w e r e u nde r tak en . T he se i n c lude i n ten s ive s u rv ey s , r e co rd ing s t r a t ig r aphy o f l a k e s ed im en t s , s t udy o f g eo log ica l F o rma t ion s s uch a s J aya l , Am a rpu ra , a nd D idwana , s y s t em a t ic e xcava t ion s a t J aya l a nd t h r ee o t he r l o ca l i t ie s n ea r D idwana , a nd v a r iou sr a d iom e t r ic d a t ing s t ud ie s . W i th t h eh e lp o f t h e se mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion s t h e a u tho r s h av e a t temp ted t o r e con s t ruc t t h e e nv i ronm en t d u r ing t h e L a t e N eogene a nd Q ua te rna ry p e r iod s , a nd h uman r e spon se s t o c hang ing e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s i n a r id a nd s em i -a r id r e g ion s o f R a ja s than . T h e L a te U ppe r P l e i s tocene w a s t h e p er iod o f m ax imum a r id i ty . Af t e r c . 2 5 ,000 B P c ond i t ion s b ecam e h ype r -a r id a nd t h e r e i s n o e v idence o f h um an o ccupa t ion i nt h e d e ser t . J u s t b ef o re 1 3000 B Pc l ima te b egan t oc hange a nd t h e r e i s e v idence f o r a c l im a te r e g im e o f r ap id ly f l u c tua t ing r a inf a l l . E ven t hough Me so l i th ic h un te r g a the r e r s a ppea r ed a tt h is t ime , t h e i r m a jo r s p r ead i n to t h e d e ser t t o ok p l ace i n t h e m id -Ho locen e p er iod ( 6000 -4000 B P ) .

T he a r t ic le p rov ide s a c ompa ra t ive m e t r ica l a na ly s i s o f t h r ee s e r ies o f h andaxes m ad e b y t h e a u tho r s . T hese s e r ie s a r e c o l lec t ion o f h andaxe s f r om S ing i T a lav n ea r D idwana i n R a ja s than ( n= 126 ) , a nd G u rava ra jupa l l i ( n=34 ) a nd V edu l lacheruvu ( n=46 ) f r om A ndh ra P radesh . T he c o l lec t ion s i n c luded v a r iou s t ypes s uch a sb acked , u n if ac ia l , p i ck h andaxe a nd p ro to -handaxe . T he p a ram e te r s u sed f o r c ompa r i son w e re t h e n umbe r , l e ng th , t h ickne s s , a ng le a nd p rof i le o ff l ake s c a r s . T he b i f ac ia l i ndex c a lcu la ted f r om n umbe r o ff l ake s c a r s o n f a ce s Aa nd B w a s u sed f o r c ompa r i son . S im i la r ly v a r iou s s hape i n d ices w e re c ompu ted . T he s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s i n d ica t ed t h a t V edu l lacheruvu l a rge c u t t ing t oo l s w e r e mo r e e vo lved . T he se t oo l s h ad s m a l l s i ze , mo re r egu la r i ty o f o u t l ine a nd b e t t e r s t anda rd i sa t ion o f v o lum e . On t h e o the r h and , t h e S ing i T a lav t oo l s a r e l a rge r , mo re e l onga ted a nd o f ten r ough ly t r imm ed . V -084 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 990a . P a laeo l i th ic P ha se i n I nd ia ,A nc ien tC ey lon 7 (2 ) : 1 0 1-149 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s c u l tu r e -w ise r e v iew o f p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i n I nd ia s i nce t h e 1 930 s . T he s e c t ion s a r e a r ranged u nde r f o l low ing h ead ing s : t h e e m e rgence o f m an , L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( Sohan ian a nd A cheu l ian c u l tu r e ) , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd e nv i ronmen t a nd c u l tu ra l d eve lopm en t d u r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene . S umma ry o f t h e L a te P l e i s tocene f o s s i l f auna a nd r ad iom e t r ic d a tes f r om P a laeo l i th ic s i te s h ave b een g iven i n t h e f o rm o f a ppend ice s .

D -082 : d 'E r r ico , F rance sco , C la i r e G a i l la rd , a nd V .N . M i s r a 1 989 . C o l lec t ion o f Non -U t i l i ta r ian O b jec t s b y Homo e rec tu s i nI nd ia , i n Hom in idae : P roceed ing s o ft h e S econd I n ter na t iona l C ong re s s o fH uman P a laeon to logy ( G iacomo G iacob in iE d . ) , p p .2 37 -239 .M i lan : J a ca B ook s . A tt h e A ch eu l ian s i te o fS ing i T a lav n ea rD idwana i nt h e T ha rD e se r t o fR a ja s than , s i x q uar tz c r y s ta l s w e r e f ound a s ap a r t o f aL owe rP a laeo l i th ic l i th ic i n du s t ry . S ing iT a lav i sa no pen -a i rs i te . T he q ua r tz c r y s ta l sw e re f ound f r om t h em a in o ccupa t ion l e ve l a tt h e b a se o f l a ye r 4 . T he e dge s o f t h e c r y s ta l s w e r e e xam ined u s ing S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scopy ( SE M ) . I tr e vea led t h a t e xcep t o ne o t h e r c r y s ta l s d o n o t s how a ny u se -wea r m a rk . T hough t h e se w e r e b rough t i n to t h e s i te b y H omo e r ec tu s t h e se w e r e c on s ide r ed a s n on -u t i l i ta r ian o b jec t s . I tw a sd i ff i cu l tt oe xp la in t h e o ccu r r ence o f s u ch n on -u t i l i ta r ian o b jec t si nt h e s i te . P e rhap st h ey

V -085 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 990b . P r eh i s to r ic C u l tu ra l S t age s i n t h e M idd le S on V a l ley , T he I nd ian H i s tor ica lR ev iew 1 4 ( 1-2 ) : 2 52 -262 . T h i s a r t ic le i sb a sed o nt h e r e su l t s o fi n ve s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t d u r ing 1 980 -81 e xped i t ion i n t h e S on v a l ley ( S idh i d i s t r ic t , Madhya P radesh ) . T he mu l t i d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch p ro jec t h eaded b y G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk w a s a im ed t o t r ace t h e

5 1

h i s to ry o f e a r l ies t h uman o ccupa t ion a nd t h e p a laeoenv i ronmen t i nt h e v a l ley . T he s umma ry o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l f i nd ing s , c h rono logy a nd g eomo rpho logy o f t h e s t udy a r ea h ave b een p rov ided i nt h is r ev iew .

K an ja r g roup s l i v ing i n F a r rukhabad d i s tr ic t o f U t ta r P radesh . T h is a r t ic le d e sc r ibes m a in ly t h e e t hnog raph ic a nd d e mog raph ic f e a tu res o f t h e K an ja r s s uch a st h e i rh i s to ry , g roup s i ze , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s , o ccupa t ion s , s ubs is tence , t e chno logy o f h un t ing , c r ime , d i sposa l o ft h e d ead , a nd r e l ig iou s b e l ief s . T he K an ja r s l i ke o the r n omad ic c ommun i t ies h ave b een c hang ing i n r e cen t y ea r s a nd t h e i r a ccu l tu ra t ion i s t ak ing p l ace . T he i n f orma t ion a bou t s uch c ommun i t ies i ss i gn if ican t b ecau se i t p rov ides c l ues t o i n te rp re t ing a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om s eve ra l Meso l i th ic s i tes i n U t ta rP radesh wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted i nr e cen t y ea r s . A lso , t h e p rocess o f a s s im i la t ion o f t h e K an ja r s i nt h e l a rge rs eden ta ry s oc ie ty i si mpor tan t f r om s oc ia lh i s to r ica lp e r spec t ive .

V -086 : M is ra , V .N . 1 990c . T he V an V agr is " Los t " Hun ter s o ft h e T ha rD eser t , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 8 9 -108 . V an V ag r is ( Van V av r i s o rV an V ao r is ) a r e as em i n omad ic h un t ing c ommun i ty f ound i nt h e s em i -a r id r eg ion o f w es tern R a ja s than . T he r e i sn o m en t ion o f t h ese p eop le i n c en su s r epor t s , g aze t tee r s o r a n th ropo log ica l w r i t ing s . S ince n o c en su s d a ta a r e a va i lab le . T here e x is ted s ome d oub t whe ther t h e V an V ag r is h ave a s epa ra te e t hn ic i d en t i ty . I ti s p os s ib le t h a t t h e V an V ag r i s , J anga l iya s , Ahe r is , B awa r ia s a nd o the r s a r e d escenden t o f Meso l i th ic h un t ing -ga ther ing c o mmun i t ie s whose c u l tu ra l r ema in s h ave b een f ound i n R a ja s than a nd a d jo in ing a r ea s . T h e a u tho r c onduc ted f i e ldwork b e tween 1 979 a nd 1 985 t og a in a nu nde r s tand ing o f t h is c ommun i ty . H e h as d escr ibed t h e i r h ab i ta t , d emog raphy , s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , p hy s ica l a ppea rance , d ance , or n amen t s , t empe ramen t a nd c ha rac te r , s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , ma r r iage , s ub s is tence , r e l ig ion , a nd t h e i r r e la t ion s w i th o the r c o mmun i t ies . I n t h e a r ea o f D idwana t h e V an V agr i s oc ie ty i sd iv ided i n to 1 3 e xogamou s c l an s . Mea t o fw i ld a n ima ls a nd b i rd s f o rm st h e p r inc ipa l c omponen t o f t h e i r d a i ly d i e t . T hey u se v a r iou s k ind s o fn e t s a nd t r aps t o c a tch t h e a n ima ls . T he ir r e l ig ion i sc en t red a r ound mo the r g oddes s w o r sh ip t h a t i sr e p resen ted b y am e ta l i mage . T hese p eop le g ene ra l ly k eep a way f r om p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s a nd h ave v e ry l im i ted i n te rac t ion w i th o the r c o mmun i t ies .

V -088 : M is ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .K . G an joo a nd R . Ko r ise t ta r 1 990a . G eoa rchaeo logy o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic S i te a t S amnapu r i n t h e C en t ra l N a rmada V a l ley , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (1) : 1 07 -116 . F o r l o ca t ing P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n t h e f i ne -g ra ined d epos i t s o ft h e C en t ra l N a rmada V a l ley , ar e sea rch p ro jec t b egan i n 1 986 . I n i t ia l ly t h e a r ea a round D evakacha r v i l lage i n N a r s inghpu r d i s t r ic t w a s i nves t iga ted . L a te r f o cu s s h if t ed t o t h e V indhyan f oo th i l ls o n t h e n or the r n s i de o f r i ve r N a rmada a f t e r t h e s i te o f S amnapu r ( 2 3° 0 6 ' 1 7 " N ; 7 9° 0 7 ' 3 0 " E ) w as d i scove red b y S .B . O ta a nd L .K . M i sh ra . T he s i te i s l o ca ted o n t h e h igh ( 23 m ) a l luv ia lt e r race o ft h eN a rmada . T he a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon o ccu r s i nt h e f o rm o f ar ubb le s p read ( 100 x6 0m ) a nd t h e s t one a r tef ac t sw er ee xposed d ue t o e r o s ion o f t h e o ve r ly ing s i l t . T he a r tef ac t a s semb lage a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r ubb le r e p resen t s a s em i -p r ima ry c on tex t . Du r ing t h r ee f i e ld s ea son s ( 1987 -1990 ) a n a r ea 4 4 m2 w a s d ug . A t o ta l o f 3 192 a r tef ac t s a nd a s ma l l n umbe r o f f o ss i l ised b one f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red . P re l im ina ry e xam ina t ion o ft h e a r tef ac t sr evea led t h a tf l akes ( 5 2 0 c m ) p redom ina te . Mos t o f t h e a r tef ac t s w e re m ade f r om l o ca l ly a va i lab le c her ty q uar tz i te a nd l o oked i n f r esh c ond i t ion . On t y po log ica l g round s t h e S amnapu r t oo l a s semb lage h a s b een c l a ss if ied a sM idd le P a laeo l i th ic .

N -087 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 990 . T he K an ja r s -A Hun t ing -Ga ther ing C ommun i ty o ft h e G anga V a l ley , U t ta r P radesh , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 7 1-88 . I t i s a p opu la r i mp ress ion t h a t t h e h un t ing g a ther ing c ommun i t ies i n I nd ia a r e m a in ly c onf ined t o h i l ly a nd f o res ted t r ac ts . Y e t t h e h un te r -ga there r s h ave c on t inued t h e i r w ay o f l i f e a nd r e ta ined t h e i rc u l tu ra l i d en t i t ies f o r al ong t ime i nt h e l a rge a l luv ia l p l a ins . T he K an ja r s a r e o ne o f t h e l a rges t a nd mos t w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i t ies i n I nd ia . T he i n f orma t ion p rov ided i nt h is a r t ic le i sd er ived f r om p ub l ished s ou r ces a nd f i e ld o bse rva t ion s made o n

V -089 : M is ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jaguru , R .K . G an joo a nd R . K or ise t ta r 1 990b . F u r the r R esea rch i n t h e P reh is to ry a nd Qua te rna ry G eo logy o ft h eN a rmada V a l ley , i n Adap ta t ion a nd O ther E ssay s ( N .C . G ho sh a nd S . C hak raba r t i E d s . ) , p p . 5 3 -59 . S an t in ike tan : V isva -Bha ra t i .

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r em a in s , r e l ig ion , s c r ip t , s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion a nd c h rono logy . V a r iou s t h eo r ies a bou t d ec l ine a nd d i sappea ran ce o ft h e c i v i l i sa t ion b a sed o n f o r e ign i n va s ion s , t e c ton ic s , c l ima te c hange , e nv i ronm en ta l d e te r io ra t ion , a nd h yd ro log ica lc hange h ave b een r ev iewed .

A s ap a r t o f amu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rch p ro jec t , t h e s i te o fS amnapu r( 2 3° 0 6 ' 1 7 "N ; 7 9° 0 7 ' 3 0 " E ) w a s e xcava ted d u r ing 1 987 -1990 . T h i s p ape r d e sc r ibe s t h e p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s o f t h e 1 988 e x cava t ion s e a son . A t o ta l a r ea o f 3 1 m2 w a s e xcava ted a nd d i gg ing w a s d on e u p t o ad ep th o f 3 5 cm . T he d en s i ty o f a r tef ac t s w a s f ound t o i n c rea se w i th d ep th . T he a r t ef ac t s ( n=676 ) l o ok ed r ema rkab ly f r e sh . T he se c omp r i sed s haped t o o l s ( 26 .18% ) , mod if i ed t oo l s ( 1 .92% ) a nd d eb i tage ( 7 1 .89% ) . T he s c r ape r s d om ina te ( 94 .35 % ) a mong t h e s haped t oo l s t h a t a r e a l l m ade o n f l ak e s . T he r e touch i sb o ld , mo s t ly u n if ac ia l a nd r e s t r ic ted t o t h e e dge s . T h e p ape r c on ta in s i n f o rm a t ion a bou t g eo log ica l s e t t ing , f o ss i l s , p a laeoenv i ron rn en ta l i n f e r ence s , s t ra t ig raphy , a nd s ugge s t ion s a bou t s i te f o rm a t ion . T he a s semb lage a ppea r s t ob e av a r ian t o f t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a dap ted t o f o re s t e co logy .

A -092 : A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M is ra 1 992 . Q uan t i ta t ive C ompo s i t ion a nd F unc t iona lA spec to f t h e P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage s o fR ock S he l te rI IF 2 3 a tB h imbe tka . Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 7 (2 ) : 2 13 4 . T h i s p ape r i s b a sed o n q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s is o f a r tef ac t s c o l lec ted ( n= 11536 ) f r om t r enche s Ea nd Fo fr o ck -she l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka ( 22° 5 0 ' N ; 7 7 ° 3 7 ' E ) e xcava ted b y V . N . M i s ra d u r ing 1 973 7 5 . V a r iab le s a na ly sed i n c lude l e ng th , b r ead th , r e touch a ng le a nd w e igh t o f t h e a r tef ac t s . C h i s qua r e t e s t a nd t wo s amp le t e s t s s uch a s Mann Wh i tney U t e s t a nd ' t 't e s t w e re u sed t o c ompa r e d i f f e r en t c u l tu ra l p e r iod s a nd l a ye r s , T h i s s t udy w a s a im ed t o a s ses s t empo ra l v a r ia t ion i n P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s r e cove r ed f r om p r ima ry c on tex t . A r tef ac t c l a s se s w e r e f ound t o b e c on s i s ten t e xcep t h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . H eav ie r , b roade r a nd l a rge r a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e c ommon i n l a ye r s even o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . L igh te r , n a r rowe r a nd s ma l le r a r tef ac t s d om ina te a l l c l a s se s e xcep t h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . T he h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a r e m ed ium i ns i ze . B o re r s a r e h eav ie r , b roade r a nd l a rge r i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod t h an t h ee a r l ie rp e r iod s .

V -090 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 992a . A r chaeo logy a nd T r ibe s , i n T har D e ser t i n R a ja s than : L and , Man a nd E nv ironmen t ( A .K . S inghv i a nd Am a l K a r E d s . ) p p . 8 5 -94 . B anga lo r e : G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f I nd ia . T he p a t te rn o f h uman a dap ta t ion s i n t h e T ha r D e se r t o f R a ja s than i s c l o se ly l i nked t o t h e r e cu r r en t c hange s i n c l ima te , h yd ro logy a nd l a ndf o rm s i n t h i s r e g ion . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s a n o ve rv iew o f f i nd ing s o f t h e mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rches i n t h e T ha r d e se r t o ve r l a s t t h r ee d ecade s . T he e a r l ie s t r e co rd o fh uman c o lon i sa t ion b eg in sw i th t h eA cheu l ian c u l tu r e . Human s oc ie t ie s i nt h e d e ser t s how av a r ie ty o fa dap t ive s t ra teg ie s t o ah a r sh e nv i ronm en t w h e r e s c a r c i ty o fw a te r i s t h e m a jo r f a c to r a f f ec t ing d eve lopm en t a nd s oc io e conom ic s t ru c tu r e s .

N -093 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 993 . T he P a rdh i s : A H un t ing -Ga the r ing C ommun i ty o f C en t ra l a nd We s ter n I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 ( 1) : 15 -140 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov id es ab r ief a ccoun t o ft h e c u l tu r e a nd l i f e s ty le o f t h e P a rdh i s , ah un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i ty f ound i nc en t ra l a nd w e s ter nI nd ia . T he i n f o rma t ion g i ven h e re w a s g a the r ed d u r ing t h e 1 989 -90 f i e ld s e a son f r om P a rdh i s o fN a r s inghpu r a nd S aga r d i s t r ic t s o f Madhya P rade sh . A l so , d a ta f r om p ub l i sh ed w o rk s h ave b een u sed t o s upp lem en t t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd . D u r ing t h e B r i t ish p e r iod t h e P a rdh is w e r e i n c luded i nt h e l i s t o f C r im ina l T r ibe s . L ike m any o the r h un t ing g a the r ing c ommun i t ie s , P a rdh i s t oo a r e e ngaged i n c r im ina l a c t iv i t ie s a s a n a l ter n a te s ou r ce o f l i ve l ihood . T he r ef o r e , t h e a u tho r f a ced s eve ra l d i ff icu l t ie s i n e s tab l i sh ing c on ta c t s a nd c o l lec t ing p e r sona l i n f o rma t ion . T he a u tho r s h ave d e sc r ibed

V -091 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 992b . R e sea r ch o n t h e I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion : A B r ief R ev iew , T he E as tern A n thropo log i s t4 5 ( 1-2 ) : 1 19 . T h e H a rappan o rI ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion w a s d i scove r ed i nt h e e a r ly t wen t ie s o ft h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry . R .D . B an r e j i a nd D aya R am S ahan i c on t r ibu ted t o t h e e a r ly a r chaeo log ica ls t ud ies . S i nce t h en ,k now ledge o f t h i s c i v i l i sa t ion h a s g rown e no rmou s ly . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s ab r ief r e v iew o f t h e e xp lo ra t ion f i nd ing s , e xcava t ion s a nd g ene ra l r e sea r ch c onduc ted a t t h e H a r appan s i t es . T he p o in t s r e v iewed i n c lude g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r ia t ion , e conomy , e x ter n a l t r ade a nd c on tac t s , h uman

5 3

t h e l i f es ty le , d i s t r ibu t ion , p opu la t ion , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s , s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , e conomy , d r es s a nd a ppea rance , f am i ly a nd ma r r iage s y s tem , a nd d i spo sa l o ft h ed ead o ft h e c ommun i ty . T he P a rdh is a r e e x t reme ly p oo ra nd p os se ss v e ry l i t t le p rope r ty . T he i r ma in o ccupa t ion i sh un t ing a nd t h ey u se a v a r ie ty o ft e chn iques t ot r ap a nd k i l l a n ima ls .

T he H a rappan o r I ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion w a s d i scove r ed i nt h e 1 920s . Ou rk now ledge o ft h is c i v i l isa t ion h a s g rown a f te r 1 950s d ue t o d i scover ies a nd e xcava t ion s o f m any H a rappan s i tes . A lso , n ew m e thodo log ies a nd f o cu ssed r e sea rches , e spec ia l ly o nt h e e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing , h ave c on t r ibu ted t oa much b e t te ru nder s tand ing a bou tt h e o r ig in , g row th a nd d ec l ine o f t h is m a jo r c i v i l isa t ion o f a nc ien t S ou th A s ia . T h is p ape r d i scu s ses t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n o ft h e H a rappan c i v i l i sa t ion i nt h e G rea ter I ndu s V a l ley ( M .R . Mugha l 's t e rm ) . I tp rov ides s t a t is t ica l s u mma ry o f t h e d i scove red s i tes , m ap s s how ing g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n , s i gn if i cance o f t h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ver a nd i t b e ing t h eR igved ic S a ra sva t i , a nd t h ep roces s o ft h e s h if t ing o ft h e c ou r ses o fS u t le j a nd Y amuna . L e s s t h an 5 0 s i tes a r e l o ca ted o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r a s o pposed t o n ea r ly o ne t hou sand s i te s o n t h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve r . T h is a na ly s is s howed t h a tt h e I ndu s c i v i l isa t ion w a s c en t red o n t h e Ghagga r H ak ra r i ve r a nd n o t o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r . B a sed o n mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry e v idence i t i s c onc luded t h a t G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve r r ep resen t s t h e r emnan t o f

V -094 : M is ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty a nd L a l i t P andey 1 993 . T e r raco t ta B u l l F igu r ines f r om Ma rm i : A C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t i n C h i to rga rh D i s t r ic t , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 49 -152 . Du r ing 1 993 f i e ld s e a son as y s tema t ic s u rvey o ft h e B ana s a nd B e rach r i ver s i nR a ja s than w a s c a r r ied o u t t o f i nd o u t a n Aha r c u l tu re s i te s u i tab le f o r e xcava t ion . T he s i te o f Ma rm i ( 25° 0 6 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 5 ' ) l o ca ted o n t h e B ana s r i ve r i n C h i to rga rh d i s t r ic t a nd l o ca l ly k nown a s P u ran i ( o ld ) Ma rm i w a s o ne o ft h e s evera l k nown s i tes wh ich w e re e xam ined . S u rf ace f i nd s i n c luded a v a r ie ty o f c e ram ics , t e r raco t ta b u l l f i gu r ines a nd b ead s o f s he l ls a nd t e r raco t ta . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage s howed t h a tt h e s i te w a s o ccup ied f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic p er iod u p t o t h e Med ieva l p er iod . T h is a r t ic le d esc r ibes 5 8 t e r raco t ta b u l l f i gu r ines c o l lec ted d u r ing t h e e xp lo ra t ion . T he b u l l f i gu r ines w e re p e rhaps v o t ive o b jec t s .

V ed ic S a ra sva t i , c i v i l isa t ion .

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N -97 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M is ra 1 994 . S u rv iva l o f t h e Hun t ing -ga ther ing T rad i t ion i n t h e G anga P la in s a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i n L iv ing T rad i t ions : S t ud ie s i n t h e E thnoarchaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia ( Br idge t A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 69 -192 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH .

V -095 : M is ra , V .N . 1 994a . P a t te r n s o f Human Adap ta t ion i n t h e S em i -a r id a nd A r id Z one o f R a ja s than , i n L iv ing T rad i t ions : S tud ie s i n t h e E thnoarchaeo logy o fS ou th A s ia ( Br idge t A l lch in E d . ) ,p p . 1 01-124 .N ew D e lh i : O xf ord a nd I BH .

T he a n t iqu i ty o f h un t ing -ga ther ing w ay o f l i f e i n I nd ia g oes b ack t o t h e M idd le P l e is tocene a nd p os s ib ly e ven e a r l ie r . T hese c o mmun i t ies s t ar ted c hang ing w i th t h e s p read o fa g r icu l tu re d u r ing t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC T hey c on t inued t h e i rw ay o f l i f e a nd r e ta ined t h e i r c u l tu ra l i d en t i t ies f o r al ong t im e i nt h e l a rge a l luv ia l p l a in s . T h is p aper g ives a b r ief e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t o f h un t ing -ga ther ing c ommun i t ies i n t h e G anga P la in a nd i n C en t ra l I nd ia . T he i n f o rma t ion a bou t K an ja r s a nd o t he r p eop le s uch a s t h e B ahe l iya s , B anga l is , B adh ik s , B awa r iya s , B han tu s , H abu ra s , S an s iya s , a nd B er iya s h a s b een c o l lec ted f r om p ub l ished a ccoun t s , a nd t h a t a bou t t h e K an ja r s , P a rdh is a nd Kuchbandh iyas f r om f i e ldwo rk . T he d emog raph ic f e a tu res o ft h ese p eop le , t h e i r h i s to ry , g roup s i ze , s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s , o ccupa t ion s , s ubs is tence , t e chno logy o fh un t ing , c r ime , d i spo sa l o ft h e d ead , a nd r e l ig iou sb e l ief sh ave b een d escr ibed .

T h i s b r ief e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t o f t h e h uman p opu la t ion f ound i n R a jas than s how s h ow p eop le a dap t t o e co log ica l c ond i t ion s . T he c ommun i t ie s d eve lop a v a r ie ty o f c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic a dap ta t ion s t o s u i t t h e h a r sh e nv i ronmen t a r ound t h em . T he s t ra teg ies a dop ted b y t h e d eser t c ommun i t ies h ave b een e xemp l if ied g iv ing e t hnog raph ic o b se rva t ion s o n c ommun i t ies s uch a s t h e B an ja ras ,B ishno is , V an V ag r is , R a ika s , T hor is , a nd B h i ls . V -096 : M is ra , V .N . 1 994b . I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion a nd t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i , i nS ou th A s ian A rchaeo logy 1 993 V o l . I( A sko P a rpo la a nd P e t ter i K o sk ika l l io E d s . ) , p p . 5 11-525 . H e ls ink i : S uoma la inen T iedeaka tem ia .

V -98 :

5 4

M is ra ,

V .N .

1 995a .

E vo lu t ion

o f

E nv i ronmen t a nd C u l tu r e i nt h e R a ja s than D e ser t d u r ing t h eL a te Q ua te rna ry , i nA nc ien tP eop le sa nd L and scape s ( E i leen J ohn son E d . ) , p p . 7 7 -103 . L ubbock ,T exa s : T exa sT ech Un ive r s i ty P r e s s .

f r om wh ich i td e r ive s i t s n am e . L e s s t h an 5 0 s i te s a r e l o ca ted o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r whe r ea s a bou t 1 000 s i tes a r e l o ca ted o nt h e G hagga r -Hak r a r i ve r . T ob e a b le t o s uppo r t t h e v a s t p opu la t ion r e p re sen ted b y t h e l a rge n umbe r o f H a rappan s i te s , t h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve rh ad t oc a r ry w a te rp e r enn ia l ly i n i t s l a rge a nd w ide b ed . T he c umu la t ive muf t i d i sc ip l ina ry e v idence ( g eomo rph ic , s ed im en to log ica l , r emo te s en s ing , a r chaeo log ica l , h i s to r ica l a nd f o lk lo r i s t ic ) s uppo r t s t h e h ypo the s i s t h a tt h e p r e sen t G hagga r -Hak r a r i ve rr e p r e sen t st h e r emnan t o f V ed ic S a ra sva t i , t h e l i f e l ine o f t h e I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion .

Mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch i nR a ja s than d u r ing t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s h a s a dded s ub s tan t ia l ly t o t h e k now ledge o f t h e e vo lu t ion o f t h e d e ser t e nv i ronm en ta nd h um an a dap ta t ion st oi td u r ing t h e l a te r p a r t o f Q ua te rna ry . T he r e sea r ch i n c luded m app ing o f Q ua te rna ry f o rm a t ion s , r a d iom e t r ic d a t ing o f s ed im en ta ry u n i t s , e xp lo r ing a nd e xcava t ing a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a na ly s i s o fc u l tu ra l m a t e r ia l a nd c o l lec t ing e t hnog r aph ic i n f o rma t ion . T h i s p ape r t r ace s t h e c hange s t h a t o ccu r red i n h um an c u l tu r e a nd t h e e vo lu t ion o f d e se r t e nv i ronm en t f r om t h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic t ime s u p t o2 000 y ea r sa go .

V -10 1 : M i s ra , V .N . , V a san t S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , Ku ru sh D a la l , A nup M i sh ra , L a l i t P andey a nd J e evan K ha ra l cwa l 1 995 . E xcava t ion s a tB a la tha l : T he i rC on t r ibu t ion t ot h e C ha lco l i th ic a nd I r on A ge C u l tu r e s o f Mewa r , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 0 ( 1) : 5 7 -80 .

V -99 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 995b . G eoa r chaeo logy o ft h e T ha r D e se r t , N o r thwes t I nd ia , i n Q ua t ernary E nv ironmen t s a nd G eoar chaeo logy o f I nd ia : E s say s i n Honour o fP rof e s sor S .N . R a jaguru ( S . Wad ia , R . K o r i se t ta ra nd V .S . K a le E d s . ) , p p . 2 10 2 30 .B anga lo r e : G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fI nd ia .

N ea r ly 9 0 C ha lco l i th ic s i tes w e r e d i scove r ed d u r ing f o r ty y ea r s o fr e sea r ch i nt h e Mewa rr eg ion o f R a ja s than . B a la tha l ( 24 ° 4 3 N ; 7 3° 5 9 E ) i s l o ca ted i n t h e U da ipu r d i s t r ic t . T h i s a r t ic le d e sc r ibes r e su l t s o f t h e e xcava t ion s a t t h e s i te d u r ing 1 994 -95 a nd t h e m a jo rf i nd ing st h a t i n c lude c e ram ic s , b ead s , c oppe r a nd i r on o b jec t s , s t ruc tu r e s , t e r raco t ta o b jec t s , g l a s s b ang les , a nd a r i ng w e l l . T he e xcava t ion y i e lded e v idence o ft wo c u l tu r a l p e r iod s : t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod ( l aye r 1 4 t o 2 2 ) a nd t h e l i on A ge ( l aye r s 1 12 ) . T he C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod a tB a la tha l ( 2 350 -1800 BC ) i s c ha rac te r ised b y t h e p r e sence o f l a rge r e c tangu la r a nd s qua r i sh s t ruc tu r e s t h a t s e rved v a r ied f unc t ion s . I nt h e I r on A ge c on tex t( 5 th c en tu ry BC 3 rd c en tu ry AD ) a mud r ampa r t o f r e c tangu la r s hape ( 30 x 1 5 m ) w a s f ound . T h e r ampa r t h a s a s t one r e ve tm en t . A n umbe r o f i r on s m e l t ing f u rnace s a nd s eve ra l i r on i mp lem en t s w e re f ound . T he se s how t h a t B a la tha l p l ayed a n i mpor tan t r o le i nt h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o f R a ja s than d u r ing t h e I r on A ge .

T h i s a r t ic le s umma r ise s r e su l t s o f ad ecade o f r e sea rch o n p a laeoenv i ronm en t a nd g eoa r chaeo logy o f t h e T ha r D e ser t i n n o r thwe s t I nd ia . T he r e sea r ch s how ed t h a t t h e p r e sen t l a nd scape , c l ima te a nd h yd ro log ica l s e t t ing o ft h e a r id a nd t h e s em i -a r id r e g ion a r e m a rk ed ly d i f f e r en t f r om w ha t t h ey w e r e d u r ing t h e N eogene a nd E a r ly Q ua te rna ry . Mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e p ow er f u l a nd w e l l in teg ra ted d r a inage s y s tem o pe r a t ing i n t h e p a s t s t ead i ly d ec l ined a nd e ven tua l ly d i sappea r ed . F rom t h e M idd le t ot h e L a te P l e i s tocene t h e re w a s e x t en s ive h uman o ccupa t ion o f t h e D e se r t . T he c l ima te w a s h um id d u r ing t h e M id -Ho locene . T h e Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s w ho w e r e p r e sen t b ef o r e s p r ead i n t h e d e se r t d u r ing t h e m id H o locene p e r iod . B y t h e L a te H o locene t h e a r id c ond i t ion ss im i la rt ot ho se o ft h ep r e sen t -day b egan t os e ti n .

V -102 : M i s ra V .N . 1 996 . Me so l i th ic I nd ia : H i s to ry a nd C u r r en t S t a tu s , i n T he P r eh i s tor y o fA s ia a nd O cean ia ( G .E . A f ana sev , S .C leuz iou , J .R . L ukac s a nd M . T o s iE d s . ) ,p p . 3 21 -328 . ABACO E d iz ion i .

V 100 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 995c . I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion a nd t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i , S e cond I n terna t iona l C ong re s sP roceed ing s ,p p . 1 25 142 . Mumba i : H .R . C ama O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te .

T h i s b r ief r ev iew p rov ides d i scu s s ion a bou t s a l ien t f e a tu r e s o ft h e Me so l i th ic A ge i nI nd ia s uch a st h e h i s to ry o f r e sea r ch , p o s i t ion o f t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry , g eog r aph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s i n I nd ia ,

T he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o ft h e I ndu s o r H a rappan c i v i l isa t ion s i te s s howed t h a t i tw a s c en t r ed o nt h e G hagga r -Hak r a r i ve r a nd n o t o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r

5 5

s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , t e chno logy , s ubs i s tence p a t te rn , d we l l ings , d i sposa l o f t h e d ead , m a te r ia l c u l tu re , Meso l i th ic a r t , t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t , c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion , a nd c h rono logy .

em e rgence o f a gr icu l tu re d i scu ssed i nd e ta i l .

a nd

s e t t led

l i f e

a r e

V -105 : M is ra , V .N . 1 997b . B a la tha l : A C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t i n Mewa r , R a ja s than , I nd ia : R esu l t s o fF i r s t T h ree S eason s E xcava t ion s , S ou th A s ian S tud ie s 1 3 : 2 51-273 .

V -103 : M is ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 996 . P a laeoenv i ronmen t a nd P r eh is to ry o f t h e T ha r D eser t , R a ja s than , I nd ia , i n F ace t s o f a Marwar H i s tor ian : A spec t s o fI nd ia ' s S oc ia l a nd E conom ic H i s tory ( B .L . B hadan i a nd Dw i jend ra T r ipa th i E d s . ) ,p p . 9 9 -133 . J a ipu r : P ub l ica t ion S cheme .

T h i s p aper d e scr ibe s t h e r e su l t s o f t h ree s e a son ' s e xcava t ion s ( 1994 -1997 ) c onduc ted a t B a la tha l ( 24 ° 4 3 N ; 7 3° 5 9 E ) i n Uda ipu rd i s t r ic t , R a ja s than . D igg ing h a s b een d one i n a n a r ea o f 1 400 m2 i n n ea r ly s i x ty t r enches . Twen ty two l a ye r s w e r e i d en t if ied i nt r ench F 4 . T he d epos i to ft h e u ppe r 1 2 l a ye r s c on s is ted o f h igh ly b u rn t a nd v i t r if ied a sh . L aye r s 6t o 1 3 f ound i nt r ench F 4 w ere a b sen t i n o t he rt r enches . T he h ab i ta t ion o ft h e s i te r e s t s o n a t h in l a ye r o f b l ack s o i l t h a t w a s f o rmed o ve r t h e n a tu ra l g ran i te a nd g ne iss ic b ed rock . T he a r t ic le d ea ls o n ly w i th t h e s t ruc tu re s , c e ram ics ,

S ince 1 987 at e am o fs c ien t i s t s a nd a r chaeo log is t s h as b een i n ve s t iga t ing n ea r D idwana ( Nagau r d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) t o u nde r s tand t h e g eo log ica l r e co rd o f p a laeoenv i ronmen t , a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o fh uman h ab i ta t ion i nt h e T ha rD ese r t . T h is a r t ic le p resen t s as yn thes is o f r e su l t s o b ta ined t i l l 1 985 . I t c on ta in s a d escr ip t ion o f s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion s c a r r ied o u t a t J aya l , S ing i T a lav , I ndo la k i Dhan i a nd 1 6R , e nv i ronmen t d u r ing t h e L a te N eogene a nd Q ua te rna ry , G eo log ica l F o rma t ion s a nd h uman r e spon se t o c hang ing e nv i ronm en t .

s ubs is tence e conomy a nd c h rono logy C ha lco l i th ic p er iod ( 2 500 -1600 BC ) .

o f t h e

V -106 : M is ra , V .N . , V . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , L a l i t P andey a nd J eevan K ha rakwa l 1 997 .

V -104 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 997a . E a r ly Man a nd H is E nv i ronmen t i n C en t ra l I nd ia , J ourna l o f t h e P a laeon to log ica lS oc ie ty o fI nd ia 4 2 : 1 18 .

E xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l , D i s t r ic t Uda ipu r , R a ja s than ( 1995 -97 ) , w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t o C ha lco l i th ic A rch i tec tu re , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 2 2 (2 ) : 3 5 -59 .

T h is r ev iew t r aces t h e h i s to ry o fh uman s i nC en t ra l I nd ia f r om t h e e a r l ies tt im es t ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h e c oppe r -u s ing p ha se . C en t ra l I nd ia i s a n a r ea o f s pec ia l c u l tu re -h is tor ica l i n te r es t s i nce t h r ee o ft h e S ubcon t inen t 's c u l tu ra l s t ream s a r e f ound h e re . T he a r t ic le p rov ide s i n f orma t ion a bou t t h e g eog raph ic a nd e nv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing , t h e d iver s i ty o fp eop le a nd h i s tory o f p r eh is tor ic r e sea rch c onduc ted i n t h is r eg ion f r om t h e m id -n ine teen th c en tu ry . T he

T h i s p ape r d escr ibes ma jo r f i nd ing s o f f u r the r e xcava t ion s c onduc ted a tB a la tha l ( 24° 4 3 N ; 7 3° 5 9 E ) b e tween 1 995 a nd 1 997 . T hough i n f o rma t ion a bou t p o t tery , o the r m a ter ia l o b jec t s a nd s t ra t ig raphy h a s b een g iven , t h e m a in f o cu s o ft h i s p ape r i st o p rov ide a d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic a r ch i tec tu re . T he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod a tB a la tha l ( 2800 -1500 BC ) i sc ha rac ter ised b yt h e p resence o ft h r ee r e s iden t ia l c omp lexes d iv ided b y aw ide s t ree t a nd a n a r row l a ne . T he h ou ses a r e made o f s t one a nd mud b r ick . A t o ta l o f 1 5 r ad ioca rbon d a tes w e re o b ta ined . T hese r ange f r om 1 820+70 t o 5 770+100 BP ( ba sed o n h a lf l if e o f 5 730 y ea r s ) . B a sed o n i n -dep th e xam ina t ion o ft h e c e ram ics , t h e o r ig in a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re a tB a la tha lh a sb een t r aced .

a u tho r h a s r ev iewed p a laeon to log ica l , c u l tu ra l a nd o t he r ma te r ia l e v idence r e la ted t o t h e p reh is tor ic m an f r om t h e e a r l ies t h un te r -ga ther ing s t age ( t he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ) t o t h e b eg inn ing o f s e t t led v i l lage l i f e s t age ( t he C ha lco l i th ic ) . T he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic e v idence f r om t h e N a rmada , B e lan , a nd S on v a l ley s i sd i scu ssed . T he h uman c u l tu ra l a t t r ibu tes d u r ing t h e M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd Meso l i th ic p er iod s a r e t h o rough ly r e v iewed . E xcep t d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p ha se t h e r e g ion w a s i n ten s ive ly i nhab i ted . T he e nv i ronmen t d u r ing t h e H o locene s e em s t o h ave

V -107 : M isra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .J . Wa s son , G . S ingh a nd D .P . A g rawa l 1 997 . F u r the rL igh t o n L owe r P a laeo l i th ic O ccupa t ion a nd P a laeoenv i ronmen t i n S em i -A r id Z one o f R a ja s than , i nI nd ian P reh i s tory 1 980 ( V .D . M is ra a nd J .N . P a l E d s . ) , p p . 5 1-60 . A l lahabad : Un ive r s i ty o fA l lahabad .

b een c onduc ive a s t h e re w a s ar ap id i n c r ea se i n h uman p opu la t ion a nd s eden t ism d u r ing t h e Meso l i th ic p ha se . A bou t4 500 y ea r s a go a gr icu l tu re b egan i nC en t ra l I nd ia . T he ma te r ia l r ema in s a f te r

5 6

B and is , G andh i la s , B adh ik s .

A n e xcep t iona l ly r i ch L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t e n ea r J aya l ( 27 ° 1 3 ' N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) i nN agau r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than w a s d i scove r ed i n 1 979 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s d e sc r ip t ion o f v a r iou s t r enche s a t D idwana , S ing i T a lav , Am a rpu ra q ua r r ie s , a nd I ndo la k i Dhan i . T he f l ak ed a r tef ac t s ( n= 130 ) c on ta in ed h andaxe s , s c rape r s a nd c hoppe r s a sw e l l a s d eb i tage . A l l t h e a r tef ac t s w e r e f r e sh i n c ond i t ion . Me t r ica l a na ly s i s a nd q uan t i ta t ive i n f o rm a t ion a bou tt h ea r tef ac t sa r ep rov ided .

B awa r iya s ,

B han tu s

a nd

V -110 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 999 . P o t te ry , i n C hem i s try a nd C hem ica l T echn ique s i n I nd ia ( B .V . S ubba rayappa E d . ) , p p . 2 23 -244 . N ew D e lh i : C en t r e f o rS tud ies i nC iv i l iza t ion s . P o t te ry a ppea r s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o n ly a f t e r t h e e m e rgen ce o f a g r icu l tu r e a nd s e t t led l i f e d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod . T h i s c hap te ro np o t te ry p rov ide s ac ompac t i n t rodu c t ion t ov a r iou s c e ram ic f o rm s f ound f r om t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e s i te s u p t o t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic s i te s . T he d i scu s s ion i sr e la ted t o t h e m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , N eo l i th ic p o t te ry f r om v a r iou s p a r t s o fI nd ia , t h e e a r ly , m a tu re a nd l a te H a rappan p o t te ry , C ha lco l i th ic p o t te ry ( Ma lwa a nd J orwe c u l tu re ) , P a in ted G r ey Wa r e , No r ther n B lack P o l i shed Wa r e , R ou le t ted Wa r e a nd A r r e t ine Wa r e .

V -108 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 997 . F rom T r ibe t o C a s te : An E thnoa r chaeo log ica l P e r spec t ive , i nF rom T r ibe t oC as te ( Dev N a than E d . ) , p p . 1 36 -166 . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o f A dvanced S tudy . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s a n o u t l ine o f t h e p roce s s o f i n co rpo ra t ion o f t r iba l s oc ie t ie s i n to t h e c a s te s oc ie ty w i th h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog r aph ic d a ta . I tf u rn ishe s d ef in i t ion s o fc a s te a nd t r ibe , d i s t inc t ive f e a tu r e s o fc a s te s y s tem a nd t h e t r iba l s oc ie t ie s , t h e t r ibe -ca s te c on t inuum a nd t h e p roces s o ft r an s i t ion f r om t r ibe t oc a s te , S tone A ge h uman p opu la t ion e xpan s ion s , o r ig in a nd s p r ead o fa g r icu l tu r e a nd i t s i n t en s if i ca t ion d u r ing t h e I r on A ge . A ga in s t t h i s a r chaeo log ica l b ackg round t h e a u tho r s t r ac e t h e o r ig in o f c a s te s y s tem , f a c to r s c on t r ibu t ing t ot h e i n co rpo r a t ion o f t r iba l p eop le i n to t h e c a s te s oc ie ty a nd t h e p roce s s o f a s s im i la t ion . T he K an ja r s , ah un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i ty o fn o r th I nd ian p l a in sh a sb een t a k en t o i lu s t ra te t h ep o in ta bou tt h et r ibe -ca s te i n te rac t ion .

V -111 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 001a . A r chaeo log ica l E v idence o f E a r ly Moder n Hum an O ccupa t ion i n S ou th A s ia , i n Human i ty f rom A f r ican N a i s sance t o C om ing M i l lenn ia ( P .V . T ob ia s , M .A . R aa th , J . Mogg i -Cecch i a nd G .A . D oy le E d s . ) , p p . 2 23 -230 . F i r enze : F e r enze . S ign if i can t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r c o lon i sa t ion o f S ou th A s ia s t a r t s a ppea r ing f r om t h e A cheu l ian s t age o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , w h ich m ay d a te t o c . 7 00 ,000 y ea r s a go . Two p ha se s o ft h eA cheu l ian c u l tu re c an b e r e cogn i sed a n e a r l ie r o ne c ha rac te r i sed b y h igh p ropo r t ion o f c o r et oo l s , l ow p ropor t ion o fc rude ly m ade c l eave r s a nd f l ake t oo l s a nd a b sence o fL eva l lo i st e chn ique . T he l a te r p ha se i sm a rk ed b y l ow p ropor t ion o f b i f ace s , u se o fl a rge f l ak e s , ah igh r a t io o fc l eave r s t oh andaxe s a nd v e ry h i gh p ropo r t ion o ff l ake t o o l s l i ke s c rape r s . T h i s p ape r s umma r i se s t h e e v idence o fh um an o ccupa t ion d u r ing t h e s ub sequen tM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p ha se s . A mo r e s i gn if ican t s h if ti nt e chno logy a nd t y po logy c an b e s e en b e tween t h e e a r l ie ra nd l a te rA ch eu l ian s t age s t h an b e tween t h e l a te r p ha se o fA cheu l ian a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o ft h e S ubcon t inen t s e em s t ob e a so ld a st h a t o fE u rope a nd t h eN ea rE a s t .

N -109 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 998 . H un te r G a the r e r s i n G anga P la in s , i n P er spec t ive s i n T r iba lD eve lopmen t :F ocu so n U t tar P rad e sh ( H .S . S ak sena , B .R .K . S huk la , P .K . T ewa r i a nd P .N . S ha rm a E d s . ) , p p . 1 4 1 -147 . L ucknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty . I nd ia h a s at r iba l p opu la t ion o f o ve r 4 0 m i l l ion . Mo r e t h an 3 00 d i s t inc t c ommun i t ie s h ave b een c l a s s if i ed a s S ch edu led T r ibe s f o r f a vou r ed t r ea tm en tb yt h eg ove rnm en t . I ti se xpec ted t h a tt h e o r ig ina l h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i t ie s w ou ld h ave c omp le te ly a s s im i la ted i n to t h e n ew s oc io c u l tu r a l o rde r . B u t t h i s i s n o t t r ue e ve rywhe re . Many c o mmun i t ie s f ound i nt h e u ppe r a nd m idd le G anga V a l ley s how t h a t t h e se h ave c on t inued t h e i r w ay o fl i f e a nd r e ta ined t h e i rc u l tu ra l i d en t i t ies f o r al o ng t ime . T he c ommun i t ie s i n c luded i n t h i s s t udy a r e Ah e r iya s , B ahe l iya s , K an ja r s , B anga l i s ,

V -112 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 001b . P r eh i s to r ic Human C o lon iza t ion o f I nd ia , J ourna l o f B io sc ience s 2 6 (4 ) : 4 91-531 .

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T h is a r t ic le g ives a n e xhau s t ive a ccoun t o f p r eh is tor ic h uman c o lon isa t ion i nI nd ia c ove r ing a s pan o fa tl e a s t p a s t h a lf am i l l ion y ea r s . I tb eg in s w i th i n t roduc t ion t op e r iod isa t ion . Ma in f e a tu res o f t h e e a r l ies t c u l tu res s uch a s t h e S ohan ian , A cheu l ian , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ave b een d esc r ibed t h a t i n c lude p a laeoenv i ronmen t , c h rono logy , g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s i tes , f o ss i l e v idence a nd d eve lopm en t o f t e chno logy . A c hange i n s ubs is tence t ook p l ace i nt h e Meso l i th ic p ha se w i th i n ten s if ied f ood c o l lec t ing a nd s h if tt owa rd s s e t t led l i f e . O the r i mpor tan t p o in t s d i scu ssed i n c lude t h e s p read o f a g r icu l tu re , e v idence f r om Meh rga rh , C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu res , I ndu s c i v i l isa t ion , eme rgence o ff a rm ing c ommun i t ie s o u t s ide t h e z one o fI ndu s c i v i l isa t ion , N eo l i th ic c u l tu res o fK a shm i r V a l ley , t h e V indhya s a nd G anga V a l ley , e a s te rn I nd ia a nd s ou th I nd ia . S ign if ican t d eve lopmen t s t ook p l ace d u r ing t h e C ha lco l i th ic p er iod t h a t i n c lude i n t roduc t ion o fc oppe r -b ronze f o rm ak ing t oo ls a nd w eapon s , i mp roved a r ch i tec tu re , a nd whee l -made p o t te ry . T he C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu res s uch a s Aha r c u l tu r e , Ma lwa c u l tu re , a nd J orwe c u l tu re h ave b een d escr ibed . T he i n t roduc t ion o f i r on t e chno logy w a s c ruc ia l ly i mpor tan t t o t h e e xpan s ion o f a g r icu l tu re -based s e t t led l i f e . T he p r inc ipa l f e a tu res o f t h e I r on A ge , Mega l i th ic monumen t s , s p read o f i r on t e chno logy t o s ou th I nd ia , a nd d emog raph ic c ompos i t ion o fI nd ia h ave b een d escr ibed .

P reh i s tory ( S . S e t ta r a nd R av i K o r ise t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 11-125 . New D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . T h is c omprehen s ive r ev iew p rov ides a d i scu ss ion o f v a r iou s i s sues r e la ted t o u nde r s tand ing s i gn if i cance o f t h e Meso l i th ic A ge i n I nd ia . I t b eg in s w i th ab r ief h i s tory o fr e sea rch a nd p o s i t ion o ft h e Meso l i th ic p ha se i n I nd ian p reh is to ry . T he o t he rm a jo rp o in t s c ove red a r e g eog raph ica l s p read o ft h e Meso l i th ic s i tes i nI nd ia , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n , t e chno logy , s ubs is tence p a t ter n , d we l l ing s , d i sposa l o f t h e d ead , ma ter ia l c u l tu r e , c h rono logy , Me so l i th ic a r t , t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t s a nd c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion . V -115 : M isra , V .N . 2 002b . E xcava t ion s o f Human B u r ia l s , i n B io log ica l A n thropo logy o f Human S k e le ta l R ema ins f rom B h imbe tka , C en tra l I nd ia ( K .A .R . K ennedy , J .R . L ukac s a nd V .N . M is ra E d s . ) , p p . 7 -26 . P une : I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Qua ter n a ry S tud ies . T h ree r o ck -she l te r s ( I I I F -13 , I I F -23 a nd I B -33 ) w e re e xcava ted b y V .N . M i s ra a t B h imbe tka ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P rade sh ) b e tween 1 973 a nd 1 977 . S he l te r I I F -13 h ad t wo b u r ia ls a nd I B -33 h ad f i ve b u r ia ls . T he h uman s ke le ton s e xcava ted f r om B h imbe tka r o ck -she l te r c omp lex w e re e xam ined b y t wo p a laeoan th ropo log is t s , K .A .R . K ennedy a nd J .R . L ukacs . T h is a r t ic le p rov ides b as ic i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e B h imbe tka h i l l , r o ck -she l te r s , c on tex t o f h uman b u r ia l s a nd d e ta i ls o fs t ra t ig raphy o fe xcava ted t r enches .

V -113 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 001c . T he R o le o f t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i i nt h eR ise , G row th a nd D ec l ine o ft h e I ndu sC iv i l iza t ion ,A nna l so ft h eB handarkar O r ien ta lR e search I n s t i tu te 8 2 : 1 65 -191 .

V -116 : M is ra , V .N . 2 002c . Me so l i th ic C u l tu r e i n I nd ia , i n Me so l i th ic I nd ia ( V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l E d s . ) , p p . 1 66 . A l lahabad : Un ive r s i ty o f A l lahabad .

T h is p ape r i s t h e p r in ted v er s ion o f t h e l e c tu re g iven o nt h e o cca s ion o ft h e 7 3rd d ea th a nn ive r sa ry o fS i rR .G . B handa raka r . T he a u tho rh a s c o mpa red t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fH a rappan s i tes o nt h e I ndu sr i ve r a nd o n t h e d ry c hanne l o f Ghagga r -Hak ra r i ve r . B a sed o n l i t era ry , f o lk lor is t ic , a r chaeo log ica l , g eomo rpho log ica l , s ed imen to log ica l a nd r emo te s en s ing d a ta , t h e a u tho rh a s s ugges ted t h a tb o th t h e S u t le j a nd Y amuna f l owed i nt h e S a ra sva t i c hanne l i nt h ep a s t . T he d escr ip t ion o ft h e l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd d es icca t ion o ft h e S a rasva t i r i ve ri nt h e V ed ic , e p ic a nd c l a ss ica l I nd ian l i t e ra tu re m a tche s w i th t h e f e a tu re s a nd h i s to ry o ft h e Ghagga r -Hak ra r i ve r .

T he Meso l i th ic p er iod , e ven t h ough i tc ove r so n ly a f ew t hou sand y ea r s i n t h e l o ng h i s tory o f h umank ind , h a s e normou s c u l tu re -h i s tor ica l i mpor tance . E qu ipped w i th t h e i n t ima te k now ledge o ft h eb i o log ica l w o r ld a round t h em ,t h e Meso l i th ic p eop le b egan t o d omes t ica te p l an t s a nd a n ima l a r ound n ine t hou sand y ea r s a go . T h is k eyno te a dd res s t o t h e s em ina r o rgan ised i n 1 996 a t A l lahabad f ur n ishes a n e xhau s t ive r ev iew o f r e sea rch c onduced s o f a r r e ga rd ing t h is v e ry i mpor tan t c u l tu ra l p ha se i n I nd ian p reh is to ry . I t i n c lude s ab r ief h i s tory o f r e sea rch c over ing t h e p e r iod f r om 1 867 t o 2 000 . O the r m a jo r a r ea s o f r e sea rch r ev iewed a r et h eg eog raph ica ld i s tr ibu t ion , d emog raph ic i mp l ica t ion s , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s ,

V -114 : M is ra , V . N . 2 002a . T he Meso l i th ic Age i n I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t rospec t , I :

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C on tempo r a ry I nd ian s oc ie ty h a s e no rmou s b io c u l tu ra l d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty . I th a s v a r iou s b io log ica l , s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd l i ngu i s t ic a spec t s . T he se c an b e e xp la ined o n ly w i th h e lp o fd a ta f r om s eve ra l f i e ld s s uch a s a r chaeo logy , a n th ropo logy , h i s to ry , l i ngu i s t ic s . I nt h i s p ape r , wh ich i st h e t e x t o ft h e D .N . Ma jumda r Memo r ia l l e c tu re d e l ive r ed u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o f t h e I nd ian S oc ia l S c ience A s soc ia t ion , t h e a u tho r h a s m ade a n a t temp t t o e xp la in t h e d i ve r s i ty i n t h e p r esen t -day I nd ian p opu la t ion , p a r t icu la r ly t h e c ompo s i t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f S chedu led T r ibe s a nd S ch edu led C a s tes , p r eva lence o f d i f f e ren t e conom ic modes , d i ve r s i ty o fs oc ia l i n s t i tu t ion s , c u s tom s , v a r ie ty o f l a nguage s a nd d i a lec t s i n t h e l i gh t o f a n th ropo log ica l , a r chaeo log ica la nd l i ngu is t ic d a ta .

p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing , t e chno logy a nd m a te r ia lc u l tu re ,s ub s is tence p a t ter n ,d i spo sa lo ft h e d ead , b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy o f h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s , a r t , a nd c h rono logy . D e ta i l s o fd a te s a nd l i s t o fe xcava ted Me so l i th ic s i te s a r e g iven i nt h e t a bu la r f o rma t . T he a r t ic le c on ta in s t ho rough d i scu s s ion a bou t t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t s , c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion a nd a s s im i la t ion o f h un te r f o rage r si n to t h eH indu c a s te s o c ie ty . V -117 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd R .K . Mohan ty 2 002 . A R a re C ha lco l i th ic P o t te ry C ach e f r om B a la tha l , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 6 7 -74 . Du r ing t h e e xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l ( Uda ipu r d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) as e t o f p o t s w a s u nea r thed f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic c on tex t . T h i s s e t h ad s even p o t s : t h r ee p a in ted B lack -and -Red w a r eb ow l s , t wo m ed ium -s ized p o t s , a nd o ne s m a l l G r ey w a r e p o t . O ne o f t h e m ed ium s ized p o t s c on ta ined a l a rge q uan t i ty o fs t ea t i te d i sc b ead s ,a nd J ob ' st e a r s( Co ix l a chrymajob i )o rt h e s e ed so fc o ix . A l lt h e s i xp o t s w e r e c a r efu l ly k ep t i n s id e al a rge G r ey w a r e j a r a nd p l aced n ea r a f i r ep lace . A t o ta l o f 3 0 r ad ioca rbon d a te s a r e a va i lab le t o d a te t h e C ha lco l i th ic d epo s i t . T he d a te s r a nge f r om 3 700 t o 1 800 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) a nd t h e d a te o ft h e l a rge j a r f ound n ea r af i r ep lace i t se lf i s 2 880 -2462 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) .

V -120 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 005 . A rchaeo logy o fP ak i s tan a nd No r th a nd C en t ra l I nd ia d u r ing F ou r th -F i r s t M i l lenn ia BC a nd I t s B ea r ing o n t h e D i spe r sa l o f I ndo -A ryan s , i n A D i scour se o n I ndo -European L anguage s a nd C u l ture ( D .N . T r ipa th i E d . ) , p p . 1 75 -189 .N ew D e lh i : I CHR . O f t h e s eve ra l l i ngu i s t ic a nd c u l tu ra l s t r eam s , wh ich h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h e f o rm a t ion o fI nd ian s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu r e , t h e A ryan s t r eam i sw i thou t d oub t t h e d om inan t o ne . A bou t 7 3 p e r c en t o f I nd ian p opu la t ion s peak s I ndo -A ryan l a nguage s . T he e a r l ie s t f o rm o fA ryan c u l tu r e i sr e p r e sen ted i n t h e R igveda , w h ich i st h e o ldes t d ocum en t o ft h e e n t i r e h umank ind . T he o r ig ina l h om e o ft h e I ndo A ryan s w i th in I nd ian S ubcon t inen t c an b e i d en t if i ed b a sed o n r i ve r s m en t ioned i n t h e R igveda . I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e a u tho r so ft h eH a rappan c i v i l i sa t ion a nd R igved ic A ryan s c am e i n to c on tac t w i th e ach o t he ro nt h eb ank s o fr i ve rS a r a swa t i a nd t h e t wo c u l tu re s i n f luenced e ach o t h e r . S eve ra l c u l tu re s f l ou r i shed i n P ak is tan a nd n o r thwe s te rn I nd ia b e tween t h e f ou r th a nd f i r s t m i l lenn ium BC s uch a s t h e G andha ra G rave c u l tu r e , t h e L a te H a r appan c u l tu r e , OCP c u l tu r e , PG W c u l tu re , Aha r /Bana s c u l tu r e , C em e te ry ' H ' c u l tu r e , a nd Ma lwa c u l tu r e . T h e a u tho r h a s e va lua ted t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a nd c onc lud ed t h a t a l l t h ese C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e s a ppea r t o b e long t o I ndo -A ryan l a nguage s peake r s . P e rhap s t h e se p eop le e n te r ed I nd ia a s d i f f e r en t g roup s w i th t h e i r d i s t inc t ive c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion sa td i f f e r en tt im es o ve r al o ng p e r iod o f4 000 t o1 500 BC

K 118 : K anungo ,A .K . a nd V .N . M is ra 2 003 -2004 . E xcava t ion a t K op ia : A P r e l im ina ry R epor t , P ura ta t t va 3 4 : 16 -126 . T h i s a r t ic le d e sc r ibe s p r e l im ina ry f i nd ing s o f t h e e xcava t ion c ondu c ted a tt h e s i t e o fK op ia ( 26 ° 5 2 ' N ; 8 3° 0 4 ' 5 0 " E ) i n S an t K ab i r N aga r d i s t r ic t o f U t ta r P radesh . I t c on ta in s v a r iou s s e c t ion s d e sc r ib ing o b serva t ion sm ade b yo the rs cho la r s :t h e g eomo rph ic o b serva t ion s ( S .G . D eo a nd S .G ha te ) , p o t te ry ( V . S h inde a nd o the r s ) , s t ruc tu r e s , a n ima l b one s ( P .P . J og leka r ) , t e r raco t ta f i gu r ine s ( M .K . D hava l ika r ) , c o in s ( S . An sa r i ) , s e a l s a nd s t amps , b ead s , s t one o b jec t s , c ru c ib le s , a nd g l a s s o b jec t s . S t r a t ig raphy a nd c h rono logy a r e n o t c onc lu s ive , b u t t h e s i te s e em s t od a te b e tw een t h e 6 t h c en tu ry BC a nd S unga -Ku shana p e r iod . V 119 : M is ra , V .N . 2 004 . C on t r ibu t ion o f A n th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy t o Unde r s tand ing t h e E vo lu t ion o f I nd ian S oc ie ty , T he E as ter n A n thropo log i s t5 7 (1) : 1 -2 7 .

5 9

SECTION I I ndex t op lace s ,s i te s ,c o -au t hor sa nd s ub jec t s 1 6R ( s i t eo f ) V 103 V -00 1 A bbev i l lean A ccu l tu ra t ion V -079 A cheu l ian V -027 , V -034 , V -037 , V 0 38 , V -039 , V -046 , V -049 , G -050 , V -054 , G -056 , V 0 57 , V -058 , G -06 1 , V -062 , V -063 , V -064 , V -066 , V 0 67 , V -069 , V -072 , V -081 , D -082 , V -083 , V -090 , V 0 98 ,V 107 ,V 111 ,V 112 Adamga rh V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 A eo l ian e ven t s W-052 Ag rawa lD .P . V -038 , V -039 , A -040 , A 0 4 1 ,A -051 , W-052 ,V 107 Ag r icu l tu re ,o r ig in o f V -053 ,V 104 Aha r V -071 Aha rc u l tu r e V -0 12 , V -0 14 , V -074 , V 0 74 , V -094 , V 10 1 , V -105 , V 106 ,V 117 ,V 120 A jme rd i s t r ic t V -006 ,V -035 A lam M .S . A -092 Ama rpu ra V 107 ,G -056 Ama rpu ra F o rma t ion V -038 ,V -098 A nangwad i V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 A ndh ra P rade sh V -083 A n t iqu i t ie s ,o fB a la tha l V 106 A r chaeo log ica le xped i t ion V -A r chaeo logy a nd E du ca t ion V -026 A r ch i tec tu re a tB a la tha l V 105 ,V 106 A r re t ine Wa re V 110 A r rowhead s V -0 13 A shmound s V -024 A s s im i la t ion o ft r ibe s V 108 B ago r V -0 11 , v -0 13 , V -0 14 , v 0 15 , V -0 18 , V -020 , V -023 , V -045 , V -047 , V -048 , V 0 74 B ago r Wa re V -023 B ag r i s V -077 B a la tha l V 10 1 , V 105 , v 106 , v 17 V -053 B a lu ch i s tan V -071 ,v 120 B ana sc u l tu re B ao r i s V -077 B ead s V -0 18 V -027 , v -033 , V -034 , V B h imbe tka 0 36 , V -037 ,V -043 , K -043 , v -046 , v -054 , v -057 , v 0 75 ,A -092 ,V 115 B io -cu l tu ra ld ive r s i ty V 119 B io log ica la n th ropo logy V 115 ,V 116 B io log ica lr ema in s V -024 B udha P u shka r K -044 B u l lf i gu r ine s V -094 B u r ia lp ra c t ice s V 114 C a s te s y s tem V 108 C eme te ry H c u l tu r e V 120

C en t ra l I nd ia

C e ram ic s C ha lco l i th ic /B ronze A ge

C hha jo l i C h i rk i -Neva sa C h rono logy C la s s if i ca t ion C l ima t ec hange C o ix s e ed s C on se rva t ion C oppe ro b jec t s C r im ina lt r ibe s C u l tu ra la dap ta t ion s D a la l , Ku ru sh D a ta b ank s D a t ing

D a t ta P .S . D en ta l Mu t i la t ion s D e se r t e co sy s tem D e se r t v e r teb ra te s D han su ra D h i rR .P . D idwana

Dune lake c o r re la t ion E a r ly H i s to r ic E a r ly S t one Age E a r ly V i l lage C ommun i t ie s E a s t er nG ha t s E a s t er nR a jpu tana E co log ica la dap ta t ion s E co logy E nv i ronmen t E nv i ronmen ta lp l ann ing E nv i ronmen ta lr e sea r ch E thnoa r chaeo logy

E thnog raphy

6 0

V -0 17 , V -030 , V -033 , V 0 36 ,V -037 , V -042 ,V -046 , V -057 , V -063 , V -075 , V 0 85 ,V -088 ,V -089 ,N -093 , N -097 ,V 104 V -07 1 ,V -105 V -0 12 , V -0 14 , V -0 17 , V 0 24 ,V -031 , V -032 ,V -036 , V -07 1 , V -074 , V -075 , V 0 94 ,V 10 1 ,V 104 ,V 105 , V 106 , V 110 , V 112 , V 17 ,V -119 V -039 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -039 , V -075 , V 105 , V 12 V -003 A -04 1 V 117 V -033 V -0 13 ,V -0 18 N -093 V -028 ,V -095 ,V 119 V 10 1 A -051 V -007 , V -0 12 , V -0 16 , V 0 2 1 , V -022 , V 102 , V 114 , V 116 V -039 ,A -040 K -043 V -072 V -065 V -080 A -04 1 , W-052 V -038 , V -049 , G -056 , V 0 58 ,H -060 , G -06 1 ,V -062 , V -064 , V -066 , V -067 , H 0 68 , V -072 , V -08 1 ,D -082 , V -083 , V -086 , V -098 , V 1 03 ,V 107 W-052 V 105 , V 106 , V 110 , K 18 V -0 10 V -0 12 V -063 V -00 1 ,V -005 V -028 V -069 A -051 A -051 A -051 V -024 , V -025 , V -077 , V 0 79 , V -086 , N -087 ,N -093 , V -095 , N -097 , V 108 , N 1 09 ,V 119 V -057

F auna l R ema in s F ood p roduc t ion F o s s i le v iden ce F o s s i lf a una G a i l la rd C . G andha ra G rave c u l tu r e G anga p l a in s G an joo R .K . G eoa r cha eo logy G eomo rpho logy G i lund G ov indga rh G rav eg ood s /Of f e r ing s G u ja ra t

G up ta S .K . G u rava ra jupa l l i H af t ing H andaxe s H a rappan a r tef a c t s H a rappan e conomy H a rappan s c r ip t H a rappan t r ade H a ryana H is to r ic p e r iod H i s to ry a nd A r cha eo logy H is to ry o fr o ck a r t R e sea r ch H o lo cene

H uman a dap ta t ion s

H uman b u r ia l s /r ema in s

H uman e vo lu t ion H uman s e t t lemen t s H un sg i H un te r -ga the re r s

H u sa in Z . I ndo -A ryan s I ndo -A ryan l a nguag e s I ndo -Eu ropean l a nguage s I ndo la k iD han i I ndu s /Ha rappan c i v i l i sa t ion

V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V -022 , 0 65 V -032 V 104 V -059 ,V -085 V -049 , G -050 , G -056 , 0 6 1 ,V -083 V 120 V -079 , N -087 , N -097 , 1 09 V -088 ,V -089 V -088 ,V -089 W-052 V -07 1 V -006 V -0 18 V -02 1 , V -028 , V -032 , 0 48 , W -052 , H -060 , 0 63 ,V -072 , V -080 A -051 V -083 V -025 G -06 1 ,V -083 V -0 13 V -09 1 V -09 1 V -09 1 V -032 V -036 ,V -075 V -009 ,V -026

I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion , d ec l ine o f I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion , o r ig in o f I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion , r e v iew o f I r on A ge

V -

G -

N -

J a ipu rd i s t r ic t J aya l

K ame swa ra R ao K . K an ja r s K anungo A .K . K a rna taka K a shm i r K ha rakwa lJ e evan K op ia K o r i se t ta rR . K o ta K r i shnamu r thy R .V . K u l iana L a l i tpu r L anghna j L a te H a rappan c u l tu r e L a te G lac ia l Max imum L a te Q ua ter na ry L a te S tone A ge L eva l lo i st e chn ique L ingu i s t ic d a ta L i tho s t ra t ig raphy L owe rP a laeo l i th ic

V V -

V -078 V -028 , V -030 , W-052 , V 0 55 , V -058 , V -059 , V -062 , V -066 , V -069 , V -073 , V 0 76 , V -072 ,V -081 ,V -099 V -030 , V -032 , V -055 , V 0 58 , V -059 , V -062 , V -063 , V -064 , V -065 , V -066 , V 0 69 , V -072 , V -073 , V -076 , V -08 1 , V -090 , V -095 , V 0 98 V -0 13 , K -043 , V -0 18 , V 0 19 , V -022 , V -047 , V -09 1 , V 115 V -0 19 V -073 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -077 , V -079 , V -086 , N 0 87 , N -093 , V -095 , N -097 , N 109 V -039 V 120 V 120 V 120 V 103

Madhya P rade sh

Mahadeo P ipa r ia Maha ra sh t ra Man land r e la t ion sh ip Ma rm i Ma te r ia lc u l tu r e Ma thpa lY . Mega l i th ic Me so l i th ic

V -024 , V -031 , V -053 , V 0 9 1 , V -096 , V 100 , V 110 , V 112 , V 113 , V 120

6 1

V -053 ,V -09 1 V -055 ,V -091 V -09 1 V -030 ,V -032 , V 10 1 , V 110 ,V 112 V -035 V -038 , V -039 , A -04 1 , V 0 64 , V -066 , V -098 , V 103 , V 107 W-052 N -087 ,V 108 K 118 V -027 , V -034 ,V -037 V -063 V 106 K 118 V -088 ,V -089 V -004 A -040 , A -04 1 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -027 , V -034 ,V -037 V -02 1 ,V -045 ,H -060 V 120 W-052 W-052 V -0 11 , V -028 ,V -030 V 111 V 119 H -060 ,V -064 V -004 , V -006 , V -008 , V 0 19 , V -024 , V -027 , V -031 , V -034 , V -037 , V -038 , V 0 39 , V -046 , G -050 , V -054 , G -056 , G -06 1 , V -062 , V -063 , V -066 , V -069 , V 0 76 , D -082 , V -085 , A -092 , V 103 , V 104 , V -098 , V 1 07 ,V 111 , V 112 ,V 119 V -0 17 , V -027 , V -028 , V -034 , V -037 , K -042 , V 0 7 1 , V -085 , V -088 , V -089 , N -093 ,V 115 V -027 , V -034 ,V -037 V -027 , V -034 , V -037 , N 0 93 V -049 , W-052 V -096 V -070 ,V -07 1 V -036 V -024 V -004 , V -007 , V -008 , V 0 13 , V -0 14 , V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V -020 , V -02 1 , V 0 22 , V -023 , V -024 , V -025 , V -028 , V -030 , V -031 , V 0 32 , V -035 , V -036 , K -043 , V -046 , V -054 , V -057 , V -

Me so l i th ic a r t Me so l i th ic p o t te ry Me thodo logy Me t r ica la na ly s i s Mewa r M ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry M ic ro l i th ic t e chno logy M ic ro l i th s

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic

M idd le P le i s tocene M idd le S tone Age M i sh ra A nup Mohan ty R .K . Mu r ty M .L .K . N aga r Ma l t i N agau rd i s t r ic t N anda S .C . N a rmada V a l ley N a t iona lg r id N avda to l i NBP Wa re N eogene N eo l i th ic N ine teen th c en tu ry Nomad i sm No r th I nd ia No r thwe s tI nd ia OCP O r i s sa P a in ted G r ey Wa re P a in t ing s t y le s P ak i s tan P a laeo c l ima te

P a laeoeco logy

0 58 , V -062 , V -069 , V -070 , V -074 , V -075 , V -076 , V 0 80 , V -081 , V -090 , V -098 , V -099 , V 102 , V 104 , V 11 , V 112 , V - 15 , V 16 ,V 119 V -055 ,V 102 V -007 ,V -022 V -003 V -0 17 , V -046 , G -06 1 , V 0 83 ,A -092 V -071 V -045 V 102 V -004 , V -007 , V -008 , V 0 11 ,V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V -020 , V -021 , V -030 , V 0 55 , V -070 , V 102 , V 114 , V 116 V -004 , V -008 , V -0 19 , V 0 24 ,V -031 , V -032 , V -046 , V -054 , V -063 , V -069 , V 0 76 ,V -083 , V -084 , V -088 , A -092 , V -098 , V 104 , V 11 ,V 112 ,V 119 V -067 ,V -072 V -0 10 V 10 1 V -094 , V 10 1 , V 106 , V 17 V -059 ,V -083 V -031 , V -079 , N -087 , N 0 93 ,N -097 ,V 108 ,N -109 V -038 , V -039 , A -04 1 , V 1 03 ,V 107 A -04 1 V -088 ,V -089 A -051 V -0 17 V 110 V -081 ,V 103 V -024 , V -025 , V 104 , V 10 ,V 112 ,V 119 V -079 V -095 V 108 V -053 V -024 ,V 120 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -024 , V -053 , V 110 , V 1 20 V -036 ,V -075 W-052 ,V -053 V -021 , V -028 , V -029 , V 0 32 , V -035 , A -040 , K -044 , V -049 , W-052 , V -053 , V 0 55 ,H -060 , V -062 , V -066 , V -067 , V -072 , V -073 , V 0 76 ,V -08 1 V -021

P a la eoenv i ronmen t

P a la eo l i th ic c u l tu re s P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t ry P a lyno logy P andey L a l i t P andya S uman P an tR .K . P a r a sha rV .G . P a rdh i s P avaga rh P edogen ic C a rbona t e s P edo logy P l e i s to cene

P o t t e ry P r eh i s to r ic a r t P ub l ic A r chaeo logy Q uan t i ta t ive d a ta Q ua r tz c r y s ta l s Q ua te rna ry

Q ua te rna ry F o rma t ion s Q ua te rna ry g eo logy R ad iome t r ic d a t ing

R aghavan H . R a i sen d i s t r ic t R a jagu ru S .N

R a ja D .R . R awa tbha ta R e la t ive c h rono logy R ev iew

R ev iew /Commen t s R ive rB ana s

R iv e rB e ra ch R ive rC hamba l R ive rG hagga r -Ha l c ra

6 2

V -029 , V -037 , V -038 , V 0 39 , V -048 , V -053 , V -058 , V -059 , V -064 , V -066 , V 0 69 , V -076 , V -084 , V -085 , V -09 1 , V -098 , V -099 , V 1 02 , V 103 , V 107 ,V 112 , V 114 ,V 116 V -0 19 V -00 1 V -029 V -094 ,V 10 1 ,V 106 V -080 A -05 1 H -060 N -093 V -021 K -044 V -029 V -055 , V -059 , H -060 , G 0 6 1 , V -062 , V -066 ,V -069 , V -073 , V -076 , V -081 , V 0 84 ,V -099 ,V 103 V -007 , V -0 18 , V -022 , V 0 23 ,V 110 ,V 117 V -024 ,V -042 V -026 V -054 ,A -092 D -082 ,A -04 1 V -049 , V -055 , V -058 , V 0 66 , V -069 , V -076 , V 0 8 1 ,V -098 A -040 ,V -048 V -062 ,V -099 K -044 , W-052 , V -067 , H -068 , V -070 , V 0 85 , V -099 , V 105 , V 106 , V 117 V -049 , G -056 , H -060 , H 0 68 K -043 V -038 , V -039 , A -040 , A 0 4 1 , V -049 , G -050 , G -056 , H -060 , G -06 1 , H -068 , V 0 81 , V -088 , V -089 ,V 103 , V 107 V -049 , G -050 , G -056 , H 0 60 ,G -06 1 V -004 V -07 1 ,V -078 V -070 , V -07 1 , V -072 , V 0 73 , V -078 , V -085 ,V 112 , V 114 ,V 102 ,V 116 V -007 ,V -024 V -00 1 , V -005 , V -0 12 , V 0 15 ,V -022 , V -047 , V -074 , V -094 V -005 ,V -008 ,V -094 V -004 V -053 , V -096 , V 100 , V 13 ,V 120

R ive rK o tha r i R ive rL un i

R ive rS aga rma t i R ive rS a ra swa t i R ive rS u t le j R ive rY amuna R ock a r t R ock she l te r

R ou le t t ed Wa re S EM s t ud ie s S amnapu r S and d une

S and d une mo rpho logy S a t e l l i te i mage ry S chedu led C a s te s S chedu led T r ibe s S ed en t ism S em i -a r id Z one S e t t lemen tp a t t er n S h inde V .S . S idh id i s t r ic t S ign if icance o fr o ck a r t S i nd S i ngh G u rd ip S i nghv iA .K . S i ng iT a lav S i t ed i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n S iwa l ik H i l l s S ohan ian S on V a l ley S ou th A s ia , c o lon i sa t ion o f S ou th A s ian P reh i s to ry

S ou th R a ja s than S tone A ge S tone o b jec t s S ub s i s tence p a t te rn

V -0 14 , V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V 0 20 ,V -047 ,V -074 V -002 , V -0 14 , V -0 15 , V 0 16 , V -0 18 , V -029 , V -035 , V -045 V -006 V -006 ,V -035 V -053 , V -096 , V 100 , V 13 V -053 , V -096 , V 100 , V 13 V -033 , V -036 , V -042 , V 0 57 ,V -075 ,V -078 V -027 , V -033 , V -034 , V 0 36 , V -037 , V -042 , K -043 , V -046 , V -054 , V -057 , V 0 75 ,V -078 ,A -092 ,V 115 V 110 D -082 ,A -04 1 V -088 ,V -089 V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V 0 20 , V -02 1 , V -022 , V -023 , V -029 , V -035 , V -038 , V 0 39 , A -040 , K -044 , W0 52 , H -060 , V -064 , V -080 , V 103 ,V 107 W-052 W-052 V 119 V -077 , V -079 , V -086 , N 0 87 ,N -093 ,N 109 ,V 119 V -070 V -038 V -052 , V -09 1 , V -095 , N 0 97 ,V 10 1 ,V 109 ,V 112 V -094 ,V 10 1 ,V 106 V -085 V -078 V -053 V -038 ,V 107 W -052 V -038 , G -050 , G -056 , D -082 ,V 103 ,V 107 V -096 ,V 100 ,V 113 V -063 V -069 ,V 112 V -063 ,V -085

T an Wa r e T andon S .K . T echno logy T e rm ino logy T e r ra co t ta b ead s T e r ra co t ta f i gu r ine s T e r t ia ry T ha rD e se r t

T homa sP .K . T i lwa ra T oo l u se T r iba l s oc ie ty T r ibe -ca s te i n te r ac t ion U da ipu rd i s t r ic t Um re th i U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic

U ppe rP l e i s tocene U t ta rP rade sh

V an V ag r i s V ed ic S a ra sva t i V edu l lacheruvu V e r teb ra te r ema in s V o ra A .B . Wa s son R . J . We s te rn I nd ia We s ter nR a ja s than We s ter nR a jpu tana Wo r ld P reh i s to ry

V 111 V -009 , V -0 10 , V -024 , V 0 29 ,V -036 ,V -009 , V -024

6 3

V -0 14 V -073 ,V -084 ,V 112 V -0 17 V 102 , V 112 , V I05 , V 14 ,V 116 V -07 1 A -051 V 112 ,V 114 V -002 , V -003 ,V -009 V 117 V -094 V -076 V -038 , V -039 , K -044 , V 0 48 , V -049 , G -050 , W0 52 , G -056 , V -058 , H -060 , V -062 , V -063 , V -064 , V 0 65 , V -066 , V -067 , H -068 , V -072 , V -076 , V -08 1 , D 0 82 , V -090 , V -095 , V -099 , V 103 ,V -098 ,V 107 V -039 , A -040 V -0 11 , V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V 0 21 ,V -047 ,V -048 V -027 V 108 V 108 V -005 , V 10 1 , V 105 , V 1 06 ,V 117 V -048 V -0 19 , V -024 , V -032 , V 0 46 , V -054 , V -059 , V -069 , V -085 , A -092 , V -098 , V 11 ,V 112 , V 119 V -072 , V -076 V -037 , V -027 , V -028 , V 0 34 , V -079 , N -087 , N -097 , N - 1 09 ,K 118 V -077 , V -086 V -096 , V 100 , V 113 , V 1 20 V -083 V -065 A -051 V -038 , W-052 ,V 107 V -030 , V -048 , V -063 , N 0 93 V -006 , V -039 V -002 V -025

SECTION II L i s to fo ther c on tr ibu t ions b y P rof . V .N . M i sra

M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . Me so l i th ic H ab i ta t ion P a t t e rn s i n We s ter n a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , A b s t rac t s o f t h e I X I n t erna t iona l C ong re s s o fP reh i s to r ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c ience s ,N ice . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . R o le o fF ood -ga th e r ing i nt h e T r iba l E conomy o fB h imbe tka R eg ion , C en t ra l I nd ia ,A b s t rac t s o ft h e S econd A nnua l C onf e rence o fE thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l ture S oc ie ty . L ucknow . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 976 .B a rkhe ra - An O pen -a i rA cheu l ian S i te i n C en t ra l I nd ia , A b s t rac t s o f t h e S econd A nnua l C onf e rence o fE thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l ture S oc ie ty . L u cknow . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977 . T he M ic ro l i th ic I ndu s t ry o f R ock S h e l te rI IF -23 a tB h imbe tka ,C en t ra lI nd ia ,A b s t rac t so f t h e T h i rd A nnua l C onf erence o fE thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tur eS oc ie ty ,L u cknow . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977 . T r iba l A r t o f C en t ra l I nd ia a nd i t s A ff in i t ie s w i th P reh i s to r ic C ave A r t , A b s t rac t s o f t h e T h i rd A nnua l C onf e rence o f E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l ture S oc ie ty ,L u cknow . M i s ra , V .N . 1 992 . C h rono logy , P a laeoenv i ronmen t a nd G eoa r chaeo logy o f aF o s s i l D une ( 16R ) , D idwana , R a ja s than , i nI n terna t iona l S ympo s ium o n E vo lu t ion o f D e ser t s -A b s trac t s( V .S . K i shan K uma r ,R . R ame sh a nd A .K . S i nghv i E d s . ) , p p . 2 00 -202 . A hmedabad : P hy s ica l R e sea r ch L abo ra to ry .

I IA .B ook s M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .S . Ma te ( Ed s . ) 1 965 . I nd ian P reh i s tory : 1 964 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P re a nd P ro to -h i s tory o ft h e B erach B a s in , S ou th R a ja s than . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . , Y . Ma thpa l a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 977 . P reh i s tor ic Man a nd H i s A r t a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia . P une : S aka lP re s s . L ukac s , J .R . , V .N . M i s ra a nd KA .R . K ennedy 1 982 . B agor a nd T i lwara : L a te Me so l i th ic C u l ture s o f N or thwe s t I nd ia . V o l . I :T he Human S ke l e ta l R ema ins . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . a nd P e te r B e l lwood ( Ed s . ) 1 985 . R ecen t A dvance si nI ndo -Pac if i cP reh i s tory . D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . M i s ra , V .N . ( Ed . ) 1 992 . I ndu s C iv i l i za t ion , aS pec ia l N umbe r o f t h e E a s t ern A n thropo log i s t . L u cknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty . M i s ra , V .N . ( T ran s la t ed i n to Ma ra th i b y P .P . J og leka r ) 2 00 1 . V i shnu S hr idhar W akankar . P une : B ha ra t iya I t iha s S anka lana S am i t i . K ennedy ,K .A .R . ,J .R . L ukac sa nd V .N . M i s ra 2 002 . T he B io log ica l A n thropo lo gy o f Human S k e le ta l R ema ins f rom B h imbe tka , C en t ra lI nd ia . P une : I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P r eh i s to r ic a nd Qua ter n a ry S tud ie s . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .D . K a ja le ( Ed s . ) 2 003 . P reh i s tor ic C on tac t s b e tween S ou th A s ia a nd Af r ica : D i sper sa l o f Af r ican C u l t ivar s a l ong t h e N or th I nd ian S ea B oard . P une : I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P r eh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s .

H ID .R esearch p aper si nH ind i M i s ra , V .N . 1 969 . U t ta r P a shanka l in B ago r a u r R a ja s than k e P rag i th iha s men u ska S than , A nve shna 1 ( 3 ) : 1 73 184 . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 97 1 . B ago r men U tkhanan k aT r i t iya V a r sh a u r u sk e dwa ra Mewad k e I t iha s p a r N aya P raka sh , Ma j jham ika 1 :2 3 -54 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 973 . R a ja s than k i P raga i t iha s ik P ra s thabhum i , Manav 1 :6 4 -92 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 977 . Manav n e A gn i k a U pyog k ab S ikha , Manav 5 ( 1) : 1 8 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 978 . B h imbe tka , Madhya P rad e sh m en P a shanka leen Manav , Manav 6 ( 3 ) : 1 511 63 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 978 . P rag i t iha s : P a r ibha sha , V i shayava s tu e vam A dhyayan V idh i , Manav 7 ( 1) : 5 9 -74 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 995 . S indhu S abhya ta p a r N av in tam S hodhka rya , i n B ha ta t_men Manav V igyan ( A .R .N . S r iva s tava E d . ) ,A l lahabad : G yand eep P raka shan .

UM .R e search p aper si nE ng l i sh M i s ra , V .N . 1 970 . E xcava t ion i n R a ja s than , T he Q uar te r ly J ourna lo ft h e My th ic S oc ie ty 5 8 ( 1-4 ) : 9 16 . Ag rawa l , D .P . , R .V . K r i shnamu r thy , R .P . D h i r , V .N . M i s ra a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 980c . Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s i n R a ja s than -P r e l im ina ry R e su l t s , R ecen t R e sear che s i n G eo logy 9 :1 86 189 D e lh i . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 984 . E vo lu t ion o f E nv i ronmen t a nd Human S e t t lemen t i nt h e T ha r D e se r t , I nd ia : A R ev iew o f t h e E v id en ce , P roceed ing s o ft h e I ndo -US W ork shop o n t h eA r id Z one R e search ,p p . 1 17 . J odhpu r : C en t ra lA r id Z one R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te M i s ra , V .N . 1 996 . L o s t S a ra swa t i : t h e C rad le o f H a rappan C iv i l iza t ion , Man than 1 5 (4 ) 16 ( 1) : 9 8 116 . MR .S hor tc o mmun ica t ion s M i s ra , V .N . 1 965 . R e sume o ft h ep ape r s a nd d i scu s s ion s a t t h e S em ina r o n I nd ian P reh i s to ry h e ld a t D eccan C o l lege , P oona i n 1 964 , C ur r en t A n thropo logy 6 ( 3 ) : 3 30 -331 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 969 . N ew L igh t o n t h e L a te S tone A ge i n R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o f t h e 5 6 th I nd ian S c ience C ong re s s ,P a r tI I ,A b s t rac t s ,p p . 5 53 , C a lcu t ta . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . A cheu l ian C u l tu re i n I nd ia i n t h e L igh t o f N ew D i scove r ie s , A b s t rac t s o f t h e X I I n te rna t iona l C ong re s s o fP reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c ience s ,N ice .

H IE .P opu lar a r t ic le si nE ng l i sh M i s r a , V .N . 1 969 . F rom S tone t o Me ta l , T he T ime s o f I nd ia , S unday , 2S ep tembe r . M i s r a , V .N . 1 973 . T he S to ry o fF i re , T he T ime so fI nd ia , S unday , 1 F ebrua ry . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973 . L if e i n I nd ia a Hund r ed T hou sand Y ea r sA go ,S unday S tandard Magaz ine , 1 6S ep tembe r . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973 . A r t i n P reh i s tor ic I nd ia , S unday S tandard Magaz ine ,2 3 S ep tembe r . M i s r a , V .N . 1 988 . T he N omad s o ft h e D e se r t , t h e V an V ag r i s , T he I nd ia Magaz ine 8 (4 ) :4 6 -51 .

6 4

M i s ra , V .N . 2 002 . T emp le s o ft h e K a lachur i P er iod , b y Ame rand ra Kuma r S i ngh , D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 7 (2 ) : 1 27 128 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002 . G od -Ape s a nd F o s s i l Men : P a l eoan thropo lg y i n S ou th A s ia , b y K enne th A .R K ennedy . A nn A rbo r : M ich igan U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 7 (2 ) : 1 29 139 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 003 . AR e -exam ina t ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo log ica l R ecord o fN or thern T am i l N adu , S ou th I nd ia , b y S han t i P appu , O xf o rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 8 ( 1) : 1 03 105 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 004 . T he A rchaeo logy o fM idd le G anga P la in :N ew P e r spec t ive s , b yP r ru sho t tam S ingh a nd A .K . S i ngh , S h im la a nd N ew D e lh i : IAS a nd A ryan B ook s I n te rna t iona l , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 9 (2 ) : 1 26 127 .

M is ra , V .N . 1 995 . AM i s s ing L ink : T ra ce so fN ew -f ound I ndu sC u l tu re i nR a ja s than ,F ron t l ine 1 2 ( 14 ) : 6 5 -73 . H IP .P opu lar a r t ic le si nH ind i M is ra , V .N . 1 970 . R a ja s than -P a shan K a i s e L oh K a i T ak ,D harmayug , 2 8J une . M is ra , V .N . 1 970 . R a ja s than -P a shan K a i s e L oh K a i T ak ,D harmayug , 5J u ly . M is ra , V .N . 1 970 . R a ja s than -P a shan K a i s e L oh K a i T ak ,D harmayug , 1 2J u ly . M is ra , V .N . 1 972 . P aanch H a ja r S aa l s e P ya s i D ha r t i , D harmayug , 1 J une . M is ra , V .N . 1 973 . B h imbe tka k iG uphaon k e R aha shya , D harmayug , 2 2 May . M is ra , V .N . 1 973 . P raga i t iha s ik Manav k a A va s B h imba i thka ,D inman , 2S ep tembe r .

I I I . Ob i tuar ie sa nd r em in i scence s M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . V i shnu S h r idha r Wakanka r ( 19 19 1 988 ) , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 0 1103 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia ( 1908 1 989 ) : AK a rmayog i , E a s tern A n thropo log i s t4 2 ( 1) : 7 9 1 25 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia ( 1908 1 989 ) -aT r ibu t eI nd ian B ook C hron ic le 1 4 (6 ) : 1 28 130 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia : S cho la r a nd Man , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 4 (2 ) : 1 4 1 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 99 1 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia ( 1908 1 9890 A s ian P er spec t ive s3 0 (2 ) : 1 7 1175 . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 993 . K r i shna D u t tB a jpa i ( 19 17 1992 ) Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 57 -59 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 993 . P rof e s so rS .M . K a t re a s Ik new h im i n t h eD eccan C o l lege ,B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l lege P o s t G radua t e &R e search I n s t i tu t e5 1 -52 : 3 1-38 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 993 . G eo rge F rank l in D a le s , J r . ( 1927 1 992 ) Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 6 1-64 . M i s ra , V .N . ( w i th K . P addayya ) 1 996 . S i r G rahame C la rk ( 1907 1995 ) Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 2 1( 1) : 1 2 11 25 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 997 . S ha sh i P rabha A s thana ( 1947 1997 ) Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 2 (2 ) : 1 1113 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . K r i shna D eva ( 1914 -200 1) Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 1 33 134 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002 . B inde shwa r i P ra sad S inha ( 19 17 2 002 ) , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 7 (2 ) : 1 2 1122 . M i s ra , V .N . ( w i th K . P addayya ) 2 003 . P rof . J .D e smond C la rk ( 19 16 -2002 ) a nd B e t ty C la rk ( d . 2 002 ) , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 8 ( 1) : 1 07 112 .

H IG .P opu lar a r t ic le i n Mara th i M is ra , V .N . , V a san t S h inde a nd R .K . Mohan ty 1995 . Mewadch i P ra ch in S an sk ru t i , S aka l , S unday , 1 7 S ep tembe r . H ILL B ook r ev iew s M i s ra , V .N . 1 963 . A pp l ica t ions o fQ uan t i ta t ive m e thod s i nA rchaeo logy b y R .F . H e ize r a nd S .F . C ook , E a s t ern A n thropo log i s t 1 6 (2 ) : 1 53 156 . M is ra , V .N . 1 963 . T he P reh i s to r ic B ackg round o fI nd ian C u l ture b y D .H . G o rdon , I n t erna t iona l J ourna l o f C ompara t ive S oc io logy 5 ( 1) : 4 4 -52 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 965 . A nc ien t I nd ia , N o s . 1 8 19 , E a s te rn A n thropo log i s t 1 8 ( 1) : 4 4 -52 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 97 1 . E a s ta nd W e s t ( New s e r ie s ) , V o l . 1 9 , N o s . 3 -4 ( 1969 ) ,P oona U n iver s i ty J ourna l( Human i t ie s ) 3 5 : 1 76 179 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 982 . P a laeoh i s to ry o f I nd ia b y V idu la J aya swa l ,H i s tory a nd A rchaeo log y , IA l lahabad . M i s ra , V .N . 1 982 . A r ta nd C u l ture o fT am i lN adu b y R . N aga swamy ,I nd ian B ook R ev iew 1 ( 3 -4 ) . M i s ra , V .N . 1 983 . T he N or th I nd ian P ea san t g oe s t o Mark e tb yL . S wa r tzbe rg ,B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l l ege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e4 2 : 1 86 -87 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 984 . T he R i se o fC iv i l i za t ion i nI nd ia a nd P ak i s tan b y Ba nd F .R . A l lch in , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 8 :9 6 -98 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 987 . P reh i s to ry a nd P a laeoenv ironmen to f t h e S on V a l ley , b y G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk , L 'An thropo log ie 9 1(3 ) : 8 17 -822 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . R ura l L if e a nd F o lk C u l tur e i n A nc ien t I nd ia , b y U .N . R oy , V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P and ey , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 4 ( 1) : 1 39 140 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . T he V ed ic P eop l e : T he i rH i s to ry a nd G eog raphy , b y R a je sh K ocha r . B anga lo r e : O r ien t L ongman . Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 6 ( 1) : 1 29 134 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . T he S ara sva t iF low so n t h e C on t inu i ty o fI nd ian C u l ture , b y B .B . L a l . D e lh i : A ryan B ook s I n t er na t iona l . Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 1 23 126 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . R ock A r t i n O r i s sa , b y S ada sh iba P radhan . N ew D e lh i : A ryan B ook s I n ter na t iona l , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 1 27 128 .

6 5

S i tua t ing V .N . Mi sra i nI nd ian A rchaeo logy : AH i s tor iograph ica lA ccoun t K isho rK . B a sa M i rzapu r wh ich h ad b o th ' p igmy s t ones ' i . e . m ic ro l i th s a nd e v idence o f r ock a r t . H oweve r , o n a r r iva l a t D eccan C o l lege i n 1 958 , S anka l ia s ugge s ted t oM is ra t h a tR a ja s than i st e r ra i n cogn i ta a s f a r a s p reh is tory i sc once r n ed a nd h ence M i s ra s hou ld t ake u p t h a t a r ea f o r h i s r e sea rch . M is ra a g r eed a nd c omp le ted h i s P h .D . i n 1 961 o n S t one Age C u l tu res o f R a jpu tana . H e w a s f o r as ho r t p e r iod al e c tu re ri nL ucknow Un ive r s i ty . H oweve r , a f te rt h e d em ise o f Ma jumda rh ej o ined t h eD eccan C o l lege a s af a cu l ty i n 1 962 a nd c on t inued t o r ema in i nD eccan c o l lege t i l l h i sr e t ir emen ti n2 000 a s D i r ec to r , e xcep t f o r ay ea r ( 1983 -84 ) when h e w a s a p rof esso r o f a n th ropo logy a t L ucknow Un ive r s i ty . H e a c ted i n v a r iou s c apac i t ies i n D eccan C o l lege , H ead o f t h e D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , P oona Un ive r s i ty ( l oca ted a tD eccan c o l lege ) , J o in t D i rec to r a nd D i rec to r . I tw a s d u r ing h i s t im e t h a t D eccan C o l lege s t a r ted f unc t ion ing a s aD eemed Un ive r s i ty .

T he s t udy o f a r chaeo logy - a m ean s o f r e con s t ruc t ing t h e p a s t o n t h e b a s is o f ma ter ia l r ema in s -h a s b o th a n emp ir ica l a nd a t h eo re t ica l d imen s ion , a l though t h e t wo a r e i n te r re la ted . H is tor iog raphy i nvo lves a n a na ly s is o f t h e t r end s a nd t r a jec tor ies a d i sc ip l ine t akes i n b o th i t s emp ir ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l f i e ld s . S uch a s t udy o n t r end s a nd t r a jec tor ies c an b e made i n g ene ra l t e rm sb yt ak ing ap er iod u nde rr ev iew ( i . e . c o lon ia l o r p o s t -co lon ia l o r ac en tu ry e t c . ) ; i tc an b e d one a l so b y a na lyz ing t h e c on t r ibu t ion o fa n i nd iv idua l . R ecen t ly , empha s i s h a s b een p u t o n h i s tor iog raphy o f I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l w r i t ing s d u r ing c o lon ia l p er iod ( Chak rabar t i 1 988a , 1 997 ; B a sa 1 998 ) o ro n i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s d u r ing c o lon ia l p er iod ( S ingh 2 004 ) . F o r t h e p os t -co lon ia l p er iod ( Chak raba r t i 2 003 ) g ene ra l s u rvey s h ave b een made i n r e la t ion t o a pp l ica t ion o f p roces sua l ( Paddayya 1 990 ; F u l le ra nd B o iv in 2 002 ) a nd p os t p rocessua l ( Bo iv in a nd F u l le r 2 002 ) a pp roaches i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy . H oweve r , e xcep t p e rhaps o n Whee le r a nd S anka l ia , n o t much s t res s h a s b een g iven o n e va lua t ing t h e w o rk s o f i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s i n ah i s tor iog raph ica l s en se , u n les s o ne i n c ludes a n umber o f f e l ic i ta t ion v o lumes a s soc ia ted w i th ' v a lor iza t ion ' o f i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s . And y e t s uch c r i t ica l s t ud ies o n i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s a r e e s sen t ia l f o r u nde r s tand ing a nd a pp rec ia t ing t h e c omp lex a nd s ub t le a spec t s o f t h e d i sc ip l ine o f I nd ian a r chaeo logy . T he p resen t p ape r i s a modes t a nd h umb le a t temp t f i r s t ly t o r ev iew t h e w o rk o f P rof es so r V .N . M is ra who h as made s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion t o I nd ian a r chaeo logy d u r ing t h e l a s t

Ma r r ied t o Mr s . T a ra M is ra i n 1 955 , M is ra h a s o ne s on a nd o ne d augh te r . H e h a s s eve ra l a cadem ic d i s t inc t ion s - Hom i B habha F e l low , L eve rhu lme V is i t ing F e l low a t ANU , C anbe r ra , S en io r F u lbr igh tF e l low a t UC , B e rke ley ,N a t iona lF e l low , I nd ian C ounc i l o fH is tor ica l R esea rch , e t c . H e w a s P re s iden t o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion a nd An th ropo logy a nd A r chaeo logy S ec t ion o f t h e I nd ian S c ience C ong re ss a nd S ec re ta ry G ene ra l o f t h e Wo r ld A r chaeo log ica l C ong re s s -3 ( De lh i 1 994 ) . H e h a s d e l ive red a n umbe r o f l e c tu res i n c lud ing t h e P a ramananda A cha rya C en tena ry L ec tu re a tU tka l Un ive r s i ty . H e i s af ound ing f a ther o f t h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Qua ter na ry S tud ie s a nd i se d i t ing i t s j our n a l Man a nd E nv ironmen t w h ich h a s b ecom e t h e mos t i mpor tan t I nd ian j our n a l i n a r chaeo logy . Af t e rh i s r e t i remen t , M is ra i sl i v ing i n P une a nd c on t inues t o p u r sue a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch .

f i ve d ecades a nd s e cond ly , t o s i tua te h im i n t h e c on tempo ra ry a r chaeo log ica lt r ad i t ion so fI nd ia . B r ief L if eH i s tory B orn o n 1 7 th Augu s t , 1 935 a nd s on o fR a jeshwa r D aya l a nd S hakun ta la M i s ra i n Khandau l i v i l lage o f F a r rukhabad d i s t r ic t o f U .P . , V i rend ra N a th M is ra s t ud ied MA i n An th ropo logy f r om Un ive r s i ty o fL ucknow a nd w a s as t uden t o fP rof . D .N . Ma jumda r . S ince Ma jumda r w an ted t o d eve lop t h e p reh is tor ic a r chaeo logy s e c t ion o fh i s d epa r tmen t , h e r e commended V .N . M is ra t o b e t r a ined u nde r P rof . H .D . S anka l ia a t D eccan c o l lege , P une . Wh i le a n M .A . s t uden t M is ra h ad r e ad V incen t Sm i th 's p ape r o n p igmy s t ones a nd G rahame C la rk 's w o rk s o n Meso l i th ic E ng land a nd E u rope . H e w as k een t ow ork o n t h e p reh is tory o f

F ie ldwork A w o r thy s t uden t o f S anka l ia a nd t r ue t o t h e D eccan C o l lege t r ad i t ion , V .N . M is ra h a s m a in ta ined a l lt h rough ak een i n ter e s ti nf i e ld w o rk s i nce f i e ld d a ta f o r h im h ave e ndu r ing v a lue . O n t h eb a s i s o fh i s s u rvey i nR a ja s than ( t hen k nown a s R a jpu tana ) ( 1958 -60 ) , h e r epor ted t h e d i scove ry o f L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic a r tef ac ts i n h i s P h .D . t h es is . Af t e r h i s

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H i s to ry S oc ie ty , a nd B ombay V e te r ina ry c o l lege ; ( b ) p u r cha s ing s om e s k e le ton s f r om c omm e rc ia l p rov ide r s , a nd ( c ) p r epa r ing s om e i n hou se . Wh e reve r h e a nd T homa s w ou ld c om e a c ros s a d ead a n ima l , t h ey w i l l g e t i tt ot h e D epa r tmen t a nd b u ry i ti nt h e c ompound f o r s i x mon th s o r s o a nd t h en d i g i t u p a f t e r i n sec t s a nd o th e r n a tu ra l a genc ies h ad t h o rough ly c l ean ed t h e b on e s . A t B h imbe tka M i s r a f ound aj a cka l f a ta l ly i n ju r ed b y b e ing c augh t i n a n i r on t r ap l a id b y ah un te r . H e b u r ied i ti nt h e e xcava t ion c amp a nd d ug o u t t h e b one s n ex t y ea r . H e g o t a n a lmo s t c omp le te d ee r s k e le ton f r om ad eep p i t i nt h e c r a te rc r ea ted b yt h e a t om ic b l a s t a tP okha ran i n 1 974 . L a te r , T hom a s d eve loped t h e l a b f u r the r a nd t oday i ti st h e b es t e qu ipped a r chaeozoo logy l a b i n t h e c oun t ry i n r e spec t o f r e sou r ce s a s w e l l a s p rof e s s iona l e xpe r t i se .

P h .D . , h e c on t inued h i s s u rvey w o rk i n s ou th R a ja s than w ho se r e su l t s w e re p ub l i shed a s a D eccan C o l lege monog raph P re -and -P ro to -H i s tory o f t h e B erach B as in , S ou th R a ja s than ( 1967 ) . A round 1 965 t h e G e rm an a r chaeo log i s t L .C . L eshn ik w an ted t o c o l labo r a te w i th M i s ra . I n f lu enced b y B ra idwood 's w o rk a tJ a rmo i nw e s t A s ia , L e shn ik w an ted t os u rv ey t h e f oo th i l l s o ft h e A rava l l i st ou nde r s tand t h e t r an s i t ion t o /eme rgence o fa g r icu l tu re . T h ey c onduc ted a ne x ten s ive s urvey i n s ou thwe s t R a ja s than , n o r th e rn G u ja ra t , a nd S au r a sh t ra b u t d i d n o t f i nd a ny e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en t i n t h e f oo th i l l s o f t h e A rava l l i s . T hey l o ca ted a n umbe r o f p o t te ry s c a t te r s i nt h e l owe r L un i v a l ley wh ich , h oweve r , a ppea red t o b e o f r e cen t a ge . T hey a l so f ound a n umbe r o f t n ic ro l i th ic s i te s , t wo o f wh ich , T i lwa ra i nB a rm e r d i s t r ic t , a nd B ago r i nB h i lwa ra d i s t r ic t t ur n ed o u t t ob ei mpor tan t . L e shn ik d i dn o tc on t inue t h ew o rk , b u t M i s ra e xcava ted T i lwa r a i n 1 967 a nd B ago r d u r ing 1 967 -70 , t h e l a t te r b e ing s o f a r t h e b igge s t e xcava t ion o f aMeso l i th ic s i te i nI nd ia . T he r e w a s u n in te r rup ted e xcava t ion o f mo r e t h an 9 0 d ay s i n e ach s e a son , a nd o ft h e e xcava ted m a te r ia l n o th ing w a s d i sca rded a t t h e s i te , i n c lud ing t h e e n t i r e a n im a l b one r e l ic s . B ago r w a s e x t r em e ly r i ch i n b on em a te r ia l . I tw a st h e f i r s ta r chaeo log ica l s i te i n I nd ia f r om wh ich t h e e n t i r e b one m a te r ia l w a s s y s t em a t ica l ly c o l le ted , w e ighed a nd s t o r ed .

M i s ra i nv i ted D r . A .T . C la son , a l e ad ing a r chaeozoo log i s t f r om t h e A rchaeo log isch B io log i sch I n s t i tu t a tG ron ingen , T he N e the r land s , w hom h e h ad m e t i n 1 970 d u r ing h i s v i s i t t o t h e I n s t i tu te , t o v i s i t t h e D eccan C o l lege a nd t r a in T homa s i n a r chaeozoo log ica l t e chn iqu e s . C la son s pon taneou s ly a ccep ted t h e i n v i ta t ion , e xpec t ing o n ly f r ee a ccommoda t ion , a nd s p en t s i x mon th s i n t h e c o l lege i n 1 972 . S he g ave as ound t r a in ing t o T homa s , a nd t oday h e i st h e b es t a r chaeozoo log i s t i n I nd ia . T homa s h a s p roduced s eve ra l P h .D .s , i n c lud ing o ne f r om J apan , a nd t wo o ft h em , P . P . J og leka r , a nd A ra t i -Deshpande - Mukhe r jee a r e h i s c o l leagu es . T he t r io , a l ong w i th t h e i r s t uden t s , a r e a lway sb u sy b ecau se t h ey s t udy t h e f a una l m a te r ia l n o to n ly r e cove r ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion sc a r r ied o u t b y t h e D eccan C o l lege b u t a l so t h a t s en t b y a n umbe ro fo th e ri n s t i tu t ion sl i k et h eA r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ( AS I ) , S t a te A r chaeo logy D epa r tm en t s a nd u n ive r s i t ie s l i ke t h o se o f A l lahabad a nd B ana ra s H indu U n ive r s i ty ( BHU ) . A round t h i s t im e b ecau se o fS ank a l ia 's v i s ion l a b s i np a laeon to logy a nd p a laeobo tany a l so d eve loped w i th M .D . K a ja le a nd G .L . B adam , r e spec t ive ly b e ing i n cha rge o ft h em .

M i s ra w a sv e ry k een t h a tt h i sr i ch c o l lec t ion s hou ld b e p rope r ly s t ud ied b y ap rope r ly q ua l if i ed p e r son , b u ta st h e r ew a sn o o ne a tt h eD eccan C o l lege t od o t h is ,h es en tt h em a te r ia l , o n ea f t e rt h eo t he r , t ot wo o u t s ide s pec ia l i s t s , n am e ly D r . D o l ly S hah o ft h e M .S . U n ive r s i ty , B a roda , a nd D r . K . R . A lu r o f Dha rwad , b u tb o th o ft h em w e r eu nab le t os t udy i t . F or tuna te ly , a r ound t h e s am e t im e P rof . K .T .M . H egde o f B a roda Un ive r s i ty , s en t o ne o f h i s s t uden t s ,P .K .Thom a s , t od oP h .D .u nd e rM i s ra . A s T hom a s h ad s t ud ied z oo logy a tB .Sc . l e ve l , M i s ra a dv i sed h im t os t udy t h e B ago rb one c o l lec t ion f o r h i s P h .D . F o r t h i s p u rpose a r e p r e sen ta t ive r e f e r ence c o l lec t ion o ft h eb one so fl i v ing a n ima l sb o th w i ld a nd d om es t ic -t h a t a r e r e p r esen ted a t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , w a s a b so lu te ly n ece s sa ry . On ly b yc ompa r ing t h e f r agm en ta ry b one s f ound i n e xcava t ion s w i th t h e c omp le t e b one s o f l i v ing a n ima l s , c an a n a r chaeozoo log i s t i d en t if y t h e a n ima l s r e p r e sen ted i nt h e b one c o l lec t ion f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te . M i s ra , l a te rh e lped b yT hom a s , b u i l t s uch a c o l lec t ion b y ( a ) o b ta in ing s ke le ta l s pec im en s o f s om e a n ima l s o n l o an f r om t h e Z oo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia , B ombay N a tu ra l

M is ra w a s i n f luenced b y F ranco i s B o rdes , who se e xcava t ion a t P ech d e l 'Aze h e h ad a t tended i n 1 970 , a nd o the rF r ench p reh i s to r ian s , i nd ev e lop ing p a laeo l i th ic a nd m ic ro l i th ic t y po log ie s f o r I nd ian a s semb lages , a nd wh ich h e h a s a pp l ied t o t h e c o l lec t ion s f r om B ago ra nd B h imbe tka . A s ar e su l t o f h i s p a r t ic ipa t ion i n B o rde s ' a nd D e L um ley 's e xcava t ion s a nd v i s i t s t o a n umbe r o f o th e r e xcava t ion s a nd c ave a r t s i t es i n F rance , M i s ra

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r e a l ized t h e i mpor tance o f c aves i n s t one a ge r e sea rch . L a te r , o nt h e i nv i ta t ion o fV .S . Wakanka r , who h ad d i scove red t h e r ock a r t s i te o fB h imbe tka i n 1 957 , a nd t h e a dv ice o f H .D . S anka l ia , M i s ra e xcava ted t h ree r ock s he l ter s a t B h imbe tka f r om 1 973 t o 1 977 , a nd f ound e xce l len t e v idence f o r h uman o ccupa t ion f r om t h e L a te A cheu ian t o l a te Meso l i th ic . R ecen t ly , B h imbe tka h as b een d ec la red aWo r ld H er i tage S i te b y UNESCO .

E a r ly a nd Ma tu r e H a rappan c i v i l iza t ion s , a nd i st h e o l des tk nown v i l lage s e t t lem en ti nI nd ia . Mo re r e cen t ly M is ra h a s b een h e lp ing A .K . K anungo i n e xcava t ing t h e s i te o f K op ia i n S an t K ab i r N aga r d i s t r ic t o f U .P . , k nown a s am a jo r g l a s s p roduc ing a nd m anuf ac tur ing c en t re o f t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod . B e s ides c oo rd ina t ing f i e ldwo rk i n p r e -and -p ro to h i s tory , M is ra h a sw o rked o nt h e r o ck a r to fc en t ra l I nd ia i n g ene ra l a nd B h imbe tka i n p a r t icu la r . H e h a s a l so c onduc ted e t hnog raph ic f i e ldwo rk among v a r iou st r iba l g roups o fR a ja s than a nd c en t ra l I nd ia t oa dd f l esh t ot h e b ones o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta . I n s ho r t , M is ra h a s d one e x ten s ive a nd i n ten s ive f i e ldwo rk i n p reh is tory , p ro toh is to ry ( a lso e a r ly h i s tory ) , r ock a r t , a nd e t hnoa rchaeo logy . I n t e rm s o f g eog raph ica l a r ea s , h i s f i e ldwo rk w a s i n R a ja s than , Madhya P radesh , Gu ja ra t a nd G anga v a l ley . Wi th t h is g ene ra l b ackg round , v a r iou s i s sues r a i sed a nd a pp roaches f o l lowed b y M i s ra w i l l b e d i scu ssed u nde r f ou r h ead ing s : P reh is to ry , P ro toh is tory ,R ock a r ta nd E thno -a rchaeo logy .

F rom 1 977 t o 1 985 M is ra wo rked w i th a mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry t e am c ompr is ing S .N . R a jaguru , an umbe r o f r e sea rch s cho la r s , a nd , a t d i f f e ren t s t ages , D .P . Ag rawa l a nd A .K . S inghv i o f PRL , Ahm edabad , R .P . Dh i r o f CAZR I , J odhpu r , a nd R .J . Wa sson a nd Gu rd ip S ingh o f ANU , C anbe r ra , o n t h e p reh is tory a nd N eogene -Qua ter n a ry e nv i ronmen t o f w es ter n R a ja s than , w i th s pec ia l emphas is o n t h e a r ea a r ound t h e D idwana t own i n N agau r d i s t r ic t . H e c onduc ted e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion s , d i scove red a n umbe r o f s t one a ge s i tes , a nd e xcava ted t h e p r ima ry c on tex t P a laeo l i th ic s i tes o f S ing i T a lav , I ndo la -k i -Dhan i a nd B anga rc ana l n ea rD idwana . T he e xcava t ion o f a2 0 md eep t r ench i n af o s s i ld une a tB angu rc ana l , e xpos ing mu l t ip le h o r izon s o f d une a ccumu la t ion a nd s t ab i l iza t ion , p resence o f p a laeo l i th ic a s semb lages o f d i f f e ren t s t ages i nt h em , a nd t h e i r d a t ing b y r ad ioca rbon , TL , a nd U /Th d ecay s e r ies , h a s m ade a v ery s i gn if ican t c on t r ibu t ion t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e e vo lu t ion o ft h e e nv i ronm en t i nt h e T ha rd eser t a nd h uman a dap ta t ion st oi t .I ti s am a jo rl a ndma rk i nS ou th A s ian p r eh is to ry .

P reh is tory M i s ra 's m a jo r c on t r ibu t ion h a s b een i nt h e f i e ld o f p reh is tory . ( i ) T erm ino logy i nI nd ian P reh is tory An i mpo r tan t i s sue M is ra ( 1962a ) r a ised d u r ing e a r ly 1 960s r e la tes t o t h e p rob lem o ft e rm ino logy i n I nd ian p reh is to ry . A t t h a t t im e , t h ree s e t s o f t e rm ino logy w e re u sed t o d esc r ibe t h e I nd ian p reh is to r ic s equence . T he f i r s t w a s a f te r t h e E u ropean f a sh ion i . e . L owe r , M idd le , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic . T he s e cond w a s a f te rt h e S ou th A f r ican f a sh ion , E a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te S tone Age , a nd N eo l i thc . T he t h i rd c on s is ted S er ies I ,I , I I , e t c . , a nd w a s u sed b y S anka l ia t o d escr ibe t h e c u l tu re s equence a t N eva sa . M is ra w a s i n f a vou r o f t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy . I n o rde r t o s ubs tan t ia te t h is h e f o l lowed t wo m ean s -( i ) h e p o in ted o u t t h e l im i ta t ion o ft h e o the r t wo s e t s , a nd ( i ) r e sponded t o t h e c r i t ic ism a ga in s t E u ropean t e rm ino logy . A s r ega rd s t h e S ou th A f r ican s y s tem o fE a r ly M idd le a nd L a te S tone Age , M is ra p o in ted o u t t h a t i n a r chaeo log ica l l i t era tu re t h e E u ropean t e rm s P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic " have b ecom e p ar t o ft h et hough tp a t ter no fs c ien t is t" a nd e duca ted l a yman a l ike : a nd h ence t h e n ew t e rm ino logy ( of E a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te S tone Age s ) " w i l l c r ea te much c onfu s ion" ( 1962a : 1 21) . S econd ly , M is ra a dded , t h et e rm M idd le S tone Age

Du r ing 1 988 -90 , M is ra , j o in t ly w i th R a jagu ru , e xcava ted a p r ima ry c on tex t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te a t S amnapu r o n t h e N a rmada r i ve r i n N a r s inghpu rd i s t r ic to f Madhya P radesh . F rom 1 994 t o 2 000 M is ra l e d a l a rge mu l t id isc ip l ina ry t e am t oe xcava te t h e C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly H is tor ic s i te o f B a la tha l i n Uda ipu r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than wh ich h e h ad d i scove red i n 1 963 . T h is e xcava t ion h a s a dded c on s ide rab ly t o wha t w a s k nown a bou t t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re o f Mewa r f r om t h e e a r l ie r e xcava t ion s a tG i lund a nd Aha r , a nd h a s a l so s hown t h a t i tw a s am a jo r i r on wo rk ing c en t re d u r ing t h e e a r ly h i s tor ic p er iod . F o r ty -f ive r ad ioca rbon d a tes —t h e l a rges t s e r ies f o r a ny a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n I nd ia — s how t h a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic B a la tha l f l ou r ished b e tween 3 700 a nd 1 800 BC , a nd t h e e a r ly h i s tor ic b e tween 4 00 BC a nd 3 00 AD . B a la tha l w as t hu s c on tempo ra ry t o

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t r ad i t ion , ( i )t h e f l ak et o o l c u l tu r e sm a in ly f ounded o n t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique o ri t s v a r ian t s , a nd ( i i ) t h e b l ade t o o l c u l tu r e . T he se t h r ee s t age s c ou ld b e d i s t ingu i shed a s L owe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T hu s a r chaeo log ica l ly , t wo s t age s o f I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic h ad , M i s ra a r gued , " c lo se s im i la r i ty t o t h e t wo s t age s ( Lowe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) o f E u rope" ( 1962a : 1 22 ) . O n ly t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nI nd ia , M i s ra c onf e s sed , w a s ' p oo r ly k nown ' a t t h a t t im e ( 1962a : 19 ) . H oweve r , t h e E u ropean t e rm s o f Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic c ou ld b e u sed , M i s r a f u r the r a dded , " i n I nd ia w i thou tr a i s ing a ny p rob lem "( 1962a : 19 ) .

" i sE ng l i sh t r an s la t ion o f Me so l i th ic a nd i sl i ke ly t o b ec onfu sed w i th t h el a t te r "( 1 962a : 1 2 1) . A cco rd ing t oM i s ra u n t i l 1 950 s o u r k now ledge o f I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic w a s , w i th a f ew e xcep t ion s , c onf ined t o o ne p ha se , i . e . t h e h andaxe -c leave r s t age o fp en in su la r I nd ia a nd i t s e qu iva len t E a r ly S ohan ian i n t h e P un jab . T h i s w a s u sua l ly d es igna ted a s L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . H oweve r , i n 1 956 , S anka l ia r e po r ted a s equen ce o ft h ree l i th ic i n du s t r ies a tN eva sa i n Maha ra sh t ra . T he s equen ce c on s i s ted o f( 1 ) ah andaxe -c leave r i n du s t ry a tt h e b o t tom a s soc ia ted w i th aM idd le P l e i s tocene f auna , ( 2 ) af l ak ei n du s t ry o fs c rape r sa nd p o in t s , a nd ( 3 ) a b l ade i n du s t ry w i th a m ic ro l i th ic t e ndency . S ank a l ia d e s igna ted t h et h r ee i n du s t r ie s a sS e r ie s I , I ,a nd I I .

T hu s , f o rM i s ra t h eu se o fE u ropean t e rm ino logy i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry w a s t o b e a cco rded p r ef e r ence s i nce t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy w a s ' mo r e p r ec i se a nd e a s i ly i n t e l l ig ib le" . T h r ee p o in t s n eed t o b e m en t ioned a s r ega rd s M i s ra 's d i scu s s ion o n t e rm ino logy f o r I nd ian p reh i s to ry . F i r s t , a l though M i s ra i n g ene ra l a ccep ted t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy f o r I nd ian p r eh i s to ry , h e w a s n o t a r educ t ion i s t a nd h ence h e a dvoca ted f o r ' t e rm ino log ica l r e cogn i t ion ' o fw ha t h e c a l led " t he c u l tu r a l i n d iv idua l i t ie s o f d i f f e r en t a r ea s" ( 1 962a : 1 22 ) . S econd , d esp i te M i s ra 's c l a im t h a t E u ropean t e rm ino logy w a s ' mo re p r ec i se ' , i t s a pp l ica t ion t o I nd ian P r eh is to ry d u r ing l a te 1 950 sa nd e a r ly 1 960 s w a s n o t f r ee f r om p rob lem s a s h e h im se lf h ad a ccep ted t h a t U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nI nd ia t h en w a s ' p oo r ly k nown ' . I nt h e a bsence o ft h e r e cogn i t ion o f aw e l l e s tab l i shed U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s equence i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry a t t h a t t im e , t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy a s a pp l ied t o I nd ia w a s L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic , t hu s w i th a g ap o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . H ence , d e sp i te M i s ra 's c l a im , t h e p rob lem w a s n o t o ve ra l toge the r .

M i s ra f ound t wo m a in p rob lem s w i th t h e s chem e . F i r s t ly , i tw a s c onf u s ing . H e r i gh t ly p o in ted o u t t h a t , " suppo se a n i nve s t iga to r f i nd s i n a n a r ea a P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry s im i la r t ot h a t o f S e r ie s Io f N eva sa . H e i mm ed ia te ly r e po r t s i ta s S e r ie s Io f h i sa r ea .N ow s t r ic t ly s peak ing t h i si n du s t ry w i l lb e S e r ie s Ii n i t s o wn a r ea . T he p r e sen t u sage i s t h e r ef o r ec onfu s ing" ( 1962a : 15 -6 ) . S econd ly , t h e se t e rm s , M i s ra a rgu ed , d i d n o t e xp r e s s t h e s t a tu s o f ap a r t icu la r c u l tu r e i nw ide ly i n te l l ig ib le t e rm s s uch a s L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , e t c . H ence b y a dop t ing t h e se t e rm s ,t h ep rob lem w a sn o tf u l ly s o lved . M i s ra a l so r e sponded t o t h e o b jec t ion s r a i sed a ga in s t t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy w h ich w e r e t wof o ld . T he f i r s t o b jec t ion w a s t h a t i n I nd ia a d equa te p a laeon to log ica l e v idence w a s n o t a va i lab le f o r d ef in ing t h e se t e rm s . H e s a id t h a t t o t h ink t h a t d i v i s ion s o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic a r e c h rono log ica l p e r iod s t o b e d ef in ed b y p a laeon to log ica lc r i te r ia w a s' m i s lead ing ' .

T h i s p rob lem w ou ld b e r ed r es sed l a te r w hen w o rk i n d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f I nd ia d u r ing l a te 1 960 s o nwa rd s w ou ld e s tab l ish U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a s a d i s t inc t s t age ( Mu r ty 1 979 ; R a ju a nd V enka ta subba iah 2 002 ) . T h i rd , a l though M i s ra t ook a ccoun t o fS anka l ia 's S e r ie s I ,I a nd I I i n to c on s id e ra t ion , h ed i dn o td i scu s s S e r ie s I ,I ,I Ia nd I V a sd e l in ea ted b y B u rk i t t a nd C amm iade ( 1930 ) . M i s ra 's o therw i se c omp r eh en s ive p ape r w ou ld h ave b een f u r th e r s t r eng then ed i fh e h ad i n c luded a nd c r i t ica l ly d i scu s sed P iggo t t 's a ccoun t i n h i s d i scu s s ion o nt e rm ino logy .

O n t h e o th e r h and , " t hey a r e e s sen t ia l ly d i v i s ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l t im e a nd n eed t o b e d ef ined s t r ic t ly a nd s o le ly b y c u l tu ra l a nd t e chno log ica l c r i te r ia" ( 1962a : 1 21) . T he s e cond c r i t ic i sm a ga in s tE u ropean t e rm ino logy w a s t h a t t h e I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l d a ta d i d n o t f i t i n to E u ropean f r am e . M i s ra r e spond ed b y a r gu ing t h a t t h e r e w e r e t h r ee b road t e chno log ica l s t age s i n t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e p r e sen ted b y ( i ) t h e c o r e t oo l c u l tu r e s w h ich h ad t wo t r ad i t ion s — a n e a r l ie r p ebb le t o o l t r ad i t ion a nd a l a te r h andaxe -c leave r

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( i )P a laeo l i th ic A n i mpo r tan t a spec t o fM i s ra 's p r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie s i n g ene r a l a nd o n R a ja s than i n p a r t icu la r i s h i s e mpha s i s o n e co log ica l b ackg round o f t h e s t one a ge c u l tu r e s ( M i s ra 1 976c , 1 987a , 1 987b , M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru 1 982 , 1 987 ) . F o r r e con s t ruc t ion o f s u ch b ackg round h e e i the r l e d , o rb ecam e p a r t o f , a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry t e am . A g ood e xamp le i st h e U .G .C . s pon so r ed i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry p ro jec t o n T ha r d e se r t i n w h ich M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru ( 1 987 ) w er e t h e k ey m embe r s a i ded b y o t he r f a cu l t ie s o f i n s t i tu t ion s l i ke P hy s ica l R e sea rch L abo ra to ry ( PRL ) , Ahm edabad , C en t ra l A r id Z one R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te ( CAZR 1 ) , J odhpu r , a nd A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty ( ANU ) , e t c . T h e m a in a spec t s o ft h ew o rk o nt h e T ha rd e se r tw e r es umma r ized b y M i s ra a nd R a ja gu ru ( 1 987 ) :

p a lyno log ica l a nd r a d iom e t r ic a na ly ses f o r t h e p e r iod b ef o r e 1 0 ,000 y ea r s . A cco rd ing t o M i s r a a nd R a jagu ru ( 1 987 ) , a bou t o n e m i l l ion y ea r s a go t h e T ha r w a s w a t e r ed b y p owe rf u l s t ream s . T he r e l ic t b ou ld e ry b ed s , b es t d eve loped n ea rJ aya l i nN agau rd i s t r ic t , p rov ide t h e g eomo rph ic e v iden ce f o r s uch p owe rf u l s t r eam s . D u r ing t h e f o rma t ion o ft h e se g r ave l st h e T ha rw a s r e ce iv ing a much h i ghe r r a inf a l l t h an t oday . A round h a lf -a -m i l l ion y ea r s a go t h e p owe r f u l d r a inage s y s tem g o t d i so rgan ized , g i v ing w ay t o t h e e m e rgence o f l e s s p owe rf u l a nd m eand e r ing s t r eam s . I t i s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h a t t h e f i r s t e v idence o f t h e a ppea rance o f m an i nt h e a r ea i s a va i lab le i n t h e f o rm o f t h e c amp s i te s o f L owe r P a laeo l th ic m an d i scove r ed a t an umbe r o fp l ace s a r ound D idwana i nN agau r d i s t r ic t . A r tef ac t s l i k e h andaxe s , c l eave r s , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s , p o lyh ed ron s , e t c . w e r e f ound e mbedded i nt h e s of t l o amy s ed imen t s o f l a k e s a nd p oo l s a nd s c a t te r ed o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e b ou lde ry b ed s o f a n e a r l ie r a ge . N o b one h a s b een r e cove r ed . H oweve r , o nt h e b a s i s o f a n ima l r em a in s f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th l i t h ic r ema in s o fc ompa rab le t e chno log ica l s t age i n t h eN a rmada a nd G odava r i a luv ium , M i s ra a rgu ed t h a t t h e A cheu l ian d en izen s o ft h e T ha r mu s t a l so h ave r e so r ted t o h un t ing o f l a rge h e rb ivo r e s a nd p o s se s sed a s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion s u i tab le f o r g roup h un t ing . E xcava t ion a tS ing i T a lav n ea r D idwana y i e lded e v idence o f o ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t u se s o f s em i -p r ec iou s s t one s b yp r eh i s to r ic m an i nI nd ia i n t h e f o rm o f af ew q ua r tz c r y s ta l s i n a s soc ia t ion w i th l i t h ic A r tef ac t s . D u r ing t h e l o ng p e r iod o f o ccupa t ion o ft h e A cheu l ian p eop le l a s t ing s eve r a l h und r ed t h ou sand y ea r s , t h e t e chn ique o fl i t h ic t o o l m ak ing b ecam e r ef ined d u r ing L a te A cheu l ian p e r iod . T hu s t o o l s b ecam e m o re s ymme t r ica l i n o u t l ine , t h inne r a nd h ad mo r e e v en s u rf aces a nd w e r em ade o ns ma l l f l ak es .

( 1 ) E x ten s ive r e conna i s sance s o ft h e T ha r d e se r t w e re u nde r taken t oc o l lec t a r chaeo log ica l a nd g eo log ica l d a ta , a nd s t ud ie s o f s and d une s w e r e m ade t o u nde r s tand t h e i r mo rpho logy , d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n , a nd w ea the r ing p rof i les . Mo reove r , w e l l s , t a nk s a nd q ua r r ies w e r e s t ud ied t od e te rm ine t h e n a tu r e o ff l uv ia l s ed im en t sa nd f o rl o ca t ing a r chaeo log ica l s i te si nt h em . ( 2 ) E xcava t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u ta tJ aya l a nd D idwa ra i n N agau r d i s t r ic t wh ich b ecam e " t he f i r s t e xcava t ion o f p a laeo l i th ic s i t e s c a r r ied o u t i n t h e d e se r t" e spec ia l ly i n ap r ima ry c on tex t ( M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru 1 987 ) . nt h eb a s is o f an ea r ly 2 0md eep t r ench t h rough a ( 3) O f o s s i l s and d une a tD idwana , t h e s t r a t ig r aphy o f v a r iou s s and d un e p ha se s h a s b een r e vea led i nt h e f o rm o f t h r ee m a jo r l i thoun i t s a nd a t l e a s t f ou r p a laeo so l s s pann ig ap e r iod o f7 0 ,000 y ea r s . Wha t i s mo r e i mpo r tan t i s t h e r e cove ry o f s t one i mp lem en t so nt wo h or izon s . ( 4 ) ' Fo r t h e f i r s t t ime a nywhe r e i n t h e w o r ld ' , t h e rmo lum in e scence d a t ing t e chn iqu e w a s u sed f o r d a t ing s and d une s b y A .K . S inghv i a nd D .P . A g rawa l o f PRL .

B y a r ound 1 00 ,000 y ea r s a go e nv i ronm en ta l c hange s i n t h e T ha r o ccu r r ed w i th d ec l in e i n r a inf a l l a nd s h if t ing o f r i ve r c ou r se s t o t h e w e s t ( po s s ib ly a s ar e spon se t o t e c ton ic m ovem en t s i n t h e i r h eadwa te r r e g ion ) . T he w e l l i n teg r a ted d r a inage s y s tem b ecam e c omp le t e ly d efunc t b y a r ound 7 0 t o 6 0 t h ou sand y ea r s a go . Wh i le t h e r edu ced r a inf a l l a f f ec ted t h e v eg e ta t ion g row th , s t rong w ind s b l ew s and a nd s i l t p a r t ic le s f r om t h ick ly a luv ia ted s u rf ace s a nd d epo s i ted t h em o n t h e l a nd s u rf aces o fw e s ter nR a ja s than wh ich l e dt o t h e f o rm a t ion o f t h ick a nd l a rg e s a nd d une s a nd s and s h ee t s . H oweve r , t h e c l ima te w a s n o t

o reove r X r ay d i f f rac t ion a na ly s i s a nd S cann ing ( 5) M E lec t ron ic M ic ro scopy a s w e l l a s m echan ica l a nd p e t ro log ica l a na ly se s f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e f o rma t ion o fs ed im en t sw e r e a l so d on e . ( 6 ) B y d i gg ing a w e l l i n t h e d eepes t p a r t o f t h e D idwana s a l t l a k e , a n a t temp tw a s m ade t or e cove r t h e s t ra t ig r aphy a nd s amp le s f o r s ed im en to log ica l ,

7 0

w ea the r ed p roduc t -t h e mo t t led c l ay - a nd u nde r ly ing e i the r as i l t d epo s i t a si nt h eB e rach a nd t h e G ambh i r i o r as e cond mo t t led c l ay a s i n t h e Wagan a nd t h e K adma l i . B ecau se o ft h e a b sence o f p a laeon to log ica l e v idence i nt h e i mp lem en t if e rou s g r ave ls o ri no t he rd epo s i t s , t h e r e la t ive c h rono logy o ft h e f ou r i n du s t r ies , M i s ra a rgued , c ou ld n o t b e e s tab l i shed o n t h a t g round . H e f ound a s t r ik ing h omogen e i ty i n t y po logy among t h e f ou r i ndu s t r ies . H oweve r , t h e r e w a s c on s ide rab le h e te rogene i ty a mong t h e t h r ee m a jo r i n du s t r ie s ( Be rach , G ambh i r i a nd t h e Wagan ) i nt e rm s o fs i ze a nd s hape o f t h e h andaxes . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e d i f f e rences w e r e s i gn if ican t b e tween t h e G ambh i r i i n du s t ry o n t h e o ne h and , a nd t h e B e rach a nd Wagan i n du s t r ie s o nt h e o t he r . A cco rd ing t oM i s ra , " whe the rt h i s v a r ie ty r ef l ec t s d i f f e r ence s i nt ime o r i n c u l tu r a l t r ad i t ion c anno t b e d e te rm ined i n t h e a b sence o f a mo r e p r ec i se c h rono log ica l f r am ewo rk" ( 1967 : 2 00 ) . M i s ra f u r the rp o in ted o u t t h a tt h e f o cu so ft h eA cheu l ian c u l tu r e i nR a ja s than l i e s i n t h e s ou thea s ter n p a r t o f t h e s t a te w i th t h e B e rach b a s in f o rm ing t h e w es ter n l im i t o f t h e A cheu l ian p rov ince .

u n if o rm ly a i dt h roughou t . On t h e o t he rh and , t h e r e w e re s eve ra l o cca s ion s o f s ho r t p e r iod s o f i n cr ea sed r a inf a l l w hen m an r e appea r ed i nt h e a r ea w i th t h e g row th o f v ege ta t ion a nd f l ou r i sh ing o f a n im a l l i f e . Wh i le t h e o n se t o f a r id i ty f o r ced t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le t o m ig ra te t o t h e s ou th e rn p a r to ft h eT ha r , i nt h eL un i v a l ley ( wh ich r e ce iv ed g ood r a inf a l l f r om t h e A rava l l i h i l l s ) , h un te r -ga the r e r b and s r e appea r ed w heneve r c ond i t ion s am e l io ra ted i nt h e n o r the rn p a r t o ft h e T ha r .I nt h is r ega rd ,M i s ra r e f e r r ed t ot h ef i nd ing o f s t one a r tef ac t s a tt wo h o r izon s , a td ep th a bou t 1 0 a nd 6m f r om t h e s u r f ace , f r om t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e f o s s i l d une a tB anga r C ana l . B e s ide s s c rape r s a nd c a r efu l ly s t ruck t h in f l ak e s , s ymm e t r ica lb l ade s w e r e a l so f ound . A n i mpo r tan t d i scove ry f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h o r izon w a s t h e r e cove ry o f a v e ry s ma l l , t h in a nd s ymm e t r ica l ly s haped o va l h andaxe a nd o f a no the r f r e sh ly m ade l a rge r h andaxe . T he se f i nd s , a cco rd ing t o M i s ra , s how t h a t much e l em en t s o f A cheu l ian t e chno logy s u rv ived i n t h i s c u l tu ra l ly b ackwa te r z one t i l l t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . T h i s h o r izon h a s b een d a ted t oa bou t 2 6 ,000 y ea r s b y r a d ioca rbon d a t ing . T h e s ma l le r h andaxe ' am a s te rp iece o f s t one a ge m an 's c r af tman sh ip ' -w a s " t he y ounges tt o o lo ft h e k ind i nt h e w o r ld a nd p robab ly t h e o n ly o ne t ob e f ound i n as and d une" ( M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru 1 987 : 2 7 ) .

T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( M i s ra u sed t h e t e rm M idd le S tone A ge , MSA , i nh i s 1 967 monog raph ) i s l e s s w id e ly d i s t r ibu ted i n t h e B e rach b a s in . S t ra t ig r aph ica l ly , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s o ccu r red i nt h e s andy g r ave l s s epa ra ted f r om t h e b ou lde ry g r ave l s o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic b y a mo t t led c l ay d epo s i t . Ac u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i s d i scer n ed f r om t h e p r e sence o fL owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s i n t h e s am e g r ave l s . S om e e l em en t s o f A cheu l ian l i ke h andaxes a nd c o r e s c rape r s n o d oub t c on t inued i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ' i n a n e vo lved f o rm a nd i n r educed m ea su re ' . B u t c l eave r s a nd d i sco id s a r e a b sen t . T h e p r inc ipa l t o o l t y pe o f t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic w a s s c rape r , f o l lowed b y p o in t . T he L eva l lo i s e l em en t w a s a l so mo r ep ronounced i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h an i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . S t a t i s t ica l ly t h e r e w a s s i gn if i can t d i f f e r ence b e tween M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s i n r e spec t o f p ropor t ion o fv a r iou s t o o l t ypes , o fc o r e a nd f l ake t o o l s , a nd o fs haped a nd u n shaped t o o l s . A cco rd ing t o M i s ra , " t he d eve lopm en t o f t h e MSA ( M idd le S tone A ge ) c u l tu re i n t h e B e rach b a s in w ou ld a ppea r t o b e i n sp i r ed p a r t ly b y t h e i nd igenou s c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion a nd p a r t ly b y e x ter n a l s t imu l i . I n wha tm ea su r ep r ec ise ly t h et wo s ou r ce sc on t r ibu ted c anno t b e s a id d ef in i te ly , f i r s t b ecau se t h e MSA c u l tu r e i t se lf i s i n adequa te ly k nown , s e cond ly

An i mpo r tan t a spec t o f t h e s t udy i s t h e c o r robo ra t ion o f t h e h i s to ry o f a r id c l ima te p re served i nt h e d une s b y t h e s ed im en t s d epo s i ted i nt h e s a l t l a ke a tD idwana . O n t h e b a s i s o f d a ta f r om D idwana a nd s eve ra l o t he r l a ke s , M i s ra a r gu ed t h a t t h e se l a k es c am e i n to e x i s tence d ue t o t h e d i so rgan i sa t ion o f t h e d r a inage s y s tem o f t h e T ha r . H oweve r , t h ep e r iod ica lf i l l ing a nd d ry ing u p o ft h e l a k e i sk nown f r om l a k e s ed imen t s d a ted t o b ef o r e 1 0 ,000 y ea r s i n t h e f o rm o f a l ter n a t ing b and so fs and s ,c l ay a nd e vapo r i te s . I n s ou th -ea s t R a ja s than , o n t h e b a s i s o fh i s s urvey M i s ra r e por ted " an a lmo s t u n in te r rup ted o ccupa t ion o ft h e B e rach b a s in f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p r im i t ive h un t ing a nd f ood g a the r ing a t s om e t im e d u r ing M idd le P l e i s tocene t o t h e e m e rgence o ff u l l -f l edged f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC" ( M is ra 1 967 : 2 00 ) . E v idence o fA cheu l ian c u l tu r e w a s r e co rded f r om a l l t h e f ou rr i ve r v a l ley s i nt h e b a s in - B e rach , G ambh i r i , Wagan a nd K adma l i . T h e g ene ra l s t ra t ig raphy c omp r i sed t h e b ou lde ry g r ave l o ve r ly ing e i the r t h e b a sa l r o ck o r i t s

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b ecau se t h e s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence b ea r ing o n t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e t wo c u l tu r e s i s a t p r e sen t i n adequa te , a nd t h i rd ly b ecau se e ven i n t h e n e ighbou r ing a r ea s t h e MSA c u l tu r e i si mper f ec t ly k nown" ( 1 967 : 2 03 ) .

c hopp ing t o o l s ( M i s ra 1 976a ) . M i s ra c on s ide r ed t h e B h imbe tka A cheu l ian i n du s t ry r e p r e sen t ing t h e t e rm ina l p ha se o ft h e A ch eu l ian t r ad i t ion , b ecau se l a y e r 5 wh ich o ve r lay t h e A cheu l ian d epo s i t w a s s t r a t ig r aph ica l ly a nd c u l tu ra l ly a c on t inu a t ion o f t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e e xcep t f o r t h e d i sappea rance o ft h e b i f ace e l em en t a nd a c e r ta in d ec l ine i nt h e s t anda rd o fw o rkman sh ip .

M is ra ( 1976a , 1 978 , 1 980 ) a l so r e po r ted M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes f r om t h e c en t ra l L un i b a s in , w es ter n R a ja s than ( M i s ra 1 962a ) . T he c ompos i te s t ra t ig raphy i n t h e m idd le r e ache s o f L un i c omp r i sed ( f rom t o p t ob o t tom ) ( 1 ) s i l ty s and ( 1t o 3m t h ick ) s how ing a s ha rp c on tac t w i th ( 2 ) c em en ted p ebb ly g r ave l ( 1 t o 2m t h ick ) s how ing s ha rp c on tac t w i th ( 3 ) wh i t i sh c l ayey s i l t r e s t ing u nconf o rmab ly o n b ed r o ck . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic f a c to ry s i tes w e r e r e por ted f r om t h e c en t ra l L un i b a s in w he r e r aw m a te r ia l s l i k e c h e r t , c ha lcedony , f l in t , q ua r tz i te a nd s i l ic if i ed w ood w e r e a va i lab le i n p l en ty . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s w e r e f ound i nt h e r i ve r b ed s a s w e l l a s i n s t ra t if i ed g r ave l s . T hey i n c lud e v a r ie t ie s o f s c rape r s , p o in t s , f l ake k n ive s , f l ak es , b l ade s a nd d im inu t ive h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . O nt h e b a s i s o ft h e p r e sence o fh andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , e ven t h ough i ns ma l l n umbe r s , M i s ra i n f er r ed t h a t t h e P a laeo l i th ic L un i c u l tu re s hou ld b e long e i the r t o t h e e nd o f A ch eu l ian o r t o t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p ha se ( M i s ra 1 962 ) .

A t B h imbe tka , t h e s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence s how s t h a t t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r e d eve loped o u t o f t h e A ch eu l ian c u l tu r e w i th t h e s l ow d i sappea rance o fc l eave r s a nd h andaxes , r e duc t ion o ft h e s i ze o ft o o l sa nd o ccu r r en ce o f aw ide v a r ie ty o fs i de s c rape r s , L eva l lo i s f l ak e s a nd b l ade s a st h e m a in a r tef ac t s . T he a va i lab i l i ty o f an umbe r o f t o o l s m ade o n f l a t n a tu ra l s l ab s o fs t one i n s tead o f f l ak e s f r om t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic l e ve l a t B h imbe tka w a s au n ique f e a tu r e( M is ra 1 985 ) M i s ra a l so e xcava ted aM idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e i n t h e c en t ra l N a rmada v a l ley a t S amnapu r i n a p r ima ry c on tex t ( M i s ra e ta l . 1 990 ) wh ich y i e lded mo r e t h an 3 000 a r tef ac t s a nd a s ma l l n umbe r o f f r agm en ta ry f o s s i l ized a n ima l b ones . C h er ty q ua r tz i te , q ua r tz i te a nd d o le r i te w e r e t h e r aw m a te r ia l s wh ich w e r e a va i lab le l o ca l ly o ri nn ea rby p l ace s a nd w e r e u sed i nm ak ing t o o ls . T he i n du s t ry w a s f l ak e b a sed w i th t h e o ccu r rence o f s om e b l ade s . D e sp i te t h e r e cove ry o f s om e f a ce ted p l a tf o rm f l ak e s , n o t r ace o f L eva l lo is f l ak e s h a s b een f ound . M i s ra a r gued t h a t i t w a s a m anuf ac tu r ing s i te s i nce a l a rge n umbe r o fc o r e s , f l ak es a nd c h ip s a l ong w i th s haped t o o l s w e r e f ound i n ap r im a ry c on tex t . T h e s haped t o o l s i n c lude s i ng le o r d oub le s i de s c rape r s , e nd s c r ape r s , d en t icu la te s , n o tche s , p o in t s , b o r e r s , r e touched f l ake s a nd k n ives .

T a lk ing a bou t t h e e xcava ted A cheu l ian s i te s i n I nd ia , M i s ra r e cogn ized t wo c l ea r p ha ses ( M i s r a 2 001a ) . T he f i r s ta nd t h ee a r l ie rp ha se t h a ti n c lud ed t h e i n du s t r ie s f r om L a l i tpu r , A damga rh , K u l iana , Mahad eo P ipa r ia , C h i rk i -Neva sa , A nagwad i a nd H ung s i w a s c ha rac te r ized b y a l l o r m os t o f t h e f o l low ing f e a tu re s : h i gh p e r cen tage o f c hoppe r c hopp ing t o o l s a nd b i f ace s , l ow p e r cen tage o fn on b i f ace t oo ls m ade o n f l ak es , h igh r a t io o fh andaxe s t o c l eave r s , l ow i n c id en ce o fb l ade s a nd L eva l lo i s f l ak es a nd p r edom inance o fs t one h amm e r f l ak ing t e chn ique . T he s e cond a nd l a te rp ha se i sa s soc ia ted w i th r o ck she l te r s I IF -23 a nd I IF -24 a tB h imbe tka a nd c l if fg r ave la t Mahadeo P ipa r ia .

Ar e f e r ence t ot h e r e cove ry o fU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s h a s b een m ade f r om t h e e xcava t ion a tr o ck s he l te rI IF 2 3 a tB h imbe tka . A ni mpor tan t a spec t o fM i s ra 's p r eh i s to r ic r e sea rch i s h i s e mpha s i s o n q uan t i ta t ive m e thod s . F o r e xamp le , a s r e ga rd s , t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e cove r ie s f r om T r enche s Ea nd F o ft h e R ock s he l te rI I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C h i squa r e a nd t wo s amp le t e s t s s uch a s Mann -wh i tney U l i s t a nd ' t 'l i s t w e r e u sed t o e xam ine t h e t empo ra l v a r ia t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om t h e p r ima ry c on tex t ( A lam a nd M i s ra 1 992 ) .

M i s ra a l so w o rk ed o n t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e o f c en t ra l I nd ia b y e xcava t ing r o ck she l te r I IF -23 a t B h imbe tka . A cco rd ing t oh im , t h e c ha rac ter i s t ic o f t h e B h imbe tka A cheu l ian i n du s t ry i s av e ry l ow p e rcen tage o fb i f aces , h i gh p ropor t ion o f c l eave r s t o h andaxe s , a r ema rkab ly h i gh s t anda rd o f w o rkm an sh ip i n b i f ace s , e spec ia l ly c l eave r s , p r edom inance a nd g r ea t d i ve r s i ty o f n on -b if ace t o o ls , h igh p e r cen tage o f e nd s c rape r s , a nd L eva l lo is f l ake s , a nd c omp le te a b sence o fc hoppe r -

7 2

b ank d une s . I nt h ew ood land z one so ft h eV indhya s a nd t h e K a imu r R ange t h ey o ccup ied c ave s a nd r ock s he l te r s a s w e l l a s o pen -a i r l o ca t ion s . T he l im e s tone c aves i nt h e Ku rnoo l d i s t r ic t o fA ndh ra P rade sh w e r e a l so o ccup ied d u r ing t h e p e r iod . I n t h e w ooded e co sy s tem s o f t h e i n te r io r P en in su la t h e r e a r e n um e rou s s i te s r i gh t i nt h e h ab i ta t o ft h e s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion o f t h e p r e sen t d ay . A long t h e We s t C oa s t , n ea r B ombay , t h e Meso l i th ic g roup s s e t t led o n t h e t op o f t h e h i l l s a nd r o ck o u tc rops n ea rt h e s e ac oa s t . N ea rt h et i p o ft h eP en in su la , o n t h e e a s tc oa s t ,t h e re a r e o ccupa t ion so nc oa s ta l s and d une s ( Te ns ) . T he se c oa s ta l o ccupa t ion s a r e s ugges t ive o f m a r in e f ood e xp lo i ta t ion . L ik ew i se , t h e o ccupa t ion s o nt h e s ho re s o fo xbow l a ke s i nt h e G anga v a l ley ( e .g . S a ra iN aha rR a i , Mahadaha a nd D amdama ) , t ho se c l o se t o w a te rf a l l s i n t h e T e lengana p l a teau ( e .g . G au r i G undam a nd P ocha ra ) , a r ound C h i t rako t F a l l s i nB a s ta r , a nd i n t h e r i ve r ine n i che s o f t h e E a s ter n G ha t s i n d ica te c on s ide r ab le d ependence o n a qua t ic f ood r e sou r ce s" ( 1989a : 2 5 ) .

( i i ) Me so l i th ic V .N .M is ra i s t h e b es t a u tho r i ty o n Me so l i th ic C u l tu r e o f I nd ia . R igh t s i nce h i s p ape r o n Meso l i th ic i nI nd ian P reh i s tory 1 964 e d i ted b yh im a nd Ma te ( 1965 ) , M i s r a h a s w r i t ten s eve r a l r ev iew p ape r so n Meso l i th ic c u l tu r es ( M i s ra 1 989b , 2 00 1a , 2 002a , 2 002b ) . A cco rd ing t oh im , f o r av a r ie ty o f r e a son s , e v idence s f o r t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod i n I nd ia , d e sp i te i t s d u ra t ion o fo n ly a f ew t hou sand y ea r s , " i s f a r r i che r t h an o f t h e p reced ing P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod w h ich l a s ted f o r mo r e t h an a m i l l ion y ea r s" ( M i s ra 2 002a : 4 ) . F i r s t , a l l t h e d a ted Me so l i th ic s i te s b e long t o t h e H o locene a nd a r e w e l l p r e served s i nce n o s i gn if i can t g eomo rph ic c hange s h ave o ccu r r ed d u r ing t h i s p e r iod . S econd , mo r et h an t wo t h ou sand t n ic ro l i th ic s i te sh ave b een d i scove r ed a l l o ve r t h e c oun t ry b a r r ing t h e g r ea te r p ar t o f t h e G anga p l a in s , n o r thea s te rn I nd ia o r much o ft h e We s te rn G ha t s . T h i rd , o ve rt h i r ty s i te s h ave b een e xcava ted y i e ld ing g ood i n f o rma t ion o n t h e t e chno logy , m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , s ub s i s tence a nd d i sposa l o f t h e d ead . F ou r th , t h e r e i s g ood p e r cen tage o fh uman s k e le ta l a nd a n ima l r ema in s i n an umbe r o f s i te s . E xcep t ing t h e P l e i s tocene h um an f i nd f r om H a thno ra i nt h e N a rmada v a l ley , t h e se c ompr i se t h e e a r l ies t h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s i n I nd ia . S ix th , a t an umbe r o f s i te s , t h e re i s a bundance o f r o ck p a in t ing s , a s soc ia ted w i th Me so l i th ic s i tes . F ina l ly , a bou t f i f ty r a d ioca rbon d a t e s a va i lab le h e lp u si nd e te rm in ing t h e a n t iqu i ty a nd t h ep roces se so fe vo lu t ion o f Me so l i th ic s i te s .

M i s ra f u r the r s t a ted t h a t ad r ama t ic i n c r ea se i nt h e n umbe r o f o ccupa t ion s i te s i n d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f I nd ia i s a p o s i t ive i nd ica t ion o f s i gn if ican t d emog raph ic i n c rea se d u r ing e a r ly H o locene t im es . H e v i sua l ized s ev e ra l f a c to r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e d r ama t ic p opu la t ion g row th . A cco rd ing t oh im , " Seve ra l f a c to r s c ou ld b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h i s d rama t ic p opu la t ion g row th . F i r s t ly , i ti sk nown f r om s eve ra l p a r t s o ft h e O ld Wo r ld t h a tt n ic ro l i th s w e r e u sed a s c omponen t s o f a r rowhead s , s pea rhead s a nd o the r t oo ls l i k e k n ive s , d agge r s , s i ck le s a nd h a rpoon s . A l so , m any p a in t ing s i n r o ck she l te r s i nc en t ra l I nd ia s how t h e u se o fb ow a nd a r row a nd t h e u se o f m ic ro l i th s a s t i p s a nd b a rb s o fa r row s . T he r egu la ru se o fb ow a nd a r row mu s t h ave g r ea t ly i mp roved i n h un t ing e ff ic iency o f Me so l i th ic p opu la t ion s a nd t h e r eby c on t r ibu ted t o a mo r e a s su r ed f ood s upp ly . S econd ly , q uer n s a nd r ubbe r s a ppea r f o r t h e f i r s t t im e i nt h i s p e r iod a nd t h ey h ave b een f ound a tm any s i te s , s how ing t h a t f ood w a s p roces sed b ef o r e c on sump t ion . T h i s w ou ld h ave i n c r ea sed t h e n u t r i t ive v a lue o f a va i lab le f ood a nd t h e r eby c on t r ibu ted t o ab e t te r h ea l th s t a tu s . F ina l ly , t h e r e i s c l ea r e v idence o f i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e H o locene f r om l a k e s ed im en t s a nd b u r ied s o i l s i ns and d unes i nR a ja s than a nd c l ayey d epo s i t s i nr o ck sh e l te r s i n c en t ra l I nd ia . T h i s i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l mu s t h ave c on t r ibu ted t og r ea te rp l an t g row th a nd i n c r ea se i n a n ima l p opu la t ion w h ich i n t u rn w ou ld i mp ly

M i s ra ( 2002b : 14 ) a s c r ibed e co log ica l r e a son s f o r t h e a b sence o r s pa r sene s s o f l i t h ic s i te s i n s om e p a r t o f I nd ia . F o r e xamp le , l a ck o f s t one f o r m ak ing t o o l s i s t h e c au se f o r t o ta l a b sence o f Me so l i thc s i te s o ve r much o f t h e G anga p l a in ( e xcep t t h e s ou th -cen t ra l r e g ion ) . B e s ides , h eavy r a inf a l l a nd c on sequen t d en se v ege ta t ion c ou ld b e t h e r e a son f o r t h e s pa r sene s s o fs i te s i nn o r th -ea s t I nd ia a nd t h e We s ter nG ha t s . R ev iew ing t h e s t one a g e c u l tu r es f r om a n e co log ica l p e r spec t ive , M i s ra ( 1989a ) s a id t h a tt h e Me so l i th ic f o lk n o t o n ly mo r e i n ten se ly i nhab i t ed t h e p r ev iou s ly c o lon ized h ab i ta t s , b u t a l so e x tended t h e i r c o lon iza t ion i n to v a r iou s a r ea s l i k e t h e G anga v a l ley , D amoda r v a l ley , t h e h i l ly t r ac t o fG u ja r a t , t h e K e ra la c oa s t a nd t h e s ou ther nT am i lN adu c oa s t . Mo r eove rt h ey e xp lo i ted a g r ea te r v a r ie ty o f h ab i ta t s t h an t h e i r p r edece s so r s .F o re xamp le ,M i s ra s t a ted , "I nt h e G u ja ra t p l a in s t h ey s e t t led o n s and d une s o nt h e s ho re so fi n te r -duna ll a k e s a nd i nt h e Mewa r p l a in o n e l eva ted r o cky g round a sw e l l a so n r i ve r

7 3

i n c r ea sed a va i lab i l i ty o f f ood p opu la t ion s" ( 2002b : 17 ) .

t o t h e

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r e la t ive ly c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion o f t h e r e g ion o f r o ck sh e l te r s a nd o pen -a i rs i te s .

R ega rd ing t e chno logy , M i s r a s t a ted t h a t t hough m ic rob lade s w e r e u sed i n v a ry ing d eg r ees i n m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s a l o ve r t h e c oun t ry , t h e h ighe s t p er f ec t ion i nt h e t e chno logy w a s a ch ieved i nw e s te rn a nd c en t ra l I nd ia . H e a l so m en t ion ed t h e p r edom inan t ly g eom e t r ic t y pe o f m ic ro l i th s f r om B ago r i n R a ja s than a nd B h imbe tka i n Madhya P r ade sh . T he s ub s i s tence p a t ter n o ft h e Me so l i th ic p eop le i sk nown f r om t h er e cove ry o fa n im a lb one s f r om an umbe r o f s i te s wh ich i ss upp lem en ted b y d ep ic t ion o f h un t ing , t r app ing , f i sh ing a nd p l an t f ood c o l lec t ing i n r o ck -pa in t ing s . A s r e ga rd s d we l l ing a nd m a te r ia l c u l tu r e o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le , o u r k now ledge i sl im i ted b ecau se o f t h e p oo r s u rv iva l o f o rgan ic m a ter ia l . E v idence s o f c i r cu la r h u t s w e r e f ound i n s om e r o ck p a in t ing s , a nd f r om s ome e xcava ted s i te s s uch a sB ago r a nd T i lwa ra . B e s ide s , t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence o f i n ten t iona l d i spo sa l o ft h e d ead i nI nd ia i sk nown f r om t h e Meso l i th ic p e r iod f r om s i te s s uch a s S a ra i -Noha r R a i , Mahadoha a nd D amdam a i nt h e G anga v a l ley , B h imbe tka i n Madhya P rade sh , B ago r i n R a ja s than , L anghna j i n G u ja ra t a nd L ekhah ia a nd Mo rhana P aha r i nM i rzapu r d i s t r ic t o fU t ta rP rade sh .

W i th t h is g ene ra l r e v iew , i t i s i mpor tan t t o s umm a r ize t h e r e su l t s o f e xcava t ion s o f t h r ee Me so l i th ic s i tes b yM i s r a . ( i v ) E xcava ted Me so l i th ic S i te s ( a )B agor L y ing o n a l a rge a nd p rom in en t s and d une o ve r look ing t h e l e f t b ank o f t h e K o tha r i r i ve r B ago r i s t h e l a rges t e xcava ted Meso l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i t e i n I nd ia . Wh i le i n e a r l ie r p ub l ica t ion s , M i s r a h a s d i v ided t h e o ccupa t ion i n t h r ee p ha se s ( 1971 , 1 973a , 1 973b ) b u t l a te r ( M i s ra 1 989c ) h e d i v ided i ti n to t wo p e r iod s i n w h ich P ha ses Ia nd I o ft h e e a r l ie r s equence b e longed t o P e r iod I a nd P ha se I I I t o P e r iod I . I n P e r iod I , P ha se I d a ted t o b e tween c . 5 000 a nd 2 500 BC t h e r e w e r e p rof u se m ic ro l i th s a nd a n ima l b on e s i mp ly ing a n e conomy b a sed o n h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd h e rd ing . 7 2 .2% o ft h e i d en t if i ed b ones b e long t oP e r iod I . T he a n ima l s i n c lud e , s h eep , g oa t , p i g , h umped c a t t le , e t c . S t one p aved f l oo r s i mp l ied t h a t p eop le l i ved i n h u t s w i th p robab ly w a t t le w a l l s . E xcava t ion o f s k e le ta l r em a in s r evea led b u r ia l o f t h e d ead i na n e x tended p o s i t ion . D u r ing P ha se - I ( c . 2 500 -1000 BC ) t h e r e w a s d ec l ine o fm ic ro l i th ic t o o l s a nd a n ima l b one s . O n t h e o t h e r h and , c oppe r t oo l s a nd h andmade p o t te ry w i th i n c ised d eco r a t ion w e r e r e cove red . E v idence o f f l exed b u r ia l w a s f ound a nd t h e a s soc ia ted g r ave g ood s i n c lude p o t s , m e ta l t o o l s , or n am en t s a nd f ood o f f e r ing s . T hu s , d u r ing t h i s p ha se s t ab le e conomy i sv i sua l ized i n t h e f o rm o fp l an t a g r icu l tu r e a nd ag r ea te r r e l ian ce o na n im a ld om e s t ica t ion .

B o th i nt h e r o ck she l te r s o fc en t ra l I nd ia a nd a tt h e o pen a i r s i te s o fR a ja s than , G u ja ra t a nd t h e G anga v a l ley , t h e d ead w e r e b u r ied i n t h e h ab i ta t iona l a r ea . O n ly i n af ew c a se s , g r ave o f f er ing sh ad b een f ound . F o r e xamp le , a tB h imbe tka , p i ece s o f r ed o ch re , b one p o in t s , d eco ra ted b one p i ece s , s ha rp ly c u t a nd p o l i shed a n t le rp i ece sw e re p l aced w i th t h e b ody , a nd b one a nd a n t le r e a r r ing s a nd n eck lace s w e re f ound o nt h e s k e le ton so f Mahadaha .

P e r iod I I( c . 5 00 BC t o AD 2 00 )h a s y i e lded av e ry p oo r m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry w h ich i sp e rhap s d er ived f r om P ha se I I . Wh i le a n im a l b ones b ecam e s c a rce , t h e r e w a s e v idence o f i r on t o o ls , mo r e p l en t if u l p o t te ry ( b a s ica l ly w hee lm ade ) , g l a s s b ead s a nd t h e u se o fb r ick s a nd t o o l s a l ong w i th d r e s sed s t on e i n s t ruc tu r e s .

M i s ra a l so r e v iewed t h e s t ud ie s m ade b y s cho la r s o n t h e b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy o f h uman s ke le ta l r ema in s w h ich h ave s i gn if i can t b ea r ing o n t h e p hy s ica l c ompos i t ion , p a tho logy a nd d i e ta ry h ab i t s o f t h e Meso l i th ic p opu la t ion ( 2002a : 1 8 -26 ) . I n g en e ra l t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le o ft h e G anga v a l ley w e r e t a l le r a nd w e r e m e r e s t u rd i ly b u i l t t h an t h ose o f M i rzapu r r o ck she l te r s , B ago r , L anghna j a nd B h imbe tka . M i s ra a l so s t a ted t h e t wo m a in c onc lu s ion s d r awn b y L uka s a nd K ennedy ( 2002 : 1 0 1-107 ) r e ga rd ing t h e B h imbe tk a s ke le ta l r em a in s . T he se a r e t h e f o l low ing : ( 1 ) t h e r e i s c on s ide rab le b i o log ica l d i ve r s i ty p r esen t i n t h e b ones a nd t e e th ; a nd ( 2 ) a r chaeo log ica l a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l d a ta t e s t if y t o a n a nc ien t a nd

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C our te sy : V .N .M i s ra b lun ted b l ade s , l una tes , t r iang le s , p o in t s , a nd af ew t r apezes o f f i ne w o rkm an sh ip . T he r aw m a te r ia l s w e r e q ua r tz , q ua r tz i te , c he r t a nd r hyo l i te . A r rangem en t o f s t one s i mp ly ing t h e o u t l ine o f a c i r cu la r h u t w a s a l so f ound . Whee l m ade g r ey a nd r ed w a r e w e r e a l so r e cove r ed . R ema in s o f d om e s t ica ted c a t t le , a nd s heep /goa t a nd mo l lu scan s he l l s w e re a l so u nea r thed . T h e p auc i ty o f b one m a te r ia l a tT i lwa r a w a s i n te rp r e ted e i the r b ecau se o f t h e d ecay o f b one s c ou r se t ime o r b ecau se

t e chno logy , t h e v i r tua l a b sen ce o f t h e c r e s ted r i dge -gu id ing t e chn ique w a s ad i s t inc t ive f e a tu re . ( b )T i lwara M i s ra ( 1971 , 1 973a , 1 989d ) e xcava ted t h e m ic ro l i th ic s i te o fT i lwa ra , D i s t B a rm e r , R a js than , o n t h e l e f t b ank o ft h e r i ve rL un i . T he l owe r l e ve l h a sb een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se ,w i th t h eg r ea te s t c oncen t ra t ion o f m ic ro l i th s u nea r thed b e tween 2 0 a nd 3 5 cm b e low t h e s u rf ace . S uch m ic ro l i th s i n c luded b ack ed b l ade s , o b l iqu e ly

7 5

o ft h e p robab le c on sump t ion o f mo r e m i lk p roduc t t h an t h ef l e sh o ft h e i rb one s( M i s ra 1 989d : 2 66 ) .

c omp r i se r e s iden t ia l o ne s o n t h e o u te r s i d e s o ft h e m ound a nd af o r t if i ed e nc lo su r e i nt h e c en t r e , s how i n c ip ien tp l ann ing . S t one , mud b r ick a nd mud w e r e t h ep r inc ipa l m a te r ia l s f o rc on s t ruc t ion . T he r ew e r e e i gh t s t ruc tu ra l p ha se s i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod . O f t h e se f ou r b e longed t o P ha se I A o r p r e f o r t if i ca t ion , a nd f ou r t o P ha s e I B o r p o s t f o r t if i ca t ion . R e s iden t ia l s t ruc tu r e s , a pa r t f r om i s o la ted o nes o n t h e e a s ter n a nd n or ther n p a r t s o f t h e m ound , a r e g rouped i n to t h r ee c omp lexe s , w h ich a r e d iv ided b y o ne s t r ee t a nd o ne l a ne . I n P ha se I B I s t ruc tu r e 1 0 w a s t h e ' mo s t c omp le te a nd c omp lex ' w i th a t l e a s t e l even r oom s . T he p r e sen ce o f s t o rage b in p l a tf o rm s , f i r e p l ace s , q uer n s , p o t te ry , c ha r r ed g r a in s a nd a n ima l b one s i mp l ie s , M i s ra i n f e r r ed , t h a t t h i s w a s ar e s iden t ia l c omp lex , p robab ly b e long ing t o t h e c h ief o f t h e c ommun i ty . F rom P ha se V I I , e v idence o f t wo p o t te ry k i ln s w a s f ound . O n e o ft h ese h ad s e ve ra l e l onga ted a nd i n te r connec ted c hanne l s f o r l e t t ing o u t g a se s f r om w i th in , a nd a l a rge s t one q ue rn n ea rby wh ich w a s ' a lmo s t c e r ta in ly ' u sed f o r p ound ing a nd k n ead ing t h e c l ay u sed f o r p o t m ak ing . T he m o s t s p ec ta cu la r C ha lco l i th ic s t ru c tu r e i s am a s s ive f o r t if i ed e n c lo su r e mud a nd s t on e s t ruc tu r e , l o ca ted a lmo s t i nt h e c en t r e o ft h e s e t t lem en t ( M i s ra 1 997 : 2 61) . R ough ly r e c tangu la r i ns h ape , i tc omp r i sed f ou rr ampa r t s o rw a l l s m ade o f r amm ed mud a nd r e ve t ted w i th s em i -d r e s sed s t one s b o th o n t h e i n ne r a nd o u te r f a ce s a nd e n c lo s ing a n a r ea o fa bou t 6 00 s q . m . T he a ve rage l e ng th o ft h e E -W r unn ing w a l l s i s3 5 m a nd t h a t N -S r unn ing w a l l s2 7m .

( c )B h imbe tka T he h ab i ta t iona l d epo s i t o ft h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod a t B h imbe tka r o ck she l te r ( M i s ra 1 985 ,1989e ) v a r ied f r om 0 . 20 m t o 1 . 50 m i n d i f f e r en t c aves . M ic ro l i th s r e cove red f r om B h imbe tka e xcava t ion i n c luded b lun ted b ack b l ade s , o b l ique ly t r unca ted b l ade s , p o in t s , c r e scen t s , t r i ang le s , t r apeze s , a nd t r an sve r se a r rowhead s . C h e r t a nd c ha lcedony w e r e t h e m a in r aw m a te r ia l s . Wh i le d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p ha se o ft h e Me so l i th ic , b l ade s w e r e l o nge r , w ide r a nd t h ick e r , w i th t h e p a s sage o ft im e t h ey b ecam e s m a l le r a nd mo r e s ymm e t r ic . B e s ides , t h e p ropo r t ion o fg eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th sw a s s m a l le r . A n i n te re s t ing a spec t w a s t h e r e cove ry o fq ue rn s a nd r ubbe r s f o rt h e p r epa ra t ion o ff ood . T he d ead w e r e b u r ied e i th e r i na n e x tended o r c r ouch ed p o s i t ion w i th t h eh ead g ene ra l ly t ot h e e a s t , b u ts om e t im et o t h e w e s t . T h e g r ave g ood s i n c luded s t one q ue rn s , r ubbe r s , a n t le r s , b one t o o l s a nd h aema t i te n odu le s . T he p re sence o f a sh , c ha rcoa l a nd c ha r r ed b on e s a nd a n t le r s i mp l ied t h e u se o ff i re r egu la r ly b y t h e Me so l i th ic m en . P ro toh i s tory B a la tha l I n p ro toh i s to ry ( M i s ra 1 992 ) m ade a r e v iew o n r e sea r ch o n I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion , B e s ide s am a jo r c on t r ibu t ion b y M i s ra ( a nd h i s t e am ) i s t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te o f B a la tha l ( M i s ra 1 997 , M i s ra e ta l . 1 995 , 1 997 ) i ns ou thea s t R a ja s than . M i s ra c i ted t wo m a jo r r e a son s f o r e xcava t ing B a la tha l . S ince b o th A ha r a nd G i lund t h e t wo mo s t w e l l -known s i t e s o f A ha r c u l tu re i n t h e Mewa r r e g ion -w e re e xcava ted d u r ing 1 960 s , t h e c u l tu r a l a ff in i t ies b e tween t wo s i t es a nd t h e H a rappan c i v i l iza t ion s o f G u ja ra t , e spec ia l ly i n r e spec t s o fa r ch i tec tu r e a nd c e ram ics , c ou ld n o t b e r e a l ized . B e s ide s , b o th t h e se e xcava t ion s w e r e o n a s m a l l s c a le . H ence ab igge r e xcava t ion o f as i te o f t h e A ha r c u l tu r e w a s n eeded . B a la tha l w a s e xcava ted f r om 1 994 t o2 000 j o in t ly b yt h e D eccan C o l lege , P une a nd t h e I n s t i tu te o f R a ja s than S tud ie s , U da ipu r . T he e xcava t ion h a s y i e lded e v idence o ft wo c u l tu r a lp e r iod s —I .C ha lco l i th ic o r A ha r c u l tu r e a nd I . E a r ly H is to r ic . T h e C ha lco l i th ic o ccupa t ion c ove r ed t h e e n t i r e s i t e , b u t t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic o ccupa t ion w a s c onf ined t o a s ma l l a r ea i nt h e c en t ra l a nd s ou the rn p a r t o f t h e m ound . O ve r f o r ty s t ruc tu r e s o fb o th p e r iod s h ave b een e xpo sed . T he C ha lco l i th ic s t ruc tu r e s , w h ich

R ega rd ing t h e f un c t ion o f t h e f o r t if i ed e nc lo su r e , M i s ra s ugges ted t h r ee p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s . F i r s t ly , i tc ou ld h ave b een u sed f o rs om e ' i ndu s t r ia l a c t iv i ty ' s i nce t h e e nc lo su re c on ta ined l a ye r s o f b u rn t c owdung , b ur n t e a r th a nd a sh . S econd ly , i t c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r s h e l te r ing o l d p eop le , c h i ld r en a nd c a t t le d u r ing a n a t tack b y e x ter n a l e n em ie s . T h i rd ly , t h e e nc lo su re c ou ld h ave h ou sed t h e c h ief o ft h e c ommun i ty . M i s ra s t a ted , " Th e s t one a nd mud b r ick s t ruc tu r e s u ncov e r ed a t B a la tha l a r e u n ique i nt h e s en se t h a ts u ch s t ruc tu r e s a r e u nknown i nt h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e s o fc en t ra l I nd ia , t h eD eccan o rt h e G anga p l a in s . O nt h e o t he r h and , i nt h e i rs i ze , c omp lex i ty a nd u se o fs t one a nd b r ick s ,t h ey b ea rs t r ik ing s im i la r i ty t ot h e s t ruc tu r e s f ound a tt h e ` Ha r appan s i tes o fR o jad i , S u rko tada , D ho lav i ra a nd Kun ta s i i nG u ja r a t" ( 1 997 : 2 63 ) .

7 6

S umma r iz ing t h e i mpo r tance o f B a la tha l , M i s r a s a id :

B a la tha l c e r am ic s c on s is t o f t wo c a tego r ie s o f w a r e : f i ne a nd c oa r se . T he f i ne v a r ie ty c omp r i sed T h in R ed w a r e , T an w a re , B lack -and -Red w a r e , B uf fw a r e a nd R e se rved S l ip w a r e . O nt h eb a s i s o f t h e p r e sence o fm ica i nt h e c l ay u sed f o rR e se rved S l ip s h e rd s , M i s r a a rgued t h a t t h i s w a r e w a s p roduced a t B a la tha l . G og te 's XRD a na ly s i s o f s uch s he rd s h a s c onf i rm ed t h i s . T h e c oa r se w a r e c omp r i sed T h ick B r igh tR ed s l ipped w a r e( u sed f o r s t o rage ) , c oa r se R ed w a r e , B u rn i shed G r ey w a re a nd P l a in G r ey w a r e .

" Ba la tha l w a s ap rospe rou s a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en t . I tp roduced e nough a g r icu l tu ra l s u rp lu s t o m ake l a rge m an -powe r a va i lab le f o r c on s t ru c t ing t h e m a s s ive f o r t if ied e n c lo su re a nd r e s iden t ia l s t ruc tu res o fs t one , mud b r ick a nd mud . Un l ike i n o the r c on tempo r a ry C ha lco l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s , t h e t e chno logy o f t h e i nhab i tan t s w a s p r ima r i ly b a sed o n c oppe r t oo l s r a the r t h an o n t ho se o f s t one . T he p r e sence o f i mp r es s ive p ub l ic a r ch i tec tu r e a nd a l a rge mu l t i room ed r e s iden t ia l c omp lex s ugge s t s ac h ief dom s oc ie ty . V a r ia t ion s i n t h e s i ze a nd q ua l i ty o fr e s iden t ia l s t ru c tu r es s ugge s t a n e conom ic a nd s oc ia l h i e ra r chy . T he c l o se s im i la r i ty o f t h e l a te r ( I B ) p ha se o f B a la tha l i n a r ch i tec tu r e a nd c e ram ic s w i th t h e H a rappan c u l tu r e o f G u ja ra t s ugge s t s t h a t t h e p eop le o f B a la tha l h ad c l ose r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e l a t te r a nd p robab ly d e r ived t h e i n sp i ra t ion o f i mp res s ive p ub l ic a r ch i tec tu re , r e s iden t ia l c omp lexe s , a nd T an Wa re f r om t h em " ( 1997 : 2 72 ) .

T he t o o l s a nd w eapon s o f B a la tha l C ha lco l i th ic p eop le w e r e m a in ly m ade o fc oppe r . O n t h e b a s i s o fp l an ta nd a n ima lr ema in s , M i s ra i n f e r r ed t h a tt h e p eop le p rac t i sed a m ixed e conomy , b a sed o n f a rm ing , s t ock ra i s ing , h un t ing , f ow l ing a nd f i sh ing . C a t t le ( 7 3% ) w e r e t h e p r edom inan t d om e s t ic a n im a l , f o l lowed b y s heep -goa t ( 19% ) , b uf f a lo ( 3 .10% ) , a nd p ig . W i ld a n ima l s w e r e h un ted . T he r e cove ry o f c ha r r ed b on es i mp l ie s t h a t f l e sh w a s r oa s ted o no pen f i r e . A s r ega rd sp l an t s , c e r ea l s a nd l e n t i l s a ppea r t o h ave b een p rodu ced i n c on s ide rab le q uan t i t ie s , a nd w e r e s t o red i ns t o rage b in s . B ead s o fs em ip r ec iou s s t one s a nd t e r r aco t t a , a nd b ang les o fc oppe r , s he l l a nd t e r raco t ta w e r et h e m a in t ype so fo rnam en t so ft h e C ha lco l i th ic p eop le . T e r raco t ta b u l l so fs ma l l s i ze i mp l ied t h e i rw o r sh ip . O n t h e b a s i s o f f i nd ing s o f s im i la r b u l l f i gu r ine s f r om Ma rm i i n C h i t tau rga rh d i s t r ic t M i s ra ( M i s ra e ta l . 1 993 )p ropo sed t wo h ypo th ese s . T he f i r s tw a s t h a t t h e se b u l l f i gu r ines m igh t h ave b een m ade a t t h a t s i te a nd e xpo r ted t o o the r p l ace s . T h e s e cond p o s s ib i l i ty w a s t h a t t h e r e c ou ld h ave b een as h r ine o f b u l l c u l t a t Ma rm i whe r e t h e f i gu r ine s w e r e o f f e r ed t o t h e d e i ty b y p eop le f r om Ma rm i a nd a d jacen tv i l lage s .

D i l ip C hak raba r t i h a s m ade a n i n te r e s t ing o b serva t ion o nB a la tha l . A cco rd ing t oh im , " The p ro toh i s to r ic c h rono logy o f B a la tha l h a s a dded an ew , i fn o tr evo lu t iona ry , d im en s ion t oo u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e A ha r c u l tu r e . T he e xcava to r s r i gh t ly p o in t o u t c .2 600 BC ( unca l ib ra ted ) a s t h e g ene ra l p e r iod o f i t s b eg inn ing , w i th t h e g ene ra l d a te s o f i t s m idd le a nd l a te l e ve l s b e ing c .2 400 / 2 300 BC ( unca l ib ra ted ) a nd c . 1 800 BC ( unca l ib ra ted ) , r e spec t ive ly . Wha t t h ey c u r iou s ly f a i l t oc on s ide r i st h e i mp l ica t ion o ft h e c a l ib ra ted r ange o ft h ese t h r ee c h rono log ica l p o in t s : c . 300 2 900 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) , 2 900 -2600 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) a nd c .2 200 -2000 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) . T h e re s hou ld n o t b e a ny d oub t a bou t t h e b eg inn ing o fp ro toh is to r ic o ccupa t ion a t B a la tha l t owa rd s t h e c l o s ing c en tu r ies o f t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC . T h i s h a s t h r ee m a jo r i mp l ica t ion s . F i r s t , t h i s i sa s e a r ly a s t h e b eg inn ing o fe a r ly H a rappan o ccupa t ion a tK o t D i j i , a mong o t he r s i tes , a nd s e cond , t h i s i sa l so a s e a r ly a s t h e b eg inn ing o f G ane shwa r -Jodhpu ra c u l tu r e o fn o r th -ea s tR a ja s than . T h i rd , t h e n on i ron p ha se o f t h e p ro toh i s to r ic o ccupa t ion o f t h e a r ea c on t inued t i l l c . 2 000 BC o r a l i t t le l a te r" ( Chak raba r t i 1 999 : 2 19 ) .

F o r ty -f ive r ad ioca rbon d a te s a r e a va i lab le f r om B a la tha l -3 0 f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s a nd 1 5 f r om t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic . O f t h e f o rm e r , 2 5 ( c a l ib ra ted ) , wh ich a r e s t ra t ig r aph ica l ly c on s i s ten t , r ange f r om 3 700 -3620 BC t o 2 200 -1800 BC , m ak ing t h e e a r l ie r p a r t o fB a la tha l o l de r t h an t h e E a r ly H a rappan , a nd t h e l a te r p a r t c on tempo ra ry w i th Ma tu r e H a r appan c u l tu r e s a nd t h e o l des t k nown f a rm ing -ba sed s e t t lemen ti nI nd ia . O ft h e 1 4 ( c a l ib ra ted ) d a te s f r om t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod , 1 0a r es t ra t ig raph ica l ly c on s i s ten t . T hey r ange f r om 7 60 -400 BC t o 1 30 -380 AD T he E a r ly H i s t ro ic s e t t lem en tp robab ly f l ou r i shed f r om 4 00 BC t o3 00 AD .

C l ima te a s af a c tor F o l low ing a n e co log ica l a pp roach i sa n i mpo r tan t a spec t o f M i s ra 's w o rk , b e i ti n P r eh i s to ry o r

7 7

P ro toh i s to ry ( M i s ra 1 976b , 1 976c , M i s ra e t a l . 1 979 -80 ) . I n c a se o f p ro toh is to ry , h e q ue s t ioned p a lyno log i s t G u rud ip S ingh 's o ve r a l l h ypo the s i s ( S ingh 1 971 ; S ingh e ta l . 1 974 ) t h a t f l uc tua t ion s i n r a inf a l l p l ay ed a d ec i s ive r o le i n t h e e m e rgence , d i f fu s ion , p ro sper i ty a nd d ec l ine o f H a rappan C iv i l iza t ion i n n o r th -we s t I nd ia ( M i s ra 1 984 ) . T rac ing t h e i n te l lec tua l p ed ig r ee o f S ingh 's h ypo the s i s t oA u r e l S t e in a nd Ma r sha l l -w ho h ad p ropo sed , o n t h e b a s i s o fa r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n B a luch i s than a nd S ind , t h a t c l ima te i n t h o se r eg ion s d u r ing I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion w a sw e t te rt h an a t p re sen t . M i s ra a l so n o ted t h e d i f f e r ence b e tween S ingh 's t h eo ry o n t h e o ne h and a nd A u re l S t e in 's a nd Ma r sha l l 's o n t h e o t he r , o n t h r ee i mpo r tan t a spec t s . F i r s t , S ingh 's e v idence o f c l ima te w a s b a sed o n p a lyno log ica l r a the r t h an a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . S econd , c l im a t ic c hange c on s i s ted o fs eve ra l f l uc tua t ion s c ove r ing t h e a lmo s t e n t i r e H o locene p er iod i n n or th -wes t I nd ia r a the r t h an b e ing c onf ined t o t h e H a rappan p e r iod . T h i rd , t h e f l uc tua t ion s i n r a inf a l l w e r e r e la ted n o t o n ly t o g row th a nd d ec l ine o f t h e H a rappan c u l tu r e , b u t a l so t o t h e e me rgence o f a g r icu l tu r e -ba sed l i f e f r om t h e 8 t h m i l lenn ium BC a nd i t s e xpan s ion i n t h e4 th a nd 3 rd m i l lenn ium BC i nn o r th -we s tI nd ia .

c u l tu r e w a s t h e s e cond h ypo th e s is o fS ingh . I nt h i s r e ga rd M i s ra d i scu s sed f ou r p ha ses o f H a rappan c u l tu r e , E a r ly , Ma tu re , L a te , a nd D egen e ra te o r OCP . I fo n e w ou ld a ccep t S ingh 's h ypo the s i s , o n e w ou ld e xpec t , M i s ra a r gued , t o f i nd a g r ea te r d en s i ty o f N eo l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic a nd H a rappan s i t e s i nt h e r e la t ive ly l e s s h a r sh w e s t R a ja s than a nd n o r th G u ja ra t p l a in s t h an i n t h e h ype r -a r id C ho l i s tan . B u t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sq u i te t o t h e c on t ra ry . T he re i s ah i gh c oncen t r a t ion o f H a r appan s i te s o f t h e f i r s t t h ree p ha se s i n t h e H ak ra -Ghagga r s y s tem a nd t o ta l a b sence a way f r om i ti nt h e d e se r t . H ence i n c rea sed r a inf a l l w a s n o t ad ec i s ive f a c to r i n t h e r i se a nd g row th o f H a rappan c u l tu r e . R a th e r a ny e xp lana t ion f o r r i se a nd f a l l o f H a rappan c u l tu r e s hou ld t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e f l uc tua t ion s i nt h e w a te rr eg im e o ft h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve r . S ingh 's t h i rd h ypo th e s i s w a s t h a t ad ec rea se i nr a inf a l l a r ound 1 800 BC l e d t oa d ec l in e o f t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion . M is r a a c cep ted t h a t t h e r e w a s u nden iab le d ec l ine i n m a te r ia l p ro spe r i ty a nd c i v ic s t anda rd s . H ow eve r , s u ch d ec l ine d id n o t r e su l t i n ad ec r ea se i np opu la t ion . O nt h e c on t ra ry , w ha t h appened w a s am ig r a t ion o f p opu la t ion f r om t h e l owe r I ndu s v a l ley i n to S au ra sh t ra a nd f r om H ak ra -Ghagga r v a l ley i n to n o r th P un jab , H a ryana a nd t h e u ppe r Y amuna G anga d oab . T he s udden p ro l if e ra t ion o ft h e L a te H a r appan s i te s i n t h e l a t te r a r ea s i mp l ie s s u ch m ig ra t ion . M i s ra p o in ted o u t t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h e c a ses o f n o r th P un jab a nd t h e u ppe r Y amuna G anga d oab , r a inf a l l w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly h i ghe r t h an i nt h e a d jo in ing p a r t s o fP un jab a nd H a ryana w h ich w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th d en se h uman s e t t lem en t s d u r ing E a r ly a nd Ma tu re H a r appan t im e s . T he r ef o r e t h e se n ew r e g ion s o fc o lon iza t ion , M i s ra i n f e r r ed , c ou ld n o t h ave c onf e r r ed a ny s i gn if i can t a dvan tage s t o t h e i mm ig r an t s . A cco rd ing t oh im ,

M i s ra e xam ined t h e f ou r h ypo the se s p ropo sed b y S ingh a ga in s t t h e b ackd rop o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . T he f i r s t h ypo the s is v i sua l ized a n i n c r ea se i nr a inf a l li nt h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id b e l t so f R a ja s than a r ound 8 000 BC , l e ad ing t o t h e em e rgence o fc e rea l a g r icu l tu r e i nn or th -we s t I nd ia s oon a f te r . M i s ra p o in ted o u t t h e t o ta l a b sence o f a r chaeo log ica le v idence o fp r e I ron A ge a g r icu l tu r e o ve rt h ev a s te xpan se o fw es ter nR a ja s than , o u t s ide t h e G hagga r v a l ley . S ingh h ad g i ven t wo r e a son s f o r t h i s a b sence : o ne , l a ck o fa dequa te f i e ld w o rk , a nd t wo , t h e mound s o rs i t e s m igh th ave g o tb u r ied u nde r a eo l ian s and . M i s ra r e jec ted b o th t h e se e xp lana t ion s . R ega rd ing i n adequa te f i e ldwo rk , h e r e f e r r ed t oh i si ndependen tw o rk s i nce 1 959 a sw e l l a s t h a t w i th L e shn ik a nd R a jagu ru e ta l . i nn o r th G u ja ra t , L un i v a l ley , a nd o ve r al a rge a r ea f u r the r n or th , a nd a s w e l l a s t h a t o f A l lch in a nd h e r c o l league s ( A l lch in e t a l . 1 978 ) w h ich h ave n o t g i ven a ny e v idence i n s uppor t o f S ingh 's h ypo thes i s . A bou t S ingh 's s e cond e xp lana t ion , M i s ra a r gued t h a tt h e re w a sn oe v idence o fm a s s ive a eo l ian a c t iv i ty a f te r 2 000 BC t h a t w ou ld h ave b u r ied a l lo l d mound su nde rs and .

" On t h e o the r h and , t h e s h if t o ft h e c ou r se s o ft h e Y amuna a nd S u t le j t o t h e e a s t a nd w e s t , r e spec t ive ly , w ou ld h ave c on s ide rab ly r e duced t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fb o th s u rf ace a nd s ub su rf ace w a te ri n t h e G hagga r v a l ley . T h i s w ou ld , i n d ue c ou r se , h av e a dve r se ly a f f ec ted b o th n a tu ra lv ege ta t ion a nd a g r icu l tu r e , a nd f o r ced t h e p opu la t ion t o s h if t t o a r ea s l i ke n or th P un jab , H a ryana a nd t h e u ppe r Y amuna -Ganga d oab w he r e s e a sona l s t r eam s o r ig ina t ing i nt h e S iwa l ik sp rov ided a dequa te w a te r f o r a g r icu l tu r e a nd p a s tu r e . I ti s , t h e ref o r e , q u i te u nn ece ssa ry t oi n voke t h e d e te r io r a t ion o fc l im a te t o e xp la in t h i s m ig ra to ry p h enomenon" ( 1984 : 4 81) .

I n c rea sed r a inf a l l a r ound 3 000 BC b e ing a c au sa t ive f a c to r i n t h e d eve lopm en t o f H a rappan

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T h e f ou r th h ypo the s i s o f S ingh w a s t h a t a r id i ty b e tw een 2 000 a nd 1 000 BC w a sr e spon s ib le f o rt h e c u l tu ra l g ap b e tween t h e H a r appan a nd t h e PG W c u l tu r e s . R ef e r r ing t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l e x cava t ion s a tB hagwanpu r a i nH a ryana , D adhe r i , N aga r a nd K a tpa lon i n P un jab , a nd Manda i n J ammu , M i s ra p o in ted o u t t h a tt h e PG W c u l tu r e a t t h ese s i te so ve r lapped w i th t h eL a te H a rappan . And h ence t h e r e w a s n o h i a tu s . T he e v idence s f o r s uch o ve r lap , M i s r a a s se r ted , " ef f ec t ive ly k nock s t h e b o t tom o u t o ft h e d e s icca t ion h ypo the s i s o fS ingh" ( 1 984 :4 82 ) .

o fs upe r impo s i t ion a nd s ub jec t m a t te r a nd s t y le o f t h e p a in t ing s , Ma thpa l a nd M i s r a h ave g rouped t h em i nn ine p ha se s . T he p a in t ing s o fP ha ses I -V b e long t o t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod w i th h un t ing g a the r ing a s p r ima ry mode o f s ub s i s tence wh i le t ho se o fP ha se V I b e long t ot h e t r an s i t iona l p e r iod when t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s h ad t a k en t o d om es t ica t ion o f a n im a l s u nde r t h e i mpac t o ft h e C ha lco l i th ic a g r icu l tu r i s t s o f t h e p l a in s . T he p a in t ing s o fP ha se s VH IX b e long t ot h e H i s to r ica l p e r iod . A cco rd ing t o M is ra , B h imbe tka p a in t ing s o ft h ep r eh i s to r ic p e r iod a r e t e chn ica l ly s upe r io rt o , a e s the t ica l ly mo r e p l ea s ing , a nd e t hnog raph ica l ly mo re i n f o rma t ive t h an t h e p a in t ing s o ft h e H i s to r ic p er iod . T he mos t c ommon s ub jec t s o f t h e se p a in t ing s a r e w i ld a n ima l s , a nd s c enes o fh un t ing , f i sh ing , a nd f ood g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s . T he se p a in t ing s g r ea t ly s upp lemen t t h e k now ledge d er ived f r om t h e e xcava t ion s , t h row ing l i gh to nt h e e conom ic ,t e chno log ica l , r e l ig iou sa nd s oc ia ll i f e o f t h e c ave d we l le r s . T he p r eh i s to r ic a r t o f B h imbe tka , M is ra a rgu ed , i sc ha rac te r ized b y i t s c l o senes s t o n a tu r e , d om inan ce o f a n im a l f i gu re s a nd h un t ing s c ene s , n a tu ra l i sm a nd v i ta l i ty o f a n ima l b ody a nd r e p r e sen ta t ion o fv a r iou s a spec t s o fh un t ing -ga the r ing w ay o fl i f e .

R ock A r t O ne o ft h e a im so fM i s ra 's w o rk a tB h imbe tka w a s t o r e la te t h e r o ck a r t t r ad i t ion s o f C en t ra l I nd ia ( M i s ra 1 981 ; M i s r a a nd Ma thpa l 1 979 , 1 989 ) w i th a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s . A long w i th h i s e xcava t ion a tI I F -23 r o ck s he l te r , h e a l so s t ud ied t h e m a in f e a tu r es o fp r eh i s to r ic r o ck a r t o fB h imbe tka a nd s upe rv i sed t h e P h .D . t h e s i s o fY . Ma thpa l ( 1984 ) w ho m ade ac omp r eh en s ive s t udy o ft h e a r t . M i s ra ( 1981) p o in ted o u tt h r ee r e a son s a st ow hy r o ck a r t s t udy h a s n o t b een e mpha s ized b y m a in s t ream a r chaeo log i s t s .T hese i n c lude f i r s t ly ,t h el o ca t ion o f p r eh i s to r ic r o ck a r t s i te s i n acces s ib le h i l ly a nd f o r e s ted c oun t ry a nd c on sequ en t ly d i f f icu l ty o f a cce s st ot h em ;s e cond ly t h e d i ff icu l ty o fd a t ing t h e p a in t ing s a nd p rov id ing t h em a r e l iab le c h rono logy ; a nd t h i rd ly , t h e l a ck o f t h e k ind o f v a r ied c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l o ne e xpec t s t o f i nd i n a n a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion . T he r e a son f o r t h e c on cen t ra t ion o f c ave p a in t ing s i n c en t ra l I nd ia , a cco rd ing t oM i s ra , i s' p u r e ly g eo log ica l ' , s i nce t h e V indhyan r o ck s i n c en t ra l I nd ia a r e f o rm ed o f s and s tone wh ich w ea th e r s e a s i ly t o f o rm s he l te r s . P a in t ing s i n B h imbe tka a r e f ound o n c ave w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s a s w e l l a s i ns ma l l h o l low s o r n i che s f o rm ed b y n a tu ra l w ea the r ing o fr o ck . Mo s t o ft h e p a in t ing s a r e i n r e d a nd w h i te c o lou r s . H oweve r , g r een a nd y e l low c o lou r s a r e a l so o cca s iona l ly u sed . T he o l de s tp a in t ing s a r e t h e g r een o ne s s i nce t h ey a r e p r e se rved o n ly i nf r agm en t s a nd o ccu r a t t h e b a se o f p a in t ing s equence . T he r e cove ry o f h aema t i te n odu le s w i th g round f a ce t s i n mo r e t h an t wen ty h ue s f r om e xcava ted h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s i mp l ies t h e i r u se i n p a in t ing . T he p a in t ing s w e r e m ade b y t h in b ru she s , p robab ly m ade o ft w ig s . I n t h e e a r l ie r p ha se t h e a n ima l b ody w a s u sua l ly s hown o n ly i no u t l ine . H ow eve r , i nt h e l a te r s t age s i tw a s d eco ra ted w i th g eom e t r ic p a t te rn s . A l though a n ima l a nd h uman f i gu r es a r e u sua l ly d r awn i n p rof i le , g r ea te rr e a l i sm i ss hown i nt h e d ep ic t ion o f a n ima l f i gu r es t h an t h o se o fh uman s . O n t h e b a s i s

L ack o f p a in ted r o ck p i eces i n s t ra t if ied d epo s i t s a nd o f a s soc ia ted o rgan ic m a te r ia l s s u i tab le f o r r ad iom e t r ic d a t ing a r e t h e t wo i mpo r tan th and icap s i n e s tab l i sh ing a n a bso lu te c h rono logy o f t h e p a in t ing s . H oweve r , s om e a t temp t s a r e b e ing m ade b y R ober t B edna r ik a nd h i s A u s t ra l ian s c ien t i s t c o l leagu e s t o d a te p igm en t s amp les f r om B h imbe tka . E thnoarchaeo logy T a lk ing a bou t t h e p a t ter n o fh uman a dap ta t ion s i n t h e s em i a r id a nd a r id z one o f R a ja s than , M i s ra ( 1994a ) e xp la ined t h e p r eva lence o f t h e d eep r oo ted t r ad i t ion s d ue t o ' c er ta in e nv i ronm en ta l a s w e l l a sh i s to r ica l f a c to r s ' . A cco rd ing t oh im , wh i le " t he f euda lb ackg round h a sc on t r ibu ted a pp r ec iab ly t ot h e p e r s i s tence o ft r ad i t iona l w ay s o fl i f e i nt h e d eser t r eg ion s" ( 1994a : 1 03 ) , e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s " impose s eve r e c on s t ra in t s o n e conom ic g row th a nd c hange w h ich i nt ur nc on t r ibu te st ot h e p e rpe tua t ion o f t r ad i t iona l a dap t ive p a t ter n s" ( 1994a : 1 01 ) . M i s ra s t a ted t wo f e a tu r e s a bou tt h e c ommun i t ie s i n t h e d e se r t z one . F i r s t , a l l t h e c o mmun i t ie s a r e i n te r l ink ed b y a n i n t r ica te w eb o f s ymb io t ic e conom ic a nd s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s . S econd , t h e

7 9

d e se r t r e g ion i s l a rg e ly f r ee f r om c a s t e -ba sed t e n s ion s a nd c onf l ic t s , u n l ik e m o s t o t h e r p a r t s o f I nd ia . A s r e ga rd s t h e s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , i t i s m a rk ed b y s ma l l n uc lea t ed v i l lag e s w i th an umbe r o fw id e ly d i spe r sed s a te l l i t e h am le t s o rh om e s t ead c l u s te r s ( d han i s ) . I nM i s r a 's v i ew , " t h ep a t ter ni sa p rodu c t o f h i gh p e r c ap i ta r e qu i r em en t o f a r ab le l a nd w h ich i s d i c ta ted b y l ow a g r icu l tu ra l p rodu c t iv i ty d u e t ot h e p oo r q ua l i ty o fs andy s o i l s a nd s c a r c i ty o fw a t e r "( 1 994a : 1 0 5 ) .U sua l ly p eop le o fo ne c a s te o rl i n eage r e s id ei n ad han i . R ega rd ing t h e n a tu r e o fh ou s ing , w h i le i nt h e c o r e o rp a r en t v i l lage r i ch e r f a rm e r s a nd t r ade r s l i ve i n h ou se s m ade o fs t on e ,b r ick a nd mud , i nt h ed han i sp oo r e r f a rm e r s l i v e i n c i r cu la r w a t t le h u t s w i th c on ica l r oof s .

a n th ropo log ica l l i t e r a tu r e o r i n c en su s r e po r t s . T h ey l i ve e n t i r e ly b y h un t ing w h ich i n c lud e s a n im a l s s u ch a s b l ackbu ck , c h ink a r a , n i lga i , w i ld b oa r , f o x , j a ck a l , p o r cup in e , a nd m on i to r l i za rd . T h ey a l so t r ap a nd k i l l b i rd s l i ke p a r t r idge , d ov e , a nd p i g eon . T h eh un t ing a nd t r app ing e qu ipm en to f t h e V an V ag r i s c on s i s t s o f am uzz le load ing g un , r anp i o r k u so ( aw ooden s t u f fw i th ar e c tangu la r i r on b l ad e ) , s p ea r , k udk o ( m e t a l t r ap ) ,j aa l ( n e t ) , p an sa ( n oo se t r ap ) a nd b ow a nd a r row . T h ey a l so u se d og s . T h e i r m a t e r ia l p o s se s s ion s a r e v e ry f ew a nd i n c lud e af ew a l um in ium a nd e a r th en p o t s f o r c ook ing , e a t ing a nd s t o rage o fw a t e r , t h e i rh un t ing g ea r , af ew d onk ey s f o r c a r ry ing t h e i r b e long ing s , a nd o n e o rt wo g oa t s w h ich a r e u su a l ly s a c r if iced t ot h e i rg odd e s s .

A sr e ga rd se conom ic a dap ta t ion s ,t h ek ey f e a tu r ei n t h e a r id z on e ,M i s r aa r gu ed , i st h e a cu t e s c a r c i ty o f w a te r . A g r icu l tu r e i s a p r im a ry o ccupa t ion , a l though b ecau se o f l ow a nd u n ce r ta in r a inf a l l , c u l t iva t ion i sl a rge ly c onf in ed t oo n eh a rve s tg rown d u r ing t h e mon soon . T h e m a in c r op s a r e b a jr a o r p ea r l m i l le t ,j owa r o rg r ea t m i l le t , m o th a nd t i l . I n t h e e a s te rn p a r t o ft h e d e s se r t w h e r e w e l l w a te r i s a va i lab le f o ri r iga t ion , t h e w in t e r c r op s c u l t iva t ed c omp r i se w h ea t , b a r ley , g r am , p ea , e t c . B ecau se o f t h e e xce l len t f o dd e r g r a s se s i n t h e d e se r t , e v en t h o se w ho a r e p r im a r i ly c u l t iva to r s k eep s s om e l i v e s tock , wh i le c ommun i t ie s l i k e t h e R eba r i s o r R a ika s a nd B an ja r a s a r e p r edom inan t ly l i v es tock b r eede r s . R ega rd ing c r af t s , t h e C ham a r s w o rk i n l e a th e r , as e c t ion o ft h e B a la i s a r e e ngaged i nt h e s p inn ing o fw oo l a nd w eav ing o fc a rpe t s , b l ank e t s a nd s h aw l s , a nd G ado l iya L oha r s a r e i tn e r an t b l ack sm i th s . T h e B an ja r a s a t o n e t im e w e r e t h e t r ad i t iona l t r ad e r s a nd t r an spo r t e r s b u t w i th t h e d eve lopm en t o f m od er n m ean s o f t r an spo r t h ave b een r e duced t ot r ad ing i nb u l lock s a nd w o rk ing a s l a bou r e r s . A s r e ga rd s t h e c ommun i t ie s p rov id ing e n te r ta inm en t , t h e K a lbe l iya s a r e s n ak e c h a rm e r s , s i nge r s a nd d an ce r s . B hopa s a r e p r ie s t s a nd mu s ic ian s , a nd as e c t ion o ft h e B h i l s s p ec ia l ize i n n a r ra t ing t h e b a l lad o fP abu j i , ah i gh ly v en e r a t ed R a jpu th e ro . B e s id e s , t h e r e a r em embe r s o fs e ve ra l c a s t e so f f e r ing p rof e s s iona ls e rv ice st oo t he rc a s t e s . T h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een s e rv ice c a s t e a nd o t h e r c a s t e si sg ove rn ed b yt h ea a ts y s t em i nw h ich e a ch f am i ly o f as e rv ice c a s t e s e rve s ag r oup o ff am i l ie s b e long ing t oo t h e rc a s te s .

A s r e ga rd s g a th e r ing , t h e w i ld p l an t f ood s a r e c on sum ed i n amuch l a rg e rm ea su r e b y t h e s e t t led p ea san t ry t h an b yt h e n om ad ic g r oup sl i k et h eV an V ag r i h un t e r s , s i n ce m o s t o ft h e s e f ood s r e qu i r e , M i s ra e xp la in ed , e l abo r a t e p roc e s s ing a nd c ook ing wh ich t h e V an V ag r i s f i nd t o o t e d iou s t o u nd e r tak e . B e s id e st h eV an V ag r i s , n om ad i sm -a n i n t eg r a l a s pec t o ft h e r u r a l l i f e i nt h e d e se r t -i s p a r t icu la r ly c ha r ac t e r i s t ic o fp a s to r a l c ommun i t ie s , t r ad e r s a nd c e r ta in s e rv i ce c a s te s . H owev e r , t h e d eg r ee o fm ob i l i ty v a r ie sa c co rd ing t ot h en a tu r eo f t h e o ccupa t ion . T hu sM i s r a 's a c coun t" ex emp l if i e s t h e c apa c i ty o ft h e d e se r t p opu la t ion t od eve lop a v a r ie ty o fe conom ic a nd c u l tu ra l a dap ta t ion st ot h e e co log ica l n i ch e s c ha r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e r e g ion " ( 1 994 : 1 24 ) . M i s r a a l so s t ud ied t h e s u rv iva l o f t h e h un t ing g a the r ing t r ad i t ion si nt h e G ang ap l a in sa nd c en t r a l I nd ia ( Naga r a nd M i s r a 1 990 , 9 93 , 1 994 ) . F o rt h e G anga p l a in , d a ta h av e b een g a the r ed f r om p ub l i sh ed , p r ima r i ly c o lon ia l , s ou r ce s e xcep tt h o se o n t h e K an ja r s . O n t h e b a s i s o fW i l l iam C rook e 's T r ibe sa nd C a s t e so ft h eN or th - W e s t ern P rov ince s a nd O ud h ( 1 896 ) , t wo g r oup s r e levan t f o rM i s ra 's s t udy , w e r e ( 1 ) H un t e r s , F ow le r s e t c . a nd ' M i sce l lan eou sa nd D i s r epu tab le L ive r s" . C rook e 's l i s t i n c lud ed a mong h un t e r s a nd f ow le r s , g r oup s s u ch a s A h e r iya , B ah e l iya , B and i , B anga l i , G andh i la , G id iya a nd K an ja r . T h e m i sce l lan eou s a nd d i s r epu tab le l i ve r s w i th s om e d eg r ee o f h un t ing -f o r ag ing a c t iv i t ie s w e r e t h e B adh ik , B awa r iya , B han tu , H abu r a , S an s iya a nd S i ya rm a r . B o th t h e g r oup sp r ac t i sed h un t ing -f o r ag ing a nd , i n s om e c a se s , f i sh ing b u t t h e s e cond g roup h ad a cqu i r ed an o to r ie ty f o rt h e i r i n du lgen ce i nc r im e . F o r e xamp le , t h e A h e r iya s c a t ch s n ak e s a nd r o a s t

V an V ag r i so r' dwe l le r so ft h ef o r e s t ' ( M i s r a 1 990 ) a r e t h e p r in c ipa l h un t ing c ommun i ty o ft h e d e se r t . T h i s g roup h a s n o t b een m en t ioned e a r l ie r i na ny

8 0

b a l lam ( s pea r ) , p hand i o rt a n t la ( al a rge t r ap m ade u p o f mu l t ip le n oo se s ) , m ang r i , k handa r i , k udka , e t c . T ra ined d og s a r e a l so u sed i nh un t ing . Sm a l l b a l l s o fe xp lo s ive p owde r a r e u sed f o rk i l l ing w i ld b oa r .

a nd e a tt h em , wh i le t h e o ccupa t ion o ft h e B ahe l iya i sd e sc r ibed a sh un t ing ,b i rd t r app ing a nd c o l lec t ion o fj ung le p roduce . T he B and i , l i k e t h e B ahe l iya , a r e b a s ica l ly b i rd c a tche r s . T h e B anga l i e a t t h e f l e sh o fc l oven o ru n c loven f oo ted a n im a l s , f ow l s , f i sh a nd c r ocod i le s . T he G andh i la e a t s qu i r re l s , q ua i l s , t o r to i se , d og s , e t c . T he K an ja r s ub s i s t b y h un t ing j a cka l s , w o lve s , e t c . , t r app ing b i rd s a nd s qu i r r e l s , d i gg ing o u t s nake s , e t c . F rom c o lon ia l e t hnog raph ic s ou r ce s , n o t much i n f o rm a t ion i s a va i lab le o nt e chno logy a nd t e chn ique s o fh un t ing . H oweve r , t h e m a jo rt o o l a nd w eapon o ft h e K an ja r i sK han t i o r Khan ta wh ich s e rve s a s ad agge r o r s ho r t s pea r f o r k i l l ing w o lve s a nd j a cka l s , a s a s pade f o r d igg ing s nake e t c . o u t o ft h e i r h o le s , f o r d i gg ing e d ib le r oo t s , a nd a s ah a t che t f o r c hopp ing w ood . T he K an ja r h a rd ly u se b ow a nd a r row . R a the r t h ey u se g u le l ( p e l le t b ow o r s l ing ) wh ich r equ i r e s much g r ea te r s k i l l . T h e B ahe l iya u se a v e ry i n gen iou s mode o ft r app ing b i rd sw i th as e r ies o ft h in b amboo s , l i k e af i sh ing r od , o n w h ich b i rd l im e l a sa i s s m ea r ed . A l l t h e c ommun i t ie s a l so e xp lo i t w i ld p l an t s , a nd s om e o ft h em l i k e K an ja r a l so c o l lec th on ey .

S i tua t ing V .N .M i sra i nI nd ian A rchaeo logy I ti s s u rp r i s ing , r a the r d i sappo in t ing , t h a t d esp i te mo r e t h an 2 00 y ea r s o f h i s to ry o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , I nd ia 's c a se i s h a rd ly e mpha s ized i n g ene ra l d i scou r se o f a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry . Y e t , r i gh t s i nce c o lon ia l p e r iod t h e r e a r e i n te r e s t ing t h eo r e t ica l i s sues i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy . V e ry b r ief ly o ne c ou ld s t a te t h a tt h e c o lon ia l a pp roache s h ad v a r iou s s t rand s -s uch a s O r ien ta l ism ( f o r e xamp le S i r W i l l iam J ones ) , U t i l i ta r ian i sm ( i . e . J am e s M i l l ) , R oman t ic i sm , a nd H ege l ian i d ea l i sm ( M i t te r 1 977 ) s om e t im e s c omp lem en t ing a nd s om e t ime s c ompe t ing w i th o ne a no the r . Wh i le t h e O r ien ta l i s t a nd r om an t ic i s t a pp roache s l a uded I nd ia 's p a s t , M i l l h ad a d i spa r ag ing a t t i tude t o I nd ia 's h e r i tage . T hu st h e c o lon ia l a pp roache sw e r e n o t a mono l i th . T he n a t iona l i s t s choo l o f h i s to r iog raphy g r ew f r om t h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry . H oweve r , i t i s i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e n a t iona l i s t h i s to r ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e i r f r am ewo rk t h e s ympa the t ic a t t i tude o f O r ien ta l i s t a nd r oman t ic i s t s cho la r s o n t h e o n e h and , a nd t h e p e r iod iza t ion o f I nd ian h i s to ry b y J am e s M i l l o n t h e o t h e r . T he m a in d i f f e rence b e tween t h e c o lon ia l a nd n a t iona l i s t a pp roache s w a s t h e f o l low ing : D e sp i te d i f f e r en ces , t h e c o lon ia l a pp roache s a s a w ho le , g ave l e g i t imacy t ot h e c o lon ia l r u le e i the r i na n e xp l ic i t o r i mp l ic i t m anne r . O n t h e o t h e r h and , t h e n a t iona l i s t h i s to r iog r aphy i n g ene ra l p rov ided a n i n te l lec tua l b ackg round t o c ha l lenge t h e c o lon ia l r u le i n I nd ia . Du r ing t h e p o s t -co lon ia l p e r iod , a r chaeo logy h a s b een t a ugh t i n a n umbe r o f u n ive r s i t ie s a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch h a s b een c a r r ied o u ti nt h ese c en t r e s , i na dd i t ion t ot h e w o rk o fA r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia -t h e l a t te r s a id t o b e t h e b igge s t s t a te f unded a r chaeo logy d epa r tm en ti nt h ew o r ld .

F rom c en t ra l I nd ia , N aga r a nd M i s ra ( 1994 ) d i scu s sed t wo s em i -nom ad ic c ommun i t ies , t h e P a rdh i s a nd K u chbandh ia s w ho u sua l ly h ave a p e rmanen t h om e b a se a way f r om p ea san t v i l lage s w h e r e t h ey l i ve d u r ing r a iny s e a son . T he se s e t t lem en t s c on s i s t o f s m a l l h u t s m ade o f s t one w a l l s w i th t h a tch ed r oof s . D u r ing t h e r e s t e i gh t m on th s o f d ry p e r iod , t h ey a r e o n t h e m ove a nd c amp i nt h e f o r e s t e i the r i nt h e o pen o r i n s ma l l , f l im sy h u t s . T h e d i v i s ion o fl a bou r i sk nown f r om t h ef a c tt h a tm en a nd g rown u pb oy sg o f o rh un t ing w h i le w om en g o t o t h e v i l lage s t o s e l l v a r iou s i t em s t o v i l lage w om en . A bou t 5t o 1 0 f am i l ie s , r e la ted t oe ach o t he rb yb lood o rm a r r iage , l i ve i na t empo ra ry c amp w h ich i s moved e ve ry f ew w eek s . T h e P a rdh i c a r ry t h e i r g ood s e i the r o n b u l lock s o r b u l lock c a r t s wh i le mov ing t h e c amp wh i le t h e K u chbandh ia u se p ub l ic t r an spor t . A s r e ga rd s s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , b o th P a rdh i a nd K uchbandh ia a r ed i v ided i n to an umbe ro fe xogamou s c l an sw i th n uc lea r f am i ly a s t h e t yp ica l t y pe . P o lygamy i s f a i r ly c ommon a nd t h e p an chaya t o r c ommun i ty c ounc i l i ss t rong . B o th t h e c ommun i t ie s b u ry t h e i r d ead .

An i mpor tan t f a c tt ob e b o rne i nm ind i st h a t wh i le a r chaeo logy i s p r ima r i ly a p a r t o f h i s to r ica l t r ad i t ion i nB r i ta in a nd o fa n th ropo log ica l t r ad i t ion i nt h e U n i ted S t a te s , I nd ia p rov ide s ac o mb ina t ion o f b o th t h e t r ad i t ion s . F rom 1 940 s o nwa rd s , e spec ia l ly a f te r I nd ia 's i ndependence i n 1 947 , much e mpha s i s w a s g i ven t o t h e s t udy o f p reh i s to ry . Empha s i s o nt h e d i scove ry o fH a rappan s i tes i nI nd ia w a s a no the r i mpo r tan t f e a tu re d u r ing

H un t ing i st h e p r im a ry o ccupa t ion o ft h e m a le s o f b o th t h e c ommun i t ies . T hey h un t aw ide v a r ie ty o f a n im a l ss uch a sw i ld b oa r , c h i ta l ,a nd s ambha r .T he h un t ing i mp lem en t s o f t h e t wo g roup s i n c lude

8 1

t h ep o s t -co lon ia lp e r iod s i nce t h e mo s tw e l l -known H a rappan s i tes l i k e H a rappa , Mohen joda ro a nd C hanhuda ro , w en t t o P ak i s tan . One b a s ic p u rpo se o f l a y ing s t r e s s o n p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r che s a f t e r i ndepend ence c ou ld b et h ea t temp tt ot r ace b ack t h e a n t iqu i ty o f h uman c u l tu r e o n as c ien t if ic b a s i s c o inc id ing w i th t h e N eh ruv ian s c ien t if i c t empe r . T hu s , empha s i s o n e co logy a nd r e con s t ruc t ion o f p a s t e nv i ronm en t a s ab ackg round f o r s t udy ing p r eh i s to ry b ecam ea ni mpo r tan ta spec t .

( 1988b : 5 2 ) . A b road g eog raph ica l a pp roach h a s a l so b een f o l lowed b y v a r iou s s cho la r s i nw r i t ing t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e s ubcon t inen t . I tw a s S i r Mo r t im e r Wh ee le r who i n 1 946 l am en ted t h a t " t h e r e h ave b een a r chaeo log i s t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s i n t h i s c oun t ry , b u t n o c oh e r en t s c ience o fa r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy h ad e ve r b een e s tab l i sh ed" ( 1946 : 1 25 ) a nd h ence m ade a p a s s iona te p l ea t o emp loy n a tu ra l s c ience s a s a r egu la r c omponen t o f r e sea r ch . I n a n a pp rop r ia te m anne r , F .E . Z eune r o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , L ondon w a s i n v i ted b y H .D . S anka l ia o f D eccan C o l leg e , " t o s t udy t h e i mp lem en t -bea r ing s t ra ta , wh ich h ad b een f ound m a in ly i nt h ev a l ley so ft h er i ve r s ,t oe s tab l i sh t h e i r t opog r aph ica l a ff in i t ies a nd t h e i r g eo log ica l c on tex t , a nd , i fp o s s ib le , t oa r r ive a t ac h rono logy o ft h e e a r l ie s t e v idence o ft h e p r e sence o fm an i n t h i s p a r t o f I nd ia" ( Zeune r 1 950 : 1 , 1 951 , 1 963 ) . H oweve r , p r io r t oZ eun e r , i nt h e f i r s t P a laeo l i th ic e x cava t ion i n I nd ia a t Ku l iana i n O r i s sa b y t h e C u lcu t ta Un ive r s i ty , B o se a nd S en ( 1948 ) t r i ed t o r e con s t ruc t t h e e nv i ronm en t a nd g eo -ch rono logy o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e o ccu r r ence o f p a laeo l i th s i n a s soc ia t ion w i th l a te r i te , a na spec tf u r the re x tended b yA .K . Gho sh ( 1966 ,1970 ) . R econ s t ruc t ion o fp a s t e nv i ronm en t a nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th p r eh i s to ry h a s b een t h e f o cu s o f s om e i mpo r tan t i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r che s i nt h e l a s t t wo d ecade s -i nR a ja s than ( M i s ra 1 987a , 1 987b ) , R a ja s th an a nd G u ja ra t ( A l lch in e t a l . 1 978 ) , K a shm i r v a l ley ( Ag rawa l 1 992 ) a nd t h e S on v a l ley , Madhya P rade sh ( Sha rma a nd C la rk 1 983 ) . Mo r eove r , f o r r e con s t ruc t ion o f e nv i ronm en t e mpha s i s h a s b een g iv en o n g eomo rpho logy a nd p a laeoenv i ronm en t ( J o sh i 1 970 , R a jagu ru a nd K o r i se t ta r 1 987 ; P appu 1 974 , 1 985 ; P appu a nd D eo 1 994 ) , p a laeon to logy ( Badam 1 979 ) , a n im a l r em a in s ( Thom a s 1 974 ) , p l an t r ema in s ( Fu l le r 2 002 ; K a ja le 1 996 ; V i shnuM i t t r e 1 990 ) a nd p a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s ( S ingh 1 97 1) .

A l though t h e r e a ro se a g ene ra l a wa r ene s s a bou t e nv i ronm en ta l r e con s t ruc t ion f o r I nd ian a r chaeo logy o n ly d u r ing t h e s econd h a lf o f t h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry , a t ten t ion w a s p a id t o g eog raph ica l f a c to r s b y s om e n ine teen th c en tu ry a r chaeo log i s t s wo rk ing i n I nd ia ( Chak raba r t i 1 988b : 5 0 -64 , f o r g ene ra l r ev iew s e e P addayya 1 994 ) . Wh i le C unn ingham a dop ted at o pog raph ica l a pp roach , R obe r t B ruce F oo t e , t h e f a the r o fI nd ian p r eh i s to ry , s ough t t o c o r r e la te t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te s w i th g eog r aph ica l f e a tu r e s a nd S i r Au r e l S t e in c o l lec ted much i n f o rma t ion a bou t n a t ura lf e a tu r e so fs i te sa nd a r ea s s t ud ied b yh im i n t h e n o r th -we s ter n p a r t o f t h e s ubcon t inen t . S ub sequen t ly , F . J . R icha rd s w ro te o n t h e g eog raph ica l f a c to r s i nI nd ian h i s to ry f o l lowed b y S pa te 's f amou s b ook o n r eg iona l g eog raphy o f I nd ia whe r e h e t a lked a bou t ' ma jo r g eog raph ica l l i neam en t s o f I nd ian h i s to ry ' ( i . e . D e lh i -A rava l l i C ambay a x i s a nd t h e V indhyan d i v ide ) a nd t h e ' p e r enn ia l n uc lea r r eg ion s ' ( s uch a s t h e P e shwa r a nd P o twa rv a l ley , P un jab p l a in s , a nd t h e P ancha la r eg ion i nt h e G anga Y amuna d oab ) . I n f luenced b y C y r i l F ox 's w o rk i n B r i ta in a nd i mp rov ing u pon R icha rd s a nd S pa te , S ubba rao ( 1958 ) d i v ided t h e I nd ian s ubcon t inen t i n to t h r ee r eg ion s i nt e rm s o f t h e i r r e la t ive i mpo r tance i n I nd ian h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy ; ( a ) n uc lea r r eg ion s o r a r ea s o f a t t rac t ion ( t he P un jab , t h e I ndo -Gange t ic d iv ide , Ma lwa , Maha ra sh t ra , K a rna taka a nd T am i l N adu ) , ( b ) a r ea s o f r e la t ive i s o la t ion ( S indh , Ma rwa r , G u ja ra t , S au ra sh t ra , K onkan , K era la a nd A s sam ) , a nd ( c ) a r ea s o f i s o la t ion o r c u l d e s a c ( t h e A r ava l l i s , t h e h igh land s o fc en t ra l I nd ia a nd o the r h i l ly a nd f o r e s ted a r ea s n ow i nhab i ted b y t r iba l p opu la t ion s ) . A l though s ub sequen t f i e ldwo rk h a s s om ewha t a l te r ed t h e r e la t ive p o s i t ion s o f s om e r eg ion s t o a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , S ubba rao 's d i v i s ion b road ly h o ld s g ood . T he b a s ic v a lue o f S ubba r ao 's p o s tu la te , a cco rd ing t o C hak raba r t i " i s t h a t i t g i ve s a g eog raph ica l f r am ewo rk t o u nde r s tand t h e mu l t i l inea l p roce s s o f c u l tu ra l d eve lopm en t i n I nd ian h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy"

S een a ga in s t t h i s b ackg round , M i s ra 's i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry w o rk f o r r e con s truc t ing t h e c l im a t ic h i s to ry o fR a ja s than i s ac on t inuum . T he r e a r e f ou r a spec t s o fM i s r a 's e co log ica l a pp roache s . F i r s t , a s h a s b een s t a ted , e co log ica l b ackg round w a s a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f M i s ra 's p reh i s to r ic r e sea r ch . S econd , f o r r e con s t ru c t ing t h e p a s t e nv i ronm en t , h e d epended o n mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch , s uch a s g eomo rpho logy , s ed im en to logy , p a la eon to logy , a r chaeozoo logy a nd a r chaeobo tany . T h i rd , M i s ra e mpha s ized a dap ta t ion t o l o ca l e nv i ronm en t i n h i s s t udy o f p r eh i s to r ic c u l tu r e s .

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a r chaeo logy a nd e t hnog raphy a r e t wo b r anche s o f s c ience a nd a r e c omp lem en ta ry t o e ach o the r ( M i t ra 1 979 : 1 41) . H e t hough t t h a t t h e A ndaman ese whose s t one i mp lem en t s c ou ld h a rd ly b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om p r eh i s to r ic i mp lem en t s , p e rhap s p e rpe tua te d i r ec t ly a c u l tu re p r edom inan t i nt h e I nd ian p en in su la i nP l e i s tocene a nd p o s s ib ly e a r l ie rt im e s ( 1979 : 1 4 -15 ) . H oweve r , i tw a s F u r e r H a im endo r fw ho c a tego r ica l ly m en t ion ed t h a t" i ti s t h e k now ledge a ccumu la ted t h rough t h e d e ta i led s t udy o f c on tempo ra ry p r im i t ive c u l tu r e s , wh ich s upp lem en t s t h e d a ta a nd b r ea the s l i f e i n to f r agm en t s b rough t t o l i gh t t h rough t h e s padewo rk o ft h e a r chaeo log i s t" ( Fu r e r - H a im endo r f 1 943 : 1 ) . L a te r , h e w en t f u r the r i ns t a t ing t h a t t h e C h enchu s a r e s t i l l l i v ing i n` p a laeo l i th ic s t y le ' , t h e R edd ie s i n t h e ` n eo l i th ic ' a nd t h e B ondo s a nd G adaba s i nt h e l a te ` n eo l i th ic ' s t age ( Fu r e r -Ham endo r f 1 948 ) . S ubba rao p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e a r chaeo log i s t d r aw s h eav i ly o n e t hno logy a nd u se s t h e k now ledge g a ined b y t h e s t udy o f t h e l i f e a nd b ehav iou r o f l i v ing c ommun i t ie s -p a r t icu la r ly o fp eop le who a r e h i s to r ica l ly b ackwa rd a nd i n e a r l ie r s t ages o f c i v i l iza t ion ( 1962 : 1 27 ) . S peak ing o f t h e u rgency o f e t hno -a r cheo log ica l r e sea rch i n g en e ra l , L ongac r e h a s o p ined t h a t " i fw e a nd o u r s t uden t s d o n o t u nde r tak e e t hno -a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch s oon , f u tu r e a r chaeo log i s t s w ou ld w ond e r h ow w e c ou ld h ave b een s o s ho r t s i gh ted" ( 1991b : 1 0 ) . F o r T homp son ( 1991) t h e k ey f e a tu r e o f a n e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l w o rk i st h a t i ti sd one f o r ' a n a r chaeo log ica l p u rpose ' . H oweve r t a k ing ' a v e ry b road d ef in i t ion o ft h e f i e ld ' S inopo l ii nh e rr ev iew o fS ou th A s ian e t hnoa r chaeo logy i n c luded n o to n ly e xp l ic i t ly e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s , b u t a l so " e thnog raph ic s t ud ies t h a th ave f o cu sed o nm a te r ia l c u l tu r e , w i thou t n ece s sa r i ly b e ing c once rn ed w i th i t sa r chaeo log ica li mp l ica t ion s" ( 1991 : 1 78 ) .

L a s t b u t n o t t h e l e a s t , d e sp i te h i s e mpha s i s o n e co logy , M i s r a ,u n l ik e Dhava l ika r , d i dn o tr e so r tt o w ha t m ay b e c a l led t h e e co log ica l d e te rm in i sm . I n c id en ta l ly , D hava l ika r h a s u sed e nv i ronm en t a s t h e d e te rm in ing f a c to r f o r t h e r i se a nd f a l l o ft h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e a tI namgaon ( f o r ac r i t ique , s e e P addayya 1 994 ) . F o r M i s ra , h oweve r , e co logy c on s t ra in sb u td oe sn o td e te rm ine c u l tu r e s .B e s ide s , M is ra , l i k e G raham e C la rk , e mpha s ized o n Meso l i th ic c u l tu re , a nd l i ke G raham e C la rk , a dop ted t h e e co log ica l a pp roa ch t o Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e . T he r e a r e f ou r m a in a spec t s o f h i s s t udy o n p ro toh i s to ry . F i r s t , l i k e p reh i s to ry , h e c r i t ica l ly d i scu s sed t h e r o le o fc l ima te a s af a c to r i nt h e r i se a nd f a l l o f H a rappan c i v i l iza t ion . S econd , o n t h e b a s i so fh i se xcava t ion a tB ago r ,h e c ou ld s how t h e i n te r ac t ion b e tween m e ta lu s ing a g r icu l tu ra l i s t sa nd l i th ic t oo lu s ing h un te r -ga the r e r s . T hu s ,t h e c u l tu ra l u nevenne s s o f t h e c omp lex h e r i tage o f I nd ia i s t r aced t o ar emo te p a s t . T h i rd , h i s e xcava t ion a t B a la tha l h a s t h rown i mpo r tan t l i gh t o n t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re i n g ene ra l a nd o f n o r thwe s t I nd ia i n p a r t icu la r . F ou r th , h e a l so d i scu s sed t h e r o le o fR igved ic S a ra sva t i i nr e la t ion t ot h e I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion ( 1994b , 2 00 1b ) . I n t h i s r e ga rd , h e h igh l igh ted t wo a spec t s . F i r s t ly , h e c ompa r ed t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f H a rappan s i te s o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r a nd o nt h e d ry c hann e lo ft h eG hagga r -Hak r ar i ve r . S econd ly , o n t h e b a s i s o f a r chaeo log ica l , g eomo rpho log ica l , s ed im en toog ica l , r emo te s en s ing , l i t e ra ry a nd f o lk lo r i s t ic d a ta , M i s ra i n f e r r ed t h a t b o th t h e S u t le j a nd t h e Y amuna f l owed i n t h e S a ra sva t i c hann e l i n t h e p a s t . H e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e l i t e ra ry r e f e r ence s i n c lud ing t ho se i nt h e R igveda w i th r e ga rd t o t h e l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd d e s icca t ion o ft h e S a r a sva t i r i ve r c l o se ly m a tch w i th t h ef e a tu r e s a nd h i s to ry o ft h eG hagga r H ak ra r i ve r .

R ega rd ing h un te r -ga the r e r s i n a n th ropo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e , B e t t inge r ( 1991) r e f e r r ed t ot wo g ene ra l mode l s . T h e f i r s t , t h e d eve lopm en ta l mode l r ega rded h un te r -ga the r e r s a s p r im i t ive s a nd , c u l tu ra l ly b ackwa rd g roup s c apab le o n ly o f s imp les t u nder tak ing . T he h ea r t o f t h e mode l i s p rog re s s ive s oc ia l e vo lu t ion f r om l e s s t o mo r e a dvanced f o rm s . H un t e r -ga th e r e r s a r e p o r t rayed a s d i sadvan taged a nd b ackwa rd f o lk , i n e s sen ce , f o s s i l s f r om a n e a r l ie r s t age o f h uman e vo lu t ion . T h e s e cond ,t h e e co log ica l mode lr e ve r se st h e l o g ic o f t h e e a r l ie r mod e l o f h un te r -ga the r e r s a s u nde rp r iv i ledged . O n t h e o t he r h and , l a y ing s t r e s s o n a dap ta t ion a nd h om eo s ta s i s , t h e s e cond mode l t r ea t s t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s a sa n a dvan taged a nd , i n

L e t u s n ow t r y t o s i tua t e M i s r a i n t h e e th noa r chaeo log ica l r e sea r che s i n I nd ia . T he i mpo r tance o f e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s o n t h e b ew i lde r ing d i ve r s i ty o f t r iba l s i n t h e I nd ian s ubcon t inen t f o r a r chaeo logy w a s r e a l ized b y s cho la r s l i k e J am e s F e rgu s son a nd A lexande r C unn ingham f r om t h e n ine teen th c en tu ry ( A l lch in 1 994b : 5 ) . T he t r ad i t ion w a s c on t inu ed i nt h e e a r ly p a r t o ft wen t ie th c en tu ry b y Ma r sha l l , Mackay a nd Ananda C ooma ra swamy . T hu s a r chaeo log i s t s i n S ou th A s ia g ene ra l ly r e so r tt ow ha tB r idge tA l lch in c a l l s s pon taneou s e t hnoa r chaeo logy . Wr i t ing i n 1 923 , P . M i t ra m en t ioned t h a t p r eh i s to r ic

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t h e i r o wn w ay , s oph i s t ica ted f o lk w ho m ad e t h e l e ap t o a g r icu l tu r e o n ly w h en c i r cum s tan ce s b eyond t h e i r c on t ro l i r r evocab ly u p se t t h e i r t r ad i t iona lw ay so fl i f e .

s i n ce t h ee n c roachm en to ft h ec a s t e -ba sed e conomy a nd e x ten s ive d ef o r e s ta t ion f o r ced m any o f t h e t r iba l s w idd en c u l t iva to r s o f t h e h i l l s l ope s i n c en t ra l -ea s t I nd ia ( f o r e xamp le , t h e B i rho r s a nd H i l lK had ia s )t os p ec ia l ize i nh un t ing a nd g a th e r ing ( 1 969 : 1 64 ) . I no t h e rw o rd s ,h un t ing a nd g a th e r ing , w h ich w a s as ub s id ia ry m ode o f s ub s i s t en ce , b ecam e t h e p r im a ry o n e i n c ou r se o f t im e ( Adh ik a ry 1 989 : 1 5 ) . U nde r s tood i n t h i s p e r spec t ive , M i s r a 's v i ew i sc on t r a ry t o t h a t o f S u r a j i t S i nha w i th r e ga rd t ot h eh un te r -ga th e r e r so f t h eI nd ian m a in land .

C on s id e r ed f r om t h eb r oad p e r spec t ive o fS i nopo l i , M i s ra 's e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s i nR a ja s than , G anga v a l ley a nd c en t r a lI nd ia m ay a l so b er e ga rd ed u nd e r e t hnoa r ch aeo logy . T h e r e a r e s i x a s pec t s o fM i s r a 's e t hnoa r ch aeo log ica l r e sea r ch . F i r s t , a s r e ga rd s m e thod s , h e d i d f i e ldwo rk a mong v a r iou s e t hn ic g r oup s , i np a r t icu la r h un te r -ga th e r e r s , r e so r t ing t o a n th ropo log ica l m e thod s o fp a r t ic ipan t o b se rva t ion a nd q u e s t ionn a i r e . H e a l so f o l low ed t h e a r ch iva l m e thod s b y s t udy ing c o lon ia l w r i t ing s o n t h e h un te r -ga th e r e r s o f t h e G anga p l a in . S econd , h e r e ga rd ed t h e c on t empo r a ry h un t e r -ga th e r e r s i n I nd ia a s d e scend en t s o f p r eh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s a nd i nt h a t s en se , h e f o l lowed t h e d i r ec t h i s to r ica l a pp roa ch i ne t hnoa r cha eo logy . T h i rd , h e a l so d r ew o u r a t t en t ion t o s e ve r a l e t hnog raph ic e xamp le s o f h af t ing o fm ic ro l i th si ns u i tab le s h af t sf r om v a r iou s p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld a nd t h u s , e mpha s iz ing t h e i mpo r tan ce o f e t hnog r aph ic s t ud ie s i n t h e f un c t ion a li n t e rp r e ta t ion o fp r eh i s to r ic t o o l s . I nt h a t s en s e , h e f o l lowed t h e g en e ra l c ompa r a t iv e a pp roach i n e t hnoa r ch aeo logy . F ou r th , h e a l so d i scu s sed t h e p roce s s o f i n co rpo r a t ion o f t r iba l s o c ie t ie s i n to c a s t e s o c ie ty w i th t h e h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog r aph ic d a ta ( M i s ra a nd N aga r 1 997 ) . F if th , M i s ra n o t o n ly d i scu s sed t h e h un te r -ga th e r e r c ommun i t ie s i n t h e h i l ly r e g ion w h ich i su sua l ly d on e b y e t hnoa r chaeo log i s t s , b u t a l so l a id s t r e s s o nt h e i rs u rv iva l e ven i nt h e p l a in s b y h i s s t udy i n t h e G anga p l a in s . S i x th , t h e p e r s i s t en ce o f t r ad i t iona l c ommun i t ie s i s , M i s r a a r gu ed , b ecau se o f b o th e co log ica l a d ap ta t ion a s w e l la sh i s to r ica lf a c to r s .

T h eo r e t ica l ly , d i f f u s ion i sm w a sa ni mpo r tan tm ode o fe xp la in ing c u l tu r e c hange i nI nd ian a r ch aeo logy e v en af ew d ecad e s a f t e ri n d ep end en ce . O n e c ou ld t a lk o ft wo k i nd so fd i f f u s ion i sm . T h e f i r s tw a st h e I r ano -cen t r ic ( o r We s t A s ia -cen t r ic ) d i f f u s ion i sm o fH .D . S anka l ia ( 1 974 , 1 975 -76 ) w ho a r gu ed t h a t j u s t a s i nh i s to r ica l t im e s , I nd ia w a s c o lon ized i n p r eh i s to r ic t im e s a s w e l l . S u ch p r oc e s s o f c o lon iza t ion w a s i n i t ia t ed , a c co rd ing t o S ank a l ia , f r om t h e r e g ion o f I r an a nd c ount ie s f u r th e r w e s twa rd s t h ough h e a l so m en t ion ed S ou th ea s t A s ia a s a no th e r r e g ion i nf lu en c ing t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o f n o r th ea s t I nd ia b y i t s p o l i sh ed a nd g r ound a xe s a sw e l l a sr i ce ( 1 974 : 3 ) . T h e s e cond w a s t h e mod if i ed d i f f u s ion i sm o f S i r Mo r t im e r Wh ee le r w ho e mpha s ized t h a t " i d ea s h ave w ing s a nd m o r el i ab le t of l i ta i r i ly a bou to u rp r eh i s to r ic a s a bou t o u r h i s to r ic l a nd scape , w i th a b aff l ing i n tang ib i l i ty o r d i sgu i se" ( Wh ee l e r 1 9 52 : 1 85 ) , b ecau se " i t t a k e s am i l l ion y ea r s t o d ev e lop a s p e c ie s , p e rhap s am i l l ion s e cond s t o d ev e lop a n i d ea" ( 1 952 : 1 87 ) . T hu s Wh ee le r a r gu ed f o r d i f f u s ion o f i d ea s a nd n o t n ece s sa r i ly m a s s m ig r a t ion . A ga in s t t h i s d i f f u s iona ry f r am ewo rk C h ak r aba r t i ( 1 976 ) a r gued f o r ac a se o fi n d igenou s e vo lu t ion e s pec ia l ly f o r t h e i r on a g e . F rom l a te 1 960 s o nwa rd s N ew o r P roce s su a l A r ch a eo logy , w h ich h ad d ev e loped i nU n i t ed S t a t e s a nd We s t er n E u rope p r ima r i ly b yt h e ' B in -C la rk e ' s c hoo lh ad i t s i mpac to nI nd ia . H oweve rs u ch a pp l ica t ion o fN ew o r P roce s su a l A r ch aeo logy i n I nd ia w a s n o t n ece s sa r i ly a r e p l ica o f t h e We s t er n v i ewpo in t s . T h i s b ecom e s e xp l ic i t w h en o ne c ompa r e s a nd c on t ra s t st h ew o rk so ft h r ee I nd ian a r cha eo log i s t s S .C . Ma l ik ,H .D . S anka l ia a nd K .P addayya .

I ti sr e l evan t h e r e t o m en t ion t wo g en e r a l p o in t s m ade b y t h e s o c ia l a n th ropo log i s t S u ra j i t S i nh a a bou t h un t e r -ga th e r e r s . F i r s t ly , w h i le d i scu s s ing t h e ' Mu l t ip le s c a le s a nd n e two rk s ' o f I nd ian c i v i l iza t ion , S i nha ( 1 978 ) d i scu s sed t wo l e ve l s o f h un te r -ga th e r e r s i n I nd ia . T h e h un t e r s o f t h e A ndam an I s land r em a in ed i s o la t ed u n t i l r e cen t ly , a nd h en ce w e r e b r and ed b y S inha a sp r im i t iv e . O n t h e o t h e rh and , h un t e r s o nt h e I nd ian m a in land a r e a t a' s ymb io t ic ' l e ve l , s i n ce t h ey m a in ta in ar e gu la r c on tac t w i th t h e s e t t led p ea san t ry i n t h e n e ighbou rhood ( 1 978 : 1 2 5 ) . S econd ly , t h e h un t ing a nd g a th e r ing m ode o fs ub s i s ten ce b yt h et r iba l so f t h e I nd ian m a in land , a c co rd ing t oS i nh a , i s ac a se o f ' s econda ry p r im i t iv iza t ion ' o r ' d evo lu t ion ' ,

Ma l ik i sp o s s ib ly t h e f i r s t I n d ian a r ch aeo log i s t t o t a lk i nt e rm s o f ap roce s su a l a r ch aeo logy i nI nd ia i nf lu en ced b y R adc l if f e -B rown 's s t ru c tu r a l i sm a nd R ob e r t R edf ie ld 's a n th ropo log ica l w o rk s o n I n d ia . Ma l ik 's c oncep t o f p roce s su a l a r cha eo logy i s

8 4

i mpo r tan td im en s ion o fh i s f i e ldwo rk i st h a th e h a s s pen t mo s t o f h i s l i f e i n o n e s i ng le r eg ion t o u nde r s tand t h e a r chaeo log ica l c omp lex i t ie s i n a mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry m anne r . H i s a pp l ica t ion o f s e t t lem en t s y s tem p e r spec t ive f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e o f Hung s i v a l ley i sc e r ta in ly am i les tone i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry . I n h i s s ma l l b u t u sef u l monog raph ( 1990 ) h e r e fu ted t h e a l lega t ion s a ga in s t p roce s sua l i sm . B u t u n l ike B inf o rd , h i s o p t im i sm w a s n o t e upho r ic , r a the r c au t iou s s i nce h e h igh l igh ted t h e ' l im i ted b u t f undam en ta l t a sk ' a ch ieved b yt h eP roce s sua lA rchaeo logy . H oweve r , w h i le Ma l ik a nd S anka l ia empha s ized t h e s pec if ic i ty o f I nd ian s i tua t ion o r t r ad i t ion e ven i n t h e i r g ene ra l a ccep tance o ft h e P roce s sua l o rN ew A rchaeo log ica l f r am ewo rk , f o r P addayya t h e a dop t ion o f t h e ' r ecen t t r end s ' i n t h e We s t , i mp ly ing P roce s sua l A r chaeo logy ' i st h e o n ly w ay ' t o o ve r com e t h e s ho r tcom ing s i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy .

d i f f e r en t f r om t h a t o f B in f o rd i n an umbe r o f a spec t s . F i r s t ly , u n l ik e B inf o rd who t a lk ed o f h ypo the t ico -deduc t ive m e thod , Ma l ik d i dn o tr e jec t i nduc t ive m e thod . R a the r h e s e em s t o h ave a ccep ted i t ( 1968 : 5 4 , 6 1 ) . S econd ly , u n l ik e B inf o rd , Ma l ik a ccep ted t h el im i ta t ion o ft h en a tu re o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T h i rd ly , h e a l so a ccep ted t h e r e la t ive n a tu re o f a r cha eo log ica l k now ledge w hen h e a rgued t h a t e ve ry s o c ie ty i n te rp r e t s t h e p a s t i n t e rm s o f i t s ' p e r cep tua l , c oncep tua l a nd m e taphy s ica l r e p roduc t ion o ft h e e x te rna l w o r ld ' . F ou r th ly , a n i mpo r tan t l i m i ta t ion o f P roces sua l a r chaeo logy i st h e i gno r ing o rm ak ing ac a r ica tu r e o f h i s to ry b y o ve r empha s iz ing a dap ta t ion a nd n eoevo lu t ion . Ma l ik n o d oub t e mpha s ized a' s oc ia l s c ience ' o r ' a n th ropo log ica l ' a pp roach t o a r chaeo logy , b u t h e d id n o t i g no r e h i s to ry . O n t h e o th e rh and , h e c on s ide red i t' mo r e f r u i tfu l ' t oh ave ' a c omb ined h i s to r ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l a pp roach ' . A l though Ma l ik c a l led f o r ap roce s sua l a r chaeo logy i nI nd ia , h e a ppea r st oi n c lude t h em e s wh ich w e r e t o b e r a ised l a t e r b y p o s tp roce s sua l a r chaeo log i s t si nt h e We s t . I nt h i s s en se , s om e t ime i tb ecom e s d i ff icu l t t o l a be l h im f o r s om e th ing a t t h e c o s t o ft h e o t h e r . F o r e xamp le , h e c on s id e r ed s t ru c tu ra l i sm i n h i s d i scu s s ion o n I nd ian c i v i l iza t ion . Wh i le h e s poke o n t h e i mpo r tan ce o f e t hnoa r chaeo logy ( 1968 : 3 4 -35 ) a nd t hough t o ft h e ' r eg iona l c u l tu ra l c on t inu i t ie s ' i n t e rm s o f ' t he c u l tu ra l -eco log ica l a nd p roce s sua l e xp lana t ion ' ( 1968 : 1 64 ) , h e a l so v i sua l ized t h e p r eva len ce o f t h ec a s te s y s tem i nH a rappan s o c ie ty b ya r gu ing f o r ' a v e ry e a r ly b eg inn ing ' o f o ne o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s oc ia l i n s t i tu t ion s o f l a te r I nd ia ' t ha t c ha rac te r ize I nd ian s t y le ' ( 1968 : 1 07 ) .

W i th t h i s b ackg round , l e t u s n ow s i tua te V .N . M is ra who h a sb een a ne c lec t ic a sf a ra st h eo ry w a s c once rned . F o r e xamp le , h e c on s ide r ed b o th d i f fu s ion a nd e vo lu t ion a s f a c to r s o f c u l tu r e c hange . A s f a r a sN ew o rP roce s sua l A r chaeo logy i sc once rned h i s p e r cep t ion w a s c l o se r t oS anka l ia t h an t o Ma l ik o r P addayya . T h ree f e a tu r e s c ha rac te r ize M i s ra 's a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch w i th r ega rd t oN ew A r chaeo logy . F i r s t , h e e mpha s ized o n a dap ta t ion t o c on tempo ra ry e nv i ronm en t b y p r eh i s to r ic m an . S econd , h e c ondu c ted e t hnog raph ic r e sea rch t o p rov ide f l e sh t o t h e d ry b one s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T h i rd , h e a l so u sed q uan t i ta t ive m e thod s i n h i s p r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie s . S uch a n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive i sp a r t ly b ecau se o fh i s b ackg round i na n th ropo logy f r om L ucknow Un ive r s i ty a nd p a r t ly b ecau se o ft h e e m e rgence o f P roce s sua l A r chaeo logy wh ich c on s ide r ed a r chaeo logy a sa n th ropo logy .

T hu s Ma l ik e mpha s ized r e in te rp r e ta t ion o f a r chaeo logy i na n a n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive , b u t h e d i d n o t u se i t a ny f i e ldwo rk . F o r S anka l ia ( 1977 ) , o nt h eo t he rh and ,N ew A rchaeo logy w a sa s e to ft e chn ique sa nd m e thod st ot a ck le p rob lem si n t h e f i e ld . S anka l ia w a s n o t , e spec ia l ly wh i le d i scu s s ing N ew A r chaeo logy , t h eo r e t ica l ly a s much r i gu rou s a s w a s Ma l ik . T hu s o ne c ou ld s ay t h a t t h e s t r eng th o f Ma l ik w a s t h e w eakne s s o f S anka l ia a nd v i ce -ve r sa . I t i s t o t h e c r ed i t o f P addayya t h a t h e c omb ined a s t rong t h eo r e t ica l o u t look ( l ike Ma l ik ) w i th a n i n ten s ive f i e ld w o rk ( l ik e S anka l ia ) i n s ou th I nd ia . H e h a s m ade s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion n o t o n ly w r i t ing o n P roce s sua l A r chaeo logy a s aw ho le , b u t a l so i n t e rm s o f m ak ing c omp rehen s ive r ev iew s o n t h e i r a pp l ica t ion i n I nd ia - e t hnoa r chaeo logy , s i te f o rm a t ion p roce s se s , m idd le r a nge t h eo ry , e t c . An

H oweve r , t h e re i sa n i mp r in t o fh i s to r ica l t r ad i t ion i n M i s ra 's w o rk a l so . F o r e xamp le , h i s w o rk o n B e rach b a s in c ou ld b e b road ly c a tego r ized u nde r c u l tu r e h i s to ry i n f r amewo rk . H e h a s a l so e xcava ted e a r ly h i s to r ic r em a in s f r om B a la tha l a nd K op ia . A cco rd ing t oM i s ra , h i s to ry i st h e " s to ry o f e n t i r e p eop le i nhab i t ing ac oun t ry o r ar eg ion . I ti s t h e s t o ry o ft h e i rs t rugg le a ga in s tt h e i re nv i ronm en t t ol i be ra te t h em se lve s f r om i t s h o ld a nd c onque r i t f o r t h e i r m a ter ia l , s oc ia l a nd mo ra l u p l if t . I n t h i s n o t ion o fh i s to ry i n d iv idua l f i gu r e sw he the rt h ey b e k ing s o r m i l i ta ry h e roe s , p r ie s t s o r p h i lo sophe r s , r e l ig iou s l e ade r s o r s c ien t i s t s , b ecom e l e s s

8 5

i mpo r tan t ,f o rt h e se f i gu r e sa r ea f t e ra l c r ea t ion so f t h e c u l tu r a l c ond i t ion s p r eva i l ing i nt h e s o c ie ty a t a ny g i ven p e r iod . T he se c ond i t ion s a r et h ec r ea t ion o f t h e s o c ie ty a s aw ho le . I ti so n ly a ga in s t t h e b a ckg round o f t h e c u l tu r e o f t h e s o c ie ty t h a t t h e a ch ievem en t s o r c on t r ibu t ion s o f i n d iv idua l p e r son s , h ow eve rg r ea t , c an b eu nde r s tood . T hu s i t i st h e s o c ie ty o r , m o r e p r ec i se ly , t h e c u l tu r e o ft h e s o c ie ty w h ich b ecam e t h e p rope r s ub jec t o f h i s to r ica l s t udy . T h i s c hang e i n t h e s c ope a nd m ean ing o fh i s to ry i si n ag r ea tm ea su r e d ue t ot h e i mpo r tan t r o le w h ich a r cha eo logy i si n c r ea s ing ly p l ay ing i nt h er e con s t ru c t ion o ft h ep a s t" ( 1 974 : 8 9 ) .

T h eo r e t ica l ly e c lec t ic , h e f o l lowed e co log ica l , e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l a nd q uan t i ta t ive a pp roa ch e s a s f a r a s a n th ropo log ica l t r ad i t ion o f I nd ian a r cha eo logy i s c on ce rn ed . H ow ev e r , h e h a s n o t i g no r ed h i s to ry e i th e r , a nd i n t h a t s en se , h e h a s b een c on sc iou s o f b o th t h e a n th ropo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l t r ad i t ion s o f I nd ian a r cha eo logy . H e i s n o t p a roch ia l a t a l l . F o r e xamp le , w h i le e mph a s iz ing p r eh i s to r ic r o ck a r t o fB h imbe tk aa nd o t h e rs i t e so fc en t ra lI n d ia ,M i s r as t a t ed , " I t i sn o t t h e h e r i tage o f ap a r t icu la r c ommun i ty , r a c e o r r e l ig ion . I tb e long s t o as t age o f c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion w h en t h e a n ce s to r s o fa l p eop le s i no u r c oun t ry w e r e l e ad ing ah un t ing -ga th e r ing w ay o f l i f e . I ti s , t h e r ef o r e , t h e c ommon h e r i t ag e o f t h e e n t i r eI nd ian s o c ie ty" ( 1 981 : 1 6 ) .

M i s r a a l so c ompa r ed a nd c on t r a s t ed b e tween h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy . I n c ompa r i son t o t h e w r i t t en r e co rd s o f h i s to ry , a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , a cco rd ing t oM i s r a , i s' e s sen t ia l ly i mpe r f ec t ' s i n ce i tc on s i s t s o ft h e s u rv iv ing m a te r ia l r em a in s o ft h e p a s t . O n t h e o t h e r h and , t h e a dvan tag e s o f a r chaeo logy o ve r h i s to ry a r e , M i s r a a r gu ed , t wof o ld - t h e o b jec t iv i ty a nd a nonym i ty o f t h e f o rm e r s i nce a r chaeo logy " con ce rn s i t se lf w i th t h e a ch iev em en t sa nd f a i lu r e so ft h e s o c ie ty a s awho le a nd t h e r ef o r ep rov id e su sw i th t h em o s td emoc r a t ic f o rm o fh i s to ry "( 1 974 : 1 2 ) .

P e r ce iv ed i n t h i s l i gh t , M i s r a a ppea r s t o b e a s e cu la r n a t ion a l i s t . T hu s , i nt h i s p ape r , am od e s t a t t emp t h a s b een m ad e t o s i tu a t e V .N . M i s r a i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy i n ah i s to r iog r aph ica l m ann e r . S im i la r s t udy o n o t h e r I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s , b o th b e long ing t ot h ec o lon ia la nd p o s t -co lon ia lp e r iod s , i s an eed o ft h eh ou r .T h i sw ou ld e nab le u sn o to n ly t o e xp lo r e t h e c r ea t iv e e ngagem en t o f I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry a nd d a ta , b u t a l so w ou ld , h opef u l ly , s t r eng th en t h e c au se o fa r cha eo log ica l d i scou r se i no u rc oun t ry i n s u ch am ann e r t h a t , l i k e t h e I n d ian m a rk e t i nt h e p r e sen t i n ter n a t ion a l e conomy , I n d ian a r ch aeo logy w i l l n o t r ema in p e r iph e r a l t o t h e g en e r a l a r cha eo log ica l d i scou r se i nt h e w o r ld i na n e r a o f g l oba l iza t ion .

T o c on c lud e , M i s r a c on t r ibu t ed s i gn if i can t ly t o p r eh i s to ry , p ro toh i s to ry , e t hnoa r cha eo logy a nd r o ck a r t s t udy . L ik e S anka l ia , f i e ldwo rk h a s r ema in ed a h a l lm a rk o f h i s c a r ee r a nd l i k e G r aham e C la rk h e a pp l ied e co log ica l a pp roach t o p r eh i s to ry i ng en e r a l a nd Me so l i th ic i np a r t icu la r . R ef erence s A dh ika ry , A .K . 1 989 . H un te r s a nd g a the r e r s i nI nd ia : a p r e l im ina ry a pp ra i sa l o f t h e i r s t ru c tu re a nd t r an sf o rma t ion ,i n Man a nd E nv i ronmen t :B io log ica la nd C u l tura lP e r spec t ive sw i th S pec ia lR ef erence t oI nd ia ( S . S inha , e t a l . E d s . ) , p p . 8 16 . C a lcu t ta : I nd ian A n th ropo log ica lS oc ie ty . Ag rawa l D .P . 1 992 . Man a nd E nv i ronmen t i n I nd ia T hrough A ge s : a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry s t udy o ft h e I nd ian Q ua ternary w i th F ocu s o n t h e N or th W e s t . N ew D e lh i : B ook sa nd B ook s . A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 992 . Q uan t i ta t ive C ompo s i t ion a nd F unc t iona l A spec t o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage so fR ock S he l te rI IF -23 a tB h imbe tka , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t1 7 (2 ) :2 1-34 . A l lch in ,B . ( Ed . ) 1 994a .L iv ing T rad i t ion s :S tud ie si nt h e E thnoarchaeo log y o fS ou th A s ia . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd & I BH P ub l i sh ing C o . P v t . L td . A l lch in ,B . 1 994b . S ou th A s ia 's L iv ing P a s t , i nL iv ing T rad i t ions : S tud ie s i n t h e E thno -archaeo log y o fS ou th

A s ia , ( B . A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 12 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd & I BH P ub l i sh ing C o . P v t . L td . A l lch in , B . , A . G oud ie a nd K .T .M . H egde 1 978 . P reh i s tory a nd P a laeog eog raphy o f t h e G rea t I nd ian D e ser t . L ondon : A cad em ic P re s s . B adam , G .L . 1 979 . P le i s tocene F auna o fI nd ia . P une : D eccan C o l lege . B a sa , K .K . 1 998 . I nd ian Wr i t ing s o n t h e e a r ly h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy o fS ou th e a s tA s ia : Ah i s to r iog raphh ica l a na ly s i s ,J ourna lo ft h eR oya lA s ia t ic S oc ie ty . B e t t inge rR .L . 1 991 . Hun ter —Ga the re r s :A rchaeo log ica l a nd E vo lu t ionary T heory .N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s . B o iv in N . a nd D .Q . F u l le r 2 002 . L ook ing f o r P o s t P ro ce s sua l T heo ry i n S ou th A s ian A r chaeo logy , i n A rchaeo log y a nd I n te rac t ive D i sc ip l ine s , i nd ian A rchaeo log y i n R e t ro spec t V o l . 3( Se t ta r S . a nd R av i K o r i se t ta rE d s . ) ,p p . 1 9 1-216 .N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i l o fH i s to r ica lR e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . B o se , N .K . a nd D . S en 1 948 . E xcava t ions i n Mayurbhan j . C a lcu t ta : U n ive r s i ty o fC a lcu t ta .

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L onga c r e , W .A . 1 991b , I n t rodu c t ion , i nC e ram ic E thno a rchaeo logy (W . A . L ongac r e E d . ) , p p . 110 . T u c son : U n iv . o fA r izona P re s s . L uka c s , J .R . a nd K .A .R . K ennedy 2 002 . T he p l ace o f B h imbe tka s ke le ta l r e co rd i n S ou th A s ian P a laeo a n th ropo logy , i nt h e B io log ica lA n thropo log y o f Human S k e le ta lR ema in sf rom B h imbe tka , C en t ra lI nd ia ( K .A .R . K ennedy , J .R . L ukac s a nd V .N . M i sh ra E d s . ) , p p . 1 0 11 07 . P une : I SPQS . Ma l ik , S .C . 1 968 , I nd ian C iv i l i sa t ion : t h e F orma t ive p er iod . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy . M i s ra , V .N . 1 962a . P rob lem s o fT e rm ino logy i nI nd ian P r eh i s to ry ,E a s te rn A n thropo log i s t 1 5 (2 ) : 12 124 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 962b . P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu r e o f We s tern R a jpu tana , B u l le t in o f t h e D eccan C o l l ege P o s t G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e2 1 :86 156 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 965 . Me so l i th ic P ha se i nt h e P r eh i s to ry o f I nd ia , i nI nd ian P reh i s to ry : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) ,p p . 5 7 -85 . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P re a nd P r eh i s to ry o f t h e B erach B a s in . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 970 . C u l tu ra l S ign if i cance o fT h r ee C oppe r A r row -Head s f r om R a ja s than , I nd ia , J ourna l o fN ear E a s te rn S tud ie s2 9 (4 ) : 2 2 1-232 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 97 1a . Two m ic ro l i th ic s i te s i nR a ja s than A P re l im ina ry I nve s t iga t ion , E a s tern A n thropo log i s t 2 4 (3 ) : 2 37 -288 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 97 1b . S tone O b jec t s f r om N avda to l i , i n C ha lco l i th ic N avda to l i ( H .D . S anka l ia , S .B . D eo a nd Z .D . A n sa r iE d s . ) ,p p . 3 23 -350 . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973a . P rob lem s o fP a laeo -eco logy , P a laeo c l ima te a nd C h rono logy o f t h e M ic ro l i th ic C u l tu r e s o f We s ter n I nd ia , i nR ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy ( D .P . Ag rawa l a nd A . G ho se E d s . ) , p p . 5 8 -72 . Mumba i : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR e sea r ch . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973b . B ago r - AL a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen t i nN or th - We s tI nd ia , W or ld A rchaeo logy 5 ( 1) : 9 2 110 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 974a . A r cha eo log ica l a nd E thnog raph ic E v idence f o r t h e H af t ing a nd U se o f M ic ro l i th s a nd R e la ted T oo l s ,P ura ta t t va 7 :3 12 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 974b . H i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy -N eed f o r aN ew U nde r s tand ing ,P rachya P ra t ibha 2 ( 1) : 8 14 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976a . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock s he l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , P ura ta t t va 8 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976b . E co log ica l A dap ta t ion D u r ing t h e T e rm ina l S tone A ge i n We s te rn a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i n E co log ica l B ackg round o f S ou th A s ian P reh i s to ry ( K .A .R . K ennedy a nd G . P o s seh l E d s . ) , p p . 2 8 -51 . I t ha ca : C or n e l lU n ive r s i ty . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976c . P reh i s to ry a nd P a la eo -env i ronmen t i n R a ja s than i nA rchaeo log y a nd P a laeoenv ironmen t i n W e s tern I nd ia ( D .P . A g rawa l a nd B .M . P ande E d s . ) , p p . 3 1-54 .N ew D e lh i : C oncep t . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a . P reh i s to ry C ave a r t o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i n C onser va t ion o fR ock A r t ( C . P ea r son E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -70 . C anbe r ra : I n s t i tu te f o rt h e C on serva t ion o fC u l tu ra l Ma te r ia l .

B u rk i t t , M .C . a nd L .A . C amm iade 1 930 . F re sh l i gh t o n t h es t one a ge i nS ou th e a s t ,I nd ian A n t iqu i ty 4 :3 27 -9 . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 976 . T he b eg inn ing o fi r on i nI nd ia , A n t iqu i ty 5 0 : 14 124 . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 988a . A h i s tory o f I nd ian A r chaeo log yf rom t h eB eg inn ing t o1 947 . D e lh i . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 988b . T heor e t ica l I s sue s i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy . D e lh i . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 997 . C o lon ia lI ndo log y :S oc iopo l i t ie s o ft h eA nc ien tI nd ian P a s t . D e lh i . C hak raba r t i , D .K . 1 999 . I nd ia : A n A rchaeo log ica l H i s tor y . D e lh i : O xf o rd . C hak raba r t i , D .K . 2 003 . A rchaeo logy i n t h e T h ird W or ld : A h i s tory o f I nd ian A r chaeo logy s i nce 1 947 . U pda t ing I nd ian A r chaeo logy , N o . 3 .N ew D e lh i : D .K . P r in two r ld ( P )L td . F u l le r , D .Q . 2 002 . F if ty y ea r s o fA r chaeo log ica l S tud ie s i nI nd ia : L ay ing as o l id f ounda t ion , i nA rchaeo logy a nd I n terac t ive D i sc ip l ine s , I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t ro spec t V o l . 3( Se t ta r , S . a nd R av i K o r ise t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 2 47 -364 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i l o f H i s to r ica l R e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . F u l le r , D .Q . a nd N . B o iv in 2 002 . A H i s to ry o f P roce s sua l T heo ry i nt h e A r chaeo logy o fS ou th A s ia , i n A rchaeo logy a nd H i s tor iog raphy : H i s to ry , T heo ry a nd Me t hod ,I nd ian A rchaeo logy i nR e t ro spec tV o l . 4( Se t ta r , S . a nd R av i K o r i se t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 1 59 190 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i lo fH i s to r ica lR e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . F u r e rH a imendo rf . C . v on . 1 943 . T he C henchu s -J ung le F o lk o ft h eD eccan . L ondon : Ma cm i l lan . F u r e r H a imendo rf . C . v on . 1 948 . C u l tu re S t ra ta i n t h e D eccan , Man 4 8 : 8 7 -90 . Whee le r , R .E .M . 1 946 . A r chaeo log ica l P lann ing f o r I nd ia : s ome o ft h ef a c to r s ,A nc ien tI nd ia 2 :1 25 133 . G ho sh , A .K . 1 966 . I mp lemen t if e rou s L a ter i te i nE a s te rn I nd ia , i nS tud ie s i nP r eh i s tory ( D . S en a nd A .K . G ho sh E d s . ) . C a lcu t ta . G ho sh , A .K . 1 970 . T he P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu r e s o f S i ngbhum , T ransac t ion o ft h e Amer ican P h i lo soph ica l S oc ie ty 6 0 : 1 68 . J o sh i , R .V . 1 970 . T he C ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f P l e i s tocene C l ima t ic E ven t s i nt h e I nd ian S ub -con t inen t : T he l a nd o f Mon soon C l ima te , i n I nd ian A n t iquary 4 : P rof H .D . S anka l ia F e l ic i ta t ion V o lume ( S .B . D eo a nd M .K . D hava l ika r E d s . ) , p p . 5 3 -63 . B ombay : P opu la r P raka shan . K a ja le , M .D . 1 996 . P l an tR e sou r ce sa nd D ie t Among t h e Me so l i th ic H un t e r s a nd F o rage r s , i nB ioa r chaeo logy o f Me so l i th ic I nd ia : A n i n teg ra ted A pp roach . C o l loqu ium ) 00 [ I I I o f t h e I n te rna t iona l U n ion o fP reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c ience s ( G .E . A f an s 'ev S .C leuz iou , J .R . L ukac s a nd M . T o s i E d s . ) p p . 2 5 1-53 . F o r l i : ABACO E d iz ione . K anungo , A .K . a nd V .N . M is ra 2 003 -2004 . E x cava t ion a tK op ia : AP re l im ina ry R epo r t ,P u ra ta t t va 3 4 : 16 126 . K ennedy , K .A .R . , C .B . B u r row a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 98 1 . D en ta l Mu t i la t ion s f r om P r eh i s to r ic I nd ia , C ur ren t A n thropo logy 2 2 (2 ) : 2 85 -86 . L onga c r e , W . A . ( Ed . ) 1 99 1a . C e ram ic E thno a r chaeo logy . T u c son : U n iv . o fA r izona P re s s .

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M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1a . P reh i s to r ic H uman C o lon iza t ion o f I nd ia ,J ourna lo fB io sc ience s2 6 (4 ) :4 9 1 -531 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1b .T he R o le o ft h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i i n t h e R ise , G row th a nd D e c l ine o f t h e I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion , A nna l s o f t h e B handarkar O r ien ta l R e sear ch I n s t i tu t e8 2 : 1 65 191 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002a . Me so l i th ic C u l tu re i n I nd ia , i n Me so l i th ic I nd ia ( V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l E d s . ) , p p . 1 6 6 .A l lahabad : U n ive r s i ty o fA l lahabad . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002b . T he Me so l i th ic A ge i n I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t ro spec t , 1 : P reh i s to ry ( S . S e t ta r a nd R av i K o r i se t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 11125 . N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . M i s ra ,V .N . a nd M . N aga r 1 976 . P r eh i s to r ic B a ckg round o f R a ja s than , i n S oma sekhara S arma C ommemora t ion V o lume ( R . S ub ramanyam a nd N . R ame shan E d s . ) , p p . 3 45 -59 . H yde rabad : G ove rnmen to fA ndh ra P rad e sh . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma i t i N aga r 1 989 . H un te r -ga the re r s i n a nA g ra r ian S e t t ing : T he n ine teen th C en tu ry S i tua t ion i n t h eG anga P la in s , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 7 -64 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Y . Ma thpa l 1 979 . R ock A r t o f B h imbe tka R eg ion , C en t ra l I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 3 :2 7 -33 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 982 . E nv i ronmen t d u r ing t h e Q ua ter na ry P e r iod i n We s te rn I nd ia , P roceed ing s o ft h e W ork shop o nP rob lem s o fD e ser t s i n I nd ia ,p p . 1 29 140 .J a ipu r : G eo log i ca l S u rvey o fI nd ia . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 987 . H i s to ry o f E nv i ronmen t a nd Man i n t h e T ha r D e se r t , I ndo log ica l J a ip u ren s ia 1 :1 7 -31 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Y . Ma thpa l 1 989 . R ock A r t , i n E ncyc loped ia o f I nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 2 79 -284 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M . N aga r 1 997 . F rom T r ibe t o C a s te : A n E thno -a r chaeo log ica l P e r spec t ive i nF rom T r ibe t o C a s te ( Dev N a than E d . ) , p p . 1 36 166 . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M . N aga r 1 997 . F rom T r ibe t o C a s t e . A n e t hno -a r chaeo log ica l P e r spec t iv e , i nF rom T r ibe t o C a s t e ( Dev N a than E d . ) , p p . 1 36 166 . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o f Advanced S tudy . M i s ra ,V .N . a nd R .K . Mohan ty 2 002 : Ar a re C ha lco l i th ic P o t te ry c ache f r om B a la tha l , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 6 (2 ) : 6 7 : 7 4 . M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .J . Wa s son , G . S ingh a nd D .P . Ag rawa l 1 979 -80 . F u r the r L igh t o n L owe r P a la eo l i th ic O ccupa t ion a nd P a la eoenv i ronmen ti nS em i a r id Z one o fR a ja s than ,P ura ta t t va 1 : 1 18 . M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .K . G an joo a nd R . K o r i se t ta r 1 990 . G eoa r chaeo logy o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic S i te a tS amnapu r i n t h e C en t ra l N a rmada V a l ley , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t1 5 ( 1) : 1 07 116 . M i s ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty a nd L a l i t P andey 1 993 . T e r ra co t ta B u l l F igu r ine s f r om Mann i : A C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen ti nC h i to rga rh D i s t r ic t ,R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 49 152 . M i s ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , Ku ru sh D a la l , A nup M i sh ra , L . P andey a nd J . K ha rakwa l 1 995 . E xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l : T he i r C on t r ibu t ion t o t h e

M i s ra , V .N . 1 978b . A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , B u l le t in o f t h e I ndo P ac if i c P r eh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion 1 :1 30 173 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 980 . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock s he l te r I IF -23 a t B h imbe tka . C en t ra l I nd ia - A P re l im ina ry S tudy ,A u s t ra l ian A rchaeo logy 8 :6 3 106 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 981 . T he P reh i s to r ic R ock A r t o f B h imbe tka ,C en t ra lI nd ia ,J ourna lo ft h eN a t iona lC en t r e f or t h eP erf orm ing A r t s 1 0 ( 1) : 1 16 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 984 . C l ima te a s aF a c to r i nt h e R i se a nd F a l l o fH a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion E v iden ce s f r om R a ja s than a nd B eyond , i nF ron t ier so ft h eI ndu s C iv i l i sa t ions ( B .B . L a l a nd S .P . Gup ta E d s . ) , p p . 4 61-489 . N ew D e lh i . B ook sa nd B ook s . M i s ra V .N . 1 985 . T he A cheu l ian s u cce s s ion a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nR ecen t A d vance s i nI ndo P ac if i c P r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd B . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -47 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . M i s ra , V .N . 1 987a . E vo lu t ion o f t h e L and scape a nd Human A dap ta t ion i n t h e T har D e se r t . P re s iden t ia l Add re s s , A n th ropo logy a nd A r chaeo logy S ec t ion o f I nd ian S c ience C ong re s s , B anga lo re , P roceed ing s o ft h e 7 4t hI nd ian S c ience C ong re s s , P a r tI : 1 24 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 987b . M idd le P le i s tocene A dap ta t ion s i n I nd ia , i nP le i s tocene O ld W or ld R eg iona l P er spec t ive s ( O lga S of f ed E d . ) ,p p .9 9 114 .N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989a . S tone A ge I nd ia : A n E co log ica l P e r spec t ive , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 5 ( 1) : 1 7 -64 . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 989b . Me so l i th ic C u l tu re s ,i nE ncyc loped ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I :S ub jec t s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 3 7 -43 .N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989c . B ago r , i n E ncyc loped ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo lo gy I :AG aze t teer o fE xp lored a nd E xcava t ed S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 3 4 -37 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989d . T i lwa ra , i nE ncyc loped ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo log y I : AG aze t teer o fE xp lored a nd E xcava ted S i t e s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 2 66 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989e . B h imbe tka , i n E ncyc loped ia o f I nd ian A rchaeo logy I : A G aze t teer o fE xp lored a nd E xcava ted S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -73 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 990 . T he V an V ag r i s "Lo s t" Hun te r s o f t h eT ha rD e se r t , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 8 9 -108 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 992 . R e sea r ch o nt h e I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion : A B r ief R ev iew , T he E a s t ern A n thropo log i s t4 5 ( 1-2 ) : 1 19 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 994a . P a t ter n s o f Human A dap ta t ion i nt h e S em i -a r id a nd A r id Z one o f R a ja s than i n L iv ing T rad i t ion s : S tud ie s i n t h e E thnoar chaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia ( Br idge t A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 0 1124 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH . M i s ra , V .N . 1 994b . I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion a nd t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i , i n S ou th A s ian A rchaeo logy 1 993 1 1 ( A sok P a rpo la a nd P e t te r i K o sk ika l l io E d s ) , p p . 5 11-525 . H e l s in ik i S uoma la inen T iedeaka tem ia . M i s ra , V .N . 1 997 . B a la tha l , S ou th A s ian A rchaeo logy 1 7 : 2 51-272 .

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C ha l co l i th ic a nd I r on A ge C u l tu re so f Mewa r ,R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 0 ( 1) : 5 7 -80 . M is ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , L .P andey a nd J . K ha rakwa l 1 997 . E xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l , D i s t r ic t U da ipu r , R a ja s than ( 1 995 -97 ) , w i th S pec ia l R ef e r ence t o C ha lco l i th ic A r ch i tec tu re , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 2 2 (2 ) : 3 5 -59 . M i t te r , P . 1 977 . Much Ma l igned Mons t er . O xf o rd : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 979 . R ecen t r e sea r ch o n t h e u ppe r P a la eo l i th ic p ha se i nI nd ia ,J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 6 :3 0 1-20 . N aga r , M . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 990 . T he K an ja r s -A H un t ing -Ga the r ing C ommun i ty o f t h e G anga V a l ley , U t ta rP rade sh , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 7 1 -88 . N aga r , M . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 993 . T he P a rdh i s : A H un t ing -Ga the r ing C ommun i ty o f C en t ra l a nd We s te rn I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 : 15 140 N aga r , M . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 994 , S u rv iva lo ft h eH un t ing G a ther ing T rad i t ion i n t h e G anga P l a in s a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i n L iv ing T rad i t ions : S t ud ie s i n t h e E thno a rchaeo log y o fS ou th A s ia ( B r idge t A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 69 192 .N ew D e lh i . O xf o rd a nd I BH . P addayya , K . 1 990 . T he N ew A r chaeo logy a nd I t s A f t e rma th : A V i ew F rom O u t s id e t h e A ng lo Amer ican W or ld ,P une : R av i sh P ub l i she r s . P addayya , K . 1 994 . I nve s t iga t ion o f Man -Env i ronmen t r e la t ion sh ip i n I nd ian A r chaeo logy : S ome t h eo re t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 9 : 1 28 . P appu ,R .S . 1 974 . P le i s tocene S t ud ie s o f t h e U ppe r K r i shna B as in . P une : D eccan C o l leg e . P appu , R .S . 1 985 . G eomo rpho logy a nd P r eh is to r ic E nv i ronmen t s i nt h e G ha tap rabha - Ma lap rabha V a l ley s , K a rna taka , i nP roceed ing s i nS ympo s ium o n Q ua ternary E p i sode s i n W e s te rn I nd ia ( S .S . Meh ra E d . ) , p p . 2 29 -39 . V adoda ra : M .S . U n ive r s i ty o fB a roda . P appu ,R .S . a nd D eo , S .G . 1 994 . Man land R e la t ion sh ip s Du r ing P a laeo l i th ic T ime s i n t h e K a ladg i B a s in , K ar na taka . P une : D eccan C o l leg e . R a jagu ru , S .N . a nd R . K or i se t ta r 1 987 . Q ua te rna ry G eomo rph ic E nv i ronmen t a nd C u l tu ra l S u cce s so r i n We s te rn I nd ia ,I nd ian J ourna lo fE ar th S c ience s 1 4 (3 -4 ) : 3 49 -6 1 . R a ju , D .R . a nd P .C . V enka ta subba ia t i 2 002 . T he a r cha eo logy o ft h e u ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p ha se i nI nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i nR e t ro spec t V o l . 1( S . S e t ta r a nd R . K o r ise t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 8 5 109 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i lo fH is to r ica lR e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P oona . D eccan C o l lege . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 975 -76 P reh i s to r ic c o lon i sa t ion i nI nd ia : a r chaeo log ica l a nd l i t e ra ry e v idence , P ura ta t tva 8 : 7 2 8 6 . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 977 . N ew A rchaeo logy : I t s S cope a nd A pp l ica t ion t oI nd ia . L u cknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty . S ha rma , G .R . a nd J .D . C la rk ( Ed s . ) 1 983 . P a laeo e nv ironmen ta nd P r eh i s to ry i nt h eM idd le G anga V a l ley ( M ad hya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) . A l lahabad : A v ina sh P raka shan .

S ingh G . 1 97 1 . T he I ndu s V a l ley C u l tu r e s e en i n t h e c on tex t o fp o s tg lac ia l c l ima t ic a nd e co log ica l s t ud ie s i n No r thwe s t I nd ia , A rchaeo logy a nd P hy s ica l A n thropo log ica lo fO cean ia 6 :1 77 -89 . S ingh , G . , R .D . J o sh i , S .K . C hop ra a nd A .B . S ingh 1 974 . L a te Q ua te rna ry h i s to ry o fv ege ta t ion a nd c l ima t e o ft h e R a ja s than D e se r t , I nd ia ,P h i lo soph ica lT ransac t ion o ft h e R oya lS oc ie ty o fL ondon S er ie s2 67 : 4 67 -50 1 S inha , S .C . 1 969 . U rgen t p rob lem s o fr e sea r ch i ns oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l a n th ropo logy i n I nd ia : P e r spec t ive s a nd s ugge s t ion s , i nU rgen tR e search i nS oc ia lA n thropo log y ( B .L . A bb i a nd S . S abe rwa l E d s . ) , p p . 1 62 -9 . S im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy . S inha , S .C . 1 978 . C o -ex i s tence o f mu l t ip le s c a le s a nd n e two rk s o f c i v i l iza t ion : I nd ia , i n S ca le a nd S oc ia l O rgan i za t ion ( F . B a r th E d . ) , p p . 1 22 -32 . O s lo : U n ive r s i te t sf o r lage t . S ingh , U . 2 004 . T he D i scovery o fA nc ien t I nd ia : E ar ly A rchaeo log i s t s a nd t h e B eg inn ing s o f A r chaeo logy , D e lh i : P e rmea te B la ck . S inopo l i , C .M . 1 99 1 . S eek ing t h e p a s t t h rough t h e p re sen t : R ecen t E thnoa r cha eo log ica l R e sea r ch i n S ou th A s ia .A s ian P er spec t ive s3 0 (2 ) : 1 77 192 . S ubba rao , B . 1 958 . T he p e r sona l i ty o fI nd ia . B a roda : M .S . U n ive r s i ty . S ubba rao , B . 1 962 A r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy i n I nd ia , i nI nd ian A n thropo logy : e s say s i nm emo ry o fD .N . Ma jumdar ( T .N . Madan a nd G . S a ran E d s . ) , p p . 1 05 -31 . L ondon : A s ia P ub l i sh ing H ou se . T homa s P .K . 1 974 . Z oo log ica le v idence f r om P reh i s to r ic I nd ian w i th s pec ia l r e f e r en ce t od ome s t ica t ion , B u l le t in o f t h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 3 4 : 1 95 -210 . T homp son , R .H . 1 99 1 . T he a r chaeo log ica l p u rpo se o f e t hnoa r chaeo logy , i n C eram ic E thno -archaeo log y . (W .A . L ongac r e E d . ) , p p . 2 31-45 . T u c son : U n iv . o f A r izona P re s s . V i shnu M i t t re 1 990 . F o r ty Y ea r s o f A rchaeo -bo tan ica l R e sea r ch i nS ou th A s ia , i nA dop ta t ion a nd O ther E s say s ( N .C . G ho se a nd S . C hak rabo r t i E d s . ) , p p . 1 33 . S an t in ike tan .V i sva -Bha ra t iR e sea r ch P ub l ica t ion s . Whee le r , R .E .M . 1 946 . A r chaeo log ica l P l ann ing f o r I nd ia : S ome o ft h ef a c to r s ,A nc ien tI nd ia 2 :1 25 133 . Whee le r , R .E .M . 1 952 . A r chaeo logy a nd t h e t r an sm i ss ion o fi d ea s ,A n t iqu i ty 2 6 : 1 80 -92 . Z eune r , F .E . 1 950 . T he S t one A ge a nd P le i s tocene C hrono logy i nG u jara t .P oona : D e ccan C o l lege . Z eune r , F .E . 1 951 . P r eh i s tory i nI nd ia . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . Z eune r , F .E . 1 963 . E nv ironmen t o f E ar ly Man w i th S pec ia lR ef er ence t ot h e G eog raph ica lR eg ions . B a roda : M .S . U n ive r s i ty .

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A Morphome tr ic S tudy o ft he P a laeo l i th ic I ndus tr ie s o fB h imbe tka , C en tra l I nd ia . Md . S haf iqu lA lam I n troduc t ion P reh is to r ic r e sea rch i n I nd ia b egan a lmos t s imu l taneou s ly w i th t h e e poch -mak ing d i scove r ies i n E u rope when a N eo l i th w a s p i cked u p b y Medow s T ay lo r f r om L ing sua r i n 1 840 ( Va rma 1 997 ) . B u t t h i s r e sea rch g o t i t s s t rong f ounda t ion w i th t h e d i scove ry o f ac l eaver , a n A cheu l ian i mp lem en t , i n al a ter i te g rave l p i t a t P a lava ram n ea r Mad ra s i n 1 863 b y R obe r t B ruce F oo te o f G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ( Foo te 1 866 ) . E ncou raged b y t h is o u t s tand ing d i scove ry F oo te made a s t renuou s e xp lo ra t ion s i n v a r iou s p a r t s o f P en in su la r I nd ia d u r ing t h e f o l low ing f ou r d ecades d u r ing wh ich t ime h e d i scovered al a rge n umbe ro f p reh is to r ic s i tes a nd c o l lec ted h uge l i th ic a r tef ac t s . Mo reove r , h e h a s c a ta logued t hose f i nd s a nd p ub l i shed d e ta i led r e por t s i n t wo v o lumes ( Foo te 1 914 , 1 916 ) . F oo te w a s f o l lowed b y h i s c o l leagues a nd o ther s cho la r s l i ke R ive t t -Carnac ( 1884 ) , C ockbum ( 1888 ) a nd C og in B rown ( 1917 ) who r epor ted s t one t oo ls f r om v a r iou sp a r t s o fI nd ia .

u n ive r s i t ies l i ke P oona , A l lahabad , C a lcu t ta , G uwaha t i , B ana ra s , V ik ram ,U j ja in , S aga r , Andh ra , e t c . T hese s t ud ies p rov ided a c l ea r p i c tu re o f t h e g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion , e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing a nd f auna l a s soc ia t ion o ft h e v a r iou s P a laeo l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic c u l tu res t h roughou tt h e c oun t ry . I na dd i t ion s ever a l o ff i c ia ls n o tab ly L a l , J osh i , S a rke r , S ab ramanyam , B ana r jee , D a sgup ta , o ft h e A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia c a r r ied o u t p reh is tor ic i n ve s t iga t ion s i n v a r iou s p a r t s o f I nd ia . S ome o f t h e s t a te D epa r tm en t s o fA rchaeo logy a l so c on t r ibu ted t h e i r s ha re , a nd s pec ia l m en t ion m ay b e made o f R a ja s than , Madhya P radesh , U t ta r P radesh a nd We s tB enga li nt h is c onnec t ion . B u t t h e e a r ly p reh is tor ic w o rk s w e re l a rge ly c onf ined t o t h e e xp lo ra t ion o f g eo log ica l c on tex t s l i ke c oa r se a l luv ia l s ed imen t s , s t ream b ed s a nd s u rf ace o ccu r rences a nd t h e i rm a in o b jec t ive w a st o d i scove r t h e s t one a ge r ema in s i nv a r iou s p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry wh ich u n t i l t h en w e re l a rge ly t e r ra i n cogn i ta . B y t h e m id s i x t ies , t h e s equence o f p reh is to r ic c u l tu res , t h e i r g eog raph ica l d i s tr ibu t ion a nd s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion h ad b ecome c l ea r ly k nown . T he empha s is t h en w as s h if ted t o t h e d i scove ry a nd e xcava t ion o fr e la t ive ly u nd i s tu rbed o r p r ima ry s i tes i n o rde r t o r e cove r t h e h omogenou s s t one i ndu s t r ie s a nd u nde r s tand t h e t y po log ica l c ompos i t ion a nd t e chno log ica l c hange s i n t im e a nd s pace , r e con s truc t t h e n a tu re o f h om in id a c t iv i t ies , s t udy t h e s t ra teg ie s f o r t h e u t i l iza t ion o f l a nd w a te r , p l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou rces , r e con s t ruc t p a laeo -env ironmen t o f p reh is tor ic s oc ie t ies a nd e s tab l i sh r e gna l o f s t one a ge s i tes b y r ad iom e t r ic m e thod s i no rde r t ob u i ld u p af i rm c h rono logy . C on s ide rab le p rog r ess h a s b een m ade i na l lt h ese a r ea si nl a s tf ew d ecades .

B u t t h e e n thu s ia sm w i th wh ich F oo te h ad s t a r ted t h e w o rk c ou ld n o t b e k ep t u p b y h i s s uccesso r s a nd w en t o n s l ugg ish ly t i l l 1 930 when i tr e ce ived a n ew i mpe tu s . C amm iade , R icha rd s a nd B u rk i t t w e re e ngaged i n S ou th I nd ia , wh i le T odd , Wad ia a nd D e T e r ra w o rked i nt h e P ind i Gheb r eg ion a nd t h e H ima layan f oo th i l ls . I n 1 935 t h e Y a le C amb r idge m iss ion v i s i ted I nd ia u nder t h e l e ade r sh ip o f D e T er ra a nd H . P a t te r son . I tw a s a no the r l a ndma rk i n I nd ian P reh i s tory . T he i r e x ten s ive e xped i t ion i n t h e H ima layan f oo th i l ls , C en t ra l I nd ia a nd P en in su la r I nd ia r e vea led an ew P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re k nown a s t h e ' S oan ' a t t h e P a twa r r eg ion o fR awa lp ind i i nt h e n o r th -wes te rn p a r t o f t h e I ndo -Pak is tan s ubcon t inen t . I t a l so p rov ided ag eo log ica lb a se a nd f o rt h e f i r s tt ime p u t t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l i ni t s p rope r g eo log ica l p er spec t ive ( De T e r ra a nd P a t ter son 1 939 ) . T he c l ues l e f t b y F oo te a nd t h e Y a le -Camb r idge E xped i t ion w e re t a ken u p b y V .D . K r ishna swam i , H .D . S anka l ia , T odd , B ose a nd S en , V .N . M is ra ( 1978 ,1982 ) , S .N . R a jaguru , M .L .K . Mu r ty a nd K . P addayya , S ha rma a nd C la rk a nd s o o n I ti s i n te res t ing t on o te t h a t b ef o re 1 940 t h e p r eh i s to r ic i nves t iga t ion s w e re i n t h e h and s o f g ove rnmen t a genc ies l i ke t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia a nd t h e A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia . B u t a f te r f o r t ies t h e s i tua t ion w a s c hanged . T he m a jo r i nves t iga t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t b y s eve ra l

H oweve r , t h e a pp roach o f mos t o ft h e t ypo log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l s t ud ies o fs t one i n du s t r ies c a r r ied o u t h a s b een s ub jec t ive . O b jec t ive q uan t i ta t ive a pp roach wh ich i s e s sen t ia l f o r a ccu ra te m easu r emen t o f v a r iab i l i ty i n s pace a nd t ime h a s b een a pp l ied o n ly i n af ew s t ud ies ( Ghosh a nd R oy 1 964 ; G hosh 1 966 ; Ghosh a nd C houdhu ry 1 989 ; M is ra , V .N . 1 967 ; M is ra , V .N . e t a l . 1 987 ; J aya swa l a nd P a l 1 973 ; J aya swa l 1 978 ; J o sh i 1 976 ; J o sh i a nd Ma ra the 1 977 ; S eman s 1 981 ; R a ju 1 981 , 1 985 , 1 988 ; M is ra , V .D . e t a l . 1 983a , 1 983b ;

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K enoye r a nd P a l 1 983 ; B lum en sch ine , B r and t a nd C la rk 1 983 ; S inha 1 984 ; Ma r a th e 1 985 ; G a i l la rd e t a l . 1 985 , 1 986 ; P an t 1 985 ; G a i l la rd a nd Mu r ty 1 988 ; Kum a r 1 989 ) . S econd ly , mo s t o f t h e a s semb lage s s o f a r s t ud ied a r e f r om s e conda ry g eo log ica l c on tex t s s uch a sg r ave l d epo s i t s o rf r om r i ve r b ed s a nd s u r f ace e xpo su r e s wh ich m ay h ave b een d i s tu rbed b y n a tu ra l a nd /o r h um an a genc ies . O n ly a f ew a r e f r om p r ima ry o r s em i -p r ima ry c on tex t s . T h i rd ly , t h e a s semb lage s h ave b een d ef ined o n s ma l l s amp le s a nd i n mo s t o ft h e c a se s o n af ew t oo l t y pe s o r s i ng le c u l tu r e s . T h e r e a r e h a rd ly a ny e xcava ted s i t e s w i th s ucce s s ive P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e sw h ich c an g ive a n i n s igh t i n to t h e p r ec i se n a tu re a nd t r end o f t empo ra lv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s semb lage s .

o n ly . T hough e qua l i mpo r tance h a s b een g iven t o a l l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s , y e t t h e s ma l l s i ze o f s amp le i nt h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic r e s t r ic t s t h e s cope o f s t udy o f v a r iab i l i ty i n a r tef ac t s i n t h i s p e r iod . T he o b jec t ive so ft h es t udy a r ea sf o l low s : i . T o m ea su r e t h e d e ta i led t y po log ica l v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a nd b e tw een t h ec u l tu ra lp e r iod s . i . T o a s se ss t h e d e ta i led t e chno log ica l v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a nd b e tween t h ec u l tu ra lp e r iod s . i i . T o u nde r s tand t h e d e ta i led f unc t iona l v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . i v . T o j udge t h e s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion w i th in a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra lp e r iod s . v . T o u nde r s tand t h e f o rma t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a tt h es i te .

A l though a M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r e h a s b een r e cogn ized i n I nd ia a t l e a s t f o r t h i r ty y ea r s ( Sanka l ia 1 956 ) , i t s d ef in i t ion i sb a sed l a rge ly o n t y po logy r a the r t h an o n s t ra t ig raphy ( Co rv inu s 1 968 ) . I t h a s t o b e b a sed o n mo re p rec i se mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s , m e t r ica l v a r iab les a nd o n s t ra t ig raphy . A l so t h e t e chno log ica l d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h eL owe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s n eed st ob e mo r ec l ea r ly d ef ined . I nt h i s s i tua t ion t h e c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l s r e cove r ed b y V .N . M is ra f r om r o ck s h e l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia i n a s t r a t if i ed a nd p r ima ry c on tex t w i th s ucce s s ion f r om L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o Me so l i th ic p ha se o f f e r a n i d ea l o ppo r tun i ty t oc a r ry o u t ad e ta i led a na ly s i s o ft o o l k i t s f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e t empo ra l c hange s i n v a r iou s a spec t s o f l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om o ne s t age t oa no the r( M i s ra ,V .N . 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 985 ) . T h e l o ca t ion o f t h i s r o ck s he l te r l e nd s a n u n ique i mpo r tance t ot h e s i te . T he g eomo rph ic s e t t ing o f t h e s i te o n ah i l l t op , a bou t 6 50 m a bove MSL p r ec lude s t h e o pe ra t ion o fa ny f l uv ia l a gency i ni t s f o rma t ion . T hu sn o s i gn if i can td i s tu rbance wh ich i s v e ry c ommon i n mo s to ft h e s i t e si nI nd ia h a st a ken p l ace h e r e . T h i s i st h e o n ly e xcava ted s i te i nI nd ia w h ich h a s y i e lded a l ong c on t inuou s s ucces s ion f r om L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod t o Me so l i th ic p e r iod i n ap r ima ry c on tex t . I nv i ew o ft h e se f a c t s a nd t h e l a rge v o lum e o f d a ta f r om t h e s he l te r , i t w a s d ec ided t o c a r ry o u t ad e ta i led s t udy o f t h e mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o f t h e l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e s h e l te r b y q uan t i ta t ive a pp roach .

F ig . 1 :B h imbe tka a nd i t se nv iron s( af te rM is ra 1 985 )

T he s i te B h imbe tka ( 22 ° 5 5 ' - 2 2° 5 6 ' N : 7 7 ° 3 6 ' 77° 3 7 ' E ) i st h e n am e o f as ma l l h i l l o n t h e n or the rn m a rg in o ft h e V indhya s i nt h e R a i sen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh . I ti ss i tua ted 2km s ou thwe s t o fB h ianpu r , at r iba l h am le t 4 5 km s ou th o fB hopa l a nd 3 0 km n or th o fH o shangabad b e tw een O ba idu l l a gan j a nd B a rkhe ra s t a t ion s o n t h e C en t ra l R a i lway ( M i s ra 1 978 ) . T he h ighway f r om I t a r s i t o B hopa l r un s p a r a l le l t o t h e r a i lway l i ne a nd p a s se s c l o se t o B h ianpu r( F ig . 1 ) . T he B h imbe tk a h i l l i sc onnec ted t ot h e h ighway b y al i nk r oad f r om B h ianpu r . O n

T h e s t udy i sc onf ined t o t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod

9 1

N a rmada i nt h e s ou th a nd t h eB e twa i nt h en o r th .

t h e t o p a nd s l ope s o ft h i s h i l l t h e r e a r e o ve r 2 00 s he l te r s o f v a ry ing s i ze s . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e se s he l te r s c on ta in o n t h e i r w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s p a in t ing s d ep ic t ing s c ene s i nt h e l i f e o fp r eh i s to r ic h un te r -ga the r e r s a nd l a te r a g r icu l tu ra l s o c ie t ie s a s w e l l a s s c a t te r s o f m ic ro l i th s o n t h e f l oo r s a nd o u t s ide t h e m ou th s o f t h e se s he l te r s . A s ma l l n umbe r o fs h e l te r s a l so c on ta in h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s o nt h e i rf l oo r s .

G eo logy G eo log ica l ly t h e b a sem en t c omp lex o f t h e h i l l i s r e p r e sen ted b y V indhyan s and s ton e a nd a s soc ia ted r o ck s . T he s ed im en ta ry s and s ton es s how r i pp le m a rk s , s un c r ack s a nd c u r r en t b edd ing o r c r o s s l am ina t ion s a s e v idence o f s h a l low w a te r d epo s i t ion (Wad ia 1 966 ) . T he s and s tone i ss l igh t ly m e tamo rpho sed a nd i s d e s igna ted a s o r tho q ua r tz i te . T he c ommon c o lou r o ft h e r o ck i sm i lky c r im son , b u t t h e r e a r e b and s o fm any s had es f r om C la rk p u rp le t h rough l i gh t b rown t om i lky wh i t e . T h e o u te r c o lou r o f t h e r o ck i s c hanged i n to b l ack i sh t e r ra -ve rm i l ion d ue t og row th o f mo s s o n i t s e xposed s u rf ace s . Wea the r ing a nd a ccumu la t ion o fd u s t h ave c hanged t h e e r oded s u rf ace o fr o ck t o s i enna a nd o r ange . T he h or izon ta l ly b edded l a y e r s a r ei n te r spe r sed w i th w h i te b and s .

P hy s iograpy B h imbe tka h i l l r i se s o ve r 6 00 m a bove t h e MSL a nd o ve r 1 00 m a bove t h e v a l ley f l oo r( M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a , 1 978b ) . I tr un s e a s t -we s t f o r al e ng th o f 1 km a nd r ough ly 0 . 5 km n or th sou th . I t se a s te rn a nd s ou the rn s l ope s a r e s t eep wh i le n or the rn a nd w e s te rn s l ope s a r e g en t le . T he h i l l i st o pped b y a c ha in o f d i s sec ted mono l i th ic b lock s w h ich a r e e r oded r emnan t so f af o rm e rc on t inuou s r o ck m a s s . F rom a d i s tan ce t h e se r o ck s l o ok l i k e am ed ieva l f o r t a nd f o rm t h e mo s t p rom inen t l a ndma rk i nt h e l o ca l t opog r aphy . A s m any a s 1 81 r o ck s h e l te r s h ave b een f o rm ed a tt h eb a se o ft h ese r o ck s a sw e l l a s o n t h e s l ope s o f t h e h i l l . Two o t he r a d jo in ing h i l l s k nown a sL akha J ua ra nd B haun rewa l i , t ot h e w e s t a nd e a s t o f B h imbe tka r e spec t ive ly , a r e e qua l ly r i ch i n r o ck s he l te r s . T he se t h r ee h i l l s t o ge the r c on ta in 6 42 r o ck s h e l te r s i n as t r e tch o f a bou t 1 0 km b e tween t h e v i l lage s o f K a r i ta la i i n t h e n or th -ea s t a nd J ond ra i n t h e s ou th -we s t . T he s h e l te r s h ave b een d i v ided i n to s even g roup s , I ,I , I , e t c . f r om e a s t t ow e s t . E ach o ft h e se g roup s h a s b een f u r the r d i v ided i n to s ub -g roup s l i ke A , B , C . W i th in e ach s ub -g roup t h e s he l te r s h ave b een n umbe r ed i n A rab ic n um e ra l s . T he se t h ree t i e red n umbe r s ( f o r i n s tance I I F -23 ) h ave b een p u t i n I nd ian b l ack i n ko nt h ew a l l so ft h e s he l te r .

T h rough t h e c ou r se o fg eo log ica l t im e t h e r o ck h a s s uf f e r ed e x ten s ive e r o s ion . S un , r a in , w ind , c hange s i n t empe ra tu r e , p e r co la t ion o f a c id s i n to t h e r o ck s a nd p ene t ra t ion o f t r ee r oo t s h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t h e l o o sen ing a nd b r eakup o f t h e r o ck s . T he d i f f e r en t ia l w ea the r ing o f t h e se s and s t ones h a s l e d t o t h e f o rma t ion o f a n a r ray o f n a tu ra l c av i t ies a nd r o ck s he l te r s o fv a r iou s s hape s a nd s i ze s wh ich w e r e i d ea l f o rh om in id o ccupa t ion . C l ima te C l ima t e o f t h i s a r ea i so f t r op ica l m on soon t y pe . T h e a r ea r e ce ive s a n a ve rage a nnua l r a inf a l l o f 1 200 mm wh ich i sm a in ly c on t r ibu ted b yt h e s ou th w e s t m on soon d u r ing J u ly t o S ep tembe r . I n t h e r em a in ing mon th s i tr a in s o n ly 3 0 t o 7 0 mm . W in te r s t a r t s i n O c tobe r a nd e nd s i n F eb rua ry . J anua ry i st h e c o ldes tm on th c ha rac te r i sed b yc h i l ly w ind s . F rom F eb rua ry t empe ra tu r e b eg in s t o r i se a nd r e ache s i t s p eak i n May . S umm e r d ay s a r e h o t a nd d ry .

B h imbe tka a nd t h e v a l ley o n i t s s ou ther n s i de a r e t h ick ly c ove r ed b y d ec iduou s f o re s t . B u t o n t h e n o r ther ns i de w he r e s eve ra lv i l lage s a r e l o ca ted ,t h e h i l l s l ope s a r e c omp le te ly b a r r en , d ue l a rge ly t ot h e p ro longed a nd c on t inua l c u t t ing o ft r ees f o rt imbe r a nd f u e l . T h i s d ef o r e s ta t ion h a s l e d t o e x ten s ive d ef la t ion o f s u r f ace s o i l r e su l t ing i n b a r e r o cky s l ope s .

F lora B h imbe tka a nd i t s a d jo in ing h i l l s a r e c ove r ed w i th d en se d ec iduou sv ege ta t ion . A bou tt h i r ty s pec ie so f h e rb s , s h rub s a nd t r ee s i n t h e f o r e s t h ave e d ib le f l owe r s /f ru i t s a nd s e ed s a nd s om e s pec ie s h ave r oo t s a nd t u be r s ( M i s ra , V . N . 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 985 ) . Among t h e f o rm e r , t h e mo r e i mpo r tan t a r e : Mahua ( M adhuca l a t if o l ia R oxb ) , A cha r ( B i ic l ian .nn ia l a t if o l ia R oxb ) , T endu ( D io spyro t omen to sa L am ) , B e l ( Aeg le m arme los C o r r ) , B handa ra ( E ry ther ina i nd ica L am ) , J amun ( Eugen ia f ambo laha L am ) , Am ( M ang if era i nd ica

A t t h e n or ther n f oo t o f t h e h i l l t h e r e a r e t h r ee p e r enn ia l s p r ing s k nown a s B an G anga , G up ta G anaa a nd P andapu r . T he se p robab ly s e rved a s w a te rh o le s d u r ing p r eh is tor ic t im e sj u s t a st h ey d o t oday . T he r e a r e n o p e r enn ia l s t ream s i n a nd a r ound B h imbe tka . S eve r a l e phem e ra l s t r eam s o r ig ina t ing o n e i the r s i de o ft h e h i l l d r a in i n to t h e

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h ab i ta t ion d epos i te ncoun te red w a s 3 . 80 m , b u tt h is o ccu r red o n ly i nt r enches E a nd F o u to ft h et o ta lo f 8t r enches e xcava ted i n t h e s he l te r . A l toge the r e i gh t l a ye r s w ere r e cogn ized . L aye r s 1 , 2a nd 3 r ep r esen t t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod , l a ye r 4t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , l a yer 5 t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd l a yer s 6 , 7a nd 8t h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic . F rom t h is e xcava t ion mo re t h an 1 , 00 ,000 s t one a r tef ac t s f r om

L inn ) , Gu la r ( F icus g lomera ta R oxb ) , Ano la ( Phy lan th i i s . e mb l ica L inn ) , B e r ( J izyph i i sf u j i ibn L amk ) I m l i ( T amar indus I nd ica L inn ) , Kha ju r ( Phoen ix s y lve s t r i s R oxb ) , S i tapha l ( Anona s quamosa L inn ) . Among t ube r s mo re c ommon a r e S af ed Mu s h i( Ch lorophy tuns a rud ie sacum B aker ) , P o t ia K and , K a raha r i k and a nd Kha lu lua . E ven t oday t h e l o ca l a bor ig ina l p eop le e x ten s ive ly e xp lo i t t h ese f o r es t f oods , s pec ia l ly Mahua a nd A cha r ,p ar t icu la r ly d u r ing s umm e r mon th s .

f ou r c u l tu ra l p er iod s w e re r e cove red . F rom t h e P a laeo l i th ic l a ye r s at o ta l o f2 9 ,748 a r tef ac t s w e re f ound . O f t h ese 1 8 ,721 ( 62 .93 % ) b e long t o t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 2 ) , 8 , 505 ( 28 .59% ) t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 3 ) a nd 2 , 522 ( 8 .48% ) t o t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 4 ) . M is ra c l a ss if i ed t h e P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s u s ing t h e t ypo log ica l s chem e o fF ranco is B o rdes e l abo ra ted i nh i s T ypo log ie d u P a ieo t i ih ique A nc ien e l Moyen ( Bo rdes 1 961) .

F auna Many s pec ies o fw i ld a n ima l s w e re n o t iced b y t h e e xcava to r s (M is ra , V .N . 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 985 ; Ma thpa l 1 978 ) d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion p er iod . T hey a r e s amba r ( C ervusu l in ico lour K en ) , c h i ta l ( Ax i s a x i s E r leben ) , b l ackbuck ( An t i lope c er v icapra L inn ) , n i lga i ( Bose laphus t r agocame lus P a l la s ) , w i ld b oa r ( S us s c rof a c r i s ta tu s Wagne r ) , h yena ( H yaena h yaena L inn ) , l e opa rd ( Pan thera p ardus L inn ) , wo lf ( Can i s l upus L inn ) , s l o th b ea r ( M e luru i su r s inus S haw ) ,p o rcup ine ( H y s tr ix i nd ica K e r r ) , h a re ( Lepus n igr ico l l i s F . C uv ie r ) , f ox ( V u lpe s b enga lens i s S haw ) , j a cka l ( Can i s a ureus L inn ) , a nd c o mmon l a ngu r ( Pre sby t i s e n te l lus Duf r esne ) . Many k ind s o fb i rd s , r ep t i les , i n c lud ing p y thon ( E ryx j ohn i i ) a nd i n sec ts a r e f ound . E lephan t , l i on , g au r / a nd w i ld b uf f a lo a r e d ep ic ted i nt h er ock p a in t ing s wh ich i nd ica tes t h a tt h ey w e r e i nt h e f o res tb u th ave s i nce d i sappea red . S he l te r , w a te r , f ood ( bo th a n ima l a nd p l an t ) a nd r aw m a ter ia l , f o r mak ing t o o l s , wh ich a r e b a s ic n eed s o f h un t ing a nd f o rag ing c ommun i t ies w ere a l l a va i lab le a t B h imbe tka . T ha t i s why h un te r g a the rer s r i gh t ly s e lec ted t h is p l ace a nd o ccup ied t h e s he l te r s f r om A cheu l ian t imes u p t o E a r ly H is to r ic p er iod . H i s tory o fR e search T he s i te w a s d i scove red b yt h e l a te V .S . Wakanka r i n 1 957 (Wakanka r 1 975 ) . I n t h e f o l low ing y ea r s h e c on t inued t o e xp lo re t h e r e g ion a nd l o ca ted a t o ta l o f 7 54 r o ck s he l te r s o u t o f wh ich o ve r 5 00 c on ta in p a in t ing s . B e tween 1 972 a nd 1 977 e xcava t ion s w e re c onduc ted i n mo re t h an ad ozen o f t h ese s he l te r s b y V .S . Wakanka r ( V ik ram Un ive r s i ty , U j ja in ) , V .N . M i s ra ( Poona Un ive r s i ty , P une ) a nd S u sanne H aa s (Mu seum f u i r V o ikc rkunde , B a s le ) . One o ft h ese s he l te r s I I F -23 wh ich w a s e xcava ted b y M is ra p roduced a c on t inuou s c u l tu ra l s ucces s ion f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e Meso l i th ic i n as t ra t if i ed a nd p r imary c on tex t . T he max imum t h ickness o f t h e

F ig . 2 :L owe rP a laeo l i th ic A r t if ac t s

Me thodo logy T h is s t udy i s b ased o n ac o l lec t ion o f 1 ,536 a r tef ac t s r e cove red f r om t r enches E a nd F . T hese t r enches w e re s e lec ted b ecau se t h ey p rodu ced t h e t h icke s t c u l tu ra l d epos i t a nd p rov ided a c omp le te c u l tu ra l s equence . T he s t udy f o l low s t h e c l a ss if i ca t ion o f t h e a r tef ac ts a l ready m ade b y M i s ra ( 1985 ) .

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m ea su rem en t s a nd t a k ing a c tu a l m ea su r em en t s o f t h e a r tef ac t s , ( b ) d e s ign ing ad a ta b a se s t ruc tu r e f o r f e ed ing mo rphom e t r ic d a ta t o b e a b le t o u se c ompu te r s of twa r e s a nd ( c ) t h e emp loym en t o f s eve r a l s t a t is t ica l t e chn ique s f o r t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e se d a ta . S ince t h e t h ru s t o f t h e d i s se r ta t ion c oncer n s t h e v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s i nt e rm s o f mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab les , d e ta i led mo rpho log ica l a nd m e t r ica l d a ta o f t h e a r tef ac t s a r e g en e ra ted . T he m e thodo logy f o r t h is s t udy h a s b een d eve loped o nt h e b a s i s o fa va i lab le l i t e ra tu r e o nt h i s s ub jec t . T he s cheme sp ropo sed b y D .A . R oe ( 1964 , 1 968 , 1 973 ) , a nd G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk ( 1 983 ) h ave b een mod if ied t o s u i t t h e a s semb lage s c on s ide r ed f o r t h e s t udy . T e rm ino logy , d ef in i t ion s a nd p rocedu r e f o l lowed i n t h i s s t udy a r e d e r ived m a in ly f r om B o rde s ( 1961 ) , R oe ( 1964 , 1 968 , 1 973 ) , C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t ( 1974 ) . O the r w o rk s w h ich h ave b een c on su l ted i n c lud e K le ind ien s t ( 1962 ) , Ma son ( 1967 ) , Mov iu s ( 1 968 ) , C rab t r ee ( 1972 ) , T r inghum e t a l . ( 1974 ) , K a rnm inga ( 1978 ) , K ee ley ( 1 980 ) , D ibb le a nd B er n a rd ( 1980 ) a nd S al im ( 1986 ) . A s t h e r e a r e d i f f e r ence s i n t h e d ef in i t ion s o f t h e a t t r ibu tes a nd v a r iab le s a nd p rocedu r es s ugge s ted b y d i f f e ren t w o rke r s , I d e sc r ibe b e low t h e t e rm ino logy , d ef in i t ion s a nd p rocedu r e a s a dap ted f r om a bove m en t ioned s t ud ie s f o ra pp ly ing t h em t o t h ed a ta f r om B h imbe tka .

F ig . 3 :M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A r t if ac t s

F o r t h e p u rpo se o f t h i s s t udy t h e a r tef ac t s h ave b een g rouped i n to t wo b road c a t ego r ie s : ( i ) S haped t oo l s a nd ( i ) S imp le a r tef ac t s . S haped t o o l s a r e t hose a r tef ac t s wh ich s how d e l ibe ra te h um an w o rkman sh ip i n c lud ing s e conda ry r e touch o r e dge t r imm ing wh ich m ay o rm ay n o t a l te r t h e p r ima ry f o rm o f t h e a r tef ac t . S imp le a r tef ac t s a r e t h o se p i eces wh ich a r e b y -p roduc t s o rr emnan t s o f i n ten t iona l f l ak ing wh ich m ay o r may n o t s how e v id en ce o f u t i l iza t ion a nd /o r m ino r mod if i ca t ion a nd t h e se d o n o t f i t i n a ny t o o l c l a s s . T hough L eva l lo i s ian f l ak e i sc l a s s if ied a s at oo l i nB o rde s s ch em eb u t i nt h i s s t udy i th a sb een i n c luded i nt h e c a tego ry o f f l ak e s . T he t oo l t y pe s a l te rna te t h ick a brup t r e touch a nd a l ter n a te t h in a b rup t r e touch a nd d eb i t a ge h ave n o t b een c on s ide r ed f o r t h e s t udy . Morpho log ica lA t tr ibu te s F o l low ing a t t r ibu te s h ave b een c on s ide r ed t h ough a l l o ft h em a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly a pp l icab le t oe ve ry a r tef ac tt y pe .

F ig .4 :U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic A r t if ac t s

T h e r e sea rch h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i nt h r ee s t age s : ( a ) d ef in ing t h e a t t r ibu te s a nd v a r iab les f o r

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R aw Ma ter ia l : T he r aw m a te r ia l u sed f o r f a b r ica t ing a r tef ac t s h a s b een c l a s s if i ed i n to s and s tone /o r tho -qua r tz i te , q ua r tz , c he r t , a ga te a nd c ha lcedony .

s c rape r s a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ade o n f l ak e s b u t o n n a tu ra l r o ck p i ece s . H oweve r , t h ey b ea r o t he r t y po log ica l c ha rac ter i s t ic s o f d e je te s c r ape r s a nd h en ce h ave b een g rouped i nt h a tc a tego ry .

P hy s ica l C ond i t ion : B y p hy s ica l c ond i t ion i s m ean t t h e o ve ra l l s t a te o f p r e se rva t ion o f t h e o b jec t s . I n a dd i t ion t os u rf ace m od if ica t ion o ft h e s pec im en , t h e e dge s a r e o f p a r t icu la r i n te r e s t i n d ef in ing t h e p hy s ica l c ond i t ion . O n t h e b a s i s o f d eg r ee o f w ea the r ing o n t h e a r tef ac t s t h ey h ave b een c l a s s if ied a s f r e sh , s l igh t ly w ea the r ed , mod e ra te ly w ea the r ed , a nd h eav i ly w ea the r ed i n t h e i n c r ea s ing o rde r . F o r e xamp le T re sh r e f e r s t o t h o se a r tef ac t s wh ich a r en o tw ea the r ed a ta l l .

R e touch : B road ly , r e touch a l ong t h e m a rg in s c an b e d ef in ed a s i n ten t iona l mod if ica t ion o f a n e dge t h rough f l ak ing f o r t h e p u rpo se o f e i the r r e juvena t ing , b lun t ing o r s hap ing t h e m a rg in o f a s t one a r tef ac t ( Kamm inga 1 978 ) . T oo l s f r om B h imbe tka a r e f ound t o b e r e touched t o v a ry ing d eg r ee s a nd s i nce B o rde s ' t ypo log ica l s ch em e i s b a sed o n d i f f e r en t c ha rac t er i s t ic t r a i t s o fr e touch , i t h a sb een g iven d ue i mpo r tance i n mo rpho log ica l a s w e l la sm e t r ica la na ly s i s .

C omp le tene s s : C omp le tene s s o f a n a r tef ac t h a s b een a d judged e i the r ( i ) c omp le te o r ( i ) b rok en . T h i s d i s t inc t ion h a s b een m ade o n t h e b a s i s o f b r eakage o n a ny s i de o r e nd o ft h e a r tef ac t e i the r d ue t om anuf ac tu r e o ru se o r d epo s i t iona l o rp o s t d epo s i t iona lp roce s se s .

Charac ter o fR e touch : I th a sb een r e co rd ed o nt h e b a s i s o f c on t inu i ty o f r e touch a l ong t h e w o rk ing e dge ( s ) o ft h e t oo l a nd h a s b een g rouped i n to ( i ) c on t inuou s a nd ( i ) d i scon t inuou s . I ns om e c a ses i t i si nde te rm ina te o w ing t ow ea the r ing o ra b ra s ion . R e touch N a ture : Mo s t o f t h e a r tef ac t s f r om B h imbe tka s how a d i s t inc t t y pe o f r e touch s c a r p a t ter n wh ich d oes n o t f i t i n a ny o f t h e s c a r p a t ter n s d e s igna ted b y B o rde s , C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t ( 1974 ) , S ha rm a a nd C la rk ( 1 983 ) a nd o th e r s l i k e Mov iu s ( 1968 ) , T r inghum e ta l . ( 1974 ) , K amm inga ( 1978 ) a nd S a l im ( 1986 ) . T o s om e e x ten t i tr e semb le s t h e s c a la r r e touch p a t ter n o f B o rde s b u t t h e s c a le s d o n o t o ve r lap w i th o ne a no the r . Ih ave d e sc r ibed t h i s v a r ie ty o fr e touch a s ' s ca la r i n o ne r ow o n ly ' . T he o th e r s c a r p a t ter n s r e su l t ing f r om r e touch h ave b een c l a ss if i ed a s p a ra l le l , s ub -pa ra l le l , s t ep , a r id s c a led a nd t h ey h ave b een r e co rded e dgew i se . T h e d i s t inc t ive f e a tu r es o ft h e se s c a rp a t ter n sa r e a sf o l low s : i . P a ra l le l : R e touch ing i s n a r row , s ha l low , e l onga ted a nd p a ra l le l . i . S ub -pa ra l le l : I t i s l e s s r egu la r t h an p a ra l le l r e touch . i i . S t ep : R e touch i sl i ke t h e s t ep so f as t a i r ca se . i v . S ca led : B road a nd s ho r t ,w ide ra tt h ed i s ta le nd t h an a tt h e b a se , i tr e semb les t h e s c a le s o f a f i sh ( s ee B o rde s 1 961 : 8 -9 ) . v . S ca la r i no ne r ow o n ly : S am e a ss c a led b u t i n o ne r ow o n ly .

P lan F orm : P lan f o rm i st h e s hape o ft h e a r tef ac t w hen s e en i n p l an v i ew , i . e . w hen t h e a r tef ac t i s o r ien ted i n t h e h o r izon ta l p l ane ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I n t h e c a se o f h andaxe s i th a s b een c a tego r ized i n to l a nceo la te , s ub t r iangu la r , a mygda lo id , e l onga ted c o rd if o rm , s ub -eo rd if o rm , o va l a nd l imand e . F o rc l eave r s i th a s b een g rouped i n to r ounded b u t t t r an sve r se e dge , r ounded b u t t o b l ique e dge , r ounded b u t t -convex e dge , p o in ted l ong b u t t o b l iqu e e dge , p o in ted l o ng b u t t c onvex e dg e , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t t r an sve r se e dge , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t o b l iqu e e dge , t r unca t ed c onve rgen t b u t t t r an sve r se e dge , t r unca ted c onve rgen t b u t t o b l ique e dge , t r unca ted c onve rgen t b u t t -convex e dge . I n e a se o fn on -b if ace t oo ls , f l ake s a nd b l ade s i th a s b een c a tego r ized i n to s ho r t q uad r i la te ra l , l ong q uad r i la te ra l , s ho r tt r iangu la r , l o ng t r iangu la r , s ho r t i r r egu la r ,l ong i r r egu la ra nd e l l ip t ica l P r imary F orm : I ti st h e f o rm o f t h e b l ank / rock p i ece o n wh ich t h e a r tef ac t w a s f a sh ioned . I th a s b een c a tego r ized i n to s i de s t ruck f l ak e , e nd s t ruck f l ake , i n de te rm ina te f l ake , p rox ima l e nd o f f l ake , d i s ta l e nd o f f l ak e , m id sec t ion o f f l ak e a nd c hunk /na tu ra lr o ck p i ece .

R e touch C la s s : I t h a s b een c a tego r ized i n t h e f o l low ing w ay b a sed o nB o rde s( 1961) : i . U n if ac ia lN o rma l : R e touch ing i sd one f r om t h e v en t r a lo nt ot h e d o r sa lf a ce o ft h e i . Un if ac ia l I nve r se : R e touch ing i sm ade f r om t h ed o r sa l f a ce o nt ot h ev en t ra lf a ce .

T hough B o rde s ( 1961) h a s d ef ined d e je te s i de s c rape r a s c onve rgen t r ac lo i r ( s ide s c rape r ) o f w h ich t h e a x i s o ft h e t oo l i sc l ea r ly i n c l ined o nt h e a x i s o f t h e f l ake , a r t ef ac t s o f B h imbe tka a s semb lage s wh ich a r e c l a ss if i ed a s d e je te s i de

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i . i v .

B if ac ia l : R e touch i s d one b o th d o r sa l ly a nd v en t ra l ly o nt h e s am ee dge o ft h et o o l . A l te rna te -N o rm a l a nd I nve r se : R e touch i s d one p a r t ly f r om t h e v en t ra l a nd p a r t ly f r om t h e d o r sa l f a ce o n t h e S ca t te r ed a nd /o r d i f f e ren te dge ( s ) .

a pp l ied a no the rr u le o fs imp le d om inan ce b a sed o n " r a r i ty " / i n f r equency : t h e c oncave t r a i t i s mo r e d om inan tt h an t h e s t ra igh t ,w h ich i s mo r e d om inan t t h an c onvex . F o r i n s tance , a c onve rgen t s i de s c rape rw i th o ne s t r a igh te dge a nd o ne c onvex e dge h a s b een c l a s s if i ed a s s t ra igh t c onve rgen t s i de s c rape ra cco rd ing t ot r ue r u le o fd om inance . B u ti t s e dge f o rm h a s b een r e co rded a s t h e e dge s a r e i . e . s t r a igh t -convex .

L oca t ion o fR e touch : T o d e te rm ine t h el o ca t ion o f r e touch , a r tef ac t s w h ich p r e serve t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s h ave b een o r ien ted b y p l ac ing t h em p rox ima l ly . Whe re e v idence o fs t r ik ing p l a tf o rm i s n o t p r e served o r t h e a r tef ac t s a r e m ade o n r o ck p i ece /chunk , t h e s pec im en s h ave b een o r ien ted b y p l ac ing t h e i r b roade r e nd s p rox ima l ly . T h en l o ca t ion o fr e touch h a s b een d e te rm ined a s o n l e f t o r r i gh t l a te ra l s i de s o r p rox ima l o r d i s ta l e nd s . Whe r e mo r e t h an o ne e dge i sr e touched ( e .g . , i n c a se o f e nd a nd s i de s c rape r ) i t s l o ca t ion i s r e co rded i n ac omb ined f o rm e . g . , o ne s i de e dge a nd o ne e nd e dge ( s ee A ppend ix B ) .

C ros s S ec t ion : I ti st h e s e c t ion a c ro s s t h e s ho r t a x i s o f t h e a r tef ac t m idway d own a nd a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t h e l o ng a x i s ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I t h a s b een c l a s s if ied a s b i convex ; l e n t icu la r , c i r cu la r , p l ano -convex h igh -back , p i ano c onvex l ow -back , t r i angu la r , s ub t r iangu la r , t r apezo id , r hombo id , p a r a l le log ram , i r r egu la r q uad r i la te ra l , p o lygon , c on cavo -convex a nd i r r egu la r . P re sence o fC or tex /O ld Wea thered S urf ace : T he r e duc t ion o fc o r t ica l a r ea o ro l d w ea the r ed s u rf ace o f t h e a r tef ac t h a s b een e xp r es sed i n t e rm s o f p e r cen tage s uch a s 1 00% c o r t ex / o l d w ea the red s u rf ace m ean ing n o f l ak e s c a r , 5 0% m ean ing t h e r emova l o f 5 0% c o r tex a nd s o o n . T h i s d oes n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly ad i r ec t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s a nd t h e c o r t ica l o r o ld w ea the r ed a r ea r emoved . H oweve r , r e cogn iz ing c o r t ica l / o ld w ea the red a r ea o n a s ub s tan t ia l n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s ( wh ich u nd e rgone w ea the r ing d u e t op o s t d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s ) h a s b een f ound d i ff icu l t .

R e touch /U t i l iza t ion E dge F orm ( P lan V iew ) : T h i s i s t h e f o rm o f t h e e dge o f a r tef ac t a f te r mod if ica t ion b y r e touch o ru t i l iza t ion w hen s e en i n t h e p l an v i ew ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . E dge f o rm s h ave b een c l a s s if ied a s s t ra igh t , c onvex , c oncave , n o tched , d en t icu la te a nd t h e i r v a r iou s c omb ina t ion s ( s ee A ppend ix B ) . A r tef ac t s w ho se o ne e dge i s mod if i ed b y r e touch ing o ru t i l iza t ion , t h e i r e dge f o rm s h ave b een r e co rded s imp ly e i the r s t ra igh t , c onvex o rc oncave o rw ha teve ri st h e f o rm o f t h a t e dge . B u t w he r e t wo o r m o r e e dge s a r e mod if ied , t h e f o rm o f e ach r e touched e dge h a s b een j udged s epa ra te ly a nd r e co rded i n t h e i r c omb ined f o rm s . F o ri n s tan ce , ad e je te s i de s c rape r w h ich h a s t h r ee r e touched /u t i l ized e dge s o f s t ra igh t , c onvex a nd c on cave f o rm r e spec t ive ly , t h e e dge f o rm o f t h i s t o o l h a s b een r e co rded a s s t ra igh t -convex -concave .

P la tf orm T ype : I th a s b een c l a s s if i ed i n to t wo c a tego r ies ( i ) n a tu r a l a nd ( i ) p r epa r ed . I f t h e p l a tf o rm r e ta in s c o r tex o r p o r t ion o f as imp le f r ac tu r e i th a s b een c a l led n a tu ra l , a nd i f t h e p l a tf o rm i sf o rm ed b y f l ak e s c a r s wh ich i n d ica te s t h e e v idence o fp r ev iou s p r epa ra t ion o fp l a tf o rm i n t h e c o r e i th a s b een t e rm ed p r epa r ed . Wh en t h e p l a tf o rm i sn o t p r e served i n ab rok en f l ak e i th a s b een r e co rded a sb rok en . Whe r e o n ly b u lb o rc on e o f p e r cu s s ion r em a in s w i thou t a ny p o r t ion o f t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm i t h a s b een t e rm ed p o in ted p l a tf o rm . I n c a se o fp o in ted p l a tf o rm i t s t y pe h a s b een r e co rded a s i n de te rm ina te . T he a t t r ibu te a nd v a r iab le r e la ted t op l a tf o rm h ave b een a na ly sed i n b l ad e s a nd a l l t y pe s o f f l ak es e xcep t i n i n de te rm ina te w he r ep l a tf o rm sd on o te x i s t .

I n p rac t ice t h e e dge f o rm , i n mo s t c a se s , i sn o t u n if o rm ly s t ra igh t , c onvex o r c oncave ; r a the r i ti s w avy . I nt h e se c a se s i no rde rt or e duce t h e n umbe r o f s ub -ca tego r ie s B o rde s ( 1 961) ' p r inc ip le o f d om inan ce o ft r a i t ' h a s b een a pp l ied . F o r e xamp le , as i ng le s i de s c r ape r h a s aw avy e dge w ho se mo r e t h an 5 0% i sc onvex a nd l e s s t h an 5 0% i ss t ra igh t , t h e e dge f o rm o ft h i s a r tef ac t h a s b een c on s ide r ed t ob ec onvex . I n s tead o fd i s t ingu i sh ing m any c a tegor ie s a si nt h e c a se o fd oub le s i de s c rape r , B o rde s h a s m ade o n ly t h r ee h omogeneou s t y pe s o f c onve rgen t s i de s c rape r s : s t ra igh t , c oncave a nd c onvex . H e r eh e h a s

S car P a t tern : T he p a t ter n d eve loped o n t h e s u r f ace ( s ) o ft h e c o r e d ue t or emova l o ff l ak e s f r om v a r iou s d i r ec t ion s h a s b een g rouped i n to t h e

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L inear Mea suremen t s : D .A . R oe ' s ( 1973 ) s ugge s t ion made f o r l a rge c u t t ing t oo l s f r om K a lambo F a l l s h a s b een a dap ted f o r t h e m ea su r em en t s o f h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . T he s ugges t ion t o m ea su r e h andaxe a nd c l eave r f r om t h e a c tua l l i ne d r aw ing s o ft h e a r tef ac t s h a s b een c on s ide r ed h e r e in . F o r n on -b if ace t o o l s , f l ake s , b l ades , c h ip s a nd c o r e s l e ng th , b read th a nd t h ickne s s h ave b een m ea su red u s ing a m ea su r ing r e c tang le . T he m ea su r em en t sa r ea sf o l low : 1 . L eng th : Max imum l e ng th o ft h e a r tef ac t a l ong i t sl ong a x i s . 2 . B read th : Max imum b r ead th m ea su r ed a tr i gh t a ng le st ot h el ong a x i so ft h e a r tef ac t . 3 . T h ickne ss : Max imum t h ickne s s w hen t h e a r tef ac ti ss e en s i deway s . 4 . L I : D i s tance f r om t h e b u t t e nd t ot h e p o s i t ion o ft h ea r tef ac t ' sm ax imum b r ead th . 5 . B l : B read th a t ap o in t o f 1 / 5t h o ft h e a r tef ac t 's l e ng th f r om t h et i pe nd . 6 . B 2 : B r ead th a t ap o in t o f 1 / 5t h o ft h e a r tef ac t ' s l e ng th f r om t h eb u t te nd . 7 . T i : T h ickne s sa t ap o in to f1 5t h o ft h ea r tef ac t 's l e ng th f r om t h et i pe nd . 8 . C leave r E dge L eng th ( CEL ) : L eng th o f t h e s t ra igh t l i ne b e tween t h e e x t r em i t ie s o f t h e c l eave re dge o rb i t . 9 . C leave r E dge A ng le ( CEA ) : T he a ng le b e tween t h e c l eave r e dge ( i n t h i s c a se t h e s t ra igh tl i ne b e tween e x t r em i t ie s o ft h e c l eave r e dge ) a nd t h e l ong a x i s o ft h e a r tef ac t i np l an v i ew .

f o l low ing c a tego r ie s a nd h a sb een r e co rded o ne ach f a ce s epa ra te ly . T he c onvex s u rf ace o ft h e c o re h a s b een c on s ide r ed d o r sa l f a ce a nd t h e c ompa ra t ive ly f l a to rc oncave s u r f ace av en t ra lf a ce . i . Un id i r ec t ion : T he f l ak ing h a sb een d one o nt h e c o re i n o ne d i r ec t ion o n ly . T h e se a r e ( a ) i r r egu la r , ( b ) c onve rgen t a nd ( c ) p a ra l le l . (Whe re o n ly o ne f l ak e i s r emoved f r om a s u rf ace i ti sr e co rded a su n id i r ec t ion i r r egu la r ) . i . B id i r ec t ion : T h e r emova lo ff l ak e s i sf r om t wo d i r ec t ion s . T hey a r et wo t y pe s( a ) i r r egu la ra nd ( b )o pposed . i i . Mu l t id i r ec t ion : F lak es h ave b een s t ruck o f fi n mo r e t h an t wo d i rec t ion s . T h ey a r e f ound i n r a d ia la nd i r r egu la rp a t ter n . L a tera l E dge F orm ( Prof i le V iew ) : T h i s i st h e s hape o ft h e l a te ra l e dge o ft h e a r tef ac t w hen s e en a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t h e p l an v i ew ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I t h a s b een c l a s s if ied i n to s t ra igh t , s i nuou s r egu la r a nd s i nuou s i regu la r . I t h a s b een r e co rded s epa ra te ly f o r l ef t a nd r i gh t l a te ra l e dge s . I th a s , b een a pp l ied t oh andaxes a nd c l eave r so n ly . T ran sver sa l E dge F orm ( P lan V iew ) : T h i s i st h e s hape o ft h e t r an sve r sa l e dge o ft h e a r t ef ac t w hen s e en i n p l an v i ew ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . T h i s h a s b een c on s ide r ed i nc a se o fh andaxe s a nd c l eave r s o n ly . I th a sb een c a t ego r ized i n to s t ra igh t , o b l ique r i gh t ( no r th -we s t -sou th -ea s t ) , o b l ique l ef t ( no r th -ea s t -sou th -we s t ) , c onvex , c on cave , a nd p o in ted ,

F rom t h ese m ea su r em en t s f o l low ing i n d ice s h ave b een d e r ived ( d epend ing u pon t h e t o o l t ype s ) b y c omb in ing p a i r sa sf o l low s : i . T h icknes s u pon B read th ( T /B ) , ( f o r a l l a r tef ac t st ype se xcep tc o re s ) . i . T i u pon L eng th ( T 1 /L ) , ( f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r so n ly ) . i i . B r ead th u pon L eng th ( B /L ) , ( f o r a l l a r tef ac t t ype se xcep tc o r e s ) . i v . B i u pon B 2 ( B1/B2 ) , ( f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s ) . v . L Iu pon L ( L l /L ) ,( f o rh andaxe sa nd c l eave r s ) . v i . C leave r e dge l e ng th u pon B r ead th ( CEL /B ) , ( f o rc l eave r so n ly ) .

B u t t P lan : T h i s i st h e s hape o f t h e b u t t o f t h e a r tef ac t when s e en i np l an v i ew . T h i s a t t r ibu te t oo h a s b een c on s ide r ed i n c a se o f h andaxe s a nd c l eave r so n ly . I th a sb een c a tego r ized i n to r ounded , p o in ted l ong ,p o in ted s ho r t , t r an sve r se , o b l ique a nd c onve rgen t . Me tr ica lV ar iab le s An umbe r o fm e t r ica l v a r iab le s h ave b een d ef ined a nd s t ud ied t o d e l inea te o b jec t ive ly t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e p a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T h i s q uan t i ta t ive a s ses sm en t h a s e nab led c ompa r i son b e tween t h e t wo a s semb lage s . V a r iou s v a r iab le s h ave b een c on s ide red f o r t h i s p u rpo se . B u t i n t h i s c a se t oo ( l ike mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s ) a l l o ft h e v a r iab le s a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly a pp l icab le t o e ve ry a r tef ac t t y pe .T he v a r iab les a r ea sf o l low s : We igh t : We igh t o f a l l a r t ef ac t s m ea su r ed t ot h e i rn ea r es tg r am s .

h ave

Number o f F lake S car s o n E ach S urf ace : Numbe r o f f l ake s c a r s h a s b een c oun ted o n e ach s u r f ace o f t h e s haped t o o l s a nd c o r e s . B u t i n t h e c a se o f f l ak es , b l ade s a nd c h ip s t h i s h a s b een r e co rded o nt h ed o r sa ls u rf ace o n ly .

b een

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Number o f P lane s Worked : T h i s v a r iab le h a s b een c on s ide r ed o n ly i nt h e c a se o fc o r e s . I ff l ake s h ave b een s t ruck o f ff r om o n ly o n e s u rf ace o ft h e c o re , i th a s b een r e co rded a sw o rk ed o n o ne p l ane . I ft h e r emova l i sf r om b o th s u r f ace s i th a s b een r e co rded a sw o rked o nt wo p l ane s .

R e touch Ang le : I ti st h e a ng le f o rm ed a tt h e e dge o f at o o l b e tween t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s w he re o n e o r b o th f a ce s o f t h e t o o l i sr e touched ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . Wh en a n e dge i s r e touched t h e a ng le i sc a l led s imp ly ' e dge a ng le 'b y T r inghum e ta l . ( 1974 ) , a nd ' s pec if ic e dge a ng le 'b y K amm inga ( 1978 ) . A l so t h i s a ng le i s k nown a s ' i n c luded a ng le ' ( CLU W . 1 971) a nd ' d amage a ng le ' ( Knud son 1 979 ) . Ih ave a pp l ied t h e t e rm u sed b y C la rk a nd K le ind ien s tf o rt h i sp u rpo se .

P la tf orm L eng th : I t i s t h e m ax imum l e ng th b e tween t h e t wo s hou lde r s o ft h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I th a sb een m ea su r ed t o t h e n ea r e s t m i l l ime te r . V a r iab le s r e la t ing t o p l a tf o rm l i k e l e ng th , b r ead th , a ng le h ave b een a na ly sed f o rf l ak e s ( e xc lud ing i n de te rm ina te f l ak e ) b l ad es a nd m ic rob lad e s .

S eve r a l m e thod s a r e u sed b y r e sea rche r s t o t a k e r e touch /edge a ng le m ea su r em en t s . T he se a r e : c a rpen te r ' s t emp la te m e thod ( C ro sby 1 967 ) , p o la r c oo rd ina te g raph m e thod ( Mov iu s e t a l . 1 968 ; W i lm sen 1 970 ; D ibb le a nd B er n a rd 1 980 ) , c l ay m e thod ( Bu rge s s a nd K vamm e 1 978 ;D ibb le a nd B er na rd 1 980 ) , p os te r p u t ty m e thod ( Fe rgu s s ion 1 980 ) , c a l ipe r m e thod ( D ibb le a nd B er n a rd 1 980 ) a nd g on iom e te r m e thod ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ; K amm inga 1 978 ; K ee ley 1 980 ) . H e r e Ih ave u sed t h e g on iom e te r m e thod . S in ce r e touch a ng le v ery o f ten c on s ide rab ly v a r ie s a l ong t h e e dge o ft h e t o o l , m in imum 3t o 5m ea su r em en t s , d epend ing o n t h e e dge l e ng th , h ave b een t a k en a nd t h e i r a ve r age h a s b een c a lcu la ted . F o l low ing t h e g en e r a l a g r eem en t o f t h e F i r s t CLU W o f 1 977 ( Hayden 1 979 : 7 ) t h e m ea su r em en t h a s b een t a ken 1mm b ack f r om t h e j unc tu r e o f t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s .

P la tf orm B read th : I t i s t h e m ax imum m ea su r em en t a c ro s s t h e p l a tf o rm l e ng th a ti t s r i gh t a ng le ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . P la tf orm A ng le : I ti s t h e a ng le f o rm ed b y t h e i n te r sec t ion o ft h e s u rf ace o ft h e p l a tf o rm a nd t h e p rox ima l e nd o f t h e v en t r a l s u rf ace o f t h e f l ake ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I th a sb een m ea su r ed u s ing g on iom e te r . N umber o fR e touch S car s o n E i ther F ace : I th a s b een r e co rded f a ce -w i se a nd e dge -w i se . F o r i n s tance , i nt h ec a se o f as i de s c r ape rw i th a l te rna te r e touch w he r e r e touch ing h a s b een d one o n b o th f a ce s a nd b o th e dge s , r e touch s c a r s o n d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce a sw e l l a so n l e f t a nd r i gh t s i de s h ave b een r e co rded s epa r a te ly . T hen t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f r e touch s c a r sh a sb een c oun ted .

I nva s ivene s s o f R e touch : C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t ( 1 974 ) , a nd S ha rm a a nd C la rk ( 1983 ) h ave c l a s s if i ed t h e i n va s iven es s o f r e touch i n to t h r ee c a tego r ie s : Ma rg ina l , s em i inva s iv e a nd i n va s ive . A s p e r t h e i r d ef in i t ion a l t h e a r tef ac t s f r om B h imbe tka a r e f ound t ob e i nt h e f i r s tc a tego ry . B u t t h i s i n va s ivene s s v a r ie s f r om 1 mm t o 2 0 mm d epend ing o n t h e s i ze a nd t y pe o f t h e t o o l . T h e r ef o r e i n s tead o f d esc r ib ing i ts ub jec t ive ly I h av et a ken t h ea c tua lm ea su r emen t so ft h ee x ten to f r e touch s c a r s o n t h e s u r f ace o ft h e t o o l f r om t h e e dge . A n a ve rage o f 3 5 r e ad ing s h a s b een r e co rded s i nce r e touch s c a r s d o n o t u n if o rm ly e x tend a l ong t h e e dge o ft h et oo l .

R e touch L eng th : T he l e ng th o fr e touch h a s b een m ea su r ed w i th t h e h e lp o f as yn the t ic s t r ing p l aced a ga in s t t h e r e touched e dge ( s ) o ft h e t oo l T hen t h e l e ng th o f t h e S t r ing h a s b een m ea su red i n m i l l im e te r s . T he m ea su r em en t h a s b een t a k en s epa ra te ly a cco rd ing t o t h e p o s i t ion ( s ) o f t h e r e touched e dge ( s )o ft h et o o li . e . l e f to rr i gh ts i de o r p rox ima l o r d i s ta l e nd . T hen a l l t h e m ea su r em en t s h ave b een a dded t oge the r . S o f i na l ly a na ly s i s h a s b een m ade o n t h e t o ta l r e touched l e ng th o f at o o l . S im i la r ly , o t he r v a r iab le s r e la t ing t o r e touch l i ke r e touch a ng le a nd i n va s ivene s s o f r e tou ch h ave a l so b een r e co rded e dge -w ise a nd a na ly s i sh a sb een c a r r ied o u to nt h eb a s i so ft h e i ra ve rage .

L eng th a nd B read th o fB igge s t S car : I th a s b een c on s ide r ed f o rc o r e s o n ly . T he l e ng th o ft h eb i gge s t f l ak e s c a ro nt h e c o r e h a s b een m ea su r ed b y t a k ing t h e m ax imum l e ng th o f t h a t s c a r f o l low ing a n i mag ina ry l i ne w h ich d i v ides e qua l ly t h e p o in t o f i mpac t i . e . n ega t ive b u lb o f p e r cu s s ion . T he b r ead th i st h e m ax imum m ea su r em en tb e tween t wo r i dge s a tr i gh t a ng le s t ot h a t l i n e . T hey h ave b een

I n as ma l l n umbe ro ft o o l s , p o r t ion ( s ) o fr e touched e dge s a r e s o b ad ly d amaged t h a t c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f r e touch c ou ld n o t b e d e tec ted . S o t h e se h ave b een r e co rded f r om t h e d e tec tab le p o r t ion so n ly .

9 8

m ea su r ed s epa ra te ly f o r d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce o f t h e c o r e .

T he t o ta l n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s f r om t r ench e s Ea nd Fw a s 1 ,536 . A d e ta i led q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o f t h e a s semb lage s h a sb een c a r r ied o u t . T he a r tef ac t s h ave b een g rouped i n to t wo b road c a tego r ies : ( 1 ) s haped t o o l s a nd ( 2 ) s imp le a r tef ac t s . F r equen c ie s a nd p e rcen tage s o ft h e a na ly sed a r tef ac t s f r om t h e t wo t r enche s a r es hown i nt a b le 1 .

Chord L eng th : T h i s v a r iab le h a s b een c on s ide r ed f o r n o tch a nd n o tch e nd . I ti st h e l e ng th o f t h e s t ra igh tl i ne b e tween t h e e x t rem i t ie s o ft h e n o tched e dge . I th a s b een m ea su r ed u s ing m i l l im e te r g r aph p ape r .

T he q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i so ft h ea r tef ac t s s how st h a t t h e r e a r e v a r ia t ion s i nt h e a r tef ac t t y pe s a mong t h e t h r ee c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T h i s v a r ia t ion i s l e s s b e tween t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h an b e tween t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . I n a l l t h e r e a r e 6 3 a r tef ac t t ypes i nt h e t h r ee p e r iod s . O f t h e se 2 2 t ype s a r e c ommon i na l l t h e t h r ee p e r iod s , 2 2 o ccu r o n ly i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 1 7 o ccu r i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , 1o ccu r si nt h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd 1 o ccu r s o n ly i n t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic .

D ep th o fN o tch : I ti st h e d i s tance f r om t h e s t ra igh t l i ne , b e tween t h e e x t r em i t ies o ft h e n o tched e dge , t ot h e m ax imum p o in t o fc oncav i ty o ft h e n o tched e dg e . T h i s t oo h a s b een m ea su r ed w i th t h e h e lp o f m i l l im e te rg raph p ape r . S ta t i s t ica l Ana ly se s T he h uge b ody o f d a ta t hu s g ene ra ted h ave b een c ompu te r i sed u s ing d Ba se I I+ , B a s ic , ' M in i tab ' ' S ta tg r aph ic s ' a nd ' Harva rd G raph ic s ' s of twa r e s i n o rde r t o c a r ry o u t t h e q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o n mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu tes a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s . T he s t a t is t ica l t e chn ique s t h a t h ave b een e mp loyed f o rt h i s p u rpo se a r e D i s t r ibu t ion o fF r equency a nd P e r cen tage , Mean , S t anda rd D ev ia t ion , C oeff i c ien t o f V a r ia t ion , Mann Wh i tney U T e s t , tT e s t , C h i S qua r e T e s t , a nd C lu s te r A na ly s i s a cco rd ing t o t h e i rs u i tab i l i ty f o rs pec if ic s i tua t ion s .

V a r ia t ion i sa l so s e en i n t e rm s o f f r equency a nd p e rcen tage o f a r tef ac t t y pe s . I n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic 2 8 .97% a r tef ac t s a r e s haped t oo l s a nd 7 1 .03% a r e s imp le a r tef ac t s i . e . t h e p ropo r t ion o f s haped t oo l s t o s imp le a r tef a c t s i s1 : 2 .47 . Among s haped t oo l s b i f ace s c on s t i tu te o n ly 1 . 76% a nd t h e p ropo r t ion o f c l eave r s t o h andaxe s i s 1 . 75 :1 . Among h andaxes t h e o va l s haped h andaxe i st h e mo s t c ommon t y pe ( 3 1 .25% ) . O the r t y pe s a r e l imande ( 18 .75% ) , l a n ceo la te ( 12 .50% ) , s ub t r iangu la r ( 12 .50% ) , s ub -co rd if o rm ( 12 .50% ) , amygda lo id ( 6 .25% ) , a nd e l onga ted c o rd if o rm ( 6 .25% ) . Among c l eave r s t h e r ounded b u t t w i th c onvex e dge a nd t h et r un ca ted c onve rgen tb u t tw i th o b l ique e dge ( e ach 2 1 .42% ) a r e t h e c ommone s t t y pe s . T runca ted c onve rgen tb u t tw i th c onvex e dge , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t w i th o b l ique e dge a nd r ounded b u t t w i th o b l ique e dge , e ach c on s t i tu te s 1 0 .71 % . T he r ound ed b u t t t r an sve r se e dge a nd t h e p o in ted l ong b u t t o b l ique e dge e ach c on s t i tu te s 7 . 14% . O f t h e o the r t h r ee t y pe s -p o in ted l ong b u t t c onvex e dge , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t t r an sve r se e dge a nd t r unca ted c onve rgen t b u t t t r an sve r se o b l iqu e e dge c on s t i tu te 3 . 57% .

F o r mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s w ho le a s semb lages h av e b een c on s ide r ed a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s o f f r equency a nd p e r cen tage h ave b een c ompu ted . T h e se h ave b een d one c u l tu ra l p e r iod -w i se a sw e l l a sd ep th -w i se t oa s se s s t h e v a r iab i l i ty b e tween a nd w i th in t h e c u l tu ra lp e r iod s . T hey h ave b een w o rked o u ta r tef ac tt ype -w i se t os e et h ev a r iab i l i ty b e tween a nd w i th in t h e a r tef ac t t ypes . T he r e su l t s h ave a l so b een e xp r es sed t h rough h i s tog r am s a nd f r equ ency c u rve so fs om eo ft h ei mpo r tan tf e a tu r e s . RESULTS T h e a na ly se s s how d i f f e r ence s , e i the rs i gn if i can to r i n s ign if ican t , w i th in a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T he d i f f e r ences a r e s i gn if ican t i nt h e c a se o fq uan t i ta t ive c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a s semb lage s o f t h r ee p e r iod s , n am e ly L ow e r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic * .

t a b le s .

'T he s t a t is t ica l a na ly ses o fq uan t i ta t ive c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a s semb lage s h ave

S om e o f t h e f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion s h ave b een p r esen ted i n 4 0

h i s tog r am sa nd f r equency c u rve s . Mu l t ivar ia te a na ly ses h ave b een p lo t ted i n8 0

p roduced 4t a b le s . T he a na ly se s o f mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s o fa r tef ac tt ype s i n

s c a t te r d i ag ram s . S o i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o p r esen t a l t h e r e su l t i n t h i s p ape r .

r e la t ion t o s t ra tum ( dep th ) a nd c u l tu ra l p er iod s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o f

O n ly t h e s a l ien t f e a tu re s o f t h e s i gn if ican t r e su l t a nd t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f

f r equency a nd p e r cen tage h ave p roduced 5 40 t a b le s . Ou t o f t h em 2 70 t a b le s

a na ly s is h ave b een p r esen ted i nt h is p ape r .

h ave b een c omb ined i n to 1 5t a b les b a sed o n c u l tu r a l p er iod o n ly . T he a na ly se s

T hough t h e L eva l lo is f l ake i sc l a s s if ied a s as haped t oo l i nB o rder , s chem e , i n

o fm e t r ica l v ar iab les o fa r tef ac t c l a s se s s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o ff r equency a nd

t h i ss t udy i th a sb een i n c luded i nt h ec a tegory o fs imp le a r tef a c t s .

p e r cen tage a nd d e scr ip t iv e s t a t i s t ics h ave p rodu ced 3 10 t a b les . R esu l t s o f v a r iou s s i gn if icance t e s t s ( two s amp les a na ly s i s ) h ave b een c omp i led i n 3 2

9 9

T ab le 1 :D is t r ibu t ion o fF requency a nd P e rcen tage A r tef ac t s i nT renche s Ea nd Fo fR ock S he l te rI I F -23 , B h imbe tka L .P

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4 0 .30% s l igh t ly w ea the r ed , 8 . 18% mod e r a te ly w ea the r ed a nd 1 . 24% h eav i ly w ea the r ed . T he h i ghe s tp e rcen tage ( 54 .21) o fw ea the r ed a r tef ac t s i s f ound i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage f o l lowed b yt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 37 .44 ) a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 32 .10 ) . T he d eg r ee o f w ea the r ing a l so d ec rea ses f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t ot h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic . F o re xamp le , t h e p e r cen tage o fh eav i ly w ea the r ed a r tef ac t i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i s 1 . 6 , i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic 0 . 17 a nd n one i n t h e U ppe r

U nf or tuna te ly d i f f e r ence s i n t e rm s o f m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s c ou ld n o t b e t e s ted i n r e spec t o f t h e i r s i gn if i can ce . H oweve r , f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ff r equency a nd p e r cen tage si ta ppea r s t h a t e xcep t i n r e spec t o f p hy s ica l c ond i t ion , c omp le tene s sa nd p r ima ry f o rm , a l lo the ra t t r ibu te s , i . e . c r o s s s e c t ion , p l an f o rm a nd c o r tex m ay n o t h av e a ny s i gn if i can t d i f f e r ence w i th in a nd b e tween t h ec u l tu ra lp e r iod sa nd d ep th s . O ft h et o ta la s semb lage 5 0 .28% a r tef ac t sa r ef r e sh ,

1 0 1

P a laeo l i th ic . R eve r se i st h e s i tua t ion i nt h e c a se o f f r e shne s s o f t h e a r tef ac t s . T h i s p a t ter n , f r e sh a r tef ac t s mo re a tt h e t op a nd w ea the r ed a r tef ac t s mo re a t t h e b o t tom , a l so i n d ica te s t h e p r ima ry n a tu r eo ft h e s i te .

( 20 .98% i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , 1 8 .45 % i nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 1 3 .95% i nt h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p er iod ) a nd s hor t t r iangu la r ( 7 .79% i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , 9 . 30% i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 4 . 65% i n t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ) .

I ts e em s t h a t t h e w ea th e r ing o f t h e a r tef ac t h a s o ccu r r ed p a r t ly d u e t ow a te r l o gg ing i nt h e s he l te r ( M i s ra , V .N . 1 985 ) a nd p a r t ly t o o t he r f a c to r s . I f o n ly w a te rl o gg ing w e re r e spon s ib le f o rw ea th er ing t h en a l l t h e a r tef ac t s o fs am e r aw m a te r ia l i n a ny l e ve l w ou ld h ave b een w ea the red . O nt h e c on t ra ry , t h e s am e l e ve l s how s f r e sh a s w e l l a s w ea the r ed a r tef ac t s . O th e r f a c to r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h is v a r ia t ion m ay b e m ic ro e nv i ronm en t o f s o i l . F o r i n s tance , a r tef ac t s b u r ied i nf i ne t e x tu r ed c l ay s o i l w he r e mo i s tu r e w a s mo r e m igh t h ave b een w ea the r ed i n ag r ea te r p ropo r t ion a nd d eg ree . O n t h e o t he r h and , a r tef ac t s b u r ied i n c oa r se -g ra ined s andy s o i l w he r e p e r cen tage o f mo i s tu r e w a s l e s s m igh th ave b een w ea the red t o al e s sp ropo r t ion a nd d eg r ee ( S .N . R a jagu ru , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . A m ic ro l e ve l s t udy o f s ed im en t s , o f t h e s h e l te r m ay t h row s om e l i gh t t o d e te rm ine t h e c au se s f o r w ea the r ing .

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A s ub s tan t ia l p o r t ion o f a r tef ac t s w e r e b roken i n v a r iou s a s semb lage s . B r eakage i nt h e a r tef ac t m ay b e c au sed ( 1 ) d u r ing m anuf ac tu r e , ( 2 ) d u r ing u se a nd ( 3 )b yn a tu ra lp roce s se si . e . d epo s i t iona l a nd /o r p o s t d epo s i t iona l f a c to r s ( t ramp l ing , r o ck f a l l a nd o ve r b u rden ) ( Pe t rag l ia 1 987 ) . T he p e r cen tage s o f b roken a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e i nt h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ( 4 3 .73 )f o l lowed , b yt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ( 29 .43 ) a nd t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ( 2 8 .93 ) . I ti nd ica te st h a tt h e s ma l l , t h in a nd d e l ica te o b jec t s o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod w e re b rok en w i th h i ghe r f r equen cy t h an l a rge a nd t h ick a r tef ac t s o ft h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . W i th in t h e c u l tu ra l p er iod sn o d ef in i te a nd r egu la rp a t ter ni so b served .

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7 r 11

F ig . 7 : D i s t r ibu t ion o f F r equency o f L eng th o f S ide S c r ape r s ( Lay e r -W i se )

F r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o fm e t r ica l v a r iab les s how s t h a t l a rge ly t h e a s semb lage w i th in t h e c u l tu r a l p er iod i sh e te rogeneou s ( F ig s . 6a nd 7 ) . I n o t he r w o rd s t h e a s semb lage i n e ach p e r iod c on s is t s o f b o th s ma l le r a nd l a rge r , b road e r a nd n a r rowe r , t h ick e r a nd t h inne r v a r ie t ie s o f a r tef ac t s . I n c ompa r i son t o e ach c u l tu ra l p e r iod , t h e h e te rogene i ty i na s semb lage p r eva i l s , r e su l t ing i n to h omogene i ty t h roughou t t h e c u l tu r a l s equence f r om L owe r t o U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . H oweve r , t wo s amp le s a na ly se s ( Mann Wh i tney U t e s t a nd tt e s t ) r e vea l t h a t i n s p i te o f h omogene i ty , i n g ene ra l , b e tween t wo c on t iguou s p e r iod s t h e r e a r e d i f f e rences , s i gn if ican t o ri n s ign if ican t , i nt e rm s o f i n d iv idua l v a r iab le s o f a r tef ac t c l a s se s ( f o r i n s tance , s e e T ab le s 4 . 333 a nd 4 . 364 A lam 2 00 1) . S im i la r ly , d i f f e r ence sa l so p r eva i lw i th in t h eL owe r

T he p l an f o rm o rs hape o ft h et o o li sp r ede te rm ined b y t h e t oo l -make rb ef o re i n i t ia l f r ac tu r e o ft h e r aw m a ter ia l ( Crab t r ee 1 972 ) . A c l ea r p r ef e r ence w a s m ade b y t h e s t one a ge c r af t sm en o fB h imbe tka i n m anuf ac tu r ing t h e t oo l s . S ho r t i regu la r f o rm ( 3 7 .28% i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , 3 .62% i nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 4 4 .18% i nt h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ) i st h e d om inan t i n a l l t h e p e r iod s f o l lowed b y l o ng i r r egu la r ( 2 3 .11 % i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p er iod , 2 5 .45% i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 3 2 .55% i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ) , s hor t q uad r i la te ra l

1 02

( 2 ) Med ium : ( a ) R aw Ma ter ia l : A t B h imbe tka o n ly q ua r tz i te w a su sed a sr aw m a te r ia l t h roughou t t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . T he n eg l ig ib le p e r cen tage ( 0 .032 ) o fn on -quar tz i te m a te r ia l h a sp robab ly b een i n t ruded f r om t h e u ppe rmo s t l e ve l . T h e o n ly l i t t le v a r ia t ion i s i n t h e q ua l i ty o f q ua r tz i te u sed f o r b i f ace a nd n on -b if ace t o o l s . B u t t h e b i f ace s amp le i st o o s m a l lt oi nf lu ence t h e s i gn if i can tv a r ia t ion i n s uch ah uge a s semb lage .

P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , i . e . b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 . C lu s t e r a na ly s i s i n d ica t es r e gu la r s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e t h r ee c u l tu ra l p e r iod s i n r e spec t o f 7a r tef ac t t ypes ( s ee A lam 2 001) . T he r e a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s i n o t he r a r tef ac t t ype s t o ob u tn o tr egu la ra sp e rc u l tu r a lp e r iod a nd l a ye r . Wha t a r e t h e f a c to r s t h a tp roduce t h ese d i f f e r ence s o r v a r ia t ion s i n a r tef ac t s a nd wha t i s t h e s i gn if icance o ft h e se v a r ia t ion s ? H e r e i ti sw o r th m en t ion ing t h a t mo rphom e t r ic a na ly s i s a r e c oncer n ed p r ima r i ly w i th t h e q uan t if ica t ion o f v a r ia t ion a nd o n ly t h e i nd i r ec t e xp lana t ion o ft h e se v a r ia t ion s ( Roe 1 973 ) . H ence i ti sq u i te d i ff icu l t t o p r e sen t a ny u n con t rove r s ia l e xp lana t ion f o r t h e v a r ia t ion a mong a r tef ac t s . R a th e r t h e r e h a s b een c on s ide rab le c on t rove r sy r e ga rd ing t h e e xp lana t ion o fv a r iab i l i ty i nl i th ic a s semb lage o ve rt h e l a s t f ou r d ecade s . T he m o s t i mpo r tan t c on t rove r sy a r o se f r om t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f f e r ed f o r o b served v a r ia t ion s i n t h e Mou s te r ian o f s ou thwe s t F rance o ve r f unc t iona l v a r iab i l i t ie s a nd c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s ( f o r d e ta i l s s e e B o rde s 1 961 ; B o rde s a nd S onnev i l le B o rd e s 1 970 ; C o l l in s 1 969 , 1 970 ; Me l la r s 1 970 ; B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 966 ; a nd B inf o rd 1 969 , 1 972 , 1 975 , 1 977 , 1 978 , 1 982 ) .

( b ) T echno logy : I n t h e s am e c u l tu r e w hen s am e r aw m a te r ia l i su sed , t h e f a c to r s i nf luenc ing t h e a r tef ac t v a r ia t ion m ay b e t e chno logy a nd /o r f unc t ion . B e tween t h e t wo c u l tu ra l p e r iod s t h e f a c to r s m ay b e t e chno logy , f unc t ion a nd c u l tu r e t r ad i t ion . T he v a r iab le s o f t h ickn es s , T /B , n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s , a nd r e touch l e ng th h ave b een c on s ide r ed a s t e chno log ica l i n d ice s . A l l n on -b if ace t oo l c l a s se s ( e xcep t b o r e r s a nd n o tches ) a s w e l l a s f l ak e s a nd c h ip s s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 i n r e spec t o f 1t o 3o f t h e se v a r iab le s ( d epend ing o n a r tef ac t c l a s s ) ( s ee T ab le s 4 . 332 4 . 359 i nA lam 2 001) . B u tt h e se d i f f e r ence s a r e n o t r egu la r i na l l t h e l a ye r s a nd i na l l a r tef ac t c l a s se s . I nr e spec t o fc u l tu ra l p e r iod t oo t h e r e su l t i s mo r e o rl e s s s im i la r . T h icknes s , T /B a nd n umbe ro ff l ak e s c a r s s i gn if ican t ly d ec r ea se f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n a l l n on b i f ace t o o l s e xcep tf o rk n ive s . I nc a se o ff l ake s a nd c h ip s t h ickne s s a nd T /B s i gn if ican t ly d ec rea se a nd n umbe ro ff l ak e s c a r s i n c r ea ses . O nt h e o t he rh and , r e touch l e ng th s i gn if i can t ly i n c r ea se s f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n e nd s c rape r s , b o r e r s , t r unca ted f l ak e s a nd n o tche s . A r tef ac t sb ecom e s i gn if i can t ly t h inn e ri nt h eU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nk n ive s , t r unca ted f l ak es , f l ake s a nd c h ip s . Numbe ro ff l ak e s c a r s s i gn if i can t ly i n c r ea se s i n f l ak e s a nd c h ip s i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . I n o t he r a r tef ac t c l a s se s t h e v a lue e i the r i n c r ea se s o r d ec r ea se si n s ign if ican t ly .

T h e v a r iab i l i ty r e vea led i nr o ck s he l te r I I F -23 i s p robab ly d ue t of o l low ing f a c to r s : ( 1 ) P e r sona l i ty o f i . e . mo to r h ab i t s o f i nd iv idua l a r t if i ce r s( 2 ) Med ium i . e . ( a )r aw m a te r ia lu sed a nd ( b ) t e chno logy e mp loyed f o r m anuf ac tu r ing t oo l s ( 3 )F unc t ion a nd ( 4 ) c u l tu r e . T h i sv a r iab i l i ty c an b e e xp la ined i nt h ef o l low ing w ay s . ( 1 ) Mo tor H ab i t s o f I nd iv idua l : A n e no rmou s n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s w e r e p roduced i n t h e s he l te r t h rough t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod b y g roups o f i n d iv idua l s . I nd iv idua l s a r e a lway s s omewha t d i f f e r en t f r om o ne a no th e r i nt h e i r mo to r h ab i t s o r m o to r p e r f o rm ance s . T he a r tef ac t s t h ey m ak e o r u se e xh ib i t s l igh t d i f f e r ence s i n e xecu t ion o r u se w ea r . E ven i n d iv idua l s o ft h e s am e c u l tu r e i ft h ey a r e g iven s am e t a sk u nde r s im i la r p hy s ica l c ond i t ion a nd u s ing s im i la r m a te r ia l s a nd t e chn iques w i l l p roduce s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t r e su l t s ( C legg 1 977 ) . T h i s d i f f e r en ce i sd ef ined a ss t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion ( H i l l a nd G unn 1 977 ) . A t B h imbe tka t h e i n s ign if ican t v a r ia t ion s o b se rved a tv a r iou s l e ve l s i . e . i n t r a a nd i n te r l a ye r a nd p e r iod m ay b e r e la ted i n s om e m ea su r e t o t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f d i f f e r en t i n d iv idua l si . e . s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion .

T h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f e a tu r e , h oweve r , i s t h a t v a r iab le s l i ke t h ickn e s s , T /B a nd n umbe r o f f l ake s c a r s a r e c on t ro l led b y t h e p r ima ry f o rm o f t o o l ( A lam a nd M i s ra n . d . 1 992 ) . T h e a na ly s i s r e vea l s t h a t ah i ghe r p e r cen tage o f t o o l s w e r e m ade o n n a tu ra l r o ck p i ece s ( w i thou t f l ak ing ) i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c ompa red t o t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . S o t h e a r tef ac t s s how s i gn if ican t ly l e s s n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s i nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic T h inn e rt o o ls w i th mo r e f l ak e s c a r s a r e c on s ide r ed a s i n d ica to r s o f r ef inem en t ; h ence d eve lopm en t i n t oo l

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t e chno logy . T hough t h ickne s s a nd T /B v a lue s r e a sonab ly d ec r ea se f r om t h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic d ue t op r e sence o f h i ghe r p e r cen tage o f a r tef ac t s m ade o n t h in n a tu ra l r o ck p i ece s b u t d u e t o t h e s am e r e a son t h e n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s t o o d ec rea se s . S in ce t h e r o ck p i ece s w e r e n a tu ra l ly t h in t h e a r t if i ce r s d i d n o t n eed t o r emove f l ake s f r om t h em t o m ak e t h em t h in a nd t hu s t h ey w e r e a b le t o m ake t o o l s w i th m in imum i n ves tm en t o f e ne rgy a nd t im e ( A lam a nd M i s ra n . d . , 1 992 ) . T h is p rac t ice w a s c ommon i n a l t h e p e r iod s b u t i tw a s mo re p ronounced i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T ha t i s w hy i n t h i s p e r iod t h ough t h ickne s s o f a r tef ac t s r e duce s s i gn if i can t ly , t h e n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s t o o r e duce s i n s t ead o f i n c r ea s ing .

t e chn ique s w e r e a pp l ied f o r s p ec if ic t o o l t y pe s . T h ey a r e b lock -on -b lock t e chn ique a nd h a rd h amm e r t e chn ique f o r r emov ing f l ake s f r om c o r es a nd s o f th amm e rt e chn ique w a su sed f o r s e conda ry t r imm ing o r r e touch ing t h e e dg e s o f t o o l s . F o r i n s tan ce , n o c hange i so b served i nm anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique o fb l ade s i nt h e t h r ee p e r iod s . I n a l t h e p e r iod s b l ade s s e em t o h ave b een p r epa r ed b y h i t t ing t h e p l a tf o rm o n t h e c o rne r o f c o r e a nd a n e l onga ted f l ak e c am e o f f f o l low ing t h e e dge o r r i dge o f t h e c o r e / rock ( J ian L eng , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . I n t h e a na ly s i s o f b l ade s a nd m ic rob lade s f r om t h e e n t i r e e x cava ted a r ea o ft h e r o ck s h e l te r V .N . M i s ra ( 1982 ) o bserved t h a t t h e b l ade s w e r e n o t p r epa r ed f r om s p ec ia l ised b l ade c o r e s .

Mu l t iva r ia te a na ly se s c a r r ied o u t b y c omb in ing t h ese 3 t o 4t e chno log ica l v a r iab le s s ugge s t t h a t t h e r e w a s ar e gu la r a nd s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e l a ye r s a nd t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T h i s m ay b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v a r iab le s e xe r c i sed l e s s i n f luence i nd iv idua l ly t h an c o l lec t ive ly o n a r tef ac tv a r ia t ion . B e s ide s , a na ly se s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t o nt h eb a s i s o fa r t ef ac tt y pe s . I n t h e se a na ly se s t h e d i f f e r ence i s r e gu la r a nd d i s t inc t a t l e a s t i n s even a r tef ac t t y pe s . T he se a r tef ac t t ype s a r e : ( 1 ) s imp le c onvex s i de s c r ape r , ( 2 ) s i de s c r ape r w i th v en t ra l r e touch , ( 3 ) s i de s c rape r w i th s t eep r e touch , ( 4 ) e nd s c rape r , ( 5 ) t r unca ted f l ak e , ( 6 ) n o tch a nd ( 7 ) s i de f l ak e . O u t o f t h a t f o rm e r s i x t y pe s c on s t i tu te 5 4 .53% o fs haped t o o lc a tego ry a nd t h el a s to ne c on s t i tu te s 1 0 .52% o f s imp le a r tef ac tc a tego ry .

3 . F unc t ion : F o r u nde r s tand ing f un c t iona l v a r iab i l i ty t wo a spec t s o f a s semb lages h ave b een c on s ide r ed . T h ey a r e : ( 1 ) v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e q uan t i ta t ive c ompo s i t ion o f t h e a s semb lage s , a nd ( 2 ) v a r ia t ion i nc e r ta in v a r iab le sw h ich a r e a s sum ed t oe f f ec tt h ef unc t ion o ft h ea r tef ac t s .

T he L eva l lo i s i n dex g radua l ly i n c r ea se s f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .19 ) t h rough t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .51) t ot h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .60 ) . P e r cen tage o f d i sco id c o r e i n c rea se s f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .09 ) t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .30 ) . T h i s a l so i n d ica te s a d ev e lopm en ti nt e chno logy t h rough t im e .

H oweve r , o n t h e b a s i s o f e xpe r im en ta l w o rk ( Sem enov 1 964 ; K ee ley 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 980 ) ; u se w ea r a na ly s i s ( K ee ley 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 980 ) ; e dge a ng le a na ly s i s ( Kamm inga 1 978 ; F e rgu s s ion 1 980 ) ; e t hnog r aph ic p a ra l le l s( Gou ld 1 968 , 1 971 ; C am e r io 1 979 ) a nd c on s ide r ing t h e e nv i ronm en to ft h es i te i t c an b e t e n ta t ive ly s a id t h a t b u tcher ing , m ea t c u t t ing , w ood c u t t ing , w ood w h i t t l ing , w ood p l ann ing , w ood s h ap ing , w ood w edg ing , h i de s c rap ing , s k in c l ean ing , s l i c ing , b o r ing a nd t h row ing ( m i s s i le ) m igh t h ave b een t h e p r inc ipa l a c t iv i t ie sp e rf o rm ed b yt h e se t o o l s .

( 1 ) V ar iab i l i ty i n t he Quan t i ta t ive C ompos i t ion o f t he A s semb lage : T he l a rge v a r ie ty o f a r tef ac t t y pe s i n e ach p e r iod i n d ica te s t h a t t hough t h ey w e r e u sed f o rd i f f e r en t s u i t s o fa c t iv i t ies a tt h e s i te , i t i s d i ff icu l t t o a s s ign p o s i t ive f unc t ion s t o a r tef ac t s . Mo s tl i ke ly o ne t ype w a sn o tu sed f o ro n e p u rpo se . R a the r a g r ea t d ea l o f o ve r lapp ing b e tween t h e f unc t ion s o fa r tef ac t t y pe s m igh t h ave t a k en p l ace ( Bo rde s a nd B o rde s 1 970 ; P addayya 1 982 ) .

C on s ide r ing a l l t h e se f e a tu r e s i tc an b e s t a t ed t h a t i ng ene ra l t h e re w a s at r end t owa rd s t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h is t r end w a s mo r e p ronounced i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , s p ec ia l ly i n r e spec to ft h e a cqu i s i t ion o fs u i tab le r o ck p i eces f o r t o o lm ak ing .

I ti sm o re d i ff icu l tt oa t t r ibu te f unc t iona l v a r ia t ion s b e tween t wo p er iod s , b ecau se t h e a ppea rance o f n ew a r tef ac t t y pe s o r d i sappea r an ce o f o ld o ne s m ay n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly a c h ange i n a c t iv i t ie s . R a th e r , t h e s am e a c t iv i ty m igh t h ave b een p er f o rm ed b y c l ea r ly d i f f e r en t t o o l t y pe s ( Me l la r s

H oweve r , t h i s t r end d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly a c hange i n t e chn ique s o f t o o l m ak ing . R a the r i t s e em s t h a t i n a l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s s am e

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1 970 ) . T hu s t h e t y po log ica l v a r iab i l i ty o b served b e tw een t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s m ay b e e xp la in ed i n t wo w ay s . E i the r i ti sd ue t ot h e i nf luence o ft wo d i f f e r en t c u l tu r a l t r ad i t ion s o r i tm ay b e d ue t o c hanges i n a c t iv i t ies . F o r i n s tan ce , d i sappea rance o fh andaxes a nd c l eave r si nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic m ay b e d ue t o t h e i nf luence o f t wo c omp le te ly d i f f e r en t c u l tu r e s . I ft h i s a s sump t ion i sv a l id t h en o ne h a s t o a ccep t t h a t t h e t a sk s w h ich w e re b e ing p e rf o rm ed b y h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic w e r e p e r f o rm ed b y o t he r t oo l t ype s s u ch a s l a rge a nd h eavy s c r ape r s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . I n t h i s c on tex t i t i s p a r t icu la r ly r e levan t t o r e ca l l G ou ld ' s ( 1968 : 4 7 ) o b serva t ion t h a t t h e We s te rn A u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ines e f f ec t ive ly b u tche red l a rge a n im a l s ( k anga roo s , e u ro s , emu s ) b y s imp le w ooden w edge s a nd s t one f l ak es . I n a no the r o b se rva t ion o n t h e A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s h e n o tes t h a t " t h e l a rge w ood w o rk ing s c rape r s a r e h and led a nd a r e u sed a s h andaxes o r s c rape r p l an es " ( Gou ld 1 971 : 1 60 -161 ) . I ft h i s a s sump t ion i s n o t v a l id t h en a l ter n a t iv e a s sump t ion , i . e . a c hange i na c t iv i ty , c ou ld b e c on s ide r ed , t h ough t h is s e em sr a th e rw eak .

i nf luence o fd i f f e r en tc u l tu re s .

A s t h e re i s n o i n d ica t ion o f d r a s t ic c hange i n c l im a te d u r ing t h e P l e i s tocen e i np en in su la r I nd ia ( S .N . R a jagu ru , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) i t i s a s sum ed t h a t f l o ra a nd f a una s im i la r t o t h a t o f t o day e x is ted i nt h e B h imbe tka r e g ion t h roughou t t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . S o P a laeo l i th ic p eop le p robab ly e xp lo i ted s im i la r p l an t a nd a n ima l f ood s . B e s id es h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , s i x o t he r t ype s ( a l t er n a te b u r ina te b eak , b i f ac ia l r e touch , p o in t , L eva l lo i s f l ak e c o r e , p r i sma t ic c o r e a nd p y ram ida l c o r e ) a r e a b sen t i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . B u t e ven i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t h e se s i x t ypes o ccu ri n an eg l ig ib le p ropor t ion ( Tab le 1 ) . B e s ide s , o u t o ft h e se s i x , f ou r t ype s a r e c o r e w h ich a r e n o t i mpo r tan t t ype s f r om t h e f un c t iona l p o in t o fv i ew . T h eo the rv a r ia t ion b e tween t h e se t wo p e r iod s i si n t e rm s o f f r equen cy a nd p e rcen tage o n ly . I n t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic 2 1 t y pe s ( b e s ide s h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s ) a r e a b sen t . B u t t h e , a r tef ac t c l a s se s l i ke s i d e s c rape r s , e nd s c r ape r s , b o re r s , k n ives , d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s c on t inue i n t h i s p e r iod . T h e m a jo r d i f f e r ence s b e tween t h i s p e r iod a nd t h e p r eced ing o ne i si nt h e a b sence o f 1 3 t y pe s o fs i de s c rape r s a nd i n t h e p ropo r t ion o f o the r a r tef ac t t y pe s ( Tab le 1 ) . T h is v a r ia t ion m ay b e r e la ted t o c u l tu ra l i n f luence s . S o i tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a t t h e p r e sence o fd i f f e r en t a r tef ac tt y pe s i n ap e r iod m ay b e r e la ted t o d i f f e ren t s u i t s o f a c t iv i t ie s a nd v a r ia t ion b e tween t wo p e r iod s m ay b e d u e t o t h e

T he a na ly se s o f t wo s amp les r evea l s i gn if ican t d i f f e rences b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 i n s i de s c rape r s , n o tches , f l ak e s a nd c h ip s i nt e rm s o fo ne t o t h r ee v a r iab les o f d im en s ion ( Tab le s 2a nd 3 ) . T h i s v a r ia t ion w i th in t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic m ay b er e la ted t of unc t ion .

( 2 ) V ar ia t ion i n T erms o f Me tr ica l V ar iab le s o f A r tef ac t s : D im en s ion i . e . w e igh t , l e ng th a nd b r ead th ; a nd r e touch a ng le a r e a s sum ed t o b e i n f luenc ing t h e f unc t iona l v a r ia t ion i n5 0 a r tef ac t s , ( t hough t h ickne s s i s o n e o f t h e c omponen t s o f d im en s ion , i th a s b een t r ea t ed a s a n i n d ica to r o f r ef inem en t , i . e .t e chno logy ) . T he f r equ ency d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t sa cco rd ing t o w e igh t , l e ng th a nd b r ead th s how s t h a t t h e a s semb lage s i n e ach p e r iod a r e d om ina ted b y l i gh te r , s m a l le ra nd n a r rowe rt oo l s i nt e rm s o fe ach a r tef ac t c l a s s e xcep t f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . H andaxes a nd c l eave r s a r e d om ina ted b y m ed ium s i zed t oo l s . I n o t he r t o o l c l a s ses m ed ium -s ized t oo l s f a l l i n to t h e s e cond c a tego ry . H eav ie r , l a rge r a nd b roade r t oo l s a r e l e ss i n a l l t h e p e r iod s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h i s v a r ia t ion w i th in t h e p e r iod s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h i s v a r ia t ion w i th in c u l tu ra l p er iod m ay b e e xp la ined a sb e ing d u et of unc t iona l i nf luence .

B e tween t wo c on secu t ive p er iod s ( Lowe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , a nd M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ) s i ze v a r ie s s i gn if i can t ly i n s i de s c rape r s , k n ive s a nd t r unca ted f l ak es i nr e spec to fa n umbe ro fv a r iab le s( Tab le s 4a nd 5 ) . I nt h e c a se o f s i de s c r ape r s a nd t r unca ted f l ak e s t h i s v a r ia t ion s e em s t o b e d ue t o mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te ( p r ima ry f o rm ) o ft h e t o o l . F o r i n s tance , t r unca ted f l ake s wh ich s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence w i th r e spec tt oa l l t h e t h r ee v a r iab les o fs i ze b e tween a l l t h e p e r iod s a r e m ade o n 2 0 .00% o fr o ck p i ece s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic O n t h e o t h e r h and i n t h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd t h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic n o ta s i ng le p i ece o f t h i s t y pe i sm ade o n r o ck p i ece . Kn ive s s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . I n t h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic s amp le s i ze i nt h i s c l a s se s i s t oo s m a l l( on ly 3 )t od r aw a ny s t a t is t ica li n f e rence . V a r ia t ion i ss e en i nt h e c a se o fr e touch a ng le t o o whe r e i tv a r ie s f r om 4 0 ° t o> 100 ° i nd i f f e r en t t o o l c l a s se s i n d i f f e r en t p e r iod s . T he l owe s t r e touch

1 05

o fa r t ef ac t s .

a ng le ( 40 ° -45° ) i ss e en i nc l eave r s a nd t h e h ighe s t ( > 100 0)i ns i d e s c rape r sa nd e nd s c rape r s . B a sed o n e xpe r im en ta l w o rk a nd o n e t hnog raph ic a na logy , F e rgu s s ion ( 1 980 : 6 6 -68 ) s t a te s " Each s c rap ing i mp lem en tw i l l h ave a n e dge a ng le o fo ve r 5 5° a nd e ach c u t t ing e dge w i l l h ave a n e dge a ng le b e low 6 0 ° " . T hough tt e s t s s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence i n r e touch a ng le b e tween s om e l a ye r s a nd p e r iod s i n s i de s c rape r s , e nd s c rape r s , t r unca ted f l ake s , d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s , t h e v a r ia t ion i sn o t s o e x t rem e a s t o m ake t h e r e touch a ng le s o f t wo d i f f e ren t l a ye r s /per iod s f a l l i n to d i s t inc t c a tego r ie s i . e . > 55° o r < 60 ° . F o r i n s tance , i n s i de s c rape r s d i f f e r ence i s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t b e tween t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T he m ed ian r e touch a ng le i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i s 7 9 ° w he r ea s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ti s 8 2° . S im i la r ly , i n e nd s c rape r s m ed ian r e tou ch a ng le i s 8 0 ° i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd 7 8° i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . O n t h i s b a s i s a n i n f e rence c an b e d er ived t h a t b o th s c rap ing a nd c u t t ing a c t iv i t ie s w e r e c a r r ied o u t i n a l t h e p e r iod s a nd s o t h e r e m ay n o t h ave b een s i gn if i can t c hange i nt h e a c t iv i t ies d u r ing t h e t h ree P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s . H ow eve r , u se w ea r a na ly s i s m ay t h row s om e mo r e l i gh t o n t h i s a spec t o f P a laeo l i th ic m an ' sb ehav iou r .

( 1 ) Wea the r ing : A r tef ac t s h ave b een w ea the r ed i n v a ry ing d eg ree s i n a l l t h e l e ve l s d ue m a in ly t o w a te rl o gg ing i nt h er o ck s he l te r . T he p e r cen tage o f w ea th e r ed a r tef ac t s g r adua l ly i n c r ea ses f r om t o p t o b o t tom . T he o t h e r f a c to r s m ay b e t h e t y pe o f q ua r tz i te u sed ( C la rk g r ey q ua r tz i te i s m o r e r e s is tan t t o w ea the r ing t h an y e l low i sh q ua r tz i te ) a nd m ic ro e nv i ronm en to fs o i l( f o rd e ta i l ss e eA lam 2 00 1) . ( 2 ) B r eakage o fA r tef ac t s : E ven t h ough t h i s s t udy d oe s n o t a t temp t t of i nd o u t t h e c au se o fb r eakage , t h rough o b serva t ion i t a ppea r s t h a t a g ood p ropo r t ion o f a r tef ac t s a r e t r an sve r sa l ly b rok en . T h i s m ay b e d ue t o t r amp l ing b y t h e a r t if ice r s a nd /o r o ve r b u rd en ( Sch if f e r 1 976 ; S u t ton 1 985 ; P e t rag l ia 1 987 ) . Ah igh p e rcen tag e o fa r tef ac t s a r e l o ng i tud ina l ly b rok en wh ich m ay b e r e la ted t o m anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s ( Su t ton 1 985 ; P e t rag l ia 1 987 ) . ( 3 ) V e r t ica l D i sp lacem en t o f A r tef ac t s : T h is i s i n d ica ted b y t h e p r e sence o f as ma l l p e r cen tage ( 0 .032% ) o f n on -qua r tz i te a r t ef ac t s i n t h e P a laeo l i th ic l e ve l s . I ti s a l so q u i te p o s s ib le t h a t q ua r tz i te a r tef ac t s ( p a r t icu la r ly s ma l l o ne s ) t o o w e r e d i sp laced b o th h o r izon ta l ly a nd v e r t ica l ly . T h e e x ten t o f d i sp lacem en t c an b e a ccoun ted b y c on jo in ing t h e a r tef ac t s . I ta l so s e em s t h a t as m a l l q uan t i ty o fa r tef ac t sm igh th ave b een b rough tt ot h e s h e l te r b y r a in w a te r o r o the r n a tu ra l o r h um an a genc ie s f r om t h e h i ghe r s u rf a ce , p a r t icu la r ly w e s te rn s i de o f t h e s h e l te r . T h i s a s sump t ion i s b a sed o n t h e p r e sence o f v e ry f ew ( n eg l ig ib le a moun t ) mode ra te ly a b raded a r tef ac t s i n t h e s he l te r .

4 . Cu l ture : T he v a r ia t ion s i na r tef ac t sb e tween t h e p er iod s m ay b e d ue p a r t ly t o d eve lopmen t o f t e chno logy a nd p a r t ly t o s ome c u l tu ra l e l em en t s . S ince t h e se p e r iod s r e p r e sen t t h r ee d i f f e r en t c u l tu r es ( Lowe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r ) t h e v a r ia t ion s c ou ld b e s e en a s c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f p a r t icu la r c u l tu ra lp e r iod st oo . T hu s f r om t h e d i scu s s ion i tb ecom e s i n c r ea s ing ly c l ea rt h a tn o s i ng le f a c to ri sr e spon s ib le f o ra r tef ac t v a r ian t s b u t ac omb ina t ion o fa l l f ou r f a c to r s ( s ee C legg 1 977 ) .

F u ture R e search T he s t udy w a s c a r r ied o u tl o ng a go a nd i th ad t ob e c omp le ted w i th in ap r e sc r ibed t im e . S o a l lt h ei d ea s w h ich w e r e i nm ind c ou ld n o t b e m a ter ia l ized d ue t o m any f a c to r s . S o t h i s r e sea r ch w o rk h ad s om e d r awback s wh ich m ay b e s umma r iz ed a sf o l low s :

S i te F orma t ion : A pa r t f r om t h e i nd iv idua l , t e chno log ica l , f unc t iona l a nd c u l tu ra l v a r ia t ion o f t h e a s semb lage s s om e i n f e r ence c an b e d r awn o n t h e f o rma t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i n t h e r o ck s he l te rt h rough t h e a na ly s i s o fs om e mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s . T he se a t t r ibu te s a r e : p hy s ica l c ond i t ion , b r eakage a nd r aw m a te r ia l s .

1 .

T he a na ly s i s o f t h e se a t t r ibu tes h a s r e vea led t h a t t h e s i te i sp r im a ry i nn a tu r e . B u t n o s i te i si nm in t c ond i t ion . I nt h i s r o ck s he l te rt oo s om e d i s tu rbance h ad b een n o t iced . T h i s s e em s t o b e d ue t o ( 1 ) w ea the r ing , ( 2 ) b r eakage , a nd ( 3 ) v e r t ica l i n t ru s ion

2 .

1 06

T hough t h e o b jec t ive o ft h e s t udy i st of i nd o u t v a r ia t ion s i n a l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s f o r e a ch a r tef ac tt y pe b u td ue t oa b sence o fc e r ta in a r tef ac t t y pe s i nt h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i tc ou ld n o tb em ade f o rt h em . D ue t o v e ry s m a l l s amp le s i ze i n e i gh teen a r t ef ac t t y pe s t h e i n te rp re ta t ion m ade f o rt h em o n t h e b a s i s o f d i s t r ibu t ion o ff r equency a nd

3 .

4 .

5 .

t y pe s . T h i s w i l l b e u sef u l f o r c ompa r ing t h e r e su l t sw i th t ho se o f mu l t iva r ia te a na ly s i s . 5 . C lu s te r a na ly s i s c an b e c a r r ied o u t w i th t h e a c tua l o b serva t ion s o ft h e a r tef ac t s f o r t h e 2 1 a r tef ac t t y pe s wh ich c ou ld n o t b e d one o n t h e p e r sona lc ompu te rd ue t ol a rge s amp le s i ze . 6 . F o r m ea su r ing t h e m e t r ica l v a r iab le s l i k e r e touch a ng le , mo r e a dvan ced t e chn iques m ay b eu sed i nf u tu r e s t udy . 7 . A s i ti sa l r eady m en t ioned t h a tc e r ta in t y pe s o f U ppe r P a leo l i th ic t o o l s w e r e a bsen t i n t h e t r enche s E & Fa nd n umbe r o fo t he r t y pe s o f t o o l s w e r e a l so v e ry f ew c ompa r ed t ot h o se o f t h e L ow e r &M idd le P a leo l i th ic p e r iod s s ot h e r e su l t s o f t h e c ompa ra t ive s t udy w a s l e s s r e l iab le . I tc an b e c on s ide red f o r c a r ry ing o u t f u r the r s t udy w i th t h e U ppe r P a leo l i th ic a r t if ac t s o f a l lt h et r enche st h er o ck s he l te r . 8 . We m ea su r ed o n ly t h e l e ng th o fw o rk ing e dge o ft h e a r t if ac t . R ema in ing p o r t ion w a sl e f to u t . B u tt om ea su r et h e w o rk ing p o r t ion o ft h et oo l o ne c an m ea su r e t h e u nwo rked / u n r e touched p o r t ion a l so . T h i s w ay o u r r e sea r che r c an m ea su r e t h e p ropor t ion o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n a r t if ac tb yt h et o ok m ak e r s /u se r s . 9 . T o k now t h e t y pe t e chno log ica l c hanges o ft h e a r t if ac t s i n t e rm s o f t im e a nd s pace c ompa r a t ive a na ly s i s c an b e c a r r ied o u t w i th t h o se o f o the r s im i la r a r chaeo log ica l s i te s i n I nd ia . 1 0 . O u t o ff ou r teen r o ck s he l te r s e xcava ted i nt h e a rea o n ly f ou r h ave y i e lded t h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r a l m a te r ia l . I nt h r ee o ft h em t h e r e a r e l ong g ap s i n t h e c u l tu ra l s equence . D epo s i t s o f t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a r e m i s s ing a nd t h e Me so l i th ic d epo s i t s d i r ec t ly o ve r l ie t h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic d epo s i t s i nt h ese s he l te r s . O n ly i n s he l te r I I F -23 a c on t inuou s s ucces s ion i s s e en . Why w a s t h i s p a r t icu la r r o ck s he l te r s e lec ted f o r o ccupa t ion a l l t h rough t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ? T h i s c an b e s t ud ied f r om t h e s e t t lem en ts y s tem p e r spec t ive .

p e r cen tage i sl e s sr e l iab le . T he r e i so n ly o ne l a ye r i ne a ch o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . S o t h e r e i s l i t t le s cope t o s e e t h e v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e se p e r iod s . R a the r t h is s cope i sw ide ri nt h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod o n ly . I nt h e c a se o fp u rpo s ive ( non random ) s amp le i ti sn o t g ene r a l ly p o s s ib le t og e t s t r ic t ly v a l id e s t ima te s o f t h e s amp l ing e r ro r o r s t anda rd e r ro r ( Mu r thy 1 977 ; M ian a nd M iyan 1 984 ; K o tha r i 1 986 ) . S o t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e t e s t s c ou ld n o tb em ade . S ign if i cance t e s t b e tween a nd w i th in t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod h a s b een m ade w i th r e spec t t o m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o n ly . S im i la r t e s t ( i . e . A na ly s is o f v a r iance , C h i squa r e t e s t ) f o r mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s c ou ld n o t b e d one a s b ecau se t h e i r a s sump t ion s d o n o t f i t h e r e . F o r i n s tance , i n m any a r tef ac t t y pe s o ccu r r ences a r e v e ry f ew ( l e s st h an 3 )a nd i ns om e c e l l s o f t h e f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion t a b le t h e r e i s n o o b serva t ion . I n t h e c a se o f q ua l i ta t ive ( mo rpho log ica l ) d a ta ' p oo l ing ' c an n o t b e a pp l ied .

B u t t h e a u tho r b e l ieve s t h a t t h e r e i sa mp le s cope f o r f u r th e r r e sea r ch a nd d eve lop t h e d i sc ip l ine . T he f o l low ing a spec t s m any b e c on s ide r ed f o r b e t t e r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e d eve lopm en t o f t h e P a leo l i th ic i n du s t ry o f B h imbe tka i n t im e a nd s pace : 1 . T h e a na ly s i s o f t h e m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o ft h e t oo l s a l one i sn o t e nough t o r e con s t ruc t t h e p a s t c u l tu ra l s y s tem s . E xpe r im en ta l a nd u se w ea r s t ud ies o f t h e a s semb lage s w i l l b e h e lpfu l i n r e con s t ruc t ing t h e p r eh i s to r ic b ehav io ra l p a t te rn . 2 . T o d e l inea te t h e n a tu r a l a nd c u l tu ra l f o rm a t ion p roce s se s o pe ra t ing a t t h e s i te i tw ou ld b e n ece s sa ry t o i d en t if y g eo log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l f a c to r s , s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a s semb lage s a nd a t temp t t oc on jo in t h e s t one a r tef ac t s . T o k now t h e g eo log ica l o r g eomo rpho log ica l f a c to r c e r ta in a na ly s i s l i ke s e rv ing m ay b ec a r r ied o u t . 3 . S ign if i cance t e s t s f o r m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s u s ing s om e a dvanced s of twa r e s w i l l h e lp i n a s s ign ing t h e i n t ra a nd i n te r p e r iod v a r iab i l i ty i n mo r ed e ta i l . 4 . Two s amp le s a na ly se s ( Mann Wh i tney U t e s t a nd tt e s t ) c an b e d on e o nt h e b a s i s o fa r tef ac t

C onc lu s ion B h imbe tka , l o ca ted i nt h e V indhya H i l l s 4 5 km s ou th o fB hopa l , c on ta in s t h e m ax imum n umbe r o fr o ck s he l te r s o ft h e a r ea . Ou t o f2 43 s h e l te r s , 1 33 h ave p a in t ing s . E co log ica l s e t t ing o f B h imbe tka s u i t s t h e h un t ing g a the r ing w ay o f l i f e . T h e c l ima te o f B h imbe tka i st r op ica l mon soon a nd t h e h i l l s a r e c ove r ed w i th d en se d ec iduou s

1 07

e l ephan t s a nd u s ing m e ta l w eapon s . T he f i r s t a r e c on s ide r ed p r eh i s to r ic wh i le t h e s e cond a r e o f t h e h i s to r ic p e r iod . T he Me so l i th ic h un te r g a the r e r s o f r o ck s he l te r s c am e i n c on tac t w i th t h e s e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s o f t h e p l a in s . T h i s c on tac t b rough t t o a n e nd n o t o n ly t h e u se o f s t on e t e chno logy a nd t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing w ay o f l i f e b u t a l so t h e c ave d we l l ing a mong t h e p eop le o fB h imbe tka .

f o r e s t a nd s he l te r much w i ld l i f e . A ga in m any t r ee s a nd p l an t si nt h e f o r e s th ave e d ib le f l owe r s , f r u i t s , s e ed s , r oo t s a nd t u be r s . T he re a r e t h r ee p e r enn ia l s p r ing s a nd s eve ra l c r eek s i nt h e a r ea . B h imbe tka t hu s h a s a mp le p rov i s ion f o r a l l t h e b a s ic r equ i r emen t s o fm an — s he l te r , f ood a nd w a te r . T he r e i sn o e v idence t h a tt h e e nv i ronm en t i nt h e p a s t w a s s i gn if i can t ly d i f f e r en t f r om wha t i st oday . P r eh i s to r ic m an t hu sh ad av e ry s u i tab le e nv i ronm en t i n a nd a r ound B h imbe tka . I t i s t h e r ef o re n o s u rp r i se t h a t p r eh i s to r ic m an t ook f u l l a dvan tage o f t h e se f a c i l i t ies a nd i n hab i ted t h e se s he l te r s i nl a rge n umbe r s o ve r ap e r iod o f mo re t h an 1 00 ,000 y ea r s .

T h e p r e sen t s t udy c onf ines t o o n ly P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s o f r o ck s he l t e r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka . T h i s i st h e f i r s t a t temp t t oa s se s s t h e t empo ra lv a r ia t ion i nP a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage si n ap r ima ry c on tex t i nI nd ia . I th a s d ea l t w i th t h e a r tef ac tua l m a te r ia l l e f t b y t h e P a laeo l i th ic p eop le i nr o ck s he l t e rI I F -23 B h imbe tka . I th a s c ove r ed t y po techno log ica l , f unc t iona l , c u l tu ra l a nd s t y l i s t ic , a spec t s o f a r tef ac t v a r ian t s . I th a s a l so t r ea ted t o s om e e x ten t t h e f o rma t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a t t h e s i t e . H oweve r , t e chno log ica l a spec t o f t h e l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s h a s b een e mpha s i sed . T he a pp roach h a s b een q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o fm o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o f a r tef ac t s . S imp le s t a t i s t ic s c anno t a na ly se a l l t h e a t t r ibu te s a nd v a r iab le s a t at im e . T hey g i ve ab road v i ew o f t h e a s semb lage s . V a r iou s t e s t s r e vea l t h e d eg r ee o f v a r ia t ion i n t h e a r tef ac t s w i th in ( b e tween l a ye r s ) a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s , i . e . i n t r a a nd i n te r c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . C lu s te r a na ly se s f o cu s t h e c omb ined e f f ec t o f a l t h e m e t r ica l v a r iab le s a nd af ew s e lec ted v a r iab les w h ich a r e a s sum ed t ob e i n f luenc ing t h e t e chno logy o ft h e a r tef ac t s .

T he a n t iqu i ty o fm an ' s o ccupa t ion i nB h imbe tka h a s b een w e l l a t te s ted b y a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l r e sou r ce s . E xcava t ion s i n an umbe r o f r o ck s he l te r s h ave r e vea led t h e o ccupa t iona l h i s to ry o fm an h e r e f r om L a te A cheu l ian t ot h e b eg inn ing o f h i s to r ica l t im e s . A r t if ic ia l ly m ade s t one f l oo r s w e r e t r aced i n a l l t h e p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion . B e s ides t h e se , A cheu l ian p eop le m ade e nc lo su r e s a l so b y a r rang ing l a rge b ou lde r s o u t s ide t h e s h e l te r a nd Me so l i th ic p eop le b u i l t w a l l s o fs t one b ou lde r s i nt h e c ave p robab ly f o r p a r t i t ion ing t h e c ave i n to c ompa r tm en t s . T he A cheu l ian p ha se i sv e ry w e l l d ef ined , t h e b e s t e v iden ce o f wh ich c om es f r om t h er o ck s he l te rI IF -23 . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r e s a r e n o t s o w e l l r e p r esen ted a s o b se rved i n t h e i r p r eced ing a nd s ucceed ing p ha se s . Du r ing t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod m ax imum n umbe r o f r o ck s h e l te r s w e re o ccup ied , c l ea r ly s how ing t h a t t h e r e w a s a p henom ena l i n c r ea se i np opu la t ion p robab ly d ue t oi n c r ea se i nf ood r e sou r ce s o rn ew i n nova t ion s i nt e chno logy a nd mo r e e ff i c ien t e xp lo i ta t ion o f f ood r e sou rce s o r b o th . T he Me so l i th ic p eop le i n t roduced ac omp le te ly n ew t e chno logy a sw e l l a sn ew t ype o fr aw m a te r ia l i . e . c r yp toc ry s ta l ine s i l ica . T he t e chno logy c on s i s t s e s sen t ia l ly o f m ic ro l i th ic t o o l s w h ich w e r e m ade o n s l ende r m ic rob lade s d e tached f r om c y l ind r ica l c o r e s b y p re s su r et e chn ique . T he m ic ro l i th sw e r em ade b y b lun t ing o ne o r m o r e m a rg in s . T he Me so l i th ic p eop le b u r ied t h e i r b od ie s w i th in t h e r o ck s he l te r s i n t h e l i v ing a r ea s . T he Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s i n t roduced t h e p a in t ing s o n t h e w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s o f t h e r o ck s h e l te r s , w h ich c on t inued t ot h e h i s to r ic p e r iod . T he p a in t ing s a t B h imbe tka m ay b e c l a s s if ied b road ly i n t wo g roup s : o ne d ep ic t ing s c ene s o fh un te r -ga the r e r s a nd t h e o t he r f i gh te r s , r i d ing o n h o r ses a nd

T h e i n f e rence s d e r ived f r om d i f f e r en t a na ly se s a r e b y n o m ean s t ob e t r ea ted a s f i na l c onc lu s ion b u t r a th e r a s i n te rp r e ta t ive s ugge s t ion s . T hese c an b e s umm a r i sed a sf o l low s : 1 .

1 08

T h e r e a r e v a r ia t ion s i na r tef ac t t y pes b e tween t h r ee c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T he v a r ia t ion b e tw een t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i s l e s s a nd b e tween t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i s m o r e . E xcep t f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a nd s i x o t he r m ino r t y pe s t h e r e i sc on s is tency i n a r tef ac t t y pe s b e tween t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . I n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic b e s ide s h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , 2 1 o t h e r t y pe s a r e a b sen t . T h e s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i s s e en i n t e rm s o f f r equency a nd p e r cen tage i n a r tef ac t t y pes i n d i f f e r en t

6 .

T hough t h e o b jec t ive o ft h e s t udy i st of i nd o u t v a r ia t ion s i n a l l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s f o r e ach a r tef ac tt ype b u td ue t oa b sence o fc e r ta in a r tef ac t t y pe s i nt h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod i tc ou ld n o tb em ade f o rt h em . 7 . Due t ov e ry s ma l l s amp le s i ze i ne i gh teen ( s ee t a b le 4 . 1) a r tef ac tt y pe st h ei n te rp r e ta t ion m ade f o r t h em o n t h e b a s i s o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f f r equency a nd p e rcen tage i sl e s sr e l iab le . 8 . T he r e i so n ly o ne l a ye r i ne ach o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . S o t h e r e i s l i t t le s cope t o s e e t h e v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e se p e r iod s , R a the r t h is s cope i sw ide ri nt h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod o n ly . 9 . I nt h e c a se o fp u rpos ive ( non random ) s amp le i ti sn o t g ene ra l ly p o s s ib le t og e t s t r ic t ly v a l id e s t ima te s o f t h e s amp l ing e r ro r o r s t anda rd e r ro r ( Mu r thy 1 977 ; M ian a nd M iyan 1 984 ; K o tha r i 1 986 ) . S o t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e t e s t s c ou ld n o tb em ade . 1 0 . S ign if i cance t e s t b e tween a nd w i th in t h e c u l tu r a l p e r iod h a s b een m ade w i th r e spec t t o m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o n ly . S im i la r t e s t ( i . e . a na ly s i s o f v a r iance , C h i -squa r e t e s t ) f o r mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s c ou ld n o t b e d one a s b ecau se t h e i r a s sump t ion s d o n o t f i t h e re . F o r i n s tance , i n m any a r tef ac t t y pe s o ccu r r ence s a r e v e ry f ew ( l e s s t h an 3 )a nd i ns om e c e l l s o f t h e f r equen cy d i s t r ibu t ion t a b le t h e r e i s n o o bserva t ion . I n t h e c a se o f q ua l i ta t ive ( mo rpho log ica l ) d a ta ' p oo l ing ' c an n o t b e a pp l ied . 1 . T h e s i te i sp r ima ry i nn a tu r e . S om ed i s tu rbance t ook p l ace b y t h e w ea the r ing o fa r tef ac t s d ue t o w a te r l o gg ing i n t h e s h e l te r a nd m ic ro e nv i ronm en t o ft h e s ed im en t s ; b y b r eakage o f a r tef ac t s d ue t ot r amp l ing a nd /o r o ve rb u rden ; b y v e r t ica l a nd p robab ly h o r izon ta l d i sp lacem en t o f a r tef ac t s a nd p e rhap s b y t r an spo r ta t ion o f af ew a r tef ac t s f r om t h e n ea rby h igh e rs u rf ace .

p e r iod s . B u t c on s i s tency i sp r e sen t i na l l t h r ee p e r iod s i n t e rm s o f a r tef ac t c l a s se s e xcep t h andaxes a nd c l eave r s( Tab le 1 ) . 2 . T he a s semb lage s a r e h e te rogeneou s i n a l l t h e l a ye r s a nd i n a l l t h e p e r iod s . T hey a r e d om ina ted b y l i gh te r , s m a l le r , n a r rowe r a nd t h inne r a r tef ac t s i n a l l a r t ef ac t c l a s ses e xcep t h andaxes a nd c l eave r s . H andaxes a nd c l eave r s a r e d om ina ted b y m ed ium -s ized a r tef ac t s . I n g en e ra l , h eav ie r , l a rge r , b roade r a nd t h ick e r a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e i n l a ye r 7o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . S im i la r ly , s u ch a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h an i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n a l a r tef ac t c l a s se s e xcep t b o re r s . B o r e r s a r e h eav ie r , l a rge r a nd b roade r i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t h an i nt h ep r eced ing t wo p e r iod s . 3 . S t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion ( i n s ign if i can t d i f f e r ence ) p r eva i l s i n a l t h e a r tef ac t c l a s se s w i th in ( b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 )a nd b e tween a l lt h e c u l tu ra lp e r iod s . 4 . T he r e w a s as l igh t d eve lopm en t i nt e chno logy w i th in t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 )w h ich h a s t h e l o nges t d u ra t ion o f a l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s . S ign if i can t d i f f e r ence i ns even a r tef ac t t y pe s w i th r e spec t t o t e chno log ica l v a r iab le s i s s ugge s t ive o f t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s i nt im e . I n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h e t r end o f d eve lopm en t s e em s t o b e mo re c oncen t ra ted t owa rd s t h e a cqu i s i t ion o f s u i tab le r o ck p i ece s wh ich i s ac omponen t o f l i th ic t e chno log ica ls y s tem . 5 . D if f e ren t s u i t s o f a c t iv i t ie s l i k e b u tche r ing , m ea t c u t t ing , w ood c u t t ing , w ood wh i t t l ing , w ood p l ann ing , w ood s hap ing , w ood w edg ing , h i de s c rap ing , s k in c l ean ing , s l ic ing , b o r ing a nd t h row ing ( m i s s i le ) m igh t h ave t a ken p l ace a tt h e s i te . S im i la r t y pe o f a c t iv i t ie s p e rhap s t ook p l ace i n a l l t h e p e r iod s . T h e r e d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een a ny m a jo r c hange i n a c t iv i t ie sb e tween t h ep e r iod s .

T ab le 2Ma im Wh i tney U T e s to fS i de S c rape r s S how ing D if f e r ence sB e tween L aye r s . V ar iab le s

L ayer 8&7

6&5

7&6

5&4

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R e touch L eng th N umbe ro fF l ake s S ca r s N umbe ro fR e touch S ca r s

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1 09

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I nva s ivene s s o fR e touch

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References A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M i s ra ( n .d . ) . L ower a nd M idd l e P a laeo l i th ic T ypo -T echno logy o f B h imbe tka : A Morphome t r ic S tud y , P ape r p r e sen ted a tt h e 1 3t h A nnua l C onf e r ence o f I nd ian S o c ie ty f o r P r eh i s to r ic a nd Q ua ter na ry S tud ie s h e ld a t N aga r juna U n ive r s i ty , N aga r juna K unda , D ecembe r2 2 -25 , 1 989 . A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 992 Q uan t i ta t ive C ompo s i t ion a nd F unc t iona l A spec t o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage s o f R ock S he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka . Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 7 (2 ) : 2 1-34 . A lam , M .S . 2 00 1 . P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ie s o fB h imbe tka C en t ra l I nd ia : A Morphome t r ic S tudy . D haka , B ang la A cademy . A lam , M .S . 1 990 . A Mo rphome t r ic S t udy o fP a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ie s o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , u npub l i shed P h .D .d i s se r t a t ion ,D eccan C o l leg e ,P une . A ldende rf e r , M .S . a nd B la shf ie ld , R .K . 1 984 . C lu s t er A na l y s i s S er ie s : Q uan t i ta t ive A pp l ica t ion i n t h e S oc ia l S c ience s : a S AGE U n iver s i ty P aper . L ondon : S age P ub l ica t ion s . A ldende rf e r , M .S ( Ed . ) 1 985 . Q uan t i ta t ive R e search i n A rchaeo logy : P rog r e s s a nd P ro spec t s . N ew Y o rk : S age A cadem ic P re s s . A nde rbe rg , M .R . 1 973 . C lu s te r A na l y s i s f or A pp l ica t ions . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B inf o rd , L .R . a nd S .R . B inf o rd 1 966 . A P re l im ina ry A na ly s i s o fF unc t iona l V a r iab i l i ty i nt h e Mou s te r ian o f L eva l lo i s F a c ie s , Amer ican A n thropo log i s t : R ecen t S tud ie s i nP a laeoan thropo logy p a r t 2 , v o l . 6 8 (2 ) : 2 38 2 95 ( C la rk a nd H owe l lE d s . ) . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 968 . V a r iab i l i ty a nd c hange i nt h e N ea r E a s te rn Mou s te r ian o f L eva l lo i s F ac ie s , N ew P er spec t ive si nA rchaeo logy ,p p .4 9 -60 . C h icago . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 969 . C ommen t s o n " Cu l tu ra l T rad i t ion s a nd E nv i ronmen t o f E a r ly Man " , b y D e smond C o l l in s . C ur ren tA n thropo log y 1 0 (4 ) : 2 97 -299 . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 972 . C on tempo ra ry Mode l B u i ld ing : P a rad igm s a nd t h e C u r r en t S t a te o f P a laeo l i th ic R e sea r ch , i n Mod e l s i nA rchaeo logy , ( D .L . C la rke E d . ) , p p . 1 09 -66 . L ondon : Me thuen . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 973 . I n te ra s semb lage V a r iab i l i ty : T he Mou s te r ian a nd t h e ' F unc t iona l A rgumen t ' , i n T he E xp lana t ion o f C u l ture C hang e : Mod e l s i n P reh i s tory ( Co l in R enf rew E d . ) ,p p . 2 27 -254 . L ondon : D uckwo r th . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 977 . O lo rge sa i l ie D e se rve s Mo r e t h an t h e U sua l B ook R ev iew , i n W ork ing a tA rchaeo logy . ( L .R . B inf o rd E d . ) ,p p . 1 57 -67 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 978 . H i s to r ica l A r chaeo logy : I s i t H i s to r ica l o r A r chaeo log ica l? i n N unam in t E t hnoarchaeo logy ( L .R . B inf o rd E d . ) , p p . 1 4 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 983 . Wo rk ing a t A r chaeo logy : T he

D eba te , A rgumen t s o f R e levance , a nd t h e G ene ra t ion G ap , i n W ork ing a tA rchaeo logy ( L .R . B inf o rd E d . ) p p . 1 57 -67 ,N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B lumen sch ine , J . , S t even A .B . a nd J .D . C la rk . 1 983 . E xcava t ion a nd A na ly s i s o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic A r t if a c t s f r om P a tpa ra , Madhya P rade sh , i n P a laeoenv ironmen t s a nd P reh i s tory i n t h e M idd le S on V a l l ey ( M adhya P rade sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) ( G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) ,p p . 3 9 100 . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . B o rde s , F . 1 96 1 . T ypo log ie Du P a laeo l i th ique A nc ien E t Moycn . B o rdeaux : I mp r imer ie sD e lam s . B o rde s , F .a nd d e S .B o rde s , D . 1 970 . T he S ign if i cance o f V a r iab i l i ty i n P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage s , W or ld A rchaeo logy 2 ( 1) : 6 1 7 3 . B u rge s s , R .J . a nd K .L . K vamme 1 978 . A N ew T echn ique f o r t h e Mea su remen t o f A r t if a c t A ng le s , Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 (3 ) : 4 82 -486 . C ame r io , R .L . 1 979 . T ree F e l l ing w i th t h e S tone A xe : A n E xpe r imen t C a r r ied O u t a mong t h e Y anomamo I nd ian s o f S ou the rn V enezue la , i n E thnog raphy f or A rchaeo log y ( C . K rame r E d . ) , p p . 2 1-58 . N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C la rk , J .D . a nd M .R . K le ind ien s t 1 974 . T e rm ino logy , T ypo logy a nd R aw Ma ter ia l , i n K a lambo F a l l s P reh i s tor ic S i te V o l . I I . C ambr idge : U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C legg . J .K . 1 977 . T he F ou r D imen s ion s o f A r t if a c tua l V a r ia t ion , i n S t one A ge C u l tu ra l Marker s : C hange , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex i ty ( R .V .S . Wr igh t E d . ) , p p . 6 0 6 5 . C anbe ra : A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s . C o l l in s , D .M . 1 969 . C u l tu ra l T rad i t ion s a nd E nv i ronmen t o f E a r ly Man , C u r ren t A n thropo logy 1 0 : 2 67 -316 . C o l l in s , D .M . 1 970 . S tone A r tef a c t s A na ly s is a nd R ecogn i t ion o f C u l tu ra l T rad i t ion s , W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 ( 1) : 1 7 -27 . C o rv inu s , G .K . 1 968 . S t ra t ig raphy a nd G eo log ica l B a ckg round o f a n A cheu l ian S i te C h i rk i -on -P rava ra , I nd ia ,A n thropo s6 3 -64 : 9 21-940 . C rab t ree , D .E . 1 972 . A n I n t rodu c t ion t o F l in t Wo rk ing , i nO cca s iona lP ape r s o ft h eI daho U n ive r s i ty - 2 8 ( E .H . S wan son ,J r . a nd B .R . B u t le r . E d s . ) . P oca te l lo : I d aho . D ibb le , H .L . a nd M .C . B er na rd 1 980 . A C ompa ra t ive S tudy o f B a s ic E dge A ng le Mea su remen t T echn ique , Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 (4 ) : 8 57 -865 . E ver i t t , B .S . 1 980 . T he A na ly s i s o fC on t ingency T ab le s . L ondon : C hapmann & H a l l . F e rgu s s ion , W .C . 1 980 . E dge A ng le C la s s if i ca t ion o ft h e Q u in inup B rook I mp lemen t s : T e s t ing t h e E thnog raph ic A na logy , A rchaeo log y a nd P hy s ica l A n thropo logy i n O cean ia 1 5 ( 1) : 5 6 -72 . G a i l la rd , C . , V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd H . R aghavan 1 985 . A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion a tS i ng i T a lav i n

11

t h e T ha r D e se r t : A P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n 1 981 E xcava t ion , B u l l e t in o f t h e D eccan C o l leg e P o s t G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e4 4 : 1 41-152 . G a i l la rd , C . , D .R . R a ju , V .N . M i s ra a nd S .N , R a jagu ru 1 986 . H andaxe A s semb lage s f r om D idwana R eg ion , T ha r D e se r t , I nd ia : A Me t r ica l A na ly s i s , P roceed ing s o f t h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 2 : 1 89 -214 . G a i l la rd , C . a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 988 . T ypo T echno log ica l C ompa r i son o f Two A cheu l ian A s semb lage s a t R en igun ta , S ou th I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t1 2 : 1 23 132 . G ho se , R . a nd G . R oy 1 964 . AT echno log ica l S tudy o f t h eC leave r so f Mayu rbhan j . Man i nI nd ia 4 0 ( 1) : 5 0 -74 . G ho sh , A .K . 1 966 . T he S tone A ge C u l tur e s o f W e s t B enga l . P h .D .D i s se r ta t ion ,P oona U n ive r s i ty . G ho sh , A .K . a nd D . C haudhu ry 1 989 . O n F lake -B lade E lemen ti nI nd ia .P ura ta t t va 1 9 : 3 1-37 . G ou ld , R .A . 1 968 . C h ipp ing S tone s i n t h e Ou tba ck , N a tura lH i s tory 7 7 (2 ) :4 2 -48 . G ou ld , R .A . 1 97 1 . T he A r chaeo log i s t a s E thnog raphe r : A c a se f r om t h e We s ter n D e se r t o f A u s t ra l ia , W or ld A rchaeo logy 3 :1 43 177 . H ayden , B . ( Ed . ) 1 979 . L i th ic U se -wear A na ly s i s . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s . H i l l , J .N . a nd G unn , J .( Ed s . ) 1 977 . T he I nd iv idua l s i n P reh i s tory : S tud ie s o fV ar iab i l i ty i nS t y le i nP reh i s tor ic T echno log ie s . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . I AR : I nd ian A r chaeo logy -A R ev iew . A nnua l B u l le t in o ft h eA rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ,N ew D e lh i . J aya swa l , V . 1 978 . P reh i s tory o fI nd ia : AS tudy o ft h e P repar ed C ore T echn ique . D e lh i : A gam K a la P raka shan . J aya swa l , V . a nd P .C . P an t 1 973 . S t a t i s t ica l S tud ie s w i th R ef e rence t o T echn ique o f Manuf a c tu r e o fP a laeo l i th ic A r t if a c t s i n R ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy ( Ag rawa l a nd G ho sh E d s . ) , p p . 3 8 -53 . B ombay : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR e sea rch . J o sh i , R .V . 1 976 . Me t r ica l A na ly s i s o f H andaxe s a nd C leave r s f r om C h i rk i -on -P rava ra (We s te rn Maha ra sh t ra , I nd ia ) ,P ura ta t t va 8 :3 12 . J o sh i ,R .V . a nd A .R . Ma ra the 1 977 . C o r r e la t ion A na ly s i s o f H andaxe s a nd C leave r s a nd t h e F unc t iona l I n te rp r e ta t ion , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l l ege R e sear ch I n s t i tu te 3 7 :4 8 -60 . J o sh i , R .V . a nd A .R . Ma ra the 1 985 . A C ompa ra t ive S tudy o f Me t r ica l D a ta o n H andaxe s a nd t h e i r C u l tu ra l I n te rp re ta t ion s , i n R ecen t A d vance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P r eh i s tory ( V . N . M i s ra a nd P .B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 7 7 7 9 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . K amm inga , J . 1 978 . J ourney i n to t h e M ic roco sms : A F unc t iona l A na ly s i s o f C er ta in C la s se s o fP reh i s tor ic A u s t ra l ian S tone T oo l s . P h . D . D i s se r t a t ion , S ydney U n ive r s i ty . K ee ley , L .H . 1 976 . M ic rowea r o n F l in t : S ome E xpe r imen ta l R e su l t s , i n 2 nd I n terna t iona l S ympo s ium o nf l in t , S t a r ing ra 3 :4 95 1 . K ee ley , L .H . 1 977 . T he F unc t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic F l in t T oo l s ,S c ien t if i c Ame r ican 2 37 (5 ) : 1 08 126 . K ee ley ,L .H . 1 980 . E xper imen ta lD e t erm ina t ion o fS tone T oo l U se s : A M ic ro -W ear A na ly s i s . C h icago : T he C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

K enoye r , J .M . a nd J .N . P a l 1 983a . R epo r t o n t h e E x cava t ion a nd A na ly s i s o f a n U ppe r A cheu l ian A s semb lage f r om S ihawa lI ,i nP a laeoenv ironmen t sa nd P reh i s tory i n t h e M idd le S on V a l ley ( M ad hya P rad e sh , N or th C en tra lI nd ia ) ( G . R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) , p p .2 3 -38 . A l lahabad :A b ina sh P raka shan . K enyo r , J .M . , D . Manda l , V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l 1 983b . P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n E x cava t ion s a tt h e L a te P a laeo l i th ic O ccupa t ion S i te a t B ago r IL oca l i ty , i n P a laeoenv ironmen t s a nd P r eh i s to ry i n t h e M idd l e S on V a l ley ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en tra l I nd ia ) ( G . R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) , p p . 17 142 . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . K o tha r i , C .R . 1 986 . R e sear ch Me thodo lo gy : Me thod s a nd T echn ique s . N ew D e lh i : W i ley E a s ter nL im i ted . K nud son , R . 1 979 . D i scu s s ion : F ra c tu re s a nd A ng le s , i n L i th ic U se W ear A na ly s i s( B . H ayden E d . ) , p p . 1 37 14 1 . L ondon : A cadem ic P r e s s . K uma r , A . 1 989 . A Me t r ica l Ana ly s i s o fH andaxe s a nd C leave r s f r om t h e A cheu l ian S i t e a t G angapu r , N a s ik D i s t r ic t , Maha ra sh t ra , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 3 ( 1) : 4 9 6 3 . Ma ra the , A .R . 1 980 . A Me thod f o r D i sc r im ina t ion o f H andaxe A s semb lage s , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e4 0 : 12 116 . Ma son , R .J . 1 967 . A na ly t ica l P rocedu re s i nt h e E a r l ie r a nd M idd le S tone A ge C u l tu r e s i n S ou the rn A f r ica , i n B ackg round t o E vo lu t ion i n Af r ica ( B i shop a nd C la rk E d s . ) , p p . 7 37 -764 . C h icago : T he U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s . Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 977 . P reh i s to r ic A r t o f B h imbe tka , i n P reh i s tor ic Man & H i sA r ti nC en t ra lI nd ia ( V .N . M i s ra E d . ) ,p p . 1 7 -22 . P une : P oona U n ive r s i ty S ouven i r . Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 978 . P reh i s to r ic R ock P a in t ing o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia . P h . D . D i s se r ta t ion , P oona U n ive r s i ty Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 984 . T he P reh i s tor ic R ock P r in t ing s o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra lI nd ia . D e lh i : A bh inav P raka shan . Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 985 . H un te r -ga the re r Way o f l i f e a s D ep ic t ed i n Me so l i th ic R ock P a in t ing s o fC en t ra l I nd ia , i n R ecen t A dvance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 1 77 183 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . Me l la r s , P .A . 1 970 . S ome C ommen t s o n t h e N o t ion o f F un c t iona lv a r iab i l i ty i nS tone T oo lA s semb lage s , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 ( 1) : 7 4 -89 . M ian , M .A . a nd M iyan , M .A . 1 984 . A n I n t roduc t ion t o s t a t i s t ic s . D haka : I d ea lL ib ra ry . M i s ra , V .D . , R .S . R ana , J . D . C la rk a nd R .J . B lumen sch ine 1 983a . P re l im ina ry E x cava t ion sa tt h eS on R ive r S ec t ion a tN ak jha r K hu rd , i nP a laeoenv ironmen t s a nd P r eh i s tory i n t h e M idd le S on V a l ley ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) ( G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) ,p p . 1 0 1115 ,A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . M i s ra ,V .D . ,D . Manda l ,P .S inha a nd J .N . P a l 1 983b . An U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic S u r f a ce C o l lec t ion f r om R ampu r , i n P a laeoenv i ronmen t s a nd P reh i s tor y i n t h e M idd le S on V a l l ey ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) ( G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) , p p . 1 43 160 . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan .

12

R oe , D .A . 1 964 . T he B r i t i sh L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic : S ome P rob lem s , Me thod s o f S tudy a nd P re l im ina ry R e su l t s , P roceed ing s o f t h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s )3 0 : 2 45 -267 . R oe , D .A . 1 968 . B r i t i sh L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic H andaxe G roup s , P roceed ing s o ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 4 : 1 82 . R oe , D .A . 1 973 . T he K a lambo F a l l s L arge C u t t ing T oo l s : A Me t r ica lA na ly s i s . Manu sc r ip t . R ub in , J .a nd H .P . F r iedman 1 967 . A C lu s ter A na ly s i s a nd T axonomy S y s tem f or G roup ing C la s s if y ing D a ta . N ew Y o rk : I n t e rna t iona lB u s ine ss Ma ch ine s . S a l im , M . 1 986 . T he M idd le S tone A ge C u l ture s o f N or thern P ak i s tan . I s lamabad : Q ua id i -Azam U n ive r s i ty . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 956 . A n ima l F o s s i ls a nd t h e P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ie s f r om t h e P rava r a B a s in a t N eva sa , D i s t r ic t A hmednaga r ,A nc ien tI nd ia 1 2 : 3 52 . S ch if f e r , M .B . 1 976 . B ehav iora l A rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . S eman s , C .A . 1 98 1 . A na ly s i s o f A cheu l ian C o l lec t ion f r om P ee ra Nu l lah , N a rmada V a l ley , I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t5 :1 3 -31 . S emenov , S .A . 1 964 . P reh i s tor ic T echno log y( T ran s la ted b y M . W . T homp son ) . L ondon : C o ry ,A dam s & Ma ckay . S ha rma , G .R . a nd J .D . C la rk ( Ed s . ) 1 983 . P a laeoenv i ronmen t s a nd P reh i s tor y i n M idd le S on V a l ley , ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . S i ege l , S . 1 956 . N onparame t r ic S t a t i s t ic s f or t h e B ehav iora l S c ience s . T okyo : I n te rna t iona l S tuden t E d i t ion . S inha , P . 1 984 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o fS a tna D i s t r ic t ( M adhya P rad e sh ) . P h .D . D is se r ta t ion , A l lahabad U n ive r s i ty . S u t ton , S .A . 1 985 . W ar r ragar ra S tone : AT echno log ica l A na ly s i s o fAS tone A r t if ac t A s semb lage sf rom C en t ra l T a sman ia . B .A . ( Hon s . ) T he s i s , N ew E ng land U n ive r s i ty . T r inghum , R .E . , G . C oope r , G . O de l l a nd B . V oy iek 1 974 . E xper imen ta t ion i n t h e F o rma t ion o f E dge D amage : AN ew A pp roa ch t oL i th ic A na ly s i s ,J ourna lo f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 :1 86 197 . Wad ia , D .N . 1 966 . G eo logy o f I nd ia . L ondon : T he E ng l ish L anguage B ook S oc ie ty a nd Ma cm i l lan & C o . L td . Wakanka r , V .S . 1 973 . B h imbe tka E xcava t ion s . J ourna l o fI nd ian H i s tory , L 1 ( 1 ) : 2 3 -32 . Wakanka r , V .S . 1 975 . B h imbe tka T he P reh i s to r ic P a rad i se .P rachya P ra t ibha 3 (2 ) : 7 29 . W i lm sen , E . 1 970 . L i th ic A na ly s i s a nd C u l tu ra l I n f e r ence s : A P a laeo I nd ian C a se . A n thropo log ica l P aper s o f t h e U n iver s i ty o f A r i zona , 1 6 . T uc son : U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P r e s s .

M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P re a nd P ro toh i s to ry o ft h e B erach B a s in , S ou th R a ja s than . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977a . B h imbe tka a nd I t s C ave s , i n P reh i s tor ic Man a nd H i s A r t i n C en t ra l I nd ia ( V .N . M i s ra E d . ) ,p p . 5 9 . P oona : P oona U n ive r s i ty S ouven i r . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977b . P reh i s to r ic C u l tu re S equence o f B h imbe tka , i nP reh i s tor ic Man a nd H i s A r t i n C en t ra l I nd ia ( V .N . M i s ra E d . ) , p p . 1 0 16 . P oona : P oona U n ive r s i ty S ouven i r . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R o ck S he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia - A P r e l im ina ry S tudy ,A u s t ra l ian A rchaeo logy 8 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978b . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock S he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia - A P re l im ina ry S tudy ,P ura ta t t va 8 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 982 . The Evo lu t ion o fB lade E le men t i nt he S tone I ndus tr ies o f Bh i mbe tka , C en tra l I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy : N ew P er spec t ive ( R . K . S ha rma E d . ) ,p p . 7 13 . D e lh i : A gam K a la P raka shan . M is ra , V .N . 1 985 . T he A cheu l ian S ucce s s ion a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nR ecen t A d vance s i nI ndo P ac if i c P reh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -48 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . Muh s in , S .M . 1 985 . F undamen ta l S t a t i s t ic s f or t h e B ehav iora lS c ience s . D e lh i : Mo t i la lB ana ra s ida s . Mov iu s , H .L . J r . , N .C . D av is , H .M . B r icke r a nd R .B . C lay 1 968 . T he A na ly s i s o f C e r ta in Ma jo r C la s se s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s . P eabody Mu seum , H arvard U n iver s i ty B u l l e t in 2 6 . Mu r thy , M .N . 1 977 . S amp l ing T heo ry a nd Me thod s . C a lcu t ta : S t a t i s t ica lp ub l i sh ing S oc ie ty . N aga r , M . 1 983 . E thnoa r chaeo logy o f t h e B h imbe tka R eg ion , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 :6 1 -69 . P addayya , K . 1 982 . T he A cheu l ian C u l ture o ft h e Hunsg i V a l l ey ( Pen insu lar I nd ia ) : A S e t t l emen t P er spec t ive . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s tg radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . P an t , P .C . 1 985 . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t r ie s o f U t ta r P rade sh , i nR ecen t A d vance s i nI ndo -Pac i f ic P reh i s tory ( V . N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 6 6 -72 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . P e t rag l ia , M . 1 987 . S i te F orma t ion P roce s s a tt h e U pper P a laeo l i th ic R ock she l te r a nd H i l l s l ope D epo s i t s i n S ou thern F rance . P h .D . D i s se r ta t ion , N ew Mex ico U n ive r s i ty . R a ju D .R . 1 981 . E ar ly S e t t l emen tP a t tern s i nC uddapah D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rade sh : A P a laeoan thropo log ica l S t ud y . P h .D . t h e s i s ,P oona U n ive r s i ty . R a ju D .R . 1 985 . H andaxe A s semb lage s f r om t h e G un jana V a l ley , A ndh ra P rad e sh : A Me t r ica l A na ly s is . B u l le t in o ft h eI ndo -Pac if i cP reh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion 6 :1 0 2 6 . R a ju D .R . 1 988 . S tone A ge H un te r -Ga the rer s :A nE thno A rchaeo logy o f C uddapah r eg ion . S ou th -ea s t I nd ia . P oona : R av i sh P ub l i she r s .

13

E ar ly Hun ter -Ga therer Adap ta t ions i nt he T irupa t i Va l ley , S ou th I nd ia J a cob S .J aya R a j &S ha ik A bdu l Munaf 1 977b , 1 979a , 1 982a ) , Kor i se t ta r ( 1979 ) h ave c a r r ied o u t p reh is tor ic r e sea rch i n S ou th I nd ia . I n A ndh ra P rade sh , S ounda ra R a jan ( 1952 , 1 958 ) , I s sac ( 1960 ) , Mu r ty ( 1966 , 1 974 , 1 975 , 1 979 , 1 981) , R ao ( 1966 ) , R eddy ( 1968 , 1 976 , 1 978 , 1 980 ) , Mu r ty a nd R eeddy ( 1976 ) , R am i R eddy ( 1968 ) , P inga le ( 1970 ) , R ao ( 1979 ) , S uda r sen ( 1976 ) , J osh i ( 1979 ) , S ingh ( 1979 ) , R ao ( 1979 ) S ingh ( 1979a , 1 979b ) , P raka sh ( 1981 , 1 981a ) , R a ju ( 1981) , N a seem ( 1981) , a nd K a s tu rba i ( 1982 ) h ave d one s i gn if ican t wo rk s .

I n troduc t ion T he o r ig in s o f p reh is to r ic r e sea r ch i n I nd ia d a te b ack t o 1 863 when R obe r t B ruce F oo te d i scove red t h e f i r s t P a laeo l i th a t P a l lava ram n ea r Mad ra s ( Chenna i ) ( Foo te 1 866 ) . S ince t h en a n umbe r o f s cho la r s : - F oo te ( 1984a , 1 984b , 1 985 , 1 914 , 1 916 ) ; C amm iade ( 1924 , 1 926 , 1 927 ) , C a tnm iade a nd B u rk i t t ( 1930 ) , K r ishna swamy ( 1938 , 1 947 , 1 953 ) , J osh i ( 1955 ) , S eshad r i ( 1956 ) , An sa r i ( 1970 ) , Swam i ( 1976 ) , P appu ( 1974 , 1 981) , S ub rahmanyam ( 1975 ) , P addayya ( 1976 , 1 977a , T he S tudy A rea T IRUPAT

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e a s ter n t o t h e n o r the r n b o rde r . G eo log ica l f o rma t ion s ( f ig . 3 )o ft h is a r ea c on s is t o fA rchean s , E pa rchean u nconf o rm i ty , P u rana s a nd Qua ter n a ry d epos i t s wh ich a r e c on s ide red t o b e t h e a nc ien t mo s t l a nd f o rma t ion s i n t h e w o r ld . T he m a in s o i l t ype i sr ed s andy l o am . T he v a l ley i sd ra ined b yt h e Swar n amukh i ( o r ig ina t ing i n t h e Ad ineyapa l l i r e served f o r es t a t 7 50 m AMSL ) a nd f l ow ing i n n o r thea s ter ly d i rec t ion i n to t h e B ay o f B enga l a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies t h e K a lyan i , t h e Konamadugu , t h e R a l laka lava , t h e I s ukaka lava , B h ima ,

T he r e sea rch w ork h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i n t h e T irupa t i V a l ley ( f ig . 1 )o fC h i t too r d i s tr ic t , Andh ra P radesh a nd s ubm i t ted t ot h e P oona Un ive r s i ty f o r t h e a wa rd o fP h .D . D eg ree i n 1 983 ( J aya ra j 1 983 ) . T irupa t i V a l ley l i es b e tween 1 3° 3 0 ' a nd 1 3 ° 4 5 ' N l a t i tude a nd 7 9° 1 6 ' 7 9° 4 5 ' El ong i tude a nd c over s a n a r ea o f 8 00 s q . km . I t i s b o rde red b y t h e S eshacha lam o r P a lakonda h i l l r ange s ( popu la r ly k nown a st h eT irupa t i h i l ls , ( f ig . 2 )t ot h e n o r th a nd t h e V e l ikonda s t o t h e w es t . T he S anamba t la ; t h e N aga r i a nd t h e S r ika laha s t i r anges e x tend f r om t h e

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T he Me thodo logy E xp lo ra t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u t a l ong t h e f oo th i l l s , s t r eam s , l a ke s , a nd t h e p l a in a r ea s t o l o ca te t h e S t one A ge s i t es . P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s l o ca ted i nt h e a r ea a r e m apped a cco rd ing t o t h e i r t o pog raph ica ll o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . S tone A ge c u l tu r a l a r tef ac t s a r e a na ly sed i nt e rm s o f t y po techno log ica l m e thod s . T h i s i sp r e sen ted q ua l i ta t ive ly a nd q uan t i ta t ive ly b y r e so r t ing t o d e sc r ip t ive , s t a t i s t ica la nd g r aph ica lp r e sen ta t ion s . E thnog raph ic a na logy h a s b een u sed f o r t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f S t one A ge h un te r -ga the r e r s e conomy . D a ta o n t h e e t hnog r aphy o ft h e Y anad i s l i v ing i n t h e r e g ion h a s b een c o l lec ted b y p a r t ic ipan t o b serva t ion s , i n t e rv iew s a nd g roup d i scu s s ion s . A l o t o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta o n t h e

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T he a im s o ft h i sw o rk a r e t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion i n t h eT irupa t iv a l ley w i th t h eh e lp o ft h e l o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s

15

Y anad i sh a sb een c o l lec ted f o rm s e conda ry s ou r ce s ( Raghav iah 1 962 ) . S i te sa nd S tra t igraphy P r ev iou s a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s i n C h i t too r d i s t r ic t ( Mu r ty 1 966 , 1 968 , 1 970 ) h ad b rough t t o l i gh t s t one a ge o ccupa t ion s —b o th s u r f ace a nd s t r a t if i ed — b e long ing t oL owe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e s . T he r aw m a te r ia l su sed f o rt h ea s semb lage so ft h e se c u l tu r e s a r e c oa r se t o m ed ium g r a in ed q ua r tz i te f o r t h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic , c oa r se t of i ne g ra ined q ua r tz i te f o r t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd f i ne g ra ined q ua r tz i te a nd t os om ee x ten tl y d ian i te f o rt h eU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic . T he Me so l i th ic a s semb lage s a r e p r edom inan t ly o nq ua r tz , wh ich i s a l so t h e c h ief r aw m a te r ia l a t s eve ra l s i te s e l sewhe r e o n t h e s ou th -ea s t c oa s t o fI nd ia ( Mu r ty 1 966 ; R eddy 1 968 ; a nd R a ju 1 981) . T he e v idence f r om t h e T irupa t i v a l ley c o r robo ra te s t h e se e a r l ie r o b se rva t ion s .

F ig . 6 : P a laeo l i th ic o ccu r r ence G u rava ra jupa l l i , C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

E xp lo ra t ion s c a r r ied o u t d u r ing t h i s s t udy r e su l t ed i n t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f p r ima r i ly s u rf ac ia l P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i n t h e T i rupa t i v a l ley . 1 6 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 1 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , t h r ee U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , t wo E p i P a laeo l i th ic a nd f i ve Me so l i th ic o ccu r r en ce s h ave b een l o ca ted ( f ig . 1 ) . B a sed o n t h e l o ca t ion a nd o ccu r r ence o f t h e s i te s t h ey a r e d i v ided i n to ( 1 ) F oo th i l l s i tes ( f ig . 5 )( 2 ) L ak e s ide s i tes ( F ig . 6 )( 3 ) S t r eam s ide s i te s ( f ig . 7 )( 4 ) H i l l s lope S i te s ( f ig . 8 ) ( 5 )P la in land s i tes ( f ig . 9 ) .

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T o a s ce r ta in t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o f t h e i n du s t r ies a s e c t ion h a s b een t ak en a t t h e P adm ava th i Wom en 's C o l lege ( f ig s . 7 ,1 0 ) a nd a

F i g . 8 : Me so l i th ic o ccu r r ence a t L ocu s I V . 1 , n ea r O t t imanugu t ta ,4 km S ou thwe s to fR en igun ta ,C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

s m a l l e xcava t ion w a s c onduc ted a t S i ta rampe t ( F ig s . 1 , 1 2 ) , aL owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic w o rk shop -cum -hab i ta t ion s i te .

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F ig . 1 2 : L ocus I . 1 , A l a te A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic o ccur r ence a tS i ta rampe t , 5km f r om R en igun ta , C h i t too rd i s tr ic t

T he L owe rP a laeo l i th ic ( f ig s . 1 3 , 1 4 ) i sr ep re sen ted a t 1 8 l o c i a nd 2 2 s c a t te r s b y 2 300 ( 23 .34% ) s pec im en s . T hese a r e c l as s if i ed a s s haped ( 5 37 :23 .34% ) a nd s imp le ( 1763 :76 .65 % ) a r tef ac t s . T he s haped a r tef ac t s c omp r ise h andaxe s ( 70 -10% ) ,

, n ea r T TD , D a iry f a rm , F i g . 1 0 : S t ra t ig raphy a t L ocu s 15 T irupa t i

s i de s c raper s ( 1 1 .35 % ) a nd e nd sc rape r s ( 2 .97% ) . T he s imp le a r tef ac t s a r e c o res ( 10 .55 % ) , f l akes ( 89 .45 % ) a nd s t one h ammer s ( 7 ) wh ich a r e n o t i n c luded w i th in t h e f r equency a nd p e rcen tages . T he r aw m a ter ia l i s a c oa r se t o m ed ium -g ra ined q ua r tz i te wh ich i sa bundan t ly a va i lab le i nt h e f o rm o fp ebb les a nd n odu les i nr i ve r a nd s t ream b ed s a s

P a laeo l i th ic Cu l tures T he L ower P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion o ccu r s i nv a r ied t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing s : t h e f oo t h i l l z ones , a nd i n t h e v i c in i ty o fn a tu ra l p ond s , l a k es ides a nd s t ream s i de s , a nd o n t h e l ow p l a in a r eas w i th as c rub a nd t h o rny t h icke tc ove r .

17

w e l l a s i n q ua r tz i te o u t c rop s . T h e t o o l s a r e b a s ica l ly w o rk ed w i th c y l ind e r h amm e r t e chn iqu e h ave s ymm e t r ica l o u t l in e s , s t r a igh t p rof i le s a nd b i convex t ol e n t icu la r c r o s s s e c t ion s . T h e m a jo r i ty o fh andax e s a r e o va l s h aped a nd s om e o ft h em a r e p o in t ed w i th s ha rp c u t t ing e dg e s a l a l ong t h e p e r iph e ry . T h in b u t t s w e r e p r obab ly m ean t t o f a c i l i ta t e t h e h af t ing o f h andaxe s a s s p ea rh ead s ; p o in ted t i p s b u t t h ick p ebb le b u t t s w e r e p robab ly u sed f o rd i gg ing r oo t s a nd t u be r s . T echno log ica l ly t h e A cheu l ian i n du s t ry o f t h e T i rupa t i V a l ley i s m o r e a dvan ced t h an t h e i n du s t r ie s o f C h i rk i N eva sa a nd H un sg ia nd c an b e a s c r ibed t ot h eL a t e A ch eu l ian o f t h e T i rupa t i -R en igun ta -Gun jana C omp lex .

s ugge s t ive o fd if e r en ta c t iv i t ie sa st h ey c om e f r om t h e s am e s i t e i nt wo d i f f e r en tm ic ro -env i ronm en ta l n i ch e s , r e f lec t ing t h e m od e s o f e xp lo i ta t ion a nd p r ocu r em en to fp l an ta nd m ea tf o od s .

F ig . 1 3 : H andaxe s

F ig . 1 5 : B lade ( 1 ) , B lad e S c rape r( 2 ) , B a ck ed b lade ( 3 ) , P o in ted b l ade ( 4 ) , B lade t oo l ( 5 ) , B lade p o in t s ( 6 ) , B u r in ( 7 ) , C o r e s ( 8 ) , B rok en b l ad es ( 9 ) ,b a ck ed b l ade ( 10 )

T he M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o ccu r r en ce s ( F ig . 1 5 ) b e long t o 1 l o c i a nd 1 5 c l u s t e r s a nd a moun t t o 1 471 s p ec im en s , t h e s e a r e c l a s s if i ed a s s h aped ( 3 62 :24 .61 % ) a nd s imp le ( 1 109 :7 1 .39% ) a r t ef a c t s . T h e s h aped a r tef a c t s c omp r i se m in ia tu r e h andaxe s ( 1 .63% ) , c l eave r s ( 0 .40% ) , s i d e s c rape r s ( 1 4 .62% ) , d en t i cu la te s ( 1 .76% ) , e nd s c r ape r s ( 0 .88% ) , e nd c um s id es c rape r s( 0 .63% ) ,n o tch e s( 0 .67% ) ,p o in t s ( 0 .33% ) , b o r e r s ( 0 .67% ) . T h e s imp le a r tef ac t s a r e f l ak e s ( 5 4 .53% ) , a nd c h ip s ( 1 1 .09% ) . T h e f l ak e b l ank s a r e p rodu ced f r om p r epa r ed c o r e s ( 9 .80% ) , w i thou t f a ce ted p l a tf o rm a s w e l l a s f r om s imp le c o r e s . M in ia tu r e h andaxe s a nd p o in t s o n c o r e s

F ig . 1 4 : C leave r s

Me t r ica l a na ly s i s o f h andaxe s f r om e i gh t l o c i s ugge s t s t wo d i s t in c t A ch eu l ian c l a s se s : T h e f i r s t o n e h a s ap r edom inan ce o fo va l shaped h andaxe s w i th c u t t ing e dge s a l l a r ound t h e p e r iph e ry a nd i s r e p r e sen ted b y L ak e s id e a nd s t r eam s id e s i t e s . T h e s e cond c a tego ry i s d i s t ingu i sh ed b y b o th o va l s h aped h andax e s a nd i mp lem en t s w i th h eavy b u t t s a nd b road w o rk ing e nd s , a nd i s r e p r e sen ted a t f o o th i l l s i t e s ( f ig . 1 4 ) . T h e se t wo c l a s se s a r e

18

r e vea l t h in a nd s ha l low s c a r s a nd b i f ac ia l r e touch , s ugge s t ing t h e c on t inu i ty o f L a te A cheu l ian b i f ac ia l t e chn ique s i n ar ef ined f o rm . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry i nt h e T irupa t i v a l ley d i sp lay s c l o se a ff in i ty t o q ua r tz i te b a sed i ndu s t r ie s i n d i f f e r en tr i ve rb a s in s o ft h e s ou thea s t c oa s t l i ke t h e S ag i le ru , t h e P enne r , t h e Gun jana , t h e P a leru a nd t h eG und lakamma . Cu

T h e e v iden ce f o r t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 1 6 ) a nd E ip -Pa laeo l i th ic c om e s f r om f i ve l o c i a nd 1 3 s c a t te r s . T he i n du s t ry c omp r i se s 2 342 s pec im en s w h ich i n c lude s ( 4 12 : 1 5 .59% ) s haped a nd ( 1930 : 8 2 .41 % ) s imp le a r tef ac t s . T he s haped a r tef ac t s i n c lude n i ne t y pes , s i de s c r ape r s ( 4 1 .09% ) , d en t icu la te s ( 2 .18% ) , n o tche s ( 5 .82% ) , k n ive s ( 24 .25% ) , b ack b l ade s ( 9 .45% ) , c r e scen t s ( 17 .03% ) , b ur in s ( 7 .76% ) , b o r e r s ( 0 .97% ) , a nd p o in ted b l ade s ( 1 .45% ) . T he s imp le a r tef ac t s a r e c o r e s ( 1 5 .44% ) , b l ade s ( 3 3 .38% ) , i n c lud ing c omp le te b l ade s ( 12 .12% ) , a nd b roken b l ade s ( 2 3 .16% ) , a nd m ic rob lades ( 1 .54% ) , wh ich a l so i n c lude c omp le te t y pe ( 0 .25% ) , a nd b roken t ype ( 1 .29% ) , f l ake s ( 37 .56% ) , a nd c h ip s( 10 .15% ) . T he i ndu s t ry i s b a sed o n b l ade t o o l t e chno logy a nd c on s i s t s p r edom inan t ly o f s c rape r s a nd b ack ed v a r ian t s m ade o n f i ne -g r a in ed q ua r tz i te a nd l y d ian i te .

60

:

F ig . 1 6 : M ic rob lade p o in t( 1 ,2 ) , B lade t o o l( unnumbe r ed )

V a r iou s t ypes o f s c rape r s a r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een u sed f o r p roce s s ing w ood , h ide a nd b one f o r m ak ing h af t s a nd w ooden i mp lem en t s . T h e b ack ed t ypes w e re p robab ly u sed a s c ompo s i te t o o l s f o r b a rbed a r rowhead s , h a rpoon s , s l ice r k n ives a nd i n ser t s f o rf i sh h ook s . T he p r edom inance o fb acked p o in t s i nU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , v i ewed i nt h e c on ten t o f c en t ra l I nd ian Me so l i th ic r ock p a in t ing s , c o r robo ra tes t h e a bove m en t ioned o b serva t ion .

Me so l i th ic Cu l ture s T he e v idence f o r Me so l i th ic ( f ig . 1 7 ) c om e s f o rm f i ve l o c i a nd 1 4 s c a t te r s . T he se a r e l o ca ted o n t h e

h i l l s l ope s a s w e l l a s t h e p l a in s o ft h e v a l ley a nd a r e c l o se r t ot h e S wa rnamu ldü r i ve r t h an t h e s i tes

2 C

F i g . 1 7 : M ic ro l i th s

19

3

4

o f v a r iou s P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re s . T hey o ccu r o n p a tche s o fu ncu l t iva ted l a nd i nt h e t ho rny t h ick e t j ung le w i th g ra s s c ove r a nd o n s t r e tche s o fb a r r en r o ck s u rf aces .

h ook s . T h e Y anad i s a r e a dep t a tg a the r ing r oo t s , t u be r s , y am s , d i f f e r en t e d ib le l e ave s a nd av a r ie ty o f f r u i t s . T h ey a l so e ar n m oney b y s e l l ing m ino r f o r es t p roduce a nd n ow a nd t h en t h ey a l so b a r te r t h e se i t em s f o rr i ce .

T h e i n du s t ry c omp r i se s at o ta l o f2 297 s pec imen s o f wh ich 3 22 ( 14 .32% ) a r e s haped t o o l s a nd 1 975 ( 8 5 .98% ) a r e s imp le a r tef ac t s . T h e s haped a r tef ac t s o f m ic ro l i th s i n c lude r e touched b l ade s ( 5 .74% ) , t r unca ted b l ades ( 3 .68% ) , b lun ted b ack b l ade s ( 47 .14% ) , b lun ted a nd o b l iqu e r e touched b l ade ( 4 .92% ) , p o in t s ( 14 .34% ) a nd c r e scen t s ( 24 .17% ) . S im i la r ly s haped t o o l s o nf l ake si n c lude s i ng le s i de s c rape r( 56 .40% ) , d oub le s i d e s c rape r ( 7 .69% ) a nd s c rape r ( 10 .25% ) , d en t icu la te ( 7 .42% ) , n o tch ( 5 .13% ) , k n if e ( 6 .42% ) a nd b ur in ( 7 .69% ) . T he s imp le a r tef ac t s i n c lude c o r e s ( 2 3 .53 % ) , f l ak e s ( 14 .31 % ) ,b l ade s( 3 3 .99% )a nd c h ip s( 28 .16% ) . T he Me so l i th ic i n du s t ry i sp r edom inan t ly o f an on g eome t r ic t ype a nd i s s t r ik ing ly s im i la r t o t h e q ua r tz m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie so ft h es ou thea s tc oa s t .

F i g . 1 8 : T he Y anad i s e t t lemen t s i n f r on t o f t h e P a la eo l i th ic o ccu r r en ce n ea rY e rpedu ,C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

E thnoarchaeo logy o fY anad i E thnoa rchaeo log ica l w o rk h a s b een c a r r ied o u t o n t h e Y anad i s i nhab i t ing i n a nd a r ound T iruap t i v a l ley i n as im i la r m anne r t o Mu r ty ( 1978 -79 , 1 981) , Mur ty a nd S on the im e r ( 1980 ) a nd R a ju ( 1981 ) . T he i r s e t t lem en t s a r e l o ca ted j u s t i n a nd a r ound t h e s am e s i te s wh ich m igh t h ave b een o ccup ied b y t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s ( f ig s . 1 8 , 1 9 ) . T h is e t hnog raphy f o r a r chaeo logy h e lped al o t i nu nde r s tand ing t h e e t hnog raph ic p a r a l le l s a nd a na log ie s w i th t h e p r eh i s to r ic s ub s i s tence a nd a dap ta t ion p a t ter n s o f t h i s r eg ion . T he Y anad i s o f t h i s r eg ion p r ac t ice t r ad i t iona l h un t ing , g a the r ing , f i sh ing a nd f ow l ing a c t iv i t ie s . B ecau se o f c on tac t s w i th t h e n e ighbou r ing v i l lage s a nd u rban a r ea s Y anad i s a r e a l so w o rk ing a s a g r icu l tu r a l l a bou r e r s a nd a s w a tchm en i n t h e f i e ld s o f a g r icu l tu r i s t s . Y anad is l i ve i n t r ad i t iona l c i rcu la r h u t s ( f ig . 1 9 ) w i th c on ica lr oof sm ad eo fp l an tm a te r ia l s .

F ig . 1 9 : Y anad i s t and ing i nf r on to f ac on ica l h u tn ea r Y e rpedu , C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

T he Y anad i s a r e v e ry f am i l ia r w i th d i f f e r en t v a r ie t ie s o fm ed ic ina l p l an t s a nd t h e i r a pp l ica t ion s . T he Y anad i m ed ic ine m an t r ea t s v a r iou s d i sea se w i th t h ea va i lab le m ed ic ina lp l an t si nt h e i rh am le t s . T hey h ave a c omp le te k now ledge o f t h e f l o r a , f auna a nd e nv i ronm en ta l c hange s o f t h i s r eg ion . T he e t hnog raph ic s t udy o ft h eY anad i s g ive s av e ry g ood u nde r s tand ing o f h ow t h e P r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s i nhab i t ing t h e T i ruap t i v a l ley a r ea w a s e xp lo i t ing t h e f l o ra a nd f a una o f t h e r eg ion . E thnoa r chaeo logy o f t h e Y anad i s p rov ide s e xce l len t a na log ie s f o rp r ed ic t ing t h e w ay o fl i f e a t l e a s t d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic t im e s .

T he Y anad i s l i v ing i n t h i s a r ea h ave v e ry g ood l o ca l k now ledge a bou t t h e i r s u r round ing s p a r t icu la r ly o fm ed ic ina l p l an t s a nd a n ima l s w h ich a r e i mpo r tan t f o r t h e i r s ub s i s tence . E ven t h ough h un t ing i s p roh ib i ted Y anad i s h un t s ma l l g am e p a r t icu la r ly r abb i t s , s qu i r re l s , p o r cup ine s , w i ldca t s , r a t s , mon i to r l i za rd s , b and icoo t s a nd l a ngu r monk ie s . T hey a l so c a tch a v a r ie ty o f b i rd s . Y anad i s f i sh f o r av a r ie ty o ff r e sh w a te r f i sh u s ing d i f f e r en t m e thod s l i k e f i sh t r ap s , w i r e s , n e t s a nd

1 2 0

i n t r in s ic i n te rp r e t ive p o ten t ia l t h a t l a rge ly h a s g one u nexp lo r ed . S u r f ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena n e i the r d epend s u pon n o r d e r ive s f r om c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f s ub su rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena ( Ebe r t 1 992 ) . My s t if y ing s ub su rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p a t ter n s c an b e c l a r if i ed o n ly a f t e r a n e xhau s t ive s t udy o f t h e s u rf ace ma te r ia l . I n te rp re t ive p o ten t ia l o f s u rf ace p h enom ena i s a f f ec ted b yt h e d eg r ee t o wh ich t h e i ro r ig in s c an b e a s cer ta ined r e l iab ly ( Lewa r ch a nd O 'B r ien 1 981 :298 ) . I fi ndeed t h e r e a r e l im i ta t ion s i n t h e i n te rp r e t ive v a lue o f s u rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena , t h en t h o se l im i ta t ion s n eed t o b e d emon s t r a ted a na ly t ica l ly r a the r t h an s imp ly a s sum ed .

S cope f o rf ur ther R e search w ork i nt he T irupa t i V a l ley : B yk eep ing i nm ind t h e n a tu r e a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fp r eh i s to r ic s i te s i nt h e T irupa t i V a l ley o ne c an c a r ryou t f u r the r r e sea r ch w o rk b y f o l low ing mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry a pp roache s a nd b y a pp ly ing a dvanced a r chaeo log ica l ( Loy 1 993 ; F i ede l 1 996 ; H a rdy 1 997 ; H iscock a nd C la rk son 2 000 ; R enf rew a nd B oy le 2 000 ; F ann ing a nd H o ldaway 2 00 1 , McNabb e t a l . 2 004 ) a nd e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l ( Dav id a nd K ram e r 2 00 1 ; K imu ra e t a l . 2 001 ) r e sea r ch m e thod si n c lud ing t h ew o rk d one o ns e to f a r tef ac t v a r iab le ( i . e . a r tef ac t s i ze , d i s t r ibu t ion , a r tef ac t r ound ing , p a t ina t ion , w ea th e r ing ) ( Paddayya a nd P e t rag l ia 1 993 ) . A r tef ac t r ef i t t ing w o rk c an b e c a r r ied o u tt oe xam in e t h e m ean ing o f p a t te rn s o n h o r izon ta l s u rf ace s a nd s equen ce s o f l i th ic r e duc t ion.

I ti sb e l ieved t h a t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s n ow b u r ied w e r e o nce s u rf ace s c a t te r s ( Dunne l l a nd D ancey 1 983 ) . A s e t hnoa r chaeo logy o f h un te r -ga the r e r s p roved t h a tt h e i rc amp sa r e s pa t ia l ly e x ten s ive e ven t hou sand s o f s qua r e m e te r s ( Ye l len 1 977 ; O 'Conne l l 1 987 )a nd e xcava t ion so ft h i sm agn i tude a r e b eyond t h e s cope o f mo s t a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch ( Fann ing a nd H o ldaway 2 001) . I n t h i s s i tua t ion a r chaeo log i s t s a r e t u rn ing t o s u rf ace a r t if ac t s c a t te r s a s aw ay o f a s se s s ing h um an i mpac t a tt h e l a nd scape l e ve l b ecau se s uch s c a t te r s a r e t h e mo s t u b iqu i tou s p a r t o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i nm any p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld ( Su l l ivan 1 998 ; R o s s igno l a nd Wand sn ide r 1 992 ) . I n t h i s c on tex t S u rf ace A r chaeo logy i st h e a l te rna te w ay f o ry oung s cho la r s p u r su ing P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i n t h e 2 1' c en tu ry i nI nd ia .

M ic rowea r a na ly s i s wh ich w i l l h e lp t o k now t h e a spec t s o f t oo l f unc t ion , s ub s i s t ence a nd a c t iv i ty c an b e a pp l ied , t o u nde r s tand ing P l e i s tocene p a la eoeco logy a nd h om in id b ehav iou rw o rk c an b e c a r r ied o u t a s w a s d one b y M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru ( 1989 ) . E xcava t ion s o ft h e C ave s i t e s d i scove r ed i n t h i s a r ea c an b e c onduc ted f o r d e ta i led s t ud ie s l i ke t h a t o f ( M i s ra 1 973 , 1 978b ; Mu r ty 1 974 ; R eddy 1 976 ) . S i te f o rma t ion r e sea r ch c an b e d one , a sh a s b een e x ten s ive ly d one b y S . P appu ( 1 997 , 1 999 , 2 00 1a ,2 001b ,2 004 )a tA t t i r ampakkam . I fw e s e e t h e n a tu r e t ype o f S t one A ge s i t e s i n A ndh ra P rade sh ( Mu r ty 2 003 ) , mo s t o f t h e p a laeo l i th ic a nd m e so l i th ic s i t e s a r e s u r f ace s i te s ( 3 60 , 8 1% ) . S t ra t if ied s i te s a r e f ew ( 69 , 1 5% ) ( Lowe rP a laeo l i th ic : S u rf ace s i t e s -103 , S t ra t if i ed — 2 4 , R ive r b ed -5 , R ive r b ank 1 , T e r race -7 s i te s ; M idd le P a laeo l i th ic : S u r f ace s i t e s -139 S t ra t if i ed — 2 6 s i te s ; U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic : S u rf ace s i t es -61 , S t ra t if i ed -13 s i te s ; Me so l i th ic : S u rf ace s i te s -57 , S t ra t if ied -6 ) . Among t h e se v e ry f ew h ave b een e xcava ted .

A cknow ledgemen t s We a r e v e ry g ra tefu l t o P rof . V .N . M i s ra f o r h i s g u idance a nd c on t inuou se ncou ragem en t . We t h ank P rof s . M .L .K . Mu r ty a nd D .R . R a ju f o r t h e i r s ugge s t ion s ; t o D r . A lok K anungo , D r . S hah ida An sa r i , S t af f a nd L ib r a r ian o f D eccan C o l lege , P une f o rt h e i rc oope ra t ion .

I nt h i sc on tex tw ec an o p tf o r' s u r f ace a r chaeo logy ' a sa na l ter n a t ive a si ti sr i gh t ly p o in ted o u tb yA lan P . S u l l ivan I I ( 1998 ) t h a t " B ron i s law Ma l inow sk i 's ( 1926 ) h igh -qua l i ty f i e ldwo rk , o r " Open -a i r a n th ropo logy" b oo s te r i sm w ou ld s e em a pp rop r ia te t oday f o r t h e s t udy o f s u rf ace s i tes ( a rchaeo logy ) a nd i t s i n te rp r e t ive p o ten t ia l . A n th ropo log ica l A rchaeo log i s t s t y p ica l ly e xam ine v a r iab i l i ty i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a nd a s se si t s i mp l ica t ion s f o r i n f e r r ing a s pec t s o f t h e c u l tu ra l p a s t . S u rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena h ave

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T ab le 1 :T ab le s how ing c l a s s if i ca t ion o fs i te s , L ocu s , S ca t te r s , L oca t ion o fl o c i o r s i te s , T ype s , o fa r t ef a c t s c o l le c ted f r om T i ru a t iV a l l : P reh i s tor ic Cu l ture s( ar t if ac t s ) S l . C la s s if ica t ion L ocu s S ca t ter L oca t ion o ft he S i te N o . o fs i te s L ocu s I S .V . Med ica l C o l lege , L PC , C hoppe r s , A ch eu l ian T i rupa t i H andaxe s , C leave r s , D i sco id s , F lake s , S c rape r s , S .V .A r t sC o l lege ,T i rupa t i L PC , C hoppe r s ,A cheu l ian L ocu s -I H andaxe s , C leave r s , D i sco id s , F lake s ,C o r e s L ocu s I I I S-I S .V . U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , a nd L PC , Mo s t ly F a lk e s A -B lo ck ,T i rupa t i S-I S .V .U . G i r l sH o s te l L PC ,F lake s 1 . F oo th i l ls i te s S-I I S .V .U . L ib ra ry L PC , A cheu l ian H andaxe s , F l ak e s a nd C o re s S-I V S .V .U . A r t sB lo ck L PC ,F lake sa nd C o r e s S-V D .D .E . B u i ld ing L PC C hoppe r s , H andaxe s , C o re s , F lake s L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian S r i P admava t i Women 's L ocu sIV H andaxe s ,C leave r s ,F lake s ,C o r e s C o l lege ,T i rupa t i T TD D a i ry F a rm ,T i rupa t i L PC ,A cheu l ian H andaxe s L ocu s -V L ocu s -V I L ocu s- V I I L-I L-I 2 .

L ake s i t e s

s i de

L_ I l

S t r eam s i t e s

L PC , A cheu l ian H andaxe s , C leave r s ,F lake sa nd C o re s L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian H andaxe s ,F lake s

I g i t ima la L ake , n ea r R en igun ta V adama lape t L ak e , n ea r G a ju lamandyam V i l lage V adama lape t L ake , n ea r G a ju lamandyam V i l lage

L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian H andaxe s ,C leave r s , No tched f l ake s L PC a nd MPC , A cheu l ian H andaxe s ,F lake s

L- I V

K a rakambad i V i l lage L ake , n ea rR en igun ta

L-V

P apana idupe ta P apana idupe ta

L-V I

V ankaka lava , n ea r S i ta rampe ta S i ta rampe ta - V enka tapu ram l a ke , n ea r Y e rpedu 1 5 km f r om R en igun ta A i rpo r t , n ea r R en igun ta , T i rupa t i

L-V I I 3

P ud ipe t la V i l lage n ea r T i rupa t i S anamba t la h i l l s l ope , n ea r T i rupa t i

s i de L-V I I I

l a ke ,

n ea r

L-I X

S ca t te r s ( 1 -5 )

I s ukaka lava , E lec t r ic S ub s ta t ion n ea rR en igun ta

L-X

S ca t t e r s ( 1 -5 )

G u rava ra jupa l l i , R en igun ta

1 22

n ea r

L a t eA cheu l ian a r t if ac t s , a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f l ak e s L a t eA cheu l ian a r t if a c t s , a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f l ake s L a te A cheu l ian a r t if a c t s , a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic f l ake s L PC , H andaxe s , C leave r s , C o re s , F lake sa nd MPC MPC ,F lake s ,F lake t o o l s ,C o r e s

L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian h andaxe s , C leave r s , S c rape r , Ma s s ive f l ake s MPC , M in ia tu r e b i f a ce s , S c rape r s , F lake s ,C hunk s , c o re s , S hou lde r ed P o in t ( Tang ed p o in t ) ,L eva l lo i sp o in t s L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian h andaxe s , MPC , F lake s , S c rape r s , UPC ,B lade s , M ic ro l i th s -F lake s , L una t es ,P o in t s , S c rape r s ,F lu ted c o re s ,B lade s L PC , A cheu l ian h andaxe s , M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f l ake s , UPC , B lade s , S c rape r s , No tched s c rape r ,C o re s

4 .

5 .

H i l l s lope s i te s

P l a in land s i te s

L-I

S ca t te r s ( 1 -3 )

Me r lapaka l a ke , Y e rpedu L ep ro sy C en t re ,Y e rpedu

L-I

S ca t te r s ( 1 -4 )

Y e rpedu K onamadugu Y e rpedu

L -I I

S ca t te r s ( 1 -3 )

L ep ro sy C en t re , n ea r V empedu V i l lage ,Y e rpedu O t t imanuga t tu , S ou twe s t o f S war namukh i r i ve r , 4 km f r om R en igun ta Madhavama la , n ea r R en igun ta K obaka V i l lage , n ea r R en igun ta

L-I

L- I L-I I L- I V

Y e rpedu

A sh ram , g o rge ,

L PC , C hoppe r s , H andaxe s , C o re s , MPC , F l ake t o o l s , B lad e t o o l s , M ic ro l i th s L a te A cheu l ian a r t if a c t s , MPC , F ake s , F lake t o o l s UPC , B lade s , K n ive s , B lade -Sc rape r s , n o t che s , C o re s , M ic ro l i th s -f l ake s ,b l ade s ,L una te s , UPC , B lade s , B lade t o o l s , M ic ro l i th s M ic ro l i th s -F l ake s , F lake s c rape r s , L una te s ,P o in t s ,M ic robu r in ,C o re s M ic ro l i th s - F lake s , S c rape r s , B lade s ,L una te s ,B a cked b l ade s M ic ro l i th s -B lade s , B acked b l ade s , P o in t s ,C o re s M ic ro l i th s - F lake s , S c rape r s , B lade s , L una te s , C o r e s

L PC =L owe rP a laeo l i th ic C u l tu r e , MPC = M idd le P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu re , UPC =U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic C u l tu r e Ref erences A n sa r i , Z .D . 1 970 . P ebb le T oo l s f r om N i t tu r ( My so r e S t a te ) ,I nd ian A n t iquary 4 ( 1-4 ) : 1 7 . C amm iade , L .A . 1 924 . P ygmy I mp lemen t s f r om t h e L owe rG odava r i , Man i nI nd ia 4 ( 1-2 ) : 5 7 -74 . C amm iade , L .A . 1 926 . N o te s o n t h e e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e K u rnoo lB one C ave s , Man i nI nd ia 6 :1 74 18 1 . C amm iade , L .A . 1 927 . P reh i s to r ic Man i n I nd ia a nd K u rnoo l B one C ave s : AN eg lec ted f i e ld o fI nqu i ry , Man i nI nd ia 7 ( 1) : 1 12 . C amm iade , L .A . a nd M .C . B u rk i t t 1 930 . F re sh L igh t o n t h e S t one A ge si nS ou th -ea s tI nd ia ,A n t iqu i ty 4 :3 27 -39 . D av id , N icho la s a nd C a ro l K rame r 2 00 1 . E thnoarchaeo logy i n A c t ion . C ambr idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . D unne 1 1 ,R . , a nd W . D ancey 1 983 . T he s i te le s s s u rvey : A r eg iona l s c a le d a ta C o l lec t ion s t ra t egy , i nA dvance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , 6 :2 67 -287 . E be r t , J . I . 1 992 . D i s t r ibu t iona l A rchaeo logy . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . F ann ing , P . a nd S . H o ldaway 2 00 1 . S tone A r tef a c t S ca t t e r s i n We s ter n NS W A u s t ra l ia : G eomo rph ic C on t ro l s o n A r t if ac t s S i ze a nd D i s t r ibu t ion G eoar chaeo logy 1 6 (6 ) : 6 67 -686 . F i ede l , S . J . 1 996 . B lood f r om S t one s? S ome Me thodo log ica l a nd I n te rp re t ive P rob lem s i n B lood R e s idue s A na ly s i s , J ourna l o fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 2 3 : 1 39 147 . F oo te , R .B . 1 866 . O n t h e O ccu r rence o f S t one I mp lemen t s i n L a te r i t ic F o rma t ion s i n V a r iou s P a r t s o f t h e Mad ra s a nd N o r th A r co t D i s t r ic t s , Mad ra s , J ourna l o fL i t era ture a nd S c ience s 3rd s e r ie sP a r tI : 1 35 , w i th a n a ppend ix b yW i l l iam K ing ,p p . 3 6 -42 . F oo te , R .B . 1 884a . R ough N o t e s o n B i l la S u rgam a nd O the r C ave s i nK u rnoo l D i s t r ic t , R ecord s o fG eo log ica l S ur vey o fI nd ia 1 7 ( 1) : 2 7 -34 . F oo te , R .B . 1 884b . M r . H .B . F oo te 's Wo rk a tt h e B i l la S u rgam C ave s , R ecord s o fG eo log ica l S ur vey o fI nd ia 1 7 (4 ) : 2 00 -208 .

F oo te , R .B . 1 885 . N o te s o n t h e R e su l t s o f M r . H .B . G oo te 's F u r the r E xcava t ion s i nt h e B i l la S u rgam C ave s , R ecord so fG eo log ica lS urvey o fI nd ia / 8 (4 ) : 2 27 -35 . F oo te , R .B . 1 9 14 . T he F oo t e C o l lec t ion o f I nd ian P r eh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic A n t iqu i te s . Mad ra s : G ove rnmen t Mu seum . F oo te , R .B . 1 9 16 . T he F oo te C o l l ec t ion o f I nd ian P reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic A n t iqu i t ie s : N o t e s o n t h e ir A ge sa nd D i s t r ibu t ion . Mad ra s : G ove rnmen t Mu seum . H a rdy , B .L . ,V . R aman a nd R .A . R af f1 997 . R ecove ry o f DNA f r om M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S tone T oo l s , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica lS c ience 2 4 (7 ) : 6 0 1-6 11 . H i scock , P .a nd C . C la rk son 2 000 . A na ly s ing Au s t ra l ian S tone A r tef a c t s : A na genda f o rt h e Twen ty F i r s tC en tu ry , A u s t ra l ian A rchaeo logy 5 0 : 9 8 108 . I s sac , N . 1 960 . T he S tone A ge C u l tu re s o f K urnoo l . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 975 . AN o te o n P r eh i s to r ic C u l tu ra l E v idence f r om T i rupa t i , A ndh ra P rade sh , C ur r en t S c ience 4 4 (9 ) : 3 27 . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 98 1 . A N o te o n F o s s i l a nd S t ra t ig raph ic B r eak , T irupa t i V a l ley , A ndh ra P rade sh , I nd ian A n thropo log i s t 1 (2 ) : 1 3 1134 . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 983 . E ar ly H un t e r -Ga there r s A dap ta t ions i n t h e T r iupa t i V a l ley , S ou th I nd ia . P h .D . T he s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 987 . E thnoa r chaeo logy o f T r iba l Y anad i . T irupa t i : S .V . U n ive r s i ty . J o sh i , R .V . 1 955 . P le i s tocene S tud ie s i nt h e Ma lap rabha B a s in , P oona : D eccan C o l lege a nd D ha rwa r : K a rna taka U n ive r s i ty . J o sh i , R .V . , R . S ub rahmanyam a nd V .V .M . R ao 1 979 . L a te A cheu l ian C u l tu r e o f t h e P a le ru R ive r V a l ley , C oa s ta l A ndh ra P rade sh , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l l ege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 3 9 : 4 9 -89 . K a s tu r i B a i , M . 1 982 . T he S t one A ge C u l tur e s o fE l eru V a l ley i nE a s tG odavar iD i s t r ic t , A nd hra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . V i sakhapa tnam : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty .

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P a laeo l i th ic P ha se i nI nd ia ,J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo lo gy 6 ( 3 ) : 3 0 1-20 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 2 003 . P r e a nd P ro toh i s to r ic A ndhra P rad e sh u pt o5 00 BC . C henna i : O r ien tL ongman . Mu r ty , M .L .K . a nd K .T . R eddy 1 976 . T he S ign i f icance o f L i th ic F ind s i n t h e C ave A rea s o f K u rnoo l , I nd ia , A s ian p er spec t ive s 1 8 : 2 14 -26 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . a nd G .D . S on the ime r 1 980 . P r eh i s to r ic B a ckg round t oP a s to ra l i sm i nt h eS ou the rn D e ccan i nt h e L igh t o f O ra l T rad i t ion s a nd C u l t s o f s ome P a s to ra l C ommun i t ie s ,A n thropo s7 5 : 1 63 -84 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 981 . Hun te r -ga the r e r E co sy s tem s a nd A r cha eo log ica l P a t t er n o fS ub s i s tence B ehav iou r o n t h e S ou thea s t C oa s t o f I nd ia : A n E thnog raph ic Mode l , W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 3 ( 1) : 4 7 -58 . N a seem , A . 1 981 . N eo l i th ic o f V i sak hapa tnam : A n E thnoarchaeo log ica l S tud y . P h .D . T he s i s . Wa l ta i r : A ndh ra Un ive r s i ty . O 'Conne l l , J . 1 987 . A lywa ra s i te S t ru c tu r e a nd i t s A r chaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ion s , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 2 : 7 4 1 08 . P addayya , K . 1 976 . E xcava t ion s o fa n A cheu l ian S i te a t H un sg i , S ou th I nd ia , C ur ren tA n thropo log y 1 7 : 7 60 -761 . P addayya , K . 1 977a . An A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion S i te a t H un sg i , P en in su la r I nd ia : AS umma ry o ft h e R e su l t s o f Two S ea son 's E x cava t ion ( 1975 -76 ) , W or ld A rchaeo logy 8 ( 3 ) : 3 44 -355 . P addayya , K . 1 977b . T he A cheu l ian C u l tu r e o f t h e H un sg i V a l ley , S ho rapu r D oab , P en in su la r I nd ia , P roceed ing s o ft h e Ame r ican P h i lo soph ica lS oc ie ty 1 21 : 3 83 -406 . P addayya , K . 1 979a . E xcava t ion s o f aN ew A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion S i te a t Hun sg i ,P en in su la rI nd ia , Q uar te r2 9 3 0 : 1 34 155 . P addayya , K . 1 982a . T he A cheu l ian C u l ture o f Hunsg i V a l l ey ( Pen in su lar I nd ia ) : A S e t t lemen t S y s t em P e r spec t ive . P une : D eccan C o l lege . P addayya . K . a nd M .D . P e t r ag l ia 1 993 . F o rma t ion P roce s se s o f A cheu l ian L oca l i t ie s i n t h e H un sg i a nd B a ichba l V a l ley s , P en in su la r I nd ia i n F orma t ion P roce s se s i nA r chaeo log ica l C on t ex t( P . G o ldbe rg , D .T . N a sh a nd M .D . P e t rag l ia E d s . ) , p p .6 1-82 . Mad i son : P reh i s to ry P re s s . P appu , R . S . 2 00 1 . A cheu l ian C u l tu r e i n P en in su la r I nd ia .N ew D e lh i : D .K . P r in two r ld ( P )L td . P appu , R . S . 1 974 . P le i s tocene S tud ie s i n t h e U ppe r K r i shna B a s in .P oona : D eccan C o l lege . P appu , R . S . 1 981 . R ecen t G eoa r chaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s a r ound B adam i , D i s t r ic t B i japu r , K a rna taka , B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l leg eP o s tg radua t e a nd R e search I n s t i tu t e3 9 -40 : 1 70 179 . P appu ,S .1 997 .P le i s tocene E nv ironmen t sa nd S tone A g e A dap ta t ions i nt h eK or ta l layar B a s in , T am i lN adu , P h .D . T he s i s .P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . P appu , S . 1 999 . A S tudy o f N a tu ra l S i te F o rma t ion P roce s se s i n t h e K o r ta l laya r B a s in , T am i l N adu , S ou th I nd ia ,G eoarcheo logy 1 4 (2 ) : 1 27 150 . P appu , S . 2 00 1a . M idd le P a la eo l i th ic S t one T oo l T echno logy i n t h e K o r ta l laya r B a s in , S ou th I nd ia , A n t iqu i ty 7 5 : 1 07 117 .

K imu ra , B . B ru ce L . H a rdy a nd W i l l iam W . H au sw i r th 2 00 1 . A na ly s i s o f DNA f r om E thnoa r chaeo log ica l S t one S c rape r s ,J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience 2 8 :4 5 -53 . K o r i se t ta r , R . 1 979 . P reh i s to ry a nd G eomo rpho logy o f t h e M idd le K r i shna , K a rna taka . P h .D . T he s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . K r i shna swam i , V .D . 1 938 . E nv i ronmen ta l a nd C u l tu ra l C hange s o ft h eP r eh i s to r ic Man n ea r Mad ra s ,J ourna lo f Mad ra s G eog raph ica lA s soc ia t ion 1 3 : 5 8 -90 . K r i shna swam i , V .D . 1 947 . S tone A ge I nd ia , A nc ien t I nd ia 3 :1 -57 . K r i shna swam i , V .D . 1 953 . P rog r e s s i n P reh i s to ry , A nc ien tI nd ia 9 :5 3 -79 . L ewa r ch , D .E . , a nd M .J . O 'Br ien 1 98 1 . T he E xpand ing R o le o f S u rf ace A s semb lage s i n A r chaeo log ica l R e sea r ch , i n A d vance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory V o lume 4 ( M .B . S ch if f e rE d . ) ,p p .297 -342 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . L oy , T .H . 1 993 . T he A r t if a c t a s aS i te : A n e xamp le o f B iomo lecu la r Ana ly s i s o f O rgan ic R e s idue s o n P r eh i s to r ic T oo l s , Wor ld A r chaeo log y2 5 ( 1) : 4 4 -63 . Madhu sudhana R ao 1 979 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o fP a le ru V a l ley , P raka sam D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . T he s i s .G un tu r :N aga r juna Un ive r s i ty . McNabb , J . , F . B inyaon , a nd L . H aze lwood 2 004 . T he L a rge C u t t ing T oo l s f o r t h e S ou th A f r ican A cheu lean a nd t h e Que s t ion o f S oc ia l T rad i t ion s , C ur ren t A n thropo lo gy 4 5 (5 ) : 6 53 -677 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973 . B ago r : AL a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen t i n No r thwe s tI nd ia , W or ld A rchaeo log y5 ( 1) : 9 2 110 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978b . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock S he l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , Au s t ra l ian A r chaeo logy 8 :6 3 106 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 989 . P a laeoenv i ronmen t s a nd P reh i s to ry o ft h e T ha r D e se r t , R a ja s than , I nd ia , i nS ou th A s ian A rchaeo lo gy 1985 ( K . R r if e l t a nd R . S o ren sen E d s . )p p . 2 96 -320 . C openhagen : S cand inav ian I n s t i tu te o fA s ian S tud ie sO cca s iona lP ape r N o .4 ,L ondon : C u rzon P re s s . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 966 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o f C h i t toor D i s tr ic t ,A nd hra P rad e sh . P h .D .T he s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 968 . B lad e a nd B u r in I ndu s t r ie s n ea r R en igun ta o nt h e S ou th -Ea s tC oa s to fI nd ia ,P roceed ing s o fP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 4 : 8 3 -10 1 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 970 . B lad e a nd B u r in a nd L a t e S tone A ge i ndu s t r ie s a r ound R en igun ta , C h i t too r D i s t r ic t , I nd ian A n t iquary 4 ( 1-4 ) : 1 06 -28 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 974 . A L a te P le i s tocene C ave S i t e i n S ou the rn I nd ia , P roceed ing s o f t h e Amer ican P h i lo soph ica lS oc ie ty 18 (2 ) : 1 96 -230 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 975 . L a te P le i s to cene F auna o fK u rnoo l C ave s , S ou th I nd ia , i nA rchaeo -zoo log ica lS tud ie s ( A .T . C la son E d s . ) , p p .132 -38 . Am s te rdam : No r th H o l land P ub l i sh ing C o . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 978 -79 . S ymb io s i s a nd T rad i t iona l B ehav iou r i n t h e S ub s i s tence E conom ie s o f t h e K unchapu r i Y e ruku la s o f S ou th I nd ia : A P r ed ic t ive Mode l ,P u ra ta t t va 1 0 : 5 0 -6 1 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 979 . R ecen t R e sea r ch o n t h e U ppe r

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C ave S i te i nS ou th I nd ia ,A s ian P er spec t ive s 2 0 (2 ) : 2 06 2 27 . R enf rew , C . a nd K . B oy le 2 000 . A rchaeog ene t ic s : DNA a nd t h e P opu la t ion P reh i s tory o fE urope . C amb r idge : McDona ld I n s t i tu te o fA r cha eo log ica lR e sea r ch . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s tory o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P une : D eccan C o l lege P o s tG radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . S e shad r i , M . 1 956 . T he S t one -U s ing C u l ture s o f P reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic My sor e . My so re : U n ive r s i ty o f My so r e . S ingh ,T .R a ja R am 1 979a . P r eh is to r ic a nd E a r ly H i s tor ic S i te s i n K a r imnaga r R eg ion , A ndh ra P rade sh , A ndhra P rad e sh J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 1 ( 1) : 1 12 . S ingh , T . R a ja R am 1 979b . S ome U n ique D i scove r ie s i n S tone A ge A r chaeo logy Ii nT e langana R eg ion , A ndhra P rad e sh J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 1 ( 2 ) : 3 2 -33 . S ounda ra R a jan , K .V . 1 952 . S tone A ge I ndu s t r ie s n ea r G idda lu r ,D i s t r ic tK u rnoo l ,A nc ien tI nd ia 8 :6 4 -92 . S ounda ra R a jan , K .V . 1 958 . S tud ie s i nt h e S tone A ge o f N aga r junakonda a nd i t sN e ighbou rhood ,A nc ien tI nd ia 4 : 4 9 113 . S ub rahmanyam , R . 1 975 . N aga r junakonda ( 1954 -60 ) , V o l .1 Memo ir s o ft h e A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty o fI nd ia N o . 7 5 .N ew D e lh i : A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia . S uda r sen , V . 1 976 . E nv ironmen t a nd A rchaeo logy o f N e l lor e D i s t irc t . P h .D . T he s i s . V i sakhapa tnam : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty . S uda r sen , V . 1 976 . P r eh i s tor ic I nve s t iga t ion s i nN e l lo r e , J ourna l o f T he A ndhra P rad e sh H i s to r ica l R e search S oc ie ty 3 6 . S uda r sen , V . a nd K . T h imma R eddy 1 977 . T he C oncep t ' Cu l tu ra l E co lo g y ' - i t s P robab le A pp l ica t ion i n P reh i s to ry , Man i nI nd ia 5 7 : 1 2 1126 . S u l l ivan , A .P . 1 998 . S urf ace A rchaeo logy . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . Swam i , A . 1 976 . A r cha eo logy o f C h ing lepu t D i s t r ic t ( P reh i s to r ic P e r iod ) . P h .D . T he s i s . Mad ra s : U n ive r s i ty o f Mad ra s . Y e l len , J . 1 977 . A r chaeo log ica l A pp roache s t o t h e P re sen t : Mode l s f o r r e con s t ruc t ing t h e P a s t . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s .

P appu , S .2 00 1b .AR e -exam ina t ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo log ica l R ecord o fN or thern T am i l N adu , S ou th I nd ia . O xf o rd : B r i t i sh A r cha eo log ica l R epo r t s I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 003 . P appu , S . 2 004 . P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n E xcava t ion s a t t h e P a laeo l i th ic S i te o f A t t i rampakkam , T am i l N adu ( 1999 -2004 ) , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 9 (2 ) : 1 17 . P inga le , U . 1 970 . P re l im ina ry R epo r to n M idd le a nd l a te S t one A ge s i t e s i nA d i labad D i s t r ic t o fA ndh ra P rade sh , Man i nI nd ia 5 0 : 2 98 -308 . P raka sh , P .V . 1 98 1 . L i th ic C u l ture s a nd P a laeoenv ironmen t o f G ambheeram R iver V a l ley , V i skhapa tnam C oa s t . P h .D . t h e s i s . V i sakhapa tnam : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty . P raka sh , P .V . 1 98 1a . P reh i s to r ic A r chaeo logy o f G ambhee ram R ive r V a l ley , V i sakhapa tnam C oa s t , P ura ta t t va 2 :1 09 113 . R aghav iah , V . 1 962 . T he Y anad i s . N ew D e lh i : B ha ra t iya A d im ja t i S evak S angh . R a ju , D .R . 1 98 1 . E ar ly S e t t l emen tP a t terns i nC uddapah D i s t r ic t , A nd hra P rad e sh : A P a laeoan thropo log ica l S t udy .P h .D . T he s i s .P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R am i R eddy , V . 1 968 . P re a nd P ro toh i s to ry o fS ou th W e s t ern A nd hra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R ao , S .N . 1 966 . S t one A g e C u l tur e s o f N a lgonda D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R ao , V .V .M . 1 979 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o fP raka sam D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . V i sakhapa tanm : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty . R a s s igno l , J . ,a nd L . Wand sn ide r 1 992 . S pace , T ime a nd A rchaeo log ica ll a nd scape s . N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s . R eddy , K .T . 1 968 . P reh i s tory o f C uddpah D i s t r ic t . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R eddy , K .T . 1 976 . Me t r ica l A na ly s i s -A B a s i s f o r C la s s if i ca t ion o fH andaxe G roup o fT oo l s , Man i nI nd ia 2 9 (3 ) : 2 8 1-285 . R eddy , K .T . 1 978 . Madu rawada : AN eo l i th ic -Mega l i th ic C omp lex ,J ourna lo fA ndhra H i s tor ica lR e search S oc ie ty 3 7 :4 5 -48 . R eddy , K .T . 1 980 . B i l la su rgam : A n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic

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E ar ly S e t t lemen tP a t tern si n Cuddapah D is tr ic t , Andhra P rade sh D .R . R a ju T h is p ape r s umma r ises t h e i nves t iga t ion s o n P a laeo l i th ic s i tes a nd e t hnog raphy i n t h e Gun jana v a l ley , C uddapah D is t r ic t c a r r ied o u tb e tween 1 976 a nd 1 980 . T h is r e sea rch f o rmed t h e b a s is f o r my P h .D . d i sse r ta t ion s ubm i t ted t o Un ive r s i ty o fP oona ( Ra ju 1 981) .

whe re P a laeo l i th ic s i tes p resen t a mp le e v idence i n t h e f o rm o fP a laeob io log ica l r ema in s a nd dwe l l ing s t ruc tu res s o e s sen t ia l f o r r e con s t ruc t ion o f p a s t b ehav iou ra l p a t ter n s , e ven t h e f ew e xcava ted p r ima ry P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n I nd ia a r e d evo id o f h uman s ke le ta l r ema in s a nd i n mos t c a ses e ven o f a n ima l f o s s i ls . D esp i te t h ese l im i ta t ion s , I nd ian p reh is to r ian s a r e i n ves t iga t ing p r ima ry s i tes a nd e ndeavou r ing t o i n te rp re t s e t t lemen t s y s tem s , s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies a nd p a leodemog raphy o f S tone Age s i tes ( Paddayya 1 982 ; Mu r ty 1 985 ; M is ra a nd Mu r ty 1 986 ) .

R igh t f r om t h e t ime o fR ober t B ruce F oo te ( 1916 ) I nd ian p reh is tor ian s h ave c oncerned t h em se lves w i th t h e b u i ld ing o f s t ra t ig raph ic s equences a nd e s tab l ish ing t ypo techno log ica l p a ram e te r s f o r l i th ic a s semb lages . A s ar e su l t , t h e b road o u t l ines o f P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re s equence a r e f a i r ly a ccu ra te ly k nown f o r mo s t p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry ( Sanka l ia 1 974 ; M is ra a nd B e l lwood 1 985 ) .

One i mpor tan t a pp roach t o g a in i n s igh t s i n to t h e p r eh is to r ic l i f e p a t ter n s i st o s t udy t h e p resen t d ay n on indu s t r ia l p opu la t ion s ( S tan is law sk i 1 974 : 1 8 ; Y e l len 1 977 ) o ft h e a r ea u nde r i n ves t iga t ion a s a n a i d t o g e t c l ues a s t o t h e p robab le u se o f t h e e co sy s tem b y t h e S t one Age h un te r -ga the rer s . T h is h a s b een v a r iou s ly t e rmed a s P a laeoan th ropo logy (Wooda l 1 978 ) . L iv ing A rchaeo logy ( Gou ld 1 980 ) a nd E thno -a rchaeo logy ( S t i les 1 977 ) . An umbe r o f s t ud ies h ave b een u nde r taken w i th t h is a pp roach i n A f r ica , Nor th Ame r ica a nd Au s t ra l ia . Ab eg inn ing i nt h is f i e ld h a s a l so b een made i nI nd ia ( Leshn ik 1 964 ; N aga ra ja R ao 1 965 ; N aga r 1 967 , 1 975 ; Mu r ty 1 981 ,1985 ; Mu r ty a nd S on the imer 1 980 ; P addayya 1 982 ) a l though m a jor i ty o ft h e s t ud ies s o f a r u nder taken a r e c oncer n ed m a in ly w i th t h e l a te s t ages o fp reh is tory .

A l though an umber o f Meso l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s h ave b een e xcava ted s i nce 1 940 , ma jo r i ty o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic s i te s i nves t iga ted w e re a r chaeo log ica l o ccu r rences i n g eo log ica l c on tex t s l i ke r i ve r a l luv ia , l a ter i te , a nd l o ess ic d epos i t s o r o pen a i r f a c to ry s i tes . V ery f ew p r ima ry s i tes whe re d a ta o n l i v ing p a t te rn s o f S tone A ge p opu la t ion s c an b e e xpec ted h ad b een e xcava ted . Howeve r , a n a wa reness o f t h is s hor tcom ing h as d eve loped a nd s eve ra l a r chaeo log is t s a r e n ow i n ves t iga t ing p r ima ry P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n d i f f eren t p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry . Among t h e s t ud ie s i n t h is c a tego ry m en t ion s hou ld b e made o f t h e e xcava t ion s o f mu l t i -cu l tu re d epos i t s i n t h e r ock s he l te r s o f Adamga rh ( J o sh i 1 966 , 1 977 ) , a nd B h imbe tka (Wakanka r 1 973 ; M is ra 1 976 , 1 978 ; M isra , Ma thpa l a nd N aga r 1 977 ) , o pen a i rA cheu l ian s i tes a t C h i rk i ( Co rv inu s 1 981 , 1 983 ) a nd Hun sg i ( Paddayya 1 982 ) a nd t h e s t udy o f s u rf ace A cheu l ian o ccupa t ion s i n C en t ra l I nd ia ( J acob son 1 985 ) . I nves t iga t ion s i n to t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic o pen a i r o ccupa t ion s i tes o f R en igun ta ( Mu r ty 1 985 ) , t h e o pen a i r s i te a tP a tne i nJ a lgaon d i s t r ic t o f Maha rash t ra ( Sa h i1 985 ) a nd l a ke s i de L a te U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i n A l lahabad a nd P ra tapga rh d i s t r ic t s o fU t ta rP radesh ( Sha rma e ta l . 1 980 ) a r e n o tewor thy . T hu s , t h e empha s i s i sn ow s h if t ing f r om g ene ra l ised s u rvey s o fl a rge a r ea s t o e xcava t ion o ri n ten s ive s t ud ies o fp r ima ry b u r ied o r s u rf ace s i tes .

A s ap a r t o f t h is a pp roach , Ih ave u nder taken a n i nve s t iga t ion o f ar e s t r ic ted a r ea i nt h e C uddapah r eg ion i n s ou thea s t I nd ia t o b u i ld a p red ic t ive mode l f o r t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n a nd s ubs is tence a dap ta t ion s o fP a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s o n t h e b a s is o f a r chaeo log ica l , e co log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta . Ih ave d i scove red e x ten s ive P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i tes wh ich a l though s u rf a ic ia l y i e lded e v idence r e levan t t o a n u nde r s tand ing o f s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s . F o r i n te rp re t ing s e t t lemen t a nd s ubs is tence p a t ter n s , I c onduc ted a n e t hnog raph ic s t udy o f t h e Y anad i s , who a r e t r ad i t iona l h un te r -ga the r e r s l i v ing i n t h e s ame a r ea . T he e t hnog raph ic d a ta f r om ap r im i t ive g roup who c on t inue t o e xp lo i t t h e s ame e cozones t h a t w ere i nhab i ted d u r ing t h e S tone A ge h a s b een u sed f o r i n te rp re t ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . I am , h oweve r , a wa re o f c er ta in l im i ta t ion s i n t h e p re sen t w o rk . P auc i ty o f f und s a nd t o ac er ta in e x ten t c on s t ra in t o f t im e p reven ted m e f r om

T he g oa l o f P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i s t o u nde r s tand t h e b ehav iou ra l p a t te r n s o f t h e P l e i s tocene h uman g roups . H oweve r , u n l ike i n A f r ica , p a r t s o f C en t ra l A s ia a nd M idd le E as t

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R emnan ts e t t lemen tp a t tern s T h i s i st h e s t udy o ft h er e con s t ruc t ion o fs e t t lem en t p a t ter n s w i th t h e h e lp o f t h e t r ace s o f m a te r ia l r ema in s wh ich s u rv ived t h e r a vage s o ft im e . T he se a r e f ound i n t h e f o rm o f s i tes a nd t r aces o f a c t iv i t ie s p e rf o rm ed o n t h em . I f o n ly a s i ng le a c t iv i ty w a s p e rf o rm ed a t as i te i tm ay b e r e f e r r ed t oa sa na c t iv i ty l o cu s . I fs eve ra l d i f f e r en t a c t iv i t ies t o o l p l ace a t t h e s i te a s i sn o rma l ly t h e c a se a t h ab i ta t iona l s i te s , t h e s i te c an b e d i v ided i n to s eve ra l a c t iv i ty l o c i ( B inf o rd 1 964 : 4 24 ) . H ence a n a c t iv i ty l o cu s m ay b e d ef ined a s a ny s po t whe r e a m in imum n umbe r o f a c t iv i t ie s t o ok p l ace ( Rou se 1 972 : 1 52 ) . T o r e cove r t h e s u rv iv ing t r ace s o f a n a c t iv i ty p a t ter n , ap r eh i s to r ian mu s t f i r s t f i nd l o c i c ove r ing t h e e n t i r e r ange o f ap eop le s ' a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h en c o l lec t r ema in s f r om r ep r e sen ta t ive l o c i . T he r ema in s o b ta ined f r om e ach l o cu s may b e r e f e r r ed t o a s a n " ac t iv i ty a s semb lage" ( Rou se 1 972 : 1 52 ) . T hu s , an e two rk o f a c t iv i ty l o c i a r e o b ta ined i n t h e f o rm o f p reh i s to r ic s i tes . T h e c omb ina t ion o f a c t iv i ty l o c i t oge the r w i th a n a c t iv i ty a s semb lage f r om e ach l o cu s c on s t i tu tes a r emnan t a c t iv i ty p a t ter n . T he r emnan t s e t t lemen t p a t ter n c on s i s t s o ft h e l o ca t ion o ft h e e n t i r e r ange o f ap eop le ' a c t iv i ty l o c i , c o l lec t ion o f r ema in s f r om r e p r e sen ta t ive l o c i a nd a s se s sm en t o f t h e p o s s ib le r e levan ce o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip s w i th in a nd b e tween t h e s i te s i n ag i ven g eog raph ica l z one i na d e l ineab le t im e p e r iod . I ti st h e r emnan t s e t t lem en t p a t ter n st h a ta r ep e r t inen tt ot h e a r chaeo log i s t s who h ave t od ea l w i th r u in s o fs e t t lem en t s a nd r ema in s o fp a s t a c t iv i t ie s t h a t a ccumu la ted d u r ing ap e r iod o ft im et h a tm ay b el o ng o rs hor t .

u nder tak ing al a rge e xcava t ion o fo ccupa t ion s i te s . As m a l lt r ia l d i gw a s , h oweve r , m ade a to ne o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i te s t o c onf i rm t h e c u l tu ra lc h rono logy . I n t h e a r ea s t ud ied b y m e t h e e v idence f o r t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i s mo r e p ro l if i c t h an f o r o the rp e r iod s . T he e mpha s i s o ft h ep r esen ts t udy i s , t h e r ef o r e , m a in ly o n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd i t i s p r ima r i ly c once rn ed w i th r e con s t ruc t ion o f s e t t lem en t p a t te rn s o f t h e T e rm ina l P l e i s tocene h un te r -ga the r e r s . T he c oncep t o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion i n a r chaeo logy i s e s sen t ia l ly o f Am e r ican o r ig in a l though i ti sd i ff i cu l tt oa s ce r ta in t h ef i r s tu se o ft h et e rm ( Chang 1 972 : 1 ) . Ame r ican e t hno log i s t s l i k e L ew i s H . Mo rgan ( 1 881 ) a nd M inde lef f( 1900 )w e r ei n te re s t ed i nt h es t udy o ft h e a bo r ig ina l h ab i ta t ion a nd a r ch i tec tu r e a nd t h e p ueb lo r u in s i nt h e Am e r ican s ou thwe s t a nd t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion o ve r t h e l a nd scape a s f a r b ack a s a c en tu ry a go . H oweve r , a s a f o cu s sed m e thodo log ica l c oncep t o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch t h e s e t t lem en t p a t ter nw a s b rough t t ot h e f o r ef ron t b y t h e c omb in ed e f f or t s o f J u l ian H . S t ewa rd , a n e t hnog raphe ra tt h eB u r eau o f Am e r ican E thno logy a t t h e Wa sh ing ton D .C . a nd h i s a r chaeo log i s t c o l league G o rdon R . W i l ley ( 1 953 ) i n as t udy o f t h ea r chaeo logy o ft h eV i ry v a l ley ,P eru . S ince t h en a nd e spec ia l ly o ve r t h e l a s t t wo d ecad e s , t h is c on cep t w a s a pp l ied b y s ev e ra l a r chaeo log i s t s . A n th ropo log i s t sd i s t ingu i sh t wo t y pe s o fs e t t lem en t p a t ter n s n am e ly , ( 1 ) c omp le te s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s a nd ( 2 ) r emnan t s e t t lem en t p a t t er n s ( Rou se 1 972 : 9 7 ) .

I n t e chno log ica l ly s imp le s oc ie t ie s t wo b road c l a s ses o f a c t iv i t ie s n am e ly e x t rac t ion a nd m a in tenance c an b e d i s t ingu i shed . T he f o rm e r i n vo lve s t h e d i rec t p rocu r em en t o ff ood s , f u e l s a nd r aw m a te r ia l s f o rt o o l s a nd t h e l a t te rc on s i s t s o ft h e p r epa ra t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f f ood s a nd f u e l s a l r eady o n h and a nd i n t h e p roces s ing o f r aw m a te r ia l s i n to f ood s . T he c amp s whe re t h e se a c t iv i t ie s a r e p e rf o rm ed a r e t h e " s e t t lem en t t y pe s" . T he se a r e c l a s s if i ed i n to t h r ee b a s ic c a tego r ie s ( B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 969 ) .

C omp le te s e t t lemen tp a t tern s T h i s e ncompa s se s t h e s t udy o ft h e p l acem en t a nd s pac ing a nd t h e a r rangem en t o f t h e d we l l ing s t ruc tu r es o f ah um an s oc ia l g roup i n r e la t ion t o o t he r a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e s l i k e t emp le s a nd c e r emon ia l c en t r e s , t h e i r m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , t h e r e sou r ce b a se , t e chno logy a nd e xp lo i ta t ive p a t ter n , s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd i d eo logy o r t h e b e l ief s y s tem a nd t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s o fa l lt h e se t ot h e i mm ed ia te p hy s ica l e nv i ronm en t . W i th r e ga rd t o t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s o f d i f f e r en t s e t t lem en t s a nd c omponen t s o f s e t t lem en t s , t h e p eop le a r e t h e c en t r e o f a t ten t ion , " peop le" w ho se a c t iv i t ies a t t h e se l o c i g i ve m ean ing t o t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s . T h i s t ype o f s t udy i s p o s s ib le o n ly i n l i v ing c ommun i t ie s w he r e t h e " peop le" i s ag iven a nd a r e s t ud ied b ys oc ia la n th ropo log i s t sa nd g eog raphe r s .

B a se C amp s T he se a r e c ho sen m a in ly f o r l i v ing s pace , p ro tec t ion f r om t h e e l em en t s a nd c en t ra l l o ca t ion w i th r e spec tt or e sou r ce s .

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Work C amps T he se a r e s i te s o ccup ied b y s ma l le r s oc ia l u n i t s f o r c a r ry ing o u t e x t r ac t ive t a sk s . A r chaeo log ica l ly t h e se w ou ld a ppea r a sk i l l s i te s , c o l lec t ing s t a t ion s a nd q ua r r ie s f o re x t rac t ing r aw m a te r ia l s t ob eu sed i n t o o l m ak ing . T he a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s f o rm t h e se s i te s w ou ld b e d om ina ted b y t h e t o o l s u sed i n s p ec if ic e x t rac t ive t a sk s . I f aw o rk c amp w e r e o ccup ied f o r ar a the r l o ng p e r iod a nd b y a f a i r ly l a rge g roup , s om e m a in tenance a c t iv i t ie s w ou ld a l so b e r e f lec ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s .

t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing , w a te r s ou r ce s , r aw m a te r ia ls , f l o ra a nd f auna , a nd b y d r aw ing i n f e r ence s f r om t h e s ub s i s tence s t r a teg ie s a nd s e t t lem en tp a t ter n so f t h e p r e sen t d ay h un te r -ga the r e r s l i v ing a t a nd a r ound t h e se s i te s ( f ig . 2 ) . E xp lo ra t ion s f o r s t one a ge s i t es a nd e t hnog raphy w e r e c a r r ied o u t f o r ap e r iod o f t h i r teen mon th s . T hey r e su l ted i nt h e d i scove ry o f n ine A ch eu l ian , t wo M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t e n U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i t e s . A r tef ac t c o l lec t ion s w e r e m ade f r om s even A cheu l ian , t wo M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h r ee U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i tes . T he n umbe r o f s i t e s f o r c o l lec t ion o f a r tef ac t s w a s i n t en t iona l ly r e s t r ic ted b ecau se t h e s i t e s , e spec ia l ly t h o se o f h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic w e r e u nu sua l ly r i ch a nd i tw ou ld h ave b een u nmanageab le t o h and le t h e a r tef ac t c o l lec t ion s f r om a l t h e d i scove red s i te s . A l so , w hen m a ter ia l f r om s eve ra l s i t es a ppea r ed t o b e h omogeneou s , i tw a s c on s ide r ed u nnece s sa ry t o m ak e c o l lec t ion s f r om a l l s uch s i t e s . T he c o l lec t ion o fm a te r ia l f r om A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s w a s s e lec t iv e a st h e a r tef a c t s f r om t h e se s i tes w e r e n o t t o o n um e rou s a nd a l so s p r ead r a ndom ly o ve r w ide r a r ea s . A r tef ac t s f r om t h r ee U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i te s w e r e c o l lec ted b y m ak ing g r id s a nd a na ly sed i n t e rm s o f ' a c t iv i ty l o c i ' a nd ' a s semb lage s ' . I n f e r en ces f r om t h e s t udy a r ee x tend ed t oo t h e rs im i la rs i te st oa s se s sp o s s ib le r e la t ion sh ip s w i th in a nd b e tween t h e s i tes ( c on s t i tu t ing r emnan t s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s ) . A t r ia l d i g w a s m ade a t Wod ika lu ' , o ne o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i te s t oc onf i rm t h e c u l tu ra l c h rono logy e s tab l i shed o n t h e b a s is o f s u r f ace c o l lec t ion s .

T ran s ien tC amp s T he se s i te s c on ta in m in ima l e v idence o f m a in tenance a c t iv i t ie s s uch a sm igh tb eu nde r taken b y at r ave l l ing g roup i nt h e c ou r se o fa n o ve rn igh t s t ay . T he w ay t h e se c l a s se s o f c amp s a r e u sed b y a ny s oc ie ty d ef ine s i t s " s e t t lemen t s y s tem" . I nt h e l i gh t o ft h e f o r ego ing , a t temp t s a r e m ade t oe va lua te t h e S t one A ge o ccupa t ion s c a t te r s f o r a n a pp ra i sa l o f s e t t lem en tp a t ter n s . Ab r ief a ccoun t o ft h e p r ev iou s w o rk i nt h e a r ea , t h e p r esen t s t udy a r ea , m e thod s a dop ted f o r t h i s s t udy a nd t h ep r e sen te nv i ronmen to ft h e r eg ion a r e g i ven i nt h ep age st h a tf o l low . P re sen tI nve s t iga t ion s S y s tema t ic i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e p r eh i s to ry o f C uddapah r e g ion b egan o n ly i n l a te s i x t ie s w hen K .T . R eddy ( 1968 ) e xp lo r ed S ag i leru v a l ley a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s a nd a g en e ra l s u rvey o f o t he r r i ve r v a l ley s a nd r e por ted s eve ra l S tone A ge s i te s ( f ig . 1 ) . B ef o re t h a t o n ly i s o la ted d i scove r ie s o f p r eh i s to r ic a r tef ac t sh ad b een m ade ( R a ju 1 981 ) .

Me thodo logy T he f o l low ing m e thod s h ave b een u sed f o r t h e p r esen ts t udy : 1 .N ew ly d i scove r ed , S t one A ge s i tes h ave b een m apped t os how t h e i rl o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . 2 .S t one A ge c u l tu ra l m a ter ia l h a s b een a na ly sed i n t e rm s o f t y po logy a nd t e chno logy a nd t h e m o rphom e t r ic a na ly s i s h a s b een p r esen ted i nt h e f o rm o ft a b le s , a nd f r equency p o lygon s . 3 .T o r e con s truc t U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s , t h ree h ab i ta t ion s i te sw e r ec hosen f o ra n a na ly s i s o f v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e s i te s . E ach o f t h e se s i te s h a s b een d i v ided i n to s eve ra l l o c i b a sed o n s pa t ia l d en s i ty a nd e x ten t o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t s . E ach l o cu s h a s b een d i v ided i n to s eve ra l s qua re s a nd a l l t h e a r tef ac t s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om r andom ly s e lec ted s qua r e s . T he v a r iab i l i ty i st h en a s se s sed b yc ompa r ing t h e

T he p r esen t s t udy i sc onf ined t oG un jana v a l ley , a t r ibu ta ry o ft h e C ehyye ru i nt h e c uddapah r eg ion . T he r i ve r G un jana o r ig ina te s i n t h e S e shacha lam r e serve f o r e s t ( 1 3° 4 7 ' N ; 7 9 ° 1 7 ' E ) a t 1 035 m a bove s e a l e ve l a nd f l ow s t h rough a l o ng i tud ina l v a l ley ( l egh th a bou t 8 5 km ) i nt h e V e l ikonda h i l l r a nge s d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f wh ich i ti sj o ined b y s eve ra l a f f luen t s a nd h i l l s t r eam s a nd u l t ima te ly m e rges i n to t h e r i ve rc heyye ru ( 14 ° 5 1 ' N ; 7 9° 1 6 ' Ea t9 5 ma bove s e al e ve l ) . T h is w o rk a im s a tt h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e S tone A ge s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s i n t h e C uddapah r e g ion w i th t h eh e lp o fl o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s o f t h e d i f f e r en t s t ages o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic a ga in s t t h e i r

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d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t t ypes a nd d i f f e r ences i n t h e i rd im en s ion s . 4 .F un c t iona l a t t r ibu te s a r e a s s igned t os pec if i c t oo l c a tego r ie s o n t h e b a s i s o f d ocum en ted e t hnog raph ic e v idence ( Mu lvaney 1 976 : 8 4 ) , e xpe r im en ta l r e su l t s , a nd m ic row ea r a na ly s i s o f s t one t o o l s c a r r ied o u ti no t h e rp a r t s o ft h e w o r ld ( Kee ley 1 979 : 1 02 -109 ) . I ti sn ece ssa ry f i r s t t o r e la te s t one t oo l s oh uman a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h en t o d e te rm ine h ow t h ese t oo l s w e r e d i s t r ibu ted a t d i f f e r en t s i te s i no rde rt oa s se s s t h e r e levance o f t h e s e t t lem en t s y s tem f o r P a laeo l i th ic h un te r g a the r e r s ( B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 969 : 9 4 -95 ) . I t i sp r e sum ed t h a tt h ev a r iab i l i ty i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f s t one t oo l s r ef l ec t s t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n h um an a c t iv i t ies . 5 .E thnog raph ic e v idence h a s b een u sed t o r e con s t ruc t P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lem en tp a t te rn s . D a ta o n t h e e t hnog raphy o f t h e Y anad i h un te r g a the r e r s h a s b een c o l lec ted b y t h e f o l low ing m e thod s : i ) I n terv iew ing t h e Y anad i m en a nd w om en , e spec ia l ly o ft h e o lde rg en e r a t ion sw ho w e r e e xper t h un te r s a nd g a the r e r s d u r ing t h e i r a c t ive l i f e . i ) P a r t ic ipa t ing i n h un t ing a nd f i sh ing e xped i t ion s o f t h e Y anad i s a nd c o l lec t ing f i r s t h and i n f o rma t ion o n t h e i r s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s . i i ) U se o fh i s to r ica l d ocum en t s , c en su s r e po r t s , d i s t r ic t g aze t tee r s , d i s t r ic t m anua l s a nd s t a t i s t ica la b s t rac t s . i v ) U se o f p ub l i shed a nd u npub l i shed e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s , monog raph s a nd f i e ld r e po r t s o n t h e p r im i t ive p eop le s o ft h e r eg ion .

P l a in s , t h e E a s te rn V a l ley a nd S ou ther n P l a teau ( f ig . 1 ) . T he m a in p hy s ica l f e a tu r e s o f t h e r eg ion a r e d e te rm ined b yi t sh i l lr anges . B a r r ing t h eT r iba l o r A gency t r ac t s i n S r ikaku lam , V i sakhapa tnam , G odava r i , Khammam a nd Wa ranga l D i s t r ic t s , C uddapah i s h e mo s t h i l ly r e g ion i n A ndh ra P r ade sh ( f o rd e ta i ls s e e R a ju 1 981) . G eo log ica l ly i t i s as t ab le l a nd m a s sh av ing s om e o ft h e o l d e s tr o ck f o rma t ion s o n E a r th — A r chaean s , P u r ana s , C uddapah a nd Ku rnoo l s upe r g roup s ( f ig . 3 ) . L i tho log ica l ly , t h e m a in r ock f o rma t ion s a r e q ua r tz i te a nd s ha le . T he o th e r r ock s a r e S ha le a nd L im es tone c onf ined t o as m a l l a r ea i nt h e n o r ther n p a r t , at i ny p a tch o fo l de rt r ap i nt h e n o r th -we s ter n p a r t a nd G ne i s s ic c omp lex i nt h e m id -we s ter np a r t o ft h e r eg ion ( f ig . 4 ) . T he a bundance o fq ua r tz i te wh ich i so ne o f t h e b e s t r aw m a te r ia l s f o r s t one t o o l s i s ak ey f a c to r f o r i t s s e lec t ion b y S t one A ge h uman g roup s . 1 0 00lOC KA t MAPCO

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E nv ironmen t T o u nde r s tand t h e c u l tu r e h i s to r ica l p roce s se s t h a t h ad g one o n i n t h e s t udy r e g ion i n i t s p rope r p e r spec t ive , i t i s n ece s sa ry t o u nde r s tand i t s e co log ica l s e t t ing t ok now t h e p o ten t ia l a nd u se o f r e sou rce s a nd h uman -b io sph e r e i n te rac t ion . T he a va i lab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n s o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l s f o rt o o l s , w i ld p l an ta nd a n ima l f ood s f o r s ub s i s tence , t h e v aga r ie s o fw ea the ra nd t h e e f f ec t s o ft h e f l uc tua t ing c l ima te d u r ing t h eP l e i s tocen ea r e c r uc ia lf o ru nd e r s tand ing e a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion s . T he C uddapah r eg ion i s l o ca ted i n t h e h ea r t o f R aya la seem a o f Andh ra P r ad e sh , S ou th E a s t I nd ia , b e tween 1 3° 4 3 ' a nd 1 5° 1 4 ' Nl a t i tude a nd 7 7° 5 5 ' 7 9 ° 2 9 ' El o ng i tude . P hy s io -g raph ica l ly i tc an b e d i v ided i n to t h r ee n a tu ra l d i v i s ion s —t h e Wes ter n

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1 31

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T he s o i l s o ft h i s r eg ion c on s i s t o f r ed s andy s o i l ( 27% ) ,r e dl o am ( 2 5% ) ,b l ack c l ay ( 24% ) a nd b l ack l o am ( 18% ) ( f ig . 5 ) . T h i s r e g ion i sd r a ined b y t h e P enneru a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s n am e ly t h e C h i t rava t i , t h e Kunde ru , t h e P apaghn i , t h e S ag i leru a nd t h e C heyye ru . G un jana v a l ley , w h ich i st h e m a in f o cu s o ft h e p r esen t s t udy i sa ni mpo r tan tt r ibu ta ry o ft h e r i ve rC h eyye ru .

h i l l s o f t h e V e l ikonda s a nd w i th a s weep t o t h e n or thea s t m e rge s w i th C h eyyeru n ea r P o t tap i v i l lage ( 94 m a bove s e a l e ve l ) . T he K odu ru a nd C h i tve l v a l ley s o ft h e K odu ru T a luk a r e d r a ined b y t h i sr i ve r . C l ima te T h e a nnua l c l ima te c yc le o ft h e C uddapah r e g ion c on s i s t s o f f ou r s e a son s . T he p e r iod f r om D ecembe r t o F eb rua ry i sd ry a nd c ompa ra t ive ly c oo l . T he s umm e r s e a son i sf r om Ma r ch t o May a nd i sf o l lowed b y t h e s ou thw es t mon soon s e a son f r om J une t o S ep tembe r . O c tobe r a nd N ovembe r c on s t i tu te t h ep o s t mon soon s e a son .

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T h e a ve rage a nnua l r a inf a l l i n t h e r eg ion i s7 00 mm . T he r a inf a l l g ene ra l ly i n c r ea se s f r om n o r thwe s t t o s ou th -ea s t p a r t o f t h e r e g ion . T he r a inf a l l i s mo s t ly c onf ined t oh e m on th s o f May t o N ovembe r . H ighe s t r a inf a l l o ccu r s i n S ep t embe r . T h e a nnua l r a inf a l l s how s v a r ia t ion s f r om y ea r t o y ea r . I nt h e f i f ty y ea rp e r iod f r om 1 901 t o1 950 ,t h e h i ghe s t a nnua l r a inf a l l a moun t ing t o 165 p e rc en t o f t h e n o rm a l o ccu r r ed i n 1 903 . I nt h e v e ry n ex t y ea r 1 904 , t h e r eg ion h ad t h e l owe s t r a inf a l l i nt h e f i f ty y ea r p er iod w h ich a moun ted t o4 9 p e r c en t o ft h e n o rm a l . I n t e n y ea r s o u t o f t h e f i f ty , t h e a nnua l r a inf a l l w a s l e s s t h an 8 0 p e r c en t o f t h e n o rm a l . T h er a inf a l l w a sb e tween 4 00 a nd 9 00 mm i nf o r ty t wo y ea r so u to ft h ef i f ty .

E g . 5 :S o i lm ap o fC uddapah D i s t r ic t

T he Gun jana T he n am e i s ac o r rup ted f o rm o f ` Kun ja r e ru ' . ` Kun ja ra ' i n S an sk r i t m ean s ' e lephan t s ' . T he l o ca l i ty w h e r e i t s t a r t s w a s i n t h e e a r l ie r t h e h ab i ta t ion o fw i ld e l ephan t s , a nd h ence t h e n am e . T h i s r i ve r r i se s i nt h e s ou the s te rn c o rn e r o fK odu r t a luk n ea r Mog i l ikuppa ( 1052 m a bove s e al e ve l ) i n t h e S e shaha lam h i l l s . I tc ou r se s t h rough t h e h i l l s b eyond N e t ik-u ppa a nd f a l l s d own 7 8m . T h e se f a l l s a r e a bou t 7km t ot h e w e s t o fS e t t igun ta . A bou t 5 km t o t h e w e s t o f S e t t igun ta r a i lway s t a t ion t h e G un jana d e scend s d own t h e S eshacha lam s a nd t h e V e l ikonda s i n t h e K odu r v a l ley . Meande ing n o r thwa rd s i tc o l lec t s t h e G und lavanka o n i t s r i gh t b ank a nd c on t inu ing b eyond K odu r i tr e ce ive s Mu sh t iye ru o n i t s l ef tb ack . F low ing f u r the r n o r th , t h er i ve rc o l lec t s o ni t sl e f tf l ank i t sb i gge s a f f luen t , t h e G unda le ru t o t h e n o r thea s t o f Anan ta r a jupe ta . T hen i ts weep s n or thwa rd s i n to t h e f e r t i le C h i tve l v a l ley b e tween t h e V e l ikonda s a nd t h eC h i tve lh i l l s c o l lec t ing m any h i l l s t ream s l i k e G o t t iman ikona n ad A luguvanka . T he E l lama ra jucheruva i sf o rm ed b y d amm ing G unda lakona a nd o t he r h i l l s t r eam s . A pp roach ing C h i tve l , t h e G un jana o r P a tagun jana t u rn s n o r thwe s t a nd w ind s a l ong s om e p ro jec t ing

O n a n a ve rage t h e r e g ion h a s 4 3 r a iny d ay s ( w i th r a inf a l l o f2 . 5 mm t o l Omm o rm o r e ) i n ay ea r . A s i nt h e c a se o ft h e a moun t o fr a inf a l l , t h e n umbe ro f r a iny d ay s d ec rea se s f r om t h e s ou thea s ter np a r t o f t h er e g ion t ot h en o r thwe s ta nd w e s t . T he p e r iod f r om a bou t t h e l a te r h a lf o fN ovembe r t ot h e m idd le o fF ebrua ry i st h e c oo le s t p a r t o ft h e y ea r . I n D ecembe r w hen t h e m ean d a i ly t empe ra tu r e i st h e l owe s t ,t h em ean d a i ly m ax imum t empe ra tu re i s 2 9 .9° C . A f te r t h e m idd le o f F ebrua ry t empe ra tu r e b eg in s or i se r a p id ly a nd b y May , t h e h o t tes t m on th , t h e m ean d a i ly m ax imum t empe ra tu r e i s4 0 .8 ° C . T he w ea the r i so pp r e s s ive i n t h e s umme r s e a son . W i th t h e o n se t o f t h e s ou thwe s t mon soon e a r ly i n J une t empe ra tu r e s b eg in t od ec l ine . T he h i ghe s t m ax imum t empe ra tu r e r e co rded a t C uddapah w a s 4 6 .1° C o n May 1 8 , 1 906 a nd t h e l owe s t m in imum t empe ra tu re w a s 1 .7 ° C o n J anua ry 71 912 a nd D ecembe r 1 2 , 1 945 .

1 32

I n t h e s umme r s e a son t h e r e la t ive h um id i ty i s g ene ra l ly 5 0 -60 p e rc en ti nt h em o rn ing s a nd 3 5 -40 p e rc en t i nt h e a f t er noon s . I nt h e r e s t o ft h e y ea ri t v a r ie sf r om 5 0 -75 p e rc en t .

( Ka ja le e ta l . 1 976 ) . L a te P l e i s tocen e f a una f r om t h eK u rnoo lc ave si sr i che ra nd c on s i s t s o f av a r ie ty o f v er teb ra te s ( Lydekk a r 1 886 : 1 20 -122 ; Mu r ty 1 074 : 2 22 -228 , 1 975 : 1 34 -135 , 1 979 : 3 18 -319 ; R a ju 1 988 : 8 9 -90 ) .

I n O c tobe r a nd N ovembe r , s t o rm s o r ig ina t ing i n t h e B ay o fB enga l s om e t im e s c r o s s t h e E a s t c oa s t o fI nd ia a nd mov ing i n aw e s te r ly t on or thwe s te r ly d i r ec t ion a c ro s st h ep en in su la a f f ec tt h i sr eg ion a nd i t s n e ighbou rhood , c au s ing w ide sp read r a in . T hund e r s t o rm s o ccu r i n t h e s umm e r a nd p o s t mon soon mon th s . T he v ege ta t ion ( f o r e s t s ) o f t h e r e g ion i st r op ica l d ry d ec iduou s a nd t hor ny t h ick e t n a tu r e .

T he m amma l ian s pec ie s , e spec ia l ly t h e h e rd a n ima l s o f t h e o rd e r s P e r i ssodac ty la a nd A r teodac ty la , i n d ica te a f o r e s ted a nd g r a s s land e co sy s tem w i th p e r enn ia l s ou rce s o f w a te r . T he o ccu r r ence o f H exapro todon p a lae ind icu s i n t h e n o r ther n D eccan a nd R h inoce ro s k ur nu l ien s i s in i n t h e Ku rnoo l c aves i nt h e s ou th er n D eccan d u r ing l a te P l e i so tcene t im e p o in t t o t h e p r e sence o f p e r enn ia l p oo ls a nd s wamp s i nt h e r i ve r ine , h i l ly a nd f o r es ted z one s ( Mu r ty 1 979 : 3 18 ) . A l though H exapro todon a nd R h inoce ro s b ecam e e x t inc t i n t h e D eccan , mo s t o f t h e o the r w i ld s pec ie s e spec ia l ly m embe r s o f An t i lop inae a nd C e rv inae s u r ive t ot h i s d ay i nt h e d ry d ec iduou s z one s o ft h e h ighe r moun ta in r ange s i n c lud ing t h e V e l ikonda s . T he P a laeo l i th ic s i te s u nde r d i scu s s ion a r e s i tua ted a tt h e f oo t o ft h e V e l ikonda h i l l s . T he r eg ion t oday h a s d ry d ec iduou s f o re s t s w i th w ood land , s avanna w ood land , s h rub s avanna , d eg raded s avanna a nd d i scon t inuou st ho rny t h icke tt y pe s o fv ege ta t ion . I n r e cen t y ea r s , h oweve r , t h e v ege ta t ion c ove r h a s b een much d ep le ted d ue t o h uman i n te rf e r ence i n t h e f o rm o f r e c lama t ion o f l a nd f o r a g r icu l tu r e , f e l l ing o ft r ee s f o rf u e l a nd t imbe r a nd o ve rg raz ing b y l i ve s t ock . W i ld l if e h a s a l so b een d e s t royed i nd i sc r im ina te ly t hu s d i s tu rb ing t h e b io t ic e qu i l ib r ium . A cco rd ing t oo ld i n f o rman t s e ven 5 0 y ea r s a go t h e f o r e s t s h ad at h icke rv ege ta t ion c ove r a nd a bundan t w i ld l i f e . D e sp i te t h e se f a c to r s e ven t oday t h e f o r e s t p rov ide a mp le f ood r e sou rce s i n t h e f o rm o fl a nd a n im a l s , b i rd s , a qua t ic f a una a nd v ege ta l f ood s f o r t h e l i v ing h un te r -ga the r e r s . A t l e a s t 3 0 s pec ie s o fb i rd s , 1 3 s pec ie s o fy am s , w i ld r oo t s a nd t u be r s , 1 0 s pec ies o f e d ib le l e aves , a nd 2 5 s pec ie s o f f r u i t s a r e a va i lab le i n t h e f o r e s t . P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lem en t s a r e l o ca ted i n s em i -a r id t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing s o f f e r ing t h e se r i ch s ub s i s tence r e sou rce s . T h i s w ou ld s how t h a t t h e C uddapah r eg ion w a s a n i d ea l h un te r -ga th e r e r e co sy s tem d u r ing p r eh is to r ic t im e s . On t h eb a s i s o f a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n o f a r tef ac tua l a s semb lage s , t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s a mong t h e se o ccu r r ence s , a nd t h e l i v ing h un te r g a the r e r -f i she r w ay o f l i f e i nt h e s am e r eg ion t h e f o l low ing p red ic t ive mode ls f o r t h e S tone A ge h un te r -ga the r e r sc an b e s ugges ted .

T he C uddapah r eg ion h a s e v idenced h ab i ta t ion s o f h un te r -ga the r e r s f r om l a te M idd le P l e i s tocene ( c a . 1 50 , 0 0 y ea r s B .P . ) t h rough t h e H o locene t o t h e p r e sen t d ay . T he c a tchm en t a r ea s o f t h e r i ve r P enn eru a nd a l l i t s m a jo r t r ibu ta r ie s — t h e C h i t rava t i ,t h eK unde ru ,t h e S ag i leru , t h e C heyyeru a nd t h e G un jana a r e h ab i ta t s o ft h e A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s — H omo e r ec tu s a nd H omo n eander ta len s i s . H oweve r , H omo s ap ien s s ap ien s r e p r e sen t ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e Me so l i th ic w e r e c onf ined m o s t ly t o t h e e a s ter n v a l ley , t h e a r ea s d r a in ed b y t h e G un jana a nd t h e S ag i le ru ( f ig . 1 ) . T he re s e em t ob e f l uc tua t ion s i nt h e h ab i ta t ion p a t ter n s a nd t h e p opu la t ion d en s i ty i nv a r iou sp e r iod s . B a sed o nt h e d e sc r ip t ion a nd a na ly s i s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta a s a l so t h e p r ev iou s d i scove r ie s i nt h er eg ion u nde rs t udy a nd t h ea d jo in ing r e g ion s , a t temp t s a r e m ade h e re t oe va lua te t h e S tone A ge h un te r -ga the r e r h ab i ta t ion p a t t er n s i n t im e a nd s pace . F o r a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e S t on e A ge h un te r g a the r e r s i t i s n ece s sa ry t o d e l inea te t h e p a laeoeco logy o ft h er eg ion d u r ing t h eP le i s tocene . P a laeoeco logy A s a l r eady s t a ted a bove , n o b i o log ica l r ema in s a s soc ia ted w i th P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l i nt h e r e g ion h ave s u rv ived . H oweve r , o n t h e b a s i s o f l im i ted e v idence f r om t h e D eccan ( o f wh ich t h i s r e g ion f o rm s ap a r t ) a nd f r om Kur noo l c ave s ( i n t h i s g eog raph ica l z one ) ag en e ra l p i c tu r e o f t h e P a laeoeco logy o ft h er eg ion c an b e a t temp ted . F auna l r ema in s f r om t h e L a te P l e is tocene a l luv ium a tI namgaon i nt h e G hod V a l ley i nP un e d i s t r ic t o f Maha r a sh t ra i n c lude H exapro todon p a lae ind icu s , E quu s n amd icu s , E lepha s s p . , a nd C er vu s s p .

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L ower P a laeo l i th ic T he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i n t h e C uddapah r e g ion b e long s t o t h e A cheu l ian . B a sed o n t e chno t y po log ica l a nd m e t r ica l a na ly s i s i n c ompa r ison w i th o the r k nown I nd ian A cheu l ian i n du s t r ie s , a nd e spec ia l ly t h o se f r om t h e n or the rn D eccan , t h e A cheu l ian o f t h e C uddapah r e g ion i s s hown t o b e long t o al a te p ha se ( f ig . 6 ) . T he e a r ly A cheu l ian f r om t h e T ha r d eser t i n n o r th -we s t I nd ia , a nd Um r e th i d am s i te a nd o t h e rs i t e si nS au ra sh t ra h ave b een r ad iom e t r ica l ly d a ted b y U /Th s e r ie s d ecay m e thod o n p edogen ic c a rbona te s a nd m i l io l i te l im e s tone r e spec t ive ly u nde r ly ing t h e a r tef ac t b ea r ing l a ye r s t oa bove a nd a r ound 2 00 , 0 00 y ea r s B .P . I n l i gh t o f t h ese d a te s , t h e H omoe r ec tu s p opu la t ion s m ay b e p r esum ed t oh ave o ccup ied h e C uddapah r e g ion i n t h e l a te M idd le P l e i s tocene a r ound 1 50 , 0 00 B .P . B u t f o r t h e r e cen t i s o la ted d i scove ry o f t h e p o s t -c r an ia l r ema in s o f H omoe r ec tu s a t H a thno r a i n t h e N a rmada v a l ley , n owhe r e e l se i n t h e s ub -con t inen t a ny p hy s ica l r em a in s o ft h e a r tef i ce r s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l i th ic s h ave b een u nea r thed . T he r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e l i f e w ay s o f t h e se p eop le a r e t h e r ef o r e b a sed o n t h e n a tu re o ft h e l i th ic s , t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s a nd t h el o ca t iona la na ly s i so ft h es i t e st h em se lve s .

t o o l . Ma jo r i ty o ft h em a r e o fo va te s hape . S om e o f t h e h andaxe s w i th s ha rp c u t t ing e dge s a l l o ve r t h e p er iphe ry w e r e p robab ly h af ted i n w ooden s haf t s l i ke H a rdw ick ia b ina ta a nd u sed a ss pea rhead s a nd l a nce s f o r h un t ing . T he p o in ted h andaxe s w e r e p robab ly u sed f o r d i gg ing y am s , r oo t s a nd t u be r s . H andaxes w i th u n t r immed b u t t s w e re p robab ly u sed a s a l l p u rpo se t o o l s b u t w e r e c e r ta in ly n o t h af ted . O n t h e w ho le t h e p r edom inance o f h andaxe s i nt h e A cheu l ian m an 's t oo l k i t s ugge s t s h i s r e l iance m a in ly o n a v ege ta l d i e t . L iv ing h un te r -ga the r e r s i nt h e C uddapah r eg ion a s a l so i n v a r iou s o th e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld r e ly m a in ly o n p l an t f ood s . Wh i le s ma l l g am e h un t ing w ou ld b e r e gu la r t o s upp lem en t p ro te in , l a rge g am e w ou ld h ave p robab ly b een o b ta ined b y o ppo r tun i s t ic s c aveng ing .

F ig . 7 :A cheu l ian s u rf a ce s c a t te ra tN e t iva r ipa l l i

T h e p er f ec t s ymm e t ry a nd v e ry f i ne w o rkman sh ip o f s om e o f t h e h andaxe s c ompa rab le t o t h e v e ry b es t a nywhe r e e l se i nt h e w o r ld a nd i n d ica te s a pa r t f r om u t i l i ta r ian f un c t ion s t h e s en se o fp u rpo se a nd a e s the t ic a pp rec ia t ion o n t h e p a r t o f A cheu l ian h un t e r -ga the r s( f ig s . 6 ,8 ) .

F i g . 6 :A cheu l ian c l eave r s

L oca t iona l a na ly s i s o f t h e s i t e s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley a nd o t he r v a l ley s s how s t h a t t h e se h um an g roup s o ccup ied p l ace s a l ong e phe rm e ra l s t r eam s a nd b ra ided r unne l s o ne t ot wo km a way f r om t h e m a in r i ve r c hanne l i n s c rub t hor ny t h icke t h i n te r land e co sy s tem ( f ig . 7 ) . T he i r t o o l k i t c on s is ted m a in ly o f h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , t h e l a t te r o ccu r r ing i ns m a l le rp ropo r t ion s ( f ig . 6 ) . T he r aw m a te r ia l i sc oa r se o m ed ium -g ra ined q ua r tz i te a bundan t ly a va i lab le i nC uddapah f o rma t ion s . T he t o o l s a r e b i f ac ia l ly w o rked w i th c y l inde r h amme r t e chn ique , h ave s ymm e t r ica l o u t l i ne s , s t r a igh t p rof i le s a nd b i convex t o l e n t icu la r c r o s s s e c t ion s . H andaxes h ave a n a ve rage o f 2 4 f l ake s c a r s p e r

T he a na ly s i s o f h andaxe a s semb lage s f r om t h e G un jana v a l ley c l ea r ly e s tab l i she s d i s t inc t v a r iab i l i ty i n d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f t h e r e g ion r e p r e sen t ing d i f f e r en tg roup so rs im i la rg roup sw i th d i f f e r en t s k i l ls o r d i f f e r ing f unc t iona l n eed s f o r e xp lo i ta t ion o ff ood a nd o t he rr e sou r ces . Me t r ica l a na ly ses o ft h e h andaxe s s ugge s t t h a t t wo d i s t inc t A cheu l ian i n du s t r ie s o ccu r i nt h e G un jana v a l ley . G roup 1 o ccu r s a t t h e s i te s o f V enka ta ra jupa l l i , N e t iva r ipa l l i , S idda r edd ipa l l i a nd K on e t i r a jukand r ika , a l u p s t r eam o fC h i tve l , a nd i s

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. ! = I>

F ig . 8 :A cheu l ian h andaxes

p o in ted i mp lemen t s , m any w i th u n t r imm ed b u t t s ( f ig . 9 ) .

c ha rac te r ized b yo va te h andax e s w i th c u t t ing e dge s a l l a r ound t h e i r p e r iphe r ie s . G roup 2 o ccu r s a t T ummache t lapa l l i ,N a rayanan e l lo r e , Ma lemapu ram a nd K a s tu r iva r ipa l l i , a nd c on ta in s b o th o va te s a nd

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d i s t r ic t ( a bou t 5 0 km . S ou th ) p e rhap s s e rved a s h om eb a se sf o rt h ese s i t e s .

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F i g . 9 : S hape d i ag ram f o r h andaxe s f r om N e t iva r ipa l l i , V enka ta r a jupa l l i , T umma che t lapa l l i a nd N a rayanane l lo r e p oo led ( af t e rD .A . R oe 1 976 )

T h e A cheu l ian h un te r -ga th e r e r s o ccup ied t h e c a tchm en t a r ea s o f a lmo s t a l l t h e r i ve r v a l ley s i n t h e r e g ion — t h e e a s te rn v a l ley , t h e w e s te rn p l a in s a sa l so t h e s ou the rn p l a teau . H oweve r ,t h ey s e em t o h ave p r ef e r r ed t h e v a l ley r eg ion a ss hown b y m any s i te s i nt h e G un jana a nd t h e S ag i le ru v a l ley ( f ig .1) . T he C udaphah r e g ion i sa bou t 1 40 km f r om n o r th t os ou th a nd a bou t9 0t o 10 km f r om e a s tt ow e s t . I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t h a t s ma l lg roup s o fp eop le w e r e s p r ead o ve r w ide r a r ea s a nd t h e re w e r e i n te r -camp m ig ra t ion s . E ven t h e a d jo in ing a r ea s b eyond t h e C uddapah r e g ion — N e l lo r e , K u rnoo l , A nan tapu r a nd C h i t too r h ave r e vea led e v iden ce o fA cheu l ian o ccupa t ion .

F i g . 1 0 : M idd le N a r ayanane l lo r e

P a laeo l i th ic

o ccupa t ion

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Ap o s t -m idd le P a laeo l i th ic h o r izon a tN and ipa l l i i n t h e C uddapah r e g ion h a sb een r e d ioca rbon d a ted t o 2 5 ,000 y ea r s B .P . R ad iom e t r ic d a te s f o r t h i s p ha se i n t h e n o r ther n D eccan a nd o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e s ubcon t inen tr ange b e tween 4 0 , 0 00 y ea r s B .P . a nd 2 5 ,0 00 y ea r sB .P .

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T he r e a r e o n ly t wo M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i nt h e g un jana v a l ley , a t T ummach e t lapa l l i a nd N a rayanane l lo r e ( f ig . 1 0 ) . T he i n du s t ry c omp r i se s p o in t s , s c rape r s , m in ia tu re h andaxe s , f l ak e s a nd b l ades . T he t o o ls a r e m ade o n af i ne g r a ined q ua r t i te a nd a r e c ha r ac ter ized b y s ha l low t h in f l ak e s c a r s , s t ep f l ak ing , m a rg ina l s e conda ry r e tou ch a nd s ha rp e dge s ( f ig . 1 ) . T he g ene ra l c ha rac te r o ft h e i n du s t ry c onf o rm s w i th t h a t o f t h e o t he r M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o f t h e s ou th -ea s t c oa s ta l r e g ion o fI nd ia .

T h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic r e p r e sen t s H omo s ap ien s n eande r ta len s i s , a l though n o p hy s ica l r em a in s o f t h e a r t if ice r s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a r tef ac t s h ave a s y e t b een r e cove r ed . T he t o o l k i t o f t h e M idd le P a leo l i th ic h uman s i nC uddapah r e g ion c on s i s t s o f d i f f e r en t v a r ie t ie s o f s c rape r s , p o in t s , b o re r s a nd m in ia tu r e h andaxe s o r r a the r b i f ac ia l p o in t s . T he r aw m a ter ia l i s f i ne g r a ined q ua r tz i te . T he o ccu r r ence o fb i f ace s t h ough i ns ma l le r p ropor t ion a nd t h e u se o f q ua r tz i te ( t hough o f f i ne -g ra ined v a r ie ty ) a sr aw m a ter ia l i n d ica te st h ep e r s i s ten ce o f L a te A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion . T he m in ia tu r e h andaxes c ou ld h ave b een h af ted a s s pea rhead s a nd l a n cehead s . S om e o f t h e b i f ac ia l p o in t s s t r ik ing ly r e ca l l Mou s te r ian p o in t s a nd t h e i r t h inned b u t t s c l ea r ly i n d ica te t h a tt h ey w e r eh af ted .

I nv i ew o ft h e l ow a r tef ac tua l y i e ld t h e se t wo s i t e s a r e c on s ide r ed t oh ave b een t r an s ien t c amp s . R ich M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen t si nt h en e ighbou r ing S ag i leru v a l ley ( a bou t 6 0 km . N o r th ) a nd a t R a l laka lava i nt h e S wa rnamukh i v a l ley i nC h i t too r

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F i g . 1 : M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r t if a c t s

a ppea r st h a tt h e r e i sn o c on s ide r ab le i n c r ea se i nt h e p opu la t ion f r om t h eA cheu l ian t im e s .

T h e l a rge n umbe r o f s c rape r s w i th e dge d amage , e s pec ia l ly t h e c oncave , n o tched a nd c onvex o ne s w e r ep robab ly u sed f o rw o rk ing o nw ood ,b one a nd h i de . L ik e t h e A cheu l ian h un te r -ga the r e r s , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le a l so o ccup ied a l l t h e t h r ee z one s . H oweve r , mo s t s i t e s o f t h i s p ha se c l u s te r a r ound S ag i leru b a s in i nt h e n or th -ea s ter n p a r t( f ig . 1 ) . I ti si n t r igu ing a st ow hy t h e re a r eo n ly t wo s i te s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley . T he se t wo s i te s p robab ly r e p r e sen t t r an shumance f r om t h e h om e b a se s i nt h e S ag i leru v a l ley a bou t 5 0 km n o r th a nd S wa rnamukh iv a l ley a bou t5 0 km s ou th .

Upper P a laeo l i th ic T he e v idence f o rt h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic i sp ro l if i c , a nd c om es f r om t e n s i te s . T he i n du s t ry i sb a sed o n ab l ade t e chno logy , a nd c on s i s t s p r edom inan t ly o f b ack ed b l ade s a nd s c r ape r s m ade o n f i ne -g ra in ed q ua r tz i te a nd l yd ian i te ( Ra ju 1 985 ; Ma thpa l 1 985 ) . O n t h e b a s i s o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om N and ipa l l i i n t h e C uddapah r eg ion , a nd o th e r s i te s i n t h e n o r ther n D eccan a s a l so a T L d a te f r om t h e Ku rnoo l c ave s , t h e a ge o ft h i s c u l tu r e i sa s c r ibed t o b e tween c .2 0 , 0 00 y ea r s a nd 1 0 , 0 00 y ea r s B .P . T he a u tho r s o f t h i s c u l tu ra l p ha se a r e H omo s ap ien s s ap ien s .

A s m any mu l t i c u l tu r e s i te s i n d ica te , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a ppea r s t o b e o n ly a c on t inua t ion o f t h e A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion , t h e d i f f e r ence b e ing t h a t t h e t o o l s a r e s ma l le r , l i gh te r a nd b e t te r m ade t h an t h e A cheu l ian o ne s . D own s t r eam o fP enne ru i nt h e N e l lo re d i s t r ic t a r e s co re s o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd A cheu l ian s i tes . H en ce , l i k e t h e A cheu l ian h um an g roup s t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h un te r g a the re r s w e r e a l so s p read i n s m a l l g roup s o ve r l a rge a r ea s . F rom t h e n umbe r a nd n a tu r e o fs i te s i t

T he v e ry l a rge s i ze o ft h e s i te s ( up t o 2s q . km ) a nd t h e h igh d en s i ty o f t oo l s ( 5 t o 6 7 p e r s q . m ) s ugge s t s t h em t o b e h om e b a se s . O n ly o ne s i t e n am e ly ` Vemu la ' i sk nown f r om e l sewhe re i nt h e r e g ion a nd t h e i ndu s t ry h e r ec on s i s t ing m a in ly o f

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1 35 s p l i t p ebb le s , a l s ugge s t ing t h e p roce s s ing o f v ege tab le f ood s a t t h e s i t e . T h i s e v id en ce i si n c on f o rm i ty w i th t h a t f ound i ns u r f ace c on t ex t s a t R en igun ta . T h e se o b jec t s p r ov id e f u r th e r e v id en ce t ot h e f a c t t h a t Me so l i th ic t r ad i t ion s i nw h ich t h ey b ecam e mo r e c ommon a r e r o o t ed i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic .

F i g . 1 2 :U pp e rP a la eo l i th ic b l ade s

f l ak e -b lad e , b l ad e s a nd s c rape r s o f c r ud e v a r ie ty r e p r e sen t s a n i n c ip ien t f a c ie s . T h e G un jana i n du s t ry , o n t h e o t h e r h and , i s mu ch a dvanced c omp r i s ing p r edom inan t ly b ack ed b l ad e v a r ian t s a nd s c r ape r s w h ich r e ca l l i t s c oun t e rpa r t s i n t h e b l ad e a nd b u r in i n du s t r ie so fR en igun ta i nC h i t too r d i s t r ic t ( f ig s . 1 2 , 1 3 ) . T h e o n ly d i f f e r en ce b e tw een t h e t wo i si np oo r r e p r e sen ta t ion o fb u r in s i nt h e G un jan a i n du s t ry . T h e b ack ed b l ad e t e chno logy i s v e ry h i gh ly d eve loped i nt h e G un jana i n du s t ry a nd i t sp rodu c t s c an b e c ompa r ed t ot h o se o ft h e f m e s t c r af t sman sh ip a nywh e r e i nt h ew o r ld . T h e i n du s t ry c on s id e r ed a s aw ho le a nd c ompa r ed t o o t h e r k nown b l ade t o o lb a s ed i n du s t r ie s e l sewh e r ei nt h e c oun t ry t e nd s t owa rd s m ic ro l i th iza t ion a nd w ou ld r e p r e sen t al a t e U ppe r p a laeo l i th ic o r e ven E p i P a la eo l i th ic s t age . T h e v a r iou s b ack ed b l ad e v a r ian t s w e r e p robab ly u s ed a sc ompo s i te t o o l ss u ch a sb a rb ed a r rowh ead s , h a rpoon s , s l i ce r k n ive s , a nd i n se r t s f o r f i sh h ook s . V a r iou s t y pe s o fs c rape r s a r e l i k e ly t oh av e b een u s ed f o r p roce s s ing w ood , h i d e a nd b on e a nd f o r m ak ing h un t ing , f i sh ing a nd o t h e r t o o l s . T h e p r edom inan ce o f b ack ed p o in t s i n U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic m an 's t o o l k i t a nd t h e i r d ep ic t ion i n Me so l i th ic r o ck p a in t ing s a s e l em en t s o f a r row s a nd s p ea r si mp l ie st h a tb ow sa nd a r row sa nd s p ea r s w e r ep r in c ipa lh un t ing w eapon s .

F i g . 1 3 : U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic b acked b l ad ev a r ian t s

T h ee x t en s ion o ft h eo b se rva t ion sd e r iv ed f r om t h e a n a ly s i s o ft h e a r t ef ac tua l a s semb lage s f r om t h r ee b a se c amp s , V od ika lu , B ee l lu a nd R a l la ch enu . Wh en a pp l ied t oo t h e r s i t e sr e v ea l st h a tt h e r e w e r e t wo h om e b a se s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley : ( i ) V enk a ta r edd ipa l l ii nt h eu p s t r eam o fK odu r( f ig . 2 ) w i th Mek a lagun t e ru a st h e t r an s ien tc amp , a nd ( i ) V od ik a lu , d own s t r eam o f K odu r w i th — B ee l lu , R a l lach enu , G adda la r evupa l l i a nd N agava r am a s b a se c amp s a nd N agava r am — V odd ipa l l i , N agava r am ch eruvu a nd G o l lapa l l i a s t r an s ien t c amp s . T h e se w ou ld r e p r e sen t t wo m ax imum b and s , o n ea tV enka ta r edd ipa l l ia nd a r ound a nd t h e o t h e ra tV od ik a lu a nd t owa rd sn o r th .T h e i rt o o lk i t s d o n o t s how a ny a pp r ec iab le v a r ia t ion i nt y po logy o r t e chno logy . S i n ce t h e d i s r ib tu ion p a t t er n s o f a r tef ac tua l o ccu r r en ce s a tR en igun ta a nd G un jana

T h e t r i a l e x cava t ion a tV od ik a lu r e v ea led t h e i n s i tu n a tu r e o ft h e s u r f ic ia l a r t ef ac t s f o und e a r l ie ra t t h i s s i t e ( f ig . 1 4 ) . T h e a l luv ium c on ta in ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l h o r izon i s af i n e al o am w h ich w a s d epo s i t ed b y as l ugg i sh s t r eam a nd c ov e r ed t h e c u l tu r a l m a t e r ia l s , l y ing e xpo sed o n t h e a d ja cen t l a nd s u r f a ce , w i thou t t r an spo r t ing i t . T h e e x cava t ion y i e ld ed , a l ong w i th f l ak ed a r t ef ac t s , 8 4 p i ece s o ff l a t g r ind ing s t on e s l ab s , 1 9 r u bbe r s a nd

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t h e s am e t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing s a nd d o n o t c hange t h e i r s e t t lem en t s s e a sona l ly a st h e ! Kung S an w ho e s tab l i sh s ma l l w ide ly s c a t te r ed a nd s ho r t l ived c amp s d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son a nd b u i ld l a rge r m o r ep e rmanen to n e s d u r ing t h e d ry s e a son ( Ye l len 1 978 : 4 8 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h and G ou ld ( 1969 ) r e por t s t h a t t h e a bo r ig ine s o f t h e Wes te rn D e ser t o f A u s t ra l ia c ong r ega te i nl a rge c amp s w hen s t and ing w a te r i s mo s t p l en t if u l a nd d i spe r se i n to s ma l le r g roup sd u r ing d r ie rp e r iod so ft h ey ea r .

v a l ley b ea r s t r ik ing s im i la r i ty , a nd o ccu r rence s w i th l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f a r tef ac t s s p r ead ing f o r s eve ra l k i lom e t r e s a r e n o t e ncoun te r ed e l sewhe r e , i tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a t o ccupa t ion s b y m ax imum b and s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s a r e u n ique t o t h i s g eog raph ica l z one . T hese t wo o ccupa t ion s a r e s epa r a ted b y ad i s tance o fo n ly 5 0 km t h a t c ou ld b e c ove red b y 8t o 1 0 h ou r s w a lk . T h e re w ou ld , t h e r ef o r e , h ave b een r egu la r c ommun ica t ion a nd e xch ange o f i d ea s , i nnova t ion s , a nd m a te r ia l e qu ipm en t b e tween t h e t wo c amp s .

F ig . 1 5 : Ad eep p e r enn ia l w a te rp oo l i nt h e G un jana V a l ley n ea r V od ika lu U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic s i te

T he i n t ra s i te v a r iab i l i ty a t V od ika lu , B ee l lu a nd R a l lachenu i n d ica tes s pec if i c a c t iv i ty a r ea s s uch a s t o o l m ak ing , b u tche r ing , w ood w o rk ing a nd f ood p roce s s ing a r ea s . F u r the r , t h e e x ten s ive d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft h e a r tef ac t s a tV od ika lu , B ee l lu a nd R a l lachenu ( up t o 3km . i n l e ng th ) a nd t h e i r h i gh d en s i t ies ( 5t o6 0 p e r s q m ) s ugge s t t h a t t h e se s i tes m ay h ave s e rved a s h om e b a se s . T hey a r e l o ca ted o n a l luv ia l f l a t s o ve r look ing p e renn ia l p oo l s i n t h e G un jana r i ve r ( f ig . 1 5 ) . T h i s r e la t ion sh ip s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a qua t ic r e sou r ces . Mo r eove r , t h e l o ca t ion s o f t h ese s i te s a r e s uch t h a t t h ey n eve r b ecom e i n unda ted , e ven w hen t h e Gun jana i sa tt h e p eak o f i t s m on soona l s pa te . A l so , t h e a b sence o f b a se c amp s i nt h e f oo th i l l s o r i n ter io r f o r es t s m ay s ugges t t h a t t h e se a l luv ia l s i tes w e r e a lsea son c amps w i th p ro longed o ccupa t ion s .

F i g . 1 4 : D i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef a c t s i n l a ye r 3 a t V od ika lu e xcava t ion t r ench

T h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic c amp s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley a ppea r t o b e a l l s e a son c amp s f o r t h e f o l low ing r e a son : T h e c amp s a r e s i tua ted c l o se t or i ve rb ank s a nd d o n o t g e t i nunda ted e ven d u r ing t h e h e igh t o f m on soon w hen t h er i ve ri si ns p a te ( f ig . 1 5 ) . R aw m a ter ia l f o r t oo l s i sa va i lab le a s p ebb le s o n t h e r i ve rb ed a nd c hunk s a nd n odu le s i nt h e n ea rby V e l ikonda h i l l s .

A t V od ika lu t h e a r tef ac tua l a s semb lage s a r e d i s t r ibu ted i nc l u s te r s , e ach c l u s te r s e pa ra ted f r om t h e o t he r b y 5 10 m I n r e spec t o f s pac ing , t h e se c l u s te r s r e ca l l t h e p r esen t d ay Y anad i o ccupa t ion p a t ter n s . I fw e a s sum e e ach c l u s te r o f a r tef ac t s t o b e t h e h and iwo rk o f an uc lea r f am i ly , au n i t o f a

L oca t ion i sc en t r a lw i th r e spec tt of ood r e sou r ces . A b sence o fs i te s i nt h e f oo t h i l l s a nd i n te r io r o ft h e s c rub j ung le . T he p r esen t d ay Y anad i s a l so i n hab i t

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m in imum b and , t h en t h e r e w ou ld h ave b een a d we l l ing h u t a s soc ia ted w i th e a ch c l u s te r . T he Y anad i sm anuf ac tu r e a nd m a in ta in i mp lem en t s a nd p e r f o rm mo s t o f t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing p roce s s ing o f f ood o u t s ide t h e h u t , u sua l ly u nde r t h e s hade o ft r ee s . T he se c l u s te r s t h en a r e h e w o rk a r ea s o u t s ide t h e h u t s . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic b and s c ou ld a l so h ave t a k en s he l te ru nde rt h e t r ees wh ich i s ap rac t ice o ft h e Y anad i s o ft h e a r ea ( f ig . 1 7 ) .

c a tch ing f i sh w i th b a re h and sb yd i v ing i n to muddy w a te r s a nd h i t t ing f i sh w i th s t ones ( f ig s . 1 8 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 8 ) . V a r iou s s c rape r s a nd b acked b l ade s i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic m an s t o o l k i t w e r e p robab ly u sed t om ake p ro to type s o fn e t s a nd t r ap s . Wh i le i t i sh aza rdou s t oc o r re la te t h e y anad i l i f e w ay s w i th t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene h un te r -ga the r e r s , i td oe s d emon s t ra te t h e r e sou r ce s p o ten t ia l o f t h e r e g ion a nd i t s c a r ry ing c apac i ty t o s uppo r t c on s ide rab le h un te r -ga the r e r p opu la t ion s . T he C uddapah r e g ion c on s i s t s o f at e c ton ica l ly s t ab le l a nd m a s s a nd h e re i sn o e v idence t os how a ny a pp r ec iab le c hange i n t h e e co logy o r p hy s ica l e nv i ronm en t f r om t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene t h rough t h e p r e sen t . I f a ny th ing , t h e b i oma s s h a s b een d ep le ted t o a c on s id e rab le e x ten t d u r ing t h e l a s t c en tu ry d ue t o t h e s p r ead o fm oder nc i v i l i sa t ion . T he Y anad i h u t s a r e s os imp le a nd f l im sy t h a tt h e S tone A ge h un te rg a the r e r s w ou ld h ave e a s i ly b u i l t s uch s imp le d we l l ing s . T ak ing c l ues f r om t h e f ood h ab i t so ft h e Y anad i s , i t i sr e a sonab le t op r ed ic t t h a t t h e u ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s r e l ied o n a qua t ic f ood r e sou rce s f o rt h e i r s ub s i s tence a s much a so n g am e a nd w i ld v ege ta l f ood s . A l l t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s t ie s a r e l o ca ted c l o se t op e r enn ia l w a te r s ou r ce s ( f ig . 1 5 ) . F u r th e r , c on sump t ion o fr oo t sa nd t ube r s mu s th ave b een a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic d i e t a st h e Y anad i s a r e k nown t oh ave l i ved d u r ing s even y ea r s ( 1950 -57 ) o f c on t inuou s d rough t m a in ly o n w i ld y am s l i ke D io scorea o ppo s i t if o l ia , D io scorea b u lb if era , D io scror ea p en taphy l la a nd D io scor ea s y lva t ica s upp lem en ted t o s om e e x ten t b y r oo t s , h oney , f i sh a nd g am e . S uch h ab i t s a nd p rac t ice s p o s s ib ly h ave a h i gh a n t iqu i ty a nd i n d ica te t h e t r ad i t iona l s ub s i s t ence p a t ter n s a mong t h el a te P le i s tocene h un te r -ga th e r e r s .

F ig . 1 6 : U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic s u r f a ce s c a t te r n ea r t h e e xcava t ed t r ench a tV od ika lu

F i g . 1 7 : At empo ra ry e ncampm en t o f D a sa r i , an omad ic t r ibe u nde rt h es had eo f at r ee

T he re a r e s eve ra l i n s tan ce s i nt h e Y anad i l i f e s t y le w h ich c an b e t a k en t os ugges t t h e p l au s ib le mod es o fa c t iv i t ie s o ft h et e rm ina l l a te P l e i s tocene h un te rg a the r e r s . S om e o ft h em a r e : u se o fb o t t le g ou rd s f o rs t o rage o fw a te rd u r ing h un t ing e xped i t ion s ,u se o f v a r iou s n e t s , t r ap s a nd o the r h un t ing a i d s f o r h un t ing , f ow l ing a nd b i rd c a tch ing , e x t rac t ion o f h oney , c o l lec t ion o fm ino rf o r e s tp roduce , f o rag ing f r u i t s , r oo t s , t ube r s a nd g r een l e aves , t h e u se o f d i gg ing s t i ck s , h un t ing b i rd s b y p e l t ing s t ones ,

F i g . 1 8 : Y anad i s e to u t f o rf i sh ing w i th D indu af l oa t a nd n e t s

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Me so l i th ic N o s i te so ft h eM id -Ho locene m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s h ave b een e ncoun te r ed i n t h e G un jana v a l ley . H oweve r ,K .T . R eddy h ad r epo r ted f ou rs i te si nt h e S ag i le ru b a s in . T h i s a ga in p o se s ap rob lem . T he q ue s t ion r em a in s a s t o w ha t h appen ed t o t h e l a te P l e is tocene a nd e a r ly H o locene h uman g roup s . Swar n amukh i v a l ley i nt h e s ou th a nd Ku rnoo l a nd A nan tapu r r eg ion s i n t h e n o r th a nd w e s t o f t h i s s t udy r e g ion h ave e v idenced Me so l i th ic s i t e s . S eve ra l s i te sa l so h av eb een r e po r ted r e cen t ly i nt h e V isakhapa tnam c oa s t b y t h e D epa r tm en t o f An th ropo logy , Andh ra Un ive r s i ty .

An a t temp t a t t h e e s t ima t ion o f p opu la t ion a t V od ika lu a nd n e ighbou r ing c amp s b a sed o n a pp rox im a te f l oo r a r ea a nd s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s o f d ocum en ted e x tan te t hnog raph ic p opu la t ion sw ou ld i n d ica te t h a t V od ika lu s uppo r ted 1 90 p eop le d iv ided i n to s i xm in imum b and se ach c omp r i s ing 5 t o 6n uc lea r f am i l ie s o f 5m embe r s e ach . B ee l lu w ou ld h ave s uppor ted t wo m in imum b and s c on s i s t ing o f s i x n uc lea r f am i l ie s ( a t o ta l o f 6 0 p eop le ) a nd R a l lach enu w ou ld h ave s uppo r ted 3 0 p eop le — o ne m in imum b and w i th 6 n uc lea r f am i l ies . T he se f i gu r e s , h oweve r , a r e b y t h e i r v e ry n a tu r e h igh ly s pecu la t ive . Y e t t h ey s e rve t og ive a r ough i d ea o f i n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion w i th t h e p a s sage o ft im e .

T o s um u p , t h e p r e sen t s t udy h a s r a i sed s om e i n te r e s t ing q ue s t ion s wh ich w i th t h e p re sen t s t a te o fo u rk now ledge c anno tb ea n sw e r ed . T he se a r e :

V od ika lu i st h e l a rges t o f t h e t h r ee c amp s . T he d i s tance b e tween a ny t wo o ft h e c amp s i sl e s s t h an 2km T he r ew ou ld ,t h e r ef o r e ,h av eb een c on t inuou s c ommun ica t ion , s oc ia l i n te ra c t ion a nd e xchange o f m a te r ia li t em s sw e l la sp eop le a mong t h em .

I st h e A cheu l ian i ns ou th -ea s t I nd ia i n d igenou s? I f s ow hy o n ly l a te A cheu l ian? Wha th appened t ot h e e a r ly A cheu l ian ? H ad t h e A cheu l ian p opu la t ion s m ig ra ted f r om t h e n o r ther nD eccan w he r e a r e s uch s i te sr e po r ted?

F rom t h el o ca t iona lp o in to fv i ew , i ti si n t r igu ing a s t o w hy t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene h un te r -ga the r e r s i te s a r e c onf ined o n ly t ot h e s ou th -ea s ter np a r t o f t h e r e g ion n am e ly Gun jana V a l ley . We m ay n eed t o l o ok a t a b roade r r e g iona l p e r spec t ive t o u nde r s tand t h i s . D u r ing r e cen t e xp lo ra t ion s , Ih ave d i scove r ed a tl e a s t 1 4 v e ry r i ch U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o ccu r rences w i th a r tef ac t s p r ead s e x tend ing t o a f ew h ec ta r e s i n t h e K a l le t ivagu v a l ley i n at h ick f o r e s ted e nv i ronm en t i n t h e C uddapah -Ne l lo r e b o rde r a r ea . F u r the r a tl e a s t 8 4 P a laeo l i th ic s i tes s om e o f w h ich a r e p o s s ib ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic w e r e r e po r ted i nt h e c a tchm en t a r ea s d own s t r eam o f t h e r i ve r P enne ru a c ro s s t h e V e l ikonda s a nd c l o se t ot h e c oa s t o ft h e B ay o f B enga l . A lso t h e r i ch U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s i nt h e S wa rnamukh i v a l ley a r e a bou t 5 0 -60 km s ou th o f t h e G un jana s i te s . T h i sp r e sen t sa ni n t e r e s t ing p i c tu r e . A l though U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s a r e r e por ted f r om m any p a r t s o fI nd ia d u r ing t h e l a s t t h r ee d ecade s , t o my k now ledge t h es i te sr e po r ted i nt h i ss t udy a nd t ho se o fR en igun ta a ppea rt ob es om eo ft h er i ches ti nt h e s ubcon t inen t a nd a r e v e ry i mpo r tan t f o r u nde r s tand ing t h et r an s i t ion o fh un t ing -ga the r ing t o a g r icu l tu ra l a nd a g ro -pa s to r a l e conom ies . B u t u nf o r tuna te ly n o t as i ng le h ab i ta t ion s i t e h a s b een s ub jec ted t ol a rge s c a le h o r izon ta le xcava t ion i nt h e e n t i re s ou th er n D eccan , t h e r e su l t o f wh ich i st h a t n o f a una l r ema in s a r e f o r thcom ing f o r r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e i re conomy .

Wha t h appened t ot h e Meso l i th ic i nt h e C uddapah r eg ion ? I n t h e n o r ther n D eccan , c en t ra l a nd n o r th -we s t I nd ia , s i te sr e p r e sen t ing t h eM id a nd L a te H o locene i ndu s t r ie s a r e i n num e r ab le c ompa r ed t o t ho se o f t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene i nd ica t ing a lmo s t s udden p opu la t ion g row th . T h e s ou ther n D eccan o n t h e o t he rh and p re sen t s ac on t ra s t ing p i c tu re . Why? E thnograph ic e v idence E thnog raph ic d a ta o n Y and i s , as imp le s oc ie ty l i v ing i n t h e s am e r eg ion h a s b een c o l lec ted t o e l ic i t i n f o rma t ion o n t h e i r s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s a nd s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies t og a in i n s igh t s i n to t h e p a s t . As umma ry o ft h es am e i sg iven b e low : As t udy o ft h e w ay o fl i f e o ft h e Y anad i f i she r a nd h un te r -ga the r e r p eop le who i n hab i t t h e G un jana v a l ley t oday , v e ry o f t en l i v ing o n t h e s am e s i t e s a s w e r e o ccup ied b y U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p eop le , w a s u nde r tak en w i th av i ew t og a in a n i n s igh t i n to t h e s ub s i s tence a nd s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h e Y anad i s w e r e u n t i l r e cen t ly p u r e h un te r -ga the re r s , b u t n ow m any g roup s h ave s e t t led n ea r f a rm ing v i l lage s w he r e t h ey w o rk a s m anua l l a bou r e r s o r w a tchm en i n t h e f i e ld s o f a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s . T rad i t iona l ly , t h ey l i ved i n b and s o f 3t o2 0 f am i l ie s i nr a the r h aphaza rd s e t t lem en t s o fc i r cu la rh u t sw i th c on ica lr oof s , m ade e n t i r e ly o f

1 4 1

T he Y anad is h un t a tl e a s t 1 4 s p ec ie s o ft e r r e s t r ia l g am e w i th s na r e s , n e t s a nd o t he r m e thod s . T he p r ey i n c ludes h a r e s , l i za rd s , s qu i r r e l s , p o rcup in es , w i ldca t s , r a t s , b and icoo t s a nd l a ngu r monk ey s ( f ig . 2 1 ) . T hey a l so c a tch a tl e a s t 4 5 s pec ie s o f f r e sh w a te r f i sh b y a s m any a s 1 2 d i f f e r en t m e thod s , u s ing f i sh t rap s , w e i r s , n e t s , h ook s a nd p o i son s ( f ig s . 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 8 ) .

p l an t m a te r ia l s . S uch h u t s a r e s t i l l b u i l t a nd a r e g en e ra l ly 3t o 4m . i nd i am e te rw i th w a l l s0 . 5 t o1 . 5 mi nh e igh t . E n t rance s a r e v e ry s ma l l ( 0 .95 t o 1 . 10 m h igh ; 0 . 70 t o 0 . 95 m . w ide ) a nd a r e c l o sed b y d oo r so fl e ave sa nd t w ig s( f ig s . 1 9 , 2 0 ) .

F i g . 1 9 : Y anad i s e t t lem en t a tR a l la chenu s how ing c i r cu la r a nd o b long h u t s

T he Y anad i s h ave a n e xpe r t k now ledge o f t h e i r e nv i ronm en t . T hey a r e i n t ima te ly f am i l ia r w i th a l l a n ima l s , b i rd s , f i sh a nd u sef u l p l an t s i n t h e i r h ab i ta t , a nd t h e se p l ay i mpor tan t r o le s i n s ub s i s tence . Y anad ih un t ing e xped i t ion s c on s is t s o f 3t o1 0p e r son s ,w ho t r ave r se t h ef o r e s tf o ru pt o2 0 km a nd s t ay a way f o rm t h e i rs e t t lem en t s f o r 3t o4 d ay s , o re ven u pt o1 0 d ay si fg am e i ss c a r ce . T hey e r ec t s ma l l t empo ra ry h u t s f o r s h e l te r i nt h e f o r es t o r u se c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s w hen a va i lab le . Af t e r ak i l l i sm ade , ap o r t ion o fi ti sc ooked a nd e a ten o nt h e s po t , a nd t h er e s ti ss un -d r ied o nr o ck s a nd t a ken b ack h om e f o r l a te ru se , t oge th e r w i th b one s , h o rn s a nd a n t le r s r equ i r ed f o r o the r p u rpo se s . Q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te f l ake sa r eo f t en u sed f o rb u tche r ing .

F ig .2 1 : Two Y anad ib oy sc a tch ing f i e ld r a t si nt h eo pen s c rub n ea rB ee l lu ,U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic s i t e

F ig . 2 2 : Y anad id emon s t ra t ing t h ep roce s so fh oney c o l lec t ion

I na dd i t ion , t h ey c an i d en t if y 6 8 s pec ies o fb i rd s , o f w h ich 6 a r e r egu la r ly c augh t i n n e t s , s na re s a nd c ages ( f ig s . 2 6 , 2 7 ) . T hey c on sum e a t l e a s t 1 3 s pec ie s o f y am s , w i ld r oo t s a nd t u be r s , 1 0 l e af y

F ig . 2 0 : Ah ea r th o u t s id e Y anad ih u tp ro tec ted b y as em ic i r cu la r a l ignm en to fs t one sa sw ind b r eak

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g r een s , a nd 2 5 s pec ies o f e d ib le f r u i t s ( f ig . 2 9 ) . T hey c o l lec t 2 2 o t he r i t em s o f m ino r f o r e s t p roduce , a nd a f te r u s ing s om e o f t h e se f o r s ub s i s tence t h ey e xchange t h e r e s tw i th f a rm e r s f o r g r a in o rc a sh

F i g . 2 6 : C age f o rb i rd c a t ch ing

F i g . 2 7 : P ad i , a mu l t ip le n oo se b i rd c a t ch ing t r ap l a id i nt h e o pen s c rub f o rp a t r idge s

F i g .2 3 : AY anad i b oy s hoo t ing f i sh w i th b ow a nd a r row

F i g . 2 4 : Y anad i w oman c o l lec t ing t h e m id v e in s o f c o conu t l e ave sf o r af i sh t r ap

F i g . 2 8 : Y anad ib oy h i t t ing f i sh w i th ap ebb le

I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t t h e v a r iou s l o ca l n am es f o rs p ec ie s i nt h e f l o r aa nd f a una , a nd m any o ft h e i r f ood a nd m ed ic ina l u ses , a r e k nown o n ly t o t h e Y anad i s a nd n o t t o a ny o t h e r f u l ly a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s i n t h e r e g ion . T he i r i n t ima te k now ledge s ugge s t s al o ng t r ad i t ion o f e x ten s ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f f l o ra a nd f a una . T he p hy s ica l

F i g . 2 5 : Y anad i f i sh ing b y am e thod k nown a sD inde ta

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c or respondences b e tween t h e l o ca t ion s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i tes a nd Y anad i s e t t lemen t s a r e t o o c l o se t o b e p u re ly c o inc iden ta l . I ndeed , i ts e em s v ery l i ke ly t h a t Y anad is a r e t h e c u l tu ra l a nd b i o log ica l d escendan t s o f t h e S tone A ge h un ter g a the re r s o f t h e r e g ion ( f ig . 3 0 ) , w ho p robab ly l i ved a l i f es ty le n o t v e ry d i f f e ren t i n t e rm s o ft h e n a tu re o ft h e i rs e t t lemen t s a nd s ubs is tence p a t tern s .

t y po log ica l a spec t s a nd t ime -space s y s tema t ics ( Mu r ty 2 002 ) . T o k now mo re a bou t t h e l i f e w ay s , a nd r e con s t ruc t ion o f c u l tu r e p rocess , i t i s n ecessa ry t oe xcava te p r ima ry s i t es o n al a rge s c a le t or e cove r h uman s ke le ta l r ema ins a s soc ia ted w i th l i t h ics a nd f auna l a nd o t he r b i o log ica l r ema in s . T o u nde r s tand b e t te r i ti s n eces sa ry t o u ncove r a nd s t udy t h e p a t ter n o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t s , e cof ac ts a nd o t he r f e a tu r es o ve r a c t iv i ty a r ea s . T he s u rf ace i t se lf n eed st ob e e xcava ted o ve rw ide a r ea s s o t h a t a l l t h ese c an b e p l o t ted t o s e e t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween d i f f e ren t k inds o f t o o ls , d eb i tage a nd b one s . T he s i tes n eed t ob e l o oked a t n o t i ni s o la t ion b u t i nr e la t ion t oo ne a no the r . A t a g i ven t ime p er iod i t mu s t b e p o ss ib le t o c onnec t s i tes t o ge the rt os how t h e p a t ter no fr e sou r ce u se i n t h e p reh is tor ic p a s t . A l though a r tef ac t s a r e i mpo r tan t a s make r s o ft h e l o c i o fa c t iv i t ies o fe a r ly h uman s , i n fo rma t ion o n t h e s pa t ia l c onf igu ra t ion s o fa r tef ac t s i sj u s ta si mpo r tan t a st h et e chn ica l d a ta o n t h e mo rpho logy o f t h e o b jec t s t h em se lves ( Se t ta ra nd S e t ta r2 000 ) .

F i g . 2 9 : Y anad i c h i ld ren o u t i n t h e o pen s c rub g a ther ing t h e y oung s hoo t so fC ar i s sa s p inarum

Du r ing t h e l a s t t wen ty f i ve y ea r s , t h e re h ave b een s i gn if i can t c hanges i n m e thod a nd t h eo ry i n a r chaeo logy . Mu l t i a nd i n te r -d i sc ip l ina ry s t ud ies i n vo lv ing g eomo rpho logy , t a phonomy , s i te f o rma t ion p roces ses , s i te c a tchm en t a na ly s is , b i o a r chaeo logy a nd p a laeodemog raphy a r e b e ing c a r r ied o u t ( Hodde r 1 995 ; S . P appu 1 996 ; R a ju 1 988 ; S e t ta r a nd S e t ta r 2 002 ; J ones 2 002 ; P addayya 2 002 , 2 002a ) . F u r the r r e sea rch i n co rpo ra t ing l a te s t m e thod s a nd t h eo ry , a nd mu l t i -d isc ip l ina ry a pp roach w i th s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion o fp r ima ry s i tes a nd s t udy o f s u r f ace s c a t ter s s hou ld t h row c on s iderab le l i gh t o n t h e l i f e w ay s o ft h e e a r ly h un te r -ga the rer s . T h is i s u rgen t ly c a l led f o r a s s t one A ge s i tes a r e b e ing i n c r ea s ing ly d i s tu rbed a nd d e s t royed u nde r t h e i mpac t o f a gr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ies e nc roach ing e ven i n to m a rg ina l a r ea s , i r r iga t ion a nd h yd ro -e lec t r ic p ro jec t s , c ons t ruc t ion o f r oads a nd r a i l t r ack s a nd i n ten s if i ed i ndu s tr ia la c t iv i t ies . A cknow ledgemen t s Iam v e ry g ra tefu l t o P rof esso r V .N . M is ra , my r e sea rch s uperv iso r , f o r h i s t h o rough a nd c a r efu l g u idance d ur ing t h e c ou r se o f my r e sea rch . Ia l so w ish t or e co rd my g r a t i tude t ot h e a u thor i t ies o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P os t G radua te a nd R esea rch I n s t i tu te , t h e An th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty G ran t sC omm iss ion f o rp rov id ing a l f a c i l i t ies a nd f und ing t h is r e sea rch .

F i g . 3 0 : Y anad i h un te r so n t h e m ove f o r p r ey

P rospec t s T o d a te , v e ry f ew P a laeo l i th ic s i tes h ave b een e xcava ted i n t h e r eg ion t h a t t oo o n as ma l l s c a le a nd mos t o f t h e s t ud ies f r om s u rf ace s c a t ter s a nd s t ra t if ied c on tex ts a r e d evo ted t o t e chno -

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Ref erences B inf o rd , L .R . 1 964 . A c on s ide ra t ion o f A r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch d e s ign , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 9 :4 25 -4 1 . B inf o rd , L .R . a nd S .R . B inf o rd 1 969 . S tone t o o l s a nd h uman b ehav iou r ,S c ien t if i c Amer ican 20 : 9 2 10 1 . C hang , K .C . 1 972 . S e t t lemen t p a t t e rn s i n a r chaeo logy , A d i son -W e s ley Modu l e2 4 : 1 26 . C o rv inu s , G . 1 981 . As ur vey o ft h eP ravara r i ver s y s tem i n W e sern Mahara sh t ra , I nd ia . V o lume 1 : T he s t ra t ig raphy a nd g eomorpho log y o ft h e P ravara r i ve r s y s tem . T ub inge : V e r lag A r chaeo log ica , I n s t i tu t f u r U rge sch ich te d e rU n ive r s i ta tT ub ingen . C o rv inu s , G . 1 983 . As ur vey o ft h eP ravara r i ve rs y s tem i n W e sern Mahara sh t ra , I nd ia . V o lume 2 : T he e xcava t ion s o ft h e a cheu l ian s i te o fC h i rk i -on -P ravara , I nd ia . T ub inge : V e r lag A r cha eo log ica , I n s t i tu t f u r U rge sch ich te d e rU n ive r s i ta tT ub ingen . F oo te , R .B . 1 916 . T he F oo te c o l l ec t ion o f I nd ian p reh i s tor ic a nd p ro toh i s tor ic a n t iqu i t ie s : N o te s o n t h e ir a g e s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . Mad ra s : Mad ra s G ove rnmen t P r e s s . H odde r , I . 1 995 . I n t erpre ing A r chaeo logy : F ind ing m ean ing i nt h eP a s t .N ew Y o rk : R ou t ledge . G ou ld , R .A . 1 980 . L iv ing A r chaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J a cob son , J . 1 985 . " A cheu l ian s u r f a ce s i te s i n c en t ra l I nd ia " i n R ecen t A d vance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c p r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 4 9 -57 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH . J one s , A nd rew 2 002 . A rchaeo log ica l t h eo ry a nd s c ien t if i c p rac t ice . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J o sh i , R .V . 1 966 , A cheu l ian s u cce s s ion i nC en t ra l I nd ia , A s ian P e r spec t ive s 8 :1 50 -63 . J o sh i , R .V . 1 977 . C o r re la t ion a na ly s i s o fh andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a nd t h e f unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion . B u l l e t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -Gradua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 3 7 : 4 8 -60 . L e shn ik , L .S . 1 964 . S oc io log ica l i n terpre ta t ion t o a rchaeo logy . P h .D . t h e s i s ,U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago . M inde leef , C . 1 900 . L oca l iza t ion o f T u savan c l an s . N ine teen th A nnua l R epor t o ft h e B ur eau o f Ame r ican E thno logy P a r t2 :6 35 -53 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . T he a cheu l ian i n du s t ry o fr o ck s he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka . C en t ra l I n d ia : A p r e l im ina ry s t udy ,P ura ta t t va 7 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978 . T he a cheu l ian i n du s t ry o fr o ck s he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I n d ia : A p r e l im ina ry s t udy ,B u l le t in o ft h eI ndo -Pac if i cp reh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion 1 :6 3 106 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd P . B e l lwood . ( Ed s . ) 1 985 . R ecen t a d vance s i nI ndo -Pac i f ic P reh i s tor y . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH . M i s ra ,V .N . ,Y . Ma thpa la nd M .N aga r 1 977 .B h imbe tka p reh i s tor ic m an a nd h i s a r t i n c en t ra l I nd ia . P oona : E xh ib i t ion s ouven i r . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 986 . C u l tu ra l a dap ta t ion s i n I nd ia d u r ing t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene a nd e a r ly H o locene t ime s . W or ld A r chaeo log ica l C ong re s s , t h eP le i s tocene P er spec t ive , V o l . 2 :2 3p age s .

Mo rgan , L .H . 1 881 . Hou se s a nd h ou se l i f e o f t h e Amer ican a bor ig ine s . C h icago : C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 966 . S tone A ge c u l tu re s o f C h i t toor d i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s , P une : D eccan C o l lege . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 98 1 . H un te r -ga the r e r e co sy s tem s a nd a r chaeo log ica l p a t ter n s o f s ub s i s ten ce b ehav iou r o n t h e s ou thea s t c oa s t o fI nd ia : A n e t hnog raph ic mode l , W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 : 4 7 -58 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 985 . T he u se o f p l an t f ood s b y s ome h un te r -ga the rc ommun i t ie s i nA ndh ra P rade sh , i nR ecen t A dvance s i nI ndo -Pac if ic p reh i s to ry ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwo E d s . ) ,p p .49 -57 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . Mu r ty , M .L .K . a nd G .D . S on the ime r 1 980 . P reh i s to r ic b a ckg round t op a s to ra l i sm i nt h e s ou the rn D eccan i nt h e l i gh t o f o ra l t r ad i t ion s a nd c u l t s o f s ome p a s to ra l c ommun i t ie s ,A n thropo s7 5 : 1 63 -84 . N aga r , M . 1 967 . T he A har C u l ture : A n a rchaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic s t udy . P h .D . t h e s i s , P une : D eccan C o l lege . N aga r , M . 1 975 . R o le o f e t hnog raph ic e v idence i n t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , T he E a s te rn A n thropo log i s t2 9 : 1 3 -22 . P addayya , K . 1 982 . T he a cheu l ian o ccupa t ion s i t e a t H unsg i , ( p en in su lar I nd ia ) : A s e t t l emen t s y s tem p e r spec t ive . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t g radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . P addayya , K . 2 002 . AR ev iew o ft h eo re t ica lp e r spec t ive s i n I nd ian A r chaeo logy , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t ro spec t( S . S e t ta ra nd R .K . S e t ta rE d s . ) , V o . I V : 17 1 57 .N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . P addayya , K . 2 002a . R ecen t s t ud ie s i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy .N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Mun sh i ram . P appu , S . 1 996 . P l e i s tocene e nv ironmen t a nd S tone A ge a dap ta t ions i nt h e K or ta l layar B a s in , T am i l nadu . P h .D . t h e s i s ,P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R a ju , D .R . 1 98 1 . E a r ly S e t t lemen t p a t te rn i n C uddaph d i s t r ic t , A ndh ra P rade sh : Ap a laeoan th ropo log ica l s t udy . P h .D . t h e s i s , P une : D eccan C o l lege P o s t g r adua te a nd R e sea rch I n s t i tu te . R a ju , D .R . 1 988 . S tone A g e H un ter -Ga there r s : A n E thnoarchaeo logy o f t h e C uddapah R eg ion , S ou thea s t I nd ia . P une : R av i sh P ub l i she r s . R eddy , K .T . 1 968 .P reh i s tory o fC uddapah . P h .D . t h e s i s , S aga r : S auga rU n ive r s i ty . R ou se , I .1 972 . I n t roduc t ion t op reh i s tory : As y s tema t ic a pproach . Y a le U n ive r s i ty : K ing spo r tI n c . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s tory a nd p ro toh i s to ry o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t g r adua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . S e t ta r , S . a nd R .K . S e t ta r ( Ed s . ) . 2 002 . I nd ian A rchaeo logy i nR e t ro spec t I IV . N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . S ha rma , G .R . , V .D . M i s ra , D . Manda l , B .B . M i s ra , a nd J .N . P a l . 1 980 . B eg inn ing s o f a g r icu l ture ( Ep ipa laeo l i th ic t o N eo l i th ic : E xcava t ion s a t C hopan i Mando , Mahadaha a nd Mahagara ) . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan .

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S t an i s law sk i , M .B . 1 974 . T he r e la t ion sh ip o f e t hnoa r cha eo logy ,t r ad i t iona la nd s y s tem sa r chaeo logy i n E thnoarchaeo log y Monog raph 4 . ( C .B . D onnan a nd C .W . C lew low E d s . ) . C a l if or n ia : I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , UCLA . S t i le s , D . 1 977 . E thnoa r chaeo logy : A d i scu s s ion o f m e thod sa nd a pp l ica t ion s , Man 1 2 : 8 7 103 . Wakanka r , V .S . 1 973 . B h imbe tka e xcava t ion ,J ou rna lo f I nd ian H i s tory 5 1 : 2 3 -32 .

W i l ley , G .R . 1 953 . P reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen tp a t t er n s i nt h e V im V a l ley , P e ru , B u l le t in 1 55 . W a sh ing ton : B ureau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion . Wooda l l , J .N . 1 978 . I n t roduc t ion t o mod ern a r chaeo logy . C amb r idge : S chenkman p ub .c o . Y e l len , J . E . 1 977 . A rchaeo log ica l a pproache s t o t h e p r e sen t : Mod e l sf or r econ s truc t ing t h ep a s t . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s .

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M icro l i th ic s i te si nT araf en iv a l ley ,M idnapur d i s tr ic t , We s tB enga l : Av i ew i nh inds igh t B i shnup r iya B a sak r aw m a te r ia l p rocu r em en t , m anuf ac tu r e , u se , m a in tenance a nd d i sca rd o f t oo l s f r om t h e a s semb lage . T hese p roce s se s t h row l i gh t o n t h e p a s t s t r a teg ie s a nd p l an s o f l a nd u se a dop ted t o c ope w i th t h e e nv i ronm en t i n ap a r t icu la r c on tex t . T h i s i sk nown i n a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e a s t h e s t udy o f " o rgan iza t ion o f t e chno logy" a nd i s d i f f e r en t f r om t h e s t udy o f as e t o f o b jec t s o r " t oo l s" , a n i n du s t ry o r ap a r t icu la r p roduc t ion t e chn ique t h a t a r e t h e p roduc t s o ft h i s a dap ta t ion . T he m e thodo logy a dop ted h e r ew a sb u i l to ns im i la r s t ud ie s o f l i th ic s c a r r ied o u t i n o t he r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld . E thnoa rchaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c a se s t ud ie s o f moder n d ay h un te r -ga the re r s w e r e u sed a s c oncep tua l t oo l s t o g a in a n i n s igh t i n to p a s t h uman b ehav iou r .

M ic ro l i th ic s i te s i nt h e T a raf en i v a l ley , ar e g ion i n n o r th -we s t M idnapu r w i th a n a r ea o f4 50 s q . km , h ad f o rm ed t h e s ub jec tm a t te ro f my P h .D .r e sea r ch ( 1 992 -97 ) . A f te r a g ap o f n ea r ly e i gh t y ea r s r e th ink ing a bou t t h e t o p ic l e ad s t o ar e app ra i sa l . H e re Ia mg iv ing as umm a ry o f my t h e s i s , f o l lowed b y ab r ief d i scu s s ion o fh ow Iw ou ld h ave l i ked t o s e e i tn ow i nt e rm so fr e cen tr e sea r ch . T o e l abo r a te t h e l a t te r Ia m i n c lud ing as umm a ry o f my c u r r en t p ro jec t , wh ich i si np rog r es s . M icro l i th ic s i te s i n t he T araf en i V aley : A s ummary P r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch i n We s t B enga l w a s m a in ly c on cen t ra ted i n t h e w e s te rn u p land c ove r ing a n a r ea o f3 000 s q km o fP u ru l ia a nd t h ew e s te rn p a r t s o f B anku ra , B i rbhum , B u rdwan a nd M idnapu r . S cho la r s w o rk ing i nt h i s f i e ld h ad u nde r taken o n ly s po r ad ic s u rvey s t ol o ca te s t on e t o o l s a nd b u i ld a g ene ra l s t ra t ig raphy f o r t h e r e g ion . T h i s f e l l s hor t o f a h o l i s t ic a nd s y s tema t ic s t udy o f t h e a r ch aeo log ica l r e co rd o f an a tu ra l u n i t . K eep ing t h i sl a cuna i nm ind t h eT a raf en iv a l ley ( c ove r ing a n a r ea o f4 50 s q km ) i nn o r thw e s tM idnapo r e d i s t r ic t w a s c ho sen a s a n a r ea o f r e sea r ch . F o r ty -n ine t n ic ro l i th ic s i te sw e r e l o ca ted o f wh ich t wen ty -f ou r w e r e d i scove r ed b y p r ev iou s s cho la r s . I n s tead o f t a k ing u p i s o la ted s i te s f o r i n ve s t iga t ion t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f b o th s i te s a nd s c a t te r s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape w a s t a k en i n to a ccoun t . S i te s , h e r e w e r e d ef ined a s d i sc r e te c l u s te r s o fa r tef ac t s o ccupy ing n oda lp o in t si nt h el a nd scape , a sd i s t ingu i shed f r om o ccu r rence s o f i s o la ted a r tef ac t ( s ) o r d i f f u se s c a t te r s ( 'o f f -s i te ' o r ' n on -s i te ' ) c on t inu ing b e tween s i te s a nd d i s t r ibu ted t h rough o u t t h e l a nd scape . A mu l t id isc ip l ina ry a pp roach w a s a dop ted t o s t udy t h e c on tex t o f t h e s i te s t h a t r e vea led n ew i n f o rma t ion o n t h e l a te Q ua te rna ry p a laeoenv i ronm en t a nd a c h rono logy o f T e rm ina l P l e i s tocen ew a sp ropo sed f o rt h e s i te s .

Ma jo r s ou r ce s o f r aw m a ter ia l u sed i n t h e m anuf ac tu r e o f t h e m ic ro l i th s w e re a b sen t i n t h e r eg ion . I n i t ia l s t age s o ft r imm ing w e r e a l so a b sen t i n t h e a s semb lages a s s e en f r om t h e n om ina l p r e sence o f c o r t ica l f l ak es a nd t h e n eg l ig ib le n umbe ro fr aw m a te r ia l b lock s . T he n umbe ro fr aw m a te r ia l b lock s w a s v e ry l ow a s c ompa r ed t o t h e n umbe ro fc o r es p r e sen t . T hu s i tw a s s u rm i sed t h a t o n -p lace r educ t ion o fb l ade c o r es f r om n odu le s i s n on -ex i s ten t i nt h e r eg ion . P o s s ib ly p a r t ia l ly m ade c o r e sw e r e b rough th e r e a nd t h e c o r t ica l f l ak e st h a t w e r e p r e sen t f o rm ed b ip roduc t s o ft h e p os t in i t ia l t r imm ing p ha se . S uch e v idence s a r e p r eva len t i n a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c a se s t ud ie s . S ub sequen t ly , It r i ed t o s e e h ow t h e p o s t in i t ia l t r imm ing p ha se w a s r ef lec ted a tt h e v a r iou s s i te s , w he the r t h e r e w a s a ny d i f f e r ence i n t h e w ay t h a t d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f t h e l a nd scape w e r e u sed i n t h e p a s t . C e r ta in s t re tche s o f t h e l a nd scape s howed a g r ea te rc oncen t ra t ion o fs i te s . Ad i f f e ren t ia ld i sca rd o f d i f f e r en t a r tef ac t g roup s w a s a l so s e en a t d i f f e r en t p l ace s . T he se p a ram e te r s p o in ted t o a d i f f e r en t ia l p l ace u se . No d ef in i te a n swe r s w e re g iven a s t o w hy t h e r eg ion w a s i mpo r tan t t o p reh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s , o n ly p l au s ib le r e a son s w e r e s ugge s ted . U l t im a te ly w ha te m e rged f r om t h i s w o rk w a s t h e d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o f h uman b ehav io ra nd t h e my r iad p rob lem s o fd ef in ing t h em i nm a te r ia lc u l tu r e .

S tud ies i n p r eh i s to ry i n I nd ia a nd p a r t icu la r ly i n B enga l u sua l ly l o ok a ts t on e t o o l s a s d i agno s t ic f o rm s o fp a r t icu la rc u l tu r e s a nd a r et hu sr e duced t o a s t e r eo typed c a ta logu ing o f " f in i shed t oo l s" f o l lowed b y at e chn ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e t e chn ique s o fp roduc t ion . O n t h e o th e r h and , h e re , t h e e n t i r e a s semb lage w a st a k en a st h e u n i to fa na ly s i st os e e h ow t h e b road s t age s o f r e du c t ion w e r e r e f lec ted t h e r e in . T he a im w a s t o l o ok a tt h e p roce sse s o f

N ew V i s ta s I n t h e p a s t o ne d ecade o r s o l a nd scape a s a c u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted p henomenon h a s e m e rged a s

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a d i s t inc t ly i mpor tan t a r ea i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , m any o f t h e se i d ea s h av ing b een b o r rowed f r om s oc ia l a nd c u l tu r a l a n th ropo logy a nd c u l tu ra l g eog raphy . H en cef o r th d i scu s s ion s o n l a nd scape c r y s ta l l ized i n to t wo p o la r ized v i ew s : a p r ev iou s ly -ex i s t ing e co log ica l o ne , wh ich s ub sum ed l a nd scape u nde r t h e b road r ub r ic o f e nv i ronm en t t o wh ich h uman b e ing s a dap t ; a nd a c u l tu ra l o ne , w h ich v i ew s l a nd scape a s ' m ean ingf u l ly ' c on s t ruc ted . L and scape b ecam e o ne o f t h e i mpor tan t i t em s o f t h e p roce s sua l /pos t p roce ssua l d eba te . A n ece s sa ry c omponen t o f t h e p roce ssua l a pp roach i s ar e g iona l o r ien ta t ion t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . A r e g ion i s d ef ined a s a n a tu ra l g eog raph ica l u n i t w i th r e f e r en ce t o o ne o r mo r e n a tu ra l f e a tu r e s . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p eop le a nd l a nd scape i ss e en a s o ne o ff un c t iona l d ependence a l ong ' a dap t ive p a r am e te r s ' w he r e i s sue s l i ke r ange o f e nv i ronm en ta l r e sou r ce s e xp lo i ted , r e sou r ce -acqu i r ing t e chno log ie s , d eg ree o f mob i l i ty , s e a sona l i ty a nd s chedu l ing i nr e la t ion t o s e t t lem en t s i ze a s sum ed s up r em e i mpo r tance ( T i l ley 1 994 ) . I n c iden ta l ly t h i s i st h e a pp roach t h a t Ih ad a dop ted wh i le l o ok ing a t p a s t h um an b ehav io ri nT a raf en iv a l ley .

w h ich g i ve a n i n s igh t i n to h ow a nd w ha t p eop le t h ink /pe r ce ive o ft h e e nv i ronm en t . T he s am e r e l ief a nd d r a inage a s sum e a d i f f e r en t s i gn if i cance . C ho ice o f p a r t icu la r l o ca t ion s f o r h ab i ta t ion o r e r ec t ion o f m onum en t s a cqu i r e s a c u l tu ra l m ean ing , a s d i s t inc t f r om s imp le e co log ica l c onno ta t ion . T h i s i sn o t t od i spu t e o rd i s r ega rd t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e l a t te r . P eop le d o n o t o ccupy i n ho sp i tab le l o ca les o n ly o n t h e b a s i s o f as e t o f m ean ing s a nd s ymbo l i sm s . B u tw i th t h e p a s sage o f t im e t h e l o ca le s c ho sen f o rt h e i rh ab i ta t iona l u t i l i ty b ecom e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se m ean ing s a nd s ymbo l i sm s , w h ich b ecom e t o o i mpo r tan t t o b e i g no r ed . A s c a se s t ud ie s T i l ley s e lec ted o ne c oa s ta l a nd t wo i n land r e g ion s i n Wa le s a nd D o r se t , d i s t in c t ive ly d i f f e r en t i n r e l ief f r om e ach o t h e r , w h ich s how a s ub s tan t ia l p r e sen ce o f Me so l i th ic f l in t s c a t te r s a nd N eo l i th ic m onum en t s . T i l ley a rgue st h a t d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic , i na l t h r ee a r ea s , a nces t ra l c onnec t ion s b e tween p eop le a nd l a nd scape w e r e m an if e s t i np a th s o f movem en t a nd c e r ta in p l ace s a l ong t h e se p a th s a s sum ed a p a r t icu la r s i gn if icance t o w h ich t h ey r e tur n ed r egu la r ly i n t h e i r s e a sona l a c t iv i ty r ound s . H oweve r , t h e se Me so l i th ic p opu la t ion s m ade v e ry l i t t le i mpac t o n t h e l a nd a nd w ha t s u rv ive s a r e s om e f l in t s c a t te r s . I nt h eN eo l i th ic t h e monum en t s r e s t ru c tu r ed t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een p eop le a nd l a nd scape a si tb ecam e m o r e ' a ncho r ed ' . A l though d i f f e r ence s e x i s ted a mong t h e t h r ee r eg ion s , t h e c u l tu ra l m emo ry o f a' p lace ' a nd t h e c onnec t ion s b e tween s uch m any p l aces w e r e s t ab i l ized b y t h e c on s truc t ion o f m onum en t s a t t h e se s i gn if ican t p o in t s . I n aw o rd , t h el a nd scape w a s ' a pp rop r ia t ed ' . T i l ley r e la te s t h i s t o s ub s i s tence p rac t ices a nd s how s h ow t h e se c hange f r om s imp le s e a sona l movem en t s o fa n ima l s i nt h e Me so l i th ic t o am o r e m ean ingf u ld om e s t ica t ion i nt h eN eo l i th ic .

Ia mw o rk ing w i th in t h e p e r spec t ive t h a t l a nd scape i s ac u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted p henom enon ( A shmo r e a nd Knapp 1 999 ) . T h rough p h enom eno log ica l a pp roach es u sed b y c u l tu ra l a nd s oc ia l a n th ropo log i s t s l a nd scape h a s e m e rged a s c on s t i tu ted b y h uman d we l l ing , s haped b y h um an c ho ice a nd p r ef e r ence s . I tf o l low s f r om t h i s t h a t i t i s n o t u n ive r sa l a nd o b jec t ive ( Thoma s 1 993 ; A shmo r e a nd K napp 1 999 : 1 4 ; B ende r 1 993 ) . T he r e a r e v a r iou s r e ad ing s o fl a nd scape , t h e r e su l t o f d i f f e r en t s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c on tex t s . R ecen t r e sea r che s i n e t hnog raphy a nd c u l tu ra l a n th ropo logy h ave l e d t o a n ' u npack ing ' o f t h e w e s ter n i d iom a nd e ncou raged o ne t ol o ok b eyond a n E u ropean c on s t ruc t . A rchaeo log i s t s , w h i le d ev ia t ing f r om t h et r ad i t iona l c oncep to f' s i te ' h ave s t a r ted f o cu s ing mo re o n n a tu ra l p l ace s o f s i gn if icance i nt h e l a nd scape w h ich y i e ld r e s idue s o f a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu r e , i n d o ing s o , t h ey h ave d r awn h eav i ly o nt h e se s t ud ie s .

S uch s t ud ie s t r yt ob r eak l a nd scape f r ee f r om ad ry e nv i ronm en ta l a pp roach . H oweve r , f o r ah o l i s t ic u nde r s tand ing o f l a nd scape a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a pp roa ch i s r equ i r ed , i n vo lv ing p a laeo -eco logy , e nv i ronm en ta l s c ience , h i s to ry , h um an g eog raphy , c u l tu ra l a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy . P eop le s ' p e r cep t ion s o f l a nd a r e e x t r em e ly i mpor tan t , i ti s e qua l ly i mpor tan t t o u nde r s tand t h e p a laeo l a nd scape , wh e the r o ne i s d ea l ing w i th o ne l a nd scape o r mo r e ; t h e c on tex t o f s i t e s , w he the r t h ey c an b e r e la ted t o t h e s am e c h rono log ica l p e r iod . T h is i sa l lt h e m o r et r ue f o rE th ic s c a t te r s , a N eo l i th ic o r Mega l i th ic monum en t o n t h e o t he r h and i s mo r e e a s i ly i d en t if iab le w i th a p a r t icu la r t im ef r am e .

A s h if t f r om t h i s e co log ica l ly d e te rm in is t ic a pp roach i ss e en a mong s cho la r sl i ke T i l ley ( 1994 ) , B ende r( 1993 ) , T homa s( 1993 )a nd B rad ley ( 2000 ) . ( The r e i sv o lum inou s l i t e r a tu re o n t h is , f o r i n i t ia l r e ad ing s s e e A shmo r e a nd K napp 1 999 ; B ende r 1 993 ) . T i l ley ( 1994 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e l a nd scape i s s uf f u sed w i th my th s , c osmo log ie s a nd s ymbo l i sm s

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I n my o ngo ing p ro jec t I a m d ea l ing w i th m ic ro l i th ic s c a t te r s , s i t es i n t h e r e g ion a r ound A yodhya h i l l s , P u ra l ia Wes t B enga l . Ad i scu s s ion o ft h i sp ro jec tw i l l s how h ow a nd t o wha t e x ten t i t d i f f e r s f r om my P h .D d i s ser ta t ion . Maybe t h i s i s h ow Iw ou ld l i ke t os e eT a raf en iv a l ley n ow .

A yodhya h i l l s , w he re s i f t ing o u t ap a r t icu la r l e ve l o fp e r cep t ion h a sb een ac omp lex t a sk s om e t im e s . T he m ic ro l i th ic s c a t te r s a r e a pp rox im a te ly d a ted t o t h e T e rm ina l P l e is tocene t h rough a n a na ly s i s o ft h e c on tex t a nd s t r a t ig raphy , a nd c ompa r ing t h em w i th t h o se o f T a raf en i v a l ley w h e r e t h e s i te s c ou ld b e r e la t ive ly d a ted t ot h e T e rm ina l P l e i s tocene . T he se a r e c h ie f ly c oncen t ra ted a r ound p rom inen th i l l sa nd r o cky o u tc rop s , wh ich e m e rge a s ' s ign if i can t n a tu ra l m a rke r s ' i nt h e l a nd scape . Ad e ta i led s t udy o f t h e a s semb lage s how s t h a t m a jo r z one s o f a c t iv i ty w e r e a r ound t h e se n a tu ra l m a rk e r s . O ve r t im e t h e se m a rk e r s h ave g a the red s t o r ie s , l e gend s a nd my tho log ica l a s soc ia t ion s a sr e f lec ted i ns om e o ft h e l o ca l c e r emon ie s a nd f e s t iva l s c en ter ing o n t h em . A f ew s c a t te r s s i tua ted a way f r om t h e se m a jo r z one s w e r e e phem e ra l ly u t i l ized , t h i s i sn o t t os ugge s tt h a tt h ey w e r e l e s ss i gn if ican tp l ace s , t h e mo re ' f r ag i le e l em en t s ' i n a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a r eo f t en l o s tt ou s .

L i th ic s ca t ter s a nd p ercep t ion s o f l and scape : A yodhya h i l l s ,P uru l ia , We s tB enga l U s ing m ic ro l i th ic s c a t te r s i n A yodhya h i l l s a s a c a se s t udy Ia mt r y ing t os e eh ow f a rp e r cep t ion so f l a nd scape c an b e s e en f r om t h e l o ca t ion s o ft h e se s c a t te r s a nd a s t udy o f t h e i r a s semb lage . A r i ch , v i b ran t b ody o f r i tua l s , c e r emon ies , my th s a nd s ymbo l i sm s u r round ing t h e h i l l s a nd o the r n a tu ra l f e a tu r e s i n t h e l a nd scape e x i s t s a mong t h e l o ca l i n d igenou s c ommun i t ie s . U s ing t h i s a s at o o l t o w o rk w i th I a m a l so t r y ing t o s e e h ow f a r e t hnog raphy c an b e u sed t o of e r i n s igh t s i n to p a s t p e r cep t ion s . Ia m w o rk ing w i th in t h e p e r spec t ive t h a t l a nd scape i s a c u l tu r a l ly c on s t ruc ted p henom enon , h e r e I a m r e ly ing o n r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l , a n th ropo log ica l a nd c u l tu r e g eog raph ica la pp roach es t ol a nd s cape .

My e t hnog raph ic s t udy i s n o t s ugge s t ing a ny u nb rok en c on t inu i ty o fw o r sh ip o ft h e se h i l l s a nd n a tu r a l f e a tu r e s ; i ti s o n ly o f f e r ing m e w i th a n a l ter na t ive v i s ion o f l a nd scape . B y s e e ing t h e se s c a t te r sa s' s ign if ican tp l ace s ' i nt h el a nd scape Ia m s ugge s t ing t h a t al o t l i e s b enea th a nd b eyond a m e r ec oncen t ra t ion o fa r t if ac t s .

I nI nd ian p r eh i s to ry l a nd scape h a s e m e rged i nt wo w ay s —a s ag eog raph ica l r e g ion , p rov id ing t h e b ackd rop t o ar e con s t ru c t ion o fp a s t l i f e w ay s a nd a s ' e nv i ronm en t ' w h e r e e x i s t ing f e a tu r e s a r e u sed t o r e con s t ruc t t h e p a laeo -env i ronm en t . L and scape a s a c u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted p henom enon h a s r em a ined o u t s ide t h e b ounda ry o f t h e se s t ud ie s . U n l ike monum en t s , wh ich h ave a mo r e s o l id , a ncho r ed p o s i t ion i nt h e l a nd scape , l i th ic s c a t te r s a r e l e s s ' imp r e s s ionab le ' ; t h e r ef o r e d ecod ing t h e i r m ean ing s a nd s ymbo l i sm i sm o re c ha l leng ing a nd p e rhap s mo r e d i ff i cu l t . Ia m s how ing t h a t , d esp i te l im i ta t ion s , s t one sd o s peak o u tt ou s . T h i sh a s a l so b een ap e r sona l j ou rney t h rough t h e l a nd scape o f

T h i s i s as h if tf r om af unc t iona l i s t a pp roach whe r e t h e e mpha s i s i s o n ly o n u nde r s tand ing p a s t s t ra teg ie s o fu se a nd r eu se o fl a nd scape f r om l i t h ic s c a t te r s . A l though t h e m e thodo logy o f s t on e t oo ls a na ly s i s a dop ted i n t h e e a r l ie r w o rk h a s b een m a in ta ined i nt h e c u r r en t p ro jec t t h e e mpha s i s h a s b een mo r e o n u nde r s tand ing p a s t p e r cep t ion s t h rough l i th ic s c a t te r sa nd t h e i rl o ca t ion .

R ef erence s A shmo r e , W . a nd A .B . K napp 1 999 . A rchaeo log ie s o f L and scape , C on t emporary P e r spec t ive s . O xf o rd : B la ckwe l l . B ende r , B . 1 993 . L and scape : P o l i t ic s a nd P e r spec t ive s . O xf o rd : B e rg . B rad ley , R . 2 000 . A n A rchaeo logy o fN a tura l P lace s . L ondon : R ou t ledge .

T homa s , J . 1 993 . T he P o l i t ics o f V i s ion a nd t h e A r chaeo log ie s o fL and scape , i nL and scape : P o l i t ic s a nd P er spec t ive s( B . B ende rE d . ) ,p p . 1 9 -48 . O xf o rd : B e rg . T i l ley ,C . 1 994 . AP henomeno logy o fL and scape :P lace s , P a ths a nd Monumen t s . O xf o rd : B e rg .

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AR e -exam ina t ion o ft he Upper P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in I ndus tr ie s ' , B ans lo i R iver B as in , J harkhand K um a rA kh i le sh I n troduc t ion T h i s p ap e r f o cu se s o n ad e sc r ip t ion o fc o r e s f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in ' i n du s t r ie s o f t h e B an s lo i r i v e r b a s in , J h a rkhand . T h i s w o rk f o rm s p a r t o f ab road e r s t udy w h ich a im s a t t h e r e e xam ina t ion o ft h e se i n du s t r ie si nt h ew id e rc on t ex t o ft h e I nd ian U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic . S p ec if i c g oa l s o f t h i s s t udy i n c lud e e xam in ing t h e s t r a t ig r aph ic c on tex t o f s i te s a nd t h e c on tex t o f a r tef ac t s ; t h e n a tu r e o f a s semb lage s , i n t e r s i t e v a r iab i l i ty a nd l i th ic t e chno logy ; i n o rd e r t o p u t f o rwa rd s om e m ode l s o f p r eh i s to r ic l a ndu se p a t ter n s i n t h e r e g ion .

a f f i l ia t ion t h e p r e sen ce o fm ic ro l i th s c a l led f o r a n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s t a tu s ( Ch ak r aba r t i 1 993 : 1 08 ) . H i s w o rk , a l though l im i t ed t o ab r ief s u rv ey y i e ld ed n ew i n f o rm a t ion a nd e s tab l i shed t h eo ve r a l l p r e sen ce a nd n a tu r e o f i n du s t r i e s i n t h e r e g ion . N a rayan ( 1 996 ) i n h i s s umma ry o f t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic o fB iha r a nd J ha rkhand , b e l ieved t h a t t h i s i n du s t ry d i f f e r ed f r om t h e e a r ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o f S i nghbu rn , a s a l so f r om t h e d ev e loped U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s w i th b a ck ed b l ad e s ,C ha t e lpe r ron a nd G rave t t ian k n iv e s , p o in t s , b l ad e le t s , e t c . ; f r om P a lamau , a nd t h e a mo rphou s n a tu r e o f i n du s t r ie s f r om H aza r ibagh a nd G i r idh . H e n o t ed a s t r ik ing c on t ra s t b e tween t h e t h ick b road b l ad e s s t ru ck f r om c r ud e p r i sm a t ic c o r e s i n S inghbum a nd t h e p a ra l le l s i ded b l ad e s a nd s t anda rd iz ed p r i sm a t ic c o r e s o f t h e D amü i r e g ion ( Na rayan 1 996 : 2 64 ) . T h e l im i ted n a tu r e o f t h es t ud ie sc ondu c t ed ,i n t r igu ing d e sc r ip t ion so ft h e n a tu r e o f t h e b l ad e i n du s t ry d e sc r ibed r e qu i r ed f u r th e r r e -exam ina t ion o f i t ' s p o s i t ion w i th in t h e I n d ian U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic , a nd c on s t i tu t ed t h e s ub jec t o f r e sea r ch i n t h e a u tho r ' s d oc to r a l d i s se r ta t ion .

T he d i scov e ry o f ap o s s ib le U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n B iha r c an b e t r aced b a ck t ot h e w o rk o fA nd e r son ( 1 9 17 ) . S ub sequen t s t ud ie s ( Na r ayan 1 996 ; C hak r aba r t i 1 993 ) , l e d t o t h e e s tab l i shm en t o f v a r ied f l ak e a nd b l ad e a nd b l ade b a s ed i n du s t r ie s o ve r p a r t s o f m od e rn B iha r a nd J h a rkhand . T h e Dam in ' i n du s t r ie s w e r e f i r s t s t ud ied a nd c a tego r i sed a ss u ch b yD .K . C hak r aba r t i ( 1 993 ) a s p a r t o f h i s b roade r s u rv ey o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic a r cha eo logy o f e a s t er n I nd ia . T h e r e g ion w h e r e t h e se i n du s t r ie s o ccu rc omp r i se s p a r t o ft h e S an ta l P a rgana s ( c u r r en t ly p a r t s o fD umk a , P aku r , G odda a nd S ah ebgan j d i s t r ic t s o fJ h a rkhand ) . T h i s r e g ion w a sr e f e r r ed t oa sD am in i -koh o r" t h e s k i r t so ft h e h i l l s" b yB r i t i sh a dm in i s t r a to r s i nt h e 1 9t h c en tu ry ; h ence C hak r aba r t i c l a s s if i ed t h e i n du s t r ie s w h ich f e l l w i th in t h i s r e g ion a s t h e D am in i n du s t r ie s ( Chak r aba r t i 1 993 ) . H e d e sc r ibed t h e D am in i n du s t ry a s a n " .Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry w i th m ic ro l i th ic e l em en t s , w h ich o ccu r s i n a w e l l d ef ined s t r a t ig r aph ic s i tu a t ion a nd i sm a rk ed b yt h e a lmo s te x c lu s ive u se o f ap a t ina ted b r own i sh c h e r ty m a te r ia l a sr aw m a te r ia l" ( Chak r aba r t i 1 993 :102 ) . I n t h i s i n du s t ry , r e tou ch ed f l ak e s , c o r e s a nd s c r ape r s c on s t i tu t e m o r e t h an 7 0% o f t h e t o o l c o l lec t ion . S c r ape r s a r e p r edom inan t . B lade s a r e f ew e ri nn umbe ra sc ompa r ed t oo t h e rt y pe s . O ft h e 3 6 s i t e s d i s cov e r ed b y C hak r aba r t i , m ic ro l i th s a r e n o t ed a l ong w i th U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s a t 1 5 s i t e s . H e s ugge s ted t h a tt h eD am in i n du s t ry w a s a n i n c ip ien t b l ad e i n du s t ry w i th a n e l em en t o fb u r in s ( Chak r aba r t i 1 993 :102 ) . H e a t t r ibu t ed i tt o t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic b a s ed o n t h e p r e sen ce o ft o o l s i n s t ra t if i ed c on t ex t s , a nd t h e o ccu r r en ce o f a n i n c ip ien t b l ad e i n du s t ry w i th b u r in s . H e n o t ed t h a t a l though s c r ape r s s ugge s t ed aM idd le P a laeo l i th ic

T he R eg ion T h e s t udy r e g ion ( F ig . 1 ) c omp r i se s a n a r ea o f 1 95 .6 km2 ( 24 °30 't o2 4 °45 ' Na nd 8 7 °34 't o8 7 °45 ' E ) , a nd l i e s i n ap a r to ft h e ' D amm ' a r ea , f a l l ing i n t h eb a s in o ft h e r i v e rB an s lo i . I ti sb ound ed b yt h e R a jm aha l h i l l s i n t h e w e s t ; w h ich r i se t o a m ax imum e l eva t ion o f 4 23 m a t T ong i P ah a r ( 2 4 °38 'N : 8 7 °34 'E ) . O u t l ie r s o ft h eR a jm aha lh i l l s a r e n o ted t owa rd s t h e e a s t , w h ich r a nge i n e l ev a t ion f r om 1 0 5 m ( Cha rk a p aha r , 2 4 °42 ' N : 8 7 °32 ' E ) t o 1 85 .4 m ( Dham s i p aha r , 2 4 °44 ' N : 8 7 °40 ' E ) . T h e r e g ion i sd r a in ed b yt h e r i v e rK i r la w h ich d r a in s i n to t h e r i v e r T o r a i a nd e ven tu a l ly i n to t h e G anga . T o t h e s ou th o ft h e r e g ion l i e s t h e r i v e r B an s lo i . N um e rou s f i r s t a nd s e cond o r d e r s t r eam sa r e n o t ed . T h e se o r ig ina t e i nt h e R a jm aha l h i l l s a nd t h e i ro u t l i e r s . S eve r a l n a tu ra l w a t e rt a nk s a r e a l so n o t iced n ea rK a r iod ih , K a r angha t i , R anga , J h en aga r ia ,T a l jha r i ,a nd L i t ipa r a . A ni n t en s ive f i e ld s u rv ey o ft h ea r ea w a sc ondu c t ed ( 2 00 1 -2004 ) , w i th t h e a im o f s amp l ing d i f f e r en t g eog r aph ic / g eomo rph ic z on e s . W i th in e a ch b road e r l o ca l i ty , s i t e s ( a r ea w i th h i gh d en s i ty o f

1 50

8 13 0 '

p roces ses a sa l so o n s i te f o rma t ion p roce s se s i nt h e r eg ion . T he L i th ic A s semb lage At o ta l o f 1 430 a r tef ac t s w e re s t ud ied f r om at o ta l o f 2 0 s i te s a nd o f f -s i te s . O f t h i s 10 c omp r i sed c o re s o fv a r iou s t ype s . P a ram e te r s c ho sen i n c luded r aw m a te r ia l t ype s , s t a te , p a t ina t ion , a b ra s ion , c o r e t y pe , d im en s ion s , t h e n a tu r e , n umbe r a nd d im en s ion s o fb l ank s d e tached , n a tu r e a nd p o s i t ion o f s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s , p e r cen tage a nd p o s i t ion o f c o r tex ( De ran iyaga la 1 993 ; G ho sh 1 993 ; I n izan e t a l . 1 999 , I n izan a nd L echeva l l ie r 1 995 ; M i s ra 1 978 ; Mu r ty 1 979 ; P addayya 1 970 ; R a ju 1 988 ; S a h i 1 989 ; S ha rma a nd C la rk 1 983 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h i s , ad e ta i led s t udy o f b l ade s a nd f l ake s , a nd c o re t r imm ing e l emen t s i n t h e a s semb lage i s u nde r i n ves t iga t ion a nd p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s o f t h i s a r e p re sen ted h e re . As t udy o ft h er aw m a te r ia ln odu le s n o ted a te ach s i te w a sa l so c onduc ted .

S tudy A rea I t -ma jo rs i te c lus te r s

1 .f km

F i g . 1 :T he r e g ion s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o fm a jo rs i t e s .

C ore s At o ta l o f 10 c o re s w e r e s t ud ied i n c lud ing b l ade c o r es ( n=64 ) , f l ake c o r e s ( n=21) a nd i n ten s ive ly r educed c o r e s ( n=25 ) ( s ee T ab le 1 ) . R aw m a te r ia l c omp r i ses f i ne -g ra in ed s i l iceou s m a te r ia l o fw h ich v a r ied c a tego r ies o f c he r t p r edom ina te s . T he f o l low ing t ype so fc o r e sw e r en o ted .

t o o l s ) w e re m apped . L ow -den s i ty a r tef ac t s c a t te r s w e r e n o t iced o ccu r r ing b e tw een s i te s . A l though i n g en e ra l a r tef ac t s w e r e c o l lec t ed r a ndom ly , g r id s o f 1x 1o r2 . 5 x2 . 5 mw e r e l a id o u t a ts e lec ted a r ea s f r om wh ich a l l a r tef ac t s a nd n a tu ra l c l a s t s w e r e c o l lec ted . F u r the r , ac o l lec t ion o f a l l a r tef ac t s , n a tu ra l c l a s t s a l ong w i th t h e t o p 5c m o fs ed im en t c ove rw a sm ad e f r om 1x l g r id s a ts e lec ted s i t es f o r ap u rpo se o fs t udy ing n a tu ra l f o rm a t ion p roce s ses , a nd t oo b ta in ac on t ro l led s amp le f r om t h e se s i te s . I n a dd i t ion t ot h i s , s e c t ion s s t ud ied w e r e m apped , d r awn a nd s ed im en t a nd c l a s t s amp le s w e r e c o l lec ted f o r f u r the r a na ly s i s . A s amp le o f c h e r t t y pe s f r om a l l c her t s ou r ce s s t ud ied a nd f r om e ach s i te w a s a l so c o l lec ted w i th t h e a im o fc onduc ted r aw m a te r ia lp rovenance s t ud ie s .

B lade C ore s A t o ta l o f 6 4 b l ade c o r e s w e r e n o ted w i th m ean d im en s ion s o f 4 0 .29 x 3 1 .52 x 2 2 .73 mm ( Sdev L = 12 .89 ; S dev -B= 10 .19 ) . Wh i le mo s t b l ade c o r e s a r e o n c her t ; o n e e xamp le e ach w a s n o ted o n b a sa l t , a ga te , c ha lcedony a nd q ua r tz . Mod if i ed n odu les wh ich m ay r e p r e sen t b l ade c o r e p e rf o rm s a r e n o ted i nf ou r c a se s a nd m ea su r e 6 6 .34 x3 7 .24 x2 8 .97 mm . I no n e c a se , a na t temp th a sb een m ade t o c r ea te a r i dge ; i n t h e s e cond e xamp le p re l im ina ry b l ade l i k e f l ake s w e r e d e tached f o l low ing wh ich t h e c o r e w a s a bandoned . O ne t o o l h a s e v idence o fp r epa ra t ion o f ac r e s ted r i dge o n t wo e dge s o fa n e l onga ted c he r t n odu le . No b l ade s w e r e d e tached , b u t t h e t oo l a ppea r s t o h ave b een u t i l ized ( F ig . 2 ) .

At o ta l o f2 0 s i te s a nd o f fs i t e s w e r e s t ud ied . T h e o l de s t l a nd s u r f ace c omp r i se s t h e R a jmaha l T rap . T h e se w e r e c apped b y T e r t ia ry l a te r i t ie s a t e l eva t ion s r ang ing f r om 5 4 -102 m AMSL , w ea the r ing o f wh ich l e d t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f l a t e r i t ic n odu le s , g ranu les a nd i r on s ton es w i th in t h e P l e i s tocene d r a inage s y s tem . P os s ib le L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s w e r e n o ted i n ab ou lde ry p ebb ly c em en ted c ong lom e ra te s e en a tK a rangha t i a l ong t h e r i ve r T o ra i . U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo l s o ccu r i n v a r ied c on tex t s : - a ) o n t h e s u rf ace o f w ea the r ed R a jmaha lT rap sa nd T e r t ia ry l a te r i te s ;b ) e r od ing o u t o f l a te r i t ic r e go l i th s a nd o n t h e i r s u r f ace ; c ) w i th in c obb ly -pebb ly h i gh leve l g r ave ls ; d ) i n c a lc r e t i sed s i l t s . S tud ies a r e i n p rog r es sa st ot h en a tu r eo fP l e i s tocene g eomo rph ic

Opposed p la tf orm b lade c ore s ( n= 10 ) : T h ese a r e a l l o n h eav i ly r educed n odu le s a nd h ave m ean d im en s ion s o f 3 7 .87 x 3 1 .69 x 2 3 .06 mm . F ive h ave < 25 % c o r tex o ccu r r ing a l ong o n e f a ce . T he l a s t g ene ra t ion o f b l ade d e tachm en t c omp r i se s a r ound t wo th ree b l ade s p e r c o r e . A ve rage b l ade s c a r d im en s ion s a r e 3 2 .55 x 1 0 .79 mm , w i th a t e ndency t owa rd s s ma l le r n a r rowe r b l ade s . C o r e

1 51

shapes range from roughly pyramidal to irregular and heavily reduced cores. A variant of this type includes a core on an older flake. Three blades were detached from opposed platforms. Blade scars here are unpatinated, as contrasted with the patinated surface of the older flake.

minimum of 43.35 x 5.39 mm (average =36.75 x 9.26 mm, Sdev-L= l 0.89 and Sdev-B =6.90). b. Amorphous cores (n= l 6): These have mean dimensions of 40.25 x 35.67 x 26.73 mm. They are globular, piano-convex or amorphous in shape and appear to be heavily reduced. Cortex is noted in four cases and is B ranche s S t one

P o tr e s t

P o s th o les

t e Tree trunk

A sh

G l as sb ang le p i e ce s

(g C omp a c t f l oo r

= == ` • D igg ing t o o l "

l ' o tshe rds P i th ea r th

K ey s S i t e -l A bandoned A r ea 0 P ond 0 : 9 T r e eT r unk S t one P o s t ho l e B on e s K han ta B e long ing s S t o r ag ep l a tf oun O p en h e a r th H ea r th L ea f L ea fp l a te s B r anche s D i t ch M ud f l oo r P o t sh e r d s B amboo a nd s t r aw S t o r ag er o om A sh Q ue rn P o t P ebb l e s P ur ee p o t B rok en g l a s sb ang le s F ig . 3 :L ayou to f Mu saha rs e t t lemen tt y pe I ( s ea sona l s umme rs e t t lem en t )

3 01

S c a le

J ung le t( 2 km away)

I

M e t e r

•/ K ‚f ( e) e4

A bandoned s i l ica s a nd q ua r ry

44 *

K ey s

4

H en c oop B e long ing s S ou r ce o fw a t e r R ammed e a r th f l oo r Mud f l oo r P o s t -ho le B one s A sh T re et r unk

A re al i t te red w i th p ebb le s O p en h ea r th H ea r th C ommun i ty h ea r th L eaf L eaf p l a te s Mo squ i to r e pe l len tp o t P o t she rd Mu l le r

F i g .4 :L ayou to f Musaha rs e t t lemen tt y pe I I ( s em i -permanen t s e t t lemen t )

3 02

B r anche s Wood S t one s S t o r age b i n P ur ee p o t M u ck s tonewa l l K han ia P o t

6 2 *

b rok en p o t te ry a nd g l a s s p i ece s , a nd o the r b roken o b jec t s o u t o ft h e s e t t lem en t . I ti so n ly t h e s e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s who m ak e m anu r e p i t s i . e . p ans i i n w h ich r e fu se m a te r ia l i s c o l lec ted f o r u se a s m anu r e . T he h ou se s a r e w i thou t u r ina l s , l a t r ines a nd b a th room s . Men , w om en a nd c h i ld r en g o t o n ea rby f i e ld s o r i nt h e o pen t o a n sw e r t h e c a l l o f n a tu r e . 5 .D i spo sa l o fF ood R efu se : T he d i spo sa l o ff ood r e fu se i nt h e Mu sahar S e t t lemen ti s ;

4 o

I n t h e S ea sona l O pen -A i r S e t t lem en t s d i spo sa l o f f ood r e f u se i sd one i nt h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea i t se lf a nd n o s pec if ic e f f o r t i s m ade t o c l ean t h e t h rown r e fu se . T he b one s w e r e s e en s c a t te red i n t h e f o l low ing c on tex t s : e mbedded i n t h e f l oo r o f t h e c ompac t e a r th o f t h e d we l l ing a r ea ; i n t h e h ea r th a r ea , i na bandoned h ea r th s , w hen r oa s t ing m ea t i n t h e o pen w i th t w ig s i np i t h ea r th s ; d ump s l o ca ted a bou t 2 m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea a nd t h roughou tt h eh ab i ta t ion a r ea .

nw . 444

S ea le K e y % S IT t- t( Se t t lemen t Ia ,S ea lo t t e ) Ag r icu l tu re S e t t lemen t , h i l lt op ) S lit -2 ( Abandon ed W W 1 S e t t lemen t Io )

F i g . 5 : Map s how ing v i l lage Mando , S i te I( s e t t lem en t t ype I a , s e a sona la g r icu l tu r a ls e t t lem en t ,h i l lt op ) St ela .

I n S ea sona l S umm e r S e t t lem en t s t h e b on e s w e r e s e en s c a t te r ed i nt h e f o l low ing p l ace s : a r ound t h e p ond o r w a te r s ou rce ; a bou t 2t o 4m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea ; a nd i nh ea r th s , r oa s t ing a r ea a nd a bandoned h ea r th s . I nS em i -Pe rmanen t S e t t lem en t s t h e b ones w e re s e en s c a t te red i n t h e f o l low ing p l ace s ; b eh ind h u t s ; a bou t 6m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea a nd i n t h e h ea r th a nd a bandoned h ea r th s . I n P e rman en t S e t t lem en t s t h e r ubb i sh i s f e d t o t h e d ome s t ic p ig s . T he b on e s w e r e s e en s c a t te r ed a r ound r i ce f i e ld s t o a t t rac t r a t s ; b eh ind h u t s ; i nt h e h ea r th s a nd a bandoned h ea r th s a nd i n t h em anu r ep i t s( pans i ) .

* • •••e + tet

Ko l S e t t lemen t : I na l lt h et y pe so fK o l s e t t lemen t s , i . e . S ea sona l S e t t lem en t ; S em i P e rmanen t S e t t lem en t , H am le t ; a nd Y ea r R ound P e rmanen t S e t t lem en t , Sma l l V i l lage t h e b on e s w e r e f ound b eh ind t h e h u t , i nr e f u se d ump s , l o ca ted a bou t 1 0 m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea , i nh ea r th s a nd p i t h ea r th s , a nd m anu r ep i t s( pan s i ) . Ke e 0 C m e 0 •

Mendo ta b u t M od/b a t & me te S t o at P a ie t io l i t l i t r an c i t e e

. * a . •

D am e Naiad

Ma l lah S e t t lemen t : I n T empo ra ry F i sh ing S e t t lem en t s d i spo sa l o f b one s w e r e s e en o n t h e b ank s o ft h e r i ve r , b eh ind t h e h u t a nd i nt h e h ear th a r ea . I n t h e h ea r th s t h e r e w e r e b roken f i sh b one s ( An sa r i 2 001b : 4 9 ) . I n S ea sona l A g r icu l tu r a l S e t t lem en t s , h i l lt o pt h e d i spo sa l o fb one sw a s s e en s c a t te r ed i nt h e a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s ; d umped b eh ind t h e h u t s a nd i n t h e h ea r th a r ea . I n S ea sona l A g r icu l tu ra l S e t t lem en t s , R eced ing G anga t h e

(N an

W in*

F ig . 6 :L ayou to fa bandoned Ma l lah s e t t lem en tt y pe I a( h i l lt op )

4 .S an i tary F ac i l i t ie s : Mo s t ly b roken o rd i sca rded i t em s a r e t h rown n ex t t o t h e d w e l l ing a r ea , o ve r c ou r tya rd w a l l s , i n to g u l l ie s a nd p i t s . N o a t temp t i s m ade t o c a r ry t h e a ccumu la t ion o f a n ima l b one s ,

3 03

b one s w e r e s e en a r ound t h e d we l l ing a r ea , m a in ly n ea r h ea r th s . A f te r t h e w a t e r l e ve l o f t h e G anga r i se st h er i ve rc a r r ie s a way a l lt h em a te r ia lr ema in s , a nd n o th ing r ema in s a t t h e s e t t lem en t , i n c lud ing b one s . I n P e rm anen t S e t t lem en t s t h e f i sh b one s w e r e d i spo sed o f i nt h e h ea r th f i r e , o r e ven tua l ly t h rown b eh ind t h e h u t o r i n t h e r ubb i sh d ump s i tua ted 1 5 t o2 0 ma way f r om t h e s e t t lem en t . T he a n im a l a nd f i sh b one s a r e i n d ica to r s o f t h e a c t iv i t ies o f t h e o ccupan t s , t h e i r f ood h ab i t s a nd a l so , t o s om e e x ten t , t h e t y pe o f s e t t lem en t i n r e la t ion t o t h e d i spe r sa l a nd d i sca rd o f b one r ema in s . T h ey a r e a l r eady s t ud ied i nt h e s e t t lem en t s t udy c on tex te l sewhe r e( An sa r i 2 001b : 5 1) .

b u r row v a r ie s f r om 1 5 -20 c m a nd s om e a r e 2m d eep . E ve ry b u r row i n c lude s s u rf ace o pen ing s , f e ed ing t unn e l s , n e s t ing c hambe r s , a nd a f o od c ach e . F eed ing t unne l s a r e p a ra l le l t o s u rf ace , w h i le s t o rage c hambe r s a r e u sua l ly f ound a t g r ea te r d ep th s . S om e t im e s t h e re m ay b e a s m any a s s even t o t e n a du l t a s w e l l a s y oung r a t s i n a s i ng le h o le . T he Mu saha r s a l so t a k e o u t t h e g r a in c o l lec ted b y t h e r a t s i nt h e h o le . T he b e s t s e a son f o r r a t c a tch ing i s w hen t h e g r a in i s r i pe a nd t h r esh ing o fg r a in s t a r t s . T echn ique : Af t e r t r ac ing t h e r a t h o le o ne m an s t a r t s d i gg ing t h e h o le w i th k han ta a nd a s e cond m an s imu l taneou s ly p ou r s w a te r w i th t h e b uck e t a f te r t h e f e ed ing t unne l i s c l ea r ly v i s ib le . T h i s w ho le p roces s i st o s c a r e t h e r a t s i n s ide t h e h o le . T h e w a te rs uf f oca te st h er a t s a nd t h ey t r yt oe s cape f r om o t he r o u t le t s . Mean t im e t h e a ccompany ing c h i ld r en s t ay b y t h e o t he r o u t le t s o ft h e r a t h o le s a nd w a i tw i th s t i ck si nt h e i rh and s . When ar a tt r i e s t oe s cape , i ti sk i l led b y as t ick o ri sc augh tb yb a r e h and s . I n t h e o the r s i tua t ion w hen t h e r a t s d o n o t e s cape a nd d i ei n s ide ,t h eh un te r s d i gt h em u p . T h e Mu saha r s p r ef e r f i e ld r a t s t o o t he r t y pe s . T h ey n eve r e a t h ou se r a t s a s t h ey c l a im t h e h ou se r a t s s t ink a nd d on ' t t a s te g ood . Many Mu saha r s k eep r a t s c ap t ive i n s m a l l p o t s f o r l a te r c on sump t ion . T h ese p o t s a r e g ene ra l ly p l aced /bu r ied i n o n e c or n e ro ft h eh ou se .

E conomy , T echno logy a nd Ma ter ia lC u l ture A l though s ome p a r t o f t h i s w o rk h a s b een p ub l i shed e l sewhe r e ( An sa r i 1 999 -2000 , 2 001b ) a n a t temp t i sm ade h e re t op r e sen t ab r ief d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e i rs ub s i s ten ce p a t ter n . a . Hun t ing a nd F ow l ing : E x ten s ive f i e ldwo rk w a s c a r r ied o u t o n s ma l l g am e h un t ing p rac t ice s a mong t h et h r ee c ommun i t ies . R ap id d e s t ruc t ion o ff o r e s t s a nd t h e s egm en ta t ion o f f o r es t land s b y r oad s , b u i ld ing s , f a c to r ie s a nd a g r icu l tu r e h ave s eve re ly r educed t h e n a tu ra l h ab i ta t s o f b ig g am e . T he t r ad i t ion o fs ma l l g am e h un t ing h a s l i t t le e conom ic i mpor tance b u t i ss t i l l p rac t i sed a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies i nt h e s t udy a r ea . T hey u sua l ly h un t w h i le g a the r ing l e ave sf r om n ea rby f o r e s ta r ea s .

T h e mo s t s i gn if ican t f e a tu re o fr a t h un t ing a mong t h e Mu saha r s i st h e m in ima l u se o ft o o l s . Af t e rt h e r a t s a r e c augh t p r epa ra t ion s f o r r o a s t ing t h em b eg in . T he k i l l i sd i s t r ibu ted e qua l ly a mong a l l t h e h un te r s . F rom t h e e a r t o t h e t a i l e ve ry p a r t i s c on sum ed a nd n o th ing i sw a s ted . T h e w a s te b ody p a r t s , t h e i n c iso r a nd t h e b ur n t t w ig s r em a in b eh ind . N o b l ade o r k n if e i sr equ i r ed t o c u t t h e r a t s , t h e r a t 's i n c iso r sa r e s ha rp e nough t oc a r ry o u t t h et a sk . A f te rt e nd ay st h e s i te w a sa ga in v i s i ted t o c h eck t h er ema in s , a nd i tw a s n o t iced t h a tt h e w ind h ad b l own a way t h et w ig s a nd a sh a nd j u s ta na shy a ppea rance a nd i n c i so r s r ema in ed . R a t s k ep t i nt h e p o t s b u r ied i n t h e g round f o r l a te r c on sump t ion , b u t f o r s om e r e a son n eve r c on sum ed , w e r e t h e o n ly e v iden ce o f r a t s f ound f r om t h e Mu saha r h ou se .

T h e Mu saha r s a r e e xpe r t i n t h e h un t ing o f r a t s , s qu i r re l s , t o r to i se s a nd b i rd s . T hey c on sum e 3 6 t y pe s o f s ma l l a nd b i g a n ima l s i n c lud ing s nakes b u tk i l l ing o f monk ey sa nd c ow si s at a boo . R a t h un t ing : A p ecu l ia r t y pe o f r a t h un t ing p r ac t ice s e t s t h e Mu saha r s a pa r t f r om o t he r r a t h un te r s l i k e I r u la s , Mu r ia s , B ondo s a nd Y anad i . T he t o o ls u sed f o r h un t ing a r e ; A mu l t ipu rpo se t oo l ` k han ta ' h a s a n i r on h ead h af ted i nb amboo ( g ene ra l ly u sed f o r d i gg ing , c u t t ing , h un t ing a nd a l so f o rp ro tec t ion ) , a n i r on t o o l ' G anda la ' i su sed f o r d i gg ing a nd b u r row ing , s t i ck s o f v a r iou s l e ng th sa nd s i zes a nd ab uck e to fw a te r . Two t ot e np eop le h un tt h e r a t s i . e . m u s d epend ing o n t h e q uan t i ty r e qu i r ed . F i r s t a nd f o r emo s t i s l o ca t ing r a t h o le s a nd t om ak e s u r et h a tt h e r a t s a r e i n . T he Mu saha r s e xce l i n d i f f e r en t ia t ing t h e r a t h o le s f r om t h o se o f o t he r b u r row ing a n ima l s . G ene ra l ly t h e r a t h o le s a r e n ea r o r i n t h e a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s . T he a ve rage d i am e te r o f a

S qu irre l h un t ing : Men a nd c h i ld r en h un t t h e c ommon s t r iped s qu i r r e l i . e . S c iuru s p a lmaru s . C h i ld r en u se c a tapu l t s w h i le m en u se s t ick s t ok i l l t h em . T o h un t as qu i r r e l a t l e a s t f ou r m en a r e r equ i r ed . When m en a r e h un t ing o n ly t h e

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a do le scen t b oy s a r e a l lowed t o a c company t h em , t h e r e a son b e ing t h a t s ma l l c h i ld r en w i l l m ake n o i se a nd s c a r ea way t h es qu i r r e l s .

t h ey a r ep l aced n ea rt h e f l am e s . Due t ot h ew a rm th t h e t o r to ise b r ing s o u t i t s h ead , a nd t h e w om en i mmed ia te ly b r eak t h e n eck w i th t h e i r h and s . T o r to i se s a r e r oa s ted s o t h a t t h e b ody c an b e l o o sened f r om t h e h a rd o u te r b ony s he l l . Af t e r r oa s t ing t h ei nne rl a ye rt h eb ony p l a te i so pened b y h and . Once i ti so pen t h e f l e sh i sr emoved . T h is i s t h en c ooked w i th o i l a nd s p ice s . T he o u te r s he l l a nd t h e b ony p l a tes a r e p l aced o n t h e r oof o ft h e h u t s t o d ry , t o b e l a te r p owde r ed a nd e a ten a s m ed ic ine f o rs t omach a i lmen t s . L a rge q uan t i t ie s o f d i sca rded b on e s a nd s h e l l s w e re s e en s c a t te red i n s ide t h e o ld h ea r th s , b eh ind t h e h u t s , a nd i nt h e s e t t lem en t .

T echn ique : F i r s t ly , t r ees a r e s e a r ched f o r s qu i r r e l s ,i ft h ey a r e s i gh ted ,o n eo ft h em en c l imb s t h e t r ee a nd t h e o t he r s s t and a bou t 2t o 3m a way o n t h r ee s i des . E ach o ne k now s w e l l h i s p l ace f o r c ha s ing t h e a n ima l o nce i ti so n t h e g round . N ow t h e m an u p i nt h e t r ee s t a r t s s hak ing t h e b ranche s a nd s imu l taneou s ly m ak ing l oud n o i se st os c a r et h e a n im a l . T h i st ak e s s om e t ime a st h e s qu i r r e lj ump s f r om o ne b ranch t o o the r v e ry f a s t ; a nd s t a r t s t i r ing . O n ce t h e a n ima l c om e s d own t h e m an n ea r e s tr un st owa rd s i ta nd g i ve si tab low w i th t h e s t ick . O ne h i t a nd t h e a n ima l f a in t s . I ti st h en p i ck ed u p a nd t h e l e g s a r e b rok en , b ecau se t h e Mu saha r s s ay t h e a n ima l i ss m a r t a nd f oo l s t h e m an b y a c t ing d ead a nd o f t en r un s o f f . T he Mu saha r sn eve rk i l lt h e a n ima lc omp le te ly t i l lt h ey s t a r t t h e f i re f o r c ook ing . I n t h e o th e r t y pe o f s qu i r r e l h un t ing a bou t 1 5 t o2 0 m en t a k e p a r t . I n t h is ag roup o ft r ee s , o rt r ee s i n ar ow a r e s e lec ted . F o r e xamp le , i ft h e r e a r e a bou t s i x t r ee s i n ar ow , t h en s i x m en c l imb o n i nd iv idu a l t r ee s a nd t h e o t he r s s u r round t h e b a se . T he s am e h un t ing t e chn ique d e sc r ibed a bove f o l low s , t h e o n ly d i f f e r ence b e ing t h a t l a rge n umbe r s o f s qu i r r e l s c an b ec augh t .

T he e t hnog raph ic w o rk c a r r ied o u t b y t h e a u tho r a mong t h e Mu saha r s h a s h e lped i nu nde r s tand ing t h e r e a son s w hy t h e f a una l m a te r ia l a t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s w a s e i the r f ound i nt h e h ea r th o ri nt h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea a nd a l so t h e p l acem en t o f h ea r th so u t s ide i nt h eo pen : •T he p l acem en t o f t h e h ea r th i sa lway s o u t s ide t h eh u tb ecau se r oa s t ing , g i ves o f f al o to fs mok e a nd t h e s m e l lo fb u rn tf l e sh . •F o rr oa s t ing t h e Mu saha r s o f t en p l ace t h e h ea r th whe r eve r s u i tab le w i th t h e d i rec t ion o fw ind i n m ind s o t h a t t h e s moke b l ow s a way f r om t h e h ou se . T he t o r to i se i sr oa s ted i nt h e h ea r th a nd t h e r ema in s a r e l e f t i nt h e h ea r th . T he s he l ls a r e t o s sed i n to t h e f i re .

T he p rocedu r e o fr oa s t ing i ss im i la rt ot h a t o fr a t s . H ow eve r , t h e s qu i r r e ls a r e r a r e ly t a k en t o t h e s e t t lem en t , a nd a r e a lway s r e l i sh ed a tt h e h un t ing s po t . T he m ea t i se qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted among t h e h un te r s , a nd f r om e a r t o t a i l e ve ry p a r t , b a r r ing i n c i so r s i sc on sum ed . I n o n e i n s tance t h e s qu i r r e l w a sp r egnan t , t h eb ab ies w e r er emoved a nd p l aced o ng r een l e ave s a nd w e r e d i spo sed o fi nw a te r , b u t t h e a du l tw a sc on sum ed .

• When n ew h ea r th s a r e m ade , t h e o l d o ne s a r e l ef t w i th t h e r em a in s o f t o r to i se a nd o the r a n ima ls l y ing i nt h em . •I ft h e h ea r th i sc l ea r ed , t h e b one s a nd s he l l s a r e u sua l ly t h rown b eh ind t h eh u t . •T he Mu saha r s a l so b u ry t h e se s he l l s i n r i ce f i e ld sa st h ey a t t rac tf i e ld r a t s . Hare a nd P orcup ine h un t ing : T he K o l s a nd Mu saha r s h un t h a r e s a nd p o r cup ine wh i le c o l lec t ing w ood i n t h e f o r e s t . T o t r ap h a r e s t h ey u se n e t s . T o t r ap p o r cup ine s t h ey t h row n e t s o n t h em o rp l ace n e t so nt h et r a i ls f r equen ted b yt h em .

T or to i se h un t ing : T h e Mu saha r s c a tch t o r to i se s ( Che lon ia ) , t h e s l ow mov ing f r eshwa te r r e p t i le s . T h et o o l sr equ i r ed t oc a tch t o r to i se su nderwa te ra r e t h e d i gg ing s t ick s a nd k han ta . G ene ra l ly y oung b oy s a nd w omen c a tch t o r to i se s f r om p ond s a nd l a k e s b y h and , a nd b r ing t h em a l ive t o t h e s e t t lem en t .

P lacemen t o f N e t s : T he n e t m ea su r ing 8 m i n l e ng th i sp l aced i n ar e c tangu la rf a sh ion a nd t i ed t o w ooden p o s t s s t ruck o nt h r ee c o rne r s , w i th as m a l l o pen ing i n o n e c o rne r f o r t h e a n im a l t o e n te r . I n t h e m idd le o ft h e e nc lo su r e f ood i sk ep t t oa t t rac t t h e a n im a l . I fo n t h e f i r s t d ay t h e a n im a l i sn o t t r apped , o n t h e s e cond d ay t h ey d i g at r ench m ea su r ing l m xl m a nd 2 m d eep . I ti sc ove red w i th l e ave s a nd b ran che s a nd f ood i sk ep t o n t h e c ove r . T he a n ima l v i s i t s t h e s pec if i c l o ca t ion a nd

T o c ook t h e t o r to i se s , f i r s t t h e Mu saha r w om en l i gh t af i re a nd w a sh t h e t o r to i se . T he b ody o ft h e t o r to i se r ema in s w i th in i t s s h e l l . T he n eck , l imb s a nd t a i l a r e o u t s ide t h e s he l l b u t w hen t h e t o r to i se i sc augh t t h ey r e t r ea t i n s ide t h e s he l l . I ti sv e ry i mpor tan t t o k i l l t h em b ef o r e r o a s t ing a nd h ence

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f a l l s i n t h e d i tch . T h i s m e thod i se mp loyed f o r h un t ing b oa r , d ee ra nd n i lga i .

A bou t f ou r t o s i x p eop le s imu l taneou s ly c ove r t h e w e l l w i th an e t o nw h ich g um i sr ubbed f r om t h e t o p . T hen m ake a l o t o f n o i se t o s c a r e t h e b i rd s , wh ich c au se s t h em t of l y u pwa rd s . I nt h i s p roce s s t h ey g e t e n tang led i n t h e n e t a nd g e t s t uck t o t h e g um a pp l ied o n i t .T he n e t i st h en o ve r tu rned a nd t h eb i rd s a r ep l uck ed f r om i t .

O nce t h e a n ima l i s c augh t i ti sb rough t t o t h e s e t t lem en t , k i l led a nd p roces sed . A no pen h ea r th i s l i tf o rr o a s t ing . T he h a i ri ss c r aped o f fw i th as ha rp s t ick . T he b ody i ss l i t o pen w i th a s ha rp s t ick o r k n if e a nd t h e v i sce ra r emoved . T he a n ima l i s r oa s ted a ga in i nt h e f i r e a nd t h en c on sum ed . H a r e m ea t i sc ook ed w i th o i l a nd s p ice s . R ema in s f ound a r ound t h e o pen -hea r th a r ea a r e b u rn t h a i r , v i sce r a , t e e th a nd c hewed b one s . T he s am e p rocedu re i s a dop ted f o r r oa s t ing o f p o rcup ine s . H oweve r , b ef o re r o a s t ing t h e a n ima l i t s q u i l l s a r e r emoved . R ema in sf ound a tt h eh ea r th a r ea a r e q u i l l s , v i sce r a a nd c hewed b one s . B e s ide s o pen h ea r th s , a n ima l s a r ea l so r o a s ted i nr egu la rh ea r th s .

I ft h eb i rd s a r e c augh t i nl a rge q uan t i t ie s o ra r e b ig s i zed t h ey a r e b rough t t ot h e s e t t lem en t , o t herw i se t h ey a r e c on sumed o n t h e s po t . Tw is t ing o ft h e i r n eck s k i l l s t h e b i rd s . I mm ed ia te ly t h e f e a th e r s a r e r emoved a nd t h e b i rd s a r e r o a s ted . A f te r t h i s t h e a bdom en i sc u t w i th a s ha rp s t i ck o r k n if e a nd w a s te p a r t s a r e r emoved . T h e b i rd i sa ga in r o a s ted f r om t h e i n s ide . Sma l l b i rd s a r e a lway s e a ten r o a s ted b u t l a rge b i rd s a r e e l abo ra te ly c ook ed . I ti s i n t e r e s t ing t on o te t h a t o ft h e s ma l l b i rd sb e s id e t h e b eak s , f e a the r s a nd w a s te b ody p a r t s n o th ing r ema in s a tt h e s i te ; e ve ry th ing e l se i sc on sum ed . B u t w hen b ig b i rd s a r e c ook ed a nd c on sum ed , t h e l ef tove r b ones a r e t h rown i nt h e h ea r th o r b eh ind t h eh u t .

B ird t r app ing : Mu saha r m en a nd y oung b oy s g ene ra l ly t r ap a l l t y pe s o f b i rd s a va i lab le i n t h e a r ea e xcep tv u l tu r e s , e ag les a nd o w l s . T he b i rd s a r e e i the rh un ted f o rc on sump t ion ( 20 t ype s ) o rf o rs a le ( 5t ype s )i nt h em a rke t . T he t e chn ique st ot r ap b i rd s a r e ; •N e t s

O rgan i sa t ion o f l abour : D iv i s ion o f l a bou r i s d one a c co rd ing t o a ge a nd s e x . Men d o t h e mo r e s t r enuou s w o rk w h i le w om en a t tend t o m o r e d e l ica te a nd s imp le t a sk s a nd c h i ld r en d o t h e l i gh te s t w o rk . T he f o l low ing t a b le s how s t h e d i v i s ion o fw o rk c a r r ied o u tb yt h em :

•C a tapu l t s • Gummed b amboo s t ick s : T h e Mu saha r s a pp ly g um o fA cac ia a rab ica W i l ld . t ob amboo s t ick s a bou t 3 0 c m l ong . T he se a r e p l aced i n -be tween t h e b r anche s a nd l e ave s o fa ny f r u i tb ea r ing t r ee . When t h e b i rd s c ome i n to c on tac t w i th t h ese s t ick s ,t h ey a r et r apped . • We l l s : I nt h is m e thod b i rd s l i k e p igeon s , w h ich l i ke t os i t i n aw e l l f o r i t s c oo lne s s , a r e t r apped .

O rgan iza t ion o fl a bou rf o rs ma l l g ame h un t ing a nd f ow l ing a mong Mu saha r s Men H un t ing o fs ma l l a n ima l s ,i n c lud ing r a t s , s qu ir r e l s ,h a r e sa nd p o r cup ine . R oa s t ing o ft h ea n ima l sh un ted

T rapp ing a nd r o a s t ing b i rd s

Women P roce s s ing a nd c ook ing o fa n ima ls h un ted

C h i ldren H un t ing o fr a t sa nd s qu i r re l s .

C a t ch ing o ft o r to i se s i np ond s . P roce s s ing a nd c ook ing t h em

C a tch ing o ft o r to i se si np ond sa nd l a ke s

P roce s s ing a nd c ook ing t h em

T rapp ing o fb i rd sw i th n e t s

S e l l ing o fb i rd s i nl o ca lm a rke t

v i tam in s , c a lc ium , p ho spho rou s , i o d ine , a nd c ommon s a l t a nd m os t o f t h e se f ood v a lue s a r e a l so r e ta ined i nt h e f i sh , wh ich a r e s un d r ied a nd c on sum ed l a te r .

b . F i sh ing P rac t ice s : F i sh ing p l ay s a n i mpo r tan t r o le a mong t h e Ma l lah s a nd K o l s . T he r i ve r s a nd l a ke s i n t h e s t udy a r ea c on ta in a n a bundance o f f i sh o fd i f f e r en t v a r ie t ies . T he Ma l lah s l i ve a l ong t h er i ve r s a nd l a ke s , a nd h ave a ne xpe r tk now ledge o ft h e h ab i t s o ft h e d i f f e ren t v a r ie t ie s o ff i sh f ound i nt h e a r ea . H oweve r , o n ly f ew Ma l lah s m ake t h e i r l i v ing s o le ly b y f i sh ing . T he a qua t ic f ood h a s a n e xcep t iona l ly h igh d eg r ee o f n u t r i t iona l v a lue . C ha rac ter i s t ica l ly f i sh i sr i ch i n p ro te in , f a t ,

S pec ie s E xp lo i ted : T he Ma l lah s a nd t h e Mu saha r s h ave l o ca l t e rm s f o r t h e f i sh c augh t b y t h em . T he a u tho r c o l lec ted t h e l o ca l n am e s t h e s c ien t if ic n am e s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om B i lg ram i 1 991 : 8 7 -89 a nd J h ing ran 1 983 : 5 -66 , 9 8 . A l i s t o f 6 0 f i sh

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e xp lo i t ed b y t h e Ma l lah s a nd Mu saha r s i nG anga a nd Y amuna i sg i ven e l sewh e r e( An sa r i2 00 1b ) .

F i sh ing w i th t r ap s ( T ap , C hhaup o r K ur imar , G an ja ) , F i sh ing w i th n e t s ( Bhawar j a ! , Maha j a ! , B i sr i o r c hho t -ber j a ! , F as i la j a l ) , F i sh ing w i th h ook s a nd l i ne s ( K a t ja , B ar ra , B a / /ur n , P achk i ) , F i sh ing b y s t ick s a nd h and s , F i sh ing b y e xp lo s ive s , F i sh ing b yp o i son a nd F ow l ing w h i le f i sh ing .

Me thod sa nd T echn ique so fF i sh ing R ive r ine f i sh ing : F i sh ing i s ay ea r r ound a c t iv i ty . I nt h e r a in s t h e p ace o ff i sh ing i sm o r e h ec t ic , f o r t h en s om e e conom ica l ly i mpo r tan tv a r ie t ie s o ff i sh , l i k er ohu a nd h i l sa a r e f ound i na bundance . I nd eep r i ve r w a te r , f i sh ing i sd on e f r om b oa t s u s ing n e t s . D u r ing t h e s umm e r t h e r i ve r s s h r ink a nd c hange i n to s ha l low s t r eam sa nd p oo l s . T h en t h em e thod o f f i sh ing i sr e s t r ic ted t ou s ing t r ap sa nd s ma l ln e t s .

S pawn c o l lec t ion : B e s ide s f i sh s pawn o rf i sh e gg s a r e c o l lec ted f r om t h e f i sh b reed ing g round s . Mo s t ly t h ef i sh e gg sa r e c o l lec ted f r om 3 0t o6 0 c m d eep m eande r ing r i ve r s , l a k e s a nd p ond s . T he m e thod o fc o l lec t ion i sb y d i s tu rb ing t h e b o t tom o f t h e w a te r a nd s coop ing u p t h e e gg s w i th ap i ece o f c l o th . F requen t ly n e t so fs m a l lm e sh s i ze a r ep l aced a ga in s t t h e c u r r en t a nd p u l led u p f o r t h e c o l lec t ion o f e gg s . I n t h e G anga t h e s pawn s a r e c o l lec ted f r om May t oS ep tembe r . Y oung a nd n ew ly h a tched f i sh a r e c o l lec ted f r om J u ly t oO c tobe r . C a t la a nd r ohu e gg s a r e c o l lec ted f o r b r eed ing a nd s e l l ing . T he e gg s w hen b rough t a r e s t o red i n e spec ia l ly p r epa r ed mud p i t s . T he s i ze o f t h ese mud p i t s r ange s f r om 0 . 50 t o 1 . 5 mi nd i am e te r a nd 0 . 50 m i nd ep th . O rgan isa t ion o f l abour : F i sh ing i s p r ima r i ly a m a le a c t iv i ty b u t t h e r e i sn o t a boo a ga in s t w om en t a k ing p a r t i ni t .T he d i v i s ion o fl a bou r a mong t h e Ma l lah si sg i ven i nt h ef o l low ing t a b le :

L acu s tr ine f i sh ing : F i sh ing i sa l so c a r r ied o u t i n j h i l s a nd t a nk s , w h ich a r e t h e b r eed ing g round s o f m any f r e sh w a te r f i sh . I nnum e rab le t a nk s a r e s c a t te r ed t h roughou tt h e s t udy a r ea . F i sh a r e c augh t w i th n e t s a nd t r ap s . I n l a rge t a nk s f i sh ing i sd one w i th n e t s , h ook s a nd p rong s . I ns m a l l t a nk s f i sh ing i sd one i ns umm e rw hen t h e w a te ri ss ha l low . F i sh a r et h en c augh tb yh and , s t ick s ,a nd c ove rb a sk e t s . P addy f i e ld f i sh ing : T he p addy f i e ld s , wh ich r e ta in w a te r f o r t wo t o t h r ee m on th s , p rov ide a n a dd i t iona l s upp ly o ff i sh . F i sh ing i sc a r r ied o u t i n t h e r a iny s e a son , i ns ma l l p oo ls i nr i ce f i e ld s w i th b a sk e t s ,h ook sa nd b yh and . T h e r e a r e e i gh tt y pe s o ff i sh ing t e chn ique s ( An sa r i 2 00 1b ) : F ence /Sc r een f i sh ing ( Ch i lwan , C h in ta ) , D iv i s ion o fL abou ra mong t h e Ma l lah s Men

Women

C h i ldren

C u ta nd c a r ry b a ck t h eb amboo ,h emp a nd m un jg r a s sf o rm ak ing t h eb a ske t s , n e t s ,r ope sa nd s haf t s . A cqu i r ei r on h ook s ,n e ts i nke r sa nd n y lon s t r ing sf r om t h el o ca lm a rke t . H e lp i nm ak ing b a ske t sa nd f e n ce s .

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-

Make b a ske t s ,a nd r ope sf o rf i sh ing .

Make r ope s

Make a nd a pp ly t a nt ot h en e t s ,f e nce s a nd b a ske t s .

A pp ly t a nt ob a ske t sa nd f e nce .

F i sh w i th n e t s ,f e nce sp rong s ,i r on h ook s , a nd b yp o i son a nd e xp lo s ion a nd r ow b oa t s .

H un tw i th h and sa nd s t i ck s , f e nce sa nd b a ske t s .

H un tw i th h and sa nd s t ick s ,f e nce s a nd b a ske t s . R ow b oa t s .

F i sh i nt h ed eep w a te r ,r i ve r s , l a ke s , p ond s ,g adhaye a nd s t ream s . H e lp i nd ry ing a nd p r e serv ing t h ef i sh .

F i sh i ns ha l low w a te r ,b yw ad ing i n s ha l low b ed s .

F i sh i ns ha l low w a t e r ,l a ke sa nd p addy f i e ld s .

C a r ryou td i f f e r en tp roce s se sf o r p r e se rva t ion o ff i sh .

H e lp ,i nd ry ing s ma l l f i sh .

S e l l f i sh i nt h el o ca lm a rke t .

C a r ry f i sh i nv i l lage f o rs a le .

S pawn c o l lec t ion

S pawn c o l lec t ion

C on sump t ion o ff i sh :

•F i sh a r e c ook ed w i th s p ice s . S om e t ime s a l l t h e b ody p a r t s i n c lud ing h ead a r e c on sumed l e av ing o u to n ly t h ef i n s ,t a i l , s c a les a nd v i sce ra .

•F i sh a r er o a s ted i n s ide ah ea r th o ri na no pen f i re . T hey a r e r a r e ly c l eaned a nd c ooked w ho le . G ene ra l ly s ma l lf i sh a r ec on sumed r o a s ted .

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i nd ay to -day l i f e a nd h ea l thca r e . Men , w omen a nd l o ca l h e rb s e l le r s a mong t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s w e r e c on su l ted r e ga rd ing t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e p l an t p a r t s u sed . L i s t s o fp l an t s u sed b yt h em f o rv a r iou s p u rpo se s a r e m ade w i th d e ta i l s ( l ike F am i ly , B o tan ica l a nd L oca l n am e s a nd t h e p a r t s u sed ; A n sa r i 2 001a ) a r e a s f o l low s ; E a ten a sv ege tab les ( 3 9 ) , F lowe r s c ooked a s v ege tab le ( 4 ) , E a ten a s f r u i t s ( 22 ) , T ube r s c on sum ed a s f ood ( 4 ) , F ib r e p l an t s f o r m ak ing c o rdage ( 5 ) , F o r m ak ing l e af p l a te s a nd c up s ( 8 ) , B a sk e t m ak ing ( 4 ) , D ye ( 3 ) , P l an t s e xp lo i ted f o r e x t r ac t ing o i l ( 4 ) , P l an t s u sed a s g um ( 5 ) , P l an t s u sed f o r c on s t ruc t ion , r oof ing a nd t h a tch ing ( 24 ) .

•O i l e x t rac ted o u t o ff i sh i su sed f o r c ook ing a nd f o rm a s sage . L oca l Marke t s : T he Ma l lah s s upp ly f i sh i n t h e n ea rby v i l lage s a nd t ot h e l o ca l m a rk e t . T hey a l so s e l lf i sh a tt h er i ve r s ide a nd o nb r idge s . c .G a ther ing o fW i ld p lan t s among t he K o l s a nd Mu sahar s : E thnobo tan ica l f i e ldwo rk b yt h e a u tho r w a s c a r r ied o u t f o r t h r ee s e a son s i n an umbe r o f v i l lage si nhab i ted b yt h eK o ls a nd t h e Mu saha r s . T h e a im w a s t ou nde r s tand t h e u se o fw i ld p l an t s b yt h e se w ho s t i l l l a rge ly d epend o nt h ef o r e s tf l o r a f o r t h e i r s u s tenance a nd l i ve l ihood . T he se c ommun i t ie s e xp lo i tt h e r e sou r ce s o ff o r e s t s , r i ve r s a nd h i l l s ; a nd t h ey h ave ar i ch k now ledge o fw i ld p l an t s . F rom h e r e t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s c o l lec t a w ide r a nge o ff ood s a nd u t i l i se m any t r ee s , s h rub s , h e rb s ,t u be r s , r oo t s , l e ave s , f l owe r s , f r u i t s , s e ed s

P lan t s u sed f o r H ea l thcare : T he f l o ra o f t h e f o r es t s p l ay s av i ta l r o le i nt h e l i f e a nd h ea l thca r e o f t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s . T he p l an t s u sed f o r t r ea tm en t o fv a r iou s a i lm en t s a r e l o ca l ly c o l lec ted a nd t h e w ay s o fa pp l ica t ion v a ry a cco rd ing t ot h e m e thod s o ft r ad i t iona l u se . T h e s am e p l an t i su sed f o r t r ea tm en t o f d i f f e r en t d i sea se s i n d i f f e ren t w ay s . V a r iou s p a r t s o ft h e s am e p l an t a r e u t i l i sed f o r d i f f e r en t t y pe s o f d i sea se s . T he p l an t s h av ing m ed ic ina l p rope r t ie s u sed f o r h ea l thca r e w e r e c o l lec ted b y t h e a u tho r a nd w e re b een s t ud ied a c co rd ing t o t h e i r h e rba l p roper t ie s . Al i s t o f 17 p l an t s h ave b een d ocum en ted w i th F am i ly , B o tan ica l a nd L oca l n am e , t h e i rp a r t su sed , a nd t h e d i sea ses t h ey a r e u sed t o f i gh t a ga in s t ( An sa r i 2 00 1a ) .

a nd g um s f o r t h e i r s ub s i s ten ce a nd f o r d ay to -day n eed s . T o c o l lec t t h e se p l an t s t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r su se o rgan ic m ade t o o l sl i k e l agg i , k hara , k honch a nd b a iyya b e s ide s k han ta w h ich i sa lway s c a r r ied a l ong . T he f ood h ab i t s o ft h e K o l s a nd t h e Mu saha r s a r e r e la ted t o t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f r e sou r ce s . F o r i n s tance , t h e K o l s f o r t h e i r s ub s i s tence c o l lec t a nd s e l l w ood f r om t h e f o r e s t . I n t h e p roce s s o f g a the r ing w ood , t h e K o l s a l so c o l lec t p l an t s f o r t h e i r c on sump t ion a nd o t he r n eed s . B o th m en a nd w om en c a r ry o u t t h e g a the r ing o fp l an t f ood s a nd w ood . T he Mu saha r s c o l lec t l e ave s f o rm ak ing l e af p l a t te r s a nd c up s a nd s upp ly t h em t o t h e v i l lage s a nd t h em a rk e t si nA l lahabad . D u r ing t h e c o l lec t ion o fl e aves , wh ich i sc a r r ied o u tb ym en , w om en a nd c h i ld r en , t h ey a l so g a the r w i ld p l an t s f r om t h e f o r e s t f o r c on sump t ion . T he se n a tu ra l g r ana r ie s p rov ide t h em w i th e nough e ne rgy , p ro te in s , f i b r e , v i tam in s a nd e s sen t ia l m ine ra l s f o r t h e i r d i e t . T h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s h ave a l so l e a rn tt ou t i l i se m any p l an t s a nd p l an t p roduc t s f o r m ed ic ine , f i b r e , c o rdage , o i l , t imbe r a nd w ood w o rk , m ak ing o f b room s ,b a sk e t ry , d ye s , a nd a sf u e l a nd p o i son e ve r s i nce p r im eva lt im e s .

H oney c o l lec t ion : H oney i s c o l lec ted b y t h e Mu saha r s d u r ing s p r ing a nd s umm e r s e a son s f r om b eeh ive s s i tua t ed o n t r ee s . T h ey s t o r e h oney a nd w ax f o r t h e i r o wn c on sump t ion a nd s e l l t h e r e s t i n t h e m a rke t f o r c a sh . T he t e chn ique u sed f o r c o l lec t ion i sa sf o l low s : • When c l imb ing t h e t r ee o n w h ich t h e h i ve i s l o ca ted a Mu saha r c a r r ie s ah a tche t o r c ho t k u lhar i , as m a l l b uck e t t i ed t o t h e w a i s t a nd a b unch o fn eem l e ave sa nd ar o pe . •A f te rr e ach ing as po tu nde rt h e h i ve t h e m an s e t s a l igh t t h e b un ch o f g r een l e ave s , wh ich e m i t s moke a nd h ea t , u l t ima te ly d r iv ing a way t h e b ees . •T he m an c hop s t h e b eeh ive w i th t h e h a tche t a nd c o l lec t s t h e h i ve i nt h e b ucke t . I ft h e m an i so n a v e ry h i gh t r ee h e l owe r st h e h i ve w i th t h e h e lp o f al o ng r ope .

E thnobo tan ica l S urvey : A ne t hnobo tan ica l s u rvey w a s c a r r ied o u t i nt h e r emo te v i l lage s i n hab i ted b y K o l s a nd t h e Mu saha r s . T he a im w a s t o g a the r i n f o rma t ion o nt h e t r ad i t iona l u se o fp l an tp roduc t s

3 08

O rgan iza t ion o fL abou ra mong t h eK o l sa nd Mu saha r s Men C u ta nd c o l lec tw ood f o rf u e l , s e l li n t h em a rke t C o l le c ta nd s e l lm ed ic ina lp l an t si nt h e l o ca lm a rke t

Women C o l lec tw ood ,b ranche sa nd t w ig s f o r f u e l

C h i ldren C o l lec tf a l len b ra che sa nd t w ig s

C o l lec tm ed ic ina lp l an t sf r om f o r e s t

-

C o l le c tf i b re a nd m ake r ope s

C o l lec tv ege tab le s ,t u be r s ,g ums a nd f r u i t s C o l lec to fl e ave s , mak ing l e af p l a te s

C o l lec tv ege tab le s ,g um sa nd f r u i t s

C o l lec tl e ave s ,m ake l e af p l a te sa nd s e l l i nt h e ma rke t E x t ra c to i l f r om o i l s e ed s

-

C o l lec to fl e ave sf o rm ak ing l e af p l a t e s -

C o l le c to fh oney

C o l lec to fh oney

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G a the r ing o fp l an t s i sm a in ly aw oman 's j ob b u t m en c a r ry o u t t h e mo r e a rduou sj ob s o fc o l lec t ing f o re s t p roduc t s . T he K o l s a nd t h e Mu saha r s a r e n ow c om ing i nc l o se c on tac t w i th mo r e d eve loped c ommun i t ie so ft h ea r ea wh ich h a so pened t ot h em n ew a venue s o f s ub s i s ten ce a nd r e sou r ces , r e su l t ing i n as h if t t o l a bou r , i nt h e f o rm o ff i e ld l a bou re r s a nd a s m en ia l w o rk e r s . T h i s a ccu l tu r a t ion i st a k ing a way t h e i rk now ledge o ft h e p l an t w o r ld a nd t h e i r u t i l i ty . T h e se c ommun i t ie s s hou ld b et ho rough ly s t ud ied f o rm o r ei n f o rma t ion , e spec ia l ly t h e i rk now ledge o fm ed ic ine .

b a sk e t s , wh i le c ane b a sk e t ry i s a mu l t i -ca s te a c t iv i ty . T he a im w a s t ou nde r s tand t h e u t i l i ty a nd u sage o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l s i n d ay to -day l i f e . T he ref o r e , i mpor tance w a s g i ven t ot h e a cqu i s i t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l a nd t h e t oo l s a nd t e chn ique s emp loyed i nb a sk e t m ak ing . T he m a in o ccupa t ion o f t h ese c ommun i t ie s v a r ie s , t hough b a sk e t ry s upp lem en t s t h e i r s ou r ce o f i n com e . T hey h i r e b amboo p l an t s i nt h e v i l lage f o r ac e r ta in p e r iod o f t im e a sb amboo r e gene r a te s a f te r i ti sc u t , a nd p ay t h e o wne r i nk ind . T hey , m a in ly D ha rka r s s upp ly b a ske t st ot h e v i l lage r s i nl i eu o f af i xed a moun to f g r a in c o l lec ted a t e ach h a rves t . T he r ema in ing b a ske t s a r e c a r r ied t o v i l lage m a rk e t s ( bazaar s ) a nd s o ld f o rc a sh o rt r aded f o rg ra in s .

C o l lec t ion o f f ue l : F ue l i sn ece s sa ry f o r c ook ing a nd f o r p rov id ing w a rm th d u r ing t h e w in te r s e a son . T he m a in t y pes o ff u e l u sed a r e : L oca l ly c o l lec ted f i r ewood , b ranche s a nd t w ig s , c ow d ung , a nd s t a lk s a nd k e ro sene . O ft h e t h r ee , f i r ewood i s t h e mo s t r e l iab le a nd i mpo r tan t s ou r ce o f f u e l a mong t h e Mu saha r s . Among t h o se w ho s e t t le i n f a rm s tead s a nd v i l lage s a nd s ub s is t a sa g r icu l tu ra l l a bou r e r s a nd a s s e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s , t h e i r m a in s ou r ce o f f u e l i s t h e f a rm ing b y -p roduc t s . F i r ewood i s a l so c o l lec ted a s d ung i s u sed p r ima r i ly a sf e r t i l ize r . K e ro sene i sp opu la r ,b u ti ti s u sed m a in ly f o rp r epa r ing m ea l sa nd f o rl amp s .

T he b a ske t s a r e m ade i nt h e o pen i nf r on t o ft h e h ou ses . Wom en w o rk ing i ng roup s o r a l one c a r ry o u t t h e w o rk . B e s ide s , a s as ou r ce o f i n com e , b a sk e t m ak ing i sc u l tu ra l ly i mpor tan t i nt h e s en se t h a t i t i s a g roup a c t iv i ty a nd c a r r ies s oc ia l s i gn if icance a s s i ng ing a nd i n te rac t ion a mong t h e c ommun i ty m embe r s t a k e s p l ace s imu l taneou s ly w i th w o rk . T he m en a nd w omen a r e b o th i nvo lved i nb a sk e t m ak ing . B u t m en m a in ly a cqu i re t h e r aw m a te r ia l a nd s e l l t h e p r epa r ed b a sk e t s i nt h e l o ca l m a rke t , wh i le w om en m ak e a nd c o lou rt h eb a ske t s . T he b a sk e t s a r e p e r i shab le i n n a tu re b u t t h e i r u t i l i ty i nd ay to -day l i f e i sh i gh . T hey a r eu sed a sa m ean s f o rt r an spo r t ing , g a the r ing l e ave s , s t ick sa nd c ow d ung , a s c on ta ine r s f o r s t o r ing g ra in s a nd v ege tab le s a nd t o k eep i mpo r tan t b e long ing s . Du r ing r e l ig iou s f un c t ion s , a nd a tb i r th , m a r r iage a nd d ea th c e r emon ie st h eb a ske t sa r eu sed .

d . A gr icu l ture : A g r icu l tu r a l a c t iv i ty d om ina te s t h e c u l tu ra l l a nd scape o f t h e s t udy r e g ion . H oweve r , t h e K o l s , Mu saha r s a nd Ma l lah s g en e ra l ly d o n o t o wn c u l t ivab le l a nd a nd w o rk a s a g r icu l tu ra l l a bou re r s i . e . h arwah ( p loughmen ) . T hey w o rk i nc oope ra t ion i nt h e f i e ld a nd h ave a d i v i s ion o fl a bou r a cco rd ing t os ex a nd a ge . Men c a r ry o u t t h e mo r e s t r enuou s w o rk wh i le w om en a t tend t o mo re d e l ica te a nd s imp le t a sk s l i ke s ow ing a nd h a rve s t ing .

E v idence o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l i n a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i sr a r e . B u t t h e e t hnog raph ic s t udy h e lp s i n u nde r s tand ing t h e e x ten s ive u se o f t h i s m a te r ia l , m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , u t i l i ty o f b a sk e t s a nd u se o f mu l t i p u rpo se t o o l s i n t h e i r m anuf ac tu r e . B anka f o r e xamp le i su sed d u r ing b a ske t m ak ing a nd a l so f o r c u t t ing a n ima l f l e sh . T he se

e . B a ske try : T he Ma l lah s , Mu saha r s , K o l s , D ha rka r s a nd K aha r s a l l s p ec ia l ize i n b amboo b a sk e t m ak ing , t h e A n sa r i a nd P a s i m ak e m un j

3 09

c o mmun i t ie s u se i t em s l i ke b ead s a nd c ow r ies t o d eco ra te t h e i rb a sk e t s . T h i s a dd s an ew p e r spec t ive t o t h e r e cove ry o f b ead s a nd c ow r ie s f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i t es , a st h e p reva i l ing v i ew i st h a t b ead s a nd c ow r ie s a r e u sed o n ly f o r p e r sona l a do rnm en t a nd o f ten a s af o rm o fc u r rency o r f o r t r ade .

m a in ly u sed i n s em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s ( Type I I ) . T he h ea r th i s1 . 5 ml o ng , 2m w ide a nd 0 . 45 m h i gh a nd d oe s n o t h ave a ny s upe r s t ruc tu r e . T h i s t y pe o f h ea r th i sa lway s p l a ced o u t s ide t h e h u t . When t h i s h ea r th i s a bandon ed , o ne c an s e e r em a in s o ft h e mud p l a tf o rm w i th b u rn tc l ay l ump s , c ha r r ed b on es a nd a sh .

I mp l ica t ion s o fE thnography f o r Under s tand ing P reh i s tor ic L iv ing P a t tern s

I ti si n te r es t ing t on o te t h a t t h e c o mmun i ty h ea r th a t S a r a i N aha r R a i h ad f ou r p o s tho le s a t i t s p e r iphe ry , wh ich i nd ica te s t h a t t h e r e w a s a s upe r s t ruc tu r e o n t o p o ft h e h ea r th . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f t h e e x i s tence o f as upe r s t ru c tu re m igh t p o in t t owa rd s s om e s o c ia l i mp l ica t ion f o rt h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s . T he p o s s ib le s t ruc tu re o n t h e S a ra i N aha r R a i c ommun i ty h ea r th c ou ld h ave b een e r ec ted o nl o ng w ooden p o s t s( f ig . 7 ) .

S e t t lemen t p a t tern s : T he s e t t lem en t p a t tern s t udy h a s an umbe r o f i mp l ica t ion s f o r a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is i nt h e s t udy a r ea . O ne c anno t h ave ar o le mode l o f as e t t lem en t p a t te rn t y pe t oi n te rp r e t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s f o rp a r t icu la r s i te o rs i te s . T he s imp le c ommun i t ie s i n hab i t ing t h e s t udy a r ea a r e i nc on tac t w i th a dvanced c o mmun i t ie s a nd t h ey h ave v e ry d i s t inc t s e t t lem en t s . T he se s e t t lemen t s c an b e d i s t ingu ished f r om o ne a no the r b y t h e d eg ree o fp e rmanence . T h e s e t t lem en t s o ft h e p a s t w e r e d i s t ingu i shed a cco rd ing t ot h e i r mo rpho logy , f o rm a nd l a you t o f t h e s i te , h ea r th a r ea , d we l l ing u n i t s a nd o t he r f e a tu r e s f o r a n e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion .

T he Me so l i th ic s i t e o f D amdama h a s y i e lded e v idence o f c i rcu la r a nd e l l ip t ica l p l a s te r ed f l oo r s w i th d i am e te r s m ea su r ing b e tween 4 . 20 m t o5 . 35 m . S om e o f t h e f l oo r s h ave mu l t ip le l a ye r s o f p l a s te r a nd p o s tho le s . P l a s te r ed f l oo r s a r e a l so c ommon ly s e en a mong t h e s em i -pe rman en t a nd p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e p r e sen t d ay s imp le c ommun i t ies . T he se mud f l oo r s a r e p e r iod ica l ly s m ea r ed w i th c ow -dung . T h i s i sd one t or e pa i ra nd l e ve l t h e b rok en mud f l oo r . T he p l a s te r ed f l oo r a t D amdama w a s f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th aq uer n , w h ich s how s t h a t t h e p roce s s ing o f f o od w a s p robab ly d one i nt h ef l oo ra r ea . I ti so b se rved t h a t

N o s t ru c tu r e s a r e r e por ted f r om t h e E p i P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s o ft h e B e Ian a nd G anga v a l ley s a nd t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence o fs e t t lem en t c ome s f r om t h e Me so l i th ic l e ve l s . T he l o ca t ion , s i ze , a nd c on ten t so f Me so l i th ic s i te si nt h e G anga a nd B e Ian v a l ley s w e r e c on t ro l led b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fl i th ic r aw m a te r ia l a nd av a r ie ty o ff ood r e sou r ce s i nt h e f o rm o f w i ld p l an t s , a qua t ic a n ima l s a nd s a f e ty f r om f l ood w a te r s . E ven t oday f o rt h e f u lf i lm en t o f p ra c t ica l ly e ve ry n eed , f r om b u i ld ing m a te r ia l t o m ed ic ina l p l an t s , t h e Mu saha r s , K o l s a nd Ma l lah s t ur nt ot h e f o r e s t . I nt h i sr e spec tt h ey a r e s t i l l f o r e s t d we l le r s t h a t a r e e m e rg ing f r om aw ay o fl i f e t h a t s e ldom f a i l s t o s u s ta in t h em i n t h e e ven t o f c r op f a i lu r e o r o t he r c a lam i t ie s , w h ich u sua l ly a f f ec t s e t t led f a rm e r s .

t h e K o l s c a r ry o u t c ook ing a nd p roce s s ing i n s ide t h e h u t . T he q u er n i sa lway s p l aced n ex t t o t h e h ea r th a mong t h eK o l sa nd t h e Ma l lah s . Among t h e Mu saha r s t h e p l acem en t o fq u er n s w a s s e en i nt h e f l oo ra r ea i nS ea sona l o pen -a i rs e t t lem en t s ( Type I ) a nd S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s ( Type I I ) . O the rw ise t h e p l acem en t o fq uer n s w a s o u t s id e t h e e n t rance o ft h eh u t . T he Me so l i th ic s i t e o f C hopan i - Mando h a s y i e lded e v iden ce o fs t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s i nt h e f o rm o f 2 0 h u t s . T he h u t s a r e c i rcu la r o r o va l i ns h ape a nd h ave p o s tho le s . T he d i am e te r o f t h e f l oo r v a r ie s f r om 3 . 80 m t o 4 . 7 m . S om e o f t h e f l oo r s b ea r e v idence o f as t one p aved f l oo r . T he se h u t s a r e l i t te r ed w i th s eve ra l s t one p i ece s , p ebb le s , n odu le s a nd m ic ro l i th s ( hu t s o f p ha se IA , p ha se I I ) ( f ig . 8 ) . A n a bandoned r e c tangu la r h u t o f t h e K o l c ommun i ty w a s s t ud ied i n S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t ( S ing le P u rwa V i l lage ; T ype I I ) t o e xam in e t h e n a tu r e o fs t ruc tu ra l r ema in s a nd f l oo r a f t e r i t s a bandonm en t . S ix m on th s a f t e r t h e

S truc ture ( Hu t t ype s ) : I n t h e Meso l i th ic s i te o f S ara i N ahar R a i t h e f l oo r a r ea m ea su r ing 5 . 66 m i nl e ng th a nd 4 . 02 m w id th a nd t h e p o s tho les o ft h e c ommun i ty h ea r th m a rk t h e s t ruc tu ra l a c t iv i ty a t t h e s e t t lem en t . T he f l oo r i sl i t te r ed w i th b ur n t c l ay l ump s , m ic ro l i th s , a n im a l b one s a nd s he l l s . C ommun i ty h ea r th s a r e a l so p r eva len t a mong t h e Mu saha r s . T hey c on s truc t ah ear th o n as t one a nd mud p l a tf o rm , w h ich i su sed d u r ing c ommun i ty c ook ing a tt h e t im e o ff e a s t s a sw e l l a sf o r d ay to d ay c ook ing a nd r o a s t ing o f m ea t . T h i s h ea r th i s

3 10

F i g . 7 :S i te p l an o fS a ra iN aha rR a i( af t e rS ha rma e ta l . 1 980 : 5 3 )

•H ea r th •C i rcu la rs t one p l a tf o rm f o rs t o rage b in

F ig . 8 : S tone p aved f l oo r , p ha se I B , C hopan i -Mando ( af t e r S ha rma e ta l . 1 980 ) F ig . 9 :K o la bandonm en th u t ,a f t e r 4y ea r

a bandonm en t o f t h e r e c tangu la r h u t , m ea su r ing 4 . 30 m l ong , 2 . 70 m w ide a nd 1 . 70 m h igh , t h e f o l low ing f e a tu r e sw e r ew e l lp r e served a nd i n tac t .

T he s e t t lem en t w a s r e v i s i ted a f t e r f ou r y ea r s . T he o bse rva t ion s s howed t h e s i ze o ft h e h u t , t ob e 4 . 20 ml ong a nd 2 . 61 m w ide ( f ig . 9 ) .

•S tone / mud w a l l s

• No w a l l s w e r e v i s ib le e xcep t t h e s t on e a t t h e b a se o ft h ew a l l s .

• Mud p l a s te ro nt h ew a l l sa nd f l oo r •F loo r •M idd le b eam •P a r t ia lt h a tched r oof

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•S tone a nd r ammed e a r th f l oo r w e r e l i t te r ed w i th af ew p o t she rd s , b ang le p i ece s , c ha r coa l a nd b one f r agm en t s . •H ea r th a r ea h ad a shy a nd b u rn tp a tch e s . •R ema in so fc i r cu la rs t one p l a tf o rm . T h i s e t hnog raph ic s t udy h e lped i n u nde r s tand ing w ha t l i k e ly r ema in s c ou ld b e e xpec ted a f t e r t h e a bandonm en t o f a h u t i . e . s t one p aved f l oo r , a ppea rance o fa bandoned h ea r th a nd s t o rage a r ea . I tw a s o b se rved t h a t mo s t o fS ea sona l s umm e r a nd S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e Mu saha r a r e l i t te r ed w i th p ebb les ( f ig s . 1 0 , 1 ) . T he p ebb le sa nd s t one p i ece sh ad b een s p r ead o ve rt h e f l oo r a sw e l l a so u t s ide t h e h u t t oc on t ro l d ampne s s a nd p r even t w h i te a nd r e d a n t s f r om a t tack ing t h e i r f ood s t o r e s a nd o the rb e long ing s .

e F i g . 1 0 : F loo r s w i th s t one p i ece s , a nv i l s , m ic ro l i th s a nd p o t she rd s ,p ha se I , C hopan i -Mando ( af t e rS ha rma e ta l . 1 980 )

T he o t he r f i nd s o n t h e f l oo r i n c luded f l a t q ue rn s , mu l le r s a nd p o t she rd s a tC hopan i - Mando . I ts how s t h a tt hough t h e c ook ing w a s c a r r ied o u t s ide t h e h u t a s t h e p l acem en t o f h ea r th i so u t s ide , p roce s s ing w a s c a r r ied o u t b o th i n s ide a s w e l l a s o u t s ide t h e h u t . I n t h e Mu saha r s S ea sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lem en t a nd S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lemen t s im i la r e v idence s w e r e n o t iced . F ou r f am i l ie s r e s id ing a t t h e se s e t t lem en t s w e re e f f ec t ive ly u s ing a s i ng le q ue rn o wned b y o ne f am i ly . T hu s , i tc anno tb e s a id t h a t a q ue rn s ymbo l ize s af am i ly o rf am i ly u n i t b u t m any f am i l ie s a t ap a r t icu la r s e t t lemen t c an u se as i ng le q ue rn . F o re xamp le , as e t t lemen t c omp r i s ing s even f am i l ie s c an h ave a s m any a s s even o r a s l e s s a s t wo q ue rn s . T he se e v iden ce s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om v i l lage S hanka rga rh i nA l lahabad d i s t r ic t .

F i g . 1 : F l oo r a nd h u t a r ea l i t te r ed w i th p ebb le s , Mu saha r s e t t lem en t( s em ip e rmanen t )

• a l tata

8 0 0

W a f t*

T h e a r rangem en t o f t h e h u t s a t C hopan i - Mando w a s i n ab eeh ive p a t te rn . S uch a r rangem en t o fh u t s w a s a l so s e en a mong t h e Mu saha r S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s a t Mawa iya a nd K a r chhana v i l lage i nA l lahabad d i s t r ic t . F ig . 1 2 : P l an o fh u t s i np ha se I , C hopan i -Mando ( a f te rS ha rma e ta l . 1 980 )

I ti sv e ry i n te r e s t ing t o n o te t h a t p o s tho le s o ft h e h u t s w e re i n s ide t h e p e r iphe ry o f t h e f l oo r a t C hopan i - Mando ( f ig . 1 2 ) . T o u nde r s tand t h i s p henom enon , a bandoned Mu saha r s S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s h u t s w e re s t ud ied ( f ig . 1 3 ) . T h e s t udy r evea led i mpo r tan t f a c t s r e ga rd ing t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s uch s t ruc tu r es . T he p o s tho les w i th in t h e p er iphe ry o ft h e f l oo ra r ea w e r e m ade t o s uppo r t b amboo a nd s t r aw s c r een w a l l s . S uch s c reen s a r e s uppor ted o n ab eam a c ro s s t h e f l oo r f r om b o th s i de s . T he s c r een s t hu s c ove r t h e p er iphe ry o ft h e f l oo r . T hey a r ep l a s te r ed w i th mud o rc l ay i ns om ec a se s .

R ema in s o fb u rn t w a t t le a nd d aub f r agm en t s w i th i mp re s s ion s o f b amboo s t i ck s w e r e f ound a t C hopan i - Mando . T he se i n d ica te t h a t mud p l a s te r w a s a pp l ied o n t h e s c r een s o r w a l l s o fh u t s . E ven t oday w ooden p o s t s s uppor t c i r cu la r a nd r e c tangu la r h u tm en t s a nd w a t t le a nd d aub i s c on s t ruc ted i n t h e S ea sona l , S em i -pe rm anen t a nd P e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f a l l s imp le c ommun i t ie s . T he w a t t le a nd d aub c on s t ru c t ion a mong t h e

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c ommun i t ies s how s t h a t t h e w a l l s d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic t ime s c ou ld n o t h ave b een h igh e r t h an 0 . 70 t o 1m .

a mong t h e S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s e spec ia l ly a mong Mu saha r s i n Mawa iya a nd K a rchhana i n A l lahabad d i s t r ic t . I t w a s n o t iced t h a t a f te r m a r r iage as t r ing o fr oom i sa t tached t ot h e h ou se f o rm ing a s i ng le u n i t . A s i ng le u n i t o r g roup o f a t tached h ou se ( t h r ee r oom s ) i so ccup ied b y s i x t o s even i n d iv idua l s i nt h e Mu saha r S em i -pe rm anen t s e t t lem en t s . T hu s , o ne c an p o s tu la te t h a t t h e e i gh t h ou se c omp lex a t Mahaga ra m ay h ave h ou sed a bou t4 8t o5 6i nd iv idua l s .

A tt h eN eo l i th ic s i te o f Mahagara ,t wen ty h u t s a r e r epor t ed . T he f l oo r s o ft h e h u t s a r e c i r cu la ro ro va l o n p l an a nd t h ey a r e n e i the r p aved n o r r amm ed . T h e o ccu r r ence o fb u rn t c l ay l ump s w i th r e ed o r b amboo i mp re s s ion s i n d ica te s t h e u se o f mud p l a s te r o n t h e s c r een w a l ls o ft h e h u t s . T he f l oo r s a r e o ve r lapp ing a nd t h e h ou se s a r e s pa r se ly s i tua ted . S uch t y pe o fc on s truc t ion o fh u t sw a ss e en

a .

F ig . 1 3 : Mu saha r s h u t t y pe , c on s t ru c t ion a nd r emnan t a f t e ra bandonm en t : a .H u t t y pe l e ad ing t or ema in s o ff l oo r w i thou t p o s t -ho le s a f t e r a bandonm en t ; b .H u t t y pe l e ad ing t or ema in s o fp o s t -ho le s a f t e r a bandonm en t ; c .H u t t y pe l e ad ing t or ema in s o fp o s t -ho le s o u t s id e t h e p e r iphe ry o ff l oo r

e v id ence s w he re e xcep t af ew s ma l l s h e l te r s m ade f o r k eep ing t h e i r b e long ing s ; t h ey c on s t ru c t

I ti si n te r es t ing t h a t Mahaga ra h a sy i e lded h u t sw i th a nd w i thou t p o s tho le s . T h e S ea sona l o pen a i r s e t t lem en t o f Mu saha r s h a s y i e lded s im i la r

3 13

t r ip le f l oo r h u t s ( a s h ou se u n i t s ) i n a dd i t ion t o s i ng le f l oo r h u t s a nd c a t t le p en w i th p o s tho le s a r ound i t sp e r iphe ry .

i r r egu la rf l oo r sb u td on o tm ak e a ny s upe rs t ruc tu r e o ve ri t . B e s ides , i n te r es t ing f a c t s c am e t o l i gh t a f te r s t udy ing a bandoned h u t s o f S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s o f Mu saha r s l i k e , h ow t h e se s t ruc tu r e s c ou ld b e e r ec ted w i thou t p o s tho le s . F i r s t , ar a ised f l oo r ( 10 o r 1 5 c m a bove g round ) i s m ade o f c ompac t e a r th . T hen t h e l o ng f l ex ib le b ranche s a r e p l aced i n a s em i c i r cu la r f a sh ion a t r egu la r i n te rva l s , wh ich a r e s uppor ted b y t h e r a i sed f l oo r . O n t h e se s t r aw w a s p l aced t o c ove r t h e s pace s b e tween b en t b ranch e s . A bandon ed h u t s w e r e s t ud ied t ou nde r s tand a ny p o s s ib i l i ty o fp o s tho le s . I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te h e r e t h a t n o p o s tho le s w e r e v i s ib le a tt h e a bandoned h u t . T hu s , p robab ly s u ch t y pe o f c on s t ruc t ion w a s m ade f o r h u t s a t Mahaga ra , w h ich r e su l ted i n s i ng le , d oub le a nd

A l a rge c a t t le p en w a s e nc lo sed b y ac l u s te r o f h ou se s a t Mahaga ra c ove r ing a n a r ea o f 1 2 .5 x 7 . 5 m . S uch e v id ence o f c a t t le p en w a s o b served a mong t h e P e rmanen t s e t t lem en t o ft h e K o l s . S uch t y pe o f c a t t le p en i sc on s t ru c ted f o r t h e s a f e ty o f t h e c a t t le f r om w i ld a n im a l s . U sua l ly o n ly o ne c a t t le p en i ss e en i nt h e K o l s e t t lem en t a s a l l t h e c a t t le , b e long ing t o d i f f e r en t f am i l ies a r e k ep t i n t h e s am e p en a nd t h e p en i s r e ga rd ed a s a c ommun i ty p rope r ty . A bou t2 5 c a t t le c an b ek ep ti n a n a r ea c ove r ing 1 2 x1 2 m ( f ig . 1 4 ) . T he se p en s h ave p l a s te red f l oo r , w h ich i sr egu la r ly p aved w i th am ix tu r e o f c ow d ung p a s te a nd w a te r , o r h ave s t on e s l ab s p l aced a t r egu la r i n te rva l s .

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4 4 . 14

F ig . 1 4 : P l an o ft h e f l oo ra nd c a t t le p en o ft h e l a s tp hase , Mahaga ra ( af ter S ha rma e ta l . 1 980 )

3 14

c ommon f e a tu r es . T hu s , i tc an b e s a id t h a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e h ad s t rong r oo t s i n t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o ft h e a r ea . T he h u t v a r ie t ie s o f t h e S em i -pe rmanen t a nd P e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s a r e s im i la r t ot ho se o ft h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic h u t s .

N o s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r e s w e r e r e po r ted f r om t h e N eo l i th ic s i te o f Ko ld ihwa , s i nce a v e ry l im i ted a r ea w a s e xcava ted . H oweve r , b u rn t c l ay p i ece s w i th w a t t le i mp r e s s ion s w e r e f ound i na bundance , wh ich i n d ica tes t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic p eop le l i ved i n t h a tched h u t s , w i th w ooden p o s t s a nd mud p l a s te r ed s c r een w a l l s . A t t h e N eo l i th ic s i te o f P anchoh s om ec i rcu la ra nd o va lf l oo r sa r er e po r ted .

P lacemen t a nd t ype s o f h ear th : T h e Me so l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i t e s i n t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s h ave y i e lded d i f f e r en t t ype s o fh ea r th s , i . e . r egu la r o va l o r c i r cu la r h ea r th s , s i ng le -mou th ed h ea r th s a nd p i t h ea r th s ; s om e o ft h em a r e p l a s te r ed w i th c l ay .

T h e s i te o fK o ld ihwa h a sy i e ld ed s t ruc tu r a lr ema in s i nt h eC ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s . T h ey c on s i s to fp o s tho le s e n c i r c l ing a n o b long f l oo r m ea su r ing 5 . 25 m a nd 3 . 20 m . T he f l oo r w a s r amm ed w i th b u rn t c l ay c l od s a nd e a r th . B e s ides , t wo mud w a l l s w e r e r e po r ted . A t t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i t e o f K ha ju r i t h e s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r e i sr e p r e sen ted b y af l oo rm ade o f r ammed e a r th , b u rn t c l ay a nd p o t sh e rd s . T he f l oo r i s l i t te r ed w i th p o t te ry , a n ima l b one s , q uer n s , mu l le r s , s t one p i ece s , b u rn t c l ay l ump s w i th r e ed a nd b amboo i mp r es s ion s , a nd s t one o b jec t s . A f i r ep lace w a sr e po r ted o no ne o ft h ef l oo r s .

T he Me so l i th ic s i te s o f D amdama a nd Mahadaha h ave y i e lded e v idence o f p l a s te r ed o va l a nd c i r cu la r h ea r th s . S uch p l a s te red h ea r th s a r e s t i l l i n u se a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s i n t h e s t udy a r ea . A t S a ra i N aha r R a i , b es ide a c ommun i ty h ea r th e l even o the r h ea r th s a r e r e po r ted o u t o f wh ich e i gh t a r e e xcava ted . F ou r o f t h em w e r e r egu la r h ea r th s o fc i rcu la r o r o b long s hape h av ing v a ry ing s i ze s . S im i la r e v iden ce s c om e f r om t h e s ea sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lem en t s a nd s e a sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s o ft h e Mu saha r s . H e r e t h e h ea r th s a r e p l aced o u t s ide t h e f l oo r a r ea a s n o h u t s w e re o b se rved o t he r t h an a s ma l l s he l te r e r ec t ed f o r k eep ing t h e b e long ing s . T he h ea r th s a r e c on s t ru c ted a sp e r r equ i r em en t . T he b igge r r egu la r ' L P - s haped mud o r s t one h ea r th s a r e u sed f o r c ook ing a nd a r e r egu la r ly c l eaned a nd mud p a s te i s a pp l ied o n t h em . T h e h ea r th s u sed f o r as hor t p e r iod i . e . t h r ee -s ton e h ea r th s , a r e m ean t o n ly f o r r oa s t ing m ea t o r f o r c ook ing d u r ing r a iny s e a son ( f ig . 1 5 ) . When t h e se h ea r th s a r e a bandoned , t h ey a r e c ha rac te r ized b y a ccumu la t ion o f a sh , b u rn t t w ig s , c l ay l ump sa nd d i sca rd ed a n im a lb one s .

I nt h e S em i -pe rmanen t a nd P e rm anen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e Mu saha r s t h e f l oo r s a r e m ad e o f r amm ed e a r th . T he K o l sa nd Ma l lah sm ak e f l oo r s ,b yf i l l ing e a r th a nd p l a s te r ing i tw i th c ow d ung a nd mud . T h i s a pp l ica t ion o fp a s te h e lp s i nt h e m a in tenance o ft h e f l oo r , wh ich t e nd s t oc r ack d ue t o c on s tan t u se . T he p r e sen ce o fm a te r ia l r ema in s o n t h e f l oo r o ft h e h u t a t Kha ju r i i mp l ie s t h a t t h e h u t w a s u sed f o r k eep ing t h e i r i mpo r tan t b e long ing s . B e s ide s , t h e f i r ep lace p o s s ib ly s ugge s t s ac ook ing a r ea . A t p r e sen t t h e K o l s a nd Ma l lah s u se t h e i r s i ng le h u t s f o rk eep ing t h e i rb e long ing s , c ook ing , s l eep ing a nd s t o r age o fg r a in s . B u ta mong t h e Mu saha r s , t h e h u t i s u sed m a in ly f o r k eep ing t h e i r i mpo r tan t b e long ing s a nd s t o rage , w h i le t h e c ook ing a nd s l eep ing a r e a lway s o u t s ide t h e h u t . I t i s o n ly d u r ing r a iny s e a son t h a t t h ey u se t h e h u t s f o r c ook ing a nd s l eep ing . T he e x i s tence o fl im i ted s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s a tt h e s i te o f S a ra i N aha r R a i i n d ica te s t h a t p robab ly i t w a s as e a sona l s e t t lem en t w h e r e n o p e rmanen t s t ruc tu r e s w e r e e r ec ted . T h i s i s v e ry s im i la r t o s e a sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lem en t s o ft h e Mu saha r s w ho g en e ra l ly t a ke s he l te ru nde r h uge Mahua t r ee s a nd v e ry r a r e ly m ake a s ma l l s he l te r t o k eep t h e i r b e long ing s . A t C hopan i - Mando , t h e s t ruc tu r es a r e c i r cu la r a nd o va l h u t s , c on s t ru c ted i n ab eeh ive f a sh ion . S im i la r e v idence i s s e en a mong t h e Mu saha r s e t t lem en t s , e spec ia l ly s e a sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s . T he h u t s o f b o th N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley h ave

F i g . 1 5 : Us haped b r ick h ea r th w i th b one so fr oa s ted a n ima l

A t a r chaeo log ica l s i t es t h e a b sence o f c ha r coa l s i gn if ie s t h a t o n ly l e ave s , g ra s se s a nd t w ig s w e re u sed a s f u e l . P re sen t ly , i tw a s o b se rved t h a t i nt h e

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o pen h ea r th s , l a rge p i ece s o f w ood a r e g ene ra l ly r e u sed w he r ea s c ha rcoa l i s c a r r ied a way b y t h e w ind o r u sed f o r c l ean ing u t en s i l s b y t h e w om enf o lk . T he s e a sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lemen t o ft h e Mu saha r s u sua l ly h a s t h r ee f am i l ies b u t t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea h a s a s m any a s t h r ee r egu la r h ea r th s , f ou r o r f i ve r o a s t ing h ea r th s a nd af ew a bandoned h ea r th s . I ti s i mpor tan t t on o te h e r e t h a t as e t t lem en t c omp r i s ing t h ree f am i l ie s c an h ave a s m any a s 1 0 o r mo r e h ea r th s , i n c lud ing r egu la r , r o a s t ing a nd a bandoned h ea r th s a tt h e s am e t im e . I nt h e a r chaeo log ica l s i tes t h ese a ccoun t f o rt h ep r esence o f al a rge n umbe ro f. h ea r th s r e p r e sen t ing f am i ly u n i t s . H oweve r , f r om t h i s s t udy i tw a s f ound t h a ti ti sn o tt e nab le t oi n f e r t h a t ah ea r th i s am a rk e r o f au n i t o rf am i ly , w hen t h e h ea r th s a r e f ound s c a t te r ed a l o ve r t h e s e t t lem en t w i th o r w i thou t t h e f l oo r c on tex t . B e s ides , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t or e con s t ruc t t h e p robab le p opu la t ion a t t h e s i te i sn o t p o s s ib le u n le s s t h e h ea r th r em a in s a r e f ound i n t h e c on tex t o f f l oo r a r ea . F ig . 1 6 : S ing le m ou thed h ea r th o f t r an s i t iona l p ha se , K ha ju r i ( af t er M i s r a2 000 )

I t i s t o b e n o ted t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic s i te s o f Mahaga ra , K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh i n t h e B e Ian v a l ley h ave n o t y i e lded a ny e v idence o f h ea r th s , t h ough i n t h e A dvanced C ha lco l i th ic l e ve ls a t K o ld ihwa , a s i ng le -mou thed c hu lha h a s b een f ound . A t K ha ju r i af l oo r h a s y i e lded a f i r ep lace a nd a n U -shaped c hu lha i nt h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se ( f ig . 1 6 ) . S uch U -shaped c hu lhas a r e s t i l l i n u se a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s i nt h ea r ea ( f ig . 1 7 ) . T he Meso l i th ic s i tes o f S a ra i N aha r R a i , Mahadaha , D amdam a a nd C hopan i - Mando h ave y i e lded an umbe r o fp i t h ea r th s ( f ig . 1 8 ) . T he se p i t h ear th s a r e c i r cu la r , o va l o r o b long i n s hape a nd m ea su re 5 2 c m i n w id th a nd 1 5 c m t o 4 0 c m i n d ep th , a nd s om e h ave a c on s t r ic ted b a se w i th a w ide m ou th . S om e o ft h em w e r ep l a s te red w i th w e t c l ay . T he p i th ea r th sc on ta ined c l ay l ump s , a sh , a nd t i ny c ha r r ed a n ima l b ones . Ag au rs ku l l w i th h or n s w a sa l so f ound i n ap i th ea r th a t Mahadaha . S im i la r p i t h ea r th s a r e e xc lu s ive ly u sed b y t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o ls f o r c ook ing , r o a s t ing m ea t a nd w a rm ing f ood ( f ig . 1 9 ) . D ue t o c l o se c on tac t w i th r e gu la r h ear th t h e p i t h ear th s a r e f ound t o c on ta in a m ix tu r e o fc l ay l ump s , c ha r r ed g r a in s , s em i c ha r r ed a n ima l b one s a nd a sh . T h i s i sb ecau se t h e b u rn ing f u e l i so f ten s c ooped o u t o ft h e c ook ing h ea r th a nd s mo the r ed w hen t h e h ea r th i s n o t i n u se a nd r e p laced w hen t h eh ea r th i sb e ing u sed .

F i g . 1 7 : S ing le m ou thed h ea r th ( c hu l lah ) n ex t t o b in i n s ide a Mu saha rh u t

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b oxes a nd a l um in ium a nd s t ee l t r unk s . T he c l ay b in s a r e f ound t o b e a n i n sepa rab le p a r t o f t h e i r m a te r ia l c u l tu r e . S tone s l ab s i n t h e f o rm o f p l a tf o rm s a r e embedded i nt h e g round s o t h a t t h e s t o rage b in s c an b e i n s ta l led o n t h em t o d i s suade r oden t sa nd p e s ta t tack f r om t h eb o t tom o ft h eb in . A t Mahaga ra 4 9 .06% o f t h e p o t te ry c on s i s t s o f s t o rage j a r s . T he s t o rage v es se l s a r e mo r e i n c ompa r i son t o c ook ing v e sse l s , wh i le d in ing v es se ls a r e mode ra te . A t N eo l i th ic l e ve l s o f K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh b ig s t o rage j a r s h ave b een f ound . A l so n o t iced a r e a pp l iqué d eco ra t ion , c on s i s t ing o f c ha in a nd r ope p a t ter n s , o n t h e b ig j a r s a nd s t ra igh t -s ided t r ough s . T he e v idence o f s t o rage j a r s c om e s f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o f K o ld ihwa a nd K ha ju r i . I n t h e t r an s i t iona l p ha se b e tween C ha lco l i th ic a nd I r on Age a tK ha ju r i , t h e f l oo ry i e lded ag i an t s t one s l ab n ea rt h eh ea r th . T he s l ab w a s p re sumab ly u sed a s ap l a tf o rm f o rs t o rage b in s o r j a r s . P r e sen t ly , s t o rage b in s a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies a r e p l aced n ex t t ot h e h ea r th . A l a rge n umbe r o f c i r cu la r s t one d i sc s s t one r e cove red f r om K o ld ihwa w e re p robab ly u sed a s s uppo r t st op l ace t h e s t o rage j a r s .

F i g . 1 8 : P i th ea r th a tS a ra iN aha rR a i

F ood p roduc t ion , e ven i n i t s s imp le s t f o rm , p rov ide s a n o ppo r tun i ty a nd a mo t ive f o r t h e a ccumu la t ion o f as u rp lu s a s s e en f r om C hopan i Mando . Unf i r ed o r l i gh t ly f i r ed h andmade c on ta ine r s o f mud w ou ld h ave b een u sefu l f o r s t o r ing f ood g ra in s . C on ta ine r s o rp o t s o fc l ay a r e i mperv iou st oi n sec t s a nd r oden t s , a nd d on o td ecay a s d o c on ta ine r s o fp e r i shab le m a te r ia l s l i ke h ide , w ood , b amboo o rg ra s s . S to rage f a c i l i t ie s o fv a r ied f o rm s a nd s i ze s s how t h a t g r a in s c an b e s t o r ed i n b in s i nb u lk . B u t f o r e x t rac t ion o fs m a l l q uan t i t ie s a tr egu la r i n te rva l s c on ta ine r s l i k e s m a l le r s t o rage j a r s a r e mo r e u sef u l . T he p r e sence o fu nf i r ed l a rge s t o rage j a r s i nt h e e a r ly l e ve l sa tC hopan i - Mando i s o fk ey i mpor tance i nu nde r s tand ing h ow p r eh i s to r ic p eop le i n t h e g a the r ing s t age s t a r t ed m ak ing p o t te ry f i r s t b y h and a nd l a te r b y w hee l . T he se c on ta ine r sm ay h ave b een u sed f o rs t o r ing g r a in sa s w e l l a s p roce s sed o r u np roce s sed f ood a nd w a te r . T h e s t o rage b in s w e re s ub s t i tu ted b y t h e s t o rage j a r s l a rge ly d u e t o t h e i r s t u rd ine s s a nd d u rab i l i ty . T h e e x i s tence o f s t o rage b in s i n t h e e xcava t ion a l ong w i th o the r s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s i n d ica te s t h e i mpo r tance o fb in s , f o r t h e s t o r ing o fg r a in s . T hey c e r ta in ly p l ayed ac ruc ia l r o le i nl i f e o ft h e p eop le a nd a r e o ne o f t h e i mpo r tan t i n d ica to r s o f p ro spe r i ty o fs e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s .

F i g . 1 9 : P i t h ea r th ( Bor s i ) u sed f o r b o i l ing m i lk , c ook ing , w a rm ing f ood b y aK o lw omen

T he p l acem en t o f h ea r th s a t C hopan i - Mando i s f ound o u t s ide t h e f l oo r a r ea . Among t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o l s t h e p l acem en t o ft h e p i t h ea r th s i ss e en o u t s ide t h e h u ti nt h e o pen . T he r e a son i st h a tt h e i r c ook ing i n vo lves al o t o fr oa s t ing o fm ea t , w h ich e m i t s s mok e a nd t h e s m e l l o fb u rn ing f l e sh . T hu s , c ook ing i sa lway sc a r r ied o u to u t s ide t h eh u ta r ea . S torage F ac i l i t ie s : T he Me so l i th ic s i t eo fC hopan i Mando f r om w he re t h e e a r l ie s t h and m ade p o t te ry h a s b een r e cove r ed h a s a l so y i e lded a n umbe r o f c i rcu la r o r o va l s t ruc tu r e s m ade o f f l a t s l ab s o f v a r iou s s i ze s . T h e m ax imum a nd m in imum d i am e te r s o ft h e se s t ruc tu re s a r e 7 0 c m a nd 3 0 c m r e spec t ive ly . R ema in s o f b u rn t d aub f r agm en t s w i th i mp r es s ion s o f b amboo s t i ck s l y ing a r ound s om e o f t h e se c i r cu la r /ova l s t ruc tu r e s w e r e o b ta ined . T he p robab le c onc lu s ion d r awn w a s t h a t t h ese s t on e s t ruc tu r e s a r e t h e b a se s o fs t o r age b in s m ade o fb amboo a nd c l ay . T he K o t s a nd Mu saha r s u se s eve ra l t e chn ique s f o r p r e serv ing a nd s t o r ing f ood f o r v a r iou s l e ng th s o f t im e , b o th a s af u tu r e r e se rve a nd f o r o b ta in ing a d e s i r ed f l avou r o ft h e s t o red f ood . T hey s t o r et h e i rg ra in si nv a r iou st y pe s o fc on ta ine r s l i k e , c l ay s t o rage b in s ,j a r s , p o t s , t i n

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P o t tery : Wh i le t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s i nt h e G anga v a l ley h ave n o ty i e lded a ny e v idence o fp o t te ry , t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f C hopan i - Mando i n t h e B e lan v a l ley h a s y i e lded e v idence o f t h e e a r l ies t h and m ade p o t te ry . O n t h e b a s i s o fe t hnoa r chaeo log ica l s t udy i th a sb een o b se rved t h a t n o s o c ie ty l i v ing i n ah un t ing -ga th er ing s t age g en e ra l ly m ake t h e i ro wn p o t tery . T hey o b ta in t h e p o t te ry f r om n e ighbou r ing a dvanced s o c ie t ie s . I tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a t i n t h e d i s tan t p a s t t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le f r om t h e B e lan v a l ley u sed p o t te ry b y e xchange f r om c on tempo ra ry a dvanced s oc ie t ie s . B u t a s r evea led b y t h e t y pe , t e chno logy , mo rpho log ica l s hape s , d eco ra t ive mo t if sa nd e spec ia l ly t h e s i ze o ft h ep o t s i ti s e v iden t t h a t t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le o f t h e V indhya s m ade t h e i r o wn p o t te ry ( bow l s , v a se s , d i she s a nd b igge r b ow l s ) w i thou t a ny i n f lu ence f r om a ny a dvanced c on tempo ra ry c u l tu r e . T he se v es se l s w e r e m a in ly u sed d u r ing p roces s ing a nd c on sump t ion o ff ood .

Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o ft h e B e lan v a l ley . T h e g r ave s o ft h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod w e re c a r efu l ly p r epa r ed b y b e ing p rov ided w i th a 3 -4 c m t h ick , c u sh ion o fs of t s o i l . T hey w e r e s ha l low a nd o b long a nd t h e d ead w e r e p l aced i n a n e x tended a nd s up ine p os i t ion i n e a s t -we s t o r w e s t -ea s t o r ien ta t ion . I n af ew c a ses o ne h and w a s l y ing b y t h e s i de o f t h e b ody a nd t h e o t he r w a s p l aced a c ro s s t h e a bdom en . T he K o l s a nd Ma l lah s b u ry o n ly t h e i r c h i ld r en . B u t Mu saha r s b u ry t h e i r c h i ld r en a nd i nf ew c a ses t h e p a r en t s a bou t af ew m e te r s a way f r om t h e s e t t lem en t . F o r e xamp le i n t h e S ea sona l o pen -a i rs e t t lemen t s t h e b u r ia l g round i s 7m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea g en e ra l ly n ea r t h e w a te r s ou r ce i n S hanka rga rh v i l lage . Among t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o ls t h e g r ave i sd ug i n an o r th s ou th l i ne . T hey a r e s ha l low a nd m ea su r e 1t o 1 . 50 mi nl e ng th a nd 0 . 50 t o0 . 70 m i nd ep th . T he h ead i s p l aced t owa rd s t h e n o r th ; t h e b ody t h en i s c ove r ed w i th a w h i te c l o th . T he l a ye r s o f mud , t h or n s a nd a ga in mud a r e p u t o ve r o n t h e d ead b ody . A s ma l l t umu lu s i s m ade o n w h ich l a rge r ound s t one s a nd t h or ny b u she s a r e p l aced t o p ro tec t t h e d ead b ody f r om s c avenge r s . S ome t ime s s u ch b u r ia l s a r e p l aced v e ry n ea r t o t h e r i ve r s e c t ion o r i n s ide t h e s e c t ion , s o w hen t h e w a te r l e ve l r i se s , t h e f l ow ing s t r eam c a r r ie s a way t h e d ead b ody .

T he N eo l i th ic c e ram ic a s semb lage i n t h e B e lan v a l ley w a s mo re a dvanced , m a tu r ed a nd s t anda rd ized , w i th f unc t iona l p o t te ry t y pe s l i k e d i f f e r en tt y pes o fb ow l s ,j a r s , h and i s , b a s in , p l a t te r a nd s ma l l v a se s . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e l a te Me so l i th ic p ha se o ft h e V indhya s w a s i nt r an s i t ion f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t o t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e . T he p o t te ry t r a i t s o f t h e N eo l i th ic s u rv ived i n to t h e C ha lco l i th ic p ha se o f t h e B e lan v a l ley . T he C ha lco l i th ic p o t te ry i n c luded t h e f unc t iona l t y pe s l i k e d i f f e r en tt y pe s o fb ow l s , b ow l s -cum l id s , d i sh o n -s tand , f oo ted b a s in s , t umb le r s , v a se s , h and i , j a r s , b eake r s , d i shes , a nd m in ia tu r e v es se l s . A t p r e sen t t h e Mu saha r s , K o l s a nd Ma l lah s u se p o t s m a in ly f o r s t o rage p u rpo se s a nd c ook ing a nd s t o rage i sd one i na l um in ium a nd s t ee lu t en s i l s .

A t Mahadaha , 3 5 h ea r th s w e r e f ound i n t h e c em e te ry -cum -hab i ta t ion a r ea . T he b u r ia l g round s o ft h e Mu saha r s a r e v e ry n ea r ( 7 t o2 0 m ) t ot h e d we l l ing a r ea ( f ig . 1 4 ) . I n m any c a se s t h e a u tho r w a s t o ld t h a t i nt h e r e cen t p a s t t h ey u sed t ob u ry t h e i rd ead i nt h e s e t t lem en t i t se lf . T h e p a r en t s w e re b u r ied u sua l ly j u s t o u t s ide t h e h u t , a s t h ey w e r e t h ough t t o p ro tec t t h e f am i ly f r om e v i l s p i r i t s . B e s ides , t h ey s t rong ly b e l ieve i na nce s to r w o r sh ip . T he p robab le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s b u ry ing t h e i r d ead i n t h e s e t t lem en t i t se lf m igh t h ave s om e th ing t o d o w i th a nce s to r w o r sh ip . A nd b u r ia l w i th in t h e s e t t lem en t a l so p r ev en t s a t tack s b y s c avenge r s , a s t h e g r ave s a r e s ha l low . A sm en t ion ed e a r l ie r ,t h ep l acem en to ft h e h ea r th s a mong t h e Mu saha r s i sa lway s o u t s ide t h e h u t . I ft h e d ead w e r e a l so b u r ied o u t s ide t h e h u t , t h en t h e g r ave i sb ound t oh ave h ea r th a nd h ea r th r e f u se m a ter ia l i ni t .

D ispo sa l o f f o od r efu se s : T he Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s o f Mahadaha d i spo sed o f t h e i r f ood r e f u se i nt h e h ea r th s , i nt h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea a nd i n t h e a d jo in ing l a ke . Whe r ea s a t S a ra i N aha r R a i , D amdama a nd C hopan i - Mando f ood r e f u se w a s d i spo sed o f f i n h ea r th s a nd p i t h ear th s . T he d i spo sa lp a t te rn o ff ood r e f u se i nt h e Mu saha r , K o l a nd Ma l lah s e t t lem en t s a r e s im i la r . Mode o fD i sposa lo fD ead : T he Me so l i th ic s i te so f G anga v a l ley h ave y i e lded g r ave s a nd s k e le ton s f r om S a r a i N aha r R a i ( 12 g r aves / 1 5 s ke le ton s ) , Mahadaha ( 2 8 g r aves / 3 2 s ke le ton s ) , a nd D amdam a ( 4 1 g r ave s / 4 8 s k e le ton s ) . B u t n o e v idence o f d i spo sa l o f t h e d ead c om e s f r om t h e

A t S a ra i N aha r R a i i n G rave n o . V I I , f ou r i n d iv idua l s w e re b u r ied . Two o f t h e se s ke le ton s b e long t o m a les , a nd t wo t o f ema le s . Ma le s w e r e

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p l aced t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e f ema le s . I nt h e b u r ia l o f t h e Mu saha r s ,t h eh ead i sp l aced t owa rd st h en o r th . I ft h e d ecea sed w a s am an , t h e b ody i sp l aced o n t h e r i gh t s i de o ft h e g rave , i f aw om an , t ot h e l ef t . T he e xp lana t ion f o r p l ac ing t h e d ead b ody i nt h i s f a sh ion i st h a tt h e m an a nd w oman w e r e o r ig ina l ly as i ng le b ody . T he r i gh t o r t h e s t ronge r h a lf b e long s t ot h e m a le a nd t h e l ef to rt h e w eak e rh a lf t o t h e f em a le . Wh en t h e t wo h a lve s s p l i t , e ach b ecom e s awho le a nd p e rf ec tb ody , o ne ac omp le te m an a nd t h eo t he r ac omp le te w om an .

T he p l acem en t o f b u r ia l s i n t h e Meso l i th ic s e t t lem en t s m igh t h ave b een g u ided b y f o l low ing r e a son s : •T h ey w o r sh iped t h e i r d ead a s t h e Mu saha r s d o t oday . •B e l ief t h a t t h e d ead a nce s to r s ' s p i r i t s p ro tec t s t h em f o rm e v i l s p i r i t s , a s s uch b e l ief s a r e s t i l l p r eva len ta mong t h e Mu saha r s . •B e l ief i nl i f e a f t e rd ea th , f o r wh ich t h ed ead w e re b u r ied b e s ide t h e h ea r th i n t h e b e l ief t h a t t h e h ea r th s w ou ld p rov ide e n e rgy t ot h e s ou ls o ft h e d ead . •B u r ia l w i th in t h e s e t t lem en t w ou ld h ave p r even ted a t tack b ys c avenge r s .

T h e g r aves a t S a ra i N aha r R a i , Mahadaha , a nd D amdam a h ave y i e lded g rave g ood s l i k e b one a r rowhead s , m ic ro l i th s , a nd g round p i ece s o f h aem a t i te . T he o ccu r r ence o fb u rn t c l ay l ump s a nd c ha r r ed a n ima l b one s i nt h e g r ave s s ugge s t s u se o f h ea r th r e f u se i nf i l l ing t h e g r ave s . T he Meso l i th ic b u r ia l s o ft h e G anga v a l ley h ave y i e lded e v idence o f or n am en t s i n t h e f o rm o f r i ng s , e a r r ing s a nd n eck lace m ade o f a n t le r s ( e .g . a t Mahadaha f r om g r ave n o . I V , Va nd V I I ) a nd p endan t s ( i n G rave n o . V I I , D amdama ) . Among t h e Mu saha r s , b u r ia l s d o n o tc on ta in a ny g rave g ood s , b u tb e long ing s a r e p l aced a r ound t h e s t one t umu lu s o f t h e d ead . Or n am en t s o fp r ec iou s m e ta l s l i k e g o ld a nd s i lve r a r e r emoved a nd r e p laced w i th t h o se o f c heape r m a t e r ia l s l i k e l e ad a nd a l um in ium b ef o r e b u ry ing t h e d ead . A tD amdama g r ave n o . V I I h a s y i e lded a m a le b u r ied w i th ap endan t . T he m a le m embe r s o f t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies a do rn t h em se lve s w i th a f ew o rnam en t s l i k e p endan t s a nd r i ng s . T hu s , t h e g r ave g ood s d o n o t a lway s i mp ly ab e l ief t h a t t h ey w e r e n eeded b y t h e d ecea sed i nt h e a f te r l i f e , b u t b ecau se t h e u se o ft h ing s o ft h e d ead b y t h e l i v ing i s n o t c on s id e r ed a u sp ic iou s a nd t hu s t h ey a r e d i sca rded .

E v idence o fb u r ia l d oe s n o t c om e f r om t h e B e lan v a l ley s i te s . P robab ly t h ey b u r ied t h e i r d ead i n r i ve r s e c t ion s , a nd when t h e w a te r l e ve l r o se , t h e r i ve r c a r r ied t h e d ead a l ong . S uch m ode o fb u r ia l s i s s e en i n t h e S ea sona l a nd S em i -Pe rman en t S e t t lem en t so ft h e Mu saha r s . S ubs i s tence P a t tern : T he Mu saha r s a nd K o l s a r e h un te r -ga the r e r s a nd a g r icu l tu r i s t a nd t h e Ma l lah s a r e f i she rm en a nd a g r icu l tu r i s t s . D ue t ot h e r a p id d es t ruc t ion o f f o r e s t s b ig g am e h un t ing i s d one v e ry r a r e ly a nd i s i l ega l a s w e l l . H oweve r , t h e t r ad i t ion o f s ma l l g am e h un t ing t h ough o f l i t t le e conom ic i mpor tance i ss t i l l p rac t i sed a mong t h e se c ommun i t ie s . Sma l l g ame h un t ing : T he Mu saha r s p r ef e r s ma l l g am e h un t ing t o b ig g am e h un t ing , a s i tr equ i r e s l e s s e ne rgy a nd t oo l s . T hey a r e v e ry much a wa r e o f t h e c on sequences o f e xce ss ive h un t ing a nd t h e ref o r e r egu la te t h e i rh un t ing t hu sm a in ta in ing a n e co log ica l b a lance . T he Meso l i th ic p eop le m ay h ave a l so b een w e l l a cqua in ted w i th h ow m any a n ima l s h ad t ob e e xp lo i ted , wh ich i n va r iab ly l e f t t h em w i th t h e o p t ion o f e xp lo r ing n ew f ood r e sou r ce s f r om t im e t o t im e . B u t i ti si n te r e s t ing t h a tt h ea n ima lb one sa r e s e en e i th e ri nl e s so r mo r e p e rcen tage f r om a l l t h e l a ye r s f r om D amdama p robab ly b ecau se t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le w e r e e xpe r im en t ing w i th t h e c ho ice o f g am e t o b e h un ted a nd a m id t h e s c a r c i ty o f s t one t o o l s . T h i s m igh t b e t h e r e a son why e ve ry s e cond b one i n D amdama w a s aw o rk ed b one , i fn o t aw e l l -made t o o l .

T he e v idence o fd oub le b u r ia l p robab ly h ad s om e s o c ia l s i gn if icance f o r t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le . Maybe t h i s s ymbo l i sed a m a r i ta l r e la t ion sh ip . A t Mahadaha t wo d oub le b u r ia l s h ave b een r e po r ted i ng r ave n o s . I /X IV a nd V /X . I no ne o ft h e g rave s ( X IV )t h eb u r ia li so fy oung m a le a nd f ema le . S uch e v id ence a l so c om e s f r om t h e s i te o f D amdam a , wh ich h a s y i e ld ed 5 d oub le b u r ia l s a nd o ne t r ip le b u r ia l . G rave n o . XX h a s a n a du l t m a le a nd a y oung a du l tf ema le , wh i le i ng r ave n o . XXXV I t h e m a le i s ay oung a du l t a nd t h e f ema le a n a du l t . T he t r ip le b u r ia l i n c luded t wo m a le a du l t s a nd o ne f em a le a du l t . T hu s , i t c an b e s a id t h a t t h ey p r ac t i sed b o th monogamy a nd p o lyand ry .

T he e v idence o fd og i n Meso l i th ic l e ve l s a tS a r a i N aha r R a i a nd D amdama i s i n t r igu ing . T h e Me so l i th ic i nhab i tan t s w e r e i n c l o se c on tac t w i th d og s t h a t u l t ima te ly l i ved o n t h e b one s t h rown t o

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t h em a nd t h en g radua l ly g o t d om e s t ica ted a nd a ccompan ied t h em d u r ing h un t ing e xped i t ion s . D om e s t ica t ion o fd og s i sa l so c ommon a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s w ho k eep t h em f o r h un t ing a nd f o rp ro tec t ion a ga in s ti n t rude r s .

m eag r e a moun t o f r ema in s r e cove r ed . D e sp i te d i e ta ry p o ten t ia l a f f o rded b y s ma l l m amma ls , t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly a s s igned m ino r s i gn if icance a nd a r e c on s tan t ly o ve r shadowed b y l a rge r a n ima l s i n a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion . T h e i mpor tan ce o f s ma l l a n ima l s i nt h e p r eh i s to r ic d i e t c an v e ry w e l l b e s e en f r om t h e Meso l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e G anga v a l ley . S ince e ve ry p a r t o f t h e s ma l l a n ima l s i s c on sum ed i ti su n l ik e ly t h a t a ny t r aces o ft h e s am e c an b e f ound i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T hough l im i ted n umbe r o f b one s o f s ma l l a n ima l s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c on t r ibu t e t oo u r k now ledge o ft h e t y pes o fs pec ie s e xp lo i ted b y t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le , i ti sd i ff i cu l tt oe s t ima t e t h e c on t r ibu t ion o f i n d iv idua l s pec ie s . S tud ies s how t h a t s ma l l a n ima l s h ave r e la t ive ly h i gh e d ib le m ea t t o l i ve w e igh t r a t io . T hu s t h e se s ma l l a n ima l r ema in s c an b e a n i mpo r tan t s ou r ce f o rr e con s t ruc t ing p r eh is to r ic d i e t . T he h un t ing o f s m a l l g am e r e qu i re s f ewe r t o o l s , wh ich w ou ld h ave b een i mpo r tan t w hen t h e r aw m a te r ia l w a s s c a r ce , t h e n ea r e s t s ou rce b e ing 1 00 km f r om t h e s i te s .

T he s ma l l g am e h un ted b y t h e Mu saha r s m a in ly c on s is t s o f r a t s a nd s qu i r re l s . T he f a una l a s semb lage o f Meso l i th ic s i t es o f Mahadaha a nd D amdama i n c ludes t h eb ones o fr oden t s p ec ie s l i ke R a t tus r a t tu s a nd B and ico ta i nd ica . T he C ha lco l i th ic s i te o f K ha ju r i h a s a l so y i e lded e v idence o fr oden t s . I tw a s o b se rved t h a t as i ng le t o o l i . e . k han ta a nd a b ucke t o fw a te r i se nough t oc a tch a sm any a s 5o r 1 5r a t s a t at im e . R oa s t ing o fr a t s i sa lway s c a r r ied o u t o n o pen f i r e s a nd r a r e ly i nr egu la rh ea r th s . T he p roce s s ing d oe s n o t r e qu i r e a ny t o o l a nd r oden t s t o o th i se nough t od i s sec ti t .D r ied t w ig s a nd l e ave s a r e u sed a s f u e l w ood f o r r oa s t ing . T he r o a s t ing a r ea a f te r 1 0 d ay s h a s r ema in s o fa sh a nd t e e th o f t h e r oden t s a s e ve ry o t he r p a r t o f t h e a n ima l i s c on sum ed . I n a dd i t ion , r a t s c o l lec t g r a in s i n t h e i r h o les d u r ing h a rves t , w h ich i sc o l lec ted f r om t h e i r n e s t b y t h e Mu saha r s a f t e r k i l l ing t h e r a t s . I ti s p robab le t h a t t h e Me so l i th ic i nhab i tan t s o f t h e G anga v a l ley a l so i n i t ia l ly c am e i n c on tac t w i th w i ld g r a in s wh i le c l ea r ing r a t h o le s a nd t h i s m ay h ave u l t ima te ly l e d t h em t o c o l lec t t h e se w i ld ly g row ing g r a in s .

T h e Mu saha r s h un t ing s t y le s e t s t h em a pa r t f r om o t he r h un te r s s i nce t h ey u se o n ly m in imum e qu ipm en t f o r h un t ing o pe ra t ion s . T he e v idence o f s ma l l g am e h un t ing i sv e ry w e l l d ep ic ted i n t h e r o ck p a in t ing s o f e a r ly h un te r s a nd g a the r e r s a t J ao ra n ea r B h imbe tka i n Madhya P r ade sh . A n e l abo ra te s c ene o f s eve ra l w om en c oope r a t ing i n c a tch ing r a t s f r om t h e i rb u r row i sd ep ic ted a tJ ao ra ( Neumaye r 1 993 : 7 8 ) . T he o t h e r d ep ic t ion s how s r a t sb e ing c a r r ied b yt h e h un te r s o n t h e i rb ack . T he u se o fs t ick s f o r d i gg ing i si n te r e s t ing b ecau se t h i s t e chn ique s u rv ive s a mong t h e Mu saha r s . A l though t h e r e w a s n o s c a r c i ty o fb ig a n im a ls i np r eh i s to r ic t im e s , t h e r a t s s t i l l c on s t i tu ted ap a r t o fp r eh i s to r ic d i e t .

T h e f a una l a s semb lage o f D amdam a h a s y i e lded e v idence o fp o rcup in e . T he Mu saha r s a nd K o l s o f t h e s t udy a r ea a l so h un tp o r cup ine s . T he p o r cup ine i sr oa s ted a f te r r emov ing i t s q u i l l s . T he r o a s t ing i s d one i nt h e h ea r th o ro n o pen f i r e . O n ly t h e q u i l l s , v i sce ra a nd b u rn t t w ig s r em a in a tt h e s i t e , wh ich i s l a te r b lown a way b y w ind . B e s ides , d om es t ica ted a n ima l s l i k ep i ga r e a l so r o a s ted i no pen h ear th s o n t w ig sa nd s t r aw .

F i sh ing : T he f a una l a s semb lag e s o ft h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f t h e G anga v a l ley a nd N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley h a s y i e lded r ema in s o fa qua t ic a n ima l s l i k e t o r to i se ( L i s semy s p unc ta ta a nd C h i t ra i nd ica ) a nd f i sh r em a in s . Ma jo r i ty o f t h e b one f r agm en t s r epo r ted a t D amdama w e re t i ny ( 1t o 3c mi nl e ng th ) a nd 9 0% o f t h e t o ta l a s semb lage o f t h em w e re c ha r r ed , s ugge s t ing t h a t r o a s t ing o f m ea t w a s t h e m a in mode o f c ook ing . A t S a r a i N aha r R a i b ones r e cove r ed f r om t h e h ea r th s w e r e i nd i f f e r en t s t age s o fr o a s t ing w i th e x ten s ive s oo t o nt h em . T he d o r sa l p l a te s a nd s he l ls o ft o r to ise f ound f r om h ea r th sa l so s howed s i gn so fr o a s t ing .

F ow l ing : T he f a una l a s semb lage o f Mahadaha a nd D amdama h a s y i e lded e v idence o ft h e b i rd G a l lu s g a l lu s ( 8 .96% o f t h e t o ta l a s semb lage ) . T he Mu saha r s a nd Ma l lah s a l so c a tch b i rd s f o r c on sump t ion . T he who le b ody i sc on sum ed l e av ing b eh ind f e a the r s a nd b eak s o ft h e b i rd s i nt h e o pen o ri n ar egu la rh ea r th . S ummary : Sma l l m amma l s l i ke r oden t s d o r e p r esen t ap o ten t ia l ly r i ch f ood s ou r ce . B u t h ow much e ach s p ec ies c on t r ibu ted t o t h e d i e t o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le i sd i ff i cu l t t oe va lua te f r om t h e

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T he e t hnog raph ic s t udy h e lped i n u nde r s tand ing t h e i mpo r tance o ff i sh i nt h e s ub s i s tence o ft h e p a s t c ommun i t ie s :

Wh i le i n te rp r e t ing a ny a r chaeo log ica l s i te i ti sv e ry i mpo r tan t t on o te t h e c on tex t i n wh ich t h e a n ima l b one s a r e f ound . T he d i spo sa l o ff i sh b one s i nt h e Ma l lah s e t t lem en t s i si n : h ea r th a r ea , d ump b eh ind t h e h u to rs c a t te r ed n ea rt h e s e t t lem en t , a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s a nd o nt h e r i ve rbank s . C on s ider ing t h e h ab i t s a nd e co logy o ft h e v a r iou s s pec ie s r e cove r ed , i ti s p o s s ib le t o r e con s t ruc t t h e s ou r ce s l i k e ly t o h ave b een e xp lo i ted b y a nc ien t m an . T hu s , t h e f i sh ing m e thodo logy a dop ted b y p r esen t d ay s imp le c ommun i t ie s s how s m any s im i la r i t ies w i th t h e p r eh i s to r ic p r ac t ice s . B one h ook s m ay h ave b een u sed , b u t o n ly l im i ted e v idence h a s c om e t o l i gh t d u r ing e xcava t ion . T he r e i sn o d i r ec t e v idence f o r t h e u se o fn e t s o rt r ap s , b u t s ma l l f i sh c ou ld h ave b een c o l lec ted w i th t h e h e lp o fc ove rb a ske t s o rb y h and .

•F i sh ing p rac t ice s d eve lop a s al o ca l r e spon se t o t h e g eog raphy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f f i sh . T hough f i sh ing i s d one t h roughou t t h e y ea r , t h e m a in f i sh ing s e a son i sd u r ing r a in s a nd s umm e r i n r i ve r sa nd l a k e s . •F i sh r ema in s a t t h e s i te i fa na ly sed c an s how d i s t r ibu t ion o fs pec ie s ,p rov id ei n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e c l ima te , t h e s e a son s i n w h ich t h ey w e r e c augh t , f ood p r ef e r ence s a nd t h e f i sh ing m e thod s . •T h e f i sh r ema in s f ound a ta n a r chaeo log ica l s i te , o r t h e r e con s t ruc ted d ea th a s semb lage m ay n o t a lway s s how s t h e e x ten t o f f i sh ing a c t iv i ty c a r r ied o u to nt h es i t e ,b ecau se : a .F i sh h un ted f r om t h e r i ve r a nd l a k e s a r e d epo s i ted i n v a r iou s p l ace s i n d i f f e r en t s e t t lem en t s . D if f e r en t t ype s o fp roce s s ing a nd b u tche ry m e thod s e mp loyed l e ad t o d i f f e r en t l o ca t ion s f o rd epo s i t ion o ff i sh b one s . F o r e . g . t h e Ma l lah s d o n o t c a r ry t h e c omp le te f i sh b ack t o t h e s e t t lem en t a s t h ey a r e a l r eady c a r ry ing c on s ide rab le w e igh t . T he h ead s a nd f i n sa r ed i sca rded a tt h eb ank o ft h er i ve r .N on e d ib le f i sh a r el e f tb eh ind a tt h er i ve rbank s a nd o n ly t h e i mpor tan tf i sh s t ock i sb ough tb ack t o t h e s e t t lem en t . F i sh h un ted b y c h i ld r en a r e p roce s sed a nd d i sca rded a l ong t h e r i ve r o r o n t h e l a ke s ide , p addy f i e ld o r e l sewhe r e . T hu s , b one so f an umbe ro fs pec ie sc on sum ed c anno t a lway s b e f ound i nt h e d we l l ing a r ea b u t a r e f ound n ea rt h ea c tua lf i sh ing a r ea . b .I ti sn ece s sa ry t oe xcava te b o th t h ef i sh ing a r ea ( wh e re g ene ra l ly b u tche r ing h appen s ) a s w e l l a s t h e d we l l ing a r ea ( d i spo sa l o f b one ) f o r b e t te ru nde r s tand ing t h e f i sh ing a c t iv i t ie si ft h e a r chaeo log ica ls i t ei ss i tua ted a l ong t h er i ve ro r l a k e . c .D u r ing e x t rac t ion o fo i l m o s t o ft h e d i sca rded b ody p a r t s ( t a i l s , f i n s , a nd b one s ) a r e u t i l i sed , l e av ing t h e c r u sh ed r em a in s b eh ind . T hu s , i t v e ry u n l ik e ly t h a t a ny t r ace s o f s uch p roce s s ing w i l l b e s e en i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .

F i sh ing b y h and a nd w i th s t ick s i st h e s imp le s t f i sh ing t e chn ique a mong t h e Mu saha r s a nd t h e Ma l lah s , whe r et h e r e i s am in ima lu se o ft o o l s . T he r aw m a te r ia l s u sed f o r m ak ing f i sh ing t o o l s a nd t r ap s a r e l o ca l ly a va i lab le . Much o f i tc on s i s t s o f b amboo , wh ich i se a s i ly o b ta ined f r om t h e n ea rby f o r e s t , w h i le c o t ton a nd n y lon s t r ing s f o r w eav ing n e t s , i r on h ook s a nd n e t s i nk e r s a r e o b ta ined f r om l o ca lm a rk e t s . W i th t h e l a ck o f s ub s tan t ia l e v idence f o r al i nk b e tween l i f e i n t h e mod e rn e r a a nd t h a t o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic p a s t , i tm ay w e l l b e a sk ed w he the r t h e s t one too lu s ing p eop le p o sse s sed t h et e chno log ica l s k i l lo ff i sh ing wh ich i sk nown t ot h ec on tempo ra ry f i sh ing c ommun i t ie s . T h e Ma l lah s , Mu saha r s a nd K o l s a l l c a r ry o u t f i sh ing . T hey e mp loy v a r ied f i sh ing t e chn ique s ,w h ich a r es im i la rt ot ho se f ound d ep ic ted i nt h er o ck a r ti nt h e n ea rby a r ea . W i th t h e l a ck o fs ub s tan t ia l e v idence f o r al i nk b e tween l i f e i nt h e moder ne r aa nd t h a to ft h ep r eh i s to r ic p e r iod , i tm ay b e a sk ed w he the r t h e s t one too l u s ing m en w e r e a cqua in ted w i th f i sh ing . T he e v idence o f f i sh ing i sv e ry w e l l d ep ic ted i n r o ck p a in t ing s o f h un te r -ga the r e r s a t L akha joa r n ea r B h imbe tka , d i s t r ic t R a i sen i n Madhya P rade sh ( Neumaye r 1 993 : 7 8 -79 ) , ad e ta i led f i sh ing s c ene d ep ic t s p eop le c a tch ing f i sh f r om a s ma l l p ond o r w a te rho le . Ap e r son 's p ouch i sh ang ing f r om t h e b ranch o f at r ee , ah and n e t i sp l aced a tt h e g round t oa low i t s o wn e rt oc a tch at u r t le w i th b o th h and s . A no the r p e r son h a s s t rung s eve ra l f i sh o n t o ar od f o re a sy t r an spo r t . O the r sa r e f i sh ing b yn e t sa nd b y b ow a nd a r row . A t o ne s i de f i sh a r e s t ack ed a cco rd ing t o t h e i r v a r ie ty . R ock p a in t ing s a t K e rwagha t , K owa r Khoh a nd G o ja ra , D is t r ic t

S ummary : T h e Ma l lah s a r e s p ec ia l ized f i she rm en . T he i r t empo ra ry s e t t lem en t s ( S e t t lem en t T ype I ) a r e s e a sona li nc ha rac te ra nd r ef l ec ts ucce s sf u l f ood a cqu i s i t ion . S om e o ft h e Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic c ommun i t ie s mu s t h ave a ch ieved s im i la re ff ic iency i nf i sh ing .

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o n ly c e r ea l s b u t a l so a v a r ie ty o f s e ed s . B e s ide s , e v id ence o f s t o rage j a r s i n d i rec t ly i n d ica tes t h e p roduc t ion a nd s t o rage o fg r a in s o n t h e a na logy o f t h e p r ac t ice s o ft h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s . T he m os t i n te r e s t ing f e a tu r e i st h eu se o fr o ta t ing q u e rn m ade o f mud a nd c l ay b y K o l s a nd Mu saha r s . T h i s t y pe o f q ue rn i su sed o n ly f o r d ehu sk ing t h e g r a in s , m a in ly p addy i . e . d han . T hu s , f o r d ehu sk ing , t h e r o ta t ing q uer n m ade o f s t on e i . e . c hakk i i s n o t r e qu i red . T he Me so l i th ic p eop le m ay h ave a l so c on s tru c ted as im i la r d ev ice w i thou t a ny o fu se o f s t on e .

M i rzapu r i n U t ta r P rade sh d ep ic t f i sh ing s c ene s ( Neumaye r 1 993 : 1 08 , 12 ,113 ) . H e r e f i sh ing i s d one b y b oa t s , g ene ra l ly m anned b y t wo p e r son s , o ne a t t h e s t e rn h and l ing t h e p add le , t h e o t he r s p ea r ing f i sh o rt u r t le s . T he se p a in t ing s s how t h a t t h e f i sh ing t e chn ique s u sed s eve ra l t h ou sand y ea r s a go w e r en o t much d i f f e r en tf r om t h o se o ft oday . G a ther ing : F rom t h e Me so l i th ic s i t e o f C hopan i Mando a nd D amdam a c ha r coa l r ema in s o f b amboo , c ha r red g r a in s o f m i l le t s , a nd w i ld r i ce h ave b een r e por ted . T h i s s how st h a tt h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le g a the r ed t h e se g r a in s . T he e v idence o fs e ed s o f w i ld p l an t s f r om t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f D amdam ai nt h e G anga v a l ley i si n te r e s t ing a s :

T he f l ood p l a in o ft h e r i ve r a d jacen t t oK o ld ihwa w a s m o s t s u i ted f o r t h e c u l t iva t ion o fr i ce , w h ich c ou ld b e e xp lo i ted w i thou t t h e a i d o f a ny m an m ade i r r iga t iona l d ev ice a nd e x t ra m anu r ing . P lough ing t oo l s a r e n o t a lway s n ece s sa ry t og row r i ce i nf l ood p l a in s a s i se v id en t f r om t h e c u r r en t p r ac t ice o f r i ce -cu l t iva t ion i n f l ood p l a in s o f t h e r e g ion .

1 . B a thua ( C henopod ium a l bum L . ) i se a ten a s v ege tab le a nd Mu saha r s a nd K o l s u se t h e s e ed sf o ri t sa n the lm in t ic p rop r ie t ie s . 2 . K her ( H e t eropogon c on tor tu s L . ) i su sed a s f odde rf o rc a t t le b yt h eK o l s . 3 . B er ( Z i zyphu sj u juba L am . ) i se a ten a s af r u i t , a nd t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o ls u se t h e s e ed s a sa c u r ef o rd i a r rhoea a nd a bdom ina lp a in .

T he Ma l lah s i n t h e i r S ea sona l a g r icu l tu r a l s e t t lem en t s , h i l l top ( Se t t lem en tT ype I a )c a r ry o u t a g r icu l tu r e o n as e a sona l b a s i s o n t h e h i l l s i nt h e B e lan v a l ley . Mo s t o f t h e e xp lo r ed N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i t e s a r e f ound i nt h e n ea rby h i l l s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley . I tw a s o b se rved t h a t ag roup o f Ma l lah f am i l ie s s e a sona l ly c ome t o i n hab i t t h e se h i l l s d u r ing s umme r . T h e a r ea c ho sen f o r a g r icu l tu re i so n t h e t op o ft h e h i l l af ew m e te r s a way f r om t h e r i ve r . T hey c u l t iva te t h i s l a nd a nd c a r ry o u t f i sh ing s imu l taneou s ly . T h ey o ccupy t h e s am e h u t s o n t h e h i l l s s e a sona l ly b y r e nova t ing t h em . T he s umm e rh i l lt o p s e t t lem en t s a r ef ound o n b o th s i de s o ft h er i ve r . Af ew Ma l lah f am i l ie sc om e f o rm t h e Mando v i l lage w h e re t h ey h ave p e rm anen t s e t t lem en t s ( Se t t lem en t T ype I I ) a nd o t h e r s c om e f r om a sf a r a st h e f oo th i l ls o fK a imu r t o d o a g r icu l tu r e i n t h i s f e r t i le a r ea . T he Mando v i l lage d u r ing r a iny s e a son i sc omp le te ly i s o la ted a nd b ecom e s a n i s land a s t h e B e lan r i ve r f l ow ing a r ound r i se s u p a nd d e tache s t h e c onnec t ion t ot h e l a nd .

A t t h e N eo l i th ic s i t e o f Mahaga r a i mp r e s s ion o f b amboo i nc l ay l ump s h a s b een f ound , wh ich w a s p robab ly u sed f o r c on s t ruc t ion o f h u t s . B amboo w a s a l so u sed a s f u e l a s i s e v iden t f r om t h e c ha rcoa l f r om t h e s i t e . B e s ide s , t h e N eo l i th ic i nhab i tan t s a l so g a the r ed w i ld r i ce . F rom N eo l i th ic l e ve l s a t K o ld ihwa s e ed s o f j u jube ( be r ) a r e r e por ted . Due t o t h e p e r i shab le n a tu r e o f p l an t s t h ey a r e r a r e ly e ncoun te red d u r ing e xcava t ion s . E thnobo tan ica l o b serva t ion s a mong t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o l s s how t h a t t h e se g roup s a r e s t i l l g r ea t ly d ependen t o n f o r es t r e sou rce s b o th f o r f ood a nd m ed ic ine s . A gr icu l ture : A t t h e N eo l i th ic s i t e s o f Mahaga ra a nd K o ld ihwa r em a in s o f w i ld , c u l t iva ted a nd h yb r id ( b e tween w i ld a nd c u l t iva ted ) g r a in s h ave b een r e po r ted . I n t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s a t K o ld ihwa a nd K ha ju r i , e v idence o fc u l t iva ted r i ce a nd o f c u l t iva ted w hea t a nd m oong f r om t h e l a s t p ha se a tK o ld ihwa i sr e por ted . P r e sence o fq ue rn s , mu l le r s a nd r ubbe r s t one s c om es f o rm t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s o fC hopan i Mando , Mahadaha a nd D amdama , N eo l i th ic s i t es o f Mahaga ra a nd K o ld ihwa a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o fK o ld ihwa a nd K ha ju r i . Q ue rn sa nd mu t te r sa r e a l so p r e sen t ly u sed a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s f o r g r ind ing n o t

Mo s t o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l t o o l s u sed b y t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s a r e m ade o f w ood . F o r e xamp le , a s ma l l p i ece o f i r on i n t h e p l ough i s e nough t o c u l t iva te t h e f e r t i le a r ea o nt h eh i l l . Ad i bb le ri nt h e f o rm o f m ic ro l i th ic p o in t s m igh t h ave b een a n e f f ec t ive t o o l f o r m ak ing h o le s f o r s ow ing g r a in s . R eap ing a l so c ou ld h ave b een e a s i ly c a r r ied o u t b y s i ck le sh af ted w i th m ic ro l i th s .

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A r chaeo log ica l e v idence s s how t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic i n hab i tan t s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley s c a r r ied o u t h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s . T hough n oN eo l i th ic s i te h a sb een e xcava ted i nt h e G anga p l a in s i nt h e s t udy a r ea , i tc ou ld b e i n f e r r ed f r om t h e p r e sen t s imp le c ommun i t ies t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic i nhab i tan t s m igh t h ave h ad a n e f f ec t ive a g r icu l tu r e -ba sed e conomy i nt h i s r e g ion wh ich i s mo r e f e r t i le t h an i n t h e B e lan v a l ley .

b amboo , h emp , a nd n urku l . I n e a r l ie r d ay s t h ey u sed h emp , s i lk t h r ead f o rt h e w eav ing o fn e t s b u t a tp r esen t t h ey u se n y lon t h read , c o t ton a nd h emp f o r m ak ing n e t s ( bhawar j a l , m aha/ k ura i l /s an ta/ b erja l , b i sr io rc hho t -berja la nd f a s i la j a i ) . T he i r on t oo l s h af t ed i n b amboo a nd u sed i n a g r icu l tu r e a r e d i scu s sed i nC hap te r6 .T hey a r eh a l ( p lough ) , h ans iya ( s ick le ) , k hurp i ( hoe ) , g adasa ( choppe r ) , p harua ( s pade ) , a nd k u lhar i l t engar i ( a xe ) . S i ck le s m ade u p o f m ic ro l i th s m igh t h ave s e rved t h e f unc t ion o f c u t t ing d u r ing i nN eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod s . T oo l s f o r a g r icu l tu r a l w o rk a r e a l so m ade e n t i re ly o fw ood a nd b amboo , f o r e xamp le p a ta lpa te l la ( c lod -cru she r / leve le r ) , m oo sa l ( pounde r ) , s upa ( w innow ing b a sk e t ) , j owa tha ( h a rne s s ) , a nd d hek i( hu sk ing d ev ice ) .

T echno logy : T oo l s p l ay a v i ta l r o le i n t h e e conom ic p u r su i t s o f h un t ing , g a the r ing , f i sh ing , a nd a g r icu l tu re . T oday t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies d o n o t u se s t on e f o r m ak ing t o o l s . I n s t ead , t h ey u se w ood , b amboo a nd i r on , wh ich i s much mo r e e f f ec t ive a nd d u rab le t h an s t on e . B amboo a nd w ood a r e s e conda ry r aw m a te r ia l s , a nd a r e m a in ly u sed a ss haf t sa nd h and le s .

F o rb a sk e tm ak ing i r on t oo l s a nd t h e i rm a te r ia l sa r e d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 6 . T hey a r e b anka ( l ong k n if e ) , b ank i ( sm a l l k n if e ) , h a thaur i ( h amm e r ) , c hak u ( p ick ing k n if e ) , s u ja ( bodk in ) , k a inch i ( s c i s so r s ) , k a tarn i ( s ide c u t t e r s ) ,j amboor ( r ound n o sed p l ie r s ) a nd p las ( p l ie r s ) . T he t o o l o fo rgan ic m a te r ia l s u sed i n b a ske t m ak ing i sp ichar i . An o i l s tone o r as t one s ha rpen e r i sn eces sa ry t ok eep t h e k n ive s s ha rp . S ha rpen e r s o fs t one a r e r e po r ted f r om Mahadaha , Mahaga ra , a nd K o ld ihwa . Wh i le g a the r ing w i ld p l an t s f r om t h e f o r es t t h ey e mp loy t o o l s m ade o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l l i k e l agg i , k hara , k honch a nd b a iyya b es ide s k han ta , wh ich t h ey a lway sc a r ry a l ong w i th t h em .

T he m a in mu l t ipu rpo se t o o l o f t h e Mu saha r s i s k han ta . T he f l a t i r on o f k han ta l o ok s s im i la r t o s t one t oo l c h i se l w i th s ha rp c u t t ing e dge , wh ich o ccu r s a t t h e N eo l i th ic s i te o f Mahaga ra i n t h e B e lan v a l ley . T h is t oo l i sa l so u sed b yt h e Ma l lah s a nd i sk nown a sr amma . I tw a s o b served t h a t f ou r f am i l ie s o f Mu saha r s c ou ld e f f ec t ive ly u se as i ng le k han ta f o r c o l lec t ing l e ave s , d i gg ing r oo t s , c u t t ing w ood , h un t ing r a t s , a nd d i gg ing h o le s f o r d we l l ing s . T he Mu saha r s a l so u se a no th e r i r on d i gg ing t oo li . e .g anda la wh ich i ss im i la rt ok han ta b u t i sn o t h af ted t ob amboo . Among t h e K o l s t h i s t o o li sk nown a sf aar .

T he Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley sh ave y i e lded av a r ie ty o fb l ade s a nd h amm e r s t one s . I tw a s o b served t h a t wh i le m ak ing b a ske t s t h e u se o fk n if e a nd h amm e r s t one i so fm a jo r i mpo r tance . T hu s , i tc an b e s a id t h a t t h e b l ade s a nd h amm e r s t one u sed b y p r eh i s to r ic p eop le m ay h ave b een f o r b a ske t m ak ing a l so .

T he K o l s u se t h r ee t ypes o f h un t ing t oo l s i . e . g adasa ,b ar cha ( s pea r ) a nd a k s i( b a rbed s pea r ) . A l l t h ese t oo l s a r e m ade o fi r on a nd h af t ed t ob amboo . T he g adasa i su sed m a in ly f o r c u t t ing t h e h ead o r l e g so ft h er unn ing a n im a l . T he b ar cha a nd a k s ia r e t h rown a ta n ima l s l i ke w i ld b oa r , d ee r a nd b i rd s l i k ep eacock . T he Ma l lah s h ave v a r ied t y pe s o f f i sh ing t oo l s a cco rd ing t o t h e i r f unc t iona l i mp l ica t ion s a nd m a te r ia l su sed h ave b een d i scu s sed i nC hap te r 6o f t h e t h e s is . T he o ne s m ade w i th i r on a r e k a t ia ( hook s ) , k a t ia f or ( b a i ted p o le ) , a nd b a l lum o r p achk i ( p ronged s pea r ) . T hey a l so d o e f f ec t ive f i sh ing w i thou t u se o fi r on t oo l s . T hey a l so m ake u se o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l s f o r f i sh ing . T he e a r l ie s t t oo l s f o r f i sh ing p robab ly w e r e s t ick s , a nd t ho rn h ook s . T he Ma l lah s m ak e c ove r b a sk e t s ( l ik e t a p , c hhaup o r k ur imar , g an ja ) , s c r een s ( c h i lwan , c h in ta ) , a nd b ar ra f r om o rgan ic m a te r ia l s l i k e

D i scu s s ion T he s t udy r evea l s t h a t m any c u l tu ra l a spec t s o ft h e p r eh is to r ic c u l tu r e o ft h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s s t i l l s u rv ive i n t h e c ommun i t ies l i v ing i n t h e v i c in i ty o f a nc ien t s i te s . H ence e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s p rove t o b e o f g r ea t h e lp i n e xp la in ing t h ee v idence f r om a r chaeo log ica ls i te s . T he Me so l i th ic s e t t lem en t s w e r e l o ca ted n ea r t wo t y pe so fw a te rs ou r ce s : a .R ive rv a l ley s( 9s i te s ) b .H o r se shoe l a k e( 179 s i te s )

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T he r e a son f o r t h e o ccu r r ence o f v e ry f ew s i te s a l ong r i ve rbank s i s n o t c l ea r . P re sum ab ly t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le s e t t led o nt h e s andy p a tche so ft h e r e ced ing r i ve r s l i ke t h e G anga a nd t h e T on s a nd r a r e ly s e t t led a l ong t h e r i ve rbank s . A p o s s ib le r e a son f o r t h i s m igh t b e t h e t h ick v ege ta t ion , w h ich d ue t o l im i ted a va i lab i l i ty o fr aw m a te r ia l c ou ldn ' t b e c l ea r ed b y m ic ro l i th ic t o o l s a nd i n hab i ted c o lon iza t ion . T h e v a s t s andy p a tche s , d evo id o f v ege ta t ion , w e r ei d ea l f o rh ab i ta t ion . N oh ab i ta t iona l e v idence c an b e f ound o n t h e s andy p a tche s a s t h e f l ow ing r i ve r d u r ing r a iny s e a son i n unda te s t h em a nd d e s t roy s a l e v idence . T he Ma l lah s i nS ea sona l A g r icu l tu ra l S e t t lem en t s ( Type I b ) h ave s e t t lem en t s o nt h e s andy p l a in o ft h er e ceded G anga , w h ich t h ey o ccupy d u r ing s umme r f o r a g r icu l tu ra l p u rpo ses a nd a l so f o rf i sh ing . T he t r ace so ft h i s t y pe o f s e t t lem en t s a r e w a shed a way d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son b y t h e f l oodwa te r s a nd n ew s e t t lem en t s ( Type I b )a r em ade e ve ry y ea r .

T he E a r ly Me so l i th ic s i t e s i nt h e G anga v a l ley a r e d evo id o f h ab i ta t iona l d epo s i t s . T he t o o l s o f t h e E a r ly Me so l i th ic a r e s m a l le r i nc ompa r i son t ot h e E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic t o o l s . T he c he r t o f t h e B e lan v a l ley i sp r ima r i ly g r ey i nc o lou r . Ma jo r i ty o ft h e Meso l i th ic s i te s i n t h e G anga v a l ley y i e lded a r tef ac t s o f t h is r aw m a ter ia l . T he a ppea rance o f g r ey c o lou r c her t i n d ica t e s a c on s ide rab le e xpan s ion o f p opu la t ion f r om t h e B e lan v a l ley , w ho c a r r ied t h i sr aw m a te r ia l f o rm ak ing m ic ro l i th s f r om t ime t o t im e . T h e t o o l s o f E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic p e r iod a r eb igge ri ns i ze i nc ompa r i son s t ot h o se o f t h e s ucceed ing Me so l i th ic p e r iod i n t h e G anga v a l ley . B es ide s , t h e t o o l s o ft h e G anga v a l ley a r e s m a l le rt h an t ho se o ft h e B e lan v a l ley i ns i ze i na l t h e p ha se s . T he l a ck o f r aw m a te r ia l i n t h e G ange t ic p l a in i s t h e p o s s ib le r e a son f o r t h e e xhau s t ive u se o f t h e c o re s , t h e n ea r e s t s ou r ce b e ing 1 00 km a way f r om t h eG anga v a l ley . I ti si mpo r tan t t om en t ion h e r e t h a t d ue t ot h e n on a va i lab i l i ty o f s t one m ak ing t o o l s t h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s o f t h e G anga v a l ley a dop ted , o t he r a va i lab le r aw m a ter ia l s i . e . b one , a n t le r a nd h o rn . T he b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s f r om t h e s i te s i n c lude a r rowhead s , p o in t s , b l ade s , k n ive s , c h i se l s , a xe s , s c r ape r s , s aw s , p ok e r s , d agge r s a nd c u t t ing l a nce t s . B e s ide s , af ew h o rn c o r e s o f s h eep a nd g oa t a nd a n t le r s w e r e p robab ly u sed f o r d i gg ing p u rpo se s . Wo rk ed b one s w e r e f ound i n a bundance a t D amdama . O nt h eo the rh and , b on et o o l sa r ea b sen t i n t h e Meso l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley , o bv iou s ly d ue t oe a sy a va i lab i l i ty o fs t one .

I ft h ey c hoo se t o s t ay c l o se t o t h e r i ve rbank , t h e f l ood s a nd s h if t ing o fr i ve r c ou r se c a r ry a way t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s . I ti si n te r e s t ing t om en t ion h e r e t h a t t h e Ma l lah s d o n o t s e t t le c l o se t o , t h e r i ve rbank b ecau se o f t h e t h r ea t p o sed b y f l ood s . T hey e s tab l i sh t h e i r p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s ( Type I I ) a bou t ak i lom e t r e a way f o rm t h e r i ve r . I ti s o n ly i nT empo ra ry f i sh ing s e t t lem en t ( Type I )t h a t t h ey o ccupy a n a r ea c l o se t o t h e b ank s d u r ing f i sh ing s e a son s . B ecau se o ft h e mov em en t o f f i sh t h e Ma l lah s d o n o t t i e t h em se lve s t oa ny p a r t icu la r p l ace f o r al o ng t im e . T hey a r ea lway so nt h e move a nd t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s e t t lem en t i s m a in ly d e te rm ined b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f i sh . T empo ra ry t h a tched h u t sa r ec on s t ruc ted w i th b amboo o rw ood w i th t wo -s loped r oof s m ade o fh ay a nd b r anche s , w h ich c an e a s i ly b e r emoved w heneve r n ece s sa ry . T he se t empo r a ry s e t t lem en t s a r e u sua l ly d e s t royed d u r ing f l ood s , t h e r eby w ip ing o u t a l e v idence o f o ccupa t ion .

Wha t l e d t h e p r eh i s to r ic i n hab i tan t s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley t o m ig ra te t o t h e G anga v a l ley a nd w ha t p o s s ib le r ou te s d i d t h ey a dop t f o r t h e i r m ig ra t ion? T he r e a son f o r m ig ra t ion m igh t b e t h e g row th o f p opu la t ion a nd s c a r c i ty o f w a t e r a nd f ood , w h ich l e d t h em t om ig ra te t on ew l a nd s , w h ich p rov id ed t h em w i th r i ch w i ld f l o ra a nd f a una . T he B e lan r i ve r w a s p robab ly t h e r ou te t a ken b y t h e E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p eop le . I tj o in s t h eT on s , w h ich u l t ima te ly j o in sw i th t h eG anga . I n t h e p a s t t h e G anga v a l ley mu s t h ave b een a v a s t s t r e tch o ff o r e s t land w i th a bundan t w i ld f a una . T o c r o s s t h e se f o r e s t s t h rough m a in l a nd w ou ld h ave b een d i ff i cu l t f o r t h e E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic m ig ran t s . P robab ly d u e t o t h i s r e a son , t h e se g roup s moved a l ong t h e r i vu le t s a nd s t ream s o n w ho se s andy b ed s t h e f o re s t c ove r w a s t h inne r t h an o n t h e m a in l a nd . T he b e s t s e a son f o r t h e i r m ovem en t w ou ld h ave b een s umm e r , w hen t h e

T he s e lec t ion o ft h e Me so l i th ic s e t t lem en t s i nt h e s t udy a r ea o n t h e l a k e s ide w a s g u ided b y c on s ide ra t ion o fa s su red s upp ly o f : • Wa te r •A qua t ic f ood r e sou rces •O ppo r tun i ty t o h un t l a rge a nd s m a l l a n ima l s w h ich c om et ot h el a ke f o rd r ink ing w a te r •A va i lab i l i ty o f w i ld e d ib le p l an t s f ood i n t h e v i c in i ty o ft h el a ke .

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w a t e rl e ve li sl ow a nd w hen t h ey c an e a s i ly o ccupy t h e s andy p a tches o ft h er e ceded r i ve r s , wh ich w e r e d evo id o ft h ick v ege ta t ion .

i mpo r tan t a spec t s i . e . b on e i ndu s t ry a nd c e ram ic i n du s t ry w e r en o ts ha r ed . T he s ub s i s ten ce o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s w a s b a sed o n h un t ing , g a the r ing , f i sh ing a nd f ow l ing . T he a n ima l b ones r e cove r ed f r om t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s t h row l i gh t o n t h e e conomy o ft h ep eop le . T he G anga v a l ley i sr i ch i n n a tu ra l f ood r e sou rces r equ i red f o r ah un t ing— g a the r ing w ay o fl i f e . S imp le c ommun i t ie s l i k e t h e Mu saha r s , K o l s a nd Ma l lah s o ccupy t h e s ame a r ea s , w h ich w e re o ccup ied b y t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le . F o r t h e i r s ub s i s ten ce t h ey d o h un t ing , f i sh ing , f ow l ing , g a the r ing a nd a g r icu l tu r e ( An sa r i 1 999 -2000 : 1 42 1 49 , 2 001 : 3 9 -35 ) . T he i r s e t t lem en t s a r e o f v a r ied t y pe s a nd c ond i t ioned b y t opog raphy a nd t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f w a te r a nd c u l t ivab le l a nd . T oday s imp le c ommun i t ies m a in ly i nhab i tt h es ou ther np a r t o ft h e G anga p l a in , wh ich i d ea l ly s u i t st h e i r mode o f s e t t lem en ta nd s ub s i s tence .

On ce t h ey r e ach ed t h e G anga t h ey w ou ld h ave o ccup ied i t s b ank s . H ow d id t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le c r o s s s uch am igh ty r i ve rw i thou tt h e a i d o fb oa t s? T h e o n ly s u i tab le s e a son f o rc r o s s ing t h e r i ve rw a s s umm e r when t h e w a te r r e cede s a nd e xpo ses t h e r i v e rbed t h a t i s av a s t s andy p a tch . A t t h e t im e o f c r o s s ing t h e r e ceded G anga , s om e o f t h em p robab ly s e t t led d own o n i t s b ank s a nd a f ew o t he r s moved a l ong a nd c r o s sed t h e r i ve r i ns e a rch o f b e t te r f ood r e sou r ce s . P r e sen t ly , t h e Ma l lah s s e t t le ( Type I l b ) i n t h e r e ceded G anga f o r c u l t iva t ion o f v ege tab le a nd f r u i t c r ops a nd f o r f i sh ing . T he se s e t t lem en t s d o n o t l e ave a ny t r ace s o f h ab i ta t ion a s t h e w a te r d u r ing r a iny s e a son c a r r ie s a way t h e m a te r ia l r ema in s . T he P reh i s to r ic p eop le mu s t h ave a l so o ccup ied t h e l a nd a l ong t h e b ank so ft h er i ve ri nt h e s ame w ay . H oweve r , l a rge u rban a nd a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en t s a l ong a nd n ea r t h e r i ve r h ave p robab ly d e s t royed t h e e v idence o f t h ep o s s ib le p r eh i s to r ic s i te s .

T he t im e s pan o f t h e Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s a cco rd ing t o C -14 d a tes a nd t ypo techno log ica l c on s ide ra t ion c an b e t e n ta t ive ly a s s igned t o c . 8 000-2000 B .C . T he e v idence s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e Me so l i th ic s e t t lem en t s o f C hopan i - Mando i n E a r ly Meso l i th ic ( Pha se I A ) a nd L a te Me so l i th ic ( Pha se I B ) p ha se w a s s e a sona l a nd s em i -pe rmanen t i n A dvanced Meso l i th ic ( Pha se I I ) . T he s i te o fS a ra iN aha rR a i w a s s e a sona l , wh i le Mahadaha a nd D amdama w e r e s em i -pe rm anen ts e t t lem en t s .

T he Me so l i th ic p eop le c am e i ns ma l l g roup s t ot h e G anga v a l ley a nd s e t t led o n a l luv ia l p l a in s w i th t h e i r r i ch f l o ra a nd f auna . A f ew g roup s s t a r ted e xp lo r ing n ew l o ca le s , a nd i nhab i ted t h e a r ea n ea r t h e h o r seshoe l a k e s , wh ich p rov ided t h em p l en t if u l a qua t ic f ood s . S tone f o rm ak ing t o o l s b e ing a b sen t i nt h e G anga p l a in s h ad t o b e i mpo r ted f r om t h e V indhya s a nd w a s t h e r ef o r e av a luab le r e sou r ce . E xp lo i ta t ion o f a qua t ic a n im a l s w ou ld h ave b een t h e e a s ies t s ou r ce o f s ub s i s tence , a s i t d idn ' t r equ i r e m any t o o l s a nd c ou ld b e e f f ec t ive ly a ccomp l ished b y h and s a nd s t i ck s . A s t h e p opu la t ion g r ew ,t h ey moved o nt oo t he rh o r se shoe l a k e s .

N o N eo l i th ic s i te s i n t h e s t udy a r ea h ave s o f a r b een d i scove r ed f r om t h e P ra tapga rh d i s t r ic t . T he p robab le c au se c ou ld b e t h a t s uch s i te s w e r e l o ca ted o n t h e a l luv ia l p l a in s a nd h ave b een d es t royed b y e x ten s ive a g r icu l tu re . I n t h e B e lan v a l ley e v idence o f t h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s c u l tu re s a r e k nown f r om Mahaga r a , K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh . T he N eo l i th ic s i te s f ound i nt h e B e lan v a l ley w e r e l o ca ted o n b o th s i de s o f t h e B e lan r i ve r a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s l i k e S eo t i , T und ia r ia nd G o rm a .

T he B e lan v a l ley Me so l i th ic s i te i sc ha rac ter i sed b y p o t t e ry , wh ich i sa b sen t i nt h e G anga V a l ley . F rom t h i s i tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a tt h e m ig ra t ion t ook p l ace i nt h e p r e -po t te ry p ha se o f Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e a nd p robab ly s t opped b ef o r e t h e i n t roduc t ion o f p o t te ry . And i ft h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s o f t h e G anga c on t inued t o c om e t o V indhya s f o r r aw m a t e r ia l o r s e a sona l ly m ig ra t ed t h en w hy d i d t h ey n o t a dop tt h e p r ac t ice o fp o t te ry m ak ing . T h i s f a c t s ugge s t s t h a t d u e t ot h e i nnova t ive u se o fb one f o r t o o l m anuf ac tu r e , m ig ra t ion o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le t ot h e G anga v a l ley h ad r e duced . T hu s , d ue t o l im i ted i n te r ac t ion b e tween t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu r es o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s t wo

T he N eo l i th ic s e t t lem en t i n t h e B e lan v a l ley w a s p l anned a cco rd ing t o t h e d e mand o f t h e n ew e conomy . T hey s ub s i s ted b y l i ve s tock r a i s ing , s e lec t ive h un t ing , g a th e r ing , f i sh ing a nd f a rm ing . H u t s w e re c on s t ruc ted f o r d we l l ing a sw e l l a s f o r t h e s he l te r o f t h e i r l i ve s tock . T he s e t t lem en t w a s e nc losed b y a n a tu ra l b und , wh ich o f f e r ed p ro tec t ion f r om w ind . T he N eo l i th ic i nhab i tan t s c ho se n a tu r a l h i l l b a r r ie r s , a s n o o the r p l ace c ou ld

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h ave b een b e t te rs u i ted a s av an tage p o in t . B e s ide s , t h e i r c a t t le a nd c r op s w ou ld h ave b een w e l l p ro tec ted f o rm o t he r i n com ing g r aze r s , a g r icu l tu r i s t s a nd w i ld a n ima l s . T he N eo l i th ic s i t es a r e s i tua ted c l o se t o f l ood p l a in s , wh ich w e re s u i tab le f o r c u l t iva t ion o fr i ce . T h e N eo l i th ic s i t es o ft h e B e lan v a l ley o n t h e b a s i s o f C -14 a nd T L d a tes c an b e a s s igned b e tween c .5 000 t o 1 500 BC . T he e v idence s s ugge s t t h a t t h e n a tu r e o f s e t t lem en t s o f N eo l i th ic s i t es o f Mahaga ra , K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh w a s s em i -pe rmanen t t o p e rmanen ti nn a tu r e .

mu l le r s . T h i s m igh t b e t h e r e a son w hy N eo l i th ic g round s t one t o o l s l i ke s ma l l c e l t sw e re f ound f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley . P robab ly C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lem en t s w e r e b o th p e rmanen t a nd s e a sona l t y pe s a nd t h ey f l ou r ished s i de b y s i de . P r e sumab ly t h e s ma l l s e t t lem en t s w e r e s e a sona l i n n a tu r e a nd w e re s pec ia l ized i n f a rm ing w h i le t h e C ha lco l i th ic i nhab i tan t s o f p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s w e r e s p ec ia l ised i nf a rm ing a sw e l la sl i ve s tock r a i s ing . T he C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley o n t h e b a s i s o f C -14 d a te s c an b e a s s igned t oc .1 800 t o 7 00 B .C . T he e v idence s s ugges t t h a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lem en t s w e r e o f a p e rm anen t n a tu r e .

T he C ha lco l i th ic s i te s h ave b een r e po r ted f r om t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s . A l l t h e s i t e s a r e r i ve r ine s i tes . T hey a r e s i tua ted o n h ighe r b hangar l a nd , a bove f l ood l e ve l a nd t e r race s . T he c ho ice s o f l o ca t ion o f s e t t lem en t s a r e m a in ly d e te rm ined b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f e r t i le l a nd f o r c u l t iva t ion a nd p a s tu r e land . T he f l ood p l a in s a nd a bandoned h i l l t e r r ace s w e r e w e l l s u i ted f o r t h e c u l t iva t ion o f c e rea l s l i k e r i ce w i thou t a ny a i d o f i r r iga t ion a nd m anu r ing .

T o c onc lude t h e r e a r e s om e a spec t s , w h ich r equ i re f u r the ri n ves t iga t ion f o rb e t te ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s o ft h e S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga v a l ley . •E xp lo ra t ion a l ong t h e r i ve r T on s f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e p o s s ib le r ou te o fm ig ra t ion o f t h eE p i -Pa laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p eop le . •E xp lo ra t ion i n t h e G anga v a l ley f o r N eo l i th ic s i t e s . •S tud ie s o f mo r e a bandoned s e t t lem en t s o f t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies f o r ab e t te ru nde r s tand ing o f p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s , w h ich d e te rm ine t h e n a tu r e o fp r e serva t ion o fm a t er ia l r em a in s .

I n S ea sona l A g r icu l tu r e S e t t lem en t t h e Ma l lah s i n hab i tt h e h i l l top t e r r ace s .T he se s e t t lemen t s a r e 1 2km f r om t h eN eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s . T he p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o ft h e Ma l lah a r e l o ca ted o n t h e e i the r s i de o ft h e B e lan r i ve r . T hey c r o s s t h e r i ve r t o d o f a rm ing o n t h e h i l l top s . Du r ing t h e i r s t ay t h ey m ak e s e a sona l h u t s , w h ich a r e a bandoned a nd r e occup ied . B e s ide s o t h e r s imp le c ommun i t ies c ome f r om a d jo in ing d i s t r ic t s o f Madhya P rade sh t o c u l t iva te c r op s o n t h e a d jo in ing h i l l t e r race s d u r ing s umm e r . T he se s e t t lemen t sa r e s im i la rt ot h e Ma l lah s e t t lem en t Ia . When t h ey r e occupy t h e s i te t h ey u t i l i se r ema in s o fa bandoned h u t s f o rb u i ld ing n ew h u t s a nd u se a bandoned i t em s l i ke q ue rn s a nd

•D e ta i led e t hnog raph ic r e co rd ing o f s e a sona l ly m ig ra t ing s imp le c ommun i t ie s a nd t h e r ou te o f m ig ra t ion . A cknow ledgemen t It h ank D r . S u sm aD eo a nd D av id T e t so f o rm ak ing f i gu r e sa va i lab le t ot h ee d i to ri nt ime .

R ef erence s A l lch in , B . 1 958 . Mo rhana P aha r : AR ed iscove ry , Man 5 8 : 1 53 -55 . A n sa r i , S .2 00 1 b .F i sh ing P rac t ice s a mong t h e Ma l lah s o f A l lahabad D is t r ic t , U t ta r P rade sh , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 ( 1) : 3 9 -55 . A n sa r i , S . 1 999 -2000 . Sma l l G ame H un t ing Mu saha r s : A n E thnoa r chaeo log ica l A pp roach , P ura ta t t va 3 0 : 1 42 1 50 . A n sa r i , S . 2 000 . C lay S t o rage B in s i n I nd ia : A n E thnoa rchaeo log ica l S tudy , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 5 (2 ) : 5 1-78 . A n sa r i , S . 2 00 1a . P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t tern o f S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley : A n E thnoarchaeo log ica l P er spec t ive , U npub l ished P h .D . t h e s is , P une : D eccan C o l lege .

A n sa r i , S .2 004 . T he Mu saha r s : A n E thnoa rchaeo log ica l S tudy i n S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley , E as tern A n thropo log i s t5 7 ( 2 ) : 1 53 199 . A n sa r i , S . 2 005 . E thnoarchaeo logy o f P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t tern o f S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley , I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is to r ic a nd Qua terna ry S tud ies Monog raph S e r ie sN o . 4 .P une : I SPQS . B i lg ram i , K .S . 1 99 1 . B io log ica l P rof i le o f t h e G anga : Z oop lank ton , F i sh , B i rd s a nd o t he r M ino r F auna , i n T he G anga : A S c ien t if i c S tudy ( C .R . K r ishnamu r t i , K .S . B i lg ram i , T .M . D a s a nd R .P . Ma thu r E d s . ) , p p . 8 1-94 . N ew D e lh i . B rown , J .A . 1 889 . O n s ome h igh ly s pec ia l ized F orm s o f S tone I mp lemen t s F ound i n A s ia , N o r th A f r ica a nd E u rope , J ourna l o ft h e R oya l A n thropo log ica l I n s t i tu te 1 8 : 1 34 -39 .

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B u t ze r , K . W . 1 972 . E nv ironmen t a nd A rchaeo logy . L ondon : Me thuen& C o . L td . C ockbu rn , J .1 879 . N o te s o n S tone I mp lemen t s f r om t h e K ha s i H i l l s a nd t h e B anda a nd V e l lo r eD i s t r ic t s ,J ourna l o ft h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l4 8 (2 ) : 1 33 143 . C ockbu rn , J . 1 883a . O n t h e R ecen t E x i s tence o f R h inoce ro s I nd icu s i n t h e N o r th - We s t P rov ince s a nd a D e scr ip t ion o f A r cha ic R ock P a in t ing s f r om M i rzapu r , R ep re sen t ing t h e H un t ing o ft h e A n ima l , J ourna l o ft h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty 5 2 ( 1) : 5 6 -64 . C ockbu rn , J .1 883b . As ho r t a ccoun t o ft h e P e t rog raph s i n t h e c ave s o f R ock s he l te r s o f t h e K a imu r R ange i n M i r zapu r D i s t r ic t , P roceed ing s o ft h e A s ia t ic s oc ie ty o f B enga l ,p p . 1 25 126 . C o ckbu rn , J .1 888 . O n t h e P a laeo l i th ic I mp lemen t s f r om t h e D r if t G rave l s o ft h e S ing rau l i B a s in , J ourna l o ft h e A n thropo log ica lI n s t i tu te 1 7 : 5 7 -65 . C o ckbu rn , J .1 894 . O n F l in t I mp lemen t s f r om t h e K on R av ine s o f S ou th M i rzapu r , J ourna l o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o f B enga l 6 3 (3 ) , A n th ropo logy a nd C ogna t e S ub jec t s ,N o . 1 :2 1-37 . C ook , J i l l a nd H . Ma r t inge l l 1 994 . T he C ar ly le C o l lec t ion o f S t one A g e A r t if ac t s f rom C en t ra l I nd ia B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona l P aper 9 5 . L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum . C rooke , W . 1 896 . T he T r ibe s a nd c a s t e s o f N or th w e s tern P rov ince a nd O udh . V o l . I ,I , I , I V . C a lcu t ta : G ove rnmen to fI nd ia . G ho sh , M . 1 932 . R ock -Pa in t ing s a nd O the r A n t iqu i t ie s o f P r eh i s to r ic a nd L a t e r T ime s , i n Memo ir s o f A r chaeo log ica lS urvey o fI nd ia N o . 2 4 . G up ta , H .P . 1 976 . H o locene P a lyno logy f r om Meande r l a ke i n t h e G anga V a l ley , P ra tapga rh D i s t r ic t , P a leobo tan i s t2 5 : 1 09 119 . H addon , A .C . 1 924 . T he R ace s o f Man . L ondon : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J h ing ran , V .G . 1 983 . F i sh a nd F i she r ie s o fI nd ia . D e lh i : H indu s tan P ub l i sh ing C o rpo ra t ion . L e Me su r ie r , H .P . 1 86 1 . Al e t te r f r om H .P . L e Me su r ie r r e ad d u r ing t h ep roceed ing s o ft h e R oya l A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l o n J an . 1 4 , 1 86 1 ,J ou rna lo ft h e R oya lA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l3 0 ( 1) : 8 1 -85 . Ma r sha l l , J . 1 9 1112 . E xcava t ion a t B h i ta , A rchaeo log ica l S ur vey o fI nd ia : A nnua l R epor t ( 1911 1 2 ) 2 1 : 2 9 -94 . M i s ra , V .D . 1 977 . S ome A spec t s o fI nd ian A rchaeo log y . A l lahabad : P r abha tP raka shan . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 1 999 . F u r the r E xcava t ion a tJ hu s i , D i s t r ic t A l lahabad ( U t ta r P rade sh ) : 1 998 ,P ragdhara 9 :4 5 -49 . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 2 000 . F u r the r E xcava t ion sa tJ hu s i( 1998 -99 ) ,P ragd hara 1 0 : 2 3 -30 . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 2 00 1 . E xcava t ion a t T okwa : A N eo l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t , P ragdhara N o . 1 : 5 9 -72 . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 2 003 . F u r the r e xcava t ion s a t J hu s i : E v iden ce o f N eo l i th ic C u l tu re , P ragdhara 1 3 : 2 27 -229 .

M i s ra V .D . B .B . M is ra , J .N . P andey a nd J .N . P a l 1 996 . AP r e l im ina ry R epor to n t h e E xcava t ion s a tJ hu s i , 1 995 , P ragdhara 6 :6 3 -66 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . S tone A ge I nd ia : a n E co log ica l P e r spec t ive , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 4 : 1 7 -64 . N e sf ie ld , J . C . 1 888 . T he Mu she ra s o fC en t ra l a nd U ppe r I nd ia , C a lcu t ta R ev iew 1 7 1 : 1 53 . N eumaye r , E . 1 993 . L ine s o n S tone s , T he P reh i s tor ic R ock A r t o f I nd ia . D e lh i : Manoha r P ub l i she r s a nd D is t r ibu to r s . P a l ,J .N . 1 985 . S ome N ew L igh to nt h e Me so l i th ic B u r ia l P rac t ice s o f t h e G anga -Va l ley : E v id en ce s f r om Mahadaha , P ra tapga rh , U t ta r P rade sh , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t9 :2 8 -37 . P a l , J .N . 1 986 . A rchaeo logy o fS ou thern U t tar P rade sh ( Ce ram ic I ndu s t r ie s o fN o r ther n V indhya s ) . A l lahabad : Swabha P raka shan . P a l , J .N . 1 990 . E nv i ronmen ta l C hange a nd H uman r e spon se d u r ing t h e T e rm ina l P l e i s tocene p er iod i n t h e No r ther n V indhya s , P ape r P re sen ted a t I n te rna t iona l S em ina r o n R i s ing T rend s i n P a laeoan thropo logy , E nv ironmen ta l C hange a nd Human R e spon se : L a s t t wo M i l l ion y ear s , 1 9 -23 D ecembe r . P une : D eccan C o l lege . P a l , J .N . 1 995 . C ha lco l i th ic V indhya s , P ragdhara 5 : 1 3 1 9 . P a l , J .N . 1 997 . C e ram ic I ndu s t ry o f t h e Me so l i th ic P e r iod o ft h eV indhya s , i nI nd ian P reh i s to ry : 1 980 ( V .D . M is ra a nd J .N . P a lE d s . ) ,p p . 1 28 132 . A l lahabad . P an t ,P .C . 1 965 . C ommen t so n Me so l i th ic p ha se i nI nd ia , i nI nd ian P reh i s tory : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) , p .8 1 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . R i s ley , S i rH .H . 1 89 1 . T he T r ibe s a nd C a s te s o fB enga l , Two V o l s . C a lcu t ta : B enga l S ec r e ta r ia tP r e s s . R ive t t -Ca rana c , J .H . 1 882 . S tone I mp lemen t s f ound i n t h e B anda D i s t r ic t , P roceed ing s o ft h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o f B enga l5 1 : 6 8 . R ive t t -Ca rana c , J .H . 1 883 . O n S tone I mp lemen t s f r om t h e N o r th - We s ter n P rov ince s o f I nd ia , J ourna l o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l 5 2 : 2 2 1-230 . R ive t t -Ca ranac , J .H . 1 884 . C o l lec t ion o f s t one i mp lemen t s f r om B anda , J ourna l o ft h e R oya l A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l5 3 : 19 120 . R u s se l l , R .V . a nd R .B . H i ra la l 1 9 16 . T he T r ibe s a nd C a s t e s o f t h e C en t ra l P rov ince s o f I nd ia . L ondon : Ma cm i l lan a nd C o . , 1 9 16 ; r e p r in t ed 1 975 , D e lh i : C o smo sP ub l ica t ion s . S ha rma , G .R . 1 973a . Me so l i th ic l a ke C u l tu r e s i n t h e G anga V a l ley , P roceed ing s o f t h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty ( J ohn C o le s E d . ) , 3 9 : 1 29 146 . E ng land : H ef f e r s P r in te r L td . C amb r idge . S ha rma , G .R . 1 973b . S t one A ge i nt h e V indhya s a nd t h e G anga V a l ley , i nR ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy , ( D .P . A ga rwa l a nd A . G ho sh E d s . ) , p p . 1 06 110 . B ombay : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR e sea r ch . S ha rma , G .R . 1 975 . S ea sona l M ig ra t ion s a nd Me so l i th ic L ake C u l tu r e s o f t h e G anga V a l ley , i n K .C . C ha t topadhyaya Memor ia l V o lume ( G .R . S ha rma E d . ) , p p . 1 20 . A l lahabad : A l lahabad U n ive r s i ty .

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S ha rma , G .R . , V .D . M i s ra , D . Manda l , B .B . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l 1 980 . B eg inn ing o f A g r icu l ture . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . S i lbe r rad , C .A . 1 907 . R ock D raw ing s i nB anda ,J ou rna l o ft h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l8 . S ingh ,K .S . 1 993 . T he S chedu led C a s te s . N a t iona l S e r ie s V o lume I ,A n th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . S ingh , K .S . 1 996 . C ommun i t ie s , S egmen t , S ynonym s , S u rname s a nd T i t le s , i nP eop le o fI nd ia , N a t iona l S e r ie s V o lume V I I I . A n th ropo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . S ingh , R .L . 1 97 1 . I nd ia : A R eg iona l G eog raphy . V a rana s i :N a t iona lG eog raph ica lS oc ie ty o fI nd ia . S ingh , S . 1 987 . S chedu l ed C a s t e s o fI nd ia . N ew D e lh i : G ian P ub l i sh ing H ou se . Sm i th , V .A . 1 906 . P igmy F l in t s , I nd ian A n t iquary 3 5 : 1 47 -95 . T heoba ld , W . 1 862 . C e l t s f ound i nB und e lkhand , P ape r r e ad a tt h e P ro ceed ing s o ft h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l o n J une 1 862 , P roceed ing s o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o f B enga l3 1(3 ) : 3 23 -328 . T ewa r i ,R . 1 982 . T h irak t eS ha iC h i tra ( H ind i ) .L uknow . V a rma , R .K . 1 964 . T he S tone A g e C u l ture s o fM ir zapur , u npub l i shed D . P h i l t h e s i s : U n ive r s i ty o f A l lahabad , A l lahabad . V a rma , R .K . 1 964 . T he S tone A ge C u l tur e so fM i r zapur , u npub l i shed D . P h i l t h e s i s : U n ive r s i ty o f A l lahabad , A l lahabad . V a rma , R .K . 1 965 . C ommen t s o n t h e Me so l i th ic P ha se i n t h e P reh i s to ry o f I nd ia , i n I nd ian P reh i s tory : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) , p p . 7 3 -76 , D eccan C o l lege B u i ld ing C en tena ry a nd S i lve r J ub i lee S e r ie s , n o . 3 2 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te .

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E vo lu t ion o fS oc ie ty a nd Cu l ture o fO r i s sa -B a sed o n aS yn the s i s o fA rchaeo log ica l , H i s tor ica l ,L ingu i s t ic a nd An thropo log ica l Da ta T am aP anda R oy T h e s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c o mpo s i t ion o fo u r c oun t ry s how s ab ew i lde r ing d ive r s i ty i n i t s c omponen t e l em en t s . T he s t a te o fO r i s sa r ef l ec t s t h i s d i ve r s i ty a s much a sa ny o the rS t a te o rr e g ion o ft h e c oun t ry . B u t i ns p i te o ft h i sb a s ic s im i la r i ty , O r i s san s o c ie ty a nd c u l tu r ep r e sen t ad i s t inc t ive r e g iona l c ha r ac t e r , wh ich i sd i f f e r en tf r om t h a to ft h eo t he rp a r t so ft h e s ubcon t inen t . Mo r eove r , w i th in t h eb ounda ry o ft h e S t a te i t se lf , i t s s oc io -cu l tu r a l p a t t e rn d i f f e r s f r om o ne r e g ion t oo the r . T h i s d ive r s i ty i s ap roduc t o f g eog r aph ic v a r ia t ion a s a l so o f h i s to ry . S ince h i s to ry e x tend s b ack i n t im e t o t h e P r eh i s to r ic t im e s , a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce t o o i sa n i mpo r tan t s ou r ce o f e xp la in ing a nd u nde r s tand ing t h i s d i ve r s i ty . T he o t he r s ou rce s a r e e t hnog r aph ic , b i o log ica l a nd l i ngu i s t ic . T he r e a r e an umbe r o f e t hn ic g roup s , r e l ig ion s , l a nguage s a nd d i a lec t s i n c on tempo ra ry O r i s sa . A l l t h ese h ave r oo t s f a rb ack i nt im e . W i th in a ny c u l tu ra l r eg ion , t h e e t hn ic m ix , i nt e rm so fja t i so rc a s te s ; ( endogamou sg roup si n to wh ich H indu s a r e b or n ) ; t r ibes a nd o t he r e t hn ic g roup s r e p re sen ted a nd t h e i r r e spec t ive n um e r ica l , p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r , s o c ia l h i e ra r chy a nd r i tua l a s cendancy p rov ide s a n e s sen t ia l k ey t o u nde r s tand ing c u l tu ra l h i s to ry a nd c on tempo ra ry s oc ia l d ynam ics . A na ly s i s a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e e t hn ic g roup so ft h e s t udy r e g ion a r et hu se s sen t ia l , a nd w i l l p rov ide c on s ide rab le i n s igh t i n to t h e h i s to r ica l p roces s t h a t s haped t h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu r e .

h a sb een r e por ted f r om t h e S amba lpu rd i s t r ic t( SC 1 7 .48% , S T -2 7 .45 % ) f o l lowed b y G an jam ( SC 1 6 .59% , S T -9 . 40% ) a nd P ur i ( SC -1 5 .45% , S T 3 . 55% ) ( Cen su s o f I nd ia 1 991) . C a s te g roup s a r e t r ad i t iona l ly d i v ided i n to f ou r m a jo r d i v i s ion s m a in ly o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i r o ccupa t ion a nd r i tua l p u r i ty , v i z . B rahm in ; K sha t r iya , K handaya t a nd K a ran /Kaya s tha ; V a i shya ; S ud ra . T he S ud r a s a ga in h ave t wo d i v i s ion s , v i z . , c l ean S ud ra s a nd u nc lean S ud ra s( Un touchab le c a s te s ) . P hy s ica l a n th ropo log ica l d a ta o n t h e e t hn ic g roup s o f t h e s t udy r eg ion s how t h e r e i s n o m a rked b i o log ica l d i f f e r ence a mong t h e t w ice -bor n c a s te s ( Panda 2 003 ) . T hey , i ng ene ra l , a l so d o n o t d i f f e r i na ny s i gn if i can t s en se f r om m a jo r i ty o ft h e S ud ra c ommun i t ie s . H oweve r , s om e o f t h e S ud ra c ommun i t ie s s how c l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e S chedu led T r ibe sa nd t h e S ch edu led C a s tes a sw e l l . S chedu led T r ibe s a nd S chedu led C a s te s o n t h e o t he r h and a r e c l o se t oe ach o t he r . T h i s p a t ter n o f b i o log ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c ommun i t ie s o f t h e s t udy r eg ion h a sa l so b een c o r robo ra ted b yt h e i r c u l tu ra l f e a tu re s ( Panda 2 003 ) . I n g ene ra l , t h e t w ice b or nc a s te s p re sen t ah omogeneou s g roup i n t e rm s o f c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s . S om e o f t h e S ud r a c ommun i t ie s c an a l so b e g rouped i n to t h i s c a tego ry . T he S chedu led c a s te s a nd S chedu led T r ibe s t oge th e r w i th s om e S ud ra c ommun i t ies , i n g ene ra l , p re sen t a no th e r h omogenou s g roup . H oweve r , i ti sn eed le s s t o s ay t h a t e ach o f t h e se c a tego r ies o f S ud ra s , S chedu led C a s te s a nd S ch edu led T r ibes h ave t h r ee h i e ra r ch ica l s t ag es w i th in t h em se lve s o nt h e b a s i s o ft h e i rc l osenes st o h i ghe r c a s te s i n t e rm s o f o ccupa t ion a nd o the r c u l tu ra lf e a tu r e s .

I nt h ep r e sen t s t udy , t h e r ef o r e , a n a t temp th a sb een m ad e t ot r ace t h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l e vo lu t ion i n ap a r t o fO r i s sa a sm an if e s ted i nt h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ia l d ynam ic s a nd c u l tu ra l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e r e g ion . T h e g eog raph ica l f o cu s o ft h e p r e sen t w o rk i so n t wo c oa s ta l ( und iv ided ) d i s t r ic t s o f P u r i a nd G an jam , a nd t h e S amba lpu r d i s t r ic t i n t h e h i l ly u p land s o fO r i s sa . T h i s a r ea h a s b een c ho sen f o r r e sea r ch t o s how t h e r eg iona l v a r ia t ion s b e tween t h e h i l l s a nd t h e p l a in s o f t h e S t a te i n t e rm s o f s oc io -cu l tu ra ld eve lopm en t .

T he u n ique f e a tu r e o ft h e c ommun i t ie s o ft h e s t udy r e g ion i st h e o ccu r r ence o fa bo r ig ina l c u l tu r a lt r a i t s i na l l s egm en t s o ft h e s oc ie ty . T he p r eponde rance o f t h e se t r a i t s d ec r ea se s f r om t h e l owe s t t o t h e h i ghes t h i e ra r ch ica l o rde r . Many o f t h e S ud ra c ommun i t ies l i ke s om e o f t h e S ch edu led C a s te s a nd S chedu led T r ibes f o l low o ne o r t h e o t he r a bo r ig ina l p r ac t ices l i k e b u r ia l o f t h e d ead , b r ide p r ice , m a r r iage b y c ou r t sh ip /e lopem en t / in t ru s ion / s e rv ice , w idow m a r r iage , n or e s t r ic t ion s o nd i vo r ce o r r ema r r iage a nd w om en 's e qua l i ty i n e conom ic p u r su i t . Mo r eove ro ne o rt wo s e c t ion s o ft h et w ice b or n c a s te s e ven among t h e B rahm in s f o l low o n e

C a s te s a nd a bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s a r e t h e t wo s oc ia l f o rma t ion s wh ich e ncompa s s a l l t h e e t hn ic g roup s i n O r i s sa . T he S chedu led C a s te ( SC ) a nd S ch edu led T r ibe ( ST ) p opu la t ion s o f t h i s S t a te c on s t i tu te 1 6 .20% a nd 2 2 .21 % o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion r e spec t ive ly . I n t h i s s t udy r e g ion , m ax imum c oncen t ra t ion o fS C a nd S T p opu la t ion s

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o rt h e o t he r s uch p rac t ice . B u t t h e m o s t i n te r e s t ing c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e i na l l s egm en t s o ft h e s o c ie ty i st h e u se o f t o tem ic g o t ra /c lan n am e . A lmo s t a l l t h e S ud r a s , S chedu led C a s te sa nd S chedu led T r ibe s h ave n umbe ro ft o tem ic g o t ra /c lan n am es . Many o f t h em , h oweve r , h ave o n ly o ne c l an wh ich i sv e ry o f ten N aga/N age sha . A n th ropo log i s t s l i k e S i ngh ( 1998 ) s a y s m embe r s o f ag o t ra o r c l an a r e b ound b y t h e t i es o f ac ommon a nce s t ry . G o t ra o r c l an e xogamy i s t hu s t h e n o rm i n m a jor i ty o f t h e c ommun i t ie s . B u t t h e c o mmun i t ie s wh ich h ave o n ly o ne g o t r a /c lan p r ac t i se g o t ra / c lan e ndogamy . T he c oncep t o f ` g o t ra ' i s p robab ly a r e cen t a dop t ion b y t h em a nd t hu s t h e n o t ion o f g o t ra i s l o o se ly p r ac t i sed . H e f u r the r r e po r t s t h a t t h e p henom enon o fs i ng le g o t ra /c lan i sm a rked i nt h e

l owe r c a s te p eop le i n I nd ia . T o tem ic g o t ra /c lan n am e s c an a l so b e f ound a mong t h e t w ice -bor n c a s te s o f t h e s t udy r e g ion , e ven a mong t h e B rahm in , b u ti nl e s se rn umbe r . T he se c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e so ft h e e t hn ic g roup so f t h e s t udy r e g ion s t rong ly s uppo r t t h e h ypo th e s i s t h a t c ommun i t ie s w i th t h e t o tem ic c l an n am es o r s t i l l r e ta in ing a bo r ig ina l c u l tu r a l f e a tu r e s o r ig ina l ly w e r e m embe r s o ft h e a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty a nd w e r e s ub sequen t ly i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e c a s te h i e r a rchy . S in ce t h e se f e a t ure s a r e p r eponde r an t a mong t h e S chedu led C a s te s a nd S ud r a C a s te s i tw on ' t b e w rong t o s ugges t t h a t t h e p roce s s o fi n co rpo ra t ion w a s a c t ive f r om b e low t oa bove . T h i s h ypo th e s i s i s f u r the r r e inf o r ced b y t h e b i o log ica l d a ta .

T ab le 1P opu la t ion o fS chedu led C a s te ( SC ) a nd S chedu led T r ibe s ( ST ) i nt h e s t udy r eg ion a nd t h e i rp ropor t ion t ot h e t o ta l ou a t ion i nR u ra l a nd U rban A rea s 1 99 1 C en su s R epor t ) S ta te /D i s tr ic t

O r i ssa S amba lpur D is tr ic t Gan jam D is tr ic t P ur i D is tr ic t

T o ta l P opu la t ion T R U T R U T R U

T R U T=T o ta l , R=R u r a l ,U =U rban

S C P opu la t ion N o . ° A

3 1659736 2 7424753 4 234983 2 697153 2 234545 4 26608

5 129314 4 578669 5 50645

1 6 .20 1 6 .70 1 3 .00

5 24085 4 63451 6 0634

1 7 .48 1 7 .62 1 6 .79

3 158764 2 688242 4 70522

5 24085 4 63451 6 0634

3 590026 2 884022 7 06004

5 54689 4 82332 7 2357

1 6 .59 1 7 .24 1 2 .89 1 5 .45 1 6 .72 1 0 .25

G eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e S chedu led C a s te s , a nd S chedu led T r ibes i n t h e s t udy r e g ion a l so s uppo r t t h i s h ypo th e s i s . F o l low ing M i sh ra a nd N aga r( 1 994 ) i tc an b e s hown i nt h et a b le 1t h a tt h e p e r cen tage o fS C a nd S Tp opu la t ion a r e i n" i nve r se p ropo r t ion t oe ach o t he r " . T hu s i nS amba lpu r , t h e S T p opu la t ion i s g r ea te r i n n umbe r t h an S C p opu la t ion , w he r eas i n P u r i a nd G an jam S C p opu la t ion h a s h i ghe r p e rcen tage t h an S T p opu la t ion

S TP opu la t ion N o . ° A 7 032214 6 670506 3 6 1708 7 40323 6 79930 6 0393 2 96845 2 93560 3 285 1 27347 1 07931 1 94 16

2 2 .21 2 4 .32 8 . 54 2 7 .45 3 0 .43 1 3 .05 9 . 40 1 0 .92 0 . 70 3 . 55 3 . 74 2 . 75

o fS T . O nt h ec on t ra ry , t h e f o r e s t -c lad h i l ly u p land s o fS amba lpu rb ecau se o fi t s l im i ted c u l t ivab le l a nd c am e u nde r e x ten s ive p l ough c u l t iva t ion much l a te r . T hu s m a jo r i ty o f t h e S T p opu la t ion c ou ld r e ta in t h e i r o r ig ina l i ty f o r l o nge rp e r iod s t i ck ing t o t h e i rt r ad i t iona lo ccupa t ion a nd l i f e s ty le . ' T h i sd i f f e r en t ia lr a te o fi n co rpo ra t ion o fa bo r ig ina l s i n to t h e c a s te s oc ie ty a s w e l l a s t h e c on sequen t u n ique p a t ter no fb i o log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s o f d i f f e ren t e t hn ic g roup s d i scu s sed a bove a r e d i r ec t ly r e la ted t ot h e d i f f e r en ce i nt h ep a t te rn o fs u cce s s ive c hange si nt h e m ean s a nd r e la t ion so fp rodu c t ion i n t h e p r eh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic p a s t i n d i f f e ren t g eog raph ica l s e t t ing s .

T h i s v a r ia t ion i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f S T a nd S C p opu la t ion s i nd i f f e r en tg eog raph ica l s e t t ing s a ga in p o in t st ot h e i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h e a bo r ig ina l p eop le i n to c a s te s oc ie ty . I n t h e c oa s ta l d i s t r ic t s o f P u r i a nd G an jam w i th h igh p ropo r t ion o ff e r t i le a luv ia l p l a in , t h e o r ig ina l a bo r ig ina l s , u nde r t h e H indu i n f luence , t o ok t o p lough c u l t iva t ion much e a r l ie r t h an t h o se i nt h e h i l ly u p land s a nd t h u s e ven tua l ly g o t i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e H indu s o c ie ty s we l l ing t h e p e rcen tage o fS C p opu la t ion a nd r e duc ing t h a t

'O n e c a n a r gu e t h a t t h e m ig r a t ion o fa b o r ig ina l s f r om p l a in st o h i l l s i st h e r e a l r e a son b e h ind t h e l o we r p e r cen t ag e o f S T p opu la t ion i nt h e c o a s t a l p l a in s , b u t t h a t d o e s n o t e x p la in t h e c l o s ene s s o ft h e S C p opu la t ion a n d m a jo r i ty o ft h e S ud r a s w i th t h eS Tp opu la t ion si nb o th b i o log ica la n dc u l tu r a l f e a tu r e s .

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T he P r eh i s to r ic c u l tu ra lr em a in ss how t h a tt h e r ea r e t wo d i s t r ic tz one s o fp a laeocu l tu ra l d eve lopm en ti n t h e s t udy r eg ion . O n t h e o ne h and , t h e c oa s ta l r e g ion i sa lmo s t d evo id o fP a la eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s , o n t h e o t he r , t h e se a r e w ide sp r ead a nd p l en ty a l ong t h e h i l ly f o r e s t t r ac t s o fS amba lpu r . F rom t h e l a te p ha se o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a l luv ia l p l a in s o f c oa s ta l d i s t r ic t s e em t oh ave g a ined i mpo r tance f o r s e t t lem en t a nd t hu s B hubane swa r r eg ion h a s y i e lded a m a rk ed d eve loped p ha se o f t h e c u l tu re ( t ran s i t ion f r om U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o M ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry ) wh ich i s mo re a k in t o t h a t o f n or ther n O r i s sa ( Gho sh a nd R ay 1 990 -9 1) . I n Me so l i th ic t im e , M ic ro l i th ic c u l tu r e i n g ene ra l p r e sen t s a h omogenou s n a tu r e a nd e x ten s ive d i s t r ibu t ion c ove r ing a lmo s t a l l g eog raph ica l r eg ion s , s uch a s h i l ly u p land s , r o ck s he l te r s , r i ve r v a l ley s a nd c oa s ta la l luv ia lp l a in s( Panda 2 003 ) .

c oa s ta la r ea s f r om t h eh i gh l a nd s . I ti sb e l ieved t h a t Me so l i th ic p eop le p r ac t iced s om e f o rm o f f ood s t o rage . P r eh i s to r ic e v idences s how t h a t S t one a ge c u l tu r e o f O r i s sa i s i n t im a te ly r e la ted t o t ho se o f t h e u p land r eg ion s o f I nd ia , e spec ia l ly t o t h e n e ighbou r ing r eg ion s o f C ho tanagpu r , M i rzapu r , t h e U ppe rN a rmada V a l ley a sw e l l a st ot h e L owe r G odava r i V a l ley . I n a l l p robab i l i ty , s om e o f t h e c u l tu ra l t r a i t s o f t h o se r eg ion s i nf i l t ra ted i n to O r i s sa t h rough m ig ra t ion o f p opu la t ion a nd u n in te r rup ted c u l tu ra l e xchange . L ingu i s t ic e v idence ( Panda 2 003 ) a l so i nd ica te s m ig ra t ion o f p eop le t o t h i s p a r t o f t h e c oun t ry f r om n o r ther n , w e s ter n a nd s ou the rn I nd ia i n t h e P r e - a nd P ro toh i s to r ic p a s t . I ta l so s ugge s t s as yn the s i s o f t h r ee m a jo r l a nguage f am i l ie s — I ndo -A ryan , D rav id ian a nd Au s t ro -A s ia t ic o r Munda r i .

P r eh i s to r ic p eop le w e re h un te r -ga the r e r a nd t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s oc ie ty w a s e ga l i ta r ian i n n a tu r e a nd e ach a nd e ve ry p e r son p a r t ic ipa ted i n e conom ic p u r su i tt os u rv ive i nf o r es t l i f e wh e r et h e f ood s upp ly w a s s e a sona l a nd u nce r ta in . I n t h e a b sence o ft h e k now ledge o fp r e se rva t ion o ff ood , a t t h e l owe r a nd m idd le P a laeo l i th ic s t age s o f d eve lopm en t , s ha r ing o f o cca s iona l s u rp lu s f ood , h oweve r ,p robab ly g ave r i se t oa ni n -g roup f e e l ing . T he f l ak e -b lade i n du s t ry i nt h e s ub sequen tp ha se o f c u l tu r e i s s pec ia l ly m ean t f o r an ewe r t ype o f c u l tu r ea tt h et im ew hen t h e r ew a s as l ow t r an s i t ion o f ac hange o fa ne r af r om P l e i s tocene t oH o locene . T he l a te p ha se o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic a r e t hu s c ha rac te r i sed b y a n i mp roved c l im a t ic c ond i t ion , i n t roduc t ion o fn ew t e chno logy t o a dop t i n t h e c hanged e nv i ronm en t , mo r e e ff i c ien t e xp lo i ta t ion o f f ood r e sou rce s a nd c on sequen t p h enom ena l e xpan s ion o f p opu la t ion . T he i n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion f o rced p eop le t o c o lon i se n ew a r ea s l i k e c oa s ta l p l a in s a nd r o ck s he l te r s . T he r e w a s , h oweve r , t h e c on t inua t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic e conomy o fh un t ing -ga the r ing , b u t t h e e mpha s i s s h if ted f r om b ig g am e t o s m a l l g am e h un t ing a nd e qua l d ependence o n p l an t s , a n ima l s a nd f i she s f o r s ub s i s tence . I nt h e s t udy r e g ion c o o ccu r rence o f s oph i s t ica ted c ompo s i te t oo l s l i k e t n ic ro l i th s u sef u l a sh un t ing a nd f i sh ing g ea r s a nd h eavy d u ty f o r e s t e ff ic iency t o o l s t o c omp lem en t t h em d u r ing t h i s p e r iod n o d oub t h e lped t h e Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s t o c ope i n d i f f e r en t g eog raph ica l a r ea s . I n g ene r a l , t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le w e r e s e a sona l m ig ra to r s a nd h ad s em i p e rmanen t w ay o f l i f e . T hey d i d n o t k now a g r icu l tu r e a nd i ns umm e r mon th s m ig ra ted t ot h e

I n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e i nt h e h un te r -ga the r e r 's l i f e i n t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod i s b e l ieved t o h ave b rough t r evo lu t iona ry c hange i n c u l tu r e . A ny i mpo r tan t a dvance i n t h e m ean s o f p roduc t ion i mmed ia te ly l e ad s t o ag r ea t i n c r ea se i np opu la t ion a nd r e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion . I nt h e N eo l i th ic P e r iod p opu la t ion e xpan s ion t oge the r w i th s u rp lu s p roduc t ion a s ac on sequ ence o f a g r icu l tu r e l e d t o s eden ta ry l i f e a nd f o rma t ion s o f v i l lage s . I n c on sequence o f a s su r ed f ood s upp ly a nd s u rp lu s p roduc t ion a s e c t ion o f p eop le c ou ld f r ee t h em se lve s a nd t o ok u p o t he r w o rk s l i ke p o t m ak ing , s t one q ua r ry ing , a n ima l h u sband ry , b a ske t m ak ing , b one w o rk ing a nd c a rpen t ry . T hu s g radua l ly t h e e ga l i ta r ian h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie ty b ecam e d i v ided i n to d i f f e ren t o ccupa t iona l g roup s . O n t h e o the r h and , c on t ro l o n s u rp lu s p roduc t ion a nd i t s d i s t r ibu t ion l e d t o t h e f o rma t ion o f a w ea l thy c l a s s s ub sequ en t ly r e su l t ing i n t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f t h e s oc ie ty i n to t h e r i ch a nd t h e p oo r , t h e r u l ing c l a s s a nd t h e r u led , t h e e xp lo i te r s a nd t h e e xp lo i ted . E xpan s ion o f a g r icu l tu re , c l ea r ing o f j ung le s a nd s h rub s c au sed r a p id d ec r ea se o fw i ld a n im a l a nd p l an t f ood r e sou rces o n w h ich Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s h ad d epended f o rt h e i rl i f e . T hu s a g r icu l tu ra l e xpan s ion i n t h e s ub sequen t p e r iod f o r ced mo re h un te r g a the re r s t o a s s im i la te i n to t h e e xpand ing a g r icu l tu re b a sed mu l t i -occupa t iona l s oc ie ty . T ho se who w e r e t oo c on serva t ive o r l e s s e n te rp r i s ing s t uck t o t h e i r h un t ing -ga the r ing p u r su i t , t h e r eby f o rm ing a no the rs e c t ion i nt h es oc ie ty .

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I n t e rm s o f A r chaeo logy , N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e p r ec ise ly i mp l ies a s t age o f t r an s i t ion f r om t h e i n ten s ive f ood c o l lec t ion t o f o od p roduc t ion , a nd t h e c u l tu r e i s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing t e chn ique s o fl i th ic t o o l s , u se o fp o t te ry , p l an t c u l t iva t ion , d om es t ica t ion o f a n ima l s , a nd s e t t led h ab i ta t ion . E ven i fm a te r ia l e v idence o ft h e f i r s tt h ree c r i te r ia o ft h is c u l tu re h a s b een m e t w i th i n o u r s t udy r e g ion ( Panda 2 003 ) , d i r ec t p roof o f e m e rgence o f a g r icu l tu r e o r d om e s t ica t ion o f a n ima l s i nt h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod o fO r is sa i ss t i l l n o t f o r thcom ing . B u t t h a t d oe s n o t s t i l l i mp ly t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic f o lk i n O r i s sa d i d n o t p rac t ice e ven r ud im en ta ry a g r icu l tu r e . R ecove ry o fd om es t ica ted r i ce i nB a idyapu r ( Thapa r 1 985 ) a nd e x i s tence o f w i ld r i ce i n K ucha i ( V i shnu -M i t t r e 1976 ) , B a idyapu r ( V i shnuM i t t r e 1 974 ) a nd J aypo r e t r ac t o f K o rapu t d i s t r ic t ( Mu r ty 1 988 ) c on s ide r ed t oge the r w i th t h e e v idence o fg r a in i mp re s s ion o n c r ude h and -m ade p o t te ry f ound a l ong w i th m a s s ive a nd e l onga ted N eo l i th ic c e l t s a nd r i ng s t one s f r om D henkana l ( S ingh 1 988 -89 , 2 000 ) c an b e c oun ted a s i n d i r ec t e v iden ce o f a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice i n O r i s sa i n t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage f ound i nt h e se s i te si sc oa r se a nd h and m ade ; a nd i n c a se o f Dh enakana l i ti sc r ude a nd b ak ed t o o . T he t e chn ique o f p o t te ry m ak ing a t t h e se s i te s a s soc ia ted w i th c u l t iva t ion o f r i ce u ndoub ted ly m a rk s ap r im i t ive s t age o ft e chno logy c ompa red t o G o lba i , t h e N eo -Cha lco l i th ic s i te i n t h e K hu rda d i s t r ic t ( S inha 2 000 ) ; a nd t h i s , e v iden t ly , i ss ugge s t ive o fa g r icu l tu r e p r eva i l ing i n O r is sa p r io r t o c .2 300 BC ( C -14 d a te f o r G o lba i C ha lco l i th ic P e r iod ) . G o ing b y t h e w e l l d eve loped c e ram ic a s semb lage a tG o lba i N eo l i th ic P er iod i t s e em s t h a t t h e c u l tu r e w a s i n a n a dvanced s t age h av ing a s su r ed f ood s upp ly .

l e ve l o f G o lba i . B u t i ti s mo r e t h an p robab le t h a t b ecau se a s ma l l a r ea b e long ing t ot h i s p er iod h a s b een e xpo sed , n o l i t h ic t o o l h a s b een e ncoun te r ed . H oweve r , s u rf ace c o l lec t ion a s w e l l a s e xcava t ion i nt h e s ub sequen t N eo -Cha lco l i th ic l e ve l ( Pe r iod I A ) y i e lded m ic ro l i th s a nd b o th i n d igenou s a sw e l l a s f o r e ign i m i ta t ion v a r ie t ie s o f t y p ica l N eo l i th ic t o o l s . S om e o t he r e v idence s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic l e ve l o fG o lba i p o in t s t o ad ef in i te c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th S ou th I nd ian N eo l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e c on tempo ra ry p er iod ( Panda 2 003 ) . I n v i ew o ft h i s c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th S ou th I nd ian N eo l i th ic s i te s wh ich w e r e c ha rac te r i sed b y s p ec ia l i sa t ion i nd om e s t ica t ion o fa n ima l s , a b sen ce o f t h e s ame i n t h e N eo l i th ic l e ve l o f G o lba i i s u nu sua l . H oweve r , n o th ing c an b e s a id d ef in i te ly a bou t t h e n a tu re o fN eo l i th ic C u l tu r e a tG o lba i o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i n adequa te m a te r ia l f i nd ing s f r om t h e s ma l l a r ea o f e xcava t ion . H oweve r , t h e r e p re sen ta t ion o f a n ima l s l i ke g oa t , p i g a nd c a t t le i n t h e p e t rog lyph s o f D eu lga r o ck s he l te r s i te ( Beh e ra 2 000 -200 1a ) i n S amba lpu r d i s t r ic t i n d i r ec t ly s ugge s t s a k now ledge o f a n ima l h u sband ry a nd p a s to ra l b a sed s ub s i s tence e conomy i nt h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod . A ny i mpo r tan t a dvance i n t h e m ean s o f p roduc t ion i mm ed ia te ly l e ad s t o a g r ea t i n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion w h ich n ece s sa r i ly m ean s d i f f e ren t r e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion . G o ing b y t h e w e l l d eve loped c e ram ic a s semb lage a tG o lba i N eo l i th ic p e r iod i ts e em s t h a tt h e c u l tu r e w a s i na n a dvan ced s t age h av ing a s su red f ood s upp ly , n o th ing c an b e s a id a bou t t h e r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion a tt h is s t age . H oweve r ,N eo l i th ic p eop le o f t h e c oa s ta l r i ve r ine p l a in mu s t h ave p roduced b e t te r s u rp lu s a nd h ad w ide r e xchange n e two rk b ecau se o ft h e i ra dvan tageou sp o s i t ion i nt h ef e r t i le a l luv ia l p l a in s andw iched b e tween t h e p l a teau f r inge a r ea a nd t h e s e a c oa s t a nd t h e r eby h av ing w ide r r a nge o fs ub s i s tence a sw e l l a sa cce ss t os e a n av iga t ion . S amba lpu r r e g ion , o n t h e o t he r h and , l y ing i n t h e h i l ly f o r e s t -c lad u p land s , h ad l i t t le o ppor tun i ty t oh ave e nough s u rp lu s o rw ide r r a nge o f c on tac t b e ing mo r e d ependen t o n t h e p rev iou s mode o f s ub s i s tence l i ke f o od -ga the r ing a nd h un t ing . H ence , t h e p eop le r ema ined i n a n u ndeve loped e a r ly N eo l i th ic s t age .

T he N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o fO r i s sa i se s sen t ia l ly ap a r t a nd p a rce l o ft h e E a s te rn N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e ( Thapa r 1 964 ) c omp r i s ing B enga l , B iha r a nd O r i s sa , a nd t h i s c u l tu r e i ss uppo sed t ob e o fi n d igenou s o r ig in . B u t t h e m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn iqu e o f t h e f a ce t ted t o o l s , s hou lde r ed c e l t s , w edge a nd b a r v a r ie t ie s o f t o o l s a s w e l l a s c o rd i mp r e s sed p o t te ry a r e c on s ide r ed t o h ave a r r ived I nd ia a t a much l a te r d a te f r om S ou th C h ina a nd S ou thea s t A s ia ( Dan i 1 960 ; S anka l ia 1 974 ) . I th a sb een h ypo the s i sed t h a t t h e m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique o f t h ese d eve loped N eo l i th ic t o o l s a nd c o rd m a rked p o t te ry w a s i n t roduced t o n o r th ea s ter n I nd ia b y t h e A u s t roa s ia t ic , i . e . t h e Munda s peak ing p eop le ( He ineGe lda rn 1 945 ) . H oweve r , n o s t one i mp lem en t h a s b een r e cove r ed f r om t h e N eo l i th ic

C o r r e la t ion b e tween A r chaeo log ica l a nd L ingu i s t ic P r eh is to ry i nt h e r e g ion ( Panda 2 003 ) l e ad s t ot h e h ypo th es i s t h a t i t i s p robab ly t h e P ro to S ou th Munda s peak ing p eop le w ho i n t roduced t h e a dvanced N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e i n i t ia l ly i nt h e n o r ther n p a r to fO r is sa w h i le m ig r a t ing f r om B iha ru nde rt h e

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p re s su r e o f t h e a dvanc ing D rav id ian s peak ing p eop le .

w e l l d eve loped C ha lco l i th ic s i te o f K ham e swa r ipa l i i n t h e m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley ( P radhan a nd B ehe ra 1 998 ; B ehe ra 2 000 -200 1b ) s i tua ted i n t h e S onpu r r eg ion o f t h e B a lang i r d i s t r ic t . T r ia l v e r t ica l d i gg ing a tt h r ee p l ace s o ft h e mound h ave u nea r thed a w e l l d eve loped v i l lage f a rm ing c u l tu r e h av ing c u l tu ra l l i nkage w i th N a rhan , C h i r and , S enuwa ra nd G o lba i C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e i n a r ound l a t e 2 nd m i l lenn ium BC . I n a dd i t ion t o t h i s e v idence a t Kham e swa r ipa l i t h e w ide s p read h o r izon ta le xpo su r e o fs i te s , a s soc ia ted w i th t h e wh i te p a in ted b l ack -and r ed -wa r e , d i scove red i n t h e l ow e r r e ache s o f m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley o n i t sr i gh tb ank a sw e l l a si na nd a r ound t h e T e l r i ve r i n t h e a d jo in ing B a lang i r d i s t r ic t ( Append ix ) c l ea r ly e s tab l i sh t h a t n o t o n ly c oa s ta l O r i s sa , b u t w e s ter n O r i s sa t o o w i tne s sed P r e I ron A ge v i l lage e s tab l i shm en t s t hough a t a much l a te rd a te .

T h e c o -ex i s tence a nd c o mmonn e s s o f h ab i ta t i s l i k e ly t o h ave p rodu ced a s t a te o f b i cu l tu r i sm b e tween t h ese t wo e t hn ic s t ock s . H oweve r , s om e d eg r ee o fb i l ingua l i sm w a s a n i n ev i tab le r e su l t o f t h i sb i cu l tu r i sm , w h ich i nt u rn mu s th ave p roduced a n a r ea o f l i ngu i s t ic a nd c u l tu r a l a g reem en t s b e tween t h e se t wo e t hn ic s e c t ion sw h ich mu s th ave g i ven r i se t o a " D rav ido -Munda c u l tu re" ( Bha t tacha rya 1 975 ) w he re t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e se t wo d i s t inc t c u l tu r es c onv e rged w i th e ach o t he r . T he N eo l i th ic a nd N eo -Cha lco l i th ic c u l tu r es a tG o lba i a nd G opa lpu r( Ka r 1 995 -96 , 2 000 ; K a re t a l . 1 998 ) p robab ly a r e t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log ica l c o r r e la te o f t h e D rav ido - Munda c u l tu re , b ea r ing c u l tu r a l t r a i t s o fb o th S ou th I nd ian a nd S ou thea s t A s ian N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e . G o lba iC ha lco l i th ic l e ve lp rov ide sf o rt h e f i r s tt im e d i r ec t e v idence o f a g r icu l tu r a l p rac t ice s a nd t e nd ing o f a n im a l s a s a n i n sepa rab le f e a tu r e o f s e t t led l i f e , a nd t hu s s ub s tan t ia te st h e e x i s tence a nd g row th o f e a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s i n O r i s sa . S e t t led p a t te rn o fl i f e a nd p l en ty o ff ood mu s th ave l e d t o d i v i s ion o f l a bou r , wh ich i n t u rn , l e ad s t o a dven to fs pec ia l iza t ion t h a td i v ide st h e c ommun i ty i n to v a r iou s o ccupa t iona l g roup s l i ke f a rme r s , s t ock b r eede r s , h un te r s , f i sh ing f o lk s , s t one a nd b on e s m i th s , c a rpen te r s , b oa t m ake r s , p o t te r s , c oppe r sm i th s , a r t i san s a nd t r ade r s . D if f e r en ts i ze o f h u t s i nt h e s e t t lemen t i sp e rhap s i nd ica t ive o ft h e b eg inn ing o fs oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion i nt h e C ha lco l i th ic c ommun i ty . P u tt o ge the r , t h e se e v idence s p robab ly i mp ly em e rg ing c omp lex i t ie s i n t h e s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l f o rma t ion i n c ou r se o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod i n O r i s sa a nd a s am echan i sm o f e f f ec t ive m a in tenance a nd m anagem en t o ft h i s c omp lex i ty , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f e m e rgence o f c h ief dom . O u t o f t h e 1 3 c i r cu la rh u t s w i th p o s tho les a nd h ea r th s , t h e l a rge s t m ay w e l l b e r ega rd ed a s t h e p r iva te p rope r ty o f t h e c h ief , mo r e e qua l a mong e qua l s . S ince c oppe r a r t ic le s w e r e s c a r ce a nd p r ized , t h e i r a s soc ia t ion i n t h e g raveya rd a t G o lba i a nd S ank e r jang ( Yu le a nd R a tha 2 000 ) c an b e i n t e rp re ted a ga in a s b u r ia l g i f t s t o t h e c h ief o r m ember so fh i sf am i ly .

A c on tac t b e tween t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re s o f M idd le G anga p l a in a nd t h e m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley i s w e l l e s tab l i shed b y t h e se C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re s w i th wh i te p a in ted b l ack -and r ed w a r e . T he s udden d eve lopm en to ft h ese s i te si np o s t 1 200 BC c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e l i ngu i s t ic e v idence wh ich s peak s o f al a rge s c a le p opu la t ion m ig ra t ion f r om t h e M idd le G anga p l a in w i th t h e a dven to ft h e A ryan s i n a r ound m id 2 nd m i l lenn ium BC ( Roy 1 912 ) . H oweve r t h e a b sence o f c hanne l b ow l s , c hanne l spou ted v e s se l s o r r u s t ica ted w a r e ( wh ich a r e s uppo sed t o b e t h e w e s t A s ia t ic i nf lu ence ) i n t h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e o f O r i s sa p o s s ib ly i n d i r ec t ly s ugges t s p r edom inance o f t h e i nf luence o f S ou thea s t A s ian o r f o r t h a t m a t te r Munda c u l tu re i nt h er e g ion . I n t roduc t ion o f i r on t e chno logy h a s b een s ymbo l i sed w i th t h e i n ten s if ica t ion o f a g r icu l tu r e a nd t h e r eby ac hange i nr e la t ion so fp roduc t ion a nd s upe r s t ruc tu re o ft h e s oc ie ty . B u tt h e a ppea rance o f t h e s i ng le p r im i t ive p i ece o f i r on i n t h e F e r ro C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l o f G o lba i ( 1 100 -900 BC ) d oe s n o t r eg i s te r a ny r ema rkab le c hange i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic e conomy o ft h e s i te . H oweve r , i to n ly c onf i rm s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e chno logy o f s m e l t ing , e ven t h ough i n a n a scen t s t age , m ade i t s a ppea rance d u r ing t h i s p e r iod , a nd t h a t h a s s i gn if i can t c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic r am if ica t ion , n o ma t te r i fo rd ina ry f o lk w e r e s t i l l c l ing ing t o s t one a nd b one a r t if ac t s . T he a ppea rance o f t umb le r i n b l ack -and r ed w a r e i nt h i s p er iod , h oweve r , m a rk s We s tA s ia t ic i n f luence f o rt h e f i r s tt im e .

E ven t hough o n se t a nd d eve lopm en t o f C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e i nc oa s ta l O r i s sa i sr e p re sen ted i nt h eG o lba ie xcava t ion , S amba lpu ra s aw ho le h a s n o t y i e lded a ny s uch s i te . H ow eve r , P o s t -Neo l i th ic h o r izon c an b e o b ta in ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion a tt h e

3 33

H oweve r , n o I r on A ge s i t e h a s b een d i scove r ed f r om t h e c oa s ta l r e g ion w h ich c ou ld t h row l i gh t o n t h e i mpac t o f i r on t e chno logy o n t h e e conomy o f t h e p eop le . T he l owe s t l e ve l s o f S i supa lga rh ( La l 1 949 ) a nd J auga rh ( J AR 1 956 -57 : 3 0 -31) w h ich c ame u pa lmo s t6 00 -700 y ea r sl a te rh oweve rd on o t s ugge s t a ny r ema rkab le c hange i n t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu r e o f t h e p eop le . T he p l a in a nd u t i l i ta r ian n a tu re o f t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage a nd d eve loped s t age o f i r on t e chno logy h oweve r s ugges t a n e xpan s ion o fa g r icu l tu r e . B u t i nt h e l i f e s ty le o ft h e p eop le i ts e em st h e r e w a s l i t t le c hange f r om t h a t o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod . I t s e em s e ven i n t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 3 rd c en tu ry BC i r on w a s u sed o n ly i n ar e s t r ic ted a moun t a nd w a s t r ea ted a s a p r ized t h ing . T he c ommon m an s e em s t o b e c onf in ing h im se lf t os t one , c l ay , o rs om ep er i shab le m a ter ia l s . T h i s o n ly e xp la in s w hy i r on c ou ld n o t b r ing m a jo r c hange i nt h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re o f t h e s oc ie ty e ven a f t e r 6 00 -700 y ea r s a f t e r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e e conomy . H oweve r , t h i s , o n t h e o the r h and i n d ica te s em e rgen ce o f s t ra t if ied s oc ie ty b y w ay o f d i f f e r en t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs u rp lu sp roduc t ion .

p robab ly w i th t h e u rban i sa t ion r e g ion .

i n t h e c oa s ta l

T hu s a r chaeo log ica l e v idence c l ea r ly s how s t h a t b ef o r e t h e K a l inga w a r ( 2 6 1 BC ) u nequa l d i s t r ibu t ion o fs u rp lu s p roduc t ion h ad a l r eady b een s t a r ted a nd ' r ank ' s oc ie ty w a s s l ow ly e m e rg ing o u t o f t h e a bo r ig ina l e ga l i ta r ian b a se . A cco rd ing t o F r ied ( 1967 : 1 85 , 1 91) a ' r ank ' s oc ie ty r e f lec t s a s t age i n t h e e vo lu t ion o f h um an s oc ie ty wh ich m a rk s a n e m e rgen ce o f as p ec ia l r u l ing s t r a tum , w h i le t h e t r iba l r e la t ion s h ad n o t y e t t o ta l ly d i s in teg ra ted . A t t h i s s t age t h ough s u rp lu s w a s a cqu i r ed b y t h e a bo r ig ina l c h ief , h e d i d n o t h ave a ny d i r ec tc on t ro lo ve rt h em ean so fp rodu c t ion a nd l a bou r( F r ied : 17 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f t h e e me rgen ce o f u rban i sa t ion i nO r i s sa ( a t S i supa lga rh a nd J auga rh ) c o inc ide s w i th t h e a r r iva l o ft h e Mau ryan s w h ich l e d t ot h e s cho la r s ( Senev i ra tn e 1 981) t ot h ink t h a t u rban i sa t ion i nt h i s p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry i s ap roduc t o f Mau ryan h egemony A l lch in ( 1 989 : 1 5 ) o n t h e o t he r h and p o in ted o u t t h a t i ti s ap roduc t o f t h e ' P r e -Ma ruyan G ange t ic C o lon i sa t ion ' s i nce O r i s sa w a s u nde r t h e r u le o fN anda k i ng i n 4 t h c en tu ry BC .

A n i n te rm ed ia te s t age b e tween t h e G o lba i F e r ro C ha lco l i th ic a nd t h e e a r ly p e r iod s o f S i supa lga rh a nd J auga rh r e p r e sen ted i n P e r iod I o f K ham e swa r ipa l i ( Beh e ra 2 000 -2001b ) i n m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley h e lp s t o h ave a n i d ea o f t h e c on sequence o ft h e i n t roduc t ion o fi r on techno logy i nt h e U p land O r i s sa .H e r e e xpan s ion o fa g r icu l tu re i sc on sp icuou s i n t h e a ppea rance o f l a rge s t o r age v es se ls s ynch ron i s ing w i th a p ronoun ced d egene ra t ion i n c e ram ic a s semb lage . T h is i s n o d oub t , ar e pe r cu s s ion o fi r on e n ter ing t h e e conomy a nd t h e reby t h em a te r ia l c u l tu r e , i nt h ef o rm o fn ew t e chno logy . Mo r eove r , m a te r ia l e v idence o f b u rgeon ing E a r ly H i s to r ic s e t t lem en t si nt h em idd le Mahanad i v a l ley ( Append ix ) i s as u r e i n d ica to r o f t h e g radua l i n c r ea se i nt h e g row th o fs e t t lemen t i n t h e P os t -Cha lco l i th ic p e r iod a s ac oncom i tan t a nd i n teg ra l a spec t o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l e xpan s ion a nd g row th o fp opu la t ion i nt h e r eg ion . T h i s i ne f f ec t , n o -doub t mu s t h ave m ade t h e s t ruc tu r e o f s oc ie ty c omp lex b y w ay o f s t r a t if ica t ion i n t e rm s o f p roduc t ion r e la t ion s .

B u t u rban isa t ion i n O r i s sa c anno t e xc lu s ive ly b e t h e p roduc t o f e x te rna l f o r ce s T he p repa r a t ion o f t h e g round f o r t h e e m e rgence o fu rban i sa t ion h ad a l r eady b een s t a r ted i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod w h ich w e re g e t t ing c on so l ida ted i nt h e s ub sequen t p e r iod w i th t h e e xpo su r e t o o t he r c u l tu r e s a nd i n co rpo ra t ion o f i d ea s . I n t h a t s c ena r io , Mau ryan i mpe r ia l a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive e xpan s ion t ot h er e g ion a c ted a sc a ta ly s t f o rt h e e me rgence o fu rban i sa t ion . U rban i sa t ion i n O r i s sa t hu s s e emed t o h ave f o l lowed A l lch in 's mode l ( 1990 : 1 64 ) o f " ope r a t ion o f t h e c o lon is ing f a c to r s ub sequen t t o i n d igeneou s d eve lopmen t ," a nd a sh e s ay s , i td oe s n o t m ean t h a t b o th w e re n o t a tw o rk d u r ing t h e s am ep er iod . T he c u l tu ra l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e u rban c en t r e s o f S i supa lga rh a nd J auga rh i nt h e P r e a nd E a r ly p a r t o fC h r i s t ian e r a s p eak o f am ixed c u l tu r e . F rom t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls n o th ing c an b e s a id a bou t t h e c o r e c u l tu r e o ft h e r e g ion . H oweve r , l a nguage s u sed i n t h e i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence s how t h a t t h e A ryan c u l tu ra l i nf luence c am e t o t h i s p a r t o f t h e c oun t ry i nt wo l i ne s -ab roade r o r mo re p owe rf u l s t r eam c am e f r om Magadha , a nd t h e o t he r , a t h inne r o ne , r e ached O r is sa f r om w es ter nU .P . , v i a

B u t f o r t h e c u l tu ra l a spec t s , K ham e swa r ipa l i s i te d oe s n o t s how s i gn s o f t r an sf o rma t ion w o r th t h e n am e . I t s how s l i t t le d i f f e r ence f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic p ha se i n i t s m a te r ia l c u l tu r e . Mo s t p robab ly u rban v a lue s s e eped i n to t h e g ene r a l l i f e s t r eam much l a te r a nd a ta n a lmo s t l imp ing p ace

34

Mahako sa la r e g ion ( Cha t te r jee 1 926 : 1 4 ) . T he se t wo s t r eam s t h en mu s t h ave c onv e rged w i th t h e l o ca l D r av ido - Munda c u l tu re . F rom t h e i n f luence o f D r av id ian o n P rak r i t l a nguage s i n t h e e a r ly p e r iod i ts e em s D rav id ian s w e r e d om inan t i n t h e l o ca l n on -A ryan c u l tu re o f t h e r e g ion . H oweve r , t h i s p roce s s o fc onve rgence w a s av e ry s l ow a nd p ro longed o ne a nd t h e p a t ter no fc onve rgence w a s mo s t p robab ly s am e a s r e con s t ru c ted b y S ou thwo r th ( 1974 ) f o r o the r p a r t s o ft h e c oun t ry A ryan s p eak ing g roup e s tab l i shed i t se lf i n s ome p a r t o f t h e a r ea a mong n on -A ryan s p eake r s . I t b ecam e t h e f o cu s o fi nf luence f o rn ew c u l tu re a nd an ew c i v i l iza t ion , o f w h ich t h e l a nguage i st h e v eh ic le . P eop le r ound a bou t s pec ia l ly t h e u ppe r c l a s s , f i r s t p i ck ed u p t h e A ryan l a nguage a nd c u l tu r e wh i le r e ta in ing t h e i r o wn s p eech f o r s om e t im e a nd t hu s b ecam e b i l ingua l a s w e l l a b i cu l tu ra l . A s ar e su l t o f t h e i r b i l ingua l i sm a nd b i cu l tu r i sm a n ew h yb r id l a nguage a nd c u l tu r e w e re c r ea ted i n t h e p roce s s o f c onve rgence b e tw een t h eA ryan sa nd t h en on -A ryan e l i te s .

f o rm o f d i r ec t c on t ro l o ve r t h e s u rp lu s a nd o n p r ima ry p rodu ce r w h ich c on sequen t ly l e d t o a g r ea te r c oncen t ra t ion o fw ea l th a nd p owe r i nt h e i r h and s c r ea t ing g r ea te r s oc ia l d i f f e r en t ia t ion b a sed o n a n u n equa l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s u rp lu s . T he P o s t Mau ryan p e r iod t hu s s aw t h e e m e rgence o f l c oa l r u l ing c l a s s a nd ' s oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion w i th f unc t iona lh i e ra rchy ' ( Senev i ra tne 1 981) H ow eve r , t h e H a th igumpha i n sc r ip t ion ( l ine e l even ) ( Ba rua 1 929 : 4 59 -85 ; J aya swa l a nd B ane r jee 1 929 -30 ) i mp l ie s t h e e x i s tence o f r u l ing c h ief s i nK a l inga p r io r t ot h e Maham eghavahana s . T he c on so l ida t ion o ft h e r u l ing c h ief s w i th g r ea te r c on t ro l o ve r t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs u rp lu s a nd m ean s o f p roduc t ion a nd p r ima ry p roduce r l e d t o t h e f o rm a t ion o fs t a te si nt h eP o s t - Mau ryan p e r iod . T he f i r s t i n s t i tu t iona l i sed k ing sh ip w i th n o r th I nd ian i nf luence i n h i e ra r ch ica l f unc t iona r ies , S an sk r i t ic e p i th e t s a nd c e r emon ie s e m e rged i n c oa s ta l O r is sa w i th K ha rave la a nd t h e Maham eghavahana r u le . B u t t h e n a tu r e o f p owe r s t ru c tu re a nd a u tho r i ty d esc r ibed i n H a th igumpha i n sc r ip t ion i n d ica te s a n e a r ly s t age o f S t a te f o rma t ion w i th i t s r ud im en ta ry a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem , v ague ly d ef ined t e r r i to ry a nd c en t r e o f g ove rnm en t , a nd a n i d eo logy b a sed o n t h e c oncep t o f r e c ip roc i ty ( Sahu 2 000 ) . I n t h e P o s t -Kha rave la p e r iod s p r ead o fu rban i sa t ion , i n f luence o fA ryan c u l tu re f r om n o r th , c ommod i ty p roduc t ion , mone t i sa t ion o f e xchange , e x ten s ive t r ad ing a nd a g r icu l tu r a l a c t iv i ty c r ea ted t h e e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l p l a tf o rm f o r t h e c on so l ida t ion o f t h e l o ca l r u l ing c l a s s ; a nd i nc on sequence an umbe r o f l o ca l s ub r eg iona l k ingdom s a nd f o r e s t p r inc ipa l i t ie s c am e i n to e x i s tence i nc oa s ta l O r i s sa i n t h e G up ta a nd P o s t -Gup ta p e r iod w ho w e r e e i the r i n dependen t o r o n ly t empo ra r i ly a nd n om ina l ly s ub juga ted b y mo r e p owe r fu l ' f o r e ign ' r u le r s . T he se l o ca l a nd s ub r eg iona l p owe r s d ec la red t h em se lve s H indu r a jas b y i s su ing l a ndg ran t s t oB rahm in s a nd b y f o l low ing t h e r o le mode l o f t h e i r o ve r lo rd s i n t h e i r p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion a s w e l l a s p e r sona l a nd c ou r t l i f e . T hey a l so w iped o u t a l l s i gn s o f t h e i r p robab le a l leg iance t o t h e a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty t o s u ch a n e x ten t t h a t i n mo s t c a se s t h e r e i sn o th ing t op o in t o u tt ot h e i ra bo r ig ina l o r ig in . R eco rd s o fl a ndg r an t s t o r e l ig iou s e s tab l i shm en t s c an b e t r aced b ack t o 3 rd c en tu ry AD ( Bhad rak s t one i n sc r ip t ion ) w he r ea s l a ndg ran t s t oB rahm in s s t a r ted o n ly i n4 th c en tu ry AD a s s e en i n t h e K o ra sanda g r an t o f V i shakhava rman o f Ma tha ra d yna s ty ( R a jagu ru

I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t os ay a tt h a tp o in to fd eve lopm en t e xac t ly w ha t l a nguage p eop le s pok e i n . B u t i ti s p o s s ib le t h a t t h i s w a s t h e p e r iod w hen Magadh i P rak r i t w a s s l ow ly c hang ing i n to a pabhram sa wh ich h oweve rr e g i s te red t h e d om inance o fA ryan l a nguage i nt h ec onve rgence p a t ter n . I mpac t o f Mau ryan a dm in i s t ra t ion o n t h e i n d igenou s s oc ie ty s t a r ted t h e p roce s s o f d i s in teg ra t ion a nd i n ter na l t r an sf o rm a t ion o f t h e i n d igenou s ' r ank ' s oc ie ty t o a s t r a t if i ed c l a s s s oc ie ty wh ich u l t im a te ly l e d t ot h e s t a te f o rma t ion i n c oa s ta l O r i s sa ( Senev i ra tn e 1 981) . T he s pec ia l e d ic t s o f A soka g i ve a n i d ea o f t h e v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l e xpan s ion o f f unc t iona r ie s a nd c en t r a l i sed p owe r s t ruc tu r e . F rom t h a t i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e l o ca l c h ief t a in s , o pe r a t ing a tt h e e nd o ft h e h or izon ta l c ha in o f f unc t iona r ie s , p l ayed ac r uc ia l r o le i nd i r ec t ing t h e s u rp lu s f r om t h e l o ca l u n i t s t o t h e Me t ropo l i s v i at h ep rov in c ia l g ove rnm en t . T h i s a s soc ia t ion o fl o ca l c h ief ta in s i nt h e A ryan p owe r s t ruc tu re s t a r ted t h e p roce s s o f S an sk r i t i sa t ion /A ryan i sa t ion o ft h e l o ca l e l i te s a nd t h e i r f am i l ie s w ho i n t h e l o ng r un e s tab l i sh ed a s oc ia l d i s t inc t ion e spec ia l ly f r om t h e a g r icu l tu r a l a nd a r t i san g roup s a nd i nt h e c ou r se c on so l ida ted t h e i r p o s i t ion a s an on -p roduc ing c l a s s a nd r a i sed t h em se lve s u p i n t h e h o r izon ta l h i e ra r chy . T he i r p o s i t ion a s a v i ta l l i nk b e tween t h e p r ima ry p roduce r a nd t h e Me t ropo l i ton S t a te m ay h ave p rov ided t h e e a r l ie s t o ppo r tun i ty t oe s tab l ish s om e

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1 958 : 1 3 ) T he r eaf te r B rahm in s e t t lem en t s c on t inued t o mu l t ip ly i nc oa s ta lr e g ion .

o u t v arna f unc t ion s a nd o bey ing t h e k i ng ) a nd c u l tu r e a nd t h u s t o f a c i l i ta te t h e s ubo rd ina t ion o f p ea san t ry . i i ) t os p r ead t h e k now ledge o fp l ough c u l tu r e a nd l i ve s tock m anagem en t a mong t h e a bo r ig ina l p opu la t ion , t hu s t o f a c i l i ta te t h e p rog r e s s o f b ackwa rd ` sw idden ' c u l t iva to r s t o t h e m o r e p roduc t ive s t age o fp l ough -ba sed a g r icu l tu r e .

H oweve r , t h e e m e rgence o fr u l ing c l a s s o u t o ft h e l o ca l a bo r ig ina l b a se s t a r ted l i t t le l a te r i n t h e m oun ta inou s t r ac t s o f w es te rn a nd s ou thwe s ter n O r i s sa . T h i s l a te d eve lopm en t i sp robab ly b ecau se o f t h e s l ow a nd l o ca l ised s p r ead o f u rban i sa t ion a nd A ryan s oc io -po l i t ica l i d ea s i nt h is p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry . A b sence o fd i r ec t c on t ro l o fa ny d om inan t H indu s t a te a s w e l l a s t h e r e s t r ic ted e xpan s ion o f t h e p roduc t ion o f s u rp lu s d ue t o d i sadvan tageou s g eog raph ica l f a c to r s a ppea r t o b e o t he r c au se s o f t h e l a te d eve lopm en t o f t h e p roce s s o f i n ter n a l t r an sf o rma t ion o f t h e c h ief dom s o c ie ty t o ac l a s s s oc ie ty w i th b r eak ing u po ft h e i n d igenou s mode o f p roduc t ion .

T hu st h e B rahm in s , a sa gen t s o ft h e k i ng , h e lped t o c r ea te t h e e conom ic c ond i t ion s f o r t h e e nhanced p roduc t ion o f s u rp lu s a s w e l l a s t h e i d eo log ica l c ond i t ion s f o r t h e a pp rop r ia t ion o f s u rp lu s b y t h e n ew ly e m e rged e l i te a nd i n d o ing s o t h ey a l so f o r ced t h e p ace o f t r an sf o rm a t ion o f t h e h i the r to a bo r ig ina l s o c ie t ie s t h rough a ccu l tu ra t ion a nd p ea san t i sa t ion . T he l a rge n umbe r o f l a ndg ran t s i s sued i n c oa s ta l O r i s sa i n5 t h -6 th c en tu ry AD , t hu s i n d ica te al a rge s c a le a g ra r ian e xpan s ion , s p r ead o f B rahm an ic c u l tu r e , c y s ta l i sa t ion o f c l a s s s oc ie ty w i th d eve lop ing f e uda l c ha rac t e r a nd a g r ea te r c onve rgence b e tween A ryan a nd n on -A ryan c u l tu r e s r e su l t ing i n ac hang ing s o c io -econom ic m i l ieu . Whe r ea s e m e rgence o fo n ly t wo k i ngdom s w i th o n ly af ew l a ndg ran t c ha r te r sa nd a ni mma tu r e s o c io -po l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion i nt h e v a s t h i l ly t r ac t s o fw e s ter na nd s ou thwe s ter nO r i s sa a ga in s ugge s ta s l ow a nd r e s t r ic ted p ace o f t h e t r an sf o rm a t ion o f t h e a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty . B u t i n t h i s p e r iod , l a ndg ran t s w e r e i s sued o n ly b y t h e r u l ing f am i l ie s , a nd t h e r e i sn or e co rd o fp r iva te l a ndg r an t ; i ti st hu s o bv iou s t h a t p r iva te o wne r sh ip o f l a nd h ad n o t e m e rged y e t . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e k i ng h ad r e ta in ed a b so lu te c on t ro l o ve r l a nd , w a te r a nd f o r e s t . T he l im i ted n umbe r o f t a xes , f e uda l t i le s , V ed ic s a c r if ice sa nd r i tua l s a nd a bove a l l s i l ence o n t h e e x i s tence o fc a s te s y s tem n o d oub t i n d ica te t h e f o rma t ive s t age o ft h e s o c ia l e vo lu t ion f r om t r iba l t of e uda lo rde r .

H oweve r , f r om t h e m en t ion o f t h e v anqu i shed r u le r s a nd t e r r i to r ie s i nK a l inga a nd K osa la i nt h e A l lahabad P i l la r I n sc r ip t ion , i ta ppea r s t h a t , o n t h e e ve o f t h e S amud ragup ta 's s ou ther n c ampa ign , s om e o ft h e a bo r ig ina l c h ief s o f t h e moun ta inou s t r ac t s c ou ld r e ach t h e s t age o f P ro to -S ta te f o rma t ion r e su l t ing o bv iou s ly f r om t h e d i r ec t c on t ro l o n t h e m ean s o fp roduc t ion a nd l a bou r b y t h e r u l ing c l a s s . I ti so n ly a f t e r t h e s pe l l o fG up ta c ampa ign , t h a t af ew o ft h e r u l ing c h ief s e me rged a s l o ca l a nd s ub r eg iona l H indu k i ngdom b u i lde r s f o l low ing t h er o le mode l o ft h e f e uda lp o l i t ica l a nd s o c ia l f o rma t ion o f t h e G up ta e mp i r e . T hu s t h e N a la s i n K o r apu t -Ba s ta r r e g ion a nd t h e E a s ter n G anga s i n K a l inga r o se t o p owe r i n t h e 5 t h -6 th c en tu ry AD a nd i s sued l a ndg ran t s i m i ta t ing t h e G up ta r u le r s . T he l a ndg ran t s t oB rahm in s i n mo s t c a se s a c ted a s av eh ic le f o r s e t t ing i n mo t ion t h e p roce ss o f i n co rpo ra t ion o fa bo r ig ina l s o c ie t ie s i n to v arna l ja t i d i f f e r en t ia ted H indu s oc ie ty . I t i n vo lved i n co rpo ra t ion o f t h e s e lec t ive a bo r ig ina l p owe r s i n to t h er ank o ft h eK sha t r iya sa nd , i nr a r e c a ses , o f t h e B r ahm in s a nd m a s s r e lega t ion o ft h e r e s t o ft h e p opu la t ion t o t h e r ank o f t h e s u rp lu s p roduc ing S ud ra s . I n t h i s s chem e , t h e i mm ig r an t B rahm in s p l ayed a c r uc ia l r o le i n t h e c on so l ida t ion o f t h e n ew ly e m e rged k i ngdom s , wh ich w e r e—

A f u l l f ledged f e uda l s o c ie ty w i th a l l i t s c ha rac ter i s t ic f e a tu r e s d eve loped i n t h e E a r ly Med ieva l P e r iod w i th t h e e me rgen ce o f as e r ie s o f r e g iona l , s ub r eg iona l a nd l o ca l k i ngdom s i n d i f f e r en tp ocke t s , e ach o ft h em i s su ing an umbe ro f l a ndg r an t s . Mo s t o f t h e se p owe r s c an b e t r aced b ack t o t h e i r a bo r ig ina l o r ig in . T h i s e v iden t ly p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e p roce s s o f t r an s i t ion o f t r iba l s o c ie t ie s i n to v arna/ ja t i d i f f e r en t ia ted s o c ie ty o f e a r ly H indu i sm g a ined mom en tum i n t h e E a r ly Med ieva l P e r iod . Ac l u tch o fi d en t if iab le u pwa rd ly m ob i le a bo r ig ina l c h ief s a nd t h e l i neage s i nw h ich

i )t o h e lp t h e a bo r ig ina l k ing t o s t r eng then h i s c l a im f o r H indu s t a tu s a nd l e g i t im acy b y w r i t ing f i c t i t iou s g en ea log ie s a nd o rgan iz ing i mp r es s ive V ed ic s a c r if ice sa nd H indu r e l ig iou sc e r emon ie s . i ) t o s p r ead , w i th t h e h e lp o ft h e H indu i sed k i ng , B rahman ica l i d eo logy ( i . e . s a c r ed d u ty o fc a r ry ing

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t h ey b e longed , s e em ed t o h ave a c ted a s p r inc ipa l a g enc ies o ft h i s t r an sf o rma t ion . T he k ing s n eeded m i l i ta ry s uppo r ta nd l o ya l ty o ft h ec h ief f o ri n ter n a l s e cu r i ty o ft h e k ingdom a s w e l l a st od ef end t h e i r k i ngdom s a ga in s t o u t s ide a t tack . T he s t r eng th o f a bo r ig ina l p owe r o f ten e nhanced t h e i r p e r sona l p owe r i n t h e p o l i t ica l h i e ra r chy . Mo reove r , t h is a l so h e lped t h e k ing s t o a pp rop r ia te a g r icu l tu ra l s u rp lu s t h rough t h e a bo r ig ina l c h ief f r om h i s l a nd ; ak i ng a l so c ou ld c on s ide rab ly e x tend h i s w ea l th a nd h i s l a nded p roper ty t h rough r a id s . L andg ran t s t oB rahm in s o rt oo the rH indu s i na bo r ig ina l l a nd s w e r et hu st h ew ay t oi n i t ia te t h ep roce s so fb u i ld ing t h e se a genc ie s . I ndoc t r ina t ion t o t h e r ank o f K sha t r iya s a nd S ud ra s t hu s p l an ted t h e s e ed o f s o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion i n a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty . T he c h ief s w ho w e r e g iven m i l i ta ry d u t ie s b yt h e k ing s a l so f ound t h e i d eo logy o fB rahman ica l H indu i sm a n e x t r em e ly u sef u l m ean s o f c r ea t ing a c l a s s b a sed e l i te o u t o f t h e i r l a rge ly u nd if f e ren t ia ted s o c ie t ie s . I tw a s t h e B r ahman ica l i d eo logy wh ich l e g i t im i sed t h e i r p owe r a nd c on t ro l o v e r s u rp lu s a nd p r ima ry p roduce r s . T he c on t rad ic t ion b e tween a bo r ig ina l f o lk s oc ie ty a nd B rahman ica l S t a te s o c ie ty w a s t hu s r e so lved b y t h e c omb ina t ion o f c on sen t a nd c oe r c ion . H oweve r , t h i s t r an s i t ion f r om t h e a bo r ig ina l t o t h e f e uda l mode o f p roduc t ion f a c i l i ta ted t h e p rog r e s s ive a b so rp t ion o f t h e a bo r ig ina l c ommu n i t ies i n to a n e ve r e xpand ing H indu s oc ie ty . And t h e e m e rgence o ft h ea bo r ig ina l c h ief s a sH indu k ingdom b u i lde r s s ymbo l ised t h e i r i n co rpo ra t ion a nd i n teg ra t ion , o f c ou r se t h rough S an sk r i t i sa t ion , i n to t h e B rahman ica l H indu r u l ing c l a s s . I n E a r ly Med ieva l O r i s sa l a rge n umbe r o f l a ndg ran t s m ade i nt h e f o r e s t -c lad h i l ly h in te r land s t hu sl e dt ot h ec on t inuou s f o rma t ion o f an umbe ro f l o ca l p r inc ipa l i t ie s , s ub r eg iona l a nd r eg iona l k i ngdom s t i l l t h e u n if ica t ion o f O r i s sa u nd e r t h e G anga s i n 1 2 th c en tu ry AD . As t udy o ft h e r oya l l a nd d ona t ion s t oB rahm in s i nt h e E a r ly a nd E a r ly Med ieva l O r i s sa r evea l s t h a t t h e e a r ly d ona t ion s w e r e u sua l ly g r an ted t o t h e f am i l ie s o f t h e r oya l p r ie s t sa tt h ec en t ra l c ou r t s ( Ra jaguru s , e t c . ) a nd t o i n d iv idua l s a nd s ma l l g roup s o fB rahm in s i nq u i te r emo te p l ace s a nd t h i s p henom enon c an b e n o t iced t i l l t h e e nd o ft h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ( Ku lk e 1 978 : 1 33 ) .

o rgan i sa t ion o fd i f f e r en t c a s te g roup s w i th s pec if ic o ccupa t iona l i d en t i ty c r y s ta l i sed o n ly i n 1 -12 th c en tu ry AD . B ef o r e t h a t p u r su i t o f a ccumu la t ion c omb ined w i th h e r ed i ta ry r i gh t o n p rope r ty a nd p r iv i lege i n t h e f euda l s oc ia l s t ru c tu r e n a tu ra l ly g ave r i se t o an umbe r o f c a s te s a nd s ub -ca s te s ; t h ough p ra t i loma a nd a nu loma m a r r iage s mu s t h ave w o rked a s as e conda ry f a c to r . H oweve r , o w ing t os t rong a d iva s i l e gacy s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion d i d n o t m an if e s t a ny m a rked r i g id i ty a tt h e l e ve l s o fw o rk , m a r r iage a nd s oc ia l i n te r cou r se b a sed o n p u r i ty -po l lu t ion . T he r e w a s s om e r oom f o r mob i l i ty a c ros s t h e v arna h i e ra r chy a si ti se v iden t f r om t h e r i se o ft h e K sha t r iya /K handaya t a sw e l l a sS ud ra f r om among t h e a bo r ig ina l s . T he m en t ion o ft h e v arna samkara i nt h e i n sc r ip t ion s ( EI 1 5 : 4 ; 2 8 : 2 13 ) i s as u r e p o in te r t ot h i s c a s te mob i l i ty i n t h e s oc ie ty . T he s upe r impo sed B rahm an ica l H indu s upe r s t ruc tu re h ad t o b e l e n ien t t o t h i s f l u id c ond i t ion s o f v arna h i e ra r chy t o m a in ta in B rahman ic h egemony i nt h e s oc ie ty . T hu s w e f i nd a n i n i t ia t ive f r om t h e H indu /H indu i sed k ing s a nd B rahm in s t op a t ronage a bo r ig ina l a s w e l l a s l o ca l p opu la r d e i t ies a nd t o a s s im i la te a s soc ia ted c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s w i th l o ca l H indu c u l tu r e f o r t h e i r o wn s u rv iva l . O n t h e o t h e r h and t h e a bo r ig ina l st r i ed t or a i se t h em se lves i nt h e s oc ia l h i e ra r chy t h rough S an sk r i t i sa t ion a nd a ccu l tu ra t ion . T hu s a c on t inuou s c on t inuum b e tween t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion ( B rahman ica l t r ad i t ion ) a nd t h e l i t t le t r ad i t ion ( f o lk t r ad i t ion ) ( R edf ie ld 1 956 ) s t a r ted w i th e s tab l i shm en t o f t h e B r ahman ica l c u l tu r e i n t h e l a nd . H oweve r , i t s hou ld b e b or n e i n m ind t h a t w hen t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion r e ached O r i s sa i th ad a l r eady a ch ieved a l e ve l o fa s s im i la t ion w h ich moved a l ong ac ommon p a t ter n . I n o rde r t o g a in b o th v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l l e g i t im acy o f t h e i r p o l i t ica l a u tho r i ty , t h e r u l ing d yna s t ie s a lway s m ade u se o f t h e a u toch thonou s d e i t ies a nd t h e o t he r p opu la r r e l ig ion s t o c on so l ida te t h e i r r u le i n t h e c onque red a r ea s . Kha rave la p a t ron i sed J a in ism , t h e p opu la r r e l ig ion o ft h e t im e i nO r is sa a nd t h e J a ina s cu lp tu r a l a r t a t Udayag i r i a nd Khandag i r i r e f lec ted a n a s s im i la t ion o f t h e g od s a nd g oddes se s o f t h e i nd igenou s a d ivas i s . T he B haumaka ra s p a t ron i sed B uddh i sm wh ich h ad t om e rge w i th t h ea ge o l dt a n t ra r e l ig ion o f t h e l a nd . T he Ma tha ra s a nd a lmo s t a l l o the r H indu /H indu i sed k ing s e s tab l i sh ed V ed ic c u l tu r e . B u t t h e p roces s o fB rahman i sa t ion g ave r i se t ot h e p opu la r i ty o fB hagava ta , S a iva a nd S ak ta c u l t s ' i n

T h i s p henom enon n o d oub t i n d i r ec t ly i n d ica te s c on t inuou s p e r iod o f l a rge s c a le i n co rpo ra t ion o f h i th e r to a bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s i n to H indu f o ld . T hu s , t h ough V arna shramadharma w a s s a id t o h ave b een e s tab l i shed b y t h e B haumaka ra r u le r s e ven i n t h e 8 t h c en tu ry AD , ( E I 1 5 : 1 8 )

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a n a n swe r t ot h e e t h ica l d em and a nd s p ir i t o ft h e n ew ly e m e rg ing s oc io -econom ic p a t te rn ' ( Ko samb i 1 962 : 3 1) . B hagava ta c u l t b ecam e ap owe r f u l r e l ig iou s movemen t i n S ou th I nd ia f r om t h e l a te 6 t h c en tu ry o nwa rd s . I tw a s m a in ly t h rough t h i s i mp r es s ive f o lk d evo t iona l i sm t h a t P an Ind ian B rahman ica l H indu i sm i n ac on t inuou s p roce s s o f t wo -way c ommun ica t ion c ame d own t ot h ev i l lage s a nd r u ra l c en t r es o f s ou th er n a nd s ou thwes te rn O r i s sa . V a r iou s a u toch thonou sd e i t ie s i n al o ng a nd g r adua l p roce s s o fH indu i sa t ion w e r e i n c luded i n to t h e p an theon o f b hak t i H indu i sm ( Ku lke 1 978 : 1 32 ) . T hu s i t s e em s t h a t Ma tha ra s d e l ibe ra te ly p a t ron ised B hagava ta r e l ig ion t og a in l e g i t imacy i n t h ee yes o ft h ep eop le . I ti sv e ry l i k e ly t h a t w o r sh ip o f S iva /L inga a nd S ak t i /Mo the r g odde s s i n s om e f o rm o r o t h e r w a s t h e re i nt h e i n d igeneou s s oc ie ty f r om v e ry e a r ly t ime s . T hey b ecam e o n ly mo r e p opu la ri nt h e f o rm o fH indu g od a nd g odd e s s t h a t w en t w i th t h e l a rge s c a le H indu i sa t ion o f t h e i n d igenou s p eop le . I n f a c t t h ey a r e s uppo sed t o h ave f a c i l i ta ted i n co rpo r a t ion o f a bo r ig ina l g od s a nd g odde s se s i n to H indu i sm f r om v e ry a nc ien t t im e s . H oweve r , t h e c onf ron ta t ion o f t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion s w i th ac onge r ie s o fl o ca l l i t t le t r ad i t ion s w i th v a r iou s mo the rg odde s se s o n ly m ade T an t r i sm a nd S ak t i sm t h e s ub s t ra tum r e l ig ion o f t h e l a nd . T he f o rce a nd d om inance o fS ak t i sm w a s s o v i ta l t h a t n o o the r r e l ig ion s c ou ld e s tab l i sh t h em se lve s f i rm ly i n O r i s sa w i thou t u l t ima te ly b e ing m e rged w i th i t . T h i s a s s im i la t ion o f g r ea t a nd l i t t le t r ad i t ion s b ecame mo r e c on sp icuou s i n t h e a ccep tance o f a bo r ig ina l d e i t ie s a s f am i ly a nd t u te la ry d e i t ie s b y t h e H indu /H indu i sed k i ng s i n o rde r t o g a in s uppor t a nd l o ya l ty o ft h e p owe rf u l a bo r ig ina ls i n t h e i r r e spec t ive l a nd s . T he E a s ter n G anga s a f te r c onquer ing t h e a r ea s ou th o f Mahend rag i r i moun ta in a cknow ledged S iva G oka rna svam i , ad e i ty o f t h e S ava ra t r ibe , a nd S t ambhe sva r i w o r sh ipped b y t h e S u lk i s a nd t h e B han ja s a sf am i ly d e i t ies . H oweve r , S t ambhe swa r i w a s f i r s t p a t ron i sed b y t h e R a ja T u s t ika ra o f B oudh -Sonepu r r eg ion i n 5 t h c en tu ry AD . T he Man inage svar i c u l t w a s a l so p a t ron i sed b y t h e V ig r aha r u le r s o f t h e s ou th T o sa la ( Ku lk e 1 977 ) . H oweve r , a l l t h ese a u toch thonou s d e i t ie s u nde rwen t ap roces s o fH indu isa t ion w i th t h e r i se o f t h e i r o r ig ina l ly a bo r ig ina l p a t ron s a s H indu r u l ing p owe r . A l l t h ese g oddes se s a r e s t i l l w o r sh ipped i nt h e i r r e spec t ive a r ea s b o th b y c a s te H indu s a nd S chedu led T r ibes a nd C a s te s . I t a ppea r st h a t ' p a t ron i sa t ion o ft h eu ppe rs t ra ta o ft h e s oc ia l h i e ra r chy h e lped i nt h e u pwa rd m ob i l i ty o f t h e f o lk r e l ig iou s b e l ief s a nd t h e i r u pho lde r s

b e long ing t ot h e l owe rs t r a ta o ft h e s o c ia lh i e ra r chy t og a in p r es t ig iou ss t a tu si nt h e s o c ie ty a st h ec a s te s a nd c l a s se s c u t c r o s s e ach o t he r i n at r an s i t iona l p er iod . T h i s u pwa rd m ob i l i ty a nd t h e c on f l ic t o f c l a s se sl e dt os yn the s i s ' ( Da s 1 984 : 2 8 ) . T he r i se o fJ aganna tha c u l t a s aV a i shnava g od o u t o f aS ava ra d e i ty u nde rt h e p a t ronag e a nd i n i t ia t ive o ft h e H indu r a jas a s s im i la t ing a l e x tan t r e l ig ion s o ft h e l a nd a nd w i th a l inc lu s ive p h i lo sophy i st h e b e s t e xamp le o f t h i s s yn the s i s , wh ich i n deed r e f lec t s t h e v e ry s ou l o fO r iya l i f e a nd c u l tu r e . A l l t h e t h r ee r eg iona l p owe r s S om ava rn s i s , I mpe r ia l G anga s a nd G a japa t i s , b e ing a l ien r u le r s , s ough t t o l e g i t im i se t h e i ra u tho r i ty b yr e cogn i s ing a nd g i v ing p a t ronage t o t h e mo s t p owe rf u l a nd p opu la r l o ca l c u l t a nd i tg radua l ly a t ta ined ar e g iona l c ha r ac te rt o r e g i s te r t h e e m e rgence o f G anga a nd G a japa t i i mpe r ia l ism . W i th t h e u n if ica t ion o f w e s ter n O r is sa w i th t h e c oa s ta lp a r tu nde rt h e S omavam s i si nt h e e a r ly 1l t h c en tu ry AD , t h e p e r iod o f t h e e a r ly s ub r eg iona l S t a te f o rma t ion o f O r i s sa ' f rom b e low ' ( Ko samb i 1 956 ) c am e t oa n e nd . T h i s a l so c o inc ide s w i th t h e c r y s ta l isa t ion o fd i s t inc t c a s te g roup s a nd c hang ing p a t ter no ft h e d ona t ion o fl a nd s f r om t h e e nd o ft h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s . I ta ppea r s t h a t l a rge g roup s o f s om e t im e s s eve r a l h und r ed B ra lun in s w e r e s y s tem a t ica l ly s e t t led o f t en n ea r t h e p o l i t ica l c en t r e s o ft h e K ingdom s ( Ku lk e 1 978 : 1 33 ) i nt h e p l a in s . T hu s t h e p e r iod o f l a rge s c a le , i n d i sc r im ina te d e t r iba l i sa t ion a nd H indu isa t ion g o t o ve r a nd t h e p roce s s o f u n ive r sa l i sa t ion s t a r ted w i th s t r ic t c a s te s y s tem a nd B rahman ica l h egemony . W i th t h e u n if ica t ion o fO r i s sa i n to o ne r e g iona l s t a te i n t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD u nde r t h e G anga k ing C hodagangadeva t h i s p roce s s g o t momen tum a nd t h e o ve ra r ch ing p owe ra nd p r e s t ige o fB rahm in sr e ached i t sc u lm ina t ion i nt h e G a japa t i r u le . H oweve r , t h e v a lue s y s tem o fr e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s a lway s a c ted a s ac a ta ly t ic a gen tt ot h ed ynam ic so f c hange i nv eh ic le s o fe xp r e s s ion ( Da s 1 984 : 3 1 ) i . e . l a nguage c hange t h rough l i t e ra ry e xp r e s s ion s . T hu s t h e e vo lu t ion o fP ro to -O r iya f r om Magadh i P rak r i t t h rough a pabhramsa b y t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD a nd t h e f o rma t ion o f O r iya ( w i th f e a tu r es o f D rav id ian /Te lugu l a nguage ) a s a n I ndo -A ryan l a nguage i n t h e 1 th c en tu ry AD w e r e s yn ch ron i sed w i th t h e s o c io r e l ig iou s c hange s i n t h e r e g ion . I ti so n ly a f t e r t h e B r ahman i sa t ion o f J aganna tha c u l t a nd a s soc ia ted r i tua l s w i th t h e

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a ppo in tm en t o fp u re B rahm in p r ie s t s ( o fc ou r se i n d e mand o ft h e t im e ) i nt h e l a te 1 3 th c en tu ry AD ( Da sh 1 978 : 1 63 ) , g enu ine O r iya , a k in t o moder n c o l loqu ia l O r iya , e vo lved f r om i t s e a r l ie r d i a lec ta l f o rm i n 1 4 th c en tu ry AD . I ts hou ld b e m en t ioned h e r e t h a t u p t o 1 3 th c en tu ry AD . J aganna tha c u l t w a s w o r sh ipped b y t h e o r ig ina l ly n on -B rahm in p r ie s t s w ho se p ow e r a nd p o s i t ion c o r r e sponded w i th t h a to ft h ed e i ty t h ey w o r sh ipped ( Da sh 1 978 ) .

P a ramoun t k ing . T he S t a te d e i ty c u l t a l so w a s i n t roduced t ot h e i rk ingdom s wh ich v e ry o f t en w a s s upe r imposed o n t h e p r eva i l ing t u te la ry d e i ty o fa H indu i sed a u toch thonou s c u l t . W i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f S t a te c u l t , c a s te d u t ie s w e re a l so i n ve s ted w i th r i tua l v a lue s . E ven , t oj udge o n c a s te m a t te r s P and i t S abha o f s ome s o r t f o l low ing t h e Muk t i Mandap S abha ( Sup r em e C ounc i l o f B rahm in s cho la r s ) o f J aganna tha t emp le i n P u r i w a s a l so i n t roduced . H ow eve r , r i tua l s e rv ices i n t h e se t emp le s w e r e n o t s o e l abo ra te o r d i f f e ren t ia ted a si nt h e S t a te c u l t t hough t h e r e w a s c l o se r e semb lance . A tt h e v i l lage l e ve lt emp le st h i s e l abo r a t ion o f c a s te s e rv ice d ec r ea sed p rog r es s ive ly t h ough i nr i tua l c ha rac te r t h e mode l o ft h e S t a te c u l tw a sr e ta ined ( Mahapa t ra 1 976 ) .

I t a ppea r s , b y t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion s e emed t o h ave t r an sf o rm ed i n to a n i d en t if iab le r eg iona l g r ea t t r ad i t ion , i nt h e p roce s s o f c on t inuou s c oe r c ion a nd c ohe s ion w i th v a r iou s l o ca ll i t t le t r ad i t ion s , wh ich f ound e xp r es s ion i nt h e f o rma t ion o f J aganna tha t r iad a nd i n t h e d eve lopm en t o f v e rnacu la r l i t e ra tu r e c omp r i s ing Mahabhara ta , R amayana , B hagava ta , H ar ivamsa a nd P urana s , r e -w r i t ten mo s t ly b y t h e n on B rahm in p oe t s a nd l i t e ra tu r e s i n t h e 1 5 th 16 th c en tu ry .

E s tab l i shm en t o f t h i s c en t ra l ised r i tua l s t ruc tu r e f r om t h e G anga p e r iod o nwa rd s , h oweve r , h ad h e lped i n t h e p e rco la t ion o f t h e g r ea t r eg iona l t r ad i t ion i n to t h e v i l lage l e ve l s i nd i f f e r en t p a r t s o f O r i s sa , w h ich , i n t h e c ommon p roce s s , s t a r ted c onve r t ing t h e l o ca l l i t t le t r ad i t ion s i n to i t s " c iv i l i sed d im en s ion s" ( R edf i e ld a nd S inge r 1 956 : 1 68 ) a nd a c ted a s av eh ic le f o r t h e f o rma t ion o f c ommon c u l tu ra l c on sc iou sne s s f r om w h ich t h e g r ea t r e g iona l t r ad i t ion w a s f a sh ioned ( R edf ie ld a nd S inge r 1 956 : 1 86 ) T h i s i n teg ra t ion a nd mive r sa l i sa t ion i ndeed h e lped i nt h e d eve lopm en t o fO r iya N a t iona l i sm i nt h e C o lon ia lP e r iod .

T he G anga r u le r s e s tab l i sh ed o ve r lo rd -f euda to ry r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e L o rd J aganna tha i n o rde r t o h ave v er t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l l e g i t im i sa t ion a nd c on t ro l o ve r d i f f e r en t p owe rfu l f e uda to r ie s h av ing i n d iv idua l c u l tu ra l a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l s e t -up . T he G a japa t i s a nd t h e r eaf t e r t h e r a jas o f K hu rda a l so f o l lowed t h is p o l icy . I n t h i s o ve r lo rd -f euda to ry s chem e , L o rd J aganna tha w a s t h e p ro tec to r a nd s ove r e ign o fO r i s sa a nd t h eP a ramoun tr a ja w a sh i s d epu ty o r s on ; t hu s r a ja h im se lf w a s c once ived a s mob i le g od b e ing t h e d e scendan t o f t h e L o rd J aganna tha . A s s uch t h e r a ja i nt h e p a lace a nd t h e g od i nt h e t emp le u nderwen t s im i la r d a i ly r i tua l s . T hough n o t i n a b so lu te c on f o rm i ty , b a s ica l ly t h e s am e c o mponen t o f c a s te s r ende r ed mo r e o r l e s s s im i la r s e cu la r a nd r i tua l s e rv ice s i nt h e t emp le a s w e l la si nt h ep a lace ( Pa tna ik 1 970 ) . B ecau se t h e se s e rv ice s w e r e p e rf o rm ed f o r d i v in i t ie s , w he the r i n t emp le o r p a lace , c a s te d u t ie s a cqu i r ed t h e c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o f r i tua l o b l iga t ion s . T hu s Mahapa t ra ( 1976 ) o p ine s t h a t c a s te s y s tem i n O r i s sa b egan t ob e w e l l d i f f e r en t ia ted a cco rd ing t o t h e i r r i gh t s a nd d u t ies a s w e l l a s h i e ra r ch ica l r e la t ive p o s i t ion si nt h e S t a te d e i ty 's t emp le a nd t h e k ing 's p a lace , wh ich , h oweve r , p r esen t c l o se p a r a l le l s w i th t h a t o f t h e L inga ra j t emp le o f B hubane swa r . I n t h e ' c en t ra l i sed r i tua l s t ruc tu r e ' ( Ku Ike 1 978 : 1 35 ) o f t h e r e g iona l k i ngdom s t h e f e uda to ry k ing s , a f t e r t h e mode l o f t h e k ing o f O r i s sa , c l a im ed t oh ave d iv ine o r ig in t ol e g i t im i se t h em se lve s i nt h e i r r e spec t ive k i ngdom s , a nd t h ey w e r e c once ived a sm ino r g od s i nt h e i mage o ft h e

B u tt h e g eog raph ica l l o ca t ion o fm any o ft h e s ma l l l o ca l p r inc ipa l i t ie s i n t h e f o r es t -c lad , h i l ly h in te r land w a sr e spon s ib le f o rt h e f a c tt h a tn o te ven t h e mo s t p owe rfu l k ingdom s e ve r s u cceeded i n b r ing ing m any o f t h em t o ta l ly o r p e rm anen t ly u nde r t h e i r c on t ro l , e ven w hen t h ey w e r e n ea r t h e c ap i ta l s o ft h e k ingdom s . I nO r i s sa , t h e r ef o r e , f o ra l ong t im e , t h e i nf luence a nd c on t ro l o f C en t ra l P owe r w a s m a rg ina l o n t h ese j ung le k indgom s . B e ing p o l i t ica l ly a u tonomou s e n t i t ie s , n a tu ra l ly t h ey b ehaved a s e conom ica l ly a nd s oc ia l ly a u tonomou su n i t s . S tudy o nt h e e x -p r inc ipa l i t ie s o f t h e1 8 th c en tu ry ( Mahapa t r a 1 984 ) r evea l s t h a t t h e se p r inc ipa l i t ie s a nd z am indar ie s r e p r esen ted e xc lu s ive s oc ia l g roup ing s w i th s l igh t ly d i s t inc t ive c a s te h i e ra rch ies a nd p a t te rn so fi n te rac t ion s among c a s tes , wh ich m igh t d ev ia te n o t o n ly f r om t h e n e ighbou r ing r eg ion , b u t a l so f r om t h e r egu la t ion s a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f t h e S a s t ra s . T hough i n o ve ra l l f e a tu r e s o fc a s te s y s tem ( c a s te i n te rac t ion s , s t a tu s e qu iva lence a nd h i e ra r chy ) , p o l i t ica l s e t -up a nd r i tua l o rgan i sa t ion t h ey f o l lowed m o r e o r l e s s ( no t a n a b so lu te r e p l ica ) t h e mode l e vo lved a tt h e

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I n t h i s c hang ing s i tua t ion , u nde r s tand ing t h e e conom ic a nd s o c ia lp r es su r e o nt h e s ub jec t s , m any r a jas s howed a p ragm a t ic a t i tude t owa rd s c a s te d i spu te s a nd h av ing t h e s up r em e p owe r i n c a s te m a t te r s w i th in t h e i r l o ca l i ty , t h ey o f ten p l ayed a p a radox ica l r o le o ft h e p r ese rve r o fa s w e l l a st h e c a ta ly t ic a gen t f o r c hange i n c a s te o rde r w i th in t h e i ra r ea o fc on t ro l .

p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s c en t r e s o ft h e S t a te . Mo s t o f t h ese p r ince ly h ou ses a nd z am indar i s a r e a leged t o h ave K hond /Gond o r o t he r a bo r ig ina l b l ood o r f o s te rp a r en tage b u tt h ey a l l c l a im ed aK sha t r iya o r R a jpu t o r ig in . Mo s t o ft h em e i the r r o se t o p owe r f r om t h e l o ca l d om inan t a bo r ig ina l g roup o r w i th t h e i r s uppo r t . T he i r v i ta l d ependence u pon t h e s uppo r t o f v a r iou s a bo r ig ina l g roup s c an b e u nde r s tood f r om t h e i mpo r tan t r o le p l ayed b y o ne o r t h e o t he r a bo r ig ina l g roup s i n t h e c o rona t ion c e remony o f t h e r a jas a nd i n t h e o t he r r oya l f e s t iv i t ie s i n t h ese H indu e x -s ta te s ( Mahapa t ra 1 987 ) .

Mo r eove r , t h e se r a jas w e r e a l so i n t s t rumen ta l i n i n teg ra t ing a bo r ig ina l t r ad i t ion s w i th h i ghe r t r ad i t ion t h rough ap roce s s o fu n ive r sa l i sa t ion . A l l t h e se H indu /H indu i sed r a ja s p a t ron i sed p owe rfu l c u l t s o fm ino rg od s a nd g odde s se s o ft h e d om inan t t r ibe s o f t h e a r ea ; e ven t h ey i n t roduced t h ese d e i t ie s i nt h e i r p a lace a nd w o r sh ipped t h em a l ong w i th t r ad i t iona l H indu g od s a nd g oddes se s . I n mo s t c a ses t h e I s tad eva ta o f t h e r a jas a nd t h e R a s t rad eva ta o f t h e p r inc ipa l i t ie s w e r e a bo r ig ina l H indua i sed d e i t ie s . S uch e xamp le s a r e n o t r a r e i n G an ja m , K heon jha r , B ona i a nd Mayu rbhan j ( Schnepe l 2 002 : 2 31 ; Mahapa t ra 1 987 : 4 1) . I n S amba lpu r a l so C hauhan r a jas h ad a dop ted t h e t r iba l g odde ss S am a la i a s s t a te d e i ty w h ich w a s a c tua l ly t h eI s tad eva ta o ft h e S aba ra t r ibe . I nt h e se r e g ion s s p read o f J agannaha c u l t w i th e s tab l i shed t emp le sw a s al a te rd eve lopm en t .

H oweve r , t h e se r a ja s , H indu o r H indu i sed , o f ten p l ayed a v i ta l r o le i n i n teg r a t ing t h e a bo r ig ina l p eop le i n t h e c a s te s y s tem a nd h e lped t o u n ive r sa l i se s ome l o ca l t r ad i t ion s c en t r ing a r ound l o ca l g od s a nd c u l t s . T hu s a lmo s t a l l t h e se r a ja s s pon so r ed t h e s e t t lem en t o f B r ahm in s a nd o t he r h i gh c a s te s , a r t isan c a s te s , s e rv ice c a s te s b e s ide s a g r icu l tu ra l a nd w a r r io r c a s tes f o r a g r icu l tu ra l , i ndu s t r ia l , c omm e r c ia l a nd r e l ig io -cu l tu ra l p romo t ion a nd d eve lopm en t o f t h e d ef ence c apac i t ie s o ft h e p r ince ly s t a te s ( Mahapa t ra 1 987 ) . H oweve r , i n du c t ion o f H indu c a s te , a nd s pec ia l ly B rahm in p r ie s t sw a sn ece s sa ry t oe s tab l ish aH indu s t a te a nd t ol e g i t im ise t h e i rK sha t r iya /Ra jpu ts t a tu s . T he l a rge s c a le i mpor t o f H indu p opu la t ion n o d oub t a l so m ean s i n t roduc t ion o f H indu g od s , r i tua l s , f e s t iva l s , i d ea s , b e l ief s a nd v a lue s ( S inha 1 958 ) b e s ide s a f f ec t ing i n ter n a l s t ra t if i ca t ion o ft h e a bo r ig ina l s b a sed o n g r ade s o f a s s im i la t ion i n to h i ghe r H indu c a s te c u l tu re a nd o n i n te rac t ion w i th h i ghe r H indu c a s te s ( S inha 1 962 ) . S om e o f t h e n or ther n e x s ta te s h ad a l so s pon so r ed t h e i mm ig ra t ion a nd s e t t lem en t o f m any a bo r ig ina l g roup s( l ik eH o , Munda , S an ta l , K ha r ia , O raon a nd K u rm i ) f r om B iha r f o r a g r icu l tu ra l d eve lopm en t , e x ten s ion o fi mp roved a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice s t ot h e r e s iden t a bo r ig ina l s a nd f o rg ene ra l i n c r ea se i nt h e s t a te r evenue . S im i la r ly , t h e h i gh ly p rof ic ien t c u l t iva to r c a s te s o f w e s ter n O r i s sa , K u l ta a nd A ga r ia w e r ea l so s pon so r ed b y s om ep r ince ly s t a te s ( Mahapa t ra 1 987 ) . H oweve r , a l t h ese d eve lopm en t s i nt h e Med ieva l a nd C o lon ia lp er iod s s hou ld b e v i ewed i nt h eb ackg round o ft h ep o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic c hange s t a k ing p l ace i nt h e s oc ie ty . T he r u l ing c l a s s l o s ing t h e i rp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r w e r e g e t t ing d e spe r a te t o i mp rove t h e i r e conom ic a nd s oc ia l p o s i t ion s w he r ea s i n secu r i ty a nd u nce r ta in ty i n c ommon p eop le 's l i f e l e d t o l a rge s c a le m ig ra t ion a nd e conom ic a nd s oc ia l mob i l i ty .

A ccep tance o f a bor ig ina l g od s a nd g odde s se s a nd r e la ted r i tua l s b y t h e H indu r a jas t o w oo t h e d om inan t a bo r ig ina l s ub jec t s i mp l ie s a ga in t h e i r g r adua l a dm i s s ion i n to al a rge rH indu s oc ie ty w i th c on sequen t p roce s s o fH indu i sa t ion o ft h e d e i ty a s w e l l a st h e i r o r ig ina l w o r sh ippe r s . B u t t h i s p roce s s o f H indu isa t ion o f t h e a u toch thonou s d e i ty i s u l t ima te ly l i nk ed w i th t h e p roces s o f t r iba l isa t ion a st r an sf o rma t ion o fa n a bo r ig ina l d e i ty t o aH indu d e i ty d oes n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean a dd i t ion o f S an sk r i t ik e l emen t s a nd r e p lacemen t o f t r iba l e l em en t s o r v i ce -ve r sa , r a the r i t m ean s a h a rmon iou s c o -ex is ten ce o fb o th a bo r ig ina l a sw e l l a sS an sk r i t ik e l em en t s . I n t h e se h i l ly r e g ion s w he r e H indu O r iya s w e re i mm ig ran t s a nd m ino r i ty , p roce s s o f t r iba l i sa t ion w a s o n ly n a tu ra l a nd e s sen t ia l w h ich a i ded t h em t o e n joy t h e c onf iden ce o f t h e a bor ig ina ls a nd s e ek t h e i rc o -ope ra t ion i ns e t t lem en t s . A ccu l tu ra t ion a nd i n co rpo ra t ion o fa na bo r ig ina l g r oup i n to t h eH indu s o c ie ty a l so d oe s n o t n ece sa r i ly m ean a c omp le te r e p lacem en t o ft h e i r c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s i n f a vou r o f t h e n ew ly a dop ted c u l tu r e . I nv i ew o ft h i s , n e i the r H indu i sa t ion n o r t r iba l i sa t ion e xc lu s ive ly i sf ound t ob e h e lpf u l i ne xp la in ing a nd u nde r s tand ing t h e

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p roces s a nd p a t te rn o f c u l tu r e c hange . T he r e i s e ve ry p o s s ib i l i ty o fa bo r ig ina l a nd H indu e l em en t s c o -ex i s t ing i nb o th t h es oc ie t ie s .

a n th rop lo log i s t s a nd t h e T r iba l We lf a r e I n s t i tu te s . I nt h e w o rd s o fD e sa i ( 1978 : 7 8 ) , a l l s uch c hange s h ave t a k en p l ace " w i th in t h e f r am e w o rk o fs oc ia l o rde r wh ich i sb e ing f ounded o n am ixed e conomy , f unc t iona l p l ann ing a nd p rof i t o r ien ta ted p roduc t ion f o r ac ompe t i t ive ma rk e t" .

T he l i ngu i s t ic e v idence t o o e mpha s i s t h i s c onve rgence a nd c r o s s -cu l tu ra l a s s im i la t ion s . I ti s s e en , b ecau se o f t h e d om inance o f n on -A ryan e l em en t s i n t h e c onve rgen ce p a t ter n O r iya l a nguage h a s t a k en t o t h e d i a lec ta l f o rm o f S amba lpu r i i nt h e w e s ter n h i l ly u p land s . A l l o the r t r iba l d i a lec t s o f O r iya ( Bha t r i , B huyan , K andha , D a l , S aha ra /Soa ra ,B in jha l , S aba ra nd G ondo )h ave a l so b een r e po r ted f r om t h ef o r e s ted u p land r e g ion s o fw e s ter n a nd s ou thwe s ter n O r i s sa w h ich s how a g r ea te r r e p lacem en t o f I ndo -A ryan f e a tu r e s w i th n on Indo -A ryan o ne s t h an d ot h e S t anda rd f o rm o f O r iya s poken i n t h e p l a in s . T h i s i nd ica te s much l e s s a ccu ra te t r an sm i s s ion o ft h e p r es t ige l a nguage i nt h e r emo te r e g ion s m ak ing g r ea te r c onve rgence i n ev i tab le . H oweve r , d eve lopm en t o f av a r ie ty o f d i f f e r en t mod if i ca t ion s o fS t anda rd O r iya p o in t s t o d i f f e r en t k ind s a nd d eg r ees o fc on tac t b e tween t h e p r e s t ige l a nguage s peak ing O r iya e l i te a nd t h e D rav id ian /Munda s peak ing i n d igenou s m a s s . T hu s t h e l i ngu i s t ic s i tua t ion w h ich c an b e o b served t oday i n O r i s sa s e em s t o b e t h e r e su l t o f al ong p e r iod o fa ccommoda t ion b e tween t h e e x t r em es o f t h e O r ig ina l c on t inuum -t h e A ryan /O r iya e duca ted u ppe r c l a s s a nd t h e D rav id ian /Munda l owe r c l a s s . T he m echan i sm o ft h i s p roce s s o fa ccommoda t ion , a s p o in ted o u t b y S ou thwor th ( 1974 : 2 19 ) i s p robab ly t o b e f ound i n t h e i n t e r ac t ion o f s oc ia l g roup s s uch a s t ho se r equ i r ed b y t r ad i t iona l a g r icu l tu ra l o pe r a t ion s a t t h e v i l lage l e ve l -t h e l a ndowne r s , i n te rm ed ia r ie s . ( s uch a s t e nan t s o r m anage r s ) , l a bou r e r s -w i th v e ry l im i ted c on tac t b e tween m embe r s o f t h e h i ghe s t a nd t h e l owe s t g roup s , i n te rm ed ia te g roup s w ou ld b e a f f ec ted b y c o tnac t w i th b o th e x t r em e s . A cco rd ing t o S ou thwo r th ( 1 974 ) , s i nce t r ad i t iona l ly t h e se t h ree g roup s r e p r e sen t t h r ee h i e r a r ch ica l s t age s o f t h e c a s t e s t ruc tu r e -B rahm in , K handaya t a nd V a ishya , S ud ra r e spec t ive ly -t h ey p roduced t h r ee d i f f e r en t s oc ia l d i a lec t s o fO r iya w h ich a r e t y p ica l t ot hose c a s te s o n ly . H oweve r , t h e d i f f e r ence s b e tween s oc ia l d i a lec t s a r e n ow r e duc ing f a s t w i th t h e e f f lec t s o f moder n i sa t ion e duca t ion a nd s oc ia l mob i l i ty wh ich a r e t h e h a l lma rk o f C o lon ia l a nd P o s t Independ ence P e r iod s . B ef o r e 1 9t h c en tu ry , t h e p roces s o f a s s im i la t ion o r a ccu l tu ra t ion o f a d iva s i p eop le h ad t a ken p l ace w i th in a d i f f e r en t s oc ia l o rde r , b u t a f t e r t h a t t h e a d iva s i s h ave t o u nde rgo c hange s a nd a ccu l tu ra t ion m a in ly d ue t o t h e a c t ion s o f t h e m i s s iona r ie s , a dm in i s t ra to r s ,

S ince i n dependence , b eg inn ing w i th t h e n a t iona l i s t movem en t , d emoc ra t i sa t ion o f t h e p o l i ty a nd e mpow e rm en t o ft h e m a s se s , i n c lud ing t h e w eak e r s e c t ion s a nd u nde rp r iv i leged s e c t ion s , l i ke t h e w om en , h a s b rough t s om e c hange i n O r i s san s oc ie ty . T h e q ua s i -f euda l s t ruc tu re o f t h e p r ince s a nd z am indar s h a s b een a bo l i shed a nd n ew i n s t i tu t ion s l i ke P anchaya t i R a j h ave b een i n t roduced t o e mpowe r d emoc ra t ica l ly t h e r u ra l p eop le , w om en , S ch edu led C a s tes a nd S chedu led T r ibe s a tt h e g ra s s roo t l e ve l whe r e t h e o ld p owe r s t ruc tu r e i sf i rm ly r oo ted e ven a f t e r 5 6 y ea r s o f i n dependence . E duca t ion , e conom ic u p l if tmen t , e mpowe rm en t , s oc ia l -s ta tu s mob i l i ty movemen t -a l l t h ese h ave o n ly c r ea ted g r ea te r d i f f e r en t ia t ion a mong t h e S chedu led C a s tes a nd S ch edu led T r ibe s a nd g r ea te r c onve rgence w i th t h e h igh c a s te g roup s . B u t n ow t h e S chedu led T r ibe s d o n o t e ncou rage a b so rp t ion i n to c a s te s oc ie ty , r a th e r t h ey h ave r e a l i sed t h a t t o g a in r e a l s t a tu s t oday w ou ld b e t o a ccep t t h e p ro tec t ive c ove r o f t r iba l i d en t i ty a nd p o l i t ica l p owe r . H oweve r , o n ly t h e H indu i sed e duca ted t r ibe s h ave r e ached t ot h i s s t age o fr e a l i sa t ion , t h e o the r s e c t ion i ss t i l l i n av e ry n eg lec ted a nd p oo r c ond i t ion . A l l t h ese c hange s i nt h e P o s t Independence O r i s sa h oweve r c ou ld n o t c hange t h e s oc ia l a t t i tude t owa rd st h e S chedu led C a s te sa nd T r ibe s . I nv i l lage O r i s sa , a ge -o ld v a lue s a s soc ia ted w i th s pec if ic c a s te s , t r ibe s a nd t r iba l p eop le i ng ene ra l h ave n o t b een c hanged y e t . T he o l d f e uda l p owe r s t ruc tu r e , f i rm ly r oo ted i n r u ra l O r i s sa , w i l l t a ke t im e t o a ccep te mpowe rm en to fp oo ra nd d e sp i sed . T hu s , f r om t h e r e con s t ruc t ion s o ft h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l d eve lopm en t i n O r i s sa w i th t h e h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l , l i ngu i s t ic , e t hnog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l d a ta i t i s e v iden t t h a t c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu r e i n O r i s sa i s ap roduc t o f t h e c omb ined e f f ec t s o fd i f f e r en t c on t inuou s p roce s se s o f m ig ra t ion , i n teg ra t ion a nd a s s im i la t ion o f d i f f e r en t p eop le a nd c u l tu r e s . T h roughou t i t s h i s to r ica l d eve lopm en t i n co rpo ra t ion o f t h e a u toch thonou s p eop le i n to t h e H indu f o ld a nd t h e

3 4 1

d eg r ee o f c r o s s -cu l tu ra l a s s im i la t ion i n d i f f e ren t s e t t ing s a r e t h e b a s ic d ynam ic s o ft h e g row th a nd m a tu ra t ion o ft h e s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu re i nt h er e g ion .

b a s ica l ly a nd p r edom inan t ly A ryan b u t t h e r e a r e m any e l em en t s w h ich h ave t o b e t r aced t o o t he r t wo s ou rces o f D rav id ian a nd Munda t h a t c on t r ibu ted g r ea t ly t ot h e b i r th a nd g row th o ft h e s o c ie ty a nd c u l tu r e . T he h i s to r ica l p roce s s o f c en tu r ie s o l d c on tac t , b o r row ing s a nd s ha r ing o f c u l tu r a l a nd l i ngu i s t ic f e a tu r es a nd c oncep t s a c ro s s t h e e t hn ic b ounda r ie s l e d t o t h e s yn thes i s a nd h omogen i sa t ion o fr e g iona l s o c io -cu l tu ra l f e a tu r e s .

T o e xp r e s s i nl i ngu i s t ic t e rm s , t h i s s o c ia l d ynam ic s i s r e p r e sen ted i n t h r ee s t ra ta o f c onve rgence b e tween d i f f e r en t e t hn ic / l ingu i s t ic g roup s . I n t h e u ppe r s t ra tum O r iya e l em en t i s d om inan t i n t h e p a t te rn o f c onve rgence w h ich i sb o rne o u t b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c on tempo ra ry D rav id ian a nd Munda p eop le o f t h e a r ea a r e g r adua l ly b ecom ing ` O r iyan i sed ' o r a bso rbed b y t h em . I n t h e m idd le s t ra tum , h oweve r , S an sk r i t ic e l em en t s , o r t o b e p r ec i se , o r ig ina l I ndo -A ryan e l em en t s b ecam e d om inan t a b so rb ing l o ca l i n d igenou s p eop le i n to t h e A ryan f o ld . A nd i n t h e l owe r s t ra tum , i n t h e c onve rgence p a t ter n b e tween D rav id ian , Munda a nd o the r i n d igenou s p eop le , D rav id ian w a s d om inan t . T he p roduc t o f t h e se s t age s o f c onve rgence i st h e l a nguage a nd c u l tu re w h ich a r e

O r i s san s oc ie ty , w h ich h a s n o t y e t s hed o f f i t s p r edom inan t ly r u r a l c ha r ac t e r ( r u ra l p opu la t ion c on s t i tu te s 8 2 .62% o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion ) , a nd w h ich s t i l l s he l te r s al a rge n umbe r o f n on -H indu a d iva s i p eop le , i ss t i l l u nde rgo ing t h i s p roce s s o f s yn th e s i s . T hu s s o c ie ty a nd c u l tu r e i n O r i s sa i s u n ique i n i t s c ha r ac te r t h ough i te xh ib i t s m any f undam en ta l P an Ind ian f e a tu re s i ni t s c omponen t e l em en t s .

APPENDIX D i s t r ibu t ion o fe xp lo red a nd e xcava ted s i te s a s soc ia ted w i th B lack -and red w a r e P o t te ry i nt h e l owe r Mahanad i v a l ley o fO r i s sa ( Mohan tv a nd M i sh ra 1 998 O ther f i nd s S i . D i s tr ic t C eram ic I ndu s tr ie s N ame o f N o . t he s i te P o t te ry d i sc s , P la in BR W ( bow l sa nd v a se s w i th 1 . G a r iapa le S uba rnapu r s em ip r ec iou s b ead s a nd ( Exp l . ) f l a r ing r um a nd g l obu la r b ody ) ; t e r ra co t ta c ake s . B SW ( d eep b ow l s a nd v a se s ) ; R SW ( g lobu la r v e s se l s , p ede s ta l led b ow l s , s t o rage j a r s , l i d s , e t c . ) ; p l a in a nd r u s t ica ted r e d w a re P o t te ry d i sc s , s t one d i scs , 2 . K a r tang S uba rnapu r P l a in -b lack -and red w a re ( c onvex t wo g round N eo l i th ic c e l l s ( Exp l . ) s i ded d eep b ow ls , g l obu la r v a se s f d o le r i te , a nd f a una l w i th s p layed o u t r im , a nd o ema in s . c a r ina ted h and i ) ; b l a ck s l ipped r w a re ( bow l s a nd v a se s w i th e v idence f o r b u rn i sh ing ) ; p l a in r ed w a re a nd r e d s l ipped w a re ( bow l s , v a se s , s t o rage j a r s , h and i , l i d sw i th h and le a nd b a s in s ) P o t te ry d i sca , b ead s o f 3 . P ank i ta l S uba rnapu r P l a in BR W ( sma l l s ized v a se s s em ip rec iou s s t one , i r on ( Exp l . ) a nd c a r ina ted a s w e l l a s b ow l s ) ; s l ag a nd s k e le ta lm a te r ia l s . B SW ( v a se s , c a r ina ted s ha l low b ow ls , a nd d i she s w i th a c en t ra l k nob o n t h e f l a t t ened i n ne r s u rf a ce ) ; R SW a nd RW ( b a s in s , v a se s , b ow l s , s t o rage j a r s a nd p l a t te r s ) M ic ro l i th s , p o t te ry d i sc s , 4 . BR W o f f i ne f a b r ic ( bow l s a nd T enda S uba rnapu r t e r ra co t ta c ake s w i th ( Exp l . ) l i d s ) ; B SW ( knobbed d i she s , f i nge r p r e s sed d e s ign s , b ow ls a nd l i d s ) ; RW a nd R SW s t one d i sc sa nd b ead s . ( v a se s , b ow ls , l i d s , s t o rage v a s se ls , a nd m in ia tu re p o t s ) 5 . S l ag s , t e r ra co t ta b ead s , F ew s he rd s o f w h i t e p a in ted K ha je r ipa l i S uba rnapu r ( Exca . ) f a una l r ema in s , p o t te ry BR W ; p l a in BR W ( bow ls , d i she s

3 42

p a r t o ft h e m idd le R emark s E a r ly H i s to r ic

P ro toh i s to r ic / E a r ly H is to r ic .

E a r ly H i s to r ic

E a r ly H i s to r ic

P ro toh i s to r ic s i ng le c u l tu ra l s i te

S I . N o .

N ame o f t he s i te

D i s tr ic t

a nd v a se s ) ; B SW ( bow l s , b a s in s a nd v a se s ) ; RW a nd R SW ( va se s , s t o rage j a r s ,b ow l s ,h and i s , l i d s , b ow l s -on s tand , p e rf o ra ted b ow l s a nd p l a t te r s ) ; c o rded w a re

D i sc s .

( ? )

H and -made c oa r se , g r i t ty r e d w a re P o t te ry w i th c o rd m a rk s o n t h e e x te r io r a nd i n ter io r s u rf a ce ( v a se s , b ow l s , h and i s , p ede s ta l led b ow l s a nd l i d s ) ; p l a in BR W ( d i she sa nd b ow l s ) ; R SW a nd RW P o t te ry ;d eco ra ted s he rd s

G round N eo l i th ic c e l t s o f d o le r i te a nd b a sa l t , s t one s l ing b a l l s , t e r raco t ta a n ima l f i gu r e s , a l a rge q uan t i ty o f f i n i shed a nd s em i -f in i shed s t one b ead s a nd t e r ra co t ta r i ng w e l l . -

N eo l i th ic / H i s to r ic

P o t te ry d i sc s , s t one p e s t le s , s em i -p r ec iou s s t one b ead s , s l ing b a l l s , c oppe r p l a te i n sc r ip t ion s , i r on o b jec t s , m in ia tu r e f i gu r ine s o f s em i -p r ec iou s s t one a nd af ew m ega l i th ic s t ru c tu re s . P o t te ry d i scs , i r on o b jec t s , s t one b ead s , s t one p e s t le s a nd s l ag s . P o t te ry d i sc s , i r on o b jec t s , s t one b ead s , t e r ra co t ta b ead sa nd s t one p e s t le s . M ic ro l i th s , s t one p e s t le s , N eo l i th ic g round a xe a nd f auna lr ema in s .

P ro toh i s to r ic / E a r ly H i s tor ic .

S em i -p rec iou s s t one b ead s , i r on s l ag s , p o t te ry d i sc s , f a una l r ema in s , a nd m ic ro l i th s .

E a r ly H i s to r ic ( s ee T r ipa thy , B . , 2 000 , p p . 4 0 14 14 ) .

P e rf o ra ted r i ng s tone p e s t le s , af ew m ic ro l i th s , a nd t wo g round N eo l i th ic a xe s . P e rf o ra ted r i ng s t one , a f ew m ic ro l i th s a nd p o t te ry d i sc s P e rf o ra ted r i ng s t one , t wo b roken p a r t s o f s t one p e s t le s , a nd t e r raco t ta f i gu r ine s .

P ro toh i s to r ic / E a r ly I r on A ge ( ? )

I r on b a r -ce l t , m ic ro l i th s a nd s t one p e s t le s P o t te ry d i sc s a nd s t one p e s t le s S t one p e s t le s a nd s ma l l -

E a r ly

6 .

H ikud i ( Ex ca . )

S uba rnapu r

7 .

K hame s Wa r ipa l i K ume r S ingha ( Exp l . )

S uba rnapu r S uba rnapu r

P l a in BR W ( bow l s , v a se s a nd d i she s ) ; B SW ( bow l s , d i she s a nd v a se s ) ; RW a nd R SW ( va se s , h and i s , l i d s , s t o rage v e s se l s , p l a t te r sa nd b a s in s )

9 .

Nuaga rh ( Exca . )

S uba rnapu r

P l a in a nd w h i te p a in ted ( ? ) BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry

I 0 .

J am tang i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

Wh i te p a in ted a nd p l a in BR W ; B SW ; RW a nd R SW P o t te ry

1 .

T en tu l ipa l i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

Wh i te p a in ted a nd p l a in BR W ; Rw a nd R SW P o t te ry

1 2 .

Ma ryakud ( Exp l . )

B oudh

1 3 .

K r ishna Mohanpu r ( Exp l . )

B oudh

P l a in BR W ( bow l s a nd d i she s ) ; B SW ( j a r s , l i d s ,b ow l s ,b a s in s a nd l amp -on s tand ) ; RW a nd R SW ( bow l s , l i d s d i she s , b a s in s , d eco ra ted s he rd s , v a se s , b a s in s , s t o rage v e s se l s , e t c . ) ; k nobbed w a r e P l a in a nd w h i te p a in ted BR W ; B SW ; RW a nd R SW P o t te ry . Ma jo r i ty o f t h e s he rd s s how s e v idence o fb u rn i sh ing

1 4 .

K a rad i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

P l a in a nd w h i te p a in ted BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry

1 5 .

H a tgaon ( Exp l . )

B oudh

P l a in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry ; ( bow l s ,v a se s ,b a s in s , l i d s w i th c y l ind r ica l h and le , d i she s , s ha l low b ow l s -on s tand , a r e s ome o ft h ec ommon s hape s )

1 6 .

P a rga lpu r ( Exp l . ) D ho lpu r ( Exp l . ) B e lpun j i

B oudh

P l a in BR W , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry P l a in BR W , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW

8 .

1 7 . 1 8 .

B oudh A nugu l

R emark s

O ther f i nd s

C eram ic I ndus tr ie s

3 43

E a r ly

S ee t h i sr epo r t

E a r ly H i s to r ic / P ro toh i s to r ic ( ? ) P ro toh i s tor ic / E a r ly I r on a ge ( ? ) P ro toh i s to r ic

P ro toh i s to r ic ( ? )

E a r ly H is to r ic .

I r on

( ? ) E a r ly H i s to r ic E a r ly H i s to r ic

A ge

S i . N o .

N ame o f t he s i te ( Exp l . )

D i s tr ic t

O ther f i nd s

P o t te ry

1 9 .

Manamund a( Exca . )

B oudh

2 0 .

Manamund aI ( Exp l . )

B oudh

2 1 .

G ab ju r i ( Exp l . ) H a ld ipa l i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

2 2 .

C eram ic I ndu s tr ie s

S uba rnapu r

P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry ; d eco ra ted j a r s ; v e ry l a rge s ized s t o rage j a r s ,e t c . P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry a nd d eco ra ted s h e rd s ; ( c ommon s hape s i n c lude b ow l s , d i she s , v a se s , s t o rage j a r s a nd l i d s ) P la in BR W , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t t e ry ; d eco ra ted s he rd s a nd l i d s o fv a r iou st ype

Ref erences A l lch in , F .R . 1 989 . C i ty a nd S t a te F o rma t ion i n E a r ly H i s to r ic S ou th A s ia ,S ou th A s ian S tud ie s5 :1 15 . A l lch in , F .R . 1 990 . P a t ter n s o fC i ty F o rma t ion i nE a r ly H i s to r ic S ou th A s ia ,S ou t hA s ian S tud ie s6 :1 63 173 . B a rua , B .M . 1 929 . T he H a t igumpha I n sc r ip t ion s o f K ha rave la ,I nd ian H i s tor ica lQ ua ter ly 1 4 :4 59 -85 . B ehe ra , P .K . 2 000 -200 1a . I nve s t iga t ion i n to t h e N ew ly D i scove r ed R ock -A r t S i te s o f D eu lga H i l l s , O r i s sa , P ragdhara 1 : 1 11 . B ehe ra , P .K . 2 000 -200 1b . E x cava t ion s a t K hame swa r ipa l i - aP ro to H i s to r ic S e t t lemen t i n t h e Mahanad i V a l ley , O r i s sa : a P re l im ina ry R epo r t , P ragdhara 1 : 1 3 -34 . B ha t tacha rya , S . 1 975 . L ingu i s t ic C onve rgence i n t h e D rav ido -Munda C u l tu r e a r ea , I n t erna t iona l J ourna l o f D rav id ian L ingu i s t ic 4 (2 ) : 1 99 -2 14 . C en su s o f I nd ia . 1 991 . P r imary C ensu s A b s t rac t , G enera lP opu la t ion , O r i s sa , S er ie s 1 9 , P ar tI -B( z ) . N ew D e lh i : O ff i ce o ft h eR eg i s t ra rG ene ra lI nd ia C hak raba r ty , D .K . a nd N . L ah i r i 1 993 -94 . T he I r on A ge i n I nd ia : t h e B eg inn ing a nd C on sequence s , P ura ta t tva 2 4 : 1 2 -27 . C ha t te r jee , S . 1 926 . O r ig in a nd D eve lopmen to fB enga l i L anguage . C a lcu t ta : B ang ia S ah i tya P r i shad . D an i ,H .A . 1 960 .P r eh i s tory a nd P ro toh i s to ry o fE a s t ern I nd ia . C a lcu t ta :F i rma K .L . Mukhopadhyay . D a s , B .S . 1 984 . D ynam ic s o f C hange s i n t h e S oc ia l F ramewo rk , R e l ig ion a nd L anguage i n E a s te rn I nd ia ( 8 th 12 th c en tu ry ) , i nL if e a nd C u l tu re i n O r i s sa ( B .S . D a s E d . ) , p p . 2 7 -4 1 . C a lcu t ta . M ine rva A s soc ia te s P r iva te L im i ted . D a sh , G .N . 1 978 . E vo lu t ion o ft h e P r ie s t ly P owe r : T he G angavam sa P e r iod , i n T he C u l t o fJ aganna tha a nd R eg iona l T rad i t ion o fO r i s sa ( A . E c shmann , H . Ku lke a nd G .C . T r ipa th i E d s . ) , p p . 1 57 -68 . N ew D e lh i : Manoha r . E p ig raph ica I nd ica 1 5 :1-8 ;2 0 (7 ) : 7 1-89 ;2 8 : 2 13 . F r ied , M .H . 1 967 . T he E vo lu t ion o f P o l i t ica l S oc ie ty . N ew Y o rk : R andom H ou se .

s i zed g round N eo l i th ic c e l t s B r ick s t ru c tu re s , i r on a nd c oppe r o b jec t s , p unch ma rked c o in s

R emark s

E a r ly H i s to r ic ( J AR 1 989 -90 ) .

I r on o b jec t s , p o t te ry h op s co t che s , s oakage j a r s a nd s t one b ead s .

E a r ly H i s to r ic

P o t te ry d i sc s a nd s t one b ead s T e r ra co ta r i ng w e l l , p o t te ry d i sc s , s t one p e s t le s a nd i r on o b jec t s .

E a r ly H i s to r ic E a r ly H i s to r ic

G ho sh , A .K . a nd S . R ay 1 990 -93 . P roce s s o f M ic ro l i th i sm : aS tudy o f S tone A ge Ma te r ia l s f r om O r i s sa , Manav 4 :9 2 -99 . H e ineGe ld er n ,R . v on . 1 945 . P r eh i s to r ic R e sea r ch i nt h e N e the r land s I nd ie s , i n S c ience a nd S c ien t i s t s i n t h e N e the r land s I nd ie s ( P . H on ing a nd F . V e rdoo run E d s . ) , p p . 1 27 -67 .N ew Y o rk : B oa rd f o rt h eN e the r land sI nd ie s . I nd ian A r chaeo logy -A R ev iew , N ew D e lh i : A nnua l B u l l e t in o ft h eA r chaeo log ica lS ur vey o fI nd ia 1 956 -57 : 3 0 . J ay swa l , K .P . a nd B ane r j i , R .D . 1 929 -30 . T he H a t igumpha I n scr ip t ion o fK harave la , K a r , S . K . 1 995 -96 . F u r the r E xp lo ra t ion s a tG opa lpu r , O r i s sa ,P ura ta t t va 2 6 : 1 05 106 . K a r , S .K . 2 000 . G opa lpu r : AN eo l i th i c -Cha lco l i th ic S i te i n t h e C oa s ta l O r i s sa , i nA r chaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P .K . Mohan ty E d s . )V o l . 1 ,p p . 3 68 -39 1 . D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan . K a r , S .K . , K .K . B a sa a nd P .P . J oge lka r 1 998 . A r chaeo log ica lR ema in s o fG opa lpu r ,N ayaga rh ,C oa s ta l O r i s sa , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 3 ( 1) : 1 07 14 . K o samb i , D .D . 1 956 . O nt h eD eve lopmen to fF euda l i sm i n I nd ia , A nna l s o ft h e B handark ar O r ien ta l R e sear ch I n s t i tu t e3 6 : 2 58 -69 . K o samb i , D .D . 1 962 . My th a nd R ea l i ty : S tud ie s i n t h e F orma t ion o f I nd ian C u l tu re . B ombay : P opu la r P raka shan . Ku lke , H . 1 977 . E a r ly S ta te F o rma t ion a nd R oya l L eg i t ima t ion i n L a te A nc ien t O r i s sa , i n S id e l igh t s o n H i s tory a nd C u l tu re o fO r i s sa ( M .N . D a s E d . ) , p p . 1 04 14 .C u t ta ck : V idyapu r i . K u lke ,H . 1 978 .E a r ly R oya lP a t ronage o ft h eJ aganna tha C u l t ,i nT he C u l to fJa ganna th a nd R eg iona lT rad i t ion o f O r i s sa ( A E schmann , H . Ku lke a nd G .C . T r ipa th i E d s . ) , p p . 1 25 137 .N ew D e lh i : Manoha r . L a l ,B .B . 1 949 . E xcava t ion a tS i supa lga rh ,A nc ien tI nd ia 5 :6 2 -05 . Mahapa t ra , L .K . 1 976 . G od s , K ing s a nd t h e C a s te S y s t em i n I nd ia , i n T he R ea lm o ft h e E x t ra Human : A g en t sa nd A ud ience s . ( A . B ha ra t iE d . ) ,p p . 3 1-72 .P a r i s : T he H ague , Mou ton P ub l i she r s .

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Mahapa t ra , L .K . 1 984 . T he R o le o ft h e H indu P r ince s i n t h e C a s te S y s tem i nO r i s sa , i nL if ea nd C u l ture i nO r i s sa ( B .S . D a s E d . ) , p p . 4 2 -59 . C a lcu t ta : M inerva A s soc ia te s P v t . L td . Mahapa t ra , L .K . 1 987 . E x -p r ince ly S t a te o f O r i s sa : Mayu rbhan j , K eonha r a nd B ona i , i n T r iba lP o l i t ic s a nd S t a t e S y s tem s i nP re -Co lon ia lE a s te rn a nd N or thea s te rn I nd ia ( Su ra j i t S i nha E d . ) , p p . 1 50 . C a lcu t ta : K .P . B agch i a nd C o . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M . N aga r . . 1 994 . F rom T r ibe t oC a s te : A n E thnoa r cha eo log ica l p e r spec t ive , i nP roceed ing s o f t h eS em inar o n " F rom T r ibe t oC a s te ," h e ld a tt h e I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy , S im la ,N ovembe r 1 992 . Mohan ty , P .a nd B . M i sh ra 1 998 . R ecen tA r chaeo log ica l R e sea r che si nO r i s sa w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t ot h e E a r ly H i s to r ic P ha se , Man i nI nd ia 7 8( 3 -4 ) : 2 05 -22 1 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 988 . R ice a nd T ube r C rop s i n t h e E a s te rn G ha t s ( I nd ia ) : A n E thnoeco log ica l P e r spec t ive , B u l le t in o ft h eI ndo -Pac if i cP reh i s tory A s soc ia t ion 8 :2 6 3 6 . P anda , T . 2 003 . E vo lu t ion o f S oc ie ty a nd C u l tu r e o f O r i s sa - B a sed o n a S yn the s i s o f A r chaeo log ica l , H i s to r ica l , L ingu i s t ic a nd A n th ropo log ica l D a ta . U npub l i shed P h .D .t h e s i s ,P une : D eccan C o l lege . P a tna ik , N . 1 970 . T he R ecen t R a ja s o fP u r i : aS tudy i n S e cu la r iza t ion , J ourna l o f t h e I nd ian A n thropo log ica l S oc ie ty 5 ( 1/2 ) : 8 7 114 . P radhan , S .a nd P .K . B ehe ra . 1 998 . AB r ief R epo r t o n T r ia l E xcava t ion a tK ame swa r ipa l i , aC ha lco l i th ic S i te i n M idd le Mahanad i V a l ley , O r i s sa , i n N ew A spec t s o f H i s tory o f O r i s sa , V o l .8 , p p . 1 12 , S amba lpu r : J yo t i V iha r . R a jagu ru , S .N . 1 958 . I n scr ip t ion so fO r i s sa , V o l . I .G ov t . o fI nd ia . R edf i e ld , R . 1 956 . P ea san t S oc ie ty a nd C u l ture . C h icago : T he U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s . R edf ie ld , R . a nd M .B . S inge r 1 956 . T he C u l tu ra l R o le o f C i t ie s , Man i nI nd ia 3 6 (3 ) : 1 6 1194 . R oy , S .C . 1 9 12 . T he Munda s a nd t h e ir C oun t ry . C a lcu t ta : A s ia P ub i sh ing H ou se . S ahu , B .P . 2 000 . A u thor i ty a nd P a t ronage i n E a r ly O r i s sa , i nA rchaeo log y o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P .K . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V o l . 2 ,p p . 1 10 . N ew D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s tory o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . S chnepe l , B . 2 002 . T he J ung le K ing s : E thnoh i s tor ica l A spec t s o fP o l i t ic s a nd R i tua l i n O r i s sa . N ew D e lh i : Mahona r . S enev i ra tne , S . 1 98 1 . K a l inga a nd A ndh ra : T he P roce s s o f S econda ry S t a te F o rma t ion i n E a r ly I nd ia , i n T he S tud yo ft h eS ta te ( H .J .M . C loe s sen a nd P .S ka ln ik E d s . ) , p p . 3 17 -338 . T he H ague : Mou ton P ub l i she r . S i ngh , K . ( Ed . ) 1 998 . P eop le o fI nd ia , N a t iona l S er ie s , V o l . I V : A l l C ommun i t ie s " A t o G " . C a lcu t ta : A n th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia . S ingh ,P .K . 1 988 -89 . N eo l i th ic C u l tu re o fC en t ra lO r i s sa , Manav 3 :2 75 -281 .

S ingh , P .K . 2 000 . S tone A ge C u l tu re s o fC en t r a l O r i s sa , i n A rchaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V o l . 1 ,p p . 1 02 113 . D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan . S inha , B .K . 2 000 . G o lba i : AN eo l i th ic-Cha lco l i th ic S i t e i nC oa s ta l O r i s sa , i nA rchaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V o l . 1 , p p . 3 22 -355 . D e lh i P ra t ibha P raka shan . S inha , S . 1 958 . T r iba l C u l tu r e o f P en in su la r I nd ia a s a D imen s ion o f L i t t le T rad i t ion i n t h e S tudy o f I nd ian C iv i l i sa t ion - A P re l im ina ry S t a temen t , J ourna l o f Amer ican F o lk lore 7 1 . S inha , S . 1 962 . S t a te F o rma t ion a nd R a jpu t My th i n T r iba l C en t ra l I nd ia , Man i nI nd ia 4 2 ( 1) : 3 5 -80 . S ou thwo r th , F .C . 1 974 . L ingu i s t ic S t ra t ig raphy o fN o r th I nd ia , I n t erna t iona l J ourna l o f D rav id ian L ingu i s t ic s 3 ( 1) : 2 0 1-203 . T hapa r , B .K . 1 964 . N eo l i th ic P rob lem i nI nd ia , i nI nd ian P r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) ,p p . 8 7 112 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . T hapa r , B .K . 1 985 . R ecen t A r chaeo log ica l D i scover ie s i nI nd ia . UNESCO : T he C en t re f o r E a s t A s ian C u l tu ra l S tud ie s . V i shnuM i t t re 1 974 . P a laeobo tan ica l E v idence i n I nd ia , i nE vo lu t ionary S tud ie s i n W or ld C rop s ( J . H u tch in son E d . ) ,p p . 3 30 ,C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . V i shnuM i t t re 1 976 . T he A r chaeobo tan ica l a nd P a lyno log ica l E v idence f o r t h e E a r ly Ag r icu l tu re i n S ou th a nd S ou thea s tA s ia , G a s t ronomy : 1 3 -21 . Y u le , P . a nd B .K . R a th 2 000 . S anke r jang : A Me ta l P e r iod B u r ia l S i te i nt h eD henkana lU p land so fO r i s sa ,i n A r chaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V on ,p p . 2 82 -32 1 . D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan .

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