From Cornwall to Caithness: Some Aspects of British Field Archaeology: Papers presented to Norman V. Quinnell 9780860546658, 9781407318325

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
1: Norman Victor Quinnell: An Appreciation
2: Norman’s Archaeology Record
3: John Aubrey - The First Archaeological Surveyor?
4: Herbert Toms - A Poineer of Analystical Field Survey
5: Excavations by Bryan and Helen O’Neil on the Isles of Scilly
6: Lost and Found in Lincolnshire: Two Problems in Archaeological Inventorizing
7: Bodmin Moor, Cornwall - Post Survey Observations
8: Stowe’s Pound
9: Prehistoric Earthworks on Codsend and Hoar Moors, Somerset
10: Woolbury Fields, Stockbridge Down, Hampshire
11: Non-Hillfort Settlement and Its Implications
12: Multiple Ditch Systems and Late Iron Age Settlement in Central Wessex
13: Castle Ditch Hillfort, Eddisbury, Cheshire, Reconsidered: The Excavations of 1935-38 in the Light of Recent Field Survey
14: Burnt Mounds in Sutherland and Caithness
15: The Context of Cord Rig Cultivation in Later Prehistoric Nothumberland
16: Paired Mottes in East Chelborough, Dorset
17: Earthwork Castles and Settlement at Hamstead Marshall, Berkshire
18: Roxby Hill, Thornton Dale: The Lost Village of Roxby?
19: Howley Hall, West Yorkshire: Field Survey
20: Somersham Palace, Cambridgeshire: A Medieval Landscape for Pleasure?
21: Formal Garden Earthworks at moreton Corbey Castle, Shropshire
22: Beardown Warren, Princtown, Dartmoor
23: Aspects of the Medieval Defences of Bristol: The Town Wall, The Castle Barbican and the Jewry
24: The Names of the Batteries on the Garrison, St Mary’s, Isles of Scilly
25: Leprosy in Cornwall and Devon: Problems and Perpectives

Citation preview

From Cornwall to Caithness Some Aspects of Br itish Field Archaeology .. Papers pr esented to Nor man V. Quinnell

edited by

Mark Bowden, Donnie Mackay and Peter Topping

BAR British Series 209 1989

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR 209, 1989: 'From Cornwall to Caithness' © The Individual Autho rs, 1989 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546658 paperback ISBN 9781407318325 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546658 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Norman V. Quinnell F.S.A., M.I.F.A iii

C ONTENTS L ist o f c ontributors P reface 1 :

2 :

N ORMAN V ICTOR Q UINNELL: A N A PPRECIATION K eith B lood, M artin F letcher a nd C yril W ardale N ORMAN'S A RCHAEOLOGICAL R ECORD R ichard M ead

3 :

4 :

* 5:

3

J OHN A UBREY - T HE F IRST A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEYOR? H umphrey W elfare

1 7

H ERBERT T OMS - A P IONEER O F A NALYTICAL F IELD S URVEY R ichard B radley

2 9

E XCAVATIONS B Y B RYAN A ND H ELEN O 'NEIL O N T HE I SLES O F S CILLY N eil B eagrie

6 :

7 :

* 8:

* 9:

* 10:

1 1:

4 9

L OST A ND F OUND I N L INCOLNSHIRE: A RCHAEOLOGICAL I NVENTORIZING P aul E verson

T WO P ROBLEMS I N 5 5

B ODMIN M OOR, C ORNWALL - P OST S URVEY O BSERVATIONS N icholas J ohnson a nd P eter R ose

* 13:

S TOWE'S P OUND 7 1

P REHISTORIC E ARTHWORKS O N C ODSEND A ND H OAR M OORS, S OMERSET P . P attison a nd I .S. S ainsbury

7 9

W OOLBURY F IELDS, B ruce N . E agles

9 3

S TOCKBRIDGE D OWN,

H AMPSHIRE

N ON-HILLFORT S ETTLEMENT A ND I TS I MPLICATIONS 9 9

M ULTIPLE D ITCH S YSTEMS A ND L ATE I RON A GE S ETTLEMENT I N C ENTRAL W ESSEX M ark C orney

1 11

C ASTLE D ITCH H ILLFORT, E DDISBURY, C HESHIRE, R ECONSIDERED: T HE E XCAVATIONS O F 1 935-38 I N T HE L IGHT O F R ECENT F IELD S URVEY W .D. C ocroft, P . E verson, W .R. W ilson-North

1 4:

6 5

M artin F letcher

D avid S cott M cOmish * 12:

1

M .

J ecock a nd 1 29

B URNT M OUNDS I N S UTHERLAND A ND C AITHNESS K eith B lood

1 37

V

1 5:

* 16:

* 17:

* 18:

1 9:

2 0:

2 1:

* 22:

2 3:

2 4:

2 5:

T HE C ONTEXT O F C ORD R IG C ULTIVATION I N L ATER P REHISTORIC N ORTHUMBERLAND P eter T opping

1 45

P AIRED M OTTES I N E AST C HELBOROUGH , C arenza L ewis

1 59

D ORSET

E ARTHWORK C ASTLES A ND S ETTLEMENT A T H AMSTEAD M ARSHALL, B ERKSHIRE D .J. B onney a nd C .J. D unn

1 73

R OXBY H ILL , T HORNTON D ALE: T HE L OST V ILLAGE O F R OXBY? V ivien G . S wan a nd D onnie A . M ackay

1 83

H OWLEY H ALL, W EST Y ORKSHIRE: F IELD S URVEY S tewart A insworth

1 97

S OMERSHAM P ALACE , F OR P LEASURE? C .C. T aylor

2 11

C AMBRIDGESHIRE: A M EDIEVAL L ANDSCAPE

F ORMAL G ARDEN E ARTHWORKS A T M ORETON C ORBET C ASTLE , S HROPSHIRE W .R. W ilson-North

2 25

B EARDOWN W ARREN , S imon P robert

2 29

P RINCETOWN ,

D ARTMOOR

A SPECTS O F T HE M EDIEVAL D EFENCES O F B RISTOL: T HE T OWN W ALL, T HE C ASTLE B ARBICAN A ND T HE J EWRY R oger H . L eech

2 35

T HE N AMES O F T HE B ATTERIES O N T HE G ARRISON , S T M ARY 'S, I SLES O F S CILLY C harles T homas

2 51

L EPROSY I N C ORNWALL A ND D EVON: P ROBLEMS A ND P ERSPECTIVES J ohn H art

2 61

v i

LIST

or

COITRIBUTORS

Stewart Ainsworth RCHME, Chancellor's Building, University of Keele, Lyme, Staffs., ST5 5BG.

Newcastle under

Neil Beagrie National Monuments Record, RCHME, 23 Savile Row, London, WlX 2JQ. Keith Blood RCHME, Line Building, The University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NEl 7RU. Desmond Bonney RCBME, Rougemont, Salisbury, Wilts., SPl lLY. Richard Bradley Dept. of Archaeology, 2AA.

Reading University, Vhiteknights, Reading, RG6

Wayne Cocroft RCBME, Chancellor's Building, University of Keele, Lyae, Staffs., ST5 SBG.

Newcastle under

Mark Corney RCBME, Rougemont, Salisbury, Wilts., SPl lLY. Christopher Dunn RCBME, Rose Duryard, Lower Argyll Road, Exeter, EX4 4PB. Bruce Eagles National Monuments Record, RCHME, 23 Savile Row, London, WlX 2JQ. Paul Everson RCHME, chancellor's Building, University of Keele, Lyme, Staffs., STS SBG. ✓

Newcastle under

Martin Fletcher RCBME, Rose Duryard, Lower Argyll Road, Exeter, EX4 4PB. John Bart RCBME, Green Lane, Maybush, Southampton, S01 9FP. Marcus Jecock RCHME, Chancellor's Building, University of Keele, Lyme, Staffs., ST5 SBG. Nicholas Johnson Cornwall Archaeological Unit, TRl JEX.

Old County Hall,

Roger Leech RCBME, Green Lane, Maybush, Southampton, SOl 9FP. Carenza Lewis RCHME, Rougemont, Salisbury, Wilts., SPl lLY. vii

Newcastle under

Station Road, Truro,

Donnie Mackay RCHME, Line Building, The University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NEl 7RU. David McOmish RCHME, Rougemont, Salisbury, Wilts., SPl lLY. Richard Mead RCHME, Green Lane, Maybush� Southampton, SOl 9FP. Paul Pattison RCHME,.-Rose Duryard, Lower Argyll Road, Exeter, EX4 4PB. Simon Probert RCHME, Rose Duryard, L9w�r Argyll Road, Exeter, -EX4 4Pt. Peter Rose Cornwall Arch�eological Unit,_ Old_ County Hall,, TRl 3EX.

Station°Road; Truro,

Iain Sainsbury RCHME, Rose Duryard, Lower Argyll Road, Exeter, EX4 4�B. Vivien Swan RCHME, Shelley House, Acomb Road, York, Y02 4HB. Christopher Taylor RCHME, The Lodge, Anstey Hall, Maris Lane, Trumpington, Cambridg_e, CB2 2LE. Charles Thomas Institute of Corn�sh Studies, Trevithick Building, Pool, Redruth, Cornwall, TR15 3PL.

Trevenson Road,

Peter.Topp.ing . RCHME, Line Bu:i.lding, The Unive·rsity, Newcastle upon Tyne, NEl 1RU. Cyril Wardale 92 Ashdown Road, Chandlers Ford, Hants. Humphrey Welfare RCHME, Line Building, The University, Newcastle upo� Tyne, NEl 7RU. Robert Wilson-North RCHME, Chancellor's Building, University of Keele, Lyme, Staffs., STS SBG.

viii.

Newcastle under

P REFACE

B ritish a rchaeology h as b een b uilt o n t he w ork o f u nsung h eroes. T here a re f ew m ore d eserving o f p raise t han t he f ormer m embers o f t he O rdnance S urvey A rchaeology D ivision w hose w ork f orms t he b asis o f t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord o f t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland a nd m any C ounty S ites a nd M onuments R ecords. T he i dentity o f e ach o f t hese i ndividuals i s o nly r evealed b y t heir i nitials o n t he O S 4 95 a rchaeological r ecord c ards. T his v olume i s d edicated t o o ne o f t hem: N orman Q uinnell ( NVQ ). H is c ontribution t o t he a rchaeology o f S outh-West E ngland i s s uch t hat m uch o f t he N AR f or D evon a nd C ornwall c ould r easonably b e c alled N orman's A rchaeological R ecord. T he e ditors o f t his v olume a re b ased a t t he o pposite e nd o f E ngland f rom N orman, i n t he R oyal C ommission o ffice i n N ewcastle; i t i s am easure o f o ur r espect f or h im t hat w e a nd m any o f h is f riends a nd c olleagues, b oth e x-Ordnance S urvey a nd R oyal C ommission, h ave p roduced t his v olume. T he p apers p ublished h ere a re ap ersonal t ribute t o a n i nfluential c olleague. T hose p apers a sterisked i n t he t able o f c ontents u se R CHME c opyright m aterial a nd a re p ublished b y c ourtesy o f t he C ommissioners. E ach p aper i llustrates a n a spect o f t he k ind o f w ork t hat N orman h as u ndertaken o ver 3 0 y ears i n t he O rdnance S urvey a nd t he R oyal C ommission a nd t he s ort o f q uestions a nd a nswers t hat f ield s urvey a ttempts t o p rovide w ithin a rchaeology. M ead's p aper, w ritten s olely f rom t he a rchives o f t he N AR i n S outhampton, g ives av ivid i nsight i nto t he r emarkable v ariety a nd e xtent o f t he w ork u ndertaken b y N orman. B radley a nd W elfare d elve i nto t he h istory o f f ield s urvey a nd d iscuss t wo a rchaeological s urveyors f rom t he p ast, t he w ell-known J ohn A ubrey a nd t he n ot s o w ell-known H erbert T oms. I n t wo c ase-studies E verson a nalyses t he p roblems i nvolved i n d ealing w ith t opographical r ecords i n L incolnshire w hilst J ohnson a nd R ose d etail t he i ntensive p rocesses o f c ompiling a S ites a nd M onuments R ecord f or B odmin M oor d erived f rom d ifferent l evels o f f ield s urvey. T hese h istorical a nd a rchival s tudies a re f ollowed b y as eries f ocusing o n p rehistory. N orman's E xeter-based R CHME c olleagues F letcher, P attison a nd S ainsbury d escribe w ork a t S towe's P ound a nd o n C odsend a nd H oar M oors, w hilst f rom t he S alisbury o ffice M cOmish, C orney a nd E agles p rovide t hree p apers o n c entral S outhern E ngland. M cOmish m oves b eyond s implistic c lassification i n d iscussing I ron A ge s ettlement i n W est W essex , w hilst C orney c asts l ight o n a r ather f orgotten a spect o f t he W essex L ate I ron A ge, t hat o f M ultiple D itch S ystems. E agles d escribes a n i mportant C eltic f ield s ystem n ear S tockbridge. I n t heir c onsideration o f E ddisbury h illfort, J ecock a nd t he K eele o ffice o f R CHME i llustrate h ow a nalytical f ield s urvey c an b e u sed t o r eassess e arly e xcavations. T he p rehistoric s ection o f t he b ook e nds w ith t wo f ar f lung e valuations o f p oorly u nderstood a nd r arely r ecognised f ield m onuments. I n ap aper o n b urnt m ounds a nd s ettlements i n S utherland a nd C aithness B lood h ighlights t he g reat s uccess o f t he O S A rchaeology D ivision i n q uickly c overing a nd e xamining p arts o f t he c ountry w here l ittle o r n o s ystematic

i x

a rchaeological r ecording h as t aken p lace; T opping d etails t he e xtensive s urvival o f c ord r ig a griculture i n N orthumberland a nd o ffers a s timulating a nd c ontroversial m odel o f p rehistoric s ettlement a nd e conomy. I n t he m edieval s ection L ewis a nd B onney a nd D unn p rovide t wo p apers o n t he e arthwork c astles a t E ast C helborough a nd H amstead M arshall r espectively. S wan a nd M ackay a ttempt t o f ind t he l ost v illage o f R oxby i n t he l andscape o f R oxby H all, w hilst A insworth i ntroduces h is a nalysis o f t he h ouse a nd g ardens o f H owley H all, W est Y orkshire, i ndicating h ow v arying l evels o f f ield s urvey p roduce i nformation o f d iffering q uality a nd d etail. T aylor t akes t he p rocess o f f ield s urvey a nd e valuation t o i ts f inal a nd p roper p hase o f e xciting a nd c onvincing i nterpretation i n w riting t he h istory o f S omersham P alace, C ambridgeshire. W ilson-North w rites a t horough a ccount o f t he g arden e arthworks a t M oreton C orbet C astle i n S hropshire a nd P robert e nds t he m edieval s ection w ith t he a rchaeology o f r abbit f arming a t B eardown W arren, D artmoor. F our p apers h ave b een i ncluded o n t he a rchaeology o f t he S outh W est i n a reas w here N orman h as w orked e xtensively a nd w hich s hould p rove o f s pecial i nterest t o h im. L eech f ollows u p N orman's p ioneering e xcavations o f t he C ity W alls o f B ristol w hilst T homas a nd B eagrie r etrace N orman's f ootsteps i n t he S cillies. W e e nd t he f estschrift w ith H art's d etailed a nalysis o f l eprosy i n C ornwall a nd D evon. W e m ust g ive d ue a cknowledgement t o t he m any f riends a nd c olleagues w ho h ave h elped u s i n c reating t his v olume. M argaret M addison h as d one a ll t he t yping a nd b ook p roduction a nd w e a re e xtremely g rateful f or h er c onscientious a nd s peedy w ork. P eter S pencer a nd P hilip S inton p rovided i nvaluable g raphics s upport. H enrietta Q uinnell h as h ad t he u nenviable t ask o f h elping t he e ditors o vercome t heir i gnorance w hile e xplaining t o N orman w hy s o m any s trange l etters k ept a rriving o n t heir b reakfast t able w ith a N ewcastle p ostmark. C hris T aylor h as m ade o ur e ditorial t ask e asier b y r eading o ver t hose p apers t hat d eal w ith R CHME f ieldwork. E mma T heakston h as h elped w ith p roof r eading a nd K eith B lood a nd H umphrey W elfare h ave k ept t heir e ncouragement a nd a dvice f lowing. W e a re g rateful t o a ll t he c ontributors f or m aking o ur t ask o f p roducing a b ook i n e ight m onths s o e asy. O ther f riends a nd c olleagues h ave e xpressed t heir g ood w ishes t o N orman o n h is r etirement i ncluding A lan A berg, B ob B ewley , C hris C haplin, J o D raper, T om H assall, J ohn H odgson, S imon T imms, M alcolm T odd a nd R owan W himster. T he e ditors o f t his f estschrift, i n p resenting i t t o N orman s peak f or a ll h is f riends i n w ishing h im a l ong a nd e njoyable r etirement.

M ark B owden D onnie M ackay P ete T opping

N ewcastle J uly 1 989

1 :

N ORMAN V ICTOR Q UINNELL: A N A PPRECIATION

K eith B lood, M artin F letcher a nd C yril W ardale

F or t hose w ho h ave k nown N .V. Q uinnnell w ell o ver a l ong p eriod, i t i s w ith s ome d isbelief t hat w e c ontemplate h is r etirement. F or t he l ast t wenty y ears h e h as b een t hirty-five y ears o f a ge b oth i n r espect o f h is a ppearance a nd f itness, a f ine t estimony t o t he t win v ices o f m ild t obacco a nd s trong c ider ( always i n m oderation n aturally ) b ut, m ore p ertinently , t o h is e nergy a nd f resh a pproach t o h is c hosen p rofession, t hat o f f ield a rchaeologist. T o p ossess s uch e nthusiasm i s n ecessary t o t he w ork, t o s ustain i t u ndimmed f or o ver t hirty y ears i s s omething s pecial. N orman i s w ell-known i n h is n ative S outh-West E ngland w here h e h as s pent m ost o f h is w orking l ife, t hough h e h as m ade f requent f orays i nto t he r est o f t he c ountry. B orn i n S underland, h e w ent t o l ive i n C ornwall a ged 2 , w here h e g rew u p a nd w ent t o s chool. A fter a s pell d uring t he l ast w ar i n t he R oyal A ir F orce t raining a s a n a ir n avigator, h e j oined O rdnance S urvey i n t he i mmediate p ost-war p eriod w hen t hat o rganisation w as e xpanding t o u ndertake t he r esurvey o f t he U K t o t he N ational G rid. T his p rocess w as t o b e c ompleted i n t he e arly 1 980s. B y t raining a c artographic s urveyor, b ut a lready w ith a k een i nterest i n f ield a rchaeology, h e w as a n e arly a nd o bvious r ecruit t o t he A rchaeology D ivision o f t he O rdnance S urvey , w hich w as t hen b eing r eformed u nder t he d irection o f C .W. P hillips t o c ontinue t he t ask i nitiated b y O .G.S. C rawford t o u pgrade t he q uality a nd q uantity o f a rchaeological i nformation t o b e p ublished o n t he n ew m aps. W ith m uch o f t he b ack-up i nformation d estroyed d uring t he w ar P hillips h ad d ecided t o c ompile a N ational I ndex o f A ntiquities f rom s cratch. T he i ndex w as t o c omprise i nformation r ecorded f rom e xisting O rdnance S urvey m aps, f rom l iterary s ources, a ir p hotographs e tc., t ogether w ith a n u p-to-date f ield r eport a nd s urvey. U ltimately t his m ammoth t ask c ame t o f orm t he c ore o f t he C ounty S ites a nd M onuments R ecords a nd t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord o f t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland. N orman's f unction i n t his g rand d esign, a s a f ield a rchaeologist w as t o f ind, i dentify a nd s urvey m onuments i n t he f ield a nd w rite a d iagnostic f ield r eport o n e ach s ite. T he b ulk o f t hese s ites w ere r ecorded b y t he S outhampton o ffice s taff, b ut m any o thers w ere n ew d iscoveries. T he r apid p ace o f t he O S r esurvey p rogramme m eant t hat a rchaeological s pecialisation w as a n u nattainable l uxury; t he r ange o f a ntiquities h e w as c alled u pon t o d eal w ith e xtended f rom t he p rehistoric t o e arly i ndustrial p eriods. N orman m ust h ave e xamined m any t housands o f s ites i n h is l ong a nd r emarkable c areer; t here c an b e f ew a ntiquities i n t he W est c ountry w hich h e h as n ot c ast h is e yes o ver. H is e xtremely l ong p eriod o f f ieldwork h as g iven h im a n a lmost u nrivalled a bility t o d eal w ith s ites i n t he f ield.

1

I t m ust b e s aid t hat a rchaeological f ieldwork w as h ighly s uitable f or N orman's p articular t alents. I t a llowed h im t o e xercise h is d iagnostic f lair, c ombined w ith h is p recision l earned a s ac artog rapher, a nd i t g ave h im a s ufficient m easure o f i ndependence n ecessary f or a m an o f h is t emperament. N orman's c ontemplative b ut p ractical m ind m ake h im a n i deal p ersonal w orker, b ut i t i s p robably a s a l eader a nd t eacher t hat h e m ade h is b iggest i mpact, a nd f or w hich h e i s b est r emembered, c ertainly i n t he O rdnance S urvey. H is u nassuming n ature a nd u ndiminished e nthusiasm f or t he w ork , i nspired a nd m otivated a ll w ho w orked u nder h im: n o m atter h ow p ressed f or t ime i n a t ight p rogramming s chedule h e a lways l ooked f or o pportunities t o l ift t he h orizons a nd q uality o f t he w ork. I n 1 983 t he O rdnance S urvey a rchaeological r ecord a nd m ost o f t he a rchaeological r ecording a nd f ield s taff i ncluding N orman, t ransferred t o t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland. N orman m oved t o t he n ewly c reated E xeter O ffice w orking i n m any p arts o f S outhern E ngland. T he p eriod b etween t he i nitial n otion o f t he t ransfer a nd i ts r ealisation w as s omething l ike e ight y ears, a v ery u ncertain a nd t raumatic t ime f or t he p eople i nvolved. T hese t raumas a ppeared t o l eave N orman u nmoved. T he d edication h e h ad a lways s hown w as m aintained d uring t hese d ifficult y ears, a nd w as r enewed d uring t he l ast s ix-and-a-half y ears a s s enior r esident f ield a rchaeologist i n t he s outh-west w ith t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland. T here i s a lways a n e lement o f s adness w hen a n o ld f riend a nd i nfluential c olleague r etires. H owever, f or N orman i t s imply m arks t he s tart o f a nother l ong a nd f ruitful p hase i n h is c ontinuing l ove a ffair w ith f ield a rchaeology. T here n eed b e n o c ause f or r egret; h is f riends w ill c ontinue t o b eat a p ath t o h is d oor a s l ong a s t here i s c ider i n t he j ar, a nd w e a re s ure t here a lways w ill b e.

2

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N ORMAN 'S A RCHAEOLOGICAL R ECORD

R ichard M ead

T he i ntention o f t his p aper i s t o t race w ith t he a id o f t he c omputerised N ational A rchaeological R ecord a nd o ther a rchive s ources, t he f ootsteps o f M r N orman Q uinnell, i n h is r ole a s a n a rchaeological f ield i nvestigator. O ne v aluable s ource o f r eference h eld i n t he N AR a rchive i s t he c ollection o f u npublished ' in-house' O rdnance S urvey A rchaeology D ivision B ulletins N os 1 -86 1 951-1972 ( hereafter A DB ) w hich g ive a g ood i nsight i nto t he v aried a ctivities o f t he f ield a nd r ecording s ections. T he e arliest m ention o f N orman i n a n a rchaeological c ontext a ppears i n a l etter ( NAR c orrespondence f ile) d ated t he 2 nd M ay 1 950 f rom M r L .V. G rinsell o f t he W iltshire V ictoria C ounty H istory C ommittee t o M r J ames F ox ( Assistant A rchaeology O fficer, O rdnance S urvey ), r egarding t he c onsiderable q uantity o f u nrecorded a rchaeological m aterial, e specially b arrows, i n t he W hitecliffe D own/Cold K itchen H ill a rea o f W iltshire ( Maiden B radley p arish a nd L ongbridge/Kingston/Brixton D everill p arishes). G rinsell s tresses t hat ' a c areful s tudy o f t he a rea, s uch a s o ne o ught t o d o, i s o utside t he s cope o f m y V CH w ork .. b ut t here i s am an n amed N .V. Q uinnell, o f ' The S hoe', O ld H ollow , M ere, W ilts w ho h as j ust g one t o l ive t here, a nd i s o n t he s taff o f t he O .S. a t B ristol, a nd i s v ery k een t o d o a s urvey o f a rchaeological t hings i n t he v icinity o f h is n ew h abitat. D o y ou t hink i t w ould b e p ossible t o i ssue h im w ith t wo 2 5 i nch s heets c overing t he a rea .. a nd t hen h e w ill b e a ble t o g et w eaving, a nd b oth t he O S A rchaeology b ranch a nd t he W ilts V CH w ill h ave t he b enefit o f h is r esults.' Ih ave n o i dea i f t he s heets w ere e ver i ssued, o r i f t he ' weaving' N orman h ad a h and i n t he s urvey o f b arrows o n W hitecliffe D own/Cold K itchen H ill, b ut t he a rea i s w ell r epresented i n t he V CH ( Grinsell 1 957). T he l etter m ay b e s ignificant, h owever, i n N orman's t ransf ormation f rom a r egional s urveyor w ith t he O rdnance S urvey a t B ristol t o a n a rchaeological f ield i nvestigator w ith t he A rchaeology D ivision a t C hessington, w hich h e j oined o n t he 2 2nd O ctober 1 951. H e i s f irst n oted i n h is n ew r ole a s o ne o f ' the f ive a dditions t o f ield s taff n ow p repared f or a n e arly s tart i n t he f ield...' ( ADB 5 1 951) a nd p romptly m ade h is d ebut o n t he 1 4th J anuary 1 952 w hen ' the f irst a rchaeological f ield c ourse t o b e h eld i n t he O rdnance S urvey c ommenced i n W est S ussex , i ts p urpose b eing t o t rain f ield s taff i n t he r ecognition, i nvestigation a nd s urveying o f a rchaeological s ites i n a ny p art o f t he c ountry. F ield i nstruction b egan o n t he 2 1st J anuary 1 952, w hen ' the s now o n t he D owns w as b raved i n a s uccessful s earch f or f lint m ines a nd f ield s ystems.' ( ADB 6 1 952). D uring F ebruary t he c ourse s plit i nto t wo g roups, a nd e ach r eceived i ndividual i nstruction i n a djacent a reas. O ne o f t he c ourse i nstructors c ommented t hat ' on a verage t he c ompleted w ork w as o f q uite a g ood s tandard, a nd o dd m istakes w hich h ave o ccurred w ere, o f c ourse, t o b e e xpected.' ( ADB 6 1 952).

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T he f irst f ruits o f N orman's l abours c an b e t raced t hrough t he N AR c omputer, a nd t he e arliest r eccrd o f f ield i nvestigation - d ated t he 2 7th M arch 1 952, r elates t o ab owl b arrow l ater u tilised a s aw indmill s tead ( NAR N o T Q 0 1 S W 4 ) w hich f orms p art o f a s mall b lock o f w ork c ompleted i n t he A mberley a rea o f W est S ussex b etween l ate M arch a nd A pril 1 952. D ue t o a n o utbreak o f f oot a nd m outh d isease -i n t he c attle I m ight a dd - t he t raining c ourse w as p rematurely t erminated i n m id-May a nd N orman r eturned t o H Q. I n m id-July h e w as p osted t o h is n ew f ield s ection i n D orset t o c omplete h is t raining. U nexploded m ortar s hells o n t he a rtillery r anges o f P urbeck s eem t o h ave b een o ne o f t he u nforseen h azards o f t he j ob. L ater i n t he y ear t he s ection m oved b riefly t o S windon a nd G loucester a nd t hen t o s outh D evon a nd D artmoor w hich w as t o b e ' home' f or m uch o f t he f ollowing y ear, a part f rom a b rief s ojourn i n t he R omsey a rea o f H ampshire. O ne s ite i nvestigated i n D evon d uring 1 953, w hich n eeds s pecial m ention h ere, i s t he i mpressive m ultivallate h illfort o f H embury ( NAR N o S T 1 0 S W 4 ), s ituated o n an arrow s pur o f t he B lackdown H ills a bove H oniton. E xcavations b etween 1 930-1935 ( Liddell 1 929-32, 1 933-36) a nd 1 9801 982 ( Todd 1 981, 1 982, 1 983, 1 984 ) r evealed e vidence o f aN eolithic c ausewayed c amp, a p alisaded p hase o f I ron A ge d efences p receding t he m assive r amparts a nd d itches, a nd R oman m ilitary o ccupation i n t he n orth-east p art o f t he h illfort. A lmost a s i mpressive a s t his s equence i s t he l arge s cale s urvey o f t he e arthworks, b eginning w ith t he b old r epresentation b y t he O rdnance S urvey i n t heir 2 5" s urvey o f 1 887. T he f irst r evision o f t his s urvey i s c redited t o N orman o n t he 2 7th N ovember 1 953, a nd i s p robably o ne o f h is f irst i nvestigations o n a m ajor s ite. T he r evision d ocument, n ow h eld i n t he N AR a rchive, i s r eproduced h ere ( Fig 1 ) a s ar educed m onochrome c opy. U nfortunately , t he c opy d oes n ot d o j ustice t o t he c olourful o riginal, b ut I h ave a ttempted t o h ighlight a dditional s urveyed e arthworks w here p ossible; t he r evision b eing l argely a ' touching-up' o r e longation o f t he o riginal s lopes. N early t hirty y ears l ater a c ompletely n ew s urvey o f t he e arthworks w as n ecessary , a nd t he s kills o f N orman a nd a c olleague w ere e mployed t o p roduce a d etailed p lan a t 1 :1250 ( see r educed v ersion. F ig 2 ). I n J anuary 1 954, N orman e xperienced a p eriod o f d etached d uty w ith a nother f ield s ection o perating i n t he F ordingbridge/Cranborne C hase a rea o n t he H ants/Wilts b order. A f ew m onths w ere a lso s pent i n t he C anterbury a nd D over a reas o f K ent, e xamining a mongst o ther a rchaeological m aterial, t he e nigmatic, c halk-cut d eneholes a round D over. T he d etached d uty e nded i n S eptember 1 954 a nd N orman r eturned t o h is o ld s ection i n D orset w here h e r emained u ntil e arly 1 956. T he D orset l andscape w ith i ts a bundance o f I ron A ge/Romano-British f ield s ystems a nd s ettlements a nd a v ariety o f B ronze A ge b arrows, w as t o p lay h ost t o s ome u nexpected v isitors. I n J une 1 955, a ' surprise, b ut m ost w elcome v isitor t o t he s ection w as M r L .V. G rinsell, a nd a n i nteresting e vening w as s pent v irtually g azing a t p ond b arrows b y m oonlight' ( ADB 1 9 1 955) - a h undred y ears e arlier t he C ustoms m en w ould h ave c ertainly v iewed t hem w ith s uspicion.

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A nother o dd a nd a musing i ncident h appened o n t he 2 3rd A ugust 1 955, w hen ' Mr Q uinnell d iscovered a w ell-preserved I A/RB s ettlement a t H igher H oughton a nd m uch t o h is a stonishment w as, w ithin h ours o f t he d iscovery, h otly p ursued b y F leet S treet a gents w ho, b y s ome m ysterious m eans h ad h eard o f t he s ite a nd, n o d oubt w ith m emories o f t he 9 d ays w onder o f t he T emple o f M ithras i n m ind, h ad s ensed a n i tem o f s imilar n ews v alue. M r Q uinnell h ad s ome d ifficulty i n c onvincing t hem t hat s uch s ettlements a re q uite c ommon i n D orset a nd t hat t he d iscovery o f n ew o nes w as a f requent o ccurrence' ( ADB 2 0 1 955). T he s ettlement i n q uestion ( NAR N o S T 8 0 S W 7 4) i s s ituated o n a s outhe ast f acing s lope a nd i n N orman's o wn w ords i s ' set a bout t he 7 00 f t c ontour i n a n a rea o f r ough p asture w hich h as a pparently n ever b een p loughed. T he a rea i s r oughly t riangular i n p lan, a nd t he p erimeter c onsists o f ab ank w ith a n o uter d itch. A cross t he s outhern h alf o f t he s ettlement t here i s an orth-east - s outh-west h ollow-way. T his h as c ut t hrough t he e nclosure b anks; i t i s o bviously m uch l ater i n d ate a nd t he t rack i s f lanked b y b anks. S uperficially i t r esembles a n 1 8th C . h ollow w ay.' A n on-instrumental s ketch s urvey o f t he s ettlement w as m ade a nd f ragments o f I A/RB p ottery w ere p icked u p d uring t he i nvestigation. T he R CHME w ho r e-investigated a nd s urveyed t he s ettlement i n t he l ate 1 960s ( RCHM 1 970 ) - w ithout d ue a cknowledgement t o t he e arlier i nvestigator - i nterpreted t he ' holloww ay ' a s t he p ale o f t he m edieval d eer p ark o f W interborne H oughton, m entioned i n 1 294. B etween S eptember a nd D ecember 1 955, N orman h eld t he f ort, s o t o s peak, i n D orset w hile h is c olleagues t ravelled a cross t he I rish S ea t o t he I sle o f M an f or i nvestigation o f a rchaeological s ites t here. T he f inal b lock o f w ork i n D orset w as c ompleted i n F ebruary 1 956 a nd t he s ection m oved t o W ales ( Glamorgan a nd M onmouthshire) w here t hey r emained u ntil M arch 1 959. T he f ormer O rdnance S urvey a rchaeological r ecord f or t he W elsh c ounties w as t ransferred t o t he R CAHM a t A berystwyth i n 1 983. T his h as n ot b een c onsulted f or m y p aper w hich i s l argely c oncerned w ith N orman's t ravels i n E ngland. H owever, I w ill g ive a s hort a ccount o f t he ' Welsh C onnection' b ased o n t he A rchaeology D ivision B ulletins ( Nos 2 2-34 1 956-1959). F ield i nvestigation w as s tarted i n t he V ale o f G lamorgan i n F ebruary 1 956 a nd p roduced s ites o f a m ainly e cclesiastical a nd m anorial n ature a lthough s ome i nteresting R oman/Dark A ges d efended h omesteads w ere a lso e ncountered. T he h ighland a reas o f G lamorgan w ere e xamined f rom M ay 1 956 a nd r evealed aw ider r ange o f a rchaeological s ites, i ncluding s tone r ound h ouses, s everal c airn c emeteries - n early a lways s ituated j ust b elow t he h ill c rest, a nd D ark A ges/medieval p latform h ouses a nd f armsteads. O ne m ajor t ask w as t he s urvey o f t he R oman r oad f rom G elligaer t o B recon w hich a t o ne p oint w as i llogically m arked o n t he O rdnance S urvey m ap - p lunging o ver a s teep p recipice s ome 3 00 t o 4 00 m etres w est o f i ts t rue p osition. T he G ower P eninsula w as i nvestigated i n l ate 1 956 a nd i ncluded t he e xamination o f t he n umerous c oastal c aves ( Paviland C aves), s everal o f w hich h ad e ntrances j ust w ide e nough f or a h uman t o s queeze t hrough.

7

I nvestigation o f G lamorgan w as s ection m oved t o M onmouthshire.

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T he m ain p roblem f ound d uring f ield w ork i n t he c ounty w as t he d ense n etwork o f R oman r oads, m any o f w hich w ere u nsubstantiated. L ittle p rogress w as m ade i n s olving t he p roblem a lthough t he r oad j oining U sk a nd C aerleon w as s ubstantiated o n t he e ast s ide o f t he R iver U sk w hen i t h ad p reviously b een a ccepted o n t he w est s ide. T he m ajority o f s ites i nvestigated i n M onmouthshire, u p t o t he c ompletion o f t he c ounty i n F ebruary 1 958, w ere 1 6th a nd 1 7th c entury f armhouses a nd d wellings a nd e arly s tone c astles, i ncluding S kenfrith a nd G rosmont. A f ew m inor h illforts a nd s mall m ottes w ere a mongst t he e arthworks i nvestigated. T he m ost n otable a nd o utstanding s ites d ealt w ith w ere t he m edieval c astle a nd t own w all a t C hepstow , t he r omantic r uins o f T intern A bbey a nd t he w ell-preserved R oman t own w all a t C aerwent. O n t he c ompletion o f M onmouthshire, a t wo-week t raining c ourse o n 1 :2500 s urvey m ethods w as c onducted, f ollowed b y ab rief f oray a cross t he b order d uring A pril 1 958 t o c omplete a 1 :2500 s urvey i n t he F orest o f D ean. T hese e vents h eralded i n a n ew e ra o f f ield i nvestigation p rocedure. T he i ntensive c ounty-based i nvestigation w as a bandoned i n f avour o f ap olicy w hich a ligned i tself w ith t he m ain O rdnance S urvey f ield s urvey p rogramme. T his r equired a rchaeological i nvestigation a nd s urvey o f a ntiquities a t 1 :2500 s cale i n t he d efined a reas o f t he f ield p rogramme a nd p rior t o t he w ork o f t he r egional s urveyor. T he r esult w as a v ery r apid m ovement o f a rchaeological f ield i nvestigators f rom o ne a rea t o a nother o ver a p eriod o f f our y ears. T o t ry a nd f ollow N orman i n d etail d uring t his p eriod w ould b e a n e xhaustive e xercise, s o Ih ave g iven o nly a b rief r ésumé o f h is t ravels. B etween A pril 1 958 a nd M arch 1 959 t he s ection w as s till b ased i n S outh W ales a nd w orking m ainly o n 1 :2500 d iagrams i n G lamorgan. A r eturn t o E ngland i n M arch 1 959 w ith a m uch d epleted s ection ( Norman a nd o ne c olleague) w as t o b e t he s tart o f av ery h ectic p eriod. T hey t wice v isited S omerset, H ampshire a nd S outh W ales w ith a l onger p eriod o f i nvestigation ( September t o D ecember 1 959) i n F lintshire, N orth W ales w hich i ncluded t he s urvey o f W at's D yke a nd t he l arge, p reviously u nsurveyed, h illfort o f M oel H irraddug. T wo t ours o f d uty i n H ampshire, S outh W ales, S omerset a nd D evon w ere a lso m ade d uring m uch o f t he f ollowing y ear w ith a m ore s ettled p eriod b etween A ugust 1 960 a nd M arch 1 961 i n C ornwall. F rom A pril t o D ecember 1 961, s everal a reas o f S omerset w ere i nvestigated, i ncluding t he R oman r oad f rom B adbury R ings, D orset t o B ath ( NAR N os R R 4 6 & 5 2). T wo f urther v isits t o H ampshire a nd w ork i n S outh W ales a nd D evon w ere a lso m ade. T he R oman w alled s ettlement a t G atcombe ( NAR N o S T 5 6 N W 1 0) w as o ne o f t he m ajor s ites i nvestigated b y N orman d uring a v isit t o G loucestershire ( now i n A von ) i n 1 962 a nd s elected a reas o f D evon a nd C ornwall w ere a lso e xamined d uring t his y ear. O ne s urprise e xcursion w as t o N orthamptonshire, w hich i s o utside N orman's f amiliar s outh a nd w est t erritory. H e s eems t o h ave q uickly a dapted t o t he M idland t errain a nd p romptly d iscovered a p reviously u nrecorded b owl b arrow

8

( NAR N o S P 7 7 N E 5 )

i n D raughton p arish o n t he 2 2nd A ugust 1 962.

A r ather a musing i ncident, n ot c onnected w ith N orman, b ut c oncerning t he f ield i nvestigators b ased i n K ent i s w orthy o f m ention h ere. I t o ccurred d uring a n e xamination o f a l arge m ound o n t he K ent m arshes i n 1 959. A f arm l abourer w orking n earby a sserted t hat t his w as a s hip b urial. W hen q uestioned a bout t he h ollow i n t he t op ( caused b y a n e arly e xcavation ), h e s upposed t hat t his w as w here e arth h ad f allen d own t he f unnel ( ADB 3 4 1 959). C ounty-based f ield i nvestigation w as r e-introduced i n l ate 1 962, t o t he d elight o f t he A rchaeology D ivision, a nd e nsured t hat t horough r esearch a t c ounty r ecord o ffices a nd m useums c ould o nce a gain b e m ade. I n t he e arly 1 960s N orman w as p romoted t o G rade 3a nd t ook c harge o f h is s ection. T he i nvestigation o f B erkshire w as s tarted b y N orman a nd h is c olleagues i n N ovember 1 962 a nd w ork c oncentrated p rimarily i n t he T hames V alley a nd l ater o n t he B erkshire D owns. C ompletion o f t he c ounty i n e arly 1 964 a ccounted f or o ver 1 500 n ew o r r evised s ites r anging f rom f ind-spots o f A cheulian a xes t o m ulti-period e arthworks. O ne s ite i s m entioned h ere ( NAR N o S U 5 7 S W 1 6) t o e mphasise t he v alue o f t he l ocal i nformant d uring f ield i nvestigation o r r esearch. A r esident o f N ewbury r eported t o N orman t hat t here w ere t wo e arthworks o n t he s ummit o f n earby O are C ommon i n C hieveley p arish ( now i n H ermitage). F ield i nvestigation i n M ay 1 963 c onfirmed t he o bservation a nd l ocated a s mall e nclosure o f s light c onstruction, p robably p astoral, a nd a w eaker, c ircular e nclosure w ith a s tronger o uter w ork o r a nnexe, p robably o f ad efensive n ature. T he f ield r eport c oncluded t hat t he l atter ' could b e o f I A o rigin, b ut i ts p lan a nd r easonable s tate o f p reservation i s m ore s uggestive o f a f orm o f r ing m otte a nd b ailey ' . T he e arthworks w ere s urveyed a t 1 :2500 a nd a re f igured h ere ( Fig 3 ). Ic an f ind n o p ublished r eference t o t he e arthworks b ut i t i s p ossible t hat t hey h ad s ome a ssociation w ith A bingdon A bbey w ho h eld c ertain l ands a t O are b etween 9 68 a nd 1 538 ( Peake 1 924). A t t he e nd o f J une 1 964 t he s ection m oved t o T aunton f or c ounty i nvestigation o f S omerset. W ork b egan i n t he C oalfield a rea a nd t hen f ocussed o n t he Q uantocks a nd E xmoor. L ady F ox p aid a v isit t o t he s ection a t t he u nfinished h illfort o f ' Elworthy B arrows' ( NAR N o S T 0 3 S E1) i n J une 1 965. T he c entral a nd s outhern a reas o f t he c ounty , i ncluding t he M endips, w ere e xamined f or t he r emainder o f 1 965 a nd t hroughout 1 966 u ntil F ebruary 1 967 w hen t he c ounty i nvestigation w as l argely c omplete. T he p eriod a fter S omerset w as o ne o f f urther c hange i n r espect o f c ounty-based i nvestigation, a s m ore e mphasis w as o nce a gain p laced o n t he r equirements o f t he O rdnance S urvey f ield p rogramme. T he i nvestigation o f W iltshire w hich w as s tarted i n M arch 1 967 b y N orman a nd h is c olleagues w as a p articularly p rotracted a ffair. P rogress w as g reatly h indered b y m onths o f p riority w ork i n G loucestershire ( 19687 2 & 1 976), A von ( 1976-77), O xfordshire ( including t he f ormer B erkshire p art - 1 970-71 & 1 976-77), S omerset ( 1971, 1 973-75) a nd D orset ( 1973), b ut m ore i mportantly i n D evon a nd C ornwall. A t t he b eginning o f i nvestigation o f W iltshire, t he R oman r oads a nd l inear e arthworks o f t he c ounty w ere e xamined. A u seful ' find' i n t he D evizes M useum w ere t he C olt H oare n otebooks c ontaining a ccounts o f

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h is t ravels a long t he R oman r oads o f W iltshire b etween 1 802-1806. O ne i nteresting f act w as t he u se o f l abourers w ho w ere r egularly e mployed t o c ompletely c lear a R oman r oad i n n ewly e nclosed l and. T his p ractice w ould a lmost c ertainly e xplain t he l arge g aps i n s everal w ell-attested r oads ( ADB 6 7 1 967). N orth a nd n orth-west W iltshire w ere t he m ain a reas o f i nvestigation b etween 1 967 a nd 1 970 i ncluding l iterally t housands o f r ound b arrows o n S alisbury P lain a lone. M any o f t he s ites w ere i nvestigated b y N orman a nd w ould b e w orthy o f d iscussion h ere, b ut I h ave h ad t o r estrict t hese t o j ust o ne. T he s elected f eature i s a c ircular e arthwork s ituated i n L ongbridge D everill p arish ( NAR N o S T 8 4 S E 4 ) w hich h as t he e choes o f aH enry L ongfellow l ine - ' and t hings a re n ot w hat t hey s eem ' -a bout i t. T he e arthwork w as f irst m entioned i n 1 800 a s al arge c ircular b arrow w ith a b road b ank a nd s urrounding d itch , b ut l ater a uthorities w ere a t v ariance i n i ts c lassification. G rinsell ( 1957) l isted i t a s ' an e nclosure, 1 /2 a cre i n a rea , r oughly c ircular w ith a n i nner d itch '. P evsner ( 1963) i ncluded i t a s ' a r ing d efensive e arthwork l ike a m otte a nd b ailey w ithout t he m ound ' a nd i t i s s cheduled ( Wilts 4 47 ) a s a s aucer b arrow w ith o uter b ank . O ne o f N orman 's f ellow i nvestigators w ho s urveyed t he s ite i n 1 966 n oted t hat i t h ad t he c haracteristics o f aC lass 1 h enge, a n o pinion s hared b y N orman w hen h e c ompiled t he f ield r eport i n 1 967 ( on N AR s ite c ard ). D r I sobel S mith ( RCHM S alisbury ) w as n otified o f t his o pinion a nd

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v isited t he e arthwork i n S eptember 1 967. S he r eported t hat i n h er v iew i t w as a lmost c ertainly a h enge o f r ather u nusual d imensions a nd r ecommended s cheduling u nder t hat c lassification. A s hort p ublished a ccount a nd s urvey o f t he h enge b y N orman a ppears i n t he W iltshire A rchaeological M agazine ( Quinnell 1 970 ) a nd i s r eproduced h ere ( Fig 4 ) w ith t he p ermission o f t he p ublishers. A r ecent g round a nd g eophysical s urvey o f t he h enge b y R CHME s taff a t S alisbury h as r evealed f or t he f irst t ime t he m arked ' causewayed' n ature o f t he d itch. A ' similar' t ype o f f eature s een a s a c ropmark o n a n a ir p hotograph t aken n ear C irencester i s m entioned h ere f or o ther r easons. T he c ropmark w as d iscovered b y a c orrespondent o f t he A rchaeology D ivision a nd s howed c learly a s a v ery i mpressive d ouble-ringed ' henge', b ut o n g round i nspection b y N orman's s ection i n 1 961 t he t rue o rigin o f t he f eature w as t raced t o a c ircular a rrangement o f c hicken s heds w hich h ad b een r ecently r emoved. E vidently t he r esemblance t o

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t he f amous W oodhenge w as q uite r emarkable ( ADB 4 5 1 961). T he c ounty i nvestigation o f W iltshire w as s uspended i n M arch 1 971 a nd C ornwall w as u pgraded f or c ounty o verhaul i nstead. W iltshire w as s till l argely i ncomplete a fter 1 971 a nd o nly s poradic i nvestigation f or t he O S f ield s urvey p rogramme c an b e t raced i n t he c omputerised N AR u ntil 1 976. D evon a nd C ornwall e merged a s t he m ajor c ounties f or f ield i nvestigation a fter 1 971, a nd h ave b een w orked o n a lmost c ontinuously u p t o t he p resent. T he a ccompanying m ap ( Fig 5 ) g ives a g eneral p icture o f t he a reas ( 100km s quares) i nvestigated b y N orman, i ncluding w ork i n t he 1 950s a nd 1 960s. Ih ave n ot a ttempted t o s how t he v olume o f w ork i n e ach s quare a t a ny g iven t ime, b ut t he m ain a reas o f i nvestigation w ere D artmoor, t he I sles o f S cilly a nd B odmin M oor. F rom F ebruary t o J uly 1 978 w ork w as e ntirely g iven o ver t o S cilly , p robably t he m ost i ntensive p iece o f O S w ork N orman w as i nvolved w ith ( see T homas t his v olume). O ut o f t he v ast t reasure t rove o f a rchaeological s ites, I h ave c hosen a v ery m odest s hell m idden o n t he i sland o f A nnet, S cilly ( NAR N o S V 8 0 N E 3 9) w hich p erhaps d emonstrates t he t rained m ind a nd e ye o f a n e xperienced i nvestigator. T he m idden i s n oted b y G rigson ( Grigson 1 977) i n t he s helter o f C amn W indlass. F ield i nvestigation b y N orman o n t he 9 th A pril 1 978 d uly l ocated t he m idden w hich h e d escribes a s a ' mass o f l impet s hells'. A t t his p oint h e m ay h ave p aused f or t hought a nd w ondered - ' Now i f t his i s am idden, c ould t here b e ah abitation n earby?' - a nd c asting h is e yes o nly t wenty m etres t o t he W est h e l ocated ap reviously u nrecorded c ircular b ut o f B ronze A ge t ype w hich w as c learly a ssociated w ith t he m idden ( Fig 6 ).

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O n t he i st A pril 1 983 t he f unctions a nd r esponsibilities o f t he O rdnance S urvey A rchaeology D ivision w ere t ransferred t o t he R CHME. N orman c hanged h is a rchaeological h at a nd m oved t o t he R CHME r egional o ffice a t R ose D uryard, E xeter a nd t he r ecords s ection o f t he A rchaeology D ivision o f t he O rdnance S urvey i n S outhampton b ecame t he R CHME N ational A rchaeological R ecord. T he f ormer O rdnance S urvey a rchaeological i ndex f or t he E nglish c ounties h as n ow d eveloped i nto t he c omputerised N AR w ith O N-LINE f acilities a nd i s b eing g radually e xpanded t o i nclude a w ider r ange o f a rchaeological a nd h istorical d ata o f a ll p eriods. R eturning o nce a gain t o t he f ield i nvestigation o f D evon a nd C ornwall, N orman a nd h is R CHME c olleagues i n a j oint v enture w ith t he C ornwall A rchaeology U nit u ndertook t he g round s urvey a nd c hecking o f t he B odmin M oor a ir p hotographic i nvestigation a nd t ranscription p roject f rom 1 983-1985 ( see J ohnson a nd R ose, t his v olume). A part f rom t he m ainstream p roject w ork, t he R CHME f ield s taff s till u ndertake c ontract s urvey a nd i nvestigation f or t he O rdnance S urvey f ield p rogramme. T his w ould a ccount f or N orman's i nvestigat ions i n t he U pper T amar V alley ( 1983), W est P enwith ( 1985-86), T ruro ( 1986), K ingsbridge ( 1986-87) a nd f urther a field i n M aidstone, H enleyo n-Thames a nd P urbeck ( all i n 1 986). F rom t he W est P enwith a rea, I h ave s elected a n e arthwork o n t he G allic s ounding C am nL es B oel ( NAR N o S W 3 2 S E 7 ) a s a n e xample o f N orman's m ost r ecent s urvey w ork ( Fig 7 ). T he f eature i s k nown a s a n I ron A ge c liff c astle w ith t wo r amparts a nd d itch o n t he N orth a nd p ossibly o ne r ampart o n t he S outh ( Russell 1 971). T he C ornwall S MR s ite r ecord ( Cornwall S MR 1 976) a lso n oted t wo s tones w hich m ay h ave f ormed t he o riginal g ateway , a nd a p ossible o uter d efensive b ank a nd d itch o n t he E ast. N orman i n h is d etailed f ield r eport - 1 0th S eptember 1 986 - c onsidered t he c lassification o f c liff c astle a s a nomalous s tating t hat ' There i s n o e vidence o f a ny d efence o ther t han o n t he N . s ide o f t he p romontory .. a nd n o c orresponding w ork t o t he S . o f t he s tones, o nly s ome i rregular p rotrusions o f r ock ..'. H e d iscounted t he i dea o f a n o uter d efence o n t he E ast w hich w as ' non-defensive i n n ature' a nd m ore l ikely t o d emarcate t he e nclosure o f H igher B osistow C liff, p robably i n t he 1 9th c entury. T he s tones w ere p roblematical; t he s outhernmost o ne, i f i t w as a n e ntrance s tone, s uggested t hat e ither t he f ortification w as u nfinished o r a ll w alling h as b een r emoved .. a lternatively , t his i s n ot a n I A s tructure a nd h ad s ome p urpose u nconnected w ith f ortification'. T he m ajor p roject o f 1 986-87 w as a p ilot s urvey o n E xmoor i n t he v icinity o f D unkery B eacon a nd i ncluded t he r ecognition a nd p lanning o f t he e xtensive p rehistoric s ettlement a nd f ield s ystem o n C odsend M oor ( see P attison a nd S ainsbury , t his v olume). W ork a lso c oncentrated o n d etailed s urvey o f s elected s ites f rom t he B odmin M oor p roject. T he l atest, b ut u ndoubtedly n ot t he l ast, f ield r eport i n t he c omputerised N AR w hich b ears t he f amiliar N VQ i nitials, f orms p art o f a 1 :2500 R esurvey b lock f or t he O rdnance S urvey. T he f ield r eport, d ated t he 1 8th N ovember 1 988, r elates t o t he g roup o f o ccupied c aves a t T orbryan ( NAR N o S X 8 6 N W 8 ), n ear N ewton A bbot. N orman p robably h ad n o h esitation i n e ntering t hese d ark s ubterranean p assages a s h e h ad p reviously i nvestigated t hem o n t he 3 1st M ay 1 960.

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A cknowledgements I w ould l ike A rchaeological g uidance.

t o t hank J ohn H art, a nd N atural H istory

J anet C otmore, t he W iltshire S ociety f or t heir h elp a nd

B ibliography C ornwall S MR 1 976 . C ornwall C ounty S ites & M onuments R ecord C ard S W 3 2 S E 1 7 C a ir n L es B oel - V isited 2 7th S eptember 1 976 . G rigson , G1 977 T he S c illy rIs les , r evised e dition , 5 0 . D uckworth , L ondon . G rinsell , LV 1 957 A rchaeological G azetteer . MY W i ltshire 1 , p t 1( e d RBP ugh ),

1 5

2 1-279 . L iddell , DM 1 929-32 R eport o n t he E xcavations a t H embury F ort , D evon . P rx D ev c t i A rc haeo l E xp lor S oc 1 , ( 1 930 ) 3 9-63 , ( 1 931 ) 9 0-120 , ( 1 932 ) 1 62-190 . L iddell , DM 1 933-36 R eport o n t he E xcavations a t H embury F ort , D evon . P roc D evo n A rc haeo l Ev lor S oc 2 , ( 1 934-35 ) 1 35-175 P eake , HJE 1 924 V CH B erksh ire 4 , 5 9 . H undred o f F a ircro ss . P evsner , N1 963 B ui ld ing s o fE ng land - W i ltshire 4 55 ( i n f . HR oss ). Q u innell , NV1 970 T he S utton C a r t o on E arthwork . W i ltsh ire A rc haeo l M ag 6 5 , 1 90 -1 p lan . R ussell , V1 971 W est P enw ith S urvey , 3 9 , ( C ornwa ll A rchaeol S oc P aroc h C heck list S urvey ). R OM 1 970 Ra if I nvento ry -arset 3 , p t 2 , 2 98 , p lan . T odd , M1 981 A rc haeo l i n D evo n A nnua l R eport 4 , 2 4 . D evon C C . T odd , M1 982 A rc haeo l i n D evo n A nnual R eport 5 , 2 4-25 . D evon C C . T odd , M1 983 A rc haeo l i n D evo n A nnua l R eport 6 , 2 7-29 . D evon C C . T odd , N1 984 A ntiqu ity 5 8 , 1 71-74 p lans .

1 6

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J OHN A UBREY - T HE F IRST A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEYOR? H umphrey W elfare

I t w as a r oyal c ommission - f rom C harles I I - t hat l ed t o w hat s eems t o h ave b een t he f irst s urvey , t o a n a cceptable s tandard , o f a n a rchaeological e arthwork i n B ritain. J ohn A ubrey o f B road C halke h ad ' discovered' t he h enge a t A vebury i n n orthern W iltshire o n J anuary 7 th 1 649 - e xactly t hree w eeks b efore t he e xecution o f C harles I - w hen h e w as o ut w ith a h unting p arty n otable f or i ts R oyalist s ympathies ( Powell 1 988, 5 9-63) ' ... t he C hase l ed u s ( at l ength) t hrough t he v illage o f A ubury, i nto t he c loses t here: w here I w as w onderfully s urprised a t t he s ight o f t hose v ast s tones, o f w hich I h ad n ever h eard b efore, a s a lso a t t he m ighty B ank a nd g rasse [ ditch ] a bout i t: I o bserved i n t he i nclosures s ome s egments o f r ude c ircles m ade w ith t hose s tones, w hence I c oncluded, t hey h ad b een i n t he o ld t ime c omplete. I l eft m y C ompany a w hile, e ntertaining m y s eife w ith a m ore d elightful i ndagation [ investigation ]: a nd t hen ( steered b y t he c ry o f t he H ounds) o vertooke t he c ompany a nd w ent w ith t hem t o K ynnet, w here w as a g ood H unting d inner p rovided.' ( Aubrey 1 981, 1 8-19). T his w as t o p rove o ne o f t he s eminal e xperiences o f h is l ife f or i t f ired h is i magination i nto a ntiquarian r esearch a nd r ecording - a n a ctivity w hich, i f i t b rought h im l ittle m aterial r eward, y et c ontributed t o h is l asting f ame. S ix y ears l ater, w hen A ubrey w as t wenty-nine, I nigo J ones's b ook o n S tonehenge w as p osthumously p ublished ( Jones 1 655). T his A ubrey ' read w ith g reat d elight; t here i s ag reat d eale o f L earning i n i t: b ut h aving c ompared h is S cheme w ith t he M onument i tself, I f ound h e h ad n ot d ealt f airly: b ut h ad .. f ramed t he m onument t o h is o wn H ypothesis' ( Aubrey 1 981, 1 9-20). J ones h imself c laimed t o h ave t aken a g reat d eal o f t rouble, t he s ite ' being b y m e w ith n o l ittle p ains, a nd c harge, m easured o ut a nd t he f oundations t hereof d iligently s earched.' B ut h is V itruvian z eal s eized u pon t he p artial s ymmetry o f t he m onument t o w ork i t i nto a n i deal g eometry. ' I h ave r educed [ it] i nto D esign, n ot o nely a s t he r uine t hereof n ow a ppears, b ut a s ( in m y j udgement) i t w as i n i ts p ristine p erfection' ( Jones 1 655, 5 6). S ince B road C halke i s o nly a bout f ourteen m iles f rom S tonehenge, i t w as c omparatively e asy f or t he e ver-inquisitive A ubrey t o c onsider J ones's d epiction a t f irst-hand. H is e vident d issatisfaction, c oupled w ith a n i nvitation t o g o h awking t hat a utumn a t A vebury ' gave m e a n e dge t o m ake m ore r esearches' ( 1981, 2 0). T ypically o f A ubrey , t his w as n ot t ranslated i nto p ractical a ction f or a nother e ight y ears - a nd t hen o nly b ecause o f t he i ntervention o f o ne w hom h e c ould n ot r efuse. C harles I I, w hen ( the a uthor o f a V iscount B rouncker S ociety ) w as t old o f

i n c onversation w ith h is d octor, W alter C harleton b ook a ttributing S tonehenge t o t he D anes), a nd ( a m athematician a nd l ater P resident o f t he R oyal A ubrey 's f amous o pinion t hat A vebury ' did a s m uch

1 7

e xcell S toneheng, a s aC athedral d oes aP arish C hurch' ( Aubrey 1 981, 2 1). S ummoned b efore t he K ing, A ubrey b rought w ith h im a s ketch o f t he s ite d rawn h urriedly f rom m emory ( Burl 1 979, 2 49, n 25; H unter 1 975, 1 58, n 6). T he u pshot w as t hat, a bout a f ortnight l ater, A ubrey c onducted C harles a round ' that s tupendious A ntiquity ' a nd w as c ommanded t o w rite a d escription o f t he e arthworks a nd t o p resent t his t o t he K ing. L ater t hat y ear, i n S eptember 1 663, i n o bedience t o H is M ajesty 's c ommand , A ubrey ' surveyed t hat o ld m onument o f A ubury w ith a p lain-table, a nd a fterwards t ooke a R eview o f S tonehenge' ( 1981, 2 2).

T he S urvey o f A vebury A s p lane-tabling i s u sually a t wo-man t ask, a s ervant p robably a ssisted h im, a lthough i t w as n ot t he v ersatile R obinet P rudome, w ho o nly a rrived f rom F rance t he f ollowing y ear ( Powell 1 988, 1 12-13). T heir j ob w as c omplicated b y o bscured s ight-lines: ' By r eason o f t he c rosse-streates, H ouses, G ardens, O rchards, a nd s everall s mall C loses, a nd t he F ractures m ade i n t his A ntiquity f or t he b uilding o f t he H ouses, i t w as n o v ery e asy T aske t o t race o ut t he V estigia, a nd s o t o m ake t his S urvey ' ( Aubrey 1 981, 3 9). A lthough n ever p ublished i n A ubrey 's l ifetime - a nd p robably n ever s hown t o t he K ing - h is p lan h as b een r eproduced i n r ecent y ears f rom t he m anuscript o f h is g reat b ook o n t he a rchaeology o f B ritain, M bnumenta B ritannica ( Fig 1 ; A ubrey 1 981, 4 4-5; B url 1 979, 4 3), a nd e ven n ow w ould n ot d isgrace a c ounty j ournal. H e g ives n o i ndication o f t he m ethod o f s urvey u sed b ut i t p robably e ntailed t raversing a nd r adiation, p rocedures w hich w ere b eing a dvocated a t t he t ime ( cf. R icheson 1 966, 1 16-117). H owsoever i t w as t ackled, i t i s e vident t hat t he c ontemporary d etail w as i rksome a nd h e l eft i t o ff t he p lan. ' I h ave d isempestered t he S cheme o f t he E nclosures, a nd H ouses e tc., w hich a re a ltogether f oreigne t o t his A ntiquity , a nd w ould b ut h ave c lowded a nd d arkned t he r eall D esigne' ( Aubrey 1 981, 3 9). T he o nly e xception w as t he p arish c hurch w hich, t ogether w ith t he ' cove', i s s een i n a l ow p erspective b ird's e ye v iew. E verything e lse i s a t rue p lan, a c oncept a nd m ethod o f d epiction t hat h ad o nly b een s lowly m astered i n t he s ixteenth c entury ( Skelton a nd H arvey 1 986, 9 ). T he c onventions t hat A ubrey u sed f or t he m ajor e lements o f t he e arthwork a re s imple: a b road b and o f w ash f or t he i nternal d itch a nd a n u ncoloured b and f or t he e xternal r ampart, w ith ' feathering' w ithin i ts o uter e dge. O ther r ecognisably m odern f eatures i nclude a s imple c ompass r ose t he p lan i s o riented w ith N orth a t t he t op - a nd a l abelled s ketch p rofile a cross t he b ank a nd d itch. T here i s n o b ar-scale b ut a n a nnotation: ' This w as p rojected b y t he h alfe-inch S cale'; m easurement o f t he o riginal d ocument r eveals t hat t his i s a s cale o f a n h alf-inch t o f our p erches. A ssessment o f t he p lan's m etrical a ccuracy i s i nhibited b y n ot k nowing h ow i t w as t ransferred f rom t he p lane-table t o M bnumenta B ritannica b ut a m arginal c omment s tates t hat t he d iameters b etween t he e ntrances a re s ixty p erches e ach - a bout 3 02m A lthough t his i s o bviously a r ound n umber w hich s hould n ot b e e xamined t oo c ritically , a t f irst s ight A ubrey s eems f airly b adly o ut h ere t he a ctual d istance s hould b e a bout 3 60m. H owever t he p roportions a re e xactly r ight, a c onclusion r einforced b y t he n ote b elow t he d rawn

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' Profil o f r ampire a nd g rasse' t hat e ach w as ' fower p erches a cross'. E ven a t t hat t ime t he p erch w as n ot f ully s tandardised: h ad A ubrey b een u sing t he ' woodland p erch' o f 1 8 f t ( as o pposed t o 1 6 f t 6 i ns) a ny e rror w ould b e m uch r educed ( cf. C hilton 1 959, 1 13-14 ). T he a doption o f t he e nigmatic ' halfe-inch S cale' w ill b e e xplained b elow. T he o verall s hape o f t he e arthworks i s g ood, f aithfully d epicting t he s udden c hanges o f a ngle o n t he s outh-west ( close t o s tones 7 t o 9 o f t he O uter C ircle ) a nd i n t he n orth-east a rc. T he i rregularity o f t he n orth-west a rc - w hich i s n ot i n f act t rue o f t he i nner e dge o f t he d itch - s trongly s uggests t hat i n A ubrey 's s urvey t he s taff w as f ollowing t he c rest o f t he b ank b ut t hat h ere, w here t he b ank i s l evelled, i t h ad t o d escend t o t he e xternal l ip o f t he d itch a t n ormal g round l evel. ( The c onclusion m ust b e t hat i n s pite o f A ubrey 's o wn d rawing, t his p ortion o f t he b ank h ad a lready g one; t he m agnificent G reat B arn -u sually d ated t o t he l ate s eventeenth c entury - w as e ither a lready b uilt a cross t he c ourse o f t he b ank b y 1 663, o r i t w as n ot t he f irst s tructure o n t he s ite.) T his a part, t he a rchaeological d etail t hat A ubrey a lone r ecords a nd w hich h as i mportant c onsequences f or t he i nterpretation a nd m anagement o f t he s ite - i s n ot d ealt w ith h ere.

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A s w e h ave s een, v ery l ittle o f t he c ontemporary d etail t hat A ubrey f ound s o t iresome w as s hown o n h is p lan, t he m ajor e xceptions b eing t he f our r oads a nd t he c hurch. T he f ormer s eem a ccurate e nough, a lthough t he o ld M arlborough r oad, l eading E ast o nto O verton D own, a rcs m ore t o t he N orth t han m ight b e e xpected w ithin t he C ircle. F our d ashed l ines e xtending N orth a nd S outh a cross t he i nterior r epresent t he m ajor d ivisions b etween t he ' severall s mall C loses' t hat h e m entions. T hese w ere d epicted m ore a rtistically t wo g enerations l ater b y S tukeley i n 1 721 ( 1743, f rontispiece ) a nd a re s till c learly v isible o n a ir p hotographs ( cf. B url 1 979, 4 -5). W ith t he c hurch A ubrey e vidently m ade a m istake. P eripheral t o h is p rincipal i nterest, a nd n o d oubt p artly h idden b y t he c ottages i n t he v illage, h e a t f irst p lotted i ts p osition a bout 7 0m t oo f ar E ast - o n t he n orth s ide o f t he w est e ntrance, o n t he f ormer l ine o f t he b ank. T he d rawing o f i t h ad t o b e s cratched o ut a nd c orrectly r epositioned. A ll i n a ll, A ubrey 's p lan i s av ery f air d epiction o f t he s ite. I n o rder t o p ut h is a chievement b riefly i nto p erspective, i t i s o f i nterest t o c ompare h is s urvey w ith t hat o f h is e minent s uccessor, W illiam S tukeley, w ho h ad h ad t he b enefit o f s ome s cientific t raining a t C ambridge, a nd a s ab oy i n H olbeach h ad b een t aught t he e lements o f s urveying ( Piggott 1 985, 2 8). S tukeley 's w ork a t A vebury w as d irectly i nspired b y A ubrey 's. H e h ad c opied G ale's t ranscript o f t he t ext a nd p lan f rom t he M bnumenta B ritannica i mmediately b efore h is f irst v isit i n 1 719 w hen h e p repared h is i nitial s ketch ( Piggott 1 985, 4 6, 1 65, 4 8). T wo y ears l ater h e, w ith R oger G ale, m easured r ound t he o uter e dge o f t he b ank ( 1743, 2 0 ) a nd l ater d rew u p f our c opies o f h is r esults w hile a t W orcester ( Piggott 1 985, 1 65). I t w as t he r esult o f ' innumerable m easurements' a nd t he p roduct o f a n a cute o bserver a nd e xcellent d raughtsman, w hose r ecord c annot b e u nderestimated; h owever a s ap iece o f t echnical s urvey , S tukeley 's g reat p lan a nd i ts m anus cript p recursor ( Burl 1 979, 4 8, f ig. 2 3) w ere d ecidedly i nferior t o A ubrey 's. S tukeley 's c ircumferences o f t he D itch, t he B ank, t he O uter C ircle a nd t he t wo I nner C ircles w ere e ach d rawn p erfectly c ircular n o d oubt w ith a p air o f c ompasses. T here w as t hus n o h ope t hat t he c ontemporary d etail, w hich w as p resumably p lane-tabled, c ould b e m ade t o m arry w ith t his i mprecise d iagrammatic s cheme. A lthough t he r esult i s a w onderful a nd i nformative i llustration i t i s, i f o ne d eals h arshly, a f udge.

T he o ther p lans i n l en tmenta B ritannica B efore e xamining w hy A ubrey e xhibited s uch a n e arly f lash o f m odern s ystematic s urvey m ethod , h is t reatment o f o ther s ites i n t he M bnumenta B ritannica s hould b e c onsidered. F rankly , a fter A vebury , t hey a re a d isappointment. C ontrary t o t he i mpression o f i mmediate a ction t hat A ubrey t acitly g ives ( 1981, 2 2), i t w as n ot u ntil t hree y ears l ater, i n 1 666, t hat h e t ook h is ' Review ' o f S tonehenge. T he p lan h e p roduced i s c ertainly m arkedly s uperior t o t hat o f I nigo J ones ( 1655, 5 9; A ubrey 1 981, 8 1), t o w hich h e h ad t aken s uch e xception. H owever A ubrey a lso s eems t o h ave b een s educed b y t he d esign o f t he s tone s ettings a nd, a s a r esult, t his p lan i s m uch m ore s chematic t han t hat o f A vebury , e ven h aving a t ouch o f r econstruction. I ndeed, a lthough h e t ook a l ot o f c areful m easurem ents, t he ' Review ' s eems n ot t o h ave b een a s urvey a t a ll, b ut a

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p aper r evision o f J ones's i dealised d iagram. N one o f t he f allen s tones w ere s hown b y A ubrey b ut t he p owers o f o bservation t hat h e e xhibited w ere n evertheless a cute - b est i nstanced i n h is r ecognition o f f ive o f t he c ircle o f s mall p its, j ust i nside t he b ank, t hat b ear h is n ame. I n t he e nd, i t w as n ot u ntil 1 747 t hat t he f irst t olerably a ccurate p lan o f S tonehenge w as p ublished ( Hunter 1 971, 1 91). T he o ther p lans i n t he M bnumenta B ritannica o nly u nderline A vebury 's d istinction a s t he s ole e xample t o b e a ccorded p roper s urvey. A ll t he o ther c urvilinear s ites w ere e vidently d rawn w ith c ompasses, u sing p aced m easurements. T his a pplied w hether t hey w ere p resented a s t humbnail s ketches o r o n a l arger s cale. I nstances o f t his a re t he s upposed c ircle i ncorporating t he D evil's A rrows i n N orth Y orkshire; t he h enges k nown a s K ing A rthur's R ound T able a nd M ayburgh i n C umbria; a nd t he W iltshire h illforts o f F igsbury , Y arnbury a nd O ld S arum ( Aubrey 1 981, 1 12-14, 2 85-9, 4 03). A ubrey w as, h owever, v ery c onscious o f t he n eed f or a ccurate s urveys, l amenting t hat a t S tanton D rew i n S omerset h e w as t hwarted i n h is p rotested g ood i ntentions b y t he d emands o f t he a gricultural y ear. T he s tone c ircles a nd a venues t here h ad b een f amiliar t o h im f rom c hildhood f or t hey w ere o nly f our m iles f rom h is G randmother's h ome a t B urnett ( Powell 1 988, 3 1, 2 5-26). A fter v isiting i n 1 664, o r t herea bouts, h e w rote: ' When I l ast s awe t his i t w as i n H arvest t ime, a nd t he B arley b eing t hen r ipe I c ould n ot c ome t o S urvey t he s tones s o e xactly a s I w ould o therwise h ave d onne b ut t his S cheme ( as i t i s) r essembleth i t' ( 1981, 6 7, 6 9). S adly, h is i llustration d oes n o s uch t hing; a part p erhaps f rom s ections o f t he a venues, t he s ettings o f s tones a re a lmost u nrecognisable.

A ubrey , m athematics, a nd t he g rowth o f i nstrumental s urveying W hy w as i t t hat J ohn A ubrey, a n a miable b ut i n m any w ays i mpractical s cholar, m ost w idely r emembered f or h is b iographical s ketches, b ecame a p ioneer i n a pplying i nstrumental s urvey t o t he r ecording a nd i nterpretation o f t he l andscape? H is l ong f ascination w ith a ntiquities h e h imself e xplained ( 1981, 1 7) b ut o n h is a cquaintance w ith p ractical s urveying h e s ays n othing - a s ilence a pparently m aintained w ith c onsistency b y a ll t he c ommentators o n h is w ork. H owever, t hat A ubrey s hould r ecognise t hat a m etrically a ccurate s urvey w as a n a ppropriate a pproach t o t he u nderstanding o f a ncient e arthworks s hould c ause n o s urprise, f or i t w as a n atural c onsequence o f h is b irth a nd u pbringing. B orn a c ountry g entleman, c ircumstances a llowed h im t o f ollow h is w ide i ntellectual i nterests: t his w as s omet imes ' to t he d etriment o f h is m aterial w ell-being' f or h e h ad ' a z est f or n ew i deas .. w hich i n t he e xcitement o f t he c hase f or i nformation s ometimes o ver-rode w orldly s hrewdness' ( Buchanan-Brown 1 974, 1 87, 1 88). H is o mnivorous a cademic t astes - b y n o m eans c onfined t o b iography a nd a ntiquities - a nd h is p lace i n t he i ntellectual c ircles o f t he l ater s eventeenth c entury h ave b een c onsidered i n d etail b y H unter ( 1975) a nd P owell ( 1988). B lessed w ith a ' crowded c uriositys hop o f ab rain ' ( Strachey 1 931, 2 4), h e w as a s tudent o f p lace-names a nd f olklore, f ascinated b y a strology , m agic a nd t he o ccult; o f h is e xtensive w riting h e w as p articularly p leased w ith h is b ook o n t he t heory o f e ducation ( Stephens 1 972; b ut s ee H unter 1 975, 2 35 a nd T urner 1 973, 6 1, n 31).

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A k een o bserver o f n atural p henomena , i t w as a lmost i nevitable t hat s cience a nd m athematics s hould r eveal t hemselves a s t he c entral p ivot o f h is t hought. T o h im, a rithmetic a nd g eometry w ere ' the k eys, t hat o pen u nto u s a ll M athematicall a nd P hilosophicall k nowledge, a nd b y c onsequence .. a ll o ther k nowledge' ( Turner 1 973, 6 2; S tephens 1 972, 1 8). A n e arly m ember o f t he R oyal S ociety , h e w as c onstantly i n t he c ompany o f m athematicians a nd s cientists, c ategories w hich a re d isproportionately p rominent i n B rief L ives . F urthermore, h e l ater b egan t o p repare a v olume t o b e e ntitled L ives o f O ur E nglish N athematicall W riters w hich w as t o b e, i n e ffect, ah istory o f t he d iscipline ( Powell 1 988, 2 11-12, 2 71, 3 09-10 ). O f i tself, h owever, p ure m athematics w as o f l ittle v alue t o t he l anded c lasses w ithin w hich A ubrey g rew u p. N evertheless, w hen s uitably a pplied, i t w as t he v ery f oundation o f t he q uantification a nd v aluation o f l and, t hings m uch m ore r eadily a ppreciated. T his s timulus f or t he r apid g rowth o f t his p ractical e lement h ad i ts r oots i n t he l ast d ays o f m edieval B ritain w hen l and-holdings w ere s till p oorly r ecorded. S kelton a nd H arvey h ave d escribed h ow ' the m aplessn ess o f t he M iddle A ges i s s omething v ery d ifficult f or u s t o g rasp'; i ndeed, t here a re o nly t hirty-five m aps o f l ocalities i n B ritain k nown t o d ate f rom b efore 1 500. B efore t he s ixteenth c entury , t he v ery i dea o f am ap h ad s o l ittle c urrency t hat f ew w ere i n a ny w ay e quipped t o r ead a nd u nderstand o ne a t a ll. T he f amiliarity w ith c artographic c onventions b ecame f railly e stablished i n s ome c lasses d uring t he e arly s ixteenth c entury , a nd b y t he r eign o f E lizabeth , m aps w ere i n c omparatively c ommon u se ( Skelton a nd H arvey 1 986, 4 , 5 , 1 7-18; H arvey 1 987; T aylor 1 930 ). B efore t his, e state s urveys, t enurial r ecords, t he p lanning o f an ew s ettlement o r o f am ilitary c ampaign, w ould a ll h ave b een p resented a s a w ritten d escription - a n a pproach u nchanged s ince D omesday B ook. I n a ny ' survey ', w ords w ere c ompletely d ominant a nd g raphics h ad n o p lace a t a ll. E ven t he e arliest t hin m anuals o n s urveying t hat a ppeared i n E nglish, i n 1 523 a nd 1 537, o nly h elped t he p ractitioner t o p roduce m ore a ccurate f igures f or h is d escription, f urlong b y f urlong ( Turner 1 983, 9 3). A ny f ledgling i nstrument w ork w as i ntended f or t he e stimation o f a rea r ather t han t o a ct a s t he b asis o f c artography. I nstead o f a p icture, t he s urveyor p resented a t abulated l ist d etailing p articulars s uch a s t he t enant's n ame, t he r emaining t erm o f h is t enancy , t he n umber o f b uildings, t he a rea o f m eadow , p asture a nd a rable, t he r ent, a nd s o o n ( e.g. W illan a nd C rossley 1 941; c f. E den 1 983). T he u psurge i n t he g raphical d epiction o f s urveyed l andscapes b etween 1 550 a nd 1 650 w as t riggered b y t he c ombination o f s everal f actors: a gricultural i nclosure a nd t he r ise o f i ndividual o wnership; a dvances i n t he m ilitary s ciences, e specially g unnery; t he i mportance o f n avigation i n a r apidly e xpanding w orld; t he c hange f rom R oman t o A rabic n umerals, a nd t he g reat i mprovements i n t he d esign a nd m anufacture o f s cientific i nstruments ( Taylor 1 934; D arby 1 933; E den 1 983, 7 6-7; T urner 1 983, 9 3; T yacke a nd M uddy 1 980, 1 5, 1 8-19). B y 1 600, t he d emand f or t he a ccurate s urvey o f l and-holdings h ad b ecome i ntense. E ven s uch w ell-known n ames a s C hristopher S axton, t he g reat m aker o f c ounty m aps, a nd A aron R athborne, t he w riter o f t he f irst c omprehensive t extbook o n s urveying i n E nglish ( 1616; T aylor 1 954, 1 91, 3 43) w ere m aking t heir l iving a s s urveyors o f e states, b oth o f t hem m ainly i n Y orkshire. N evertheless t he m arket w as s till s low t o c hange: b etween 1 598 a nd 1 608 S axton w as c ommissioned t o p roduce

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t wenty-five l ocal m aps, b ut a lso f ourteen g raphics ( Tyacke a nd H uddy 1 980, 4 6).

w ritten

' surveys'

w ith n o

A s m ight b e e xpected i n a ny b ooming s ervice i ndustry , q uality c ontrol w as s ometimes n ot a ll t hat i t m ight h ave b een. I n h is b ook , R athborne w eighed i n a gainst t hose ' who h aving b ut o nce o bserved a S urveyor, b y l ooking o ver h is s houlder .. p resently a pprehend t he b usinesse, p rovide t hem o f s ome c ast P laine T able, a nd w ithin s mall t ime a fter, y ou s hall h eare t hem t ell y ou w onders, a nd w hat r are f eats t hey c an p erforme .'. •

•

T he p lane-table, w hich h e f avoured, w as b ecause o f i ts s implicity ' more s ubject t o a buse t han a ll, o r a ny o f t he r est' ( Rathborne 1 616, 1 25, p reface p .2). R adolph ( Ralph ) A gas, f reshly a rrived i n L ondon f rom S uffolk, g ave v ent t o h is r ighteous i ndignation a t o ne m isclosure h e w itnessed: ' I s aw a p laine T able m an ( marry h e w as a p lumber a nd h ad l earned f rom aP ainter ) i n l esse t han a n a cre a nd h alfe o f l evell m arrish g rounde, t aken b y s ome f oure s tations, f el s hort a t h is c loase t wo p earches a t t he l east' ( 1596, 1 1).

A ubrey o n s urveying W ith s o m uch t echnical c hange a nd e conomic d evelopment - i ncluding i nclosure, i nflation a nd r ent r evaluations - i t b ecame i mperative f or t he y oung g entlemen o f t he s eventeenth c entury t o h ave s ome k nowledge o f s urveying, i f o nly t o a ssess t he s tandards o f t hose w hom t hey h ired t o r ecord t heir e states. T o t his A ubrey w as n o e xception, b ut t heoretical c ompetence w as n ot e nough a nd a f amiliarity w ith t he n ecessary m athematical i nstruments w as c onsidered e ssential. E xcept i n t he r eference t o A vebury , h e m akes n o r eference t o s urveying ( in t he m odern s ense) i n t he M bnumenta B ritannica . I n h is I dea o f E ducation , h owever, s urvey h olds a n i mportant p lace a s ap ractical a pplication o f t hat k ey -b ut s till s omewhat n ovel - d iscipline, m athematics. I n t he c urriculum t hat h e p roposed, t rigonometry w ould b e i ntroduced d uring t he f irst y ear o f f ormal s chooling ( for p upils a ged t en ), m oving o n i n t he s econd y ear t o s urveying a nd t he u se o f g lobes, a strolabes a nd s pherical t rigonometry. T he l ast o f t hese A ubrey t hought s hould p rove s o e njoyable a s t o l eave t hem ' ravished w ith c elestial p leasure' ( Stephens 1 972, 6 6, 9 9, 1 65). H e w as, m oreover, c onvinced t hat s urveying w as a u seful p rofessional e xpertise, a c onviction s temming f rom h is e ncounter w ith a d ispossessed G erman l andowner, t urned s urveyor, w hom h e m et w hile h e h imself w as s till a t s chool i n B landford ( Powell 1 988, 4 3; S tephens 1 972, 1 13-14). S urvey a lso o ffered t he p erfect c ombination o f A ubrey 's l ove o f m athematics w ith h is p assion f or a ntiquarian i nformation a nd t opog raphical o bservations. T he s ources o f h is m ethod m ay b e g limpsed f rom w hat i s k nown o f h is l ibrary ( Powell 1 988, 3 01, 3 05, 3 06; c f. T aylor 1 954 ). T his i ncluded R ichard B enese's M easuring L and , f irst p ublished i n 1 537; t he P antometria o f T homas a nd L eonard D igges

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F ig 2

T he S urveyor a s t he h erald o f O rder , t rampling o n C haos a nd M isrule. H is t heodolite ( of l ate s ixteenth-century t ype) h as s ights s et o n as emicircle , f rom t he c entre o f w hich a v ertical b ar i ndicates i nclination o n t he g eometrical s quare t hat f orms t he f rame . B earings w ere r ead o n a h orizontal c ircle , o riented b y a n i ntegral c ompass , a nd e ntered i n t he t abulated n otebook f irst a dvocated b y R athborne . A p lane-table , a lidade , p rotractor a nd g lobe l ie b eside t he t ripod . ( Vignette f rom t he t itle-page o f T he S urveyor b y A aron R athborne [ 1616]).

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( 1571); J ohn N orden's S urveyor's D ialogue ( 1607); A rthur H opton's S peculum T opographicum ( 1611), a nd t he D escription a nd U se o f t he S ector , C ross-Staffe a nd o ther I nstruments b y E dmund G unter ( 1623). M ore l ight i s a lso s hed b y t he I dea o f E ducation i n w hich A ubrey l isted t he b ooks a nd m athematical i nstruments w hich h e t hought e ach w ell-equipped s chool s hould h ave. W ithin t he G eometry s ection ( Stephens 1 972, 7 8) a re f our t itles - m uch a bbreviated - t hat a t f irst s ight s eem r elevant. T wo o f t hem , V incent W ing's G eodates P racticus ( 1664) a nd J ohn H olwell's S ure G uide t o t he P ractical S urveyor ( 1678) w ere p ublished a fter t he s urvey o f A vebury a nd c ould n ot h ave i nfluenced h im t here. A t hird w as S tratioticus ( 1579) b y T homas D igges ( who w ith h is f ather L eonard h ad p roduced s ome o f t he k ey w orks o n t opographical s urvey ), b ut t his p articular v olume w as c oncerned w ith m ilitary s cience. P erhaps A ubrey m eant t o i nclude D igges's T ectonicon w hich h e h ad c ertainly r ead ( Powell 1 988, 3 09). T he f ourth, h owever, i s m uch m ore i mportant i n t his c ontext: T he C ompleat S urveyor b y A ubrey 's d irect c ontemporary , W illiam L eybourn. P ublished i n 1 653, t his b ecame t he s tandard t extbook o f t he d ay a nd w ent t hrough f our f urther e ditions i n t he n ext s eventy y ears ( Taylor 1 954, 3 60, 3 57, 2 30-31; R icheson 1 966, 1 13-18).

T he I nstruments L eybourn c oncentrated o n o nly t hree i nstruments: t he t heodolite ( cf. F ig 2 ), f or l arger s urveys; t he c ircumferentor ( a g raduated b rass c ircle w ith t wo p airs o f a djustable s ights f or m easuring h orizontal a ngles: R icheson 1 966, 7 9, 7 5); a nd f or s maller s ites, t he p lanet able. A ubrey 's k nowledge w as n ot c onfined t o t hese, f or t he l ist o f i nstruments h e g ives i n t he I dea o f E ducation w as r ather l onger a nd h as b een c onsidered i n d etail b y T urner ( 1973) - a lthough w ithout a ny t hought t hat A ubrey h imself h ad o nce b een ap ractitioner. ' Let ' em g radually w ith t heir L earning b e t aught t he u se o f i nstruments' h e w rote, r ecommending ' Jacobs-staffe, G unters Q uadrant, a nd a S inicall Q uadrant f or t aking h eights o f t rees e tc. A T heodelite, a C ircumf erentor, P lain T able. T he l ittle C ross-staffe i nvented b y M r. F uller t hat o ne m ay c arry i n h is p ocket, v ery u sefull ..' ( Turner 1 973, 6 4, 6 5). A s w e h ave s een, t he m ost a ccessible o f t hese i nstruments s eems t o h ave b een t he p lane-table. I t w as b oth p lain - i .e. f ree o f c omplica ted a ccessories - a nd c apable o f p lane s urveying i n t he g eometrical s ense ( Chilton 1 959, 1 18-19) h aving e volved s hortly b efore 1 550 a s a d evice t hat s ubstituted d irect g raphical m ethods f or m athematical c alculations ( Taylor 1 929; K iely 1 947, 2 28-34). T he o ne t hat A ubrey u sed a t A vebury m ay n ot h ave h ad a ll t he m ost m odern r efinements a dvocated b y L eybourn a nd w as p robably c loser i n t ype t o t hat i llustrated ( Fig 3 ) a nd d escribed b y R athborne ( 1616, t itle-page, 1 256 ). I t w ould b e e ntirely r ecognisable t oday. S et o n a t ripod a nd c onstructed o f f ive s mall b oards ( three i n t he b readth a nd t wo i n t he l ength ), i t h ad a round i t a j ointed f rame t o k eep t he p aper d own. T he f rame i tself w as m arked w ith d ivisions t hat e nabled p arallel l ines t o b e d rawn. I t w as, h owever, v ery s mall, m easuring o nly a bout 3 70 m m b y 2 80 m m. T he a lidade w as a r ule, f itted w ith s ights o f u nequal l ength a nd s ighted w ith t he f amiliar w ire a nd s lit a rrangement; i t w as k ept h orizontal w ith a p lumb-bob ( Rathborne 1 616, 1 25-6; K iely 1 947, 2 283 4; T urner 1 983, 9 8, 1 02).

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F ig 3

T he p lane-table i n u se . N ote t hat t he a lidade h as o ffset s ights i n l ine w ith t he e dge o f t he r ule . T he l ower a perture i n t he f urther s ight h eld a p lumb-bob . ( Vignette f rom t he t itle-page o f T he S urveyor b y A aron R athborne [ 1616]).

A s f or t he d irect m easurement o f d istances, i t i s t hat s uccinct a nnotation o n t he p lan o f A vebury t hat r eveals h ow A ubrey m anaged: ' This w as p rojected b y t he h alfe-inch S cale'. O n t he o riginal d ocument, h alf a n i nch i s f ound t o e quate t o f our p erches - t he u sual l ength o f b oth t he t raditional k notted c ord a nd t he n ewly i ntroduced s urveyor's c hain ( Chilton 1 959, 1 14-15). W e d o n ot k now w hich A ubrey u sed. T he c hain h ad b een f irst d escribed i n G ermany i n t he 1 570s o r e arlier ( Taylor 1 929, 2 11). I n E ngland, A aron R athborne d eveloped a d ecimal c hain t wo o r t hree p erches l ong ( 10.06m o r 1 5.09m ), e ach p erch b eing d ivided i nto 1 00 l inks; a s mall r ing m arked o ff e ach g roup o f t en l inks, w ith ' a l arge C urtaine r ing' a t t he m id-point a nd e nd o f e ach p erch ( Rathborne 1 616, 1 31-3). I n a dvocating i ts u se, h e a lso h ad t o e xplain t he t heory a nd a dvantage o f d ecimals ( 1616, 1 66-8). T he i dea w as s oon t aken u p a nd s uperseded b y G unter i n 1 620. H is c hain c onsisted o f f our p erches, a lso d ivided i nto 1 00 l inks, a nd t his w as n ot t o b e b ettered u ntil t he i ntroduction o f s teel t apes b y C hesterman i n 1 843 ( Kiely 1 947, 2 36; R icheson 1 966, 1 08-9).

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' Vague, p recise, i dle a nd b usy t o t he l ast', a ll t oo o ften A ubrey f ailed t o b ring h is p rojects t o f ruition; y et i n h is w ork a re h idden m any o f t he s eeds o f t wentieth-century a rchaeological m ethod. A nother g reat b iographer, L ytton S trachey ( 1931, 2 4) r ightly d escribed h im a s t he f irst E nglish a rchaeologist, a nd i n t he a ttempt t o u se n onl iterary m aterials t o r econstruct t he p ast A bnumenta B ritannica h as b een i dentified a s t he f irst E nglish b ook o f m odern a rchaeology ( Hunter 1 975, 1 59). W hat m ade t he d ifference w as t hat t hree c rucial e lements w ere a t l ast c oming t ogether. O ne o f t hese b ecame e vident i n 1 660 w hen , f ollowing t he l ead g iven e lsewhere b y D ugdale, A ubrey h ad b een o ne o f t hose a dvocating ( and p articipating i n ) a n a mbitious p roject t o r ecord a ll t he a ntiquities o f W iltshire. T he m aterial h e a massed e ventually f ormed h is W iltshire C ollections b ut t he o riginal s cheme ' vanished i n f umi T abaci a nd w as n ever t hought o f s ince' ( Powell 1 988, 8 7-90 ). P art o f h is r easoning b ehind t his a ssembling o f m aterial - b oth a rchaeological a nd a rchitectural -w as ad esire t o d efine a s ystem o f c lassification a nd c hronology t hrough m orphology. T his w as t ypical o f t he f reshly k indled f lame o f e mpirical i nquiry w hich c haracterised t he y oung R oyal S ociety , b ut w as a n a pproach t hat i n a rchaeological s tudies w as f ar a head o f i ts t ime ( Piggott 1 956, 1 06-9; 1 976, 1 10, 1 18). I n t his, t he a ccurate r ecording f irst u ndertaken a t A vebury w ould h ave h ad a k ey r ole. I nventory , m orphology a nd s urvey; h ad t he s eeds s own b y A ubrey e ver b lossomed i n h is l ifetime, t he d irect e ffect u pon t he h istory a nd d evelopment o f a rchaeology a nd o f a rchaeological c artography c ould h ave b een d ramatic - n ot l east u pon t he l ikes o f W illiam R oy a nd h is s mall a rmy o f d iligent s uccessors.

B ibliography A gas , R1 596 AP repa r at ive t o P latt ing o fL andes a nd T enement s f or S brveigh . T homas S carlet , L ondon . A ubrey , J1 981 e inumenta B ritannica ( f acsimile r eprin t , V ol 1 , e dited b y JF owles , a nnotated b y RL egg ). L ittle , B rown a nd C o , B oston . B uchanan-Brown , J1 974 T he b ooks p resented t o t he R oyal S ociety b y J ohn A ubrey F RS . N otes R ecords R oy S oc I ced 2 8 , 1 67 -93 . B u r l , A1 979 f rehistort cAvebu ry . Y ale M a im P ress . C hilton , D1 959 L and m easurement i n t he s ixteenth c entury . T rans h em omen S oc 3 1 , 11-29 . D arby , HC 1 933 T he a grarian c ontribution t o s urveying i n E ngland . G eogrj r82 ( 1 933 ), 5 29-35 . E den , P1 983 T hree E lizabethan e state s urveyors , i n T yacke 1 983 , 6 8-84 . H arvey , P DA 1 987 L ocal a nd r egional c artography i n m edieval E urope , i n JBH arley a nd D W oodward H istory o f C artogr aphy . I : C artograp hy i n P rehistor ic , A ncient a nd M ed iev a l Drupe a nd t he Me d iterranean , 4 64-501 . C hicago U hiv P ress . H unter , 4 5 , H unter , J ones , a n

M1 971 T he R oyal S ociety a nd t he o rigins o f B ritish a rchaeology . A ntiqu ity 13-121 , 1 87-92 . M1 975 J ohn A ubrey a nd t he R ealm o f L ear ning . D uckworth , L ondon . I1 655 T he M ost N otab le A ntiqu ity o f G reat B r itain V u lgar ly C all e d S tone-heng S alishug fP lain . L ondon . ( F acsimile e dition , S cholar P ress , M enston , Y orks ,

1 972 .) K iely , ER 1 947 S urvey ing I nstrum ents : T he ir H istory a nd C lassroom We . U niv , N ew Y ork .

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P iggott , S1 956 A ntiquarian t hought i n t he s ix tee nth a nd s even teenth c en turies , i n L F ox ( e d ) E ng lish H istor ic al S c ho larsh ip i n t he S ix teenth a nd S eventee nth C entur ies , 9 3-114 . D ugda le S oc , W ord U n iv P ress . P iggott , S1 976 RW : 1 2 . 5 i n ab andsc ape . E d inburgh U n iv P ress . P iggott , S1 985 W i lliam S tuk e ley . T hames a nd H u dson , N ew Y ork . P ow ell , A1 988 J ohn A ubrey a nd H is F r iends ( r ev e d ). H ogarth P ress , L ondon . R athborne , A1 616 T he S urveyor , i n I b ure B ookes . L ondon . R icheson , AW1 966 E ng li sh L and M easur ing t o 1 800 : I nstruments a nd P r ac tices . S oc H ist T ech a nd M IT P re ss , C ambridge , M ass . S kelton , RA a nd H arvey , PDA ( e ds ) 1 986 L oc a l M ap s a nd P lans f ra i l M ed iev a l E ng land . C larend on P re ss , W ord . S m ith , IF 1 965 W indm ill H ill a nd A vebury : E f cc av at ions b yA lex ander K e iller 1 9251 939 . C larend on P ress , O x ford . S tephens , JE 1 972 A ub rey o n E duc at io n . R outlege a nd K egan P au l , L ondon . S trachey , L1 931 P or tra its i n M in iature . C hatto a nd W indus , I nndon . S tukeley , W1 743 A bury : aT emp le o f t he B r itish D ru ids , W ith S a ne O the r 's , D esc ribed . L ondon . T aylor , EGR 1 929 T he p lane-table i n t he s ix tee nth c entury . S cot G eo gr M ag 4 5 , 2 051. T aylor , EGR 1 930 7 1dor G eogr ap hy 1 4851583 . M ethuen , L ondon . T aylor , EGR 1 934 L ate T udor a nd E ar ly S tuart G eogr ap hy 1 5831650 . M ethuen , L ond on ( r epr inted 1 968 , O c tag on B ook s , N ew Y ork ). T aylor , EGR 1 954 T he M athemat ic al P rac t itio ners o f T udor a nd S tuart E ng land . C ambridge U niv P ress . T urner , AJ 1 973 3 0 , 5 1-88 .

M athematic al i nstruments a n d t he e ducation o f g entleman . A nnals S c i

T urner , GL 'E 1 983 M at h ematical i n strument-making i n L ondon i n t he s ix teenth c en tu ry , i n T yacke 1 983 , 9 3-106 . T yacke , S1 983 E og lish M ap -M ak ing 1 5001650 . B ritish L ibrary , L ondon . T yacke , Sa nd M uddy , J1 980 C hr istopher S ax to n a nd n idor M ap-M ak ing . B ritish L ibrary , L ondon . W illan , T Sa nd C rossley , EW 1 94 1 T hree s eventeenth c e ntury Y orkshire s urve ys . Y ork s A rc haeo l S oc R ec S er 1 04 .

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4 :

H ERBERT T ONS - A P IONEER O F A NALYTICAL F IELD S URVEY

R ichard B radley

I ntroduction T he h istory o f a rchaeology i s o ften p ortrayed a s ah istory o f g reat m en, b ut h istory , a s w e k now , i s w ritten b y t he v ictors; a nd i t i s t he v ictors w ho a re f ree t o s elect t heir i ntellectual a ncestors. T hus i t i s t hat t he h istory o f f ield a rchaeology p asses s traight f rom P itt R ivers t o M ortimer W heeler, a s elf-confessed d isciple o f t he G eneral. I n h ighlighting h is i nfluence, W heeler d isregarded t he G eneral's t heoretical l eanings i n a rchaeology a nd a nthropology. H e a lso o verl ooked t he w ork o f t hose w ho h ad b een t rained b y P itt R ivers a s h is f ield a ssistants. A mong t hese, t wo n ames s tand o ut: H arold S t. G eorge G ray a nd H erbert T oms. S t. G eorge G ray i s b est k nown a s a n e xcavator, a lthough , l ike T oms, m ost o f h is p rofessional c areer w as s pent w orking i n am useum. P osterity h as n ot b een k ind t o h is m emory , a nd t oday h e i s r emembered, a s m uch a s a nything e lse, f or t he d eficiencies o f h is d igging t echnique a nd t he p aucity o f h is p ublications. I n s ome w ays b oth c riticisms a re j ust, b ut i t i s w orth a dding t hat h is m ethods o f e xcavation a nd r ecording w ere p recisely t hose t hat h e h ad l earnt u nder t he G eneral's i nstruction ( Bradley 1 975, 5 -6; C oles 1 987, c hapter 1 ). H is f ailure w as a n u nwillingness t o a dapt t hose m ethods t o c hanging c ircumstances. L acking P itt R ivers' a nalytical f lair, h e w as u nable t o i nterpret h is o wn o bservations, a nd g radually h is p ublications l apsed. H erbert T oms p resents a t otal c ontrast. H is n ame i s l ittle k nown t oday a nd h is w ork i s r arely c ited. T oms h ad a m ind o f h is o wn, b ut h e s eems t o h ave b een s elf-effacing w here G ray w as s ocially a mbitious, e nthusiastic w here G ray w as m ore r emote. S urviving c orrespondence b etween t he t wo m en i s r evealing i n t his r espect. T oms t alks e xcitedly a bout t he e arthworks s till t o b e d iscovered i n C ranborne C hase a nd t he w orkmen w hom b oth o f t hem h ad k nown w hen t hey w ere e mployed b y t he G eneral. G ray 's t one i s a l ittle p atronising, a s h e t ells o f h is o wn a chievements, h is e xcavation a t M eare a nd t he i mportant c ommittees o n w hich h e s erves. S o f ar p osterity h as r emembered G ray , a nd T oms h as b een l argely f orgotten. I t i s t ime t hat t he b alance w as r edressed. H erbert T oms w as n ot a n e xcavator i n t he P itt R ivers t radition. L argely w ithout i nstruction, h e d eveloped t he m ethods o f a nalytical f ield s urvey , w orking i n S ussex a nd D orset. H e w as a n i ndependent t hinker, w hose a chievement w as a cknowledged i n f ulsome t erms b y O .G.S. C rawford. H e h elped H eywood S umner t o i dentify C eltic f ields a nd t aught h is o wn w orking m ethods t o t he C urwens. I n a v olume t hat c elebrates N orman Q uinnell's c areer i n f ield s urvey , i t i s o nly r ight t hat w e s hould p ay t ribute t o o ne o f t he m ost p erceptive o f h is p redecessors. H erbert T oms w as b orn i n D orset i n 1 874, t he s on o f ag ardener ( Holleyman 1 987, 1 1-28). H e a ttended t he v illage s chool a nd s tayed o n a s a p upil t eacher, u ntil i n 1 893 h e a ttracted t he a ttention o f

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G eneral P itt R ivers a nd j oined h is e xcavation s taff. H is a rchaeological e ducation w as b rief a nd h e s pent o nly t hree y ears w orking f or t he G eneral, b ut d uring t hat t ime h e s uperintended t he e xcavation o f t he B ronze A ge e nclosures a t S outh L odge C amp a nd M artin D own. H e a lso m arried M rs P itt R ivers' B reton m aid, C hristine, w ith w hom h e c arried o ut m ost o f h is e arthwork s urveys. I n 1 896 h e l eft t he G eneral's e mployment f or a m ore s ecure p ost a t B righton M useum , w here h e w orked u ntil h is r etirement i n 1 939, i n t ime b ecoming t he c urator. H e h ad n ever e njoyed g ood h ealth , a nd d ied i n t he f ollowing y ear. H e w as a f ounder m ember o f t he B righton a nd H ove A rchaeological C lub, a nd i n 1 912 h e f ormed i ts L ocal E arthworks S urvey . B etween 1 907 a nd 1 927 h e p ublished d etailed s tudies o f a l arge n umber o f s ites i n S ussex, a s w ell a s o thers i n D orset, w here h e s pent h is h olidays. T hese i ncluded f ield s ystems, e nclosures, l ong b arrows a nd h ill f orts. A fter h is w ife's s udden d eath i n 1 927, h e w orked o n a m ore r estricted s cale, c oncentrating h is e nergies o n i nvestigating t he a ntiquity o f p onds o n t he d ownland. T hroughout h is t ime i n B righton h e e ngaged i n a n e nergetic p rogramme o f p ublic l ectures a nd j ournalism , a nd f rom t he 1 920s w rote n umerous l etters t o l ocal n ewspapers o n a rchaeological t opics. A part f rom h is p ublications i n a cademic j ournals, t he m ain i nformation o n h is a ctivities i s t o b e f ound i n h is c uttings b ooks, w hich a re n ow i n B righton R eference L ibrary. I t i s n ot d ifficult t o s ee w hy h is w ork h ad s o l ittle i mpact. O n o ne o ccasion O .G.S. C rawford c hided h im: ' You h ave a h abit o f p ublishing y our g ems i n s uch o ut o f t he w ay p laces .. Ih ave f ound a n a bysmal i gnorance a broad, e ven i n G ermany, o n t he s ubject o f o ur b est a rchaeological w ork, a nd Ia m q uite s ure t hat i t i s d ue t o t he f act t hat i t i s p ublished i n L ocal T ransactions'. A s ar esult o f C rawford's c ajoling, T oms p repared a l ist o f w hat h e c onsidered h is ' most i mportant a rticles a nd p apers'. T his l ist, c ompiled s ix y ears b efore h is d eath, f eatures s ixty-seven a rticles o f v arying l ength, b ut o nly f our o f t hese a ppeared i n an ational p ublication ( The A ntiquary ). T wenty-two w ere p ublished b y l ocal a rchaeological j ournals i n S ussex , D orset a nd W iltshire, w hilst f orty-one w ere t o b e f ound i n l ocal n ewspapers a nd m agazines. T ogether w ith t he i nformation p reserved i n h is c utting b ooks, t hey p rovide a v ivid i nsight i nto T oms' p ersonality a nd t he d evelopment o f h is i deas. T hey a lso s hed s ome l ight o n t he s ocial h istory o f a rchaeology i n t he e arly y ears o f t his c entury . T he a ccount t hat f ollows b rings t hese s ources t ogether i n o rder t o c onsider h is a chievement. F irst, w e t race t he i nfluence o f h is e arly t raining b y G eneral P itt R ivers a nd t he w ays i n w hich T oms d eveloped t he l essons t hat h e h ad l earnt d uring t hose t hree y ears i n C ranborne C hase. N ext w e d iscuss T oms' i nfluence o n t he a rchaeology o f h is o wn t ime a nd h is s ometimes d ifficult r elations w ith h is c ontemporaries. F inally , i t w ill b e r evealing t o d iscover h ow m any o f t he i deas t hat f igure p rominently i n f ieldwork t oday w ere a nticipated b y t his r emarkable f igure o ver s ixty y ears a go.

T ons a nd G eneral P itt R ivers I n ap hotograph o f S outh L odge C amp, t aken i n 1 893, T oms i s s een w ith ad umpy l evel ( Pitt R ivers 1 898, p l 2 36, f ig 2 ). T his w ould h ave b een

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h is f irst s eason o f w ork f or t he G eneral, a nd h is i nvolvement w ith t he s urveying i s ap ortent o f t hings t o c ome. S o t oo a re t he s ite r ecords, w hich s till s urvive i n t he S alisbury a nd S outh W iltshire M useum. T hese s eem t o h ave b een T oms' p articular r esponsibility , a nd t hey s how a q uality o f d etailed o bservation t hat i s n ot m atched i n P itt R ivers' p ublished r eport. A mong t hem a re t wo r emarkable p lans s howing t he p recise p ositions o f a ll t he e xcavated a rtefacts. T he l abels o n t he o bjects t hemselves a re e qually e xact - t he s ame a pplies t o a ll t he m aterial e xcavated w hilst T oms w as w orking f or t he G eneral. N o d oubt s orting a nd c ataloguing t hese a rtefacts w as a n i deal p reparation f or m useum w ork, a s i t w as f or t wo o f t he G eneral's o ther a ssistants. T oms a lso g ained u seful e xperience i n w orking w ith P itt R ivers' e thnographic c ollection, a nd t his b ore f ruit w hen h e c ame t o d isplay s imilar m aterial i n B righton. A s a m useum c urator h e p articularly r egretted t he f ate o f t he G eneral's c ollection, w riting t o G ray i n 1 911 a fter a v isit t o D orset: ' Went t o t he M useum 4 t imes. H ow n eglected! T he b eetles a re p laying t he d evil w ith m any o f t he w ooden o bjects. W hat a p ity t he o ld c hap d ied b efore t he a rrangement o f t he e thnog. p art w as c ompleted!'. T here i s a s ense i n w hich T oms' f irst w ork i n B righton t ook p lace i n t he G eneral's s hadow; i ndeed, h e e ven p ersuaded h im t o g ive B righton P ublic L ibrary a s et o f E xcavations i n C ranborne C hase . L ike t he G eneral h imself, T oms h ad a s trong c ommitment t o p ublic e ducation. N o d oubt t his o wes m uch t o h is p eriod a s a p upil t eacher, a nd h is w ork c ompletely l acks t he p olitical c olouring o f t he G eneral's p ublic s tatements. N ot l ong a fter h is a rrival i n B righton T oms w as l ecturing w idely - o n a rtefacts, e thnography a nd o n l ocal f ield m onuments - a nd i n 1 907 h e e stablished a p opular s eries o f m useum l ectures f or p arents a nd c hildren. A p articular f avourite w as h is d emonstration o f f lint k napping, a nother s kill h e c ould h ave l earnt f rom P itt R ivers. T he B righton A rgus f or O ctober 1 0, 1 904 r ecords o ne s uch d emonstration, a t t he ' Saturday N ight E ntertainment' i n C arlton H ill M ission H all. T he p roceedings b egan w ith a n a ddress o n ' Licensed h ouses i n B righton', b efore T oms g ave h is l ecture o n ' Stone t ools a nd w eapons' ( there f ollowed a n umber o f v iolin s olos, a p erformance o f H andel's L argo, a n e xtract f rom L a T raviata, a nd, f inally t wo s ongs, ' Temperance b ells a re r inging' a nd ' Yield n ot t o t emptation'). T oms' i nterest i n f lintwork w as n ot c onfined t o l ectures, h owever, a nd o ne o f h is e arliest p ublications w as a l etter i n w hich h e u sed h is p ractical e xperience o f f lint k napping t o q uestion t he a uthenticity o f e oliths ( The R eliquary 1 904, 1 39-40). P erhaps m ore r evealing i s t he p ublished s ummary o f a l ecture g iven a t a bout t he s ame t ime t o t he B righton a nd H ove N atural H istory a nd P hilosophical S ociety. T his i ncludes a s ection o n ' General P itt R ivers [ then C olonel A . L ane F ox ] o n " The H ill F orts o f S ussex "'. A l ater s ection o f t he l ecture i s s ummarised i n t hese t erms: ' Hollingbury c ompared w ith t he B ronze A ge C amps o f W ilts & D orset l ately e xcavated b y P itt R ivers'. T hese w ould h ave b een t he e arthwork e nclosures o n w hich T oms h ad w orked t en y ears b efore. I t w as o nly a m atter o f t ime b efore T oms u ndertook n ew w ork o n s ome o f t he G eneral's s ites. T his w as e asily d one, a s P itt R ivers' s tudy o f S ussex h ill f orts w as h is m ain c ontribution t o f ield s urvey a nd o ne o f h is m ost i mportant p rojects i n t he y ears b efore h e i nherited t he R ushmore E state ( Lane F ox 1 868a a nd b ). M oreover, C issbury , t he s cene o f t he G eneral's f irst m ajor e xcavation, w as o nly a f ew m iles f rom B righton

3 1

( Lane F ox 1 868b a nd 1 875). T oms s tudied a n umber o f S ussex h ill f orts, s tarting w ith H ollingbury , w here h e t aught t he u se o f t he t heodolite, p lane t able a nd d umpy l evel, a ssisted b y s taff a nd s tudents o f B righton T echnical C ollege ( Toms 1 914). S oon h e d evoted m ore o f h is a ttention t o C issbury. H e s eems t o h ave g ained a n ew s elf-confidence f rom t his w ork, a nd a ccounts o f h is l ectures n o l onger i dentify h im a s P itt R ivers' f ormer a ssistant; b y 1 907 h e i s d escribed a s ' the e nthusiastic C urator a t t he M useum '. T oms m ay a lways h ave b een a ware o f t he G eneral's b lind-spots; c ertainly h is o wn w ork w as t o s how t hat P itt R ivers h ad a r ather p oor e ye f or e arthworks. H is d oubts p erhaps s tarted d uring e xcavation a round W or B arrow i n 1 893, f or i t w as h ere t hat T oms i dentified t he B ronze A ge e arthwork k nown a s A ngle D itch, w hich h ad n ot b een r ecognised b y t he G eneral h imself ( Toms 1 925, 9 14 ). F ield s urvey a t C issbury , p ublished j ointly w ith C hristine T oms ( 1926), s oon s howed j ust h ow m uch i nformation P itt R ivers h ad o verl ooked, d espite t he f act t hat h e h ad w orked a t t he s ite o n t wo s eparate o ccasions. I t i s e asy t o d emonstrate h ow m any o f t he s urviving e arthworks w ere m issed d uring t he e arlier s urvey - t hese i nclude al ength o f t he c ounterscarp b ank, a n i nternal q uarry d itch, f lint m ines, e nclosures a nd l ynchets i nside t he d efences, a nd s tructural d etails o f t he h ill f ort e ntrance ( Fig 1 ). M ore s erious i s P itt R ivers' f ailure t o a ppreciate t hat t heir c hronological r elations hip c ould b e w orked o ut b y s urface o bservation. I t i s h ere t hat T oms b roke n ew g round. T he C issbury e xcavation h ad m arked a n i mportant t urning p oint i n h is m entor's c areer. I t w as w here h e f irst d ug o n a l arge s cale, a nd i t w as h is d iscovery o f af lint m ine s lighted b y t he h ill f ort d efences t hat p ersuaded h im o f t he i mportance o f s tratigraphic e xcavation. O n t he o ther h and, h is m ain i nterest w as, a nd a lways r emained, t he e volution o f m aterial c ulture ; h e w as n ot i nterested i n e stablishing a s tructural s equence i n t he s ense t hat i s f amiliar t oday ( Bradley 1 983; B arrett, B radley , B owden a nd M ead 1 983). T oms t ook a m ore p ragmatic a pproach, a nd o ver a p rolonged p eriod h e w as a ble t o t ease o ut a ll t he m ajor p hases o f a ctivity o n t he s ite, u sing t he t echniques o f s urface s urvey. D espite s ome f alse s tarts a t o ne s tage h e m isunderstood t he r elationship o f t he f lint m ines t o t he l ynchets - h e c ould l ink h is s urface o bservations t o t he s tratig raphic s equence r ecorded b y P itt R ivers, e ven r evealing a l ate r efortification o f t he s ite w hich s till r emains e nigmatic t oday. A lthough s ome o f h is c ontemporaries w ere u nhappy w ith h is r esults, e very o ne o f h is f inal c onclusions w as c onfirmed b y e xcavation a f ew y ears l ater ( Curwen a nd R oss W illiamson 1 931). A t t he s ame t ime, C urwen a nd h is c olleague w ere a ble t o a dd v ery l ittle t o T oms' p lan o f t he s ite ( Fig 1 ). T wo o ther a spects o f P itt R ivers' w ork i nfluenced T oms' a ctivities i n S ussex. H is i nterest i n C issbury s oon d eveloped i nto am ore g eneral c oncern w ith f lint m ines, l eading h im i n 1 922 t o i dentify s imilar e arthworks a t C hurch H ill, F indon, o nly t o d iscover t hat t hey h ad b een t he s cene o f a n u npublished e xcavation i n t he n ineteenth c entury. H e w as o ne o f t he e arliest c ritics o f t he p revailing v iew t hat s uch m ines w ere o f P alaeolithic d ate. H e p ointed o ut t hat t he m ollusca f rom G rimes G raves w ere s imilar t o t hose f ound o n m uch l ater s ites, a nd f or a w hile h e a rgued t hat s ome o f t he m ines a t C issbury p ostdated t he l ynchets o n t hat s ite. H is m ain o bjection t o s uch a n e arly d ate d epended o n h is o wn e xperiments, w hich s howed h ow e asily a n

3 2

F ig 1

T he h ill f ort a t C issbury , S ussex , s howing t he s tages b y w hich e arthwork f eatures w ere r ecognised a nd d iscussed .

o vate ' handaxe' c ould b e w orked d own t o f orm a n a xe o f c lassic ' Cissbury ' t ype. H e e ngaged i n c ontroversy w ith t he e xcavator o f t he B lackpatch f lint m ines, q uoting t he r esults o f H azeldine W arren's r ecently p ublished w ork a t G raig L wyd ( 1922). ' So-called p alaeolithic f orms f ound o n n eolithic f abrication s ites m ay r epresent n ot p erfect t ools, b ut u nfinished i mplements w hich t he a ncient c hipper f ound i mpossible t o r educe t o t he d esired s hape' ( Herald M agazine , 1 6 J une 1 923). A lthough o ne e xpedition t o C issbury w as r eported i n T he

3 3

C hristian S cience M onitor , p ublished i n B oston, t his p art o f h is w ork r arely a ttracted a ttention o utside S ussex , a nd h is n ame d oes n ot f eature i n t he p aper i n w hich C lark a nd P iggott f inally d isposed o f P alaeolithic f lint m ines ( Clark a nd P iggott 1 933). H is e xperience o f s upervising e xcavation o n t he B ronze A ge e nclosures o f C ranborne C hase l ed h im t o s earch f or s imilar s ites e lsewhere. H e s eems t o h ave b een p articularly i nfluenced b y h is t ime a t M artin D own, a nd d evoted c onsiderable e nergy t o l ooking f or ' valley e ntrenchments' -s quare o r r ectilinear e nclosures l ocated i n d ownland v alleys ( e.g. T oms 1 912a, 1 924a a nd 1 926). T hese b ecame a p articular f eature o f h is f ieldwork a nd l ed t o h is o ne r eal e xcavation. T his t ook p lace a t B eltout ( Belle T out) i n 1 909 a nd s howed t hat t wo e xamples o f t his t ype h ad b een u sed i n t he e arly s econd m illennium b c. M ost o f h is o ther e xamples r emained u ndated, o r c ould b e s hown t o o riginate i n t he m edieval o r p ost-medieval p eriods. A t f irst T oms r esisted t his c onclusion, s tressing t he t ypological l ink b etween t hese e arthworks a nd P itt R ivers' s ites i n C ranborne C hase, b ut i n t ime h e c ame t o r ecognise t he c omplexity o f t he s ituation. T hat t his h appened w as d ue t o h is k een f ield o bservation. D etailed s urvey o f t hese e arthworks s howed t hat s ome h ad c ontained r ectangular b uildings a nd h ad b een b uilt a cross e xisting f ield s ystems, a t t imes s uggesting t hat t he e nclosures w ere o f m uch l ater d ate. I n a nother c ase, o ne o f t hese e nclosures i mpinged o n a n o lder l inear e arthwork ( Toms 1 917). A lthough T oms m ay h ave f elt d iscouraged b y t his e vidence, h is a wareness o f r elationships m eans t hat h is s ite p lans a re m ore i nformative t han t hose p ublished b y P itt R ivers. T oms' h olidays i n D orset t ook h im b ack o ver s ome o f t he G eneral's s ites, p articularly W oodcutts, A ngle D itch a nd S outh L odge C amp. A s w e h ave s een, h e h ad s upervised t he o riginal e xcavations a t t wo o f t hese e arthworks. I n 1 913 h e p ublished a n ew s urvey o f t he f amous s ite a t W oodcutts, s howing t hat i t e xtended o ver a g reater a rea t han P itt R ivers h ad s upposed a nd p robably i ncluded a ' valley e ntrenchment' w hich n o l onger s urvives. T he s ame i nformation a ppears, w ith d ue a cknowledgement, i n H eywood S umner's T he A ncient E arthworks o f C ranborne C hase , p ublished i n t he s ame y ear ( 1913, 4 5). W hilst t his f ind a dds l ittle t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he W oodcutts c omplex , t he s ame c annot b e s aid o f T oms' s urveys o f A ngle D itch a nd S outh L odge C amp. H ere h e h ad a s pecific o bject i n m ind. A s h e t old G ray i n 1 911, ' To u se o ne o f P eacock 's e xpressions - " Now , Ih ad a g rand t ime" i n t he o ld d istrict. Iw as e xploring t he w hole t ime, & t o t ell y ou o f a ll Is aw w ould r equire a nother q uarto v olume. M y p rimary o bject w as e vidence a s t o t he h igh a ntiquity o f s ome o f o ur d ownland c ultivation t erraces. T he r esult o f a bout 1 20 m iles w alking d own t here i s t hat I 've g ot p ositive p roof o f t heir B ronze A ge ( or e ven e arlier) o rigin W hat a w ealth o f E arly B rit. V illages i n t he G enl's d istrict'. A t t he A ngle D itch T oms' a chievement w as t o i dentify t he r emains o f a C eltic f ield s ystem l argely o verlooked b y t he G eneral a nd t o d emonstrate t hat t he M iddle B ronze A ge e nclosure h ad b een s uperimposed o n i ts e arthworks ( 1925, 9 1-4). T his w as s triking e vidence f or t he a ntiquity o f t he f ield s ystem , a nd i t w as r epeated w ith m ore s upporting d etail a t S outh L odge C amp ( Fig 2 ). I t s eems i ronic t hat T oms s hould h ave s pent s o m uch t ime l ooking f or a s pecial c lass o f r ectangular e nclosure, w hen h is s urvey o f S outh

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L odge C amp w as t o s how t hat i t o wed i ts d istinctive g round p lan t o t he f act t hat i t h ad b een f itted i nto a n e xisting C eltic f ield s ystem ( Toms 1 925, 9 4-5). T his w as a mong t he m ost p erceptive o f a ll h is e arthwork s urveys, b ut n ot a ll h is c ontemporaries w ere c onvinced. H is i nterpretation w as t o b e v indicated b y e xcavation ( Barrett, B radley , B owden a nd M ead 1 983), b ut b y t hen h is p ublished p lans h ad b een l argely f orgotten. P itt R ivers w orked a t S outh L odge C amp o n t wo o ccasions. I n 1 880 h e s urveyed t he e arthworks a nd e xcavated s ome o f t he b arrows ( 1888, 1 4 5), r eturning t o i nvestigate t he e nclosure i n 1 893, w hen T oms w orked o n t he s ite ( 1898, 3 -44). T he G eneral's p lan s hows t he p osition o f t he e nclosure a nd t he b urial m ounds, a nd a s ingle l ynchet w hich w as n ever i nvestigated. I t r emained f or T oms t o p oint o ut t he e xistence o f o ther l ynchets a butting t he B ronze A ge e nclosure a nd r unning u p t o t he b arrow c emetery. S ome o f t hese e arthworks c ame s o c lose t o t he e nclosure d itch t hat t hey c ould n ot h ave f ormed a fter t hat e arthwork h ad b een b uilt. A s till m ore s triking d emonstration o f t his s equence c ould b e f ound i n P itt R ivers' c ontour s urvey o f t he e nclosure b efore i ts e xcavation , a s t his s howed o ne o f t he o lder l ynchets r unning a cross t he e ntrance c auseway. T his p lan a lso a llowed T oms t o r econstruct t he p rofile o f t he l ynchet t hat h ad e xisted b efore t he e nclosure w as b uilt ( 1925, f ig 2 ). A ll t hese o bservations h ave s ince b een t ested b y e xcavation ( Barrett, B radley , B owden a nd M ead 1 983). A f ew m ore l ynchets w ere r ecognised d uring t his w ork ( Fig 2 ), b ut n othing w as f ound t o c ontradict T oms' c onclusions. A s a t C issbury, h is a nalysis p roves t o h ave b een c orrect. I t s eems l ikely t hat T oms f irst r ecognised t he i mportance o f t his e vidence o n h is v isit t o C ranborne C hase i n 1 911, b ut h e m ay h ave b een a ware t hat s uch a n e arly d ate f or a C eltic f ield s ystem w ould p rove c ontroversial, f or h e d id n ot p ublish h is c onclusions u ntil 1 925. B y t hen O .G.S. C rawford h ad r eferred t o h is f indings i n h is f amous p aper o n ' Air S urvey a nd A rchaeology ', d elivered t o t he R oyal G eographical S ociety i n 1 922 ( published a s C rawford 1 923; s ee p p 3 44-5 a nd 3 48). A t t he t ime C rawford d id n ot a gree w ith T oms' i nterpretation , b ut h e s eems t o h ave c hanged h is m ind, f or t hree y ears l ater h e w rote t o t ell h im t hat ' Dr C lay h as p roved a v alley e ntrenchment a t K ingston D own ( see S umner C .C.) o f w hich I h ave a n e xcellent a ir-photo t o b elong t o t he e arly I ron A ge, a nd t hat t he l ynchets a re t herefore b efore t hat. T hey a re p lainly ( much ) e arlier t han t he e wk w hich c uts t hro ' t hem , a nd t hey a re b ig t o b oot. O ne f or y ou.' E .C. C urwen a lso c ited T oms' p aper w ith a pproval i n h is d iscussion o f e arly a griculture p ublished i n 1 927, b ut, a fter t hat, t he w ork w as l ost t o s ight. B y 1 932, w hen C urwen r eturned t o t his s ubject, T oms w as n ever m entioned ( Curwen 1 932a), a lthough h is p aper i s c ited i n C rawford's b ook A rchaeology i n t he F ield ( 1953, 9 5, n 26).

T oms a nd h is c ontemporaries A s w e h ave s een, t he f ortunes . o f T oms' w ork c hanged r apidly , p artly b ecause h e o ccupied s uch a n i ntermediate p osition i n t he d evelopment o f f ield a rchaeology. H is o wn a ttitude d id l ittle t o h elp t he s ituation. B y r ights h is w ork s hould h ave e xerted a w ider i nfluence, b ut i t w as n ever e asy t o o btain. I n t he e arlier p art o f h is c areer, T oms w as i n c ontact w ith a n umber o f o ther a rchaeologists, b ut i t

3 6

s eems a s i f r elations w ith s ome o f t hem b roke d own. H e f elt t hat h e w as b eing e clipsed b y h is f ormer p roteges a nd t hat t heir r esearch d id n ot m eet h is e xacting s tandards. M ore i mportantly , h e s eems t o h ave b elieved t hat h e w as t he v ictim o f a cademic s nobbery. A s a r esult, a ny a ccount o f h is i mpact o n h is c ontemporaries m ust a lso c onsider t he s ocial p osition o f h is f ellow w orkers. S uch f actors d o m uch t o e xplain h is d evotion t o s olitary f ieldwork, a nd a lso h is s ubsequent n eglect. T oms' c haracter w as f ull o f c ontradictions ( Merrifield 1 987). D espite h is m ilitary b earing, h is v iews i nclined t owards p acifism. H e w as c ommitted t o t he V ictorian r ationalism t hat h ad i nspired G eneral P itt R ivers, y et h e w as a lso i nterested i n t he s piritualist m ovement. H is b risk o utgoing m anner c oncealed a d eeper m elancholy , a nd f or a ll t he v igour o f h is w riting, h e w as n ot c onfident o f i ts r eception. H e w as s ure o f h is o pinions a nd t he q uality o f h is w ork, b ut h e m ust h ave b een a ware o f h is l ack o f f ormal e ducation. T his m ay b e w hy h e s o r arely p ublished i n t he s tandard a cademic j ournals, p referring t o r each aw ider r eadership t hrough h is l ectures a nd n ewspaper a rticles. H e m ay h ave b een e mployed a s am useum c urator, b ut u nlike m any a mateur a rchaeologists o f t he t ime, h e w as n ot am ember o f a n e stablished p rofession. O bviously h e f elt t his k eenly , c hoosing t o o rganise h is o wn a rchaeological c lub r ather t han w ork w ith t he p redominantly m iddle c lass c ounty s ociety. H e p ublished s ome o f h is b est w ork t hrough t hat c lub, a nd i n t he s ummary o f h is p ublications w hich h e p roduced i n 1 934 h e o verlooked h is c ontributions t o t he c ounty j ournal e ntirely , l isting t hem i n a n a ddendum. T his i nterpretation o f h is c areer f inds s upport i n c ontemporary s ources. T he f ormation o f t he B righton a nd H ove A rchaeological C lub w as ad irect o utcome o f s uch f eelings o f e xclusion. O ne o f T oms' c olleagues m akes t his p erfectly c lear i n a l etter t o t he S ussex D aily N ews p ublished i n 1 909: ' The S ociety ' ( Sussex A rchaeological S ociety ) ' is o ne t hat p rincipally a ppeals .. t o t he u pper a nd m iddle c lasses .. N ow t he B righton a nd H ove A rchaeological C lub i s m ore d emocratic i n i ts b asis, a nd m ore p opular i n i ts u ndertakings .. I t m ust b e r emembered t hat a n a rtisan m ay p ossess a t aste f or a rchaeology , n o l ess t han a l anded p roprietor'. T he s ame a ttitudes a re t o b e f ound i n o ne o f T oms' o wn l etters i n w hich h e d efends J ohn P ull, t he e xcavator o f t he B lackpatch f lint m ines, f rom c riticism i n t he l ocal p ress. T oms h imself h ad d isputed P ull's d ating e vidence, b ut w hen h e d etected i ntellectual s nobbery a t w ork, h e r evealed a nother s ide t o h is c haracter: ' It i s m ost u nfortunate t hat " Antiquary"' ( the n om d e p lume o f P ull's c ritic ) ' has p laced h imself a t t he t op o f s uch a l ofty ( "experienced") p edestal i n o rder t o s hout a t " young e nthusiasts" b elow , f or s uch t actless p roceeding i s h ardly l ikely t o f urther t he c ause o f a rchaeology. E nthusiasm f or f ield w ork a nd r ecord, s uch a s M r P ull a nd h is c olleagues h ave s hown , i s b y n o m eans c ommon; a nd, i f t here b e i n t he d istrict a rchaeologists o f w ider e xperience a nd r iper j udgement, t hen f rom t hem s hould e manate e ncouragement a nd s incere c riticism w hen n ecessary , r ather t han b adly v eiled s nubs a nd c ensure' ( Brighton H erald M agazine N ovember 2 4 1 923). T he

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3 7

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a ctivity i s b est c onsidered i n t wo p hases: t he f irst, t he p eriod o f h is m ajor f ield p rojects, w hich r an u p t o a bout 1 920; a nd t he s econd, t he p eriod d uring w hich h e b ecame i ncreasingly i nvolved i n c ontroversy. T he e arlier p eriod w as o ne o f a chievement, d uring w hich T oms e njoyed am odest r eputation l ocally a nd n ationally. T his w as w hen h e c onducted h is p ioneering s urveys o f S ussex h ill f orts a nd v alley e nclosures a nd u ndertook n ew s tudies o f P itt R ivers' s ites i n C ranborne C hase. I n a ddition, h e c arried o ut a s eries o f f ield s urveys o n t he S ussex d ownland w hich o wed l ess t o t he G eneral's e xample. S uch o utside i nfluence a s w as a pparent c ame f rom t he C ongress o f A rchaeological S ocieties, a nd f rom H adrian A llcroft's b ook E arthwork o f E ngland , w hich h ad b een p ublished i n 1 908. T oms' m ost o riginal w ork d ates f rom 1 910 a nd l ed h im i nto a n a rea t hat h ad h ardly b een t ouched i n e arlier r esearch: t he a ntiquity o f C eltic f ield s ystems o n t he c halk. H e w as t he f irst p erson t o p ublish a n a dequate s urvey o f s uch a s ystem, a nd a mong t he f irst t o c onsider t he f ormation a nd d ating o f l ynchets o n t he b asis o f d irect f ield o bservation. C haracteristically , h is p lan o f t he f ields a t P ark B ottom o riginally a ppeared i n t he B righton H erald a nd w as n ot p ublished i n a n a cademic j ournal ( The A ntiquary ) u ntil t he f ollowing y ear ( Toms 1 911). I t i s r eproduced h ere a s F igure 3 .

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T his s tudy w as w ell i n a dvance o f c ontemporary t hinking o n t his s ubject. C hronology i s a ll-important h ere: H eywood S umner d id n ot d iscuss s imilar e vidence f or a nother t wo y ears, a nd w hen h e d id s o, a cknowledged t he l ead p rovided b y T oms ( Sumner 1 913, v i a nd 4 3). A lthough h is A ncient E arthworks o f C ranborne C hase i ncludes a l ist o f ' Cultivation B anks o r L inchets, t hat a ppear t o b e o f g reat a ntiquity', t hey a re n ot a m ajor f eature o f t he b ook. J .P. W illiams F reeman w as h ardly a ware o f t his e vidence w hen h e p ublished F ield A rchaeology a s I llustrated b y H ampshire ( 1915), a nd O .G.S. C rawford d id n ot i nterest h imself i n C eltic f ields u ntil 1 922, w hen h e d iscussed t hem i n h is s tudy o f t he A ndover r egion, c oncluding t hat t hey h ad b een t he w ork o f ' hill-top c ommunities w ho t illed t he t ops o f t he h ills a nd t he s ides o f t he v alleys' ( 1922, 2 9). C rawford's f ieldwork r an i n p arallel w ith s imilar r esearch b y t he C urwens, w ho p ublished t heir f irst p aper o n f ield s ystems i n 1 923. T oms' s urvey i s i mportant f or o ther r easons. I t m ust b e o ne o f t he f irst t o r epresent t he d istribution o f s urface p ottery. H e a lso r ecorded i ts s tratigraphic c ontext i n r elation t o t he f ield e arthworks w here t hey h ad b een c ut b y a m odern r oad. I n a ddition t o t hese o bservations, T oms d iscussed t he c hronological r elationship b etween f ield s ystems a nd e arly e nclosures o n t he c halk, e xtending t he a nalysis o f t he P ark B ottom f ield s ystem t o a rgue f or t he a ntiquity o f a n e arthwork p ond. A f urther d evelopment w as h is i nterest i n m ethods o f f ield c learance o n t he c halk, a nd h is i dentification o f f lint b anks a nd c airns a s t he r esults o f t his a ctivity ( Toms 1 922a ). H e c annot h ave e xpected t hese v iews t o w in m any c onverts, f or a n o f d escribing t his w ork, n ow i n t he A shmolean L ibrary i n O xford, c arries t his i nscription i n T oms' h andwriting: ' Note: C rawford r eplied t hat h e a greed w ith s tatements i n a bove a rticle. H .S.T.'. T his r esearch o bviously p rovided a s timulus f or T oms' s tudies o f s ites w here f ield s ystems c ould b e f ound i n r elationship t o e arthworks w hich h ad b een d ated b y e xcavation, s uch a s C issbury o r S outh L odge C amp. I t a lso e ncouraged h im t o u ndertake w ider-ranging s urveys i n S ussex , w hich b rought t o l ight a w hole s eries o f s ites w hich h ave b ecome b etter k nown t hrough e xcavation. A part f rom t he v alley e ntrenchments m entioned e arlier, h is n ew d iscoveries i ncluded s ome o f t he e arthworks a t B uckland B ank, P ark B row a nd, i n p articular, P lumpton P lain ( Toms 1 927). I ntensive f ield s urvey a t w elle stablished s ites, i ncluding D evil's D yke, D itchling B eacon a nd T hundersbarrow a lso s hed n ew l ight o n t heir r elationship t o o ther e lements o f t he l andscape ( e.g. G urd, J acobs a nd T oms 1 924). A s pecial f eature o f t hese s tudies w as h is r emarkable e ye f or h ouse p latforms. H e a lso p ublished a p ioneering a nalysis o f S ussex l ong b arrows, w hich i ndicated t hat o ne o f t hem w as o f m ulti-period c onstruction ( Toms 1 922b ), a nd u ndertook s urveys o f t he p onds a nd r oads s urviving w ithin e arly f ield s ystems. A gain i t i s i mportant t o s tress h is r emarkable a bility t o a nalyse r elationships o n t he b asis o f s urface e vidence. A lthough T oms w as a dept a t r ecognising u nrecorded e arthworks, i t w as h ere t hat h is m ain t alents l ay , a nd t his w as t he m ain l esson t hat h e h ad t o i mpart t o t hose w ho w orked w ith h im i n t he L ocal E arthworks S urvey. T his t eam i ncluded t he C urwens, f ather a nd s on, w hilst a mong t hose w ho w ere i nvited t o o ffer a dvice w ere H adrian A llcroft a nd J .G. N eilsen C lift, w ho i s d escribed a s ' a p rominent m ember o f t he R oyal C ommission o n

3 9

E arthworks' ( in f act C lift b elonged t o t he R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments a nd a lso s erved o n t he C ommittee o n A ncient E arthworks a nd F ortified E nclosures o f t he C ongress o f A rchaeological S ocieties). T he B righton a nd H ove A rchaeological C lub w as c losely i dentified w ith t his w ork, a nd w hen o ne o f t he f ounders d ied i n 1 926 h is a shes w ere s cattered o ver t he h illfort a t C hanctonbury R ing. T oms a ttended t he c eremony, s ketching t he p lan o f an earby b arrow c emetery i n t he m argin o f t he s ervice s heet. A t f irst t he s urvey t eam w orked a micably w ith T oms. A llcroft, a m aster a t L ancing C ollege, p articipated i n s ome o f t he w ork a nd e ven t aught h im G reek i n h is s pare t ime. H e w as g enerous i n h is p raise w hen T oms f irst l ectured a bout h is r esearch o n v alley e ntrenchments, b ut i t w as n ot l ong b efore t he g roup l ost i ts o riginal c ohesion. H aving l earned T oms' w orking m ethods, t he C urwens w ent o n t o p ublish s urveys o f t heir o wn, m any o f t hem c onducted o n a l arger s cale t han T oms w as a ble t o c ommand. W orse s till, i n T oms' v iew , t he C urwens w ere p rofessional m en w ho s hared t heir a llegiance w ith t he c ounty s ociety , p ublishing m uch o f t heir w ork i n S ussex A rchaeological C ollections f rom 1 918 o nwards. M ore f undamental w as t he b reak w ith A llcroft, w hose w ork t ook o n a s peculative b ent w hich T oms d isliked i ntensely. I ndeed, i n o ne l etter h e r efers, b y n o m eans u nfairly , t o A llcroft's ' wild i maginings'. O ne r esult o f t hese r uptures w as t hat T oms' s urvey t eam d iminished, s o t hat s ome o f h is b est w ork w as c arried o ut o n h is o wn, o r i n c ollaboration w ith h is w ife. B y t he 1 920s T oms w as i n h is m id-forties a nd h ad b een i n t he s ame p ost f or a q uarter o f a c entury. H e m ay h ave f elt f rustrated. M eanw hile s ome o f h is e rstwhile c olleagues w ere w orking o n t heir o wn a ccount. T he C urwens' r esearch w as r ivalling h is a chievement a nd w as b eing p ublished i n t he m ajor j ournals t hat T oms h imself h ad s hunned. A v eritable c olony o f f ield a rchaeologists w as l iving i n B righton a nd H ove, b ut T oms n ever b elonged t o t his g roup. R ightly o r w rongly , h e s eems t o h ave f elt t hat h e w as n ot t heir s ocial e qual. D espite h is e vident s uccess a s t he c urator o f a l arge m useum , t here i s e vidence t hat h e r esented t heir i ntellectual l eadership. F rom t his t ime o nwards h e b ecame i ncreasingly i nvolved i n c ontroversy. T here w ere s everal s pecific r easons f or t his s tance. H e s eems t o h ave f elt t hat h is f ieldwork h ad b een u ndervalued, c omplaining a t i ts m isuse b y h is f ormer c olleagues. B oth A llcroft a nd t he C urwens w ere c riticised i n t his w ay , a nd T oms b acked u p h is a rguments b y r es urveying s ome o f t he e arthworks w hich t hey h ad i nvestigated ( e.g. T oms 1 924b ). H e a lso t ook o ffence w hen h is w ork w as n ot c ited. I n o ne p aper h e c omplains t hat h is u npublished p lans w ere b eing u sed w ithout h is p ermission, a lthough h e d oes n ot s ay b y w hom. H e i nsists o n d ocumenting t he e xact d ate a t w hich h is w ork t ook p lace s o t hat n o o ne e lse c ould t ake c redit f or h is d iscoveries ( Toms 1 926, 6 1, n l). T o s ome e xtent h e m ay h ave f elt t hat t he v alue o f h is f ield s urveys w as b eing u ndermined a s t he s ites h e h ad d iscovered w ere e xcavated b y o ther p eople. T his w as n ot a lways j ustified. A s w e h ave s een, t he C issbury e xcavation c onfirmed t he s equence t hat h e h ad s uggested f or t he s ite, b ut w hen C urwen p ublished h is w ork a t H ollingbury a y ear l ater, h e f ound h imself i n d isagreement w ith s ome o f T oms' c onclusions ( Curwen 1 932b ). C ertain f eatures h ad b een o mitted f rom t he s ite p lan, a nd C urwen r ejected T oms' a nalysis o f t he

4 0

e arlier e nclosure i nside t he h ill f ort. A s i t h appens, C urwen 's s ection d rawings s eem t o s upport T oms' i nterpretation, r ather t han h is o wn. T hese w ere m inor i rritations c ompared w ith A llcroft's w ork. H is ' wild i maginings' w ere t o b e f ound i n as teady s tream o f p ublications, e specially a n a rticle w hich d escribes t he d iscovery o f R oman ' circuses' o n t he c halk ( Allcroft 1 919 - p ublished 1 923). T oms' o bjections t o h is w ork w ere f orthright. A llcroft m isused f ield e vidence, a nd t he r esults o f s ome o f T oms' e arlier s urveys h ad b een d istorted t o f it t he a rgument. T his w as u nforgiveable, a nd T oms a ttacked h im f iercely i n t he p ress. T he ' circus' t heory b ecame a c ause c élèbre i n S ussex a rchaeology a nd b rought o ut t he d ifferences b etween T oms a nd h is c ontemporaries m ore c learly t han a ny o ther i ssue. E ver s ince h is f irst s urvey a t P ark B ottom, T oms h ad b een i nterested i n t he e vidence f or e arly p onds, a nd h e b ecame i ncreasingly c onvinced t hat t hey o ccurred i n d irect r elationship t o C eltic f ield s ystems, a v iew w hich r eceived b elated e ndorsement f rom C rawford ( 1953, c hapter 1 1). F or A llcroft, h owever, t he s ame e arthworks w ere ' circuses' -s mall r ural a mphitheatres o r s hrines o f R oman d ate. H is i magination c ollided h ead-on w ith T oms' a ttention t o d etail. A llcroft h ad a lready p ublished t his t heory i n an ational j ournal, a nd f or T oms' t his w as t he i deal g round o n w hich t o c hallenge t he a rchaeological e stablishment. H ere h is p recise f ield o bservations c ould b e t ested b y e xcavation, b ut i t i s s ome i ndication o f a n u nderlying l ack o f c onfidence t hat a t f irst h e c hose t o c onduct t he c onflict t hrough i ntermediaries. I ronically , h is m ain a lly i n t his c ampaign, t he p ortrait p ainter G arnet W olsey , c ame f rom a s imilar s ocial b ackground t o h is o pponents - t here i s e ven a h int o f T oms' r elationship w ith G eneral P itt R ivers w hen w e r ealise t hat W olsey b elonged t o t he s ame f amily a s t he B ritish c ommander-in-chief i n t he B oer W ar. A llcroft's i nterpretation w as q uestioned o n t he b asis o f e xcavation a t P ark B row, f or t his s eemed t o s how a d eposit o f w aterlain s ilts o n t he b ottom o f o ne o f h is ' circuses'. T he f irst a ttack w as p ublished i n t he S ussex D aily N ews a nd c omes i n a n a rticle b y G arnet W olsey , w hich i s a lso c ritical o f A llcroft's o ther w ork. T his p iece i s p reserved i n T oms' c uttings b ooks, b ut w ith a m anuscript n ote i n T oms' h andwriting, w hich r eads ' based o n ad raft b y H .S.T. f inal e dited b y H .S.T.'. I n t he s ame w ay , t he a ll-important e xcavation o f t his e arthwork w as r eported i n t he c ounty j ournal, n ot b y T oms b ut b y J .T. P ullen-Bury ( 1924 ), a lthough a gain i t s eems t hat h e w as t he a ctual a uthor. A s t he c ontroversy w idened, T oms d ropped h is d iplomatic c over a nd a ttacked A llcroft f or p lanning t he ' circus' o n B uckland B ank i naccurately a nd f or m isrepresenting h is s urvey o f P lumpton P lain. F rom t hat s tage o n, t he d iscussion b ecame m ore a crimonious, a nd w hen A llcroft q uestioned t he c ompetence o f t he e xcavation a t P ark B row , T oms a nd h is s upporters r etaliated i n l ike s tyle. T here w ould b e l ittle p oint i n r ecounting t he d etails o f t his d ispute w ere i t n ot f or t he f act t hat i t s hows h ow f ar T oms h ad i solated h imself f rom o ther a rchaeologists. B oth t he C urwens s ided w ith A llcroft, E .C. C urwen w riting t o t he B righton a nd H ove H erald i n 1 924 t o c riticise T oms' i ncreasingly f orthright l ine:

4 1

' Such a m anner o f w riting i s d oubly r egrettable, p artly b ecause i t d iminishes t he r eader's c onfidence i n t he o pinions t hus e xpressed, b ut s till m ore b ecause i t m akes i mpossible t hat c ooperation b etween l ocal a rchaeologists w hich i s s o h ighly d esirable'. T oms' r eply i s c uriously o blique, h inting a t s lights, i magined, t hat e xtended b eyond t he s ubject o f t his e xchange:

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' He' ( E.C. C urwen) ' knows f rom p ast e xperience t hat i n t he c ause o f t ruth a nd j ustice ( with d ue e mphasis o n t he l atter) I a m e ver r eady t o c o-operate w ith o ther s tudents, e specially w ith t hose w ho h ave s hown t hemselves a s t rue s cientists b y t heir w illingness t o a dmit a nd c orrect m istakes w hich h ave b een p ointed o ut t o t hem '. I f t here w ere a ny d oubt a bout t he n ature o f t he a ntagonisms t hat l ay b ehind t his d ispute, t his s oon b ecomes a pparent f rom A llcroft's p arting s hot, w hich w as p ublished i n t he S ussex G azette i n J anuary 1 925. I t e pitomises t he k ind o f i ntellectual s nobbery t hat T oms f ound s o d istasteful: ' Any c riticism o f m y t heory a t l arge m y c ritics h ave t hus f ar c arefully a voided, a nd i f t heir a cquaintance w ith G reek a nd L atin a rchaeology i s i n e very c ase a s l imited a s t hat d isplayed b y s ome a mateurs w ho h ave g iven m e t he b enefit o f t heir i nstruction, I c an u nderstand t heir s ilence'. M eanwhile T oms' o wn a ttitude c ' o t he c ontroversy , a nd t o i ts m ain p rotagonists, i s r evealed b y a n e xtraordinary e ntry i n h is c uttings b ook. T his i s a n a busive p oem b y h is c ollaborator G arnet W olsey , e ntitled ' Ode t o H adrian A llcroft M A , D T ( Dedicated t o D r C urwen F SA, M A , M D, L SD, D T )'. T he p oem i s m arked ' strictly p rivate' a nd w ith i t i s a s ketch o f ah eadstone, i nscribed ' Here l ies t he C orpes [ sic] o f a g reat a rchaeological r eputation k illed i n f air f ight b y H .S.T. a nd G .R.W.'. T he d rawing d epicts t wo w reaths, o ne f rom e ach o f t he C urwens. T he r upture w as a ll b ut c omplete. I t i s d ifficult t o s ay h ow T oms' w ork w ould h ave d eveloped i n t he y ears t hat f ollowed, a nd w hether i t w ould h ave h ad m uch i nfluence a s h is r elations w ith h is c olleagues w orsened. I n t he e vent h is c areer a s a f ield a rchaeologist w as a lmost a t a n e nd, f or i n 1 927 C hristine d ied o f c ancer. S he h ad h elped h im i n a ll h is w ork, l ecturing a t t he m useum a nd t o l ocal s ocieties, a nd a ssisting h im w ith h is f ield s urveys. H e w as a b roken m an, s elling h is h ouse a nd s pending t he r est o f h is l ife w ith f riends. H is r emaining p ublications w ere l ess a mbitious, a nd f or o ur p urposes l ess o riginal, a lthough h is s tudies o f t he a ntiquity o f c halkland p onds r aise i mportant i ssues t hat h ave n ever b een r esolved. H is c areer i n a nalytical f ield s urvey h ad l asted t wo d ecades.

S umming u p: p osterity a nd H erbert T oms P osterity h as f orgotten H erbert T oms. T he s ame w ould b e t rue i n m y o wn c ase b ut f or t he c urious f ashion i n w hich o ur p aths h ave c rossed. H y e arly i nterest i n B ronze A ge f ields a nd e nclosures o n t he d owns l ed m e t o c onsult h is s urveys, a nd a s a r esult o f t his r eading m y f irst l arge-scale e xcavation w as a t o ne o f h is s ites: t he B eaker e nclosure

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c omplex a t B elle T out ( Bradley 1 970 ). I t w as a t t hat t ime, t wenty y ears a go, t hat I c ame a cross T oms' c uttings b ooks i n B righton R eference L ibrary , b ut I h ad n o p lans t o s tudy t hem i n d etail. A s i t h appened, e vents m oved r apidly. T he n ext y ear I f ound m yself p reparing o ne o f S t. G eorge G ray 's e xcavations f or p ublication, a nd i n s orting t hrough t he s ite r ecords I c ame u pon a m anuscript l etter f rom T oms, a s w ell a s t wo o f P itt R ivers' o wn n otebooks. Ib ecame i nterested i n t he p ossibilities o f r e-interpreting s ome o f t he G eneral's w ork i n C ranborne C hase ( Bradley 1 973). L ater, i n c ollabora tion w ith J ohn B arrett, I d ecided t o d evelop m y e arly r esearch o n B ronze A ge e nclosures b y r e-excavating P itt R ivers' s ite a t S outh L odge C amp ( Barrett, B radley , B owden a nd M ead 1 983). T oms w as t here a gain, h aving p ublished h is a ccount o f t he e arthworks o n t his s ite o ver f ifty y ears b efore. M y c uriosity w as r enewed, a nd I d ecided t o s tudy h is o ther w ork w hen o pportunity a rose. T his p aper s hows w hat I f ound. I i ndulge i n t his p iece o f a utobiography i n o rder t o m ake a w ider p oint. Ib ecame i nterested i n H erbert T oms, n ot b ecause h e h ad b een t rained b y G eneral P itt R ivers, b ut b ecause t here h ad b een s o m any t imes w hen I h ad o ccasion t o p rofit f rom h is w ork. T he q uality o f t hat w ork d eserved t o b e b etter k nown. H aving d escribed h is d ifficult r elations w ith s ome o f h is c ontemporaries, h ow w ell d oes h is r esearch s tand u p t oday? T oms h ad a h appy k nack o f b eing o n t he r ight s ide i n m ajor c ontroversies, a lthough i t w as h is i mpatience w ith h is o pponents t hat m ay h ave l ed t o h is n eglect - f lint m ines w ere n ot P alaeolithic b ut N eolithic; A llcroft's c ircuses n o l onger f eature i n t he l iterature; f ield s ystems a re a n e stablished f eature o f t he M iddle B ronze A ge l andscape. M ore i mportant w as h is e arly u nderstanding t hat b y l ogical s urface a nalysis i t m ight b e p ossible t o e stablish t he c hronology o f c omplex e arthworks. T hat i s w hy t he t itle o f t his p aper r efers t o a nalytical f ield s urvey. H ere h is a chievement i s e asily s ummarised. T oms w as t he f irst a rchaeologist t o p rovide a c onvincing d emonstration o f t he n ature a nd a ntiquity o f C eltic f ield s ystems, a nd a mong t he f irst t o s how h ow t hey w ere r elated o n t he g round t o o ther c lasses o f m onument, i ncluding e nclosures, h ouse p latforms, h ill f orts, b oundary d itches, r oads a nd p onds. T his i s t he m ain i mportance o f h is w ork o n s ites i n S ussex a nd W essex. I t w as t he s ame a bility t o a nalyse e arthworks - a nd n ot m erely t o p lan t hem - t hat a llowed h im t o r ecognise am ulti-period l ong b arrow h alf a c entury b efore t hey w ere i dentified b y e xcavation. E ven w here h is a bsolute c hronology c an b e f aulted, h is r elative c hronology r emains s ecure. T his i s t he c ase w ith h is n umerous s urveys o f v alley e nclosures, s o m any o f w hich w ould n ow b e d ated t o t he m edieval o r p ost-medieval p eriods. A lthough T oms s tarted h is w ork f avouring a B ronze A ge o rigin f or t hese s ites, h e n ever f ailed t o n otice w hen t hey o verlay C eltic f ield s ystems. T he q uality o f h is s urveys i s m ost a pparent i f w e c ompare t he p lans o f f our D orset e nclosures p repared i n 1 912 w ith f resh s urveys o f t hese s ites p ublished b y t he R oyal C ommission a lmost s ixty y ears l ater ( RCHME 1 970, 3 -4, 2 21-2 a nd 3 25-6; t his p aper, F igs 4 a nd 5 ). A lthough t he n ew s urveys a re r ather m ore c omprehensive, t he t wo s ets o f p lans s how a r emarkable a greement, a nd T oms s eems t o h ave r ecorded a ll t he k ey r elationships c orrectly. I ndeed, t here a re d etails i n h is s urveys w hich d o n ot a ppear o n t he l ater p lans, p resumably b ecause o f m ore r ecent d amage t o t hese e arthworks.

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T he f inal f eature o f T oms' w ork i s t hat i t w as o n a s mall s cale. V ery o ften T oms' p lans a re c oncerned w ith p oints o f d etail, r ather t han w hole l andscapes. T here a re e xceptions t o t his o bservation ( e .g. F ig 3 ), b ut, g enerally s peaking, h is i nterest w as i n t he c haracteri stic f orms t aken b y d ifferent t ypes o f m onument a nd i n t heir c hronological r elationship t o o ne a nother. T hat i s w hy T oms c ould p lan n o f ewer t han f our p rehistoric e nclosures i n t he a rea c lose t o P lumpton P lain, w ithout d epicting t he e xtensive f ield s ystems t han r an b etween t hem ( Toms 1 927; c f. H olleyman a nd C urwen 1 935, f ig 1 ). H is i nterest w as i n t he b asic g rammar o f f ield a rchaeology , a nd s o i t w as e nough t o r ecord t hose a reas i n w hich i ndividual e nclosures c ame i nto c ontact w ith l ynchets. T he s ame i s t rue o f t he e arthworks i llustrated i n F igures 4 a nd 5 . I t i s c lear t hat T oms e stablished t heir r elationship t o i ndividual e lements o f a n e arlier f ield s ystem, b ut i t i s t he R oyal C ommission's s urvey t hat d epicts t he l andscape a s a w hole.

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T his i s a l imitation o f h is w ork, b ut t o s ay s o i s n ot a c riticism. T here i s a s ense i n w hich t his s hows T oms a s t he h eir o f G eneral P itt R ivers. B ehind t he m ass o f d etail p resented i n E xcavations i n C ranborne C hase t here i s o ne o verriding o bjective, w hich t he a uthor h ad b rought w ith h im f rom h is a nthropological w ork. P itt R ivers w ished t o s tudy , a s e xactly a s h e c ould, t he e volution o f m aterial c ulture ( Bradley 1 973). H is p referred m edium w as e xcavation. T oms' u ltimate o bjective, a lthough n ever d eclared s o e xplicitly , m ay h ave b een r ather s imilar. H e u sed t he m ethods o f f ield s urvey t o e stablish t he r elative c hronology o f t he d ifferent k inds o f e arthwork m onument s urviving o n t he c halk. D uring t he t wenty y ears o f h is m ost p roductive w ork h e w ent a c onsiderable w ay t owards a chieving t hat o bjective, p roviding a n i mportant e xample f or t hose w ho f ollowed h is l ead, w hether t hey a cknowledged h is i nfluence o r n ot. W here t hey e xtended h is w ork a long l ines t hat a re m ore f amiliar t oday i s i n t he g rowing e mphasis o n l andscapes r ather t han m onuments. T hat i s w hy H erbert T oms i s s uch a t ransitional f igure i n t he h istory o f f ield a rchaeology: i f h is w orking m ethods a nticipate t hose i n u se t oday , h e o wed h is b asic a pproach t o t he G eneral's t eaching. T oms' w ork i s l ittle k nown b ecause o f h is o wn a cademic a nd s ocial i nhibitions. H alf a c entury a fter h e d ied w e a re i n ab etter p osition t o j udge w hat h e a chieved. W e d o n ot h ave t o s hare h is d iffidence a bout h is w ork. B y i solating h imself f rom h is c ontemporaries a nd p ublishing h is i deas i n s uch o bscure p laces, T oms d id n ot d o h imself j ustice. N ow i s t he t ime t o g ive c redit w here c redit i s d ue.

A cknowledgements I a m m ost g rateful t o t he s taff o f B righton R eference L ibrary f or a ccess t o T oms' c uttings b ooks. F urther p apers w ere t raced b y J o D raper. I m ust t hank A dam H adley f or t he f igure d rawings a nd t he S ecretary o f R CHME f or t he u se o f c opyright m aterial.

B ibliography A llcro ft , H1 902 L ärtb oork o fD lgland . M acmillan , L ondon . A llcro ft , H1 919 T he R oman c ircus i n B ritain : s ame n ew i dentifications . A rc haeci J 7 6 , 9 6-132 . B arrett , J , B radley , R , B owden , Ma nd M ead , B1 983 S outh L odge a fter P itt R ivers . A ntiqu ity 5 7 , 1 93-204 . B radley , R1 970 T he e xcavation o f aB eaker s ettlement a t B elle T ou t , E ast S ussex , E ngland . P roc P reh ist S oc 3 6 , 3 12-79 . B radley , R1 973 T Wo n o tebooks o f G eneral P itt R ivers . A nti q u ity 4 7 , 4 7-50 . B radley , R1 975 M äumbury R ings , D orchester - t he e xcavations o f 1 908-1913 . A rchaeo l 1 05 , 1 -97 . B radley , R1 983 A rchaeology , e volution a nd t he p ublic g ood : t he i ntellectual d evelopment o f G eneral P itt R ivers . A rchaeo l j r 140 , 1 -9 . C lark , J DG a nd P iggott , S1 933 T he a ge o f t he B ritish f lint m ines . A nt iqu ity 7 , 1 66-83 . C oles , J1 987 M eare V illage E ast . S omerset L evels P ap 1 3 . C rawford , 0 G S1 922 T he A ndove r.R eg don . C larendon P ress , O xford . C rawford , 0 G S1 923 A ir s urvey a nd a rchaeology . G eogr j r , M ay 1 923 , 2 42-66 . C raw ford , 0G S1 953 A rchaeo lo gy i n t he F ie ld . P hoenix H ouse , L ondon . C urwen , Ea nd C urwen , EC 1 923 S ussex l ynchets a nd t heir a ssociated f ieldways .

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S ussex A rc haeo l C ol lect 4 4 , 1 -65 . C urwen , EC 1 927 P rehistoric a griculture i n B ritain . A ntiqu ity 1 , 2 61-89 . C urwen , EC1 9 32a A ncien t c ultivations . A nt iqu ity 6 , 3 89-406 . C urwen , EC1 932b E Xcava tions a t H ollingbury C amp , S ussex . A ntiq r j12 , 1 -10 . C urwen , ECa nd R oss W illiamson , RP 1 931 T he d a te o f C issbury C amp . A ntig rj r11 , 1 43 6 . C urd , R , J acobs , Wa nd T oms , H1 924 S urveys o f T hundersbarrow C amp a nd T hunder 's S teps . B righton a nd H ove A rchaeologist 2 , 8 1-6 . H o lleyman , G1 987 DV D orset A rc haeo logi sts i n S ussex . P rivately p rinted . H o lleyman , Ga nd C urwen , EC 1 935 L ate B ronze A ge l ynchetsettlements o n P lump ton P lain , S ussex . P roc P rehist S ac 1 , 1 6-38 . L ane F ox , A1 868a A n e xamination i nto t he c haracter a nd p robable o rigin o f t he h ill f orts o f S ussex . A rchaeol 4 2 , 2 7-52 . L ane F ox , A1 868b F ürther r emarks o n t he h ill f orts o f S ussex ; b eing a n a ccoun t o f t he e xcavations i n t he f orts o f C issbury a nd H ighdown . A rc haeo l 4 2 , 5 3-76 . L ane F ox , A1 875 E xcavations i n C issbury C amp , S ussex . J ro f t he A nthropo log ica l I hst 5 , 3 57-89 . M errifield , R1 987 S ame p ersonal m emories o f H .S . T an s , i n H olleyman 1 987 , 2 9-39 . P itt R ivers , A1 888 D iravations i n C tanborne C hase , v ol 2 . P rivately p rinted . P itt R ivers , A1 898 E xc avations i n C ienborne C hase , v ol 4 . P rivately p rinted . P ullen-Bury , JT 1 924 T he ' c ircus ' o n P ark B row , S ompting . S uss e xA rchaeo l C o llec t 6 5 , 2 42-50 . R CHKE 1 970 C ounty o fD or set , v ol 3 - C entral . H M S0 , L ondon . S umner , H1 913 T he A nc ient E arthworks o f C tanborne C hase . C hiswick P ress , L ondon . T bms , H1 911 T he p roblem o f a ncient c ultivations . A ntiqua ry 4 7 , 4 11-17 . T an s , H1 912a N otes o n s ame s urveys o f v alley e ntrenchments i n t he P iddletrenthide d istrict . Arc L brset N atur H ist A nt ig rI eld C lub 3 , 3 4-44 . T an s , H1 912b E Xcava tions a t t he B eltout v alley e ntrenchments . S ussex A rc haeo l C ollec t 5 , 4 1-55 . T bms , H1 913 N otes o n ap robable R omano-British v alley e ntrenchment i n C ranborne C hase . A ntiqua ry 4 9 , 2 50-3 . T bms , H1 914 N otes o n as urvey o f H ollingbury C amp . B righton a nd H ov e A rc haeo log ist 1 , 1 2-21 . T an s , H1 917 R ecord o f t he M ill F ields v alley e ntrenchment a nd c overed w ay , W illingdon H ill . T r ans E astbourne N atur K ist S ocJanuary 1 917 , 4 5-53 . T an s , H1 922a Ap roblem i n a ncient f arming . S üssex C oun ty H er ald Oc to b er 2 1 , 1 922 . T bms , H1 922b L ong b arrows i n S ussex . S ussex A rc haeo l C o ll e c t 6 3 , 1 57-65 , T an s , H1 924a V alley e n trenchments w est o f D itchling R oad . B righton a nd H ove A rc haeo log ist 2 , 5 7-72 . T bms , H1 924b T he P ark B row p latforms . S u ssex A rchaeo l C o llect 6 5 , 2 51-3 . T oms , H1 925 B ronze A ge , o r e arlier , l ynchets . P roc D orset N atur H ist A ntiq neld C lub 4 6 , 8 9-100 . T an s , H1 926 V alley e ntrenchments e ast o f D itchling R oad . Bri g ht o n a nd H ove A r chaeologist 3 , 4 3-61 . T a ms , Ha nd T a ms , C1 926 T he C issbury e arthworks . S ussex A rc haeo l C o llect 6 7 , 5-83 . T an s , H1 927 M iscellaneous e arthworks n ear B righton . S ussex A rc haeo l C o ll e c t 6 8 , 1 79-97 . W arren , H1 922 T he N eo lithic s tone a xes o f G raig L wyd , P enmaenmawr . A rchaeologia C ambrensis 7 , 1 -36 . W illiams-Freeman , JP1 915 F ie ld A rc haeology a s I llustratedbyhämpshire . M acmillan , L ondon .

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E XCAVATIONS B Y B RYAN A ND H ELEN O 'NEIL O N T HE I SLES O F S CILLY

N eil B eagrie

I n 1 947 B ryan a nd H elen O 'Neil m ade t he f irst o f w hat w as t o b ecome a s eries o f a nnual h olidays o n t he I sles o f S cilly, c ombining e xcavation a nd f ield v isits t o a ncient m onuments o n t he I slands. D uring t hese v isits B ryan O 'Neil w rote t he M inistry o f W orks g uidebook t o t he A ncient M onuments o f t he I sles o f S cilly f irst p ublished i n 1 949 ( O 'Neil 1 949). H is n otebooks w ritten a t t his t ime w ere c learly i ntended t o f orm t he b asis f or a w ider s tudy o f S cilly , w hose p ublication w as p revented b y h is u ntimely d eath i n 1 954. I n t he p eriod 1 947-1954 H elen a nd B ryan O 'Neil u ndertook o ver t wenty e xcavations a ssisted b y f riends a nd v olunteers. E xcavation o n t he S t. H elen's H ermitage s ite b egun b y t hem i n 1 954 w as c ompleted u nder H elen O 'Neil's d irection b etween 1 956 a nd 1 958 a nd p ublished i n 1 964 ( O 'Neil 1 964). U nfortunately f ew o f t he o ther e xcavations r eached p ublication b efore B ryan O 'Neil's d eath, a lthough f inal t ypescript r eports h ad b een p repared f or m any o f t hem. P ressure o f o ther w ork p revented H elen O 'Neil c arrying t he r eports t hrough t o p ublication b efore h er d eath i n 1 984. H owever, t he m anuscript r eports a nd p lans w ere m ade a vailable t o P aul A shbee w hilst h e w as r esearching h is b ook o n A ncient S cilly a nd d etails o f m any o f t he e xcavations a re i ncluded i n h is b ook ( Ashbee 1 974). B efore H elen O 'Neil's d eath, n otes a nd p lans o f t he e xcavations o n S cilly p assed i nto p rivate h ands. T he A rchaeological R ecords S ection o f R CHME h as ar ole i n p roviding s ecurity c opies o f u npublished a rchives i n p rivate p ossession a nd a t t he r equest o f t he a rchive-holder a m icrofilm c opy w as m ade o f t his m aterial. T he r emainder o f H elen O 'Neil's a rchive, i ncluding p aper r ecords o f m any o f h er e xcavations a nd f ieldwork e lsewhere i n E ngland a nd h er c ollection o f s ome 7 ,000 p hotographic n egatives w as a cquired b y R CHME. R CHME 's c ollection o f p hotographs p rinted f rom H elen O 'Neil's n egatives i ncludes s ome 1 ,100 p hotographs o f t he I sles o f S cilly , p rincipally t he p hotographic r ecord o f t heir e xcavations. T he n egatives, a part f rom t he f irst 3 68, a re i ndexed i n n otebooks, a nd t he a rchaeological p hotographs a re n ow b eing c atalogued. I n 1 988 R CHME g rant-aided t he c ompilation o f a n E xcavations I ndex f or t he I sles o f S cilly. T his w ork w as u ndertaken b y C arl T horpe o f t he C ornwall A rchaeological U nit u nder t he d irection o f C harles T homas. T he p roject f ormed p art o f t he c ompilation o f an ational i ndex o f a rchaeological e xcavations i n E ngland b egun b y R CHME i n 1 978 a nd f or w hich i nitial c overage o f t he w hole o f E ngland w ill b e c ompleted i n 1 989. I n m any w ays t he w ork u ndertaken o n t he E xcavations I ndex f or S cilly , i dentifying t he l ocation a nd n ature o f s urviving a rchive, t he l ocation o f t he f inds a nd d etails o f t he p ublications f or t he e xcavations o n t he I slands, s hows i n m icrocosm w hat h as o r w ill b e a chieved f or t he w hole o f E ngland a nd i ts p otential v alue f or i ndividual r esearchers a nd l ocal a nd n ational r ecord s ystems. F or t he O 'Neil e xcavations i t a llowed t he a ccurate l ocation f or t he f irst t ime o f c ertain s ites a nd t he i dentification o f

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p reviously u nrecorded e xcavations a s w ell a s t he e nhancement o f t he d ata o n k nown e xcavations. T his i nformation h as n ow b een i ntegrated i nto t he l ocal S MR. A t an ational l evel d etails f rom t he E xcavations I ndex f or S cilly w ill a ppear i n t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord a nd r esearchers w ill h ave a ccess t o f urther i nformation o n S cillonian e xcavations f rom t he c omputerised d atabase o f t he N ational E xcavations I ndex , a llowing r etrieval o n a ny c ombination o f 7 1 f ields s uch a s p eriod, s ite t ype, e xcavator, e tc. I t i s t he E xcavations I ndex f or t he I sles o f S cilly , a long w ith f urther e xamination o f t he a rchive b y t he a uthor, w hich f orms t he b asis o f t he c atalogue a t t he e nd o f t his a rticle. T he O 'Neil a rchive f or t he I sles o f S cilly i s d iverse, i ncluding n otes o n h istorical s ources, b rief n otes o n s ite v isits t o a ll t he p rincipal a ncient m onuments, a s w ell a s e xcavation r ecords. T he m icrofilm, p hotographs a nd i ndexes h eld b y R CHME w ill r emain a m ajor s ource o f i nformation f or a nyone i nterested i n t he a rchaeology o f S cilly. F ull d etails o f t he e xcavations m ust a wait r e-examination o f t he f inds a nd p ublication o f t he r eports. I n t he i nterim t his b rief c atalogue c ombined w ith d etails p reviously p ublished c an a ct a s a g uide t o t he O 'Neil e xcavations o n t he I slands.

T he e xcavations T he c atalogue i s a rranged b y d ate o f e xcavation a nd g ives t he s ite n ame a nd t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord Maher f or t he s ite , f ollowed b y b rief d etails o f t he e xcavation , a rchive , f inds l oca tion a nd t he m ain p ublished r eferences .

1 9471953

l isb I s land C amn

S V9 1 W 9

E Xcavation o f aB ronze A ge h ouse a nd m idden u ndertaken i n 1 947-9 a nd a gain i n 1 953 i n c on junction w ith t he R ev . H .A . L ewis , w ho f irst e xcavated h ere i n 1 945-6 . A rchive : n otes , p lans , s ec tions , p hotographs , n egatives , s pecia list r eports ( c orrespondence ), d ra ft r eport . F inds : I sles o f S cilly M useum ( f ormerly i n P enlee H ouse M useum s tore , P enzance ). R eferences : A shbee 1 974 , 1 64-6 . 1 948 S m a ll e xcavation O 'Neils .

W hite I s land S ta ie S ett ing o f e nclo sure/field

b oundary .

T hought t o

S Y9 1 W 6 2 b e p ost-medieval

b y t he

A rchive : n otes F inds : n one 1 948

K aac kyboy C airn , S t . M ar tin's

S V9 1 W

E xcavation o f aB ronze A ge c hambered c airn . U npublished p ottery f ound o ver a nd a round t he c airn s uggests a m edieval s ettlement n earby . A rch ive : n o tes , p lans , s ection , f inds d rawings , s pecia list r eports

5 0

( c orrespondence ), d ra ft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro , I sles o f S cilly M useum , P en lee H ouse M useum s tore , P enzance . R eferences : O 'Neil 1 952 ( r eport ); T homas 1 985 , 27 . / 949 -1951 egber T bwn B ay ( P ar d i ), S t . M artin's 3 1 '91 A N r1 , 2 6 a nd 3 3 E xcavation o f as eries o f B ronze A ge , I ron A ge , a nd R oman s ites i n t he i nter-tidal z one . D iscovery a nd i nitial e xcavation b y R ev . H .A . L ewis i n 1 948 . A rchive : n otes , p lans , s ections , p ottery d rawings , d raft r eports . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro , I sles o f S cilly M useum ( f ormerly i n P enlee H ouse M useum s tore , P enzance ). R eferences : A shbee 1 974 , 1 28 , 1 32 , 1 68 , 1 79-84 . 1 950

a x atent F ar i s ( 7 bwn I nne S t . M ary 's )

S mall e xcavation b y B ryan O 'Neil a nd P aul A shbee t o B ronze A ge c ist f irst d iscovered i n 1 938-9 .

S V9 1 S f2 2

r etrieve r emaining c ontents o f a

A rch ive : n otes , p hotos ( I sles o f S cilly M useum ). F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro . R efere nces : A shbee 1 953 , 2 8-30 ( r eport ). 1 950

L awrences B row , S t . M artin's

B ronze A ge s ettlement f irst e xcavated b y B ryan O 'Neil .

d iscovered

b y

t he R ev .

S V9 1 M I3 1 H .A .

L ewis

a nd s ubsequently

A rchive : d raft r eport . F inds : I sles o f S cilly M useum ( f ormerly i n P enlee H ouse M use u m s tore , P enzance ). R eferences : A shbee 1 974 , 3 16 . 1 950

M ay 's H ill , S t . M art in's

S V9 1 M I8

E xcavation o f a B ronze A ge m idden a nd r emains o f a n I ron A ge ( ? ) h ut o verlain b y a m assive s tone-built h ut d ated b y O 'Neil t o t he R oman p eriod . R ecent r e-examination o f t he p ottery b y T hcmas h as r e-dated t his l ate o ccupation t o t he R oman a nd p ost-Roman p eriods . A rchive : n otes , p lan , s ection , p hotos , n egs , d raft r eport . F inds : C ounty M use u m ( R IC ) T ruro . R eferences : A shbee 1 974 , 1 66-7 , 3 16 , 3 18-9 ; T urk a nd T homas 1 984 ; T homas 1 985 , 1 95-6 . 1 950

T ink ler 's R ock , S t . M art in's

S V9 1 R f6

E xcavation o f av ery r uined c airn . R emains o f ak erb w ere f ound a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he t rench , b ut t here w as n o s ign o f t his f urther S outh . N atural s ub-soil o r r ock w as f ound e verywhere a t ad epth o f l ess t han a f oot ( 0 .3m ). A rchive : n otes , p hotos , n egs . F inds : n one . 1 95 171953

L itt le A r thu r

I ron A ge s ettlement f rom w hich t he R ev . H .A . L ewis c ollected p ottery . H ut I i n 1 951 w as f ollowed b y e xcavation o f H ut I i n 1 953 .

5 1

5 V9 1 3 V7 E xcava tion o f

A rch ive : n o tes , p lan , p ottery d raw ings , p hoto s , n egs , d ra ft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro , I sles o f S cilly M useum ( f ormerly i n P en lee H ouse M useum s tore , P enzance ). R eferences : A shbee 1 974 , 1 80-1 , 2 59 . 1 95 1

P erp itc h , S t . M artin's

S V9 1 M I2 7

B ronze A ge h ut c ircle a nd f ield b oundary . A rchive : n otes , p lan , s ection , s tone d rawing , p hotos , n egs , d ra ft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro , I sles o f S cilly M useum . R e ferences : A shbee 1 974 , 1 68-70 . 1 952

B ay H ill , S t . f ert in's

S V9 1 1 4 19 3

T wo s uperimposed f ield b oundaries f ound u nder a l ayer o f y ellow s and . T he w alls w ere s eparated b y a l ayer o f b rown s oil ( t urf-line? ) a nd a y ellow w ind-blown s and , a nd o verlay a n e arlier c obbled f loor . O ne d oubtful s herd o f ?B ronze A ge p ottery w as f ound i n al ayer a ssociated w ith t he e arliest w all . A rch ive : n otes , p lan , s ection , p hotos , n egs , d raft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro . 1 952

H il lbenn ig ates c rF lat R o c* H ill , S t . M ar tin's

S V9 1 I N1 7

B ronze A ge c airn a nd c ist , w hich h ad b een d isturbed b y s tone r obbers . An umber o f s herds , af lint s craper a nd s ome f lint f lakes w ere r ecovered . A t t he b eginning o f t he e xcavation t he s ite w as n amed F lat R ock H ill a nd l ater r e-named H illbenniga tes . B oth n ames a re u sed i n t he a rchive . A rchive : n o tes , p lans , p hotos , n egs , d raft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro . R e ferences : A non 1 952 ; P ollard 1 952 . 1 952

M idd le P am H ill , S t . M artin's

R oman h ouse , d rain , a nd l impet m idden e xcavated i n 1 952 . An umber p ost-stone w ere c ollected f rom t he s urface o f t he s ite i n 1 953 .

S F9 1 A V4 o f s herds a nd a

A rchive : l ocation p lan , p hotos , n egs , d raft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro . R e ferences : A non 1 952 ; P ollard 1 952 .

1 9521953

E ast A a rth , T ean

S V9 1 I N4 8

H idden a nd d ry s tone w all e xcavated b y t he R ev . H .A . L ewis i n 1 948 . E xcavation b y t he O 'Neils i n 1 952 r evealed w all-faces i ndicating a b uilding w ith w alls 9 f t -1 0 f t ( 2 .7m - 3 m ) a part , p artly c overed b y m idden m aterial . O 'Neil d escribes t he p ottery a s b eing o f l ate E arly I ron A ge , g rass-marked a nd ?M edieval t ype . E xcavations i n 1 953 r evealed p art o f ap ossible h u t-circle a nd o ther w alls . F urther e xcavations o n t his s ite w ere u ndertaken b y C harles T homas i n 1 956 . A rch ive : n otes ( b rief ), p ottery d raw ings ( fr a n 1 948 e xcavation ), p hotos , n egs . F inds : C ount y M useum ( R IC ) T ruro , I sles o f S cilly M useum .

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R e ferences : T homas 1 985 , 1 83-8 . 1 952-1953

E 3st I trth K e lp -p it , 7 1 a 3n

S V9 1 N W9 2

P ost-medieval k elp p it e xamined t hen e xcava ted 3 0th J uly 1 952 a nd 1 4th J uly 1 953 . A rchive : n o tes , p ho to , n eg . F inds : n one . 1 952-1953

L ittle B ay , S t . M ar tin's

S V9 1 N i l2 8

E arly B ronze A ge s ettlement e xposed b y s torms i n 1 891 a nd 1 951 , e xcavated f or f ive d ays i n J uly 1 952 a nd s ix d ays i n 1 953 . F urther e xcavations o n t his s ite w ere u ndertaken b y S arnia B utcher i n 1 974 a nd D avid N eal i n 1 980 . A rchive : p ottery n otes , p lan , p ho tos , n egs , d ra ft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro . R e ferences : A shbee 1 974 , 1 72 ; N eal 1 983 ( r eport ). 1 9 53

M idd le A rthur

S Y9 1 S W5

E Xravation o f aB ronze A ge c airn w ith l arge b oa tshaped c ist . A rchives : p lan , p hotos , n egs , d raft r eport . F inds : C ounty M useum ( R IC ) T ruro . R eferences : O 'Neil 1 954 ( r eport ). 1 953

B ur nt H il l , S t . l i ar t in's

S V9 1 M I 7

T his s ite i s a n a lleged I ron A ge c liff c astle a nd a n umber o f h u t c ircles h ave b een n o ted o n t he h ill . Aw all a cross p art o f t he n orthern e nd o f t he p romontory h as b een i n terpreted a s ar ampart , b u t i s t hought m ore l ikely t o b e af ield b oundary . S light e xcavation b y t he O 'Neils o n 2 0th J uly 1 953 j ust b ehind t his w all o n e ither s ide o f a p ossible e ntrance y ielded n o s ign o f o ccupation a nd t he o nly f inds w ere t wo f lin t f lakes. A rchive : n otes , s ketch s urveys ( 1 947 b y L ewis , 1 953 b y O 'Neil ), p hotos , n egs . F inds : ?

1 9 54 L imited e xcava tion o f t his ( g uardianship s ite ).

K ing C har les's C ast le , nes co p ost-medieval a rtillery

f ort f or

S V8 1 t he M inistry

2 5

o f W orks

A rch ive : n otes , p ottery d raw ings , s pecia list r eports ( c orre spondence ), d ra ft r eport . F inds : H BMC . R eferences : M iles a nd S aunders 1 970 ( r eport ). 1 9 541958

S t

H e len 's

S V9 1 N i l5 6

E arly C hristian s ite a nd l ater m edieval c hapel e xcavated 1 954 a nd 1 956-8 . T he i nterpretation o f t he e arliest p hase a s ah ermitage r ested l argely o n t he b elief t ha t S t . H elen 's w as a n i sland a t t his d ate . T he m ost r ecent v iew o f t he d ate o f t he s ubmergence a lters t his p erception s ignificantly ( T homas 1 985 ).

5 3

A rchive : n otes , d rawings , p ho tos , n egs , c orrespondence . F inds : I sles o f S cilly M useum ( f ormerly i n P enlee H ouse M useum s tore , P enzance ). R eferences : O 'Neil 1 964 ( r eport ); T hom as 1 985 , 1 82-9 , 2 04-11 .

A cknowledgements T he a uthor w ishes t o t hank C arl T horpe f or h is w ork i n c ompiling t he E xcavations I ndex f or S cilly a nd C harles T homas a nd S arnia B utcher f or c ommenting o n a n e arlier d raft o f t his p aper.

B ibliography

A non . 1 952 B ronze A ge f inds i n S cillies . W estern h brningA gew s8th A ugust 1 952 . A shbee , P1 952-3 T Wo s tone c ists o n S t M ary 's I sles o f S cilly . P toc W est C ornwall F ie ld C lub 1 , 2 8-30 . A shbee , P1 974 A ncient S cilly . D avid a nd C harles , N ewton A bbot . P ollard , RLE 1 952 A ncient f inds a t S t . M artin 's . T he S cillcnian 2 7(111 ), 1 72-3 . M iles , TJ a nd S aunders , AD1 970 K ing C harles 's C astle , T resco , S cilly . B ostA kdieval A r chaecd 4 , 1 -30 . N eal , DS1 980 E Xcavations o f as ettlement a t L ittle B ay , I sles o f S cilly . C ornish A r chaecd 2, 4 7-80 . o 'Neil , BHS t J1 949 A nc ie nt l enuments o f t he I s les o f S c illy . H MSO , L ondon . BHS t J1 952 T he e xcavation o f K nackyboy C airn , S t . M artin 's , I sles o f S cilly , 1 948 . A ntiq rt 732 , 2 1-34 . O 'Neil , BHS t J1 954 At riangular c ist i n t he I sles o f S cilly . A ntt 7L 734 , 2 35-7 . O 'Neil , HE1 964 E Xcavation o f aC eltic h ermitage o n S t . H elens , I sles o f S cilly 1 956-58 . A r chaeo l j r121 , 4 0-69 . T homas , AC1 985 Mplorat ion o f aE tow ned r Landsc a le . B atsford , L ondon . T urk , FA 1 984 As tudy o f t he v ertebrate r emains f rom M ay 's H ill , S t . M artins , a nd a ppendix : T homas , AC T he o ccupa tion o f M ay 's H ill a nd i ts d ating . C ornish S tud 1 1 , 6 9-80 .

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6 : L OST A ND F OUND I N L INCOLNSHIRE: T WO P ROBLEMS I N A RCHAEOLOGICAL I NVENTORIZING

P aul E verson

W hen i s a n a ntiquarian r eport f irm e nough t o c onstitute a n a rchaeological r ecord e ntry? O n w hat g rounds c an o ne c ontradict t he e xisting r ecords a nd a ffirm t hat a h istorical s ite i s q uite e lsewhere t han a lleged? A mong t he m ore a wkward a rchaeological m atters f aced b y t hose w ho d eal w ith t opographically b ased a nd s ite-specific a rchaeological r ecords ( whether c ounty S MRs o r t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord ) a re t hose o n t he o ne h and o f m arginal o r i lld ocumented d iscoveries a nd o n t he o ther o f w hen a nd h ow t o b reak o ut o f t he f ossilising i nfluence o f t he e xisting d ata b ase. B oth p roblems a re r ather d ifferent f rom , a nd q uite o ften d ivorced f rom , t he m ore s traightforward t asks o f s urveying e arthwork r emains, y et b oth c an f orm a nd h ave f ormed a r outine p art o f t he a ctivities o f O rdnance S urvey a nd R CHME f ield s taff. T wo c ontrasting e xamples a re g iven h ere f rom L incolnshire t hat i llustrate t hese p roblems i n t urn, t hough t hey a lso h ave t heir o wn i ntrinsic i nterest. T he f irst i s n ot e ven p roperly a n a ntiquarian r eport b ut a c asual a dministrative r ecord, a nd t hrows u p t he c ritical q uestions o f l ocation, c ontext o f d iscovery , n ature a nd d ate o f t he f inds i n a n e xtreme f orm. I t h as n ot p reviously a ppeared i n t he a rchaeological r ecord e ither i n a cademic d iscussion o r i n a t opographical d ata-base. T hough s ome p rogress c an b e m ade o n t he c ritical q uestions, i t m ay c ontinue t o b e a n o pen q uestion w hether, w ith s o m uch r emaining u ncertain, t he f ind c an c omfortably a nd u sefully b e c ontained i n a d ata-base: i t m ight t herefore r emain ' lost'. B y c ontrast, i n t he s econd e xample a ll t he s ites a re s everally k nown t o t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd s imply c ategorised a s ' monastery ', ' moat' o r w hatever i n a c onventional w ay. I f a pproached i ndividually , o r s till m ore t hrough m onument t ypes, t hese a ssessments w ould b e u nlikely t o b e s usceptible o f c hange: t he r ecord i tself h as a s elf-reinforcing e ffect. T his i s d ifficult t o e scape f rom - o ften i mpossible w ithin c onstrained w orking p rocedures a nd t he o utlook t hey e ngender. T he s ite o f t he p riory o f H eynings h as b een ' found', a nd m uch e lse c onsequently u nravelled, t hrough a n a pproach t hat, t hough s ite-based a nd r ooted i n e arthwork s urvey , i s a ware o f t he i nterr elationship o f t hese s ites i n a c omplex a nd d ynamic l andscape t hat i s i n p rinciple i ntelligible b ecause o ur u nderstanding o f i ts c ultural c ontext i s s o w ell d eveloped a nd b roadly b ased. T he t wo e xamples g iven h ere, t hen, a ddress p roblems o f t he s ort t hat N orman Q uinnell h as g rappled w ith u p a nd d own t he c ountry , a nd t hereby p ay t ribute t o a r ecognisable d imension o f h is s kills a nd e xperience i n t he f ield.

5 5

1 . T hree ' bees' f rom W eelsby: a t reasure t rove c ase i n l ate f ourteenth-century L incolnshire D iscoveries o f a ncient o bjects o f p recious m etal h ave m ost c ommonly b een c asual m atters, o ften a ttended b y p oor d ocumentation. T he b ullion v alue o f s uch f inds c reates i ts o wn p roblems s ince i t c an l ead b y as hort r oute t o t he m elting p ot. A s r epresentative e xamples f rom t he E ast a nd W est M idlands o ne m ight c ite t he t orc r eported t o h ave c ome f rom L inwood H all, M artin o n t he K esteven f en-edge b ut m elted d own w ithout o ther r ecord ( Trollope 1 872, 8 0n ) o r t he c omparably i lld ocumented d iscovery f rom P attingham i n S taffordshire t hat m et a s imilarly s ummary f ate ( Leigh 1 700, b ook I II, 6 4-5). I n t he f irst c ase t he f ind h as b een c onsidered t o b e o f e ither B ronze A ge o r I ron A ge t ype ( May 1 976, 1 01), i n t he s econd f irmly c lassified a s o f B ronze A ge d ate ( Gunstone 1 964, 3 1; T aylor 1 980, 8 5). C ircumstances c an a rise w here e ven t he g eneral l ocation o f t he f ind r equires c larification a nd i ts n ature a nd d ate i s o pen t o d iscussion. O n 4 J anuary 1 385, J ohn d e F eribi t he k ing's e scheator i n L incolnshire h eld a r outine i nquisition a t G rimsby t hat d ealt p rincipally w ith c ases o f i nheritance a nd o utlawry. A s omewhat l ess r un-of-the-mill e nquiry l ooked i nto a n i ncident o f aw hale b eached a t W hitsun 1 374 a t G reat C oates - a n o ccurrence p eriodically d ocumented o n t he L indsey c oast a s a s triking p henomenon i nto m odern t imes ( Boyd 1 888-9; C ragg 1 924-5; S turman 1 987, 1 0-11) - a nd w hich t he k ing c laimed a s h is d ue. A mong t hese m atters i t w as r eported t hat ' Andrew S hephyrd o f W elesby .. o n M onday i n t he s econd w eek o f L ent R ichard I I [ i.e. A pril 1 383] f ound t hree b ees ( byas ) o f g old w orth 1 0 m arks h idden i n t he g round a t W elesby a nd s old o ne f or 4 0 s hillings' ( Cal. I ng . M isc . I V ( 1957), 1 64-5 n o.291). T he o riginal m anuscript ( PRO, C 145/233/16) a dds n o f urther d etails. O n 1 2 N ovember 1 385 K ing R ichard w rote t o J ohn d e F eribi f rom h is f avourite m anor a t S heen i n S urrey b y l etter u nder h is s ignet o rdering h im t o d eliver t o R obert C laye s erjeant o f t he K ing's s picery ' the t hree b ees ( byas ) o f g old w hich A ndrew S hephurd o f W elesby l ately f ound h idden i n t he g round a t W elesby a nd w hich a re a ppraised a t 1 0 m arks, i f t hey e xist, o r e lse t he v alue o f t hem: a s t he K ing h as g iven t hem t o t he s aid R obert' ( Cal. C lose R olls R ichard I I v ol.III ( 1921), 3 1). T he W elesby o f t he m edieval t exts i s i dentified i n t he P RO c alendars w ith W alesby , a p arish o n t he w estern s carp o f t he L incolnshire c halk w olds ( TF 1 392). T he p lace-name f orm m akes t his i mpossible. W alesby i s d erived f rom t he O N p ersonal n ame V alr a nd a ll m edieval f orms c ontain a-. T he f orm r ather f its t he d erivation o f W eelsby , a t ownship i n C lee p arish a nd n ow a s uburb i n G reater G rimsby ( TA 2 806, n ot o n O S 1 :50,000), w hose f irst e lement i s e ither a p ersonal n ame S cand. * Vifill/OE V if e i o r a n a ppellative O Dan. * wiwael/OE * wifel m eaning ' pointed p iece o f g round' ( Jensen 1 978, 7 6). T he f act t hat t he d iscovery w as r eported t hrough a n i nquisition h eld i n G rimsby a nd d ealing w ith t he i mmediate v icinity c onfirms t he i dentification. W hat r ights a nd i nterest d id t he K ing h ave i n s uch a d iscovery i n a n o ut-of-the-way p art o f h is r ealm? T he l ikely a nswer s eems t hat t his w as a n e arly c ase o f t he o peration o f t reasure t rove a nd t hat t he

5 6

f ind w as d eemed t o b e a b ullion h oard ( Hill 1 936; C arlyon-Britton 1 908). T his w as a n a ncient r egal r ight, t hat h as e ven b een t hought t o l ie b ehind s ome o f t he p re-Conquest c oin t ypes t hat i mitate R oman o riginals ( Kent 1 961, 1 4-15). A lthough t he l egal b asis o f a ction i s n ot n ormally s pecifically c ited, a s i s t he c ase h ere, n umerous e xamples o f t reasure t rove h ave b een n oted i n t he l ater M iddle A ges a nd t here i s a mple e vidence o f av igorous r oyal p olicy o f s eeking o ut t reasure ( Baylis 1 886, 3 43-4; C BA N ewsletter a nd C alendar , A pril 1 982, 3 6-37 a nd M ay 1 982, 5 8-9 c iting C al. C lose R olls [ 1237] 1 234-1237 ( 1908), 4 33, 4 34) a s w ell a s f or m edieval b arrow-digging i n t he s earch f or t reasure ( Grinsell 1 967). W hether s uch d eliberate t reasureh unting a ctivity l ay b ehind t he d iscovery a t W eelsby i s u nclear f rom t he d escription o f t he f ind. I t c ertainly i s n ot u nequivocally i mplied b y w hat i s s aid. F or t he p hrase ' in t erra a bsconditas' i s a n e ssential e lement o f t reasure t rove, v iz, t he f ind m ust b e h idden n ot c asually f ound o n t he s urface o f t he e arth. W hat i s c lear i n t his c ase, a nd w as u ndoubtedly t ypical, i s t hat t he K ing w as i nterested i n t he t reasure s olely a s r edeployable b ullion o r i ts m onetary e quivalent: t here i s n o h int o f t he a ntiquarian a nd a rchaeological c oncern t hat c an ( however t hinly a nd a t t he d iscretion o f i ndividual c oroners) i nform m odern p ractice i n t his f ield. T he p ossibility t hat t his w as, a t t he e nd o f t he f ourteenth c entury, a n a ncient g old h oard m akes i t w orth a l ittle f urther e xploration. T he w ord b ya u sed t o d escribe t he t hree o bjects r ecovered i s a l atinization o f t he M E b ei ( Latham 1 975, 2 30; K urath a nd K uhn 1 956, 6 92-3), i tself d erived f rom t he O E b eah/beag ( Bosworth a nd T oller 1 898, 7 0; T oller 1 921, 6 4 ). T he e arly g eneral m eaning i s ' metal m ade i nto a c ircular o rnament, a r ing ( usually o f m etal)', c ognate w ith O N b augr ( Cleasby , V igfusson a nd C raigie 1 957, 5 3), a nd m ore s pecifically ab racelet, a rmlet o r t orc, l ike t he m agnificent n eck-ring o r c ollar g iven t o B eowulf t he G eat b y t he D anish q ueen W ealhtheow t hat h e i n t urn m ade ag ift o f t o q ueen H ygd ( Wrenn a nd B oulton 1 988, 1 47, 1 79 [ lines 1 195, 1 211, 2 172]; D avidson 1 980, 3 58). B efore 1 100 i t i s g lossed ' armilla ' ( Wright-Wulcher 1 884, 3 13) a nd i s u sed i n t his s ense b y A elfric, f or e xample ( Crawford 1 922, 1 76). T hough t he p ersistence o f t his m eaning i s s hown b y i ts g loss ' armilla, b rachiale ' a t t he e nd o f t he f ifteenth c entury ( Herrtage 1 881, 2 4), b y t he l ater f ourteenth c entury t he p rincipal u se o f t he w ord s eems t o h ave b ecome f or j ewellery o n t he n eck, t hat i s an ecklace, c ollar o r c hain. T hus J ohn d e T revisa i n 1 387 ' a b ye i s t orques i n l atyn' ( Lundy 1 865, 3 31), a nd b oth L angland i n P iers P lowman o f 1 377 ( Skeat 1 869, 7 [ =B T ext, P rologue 1 61]) a nd W yclif i n h is v ernacular B ible o f 1 382 ( Forshall a nd M adden 1 850, G enesis x li, 4 2 a nd P roverbs i , 9 ) u se t he w ord s pecifically f or o rnaments a bout t he n eck. I n t he s ixteenth c entury t his s ense i s c onfirmed b y R ichard H uloet ( 1552), w ho w rites o f ' bee o r c ollar o f g old o r s ylver, t orques '. J ust h ow e laborate a n o bject t he w ord m ight b e a pplied t o i s s hown b y t he t wo ' bees' w illed b y D ame E lizabeth B rowne, s ister t o J ohn P aston I , o ne ' with a g rete p earl. A d yamond, a n e merawde, i ij g rete p erlys h anging a ppon t he s ame' a nd t he o ther s imilarly ' with a g rete p erle, w ith a n e merawde a nd a s aphire' ( Davis 1 971, 2 11). I t m ay e ven b e t hat t he f amous p earl n ecklace w ith i ts g old l etter B w orn i n p ortraits b y A nne B oleyn ( Strong 1 969, I I, p lates 8 a nd 9 ), b esides i ts r eference t o h er f amily n ame, w as a p lay o n w ords o r av isual p un. T hough i t m ay b e t hat a s hift i n p rincipal u sage m ay r eflect a c hange i n f ashion t hat c ulminates i n t he Y orkist c ollar o f S s a nd i ts L ancastrian e quivalent,

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t he m eanings b racelet o r a rmlet o r e ven c oronet s eem t o c o-exist. I n f act t he d efinition o f m eaning a nd u sage m ay p resent s imilar p roblems t o t hat o f ' torc' i n a rchaeological u sage, a s o utlined b y C larke ( 1954, 4 6). T he w ord ' bee' s urvived i nto t he n ineteenth c entury o nly i n a n orthern d ialect u sage f or am etal r ing o r f errule a nd a s a t echnical n autical t erm i n r igging s ails ( Wright 1 898, v ol I , 2 2), b ut i s o therwise o bsolete ( Murray 1 888, 7 57). A lthough t here i s, o f c ourse, n o i ndication i n t he m edieval a ccount o f t he p resumed a ge o f t he ' bees' o r o f t heir d etailed f orm o r d ecoration, t here i s n o d oubt t hat a h oard o f g old n eck o rnaments i mmediately s uggests p rehistoric g old t orcs, e ither o f B ronze A ge o r o f I ron A ge d ate. A l ate I ron A ge h oard o f t hree t orcs ( of w hich t wo s urvive) t ogether w ith o ther i tems o f m etalwork w as f ound a t U lceby n ear G rimsby i n t he n ineteenth c entury ( Cuming 1 859; M ay 1 976, 1 566 2); a nd e lsewhere ( but p articularly i n e astern E ngland ) f inds o f s uch t orcs h ave c ommonly i nvolved m ore t han a s ingle i tem , s ometimes w ith o ther a ccompanying m etalwork, m ost s trikingly i n t he r ecovery o f a t l east 6 1 t orcs f rom K en H ill a t S nettisham i n N orfolk ( Clarke 1 954; B urns 1 971). T he l ocation o f t he f ind m ay e ven l end s ome c ircumstantial w eight t o i ts i nterpretation a s a n I ron A ge d iscovery. F or, v iewed a gainst t he w ider E ast M idlands b ackground, t he G rimsby a rea h as p roduced an otable c oncentration o f I ron A ge m aterial ( May 1 984). I n a ddition t o t he U lceby h oard f ound 1 2 m iles ( 20 k m ) t o t he n orth-west, t wo c oin h oards c ontaining i mported G allo-Belgic c oins h ave b een f ound w ithin l ess t han o ne-and-a-half m iles ( 2.5 k m ) a t G rimsby-Scartho a nd G rimsby Bargate, a B ritish s tater a f ew m iles i nland a t R avendale ( May 1 976, 1 96), a nd a t W eelsby i tself a n e xcavated d itched e nclosure o f t his p eriod h as p roduced e vidence f or b ronze f ounding ( Sills a nd K insley 1 978; 1 979). S uch h oards h ave b een t hought o f a s w ealth h idden b y n ative n obility f leeing f rom t he R oman i nvasion o f s outh-east E ngland - s o-called ' flight h oards' ( Rodwell 1 976, 1 98-203). C unliffe ( 1978, 7 3) f inds t he h ypothesis ' both p lausible a nd a ttractive', b ut m ore s ignificant m ay b e t he g eneral c oncentration o f e vidence o f a ll t ypes a t t he o nly p lace o n t he m arshy a nd l ow-lying L indsey c oast w here t he s olid c lay l and c omes d own t o t he s ea a nd w here t he m outh o f t he R iver F reshney p rovides a n i nlet s uitable - a nd l ater i n m edieval a nd m odern t imes p lainly e xploited b y t he p ort o f G rimsby - f or e ntry a nd e mbarkation ( May 1 984, 2 0-1). A gainst t his a ttractive i nterpretation o f t he m edieval a ccount m ay s tand t he o nly o ther s olid p iece o f i nformation i t c ontains, t hat i s t he v aluation o f t he f ind. T he ' bees' w ere a ppraised a t t en m arks. T his w as s urely n ot a n a ssessment o f w eight b ut o f t heir m onetary v alue. A s £ 6 1 3s 4 d i n o ther t erms, i t r epresents n ot m uch o ver t hree t imes t he p rice ( 40s o r 3 m arks) f or w hich o ne o f t he ' bees' i s s aid t o h ave b een s old. T here m ay b e a s uspicion t hat i t w as n o m ore t han a r ound-figure e stimate p laced o n t he f ind f or t he p urpose o f d efining t he k ing's r ights a nd d erived f rom t he g uideline s et b y t hat s ale. N evertheless t aking i t s traightforwardly , o n t he b asis o f t he f ace v alue o f t he c ontemporary n oble o f 9 9.482% f ine g old o ne t hird o f t en m arks w ould r epresent 5 1.84 g rammes o f n oble g old ( ignoring t he s mall c osts o f k ing's s eignorage a nd m inting ) a s t he b ullion c ontent o f o ne o f t he ' bees'. F or c omparison, t he w eights o f t he t wo c omplete U lceby g old t orcs a re 1 06.31 g rammes ( double-loop t erminal, A shmolean M useum 1 927. 6 659) a nd 2 28.53 g rammes ( quadruple-loop t erminal, A shmolean M useum 1 927. 6 660 ). B oth U lceby t orcs, i n c ommon w ith o ther I ron A ge

5 8

e xamples, a re i n f act o f e lectrum, a nd t he r ange o f a lloy c omposition i s w ell i llustrated b y t he S nettisham f inds, w hich v ary f rom t he 1 968 t orc ( weight 3 50.75 g m ) w hich i s o nly 1 1% g old, 7 7% s ilver, a nd 1 0% c opper o r t he c omplete d ouble l oop t erminal t orc o f H oard D ( weight 1 062 g m ) w hich i s 2 8.3% g old , 4 3.6% s ilver, a nd 2 7% c opper t hrough t he s plendid r ing t erminal t orc o f H oard E ( weight 1 085 g m ) w hich i s 5 8% g old , 3 8% s ilver, a nd 3 % c opper t o t he b racelet o f t he s ame h oard ( weight 1 11 g m ) w hich i s o ver 9 5% g old ( Burns 1 971; C larke 1 954, 4 7, 6 3). E ven s o t he v aluation, i f o ther t han n otional, m eans t hat t he ' bees' i f t orcs w ere e ither p retty l ight o r p retty b ase o r b oth. T hat t hey c ould b e e ither o r b oth i s i ndeed s hown a t S nettisham a nd s pecifically b y t he t ubular t orcs, i n w hich ( in c ontrast t o t he l oop t erminal t ype ) ' the a ctual g old .. w eighs o nly a f ew o unces' ( Clarke 1 954, 4 1): b ut a s ac lass o f a rtefacts s uch t orcs a re p erhaps l ikely t o b e e ither h eavier o r p urer t han t he W eelsby f ind s uggests. I n v iew o f t his, i t m ust b e a p ossibility t hat t he ' bees' w ere o ther t han I ron A ge t orcs. I f p rehistoric, t hey m ight h ave b een t he s lighter f orm o f g old t orc o f e arly B ronze A ge t ype l ike t hat f rom L ow B urnham, H axey i n t he I sle o f A xholme o f n orth-west L incolnshire ( May 1 976, 1 01, p l 1 ): n o t horough t abulation o f w eights o f t he l arge n umbers o f o bjects b roadly o f t his t ype a nd d ate i s a vailable, b ut e xamples a re q uoted o f s tylistic g roups o f I rish l unulae w ith m ean w eights o f 5 4.3 g rammes a nd 4 0.1 g rammes ( Taylor 1 980, e sp. 2 8). T he ' bees' m ight o therwise h ave b een a ny o f t he v arious o ther r ing-form B ronze A ge g old a rtefacts ( Taylor 1 980, 1 27-137), o r e ven I ron A ge b racelets s imilar t o t he s imple g old e xample, f ound c omplete b ut s urviving o nly a s ab roken f ragment w hen r ecorded i n t he U lceby h oard ( Cuming 1 859; M ay 1 976, 1 59). I n c ontrast, t he g old a rmlet f rom C uxwold i n t he W olds s outh-west o f G rimsby t hat i s k nown o nly f rom a ntiquarian r ecords ( Trollope 1 857; M ay 1 976, 9 9; A mbrose 1 980) h ad a r eported w eight o f a bout 3 18.75 g rammes a nd i s a n o bject o f q uite a d ifferent c lass. T he a lternative e xists t hat t he ' bees' m ight h ave b een o f p ostR oman, e arly m edieval d ate. B oth t orcs a nd a rm-rings a re r ecorded i n p re-Conquest l iterary a nd l egal s ources. I n ah eroic a ge t hey h ad a s ymbolic s tatus a nd f unction ( Magoun 1 949). T hough t he m edium o f w ealth a nd d isplay o f t he p eriod w as p rincipally s ilver, a s i s r eflected i n t he a rchaeological r ecord ( Wilson 1 964 ) n ot l east i n t he f orm i n t he f orm o f s ilver a rmlets f orming s ignificant c onstituents i n b ullion h oards ( Briggs a nd S heehan 1 987; G raham-Campbell 1 976), s ome o f t he r ings s o d ocumented w ere u ndoubtedly o f g old ( Dodwell 1 982, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 2 7, 3 8, 1 35-6, 1 74, 1 88, 2 07, 2 08, p l 5w ith r eferences). A bout t he f ew g old ' rings' o f A nglo-Saxon d ate a ctually k nown t hat a re n ot f inger r ings, t he i nteresting s uggestion h as b een a ired b y H inton ( 1978, 1 39-41) t hat t hey a re a f orm o f b ullion o ccurring i n m ore-orl ess s tandard w eights r elated t o t he d ocumented m ancus . B ut h ere, t oo, o ur l ack o f i nformation a bout t he p recise f orm a nd d ecoration ( or l ack o f i t) o f t he ' bees', p lus t he a pproximate e stimation o f w eight t hat i s a ll t hat i s p ossible, t ogether r ender e xtended s peculation i dle. I ndeed i t r emains t he c ase t hat t he r elative r arity o f c omparable m aterial o f t his e ra f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord ( Shetelig 1 940, 2 7-53; G raham-Campbell 1 980, 3 0, 6 0-66) i s t he p rincipal f actor i n m aking t his c ontext a r ather l ess p lausible s uggestion.

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I n t he e nd, t herefore, h owever a ttractive a nd e ven p lausible a n I ron A ge c ontext m ay a ppear, t he n ature o f t he o riginal e vidence a llows n o c ertainty o f t he p roper c lassification o f t he d iscovery i n t his c ase. P erhaps a p rehistoric d ate i s f avoured. S imilar c ircumstances a re n ot u ncommon. S uch f inds f orm t he m arginalia o f t opographically b ased a rchaeological r ecords, w hether a t n ational o r l ocal l evel, a nd c onstitute a r ecurrent a wkwardness f or t hose c harged w ith c hecking a nd i mproving t hose r ecords. T hey n evertheless f requently , a s i n t he p rehistoric r ecord f or L incolnshire, f orm a n i mportant b ackground o f k nowledge a nd o ften t he p rincipal i ndex o f t he w ealth a nd h igher c ultural a spirations a nd s ocio-economic s tructure o f a s ociety , a gainst w hich m odern, b etter c ontrolled a nd d ocumented d iscoveries, c ommonly o f a c ulturally m ore d own-to-earth s ort, c an b e s et.

2 .

T he s ite o f H eynings P riory

M onastic s ites a re g enerally s ome o f t he m ost c learly d ocumented a nd f irmly l ocated i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. H eynings P riory w as a s mall r ural n unnery s ituated i n t he w estern p art o f t he L indsey d ivision o f L incolnshire. I ts p recise a ffiliations a t a ny s tage o f i ts h istory m ay b e i n s ome d oubt, w hether G ilbertine o r C istercian ( Knowles a nd H adcock 1 971, 2 71, 2 74), b ut i ts e xistence i s n ot. B riefly , i t w as f ounded a fter 1 135 u nder t he p atronage o f R ayner d e E vermue. T here w as a p rioress, s ubprioress, t hirteen n uns a nd t wo l ay s isters i n 1 376, a nd a p rioress a nd e leven n uns a t i ts d issolution i n 1 539. T he s ite w as g ranted t o S ir T homas H eneage a nd h is w ife K atherine a nd a t h is d eath i n 1 553 p assed b y m arriage t o L ord W illoughby o f P arham , a long w ith t he m anor o f K naith ( Page 1 906, 1 491 51; O wen 1 971, 1 44; R CHME f orthcoming ). B y t he t ime a ntiquarian i nterest r evived i n t he e arly n ineteenth c entury , k nowledge o f t he m onastery 's l ocation w as c ompletely l ost. T he n ame H eynings i tself w as a ' lost n ame', t hat d oes n ot a ppear o n a ny O rdnance S urvey m ap s heet o r m anuscript m aps ( Foster a nd L ongley 1 924, l vii). I t w as k nown t o b e a ssociated w ith t he T rentside p arish o f K naith, a nd/or n eighbouring L ea; b ut t he s ettlement h istory o f b oth p arishes h as b een c onfused a nd o bscured b y t wo a lternative a ntiquarian i dentifications o f t he s ite, b oth o f t hem m istaken. J ohn L eland ( Collectanea , v ol I , 9 4) i n t he m id s ixteenth c entury c ertainly k new t he m onastery 's l ocation, w hich h e d escribed a s ' 2 m iles d istant f rom G ainsborough'; ' here a re s everal m onuments o f t he D arcy f amily ' h e n otes. M isinterpreting L eland , S tark ( 1841, 4 4) i n 1 841 i dentified t he P riory w ith t he m oat i n L ea p arish k nown a s H ermit D am ( RCHME f orthcoming, L ea ( 2 )), d espite h is o wn o bservations w hich s howed t hat t his c ould n ot b e s o. F or h e h imself n oted t hat H eynings P riory w as r eckoned i n t he M iddle A ges t o b e i n L awress d eanery ( Valor E cclesiasticus , I V , 1 32) w hereas L ea l ay i n C orringham d eanery ( Lunt 1 926, 2 53; T axatio E cclesiastica , 7 5; V alor E cclesiasticus , I V, 1 29). T his i dentification w as c ontinued b y R oss l ater i n t he c entury , a gain d espite h is o wn v alid t hough d ifferent o bjections. F or h is n otes m ake i t c lear t hat t he p riory 's f ounder, t hough l ord o f K naith , h ad n o l ands i n L ea ( Lincoln C entral L ibrary , R oss M SS I , W ell w apentake, 3 0, C orringham w apentake, 1 33-6). R oss's a ssertion w as i ndeed a r eaction t o t he s econd a nd a lternative t heory , c urrent b y t he m id n ineteenth

6 0

c entury , t hat K naith p arish c hurch w as a s urviving p art o f t he p riory 's c onventual c hurch ( White 1 856, 2 02; L CL, R oss M SS I , C orringham w apentake, 1 33; T rollope 1 865-6, 2 52; M icklethwaite 1 8912 ). T his i dea w as f urther e laborated w ith t he i dentification o f a lleged f ifteenth-century w ork a t K naith H all, t he r ecognition o f s light e arthworks s outh o f t he c hurch, t hought t o b e ag atehouse a nd t he t racing o f ap recinct w all. A s a r esult t he t heory b ecame f irmly e stablished i n p ublications a t a ll l evels ( Moor 1 897, 1 2-13; N ewcomb 1 937, 1 4; M HLG l ist; F oster a nd L ongley 1 924, l vii; O wen 1 971, 1 49). O rdnance S urvey b asic s cale m apping i n c onsequence l abels S t M ary 's c hurch ' and r emains o f P riory ( Cistercian N uns)', o n t he b asis o f t he a rchaeological r ecord c ard's r ésumé o f r eceived o pinion a nd w ith t he a dditional i dentification o f f ishponds l ying a bout 2 50m t o t he s ouths outh-west o f t he c hurch ( NAR R ecord C ard S K 8 8 S W 2 ). B oth i dentifications p rove t o b e w rong. T he p arishes o f K naith a nd L ea f ell w ithin R CHME 's s tudy a rea f or i ts s elective i nventory o f m edieval a nd l ater e arthworks o f W est L indsey ( RCHME f orthcoming ). T he C ommission's f ield i nvestigation d emonstrated o n t he b asis o f f ield e vidence t hat t he m onastic s ite o f H eynings i s a ctually r epresented b y t he e xtensive e arthworks a t P ark F arm S outh i n t he E ast o f K naith p arish, p reviously c ategorized a s a ' moat'. T hey i nclude a d efined p recinct a rea w ithin w hich a re t races o f t he f oundations o f l arge s tone b uildings, f ishponds, a nd a n e laborate a rrangement o f w ater s upply l eats. I n a ddition, o riented b urials, w ithout g rave g oods, a re e ncountered i n g round d isturbances w ithin t he p resent f arm c omplex t hat o ccupies t he c entre o f t he s ite. T he e arthworks s outh o f t he c hurch a re i n p art t he t runcated c hurchyard o f t he p arish c hurch b ut p rincipally t he r emains o f a s ixteenth- o r s eventeenth- c entury f ormal g arden a nd a c ontemporary p ark. T he f eatures t aken t o b e a s eries o f p onds a nd c ategorized a s m onastic f ishponds p roved t o b e a s ection o f t he p ark p ale, c onsiderable s tretches o f w hich s urvive a s e arthworks. T his f ield a ssessment i s s upported b y o ther e vidence. S traightforward e xamination o f i ts f abric s hows t hat K naith c hurch i s c ertainly o nly a s mall p arish c hurch t hat h as l ost i ts c hancel a nd a w est t ower, a nd b een s ubject t o a n i nteresting b ut i ntelligible s eventeenth-century r emodelling. F urthermore, i n t he o riginal e ndowment o f H eynings P riory , t he a dvowson o f K naith c hurch w as s pecifically r eserved b y t he g rantor, a nd m edieval i nstitutions w ere m ade a ccordingly ( Canon F oster's I ndex t o I nstitutions i n L AO ). A lthough J ohn D arcy o btained r oyal l icence i n 1 348 t o a lienate t he a dvowson t o t he p riory , t his w as n ever c arried o ut ( Cal. C harter R olls I I ( 1906), 1 06; C al. P atent R olls , E dward I II, v ol V III ( 1905), 1 2; N ewcomb 1 937, 1 5), a nd t here i s a lways a c lear d istinction b etween t he p arish a nd c onventual c hurches i n t he r ecord o f g ifts t o e ach ( Test. E bor ., p t I , 2 54-5; A rcher 1 963, 2 64-7). E ven t he n uns' g rant i n t he o riginal e ndowment o f ' all t he w ood w here t hey d well' m atches t he t opography o f t he e astern p art o f t he p arish; a nd t he s ystematic a ccumulation o f l and i n t he p arishes o f U pton a nd K exby i mmediately t o t he E ast, t hat w as p art o f t he p riory 's d emesne c onfirms t his ( Cal. C harter R olls I I ( 1906), 1 06-112; P RO , E 242/113). T he m eaning o f t he p lace-name l ends s upport, t oo. F or i t i s d erived f rom M E h aining ( OE h aegen O N h egning ) a nd r efers t o a n a rea o f f ormer w oodland o ut o f w hich e nclosed s paces, c ommonly w ood p asture o r p arkland c ompartments, h ad b een c ut ( Smith 1 956, v ol I , 2 15, 2 22, 2 41) - a c haracterisation

6 1

t hat c orresponds t o t he t erms m ay s urvive i n t he f ield n ame F inally , w hen T homas H eneage d issolved n unnery i n 1 539 i t D arcy 's l and c omprising t he h ad a lready g ranted t o h im ( no 7 90 )).

o f t he e ndowment. A v estige o f t he n ame ' Hearings' ( LAO , 1 596) i n t his l ocality. o f H ainton a pplied t o t he c rown f or t he w as i n o rder t o a dd i t t o t he l ate L ord s ecular m anor o f K naith, w hich t he K ing ( Letters a nd P apers X IV p t 1 ( 1894 ), 3 77

A t o ne l evel, t herefore, t his c ombined i nvestigation -p art e arthwork s urvey , p art u ntangling aw eb o f p artial e vidence a nd a ntiquarian s peculation - r esults i n n o l ess t han t he r emoval ( in t erms o f a rchaeological r ecord ) o f a m onastic s ite f rom o ne l ocation t o a nother t wo m iles a way. A nd t his c ompletely a gainst t he w eight o f r eceived o pinion. A t a nother, m ore i mportant l evel, t he c orrect i dentification o f t he p riory s ite m akes p ossible t he f ull u nderstanding o f t he e arthworks o f K naith i tself. T hese a re t he r esult o f a c omplex h istory o f v illage s hrinkage a nd m ovement c ombined w ith a p rocess o f l andscaping a nd e mparking ( RCHME f orthcoming, K naith ( 2), ( 3) a nd ( 4)). T he m ain n orth-south r oad h as b een d iverted a nd t hen s ubsequently r ealigned, a nd t he b uildings o f t he s ettlement r eflect t hese c hanges a nd g ive e vidence o f t heir c hronology. I n s hort, t hey o nce a gain i llustrate t he d ynamism o f t he m edieval a nd l ater E nglish l andscape a nd s ome o f t he f orces a nd i deas t hat h ave i nfluenced i t, a nd f inally t he v alue o f a n a pproach t o i ts p roblems t hrough n on-excavational f ield s urvey.

A cknowledgements M y t hanks a re d ue t o C .J. D unn f or t he p leasure o f s hared f ieldwork o n t he s ites i n K naith a nd L ea p arishes, a nd t o t he f riends - n otably C .C. T aylor, D .A. S tocker a nd H .M. J ecock - w ho i n r eading a nd c ommenting o n t he d rafted t ext h elped m e t o f ind i ts s hape a nd b alance. I a m g rateful f or t he g uidance o f D r M arion A rchibald o n t he v alue a nd m etrology o f m edieval g old, a nd t o J effrey M ay f or t he w eights o f t he U lceby t orcs, d erived f rom t he w ork o f D r M ansel S pratling a nd r ecent w eighing i n A shmolean C oin R oom.

B ibliography A C al . C harter R o lls C a l . C lose R o lls C a l . I nq . M isc . C a l . P atent R o lls C BA L AO L eland , C o llectanea

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K now les , Da nd H addock , RN 1 971 M ed iev a l R eligious A buses i n &gland a nd ‚ a les . L ondon . K urath , Ha nd K uhn , SM 1 956 M idd le E ng lish D ict iona ry . A nn A rbor . L atham , RE1 975 D ic t iona ry o f M ed ieva l L atin I ra n B rit ish S our ces , F ascicule 1 , A -B . O xford . L eigh , C1 700 T he N atura l H istor y o f L ancashire , C heshire a nd t he P eak i n D erbysh ire . O xford . L undy , JR ( e d ) 1 865 J ohn d e T revisa , F blychrunicon R anul gd h igden v ol II , R olls S eries v ol 4 1 . L unt , WE1 926 T he V a luation o f N orw ic h . O xford . M ägoun , FP1 949 O n t he o ld-Germanic a ltar- o r o ath-ring . A cta I hilologica S bandinav ica 2 0 , 2 77-93 . M ay , J1 976 P reh istor ic L inc la Znshire , H istory o f L incolnshire v ol I . L incoln . M ay , J1 984 T he m a jor s ettlements o f t he l ater I ron A ge i n L incolnshire , i n NF ield a nd A W hite ( e ds ) A Ics .pect o f L inco lnshire , 1 8-22 . L incoln . M icklethwaite , JT1 891-2 O n t he p arish c hurch o f K naith . A ssoc iated A rc h itec t S oc ieties R ep P ap 2 1 , 2 04-8 . M oor , C1 897 h istorical A btes C bncerning t he D eanery o f C o rr ingham . G ainsborough . M urray , JA H 1 888 AN ew 2 1glish D ict ionary a n H istor ic al P rinciples ; v o l Ip t O xford . N ewcomb , F1 937 AS hort H isto r yo f S t M a ry 's C hurch , K naith , r eprinted 1 972 . K haith . O wen , DM 1 971 C hurch a nd S oc ie ty i n M ed iev al L inco lnsh ire , H istory o f L incolnshire v ol V . L incoln . P age , W ( e d ) 1 906 T he V ictoria H isto ry o f t he C ou nty o f L incoln , v o l I I . L ondon . R CHME f orthcoming C hange a nd Co ntinu ity . R ural S ett lement i n A brth- W est L incolnshire . H MSO , L ondon . R odwell , W1 976 C oinage , o ppida a nd t he r ise o f B elgic p ower i n so u th-e astern B ritain , i n B C unliffe a nd R T R ow ley ( e ds ) Ow l& i n B arbar ian Drupe , B AR S upplementary S eries 1, 1 81-367 . O xford . S hetelig , H1 940 V ik ing A nt iqu ities i n G reat B ritain a nd I reland : p art i v . O slo . S ills , JA a nd K insley , G1 978 G rimäby , W eelsby A venue . L inco lnsh ire K ist A rchaeol 1 3 , 7-8 . S ills , JA a nd K inslgy , G1 979 G rimsby , W eeläby A venue . L incolnshire M ist A rchaeo l 1 4 , 6 9 . S keat , WW ( e d ) 1 869 W illiam L angland , T he v ision o f W illiam c oncerning P iers P lowman . E ar ly 2 10 T ext S oc 3 8 . S mith , AH1 956 E nglish p lace-name e lements . »el P lace -N ame S oc 2 5 a nd 2 6 . C ambridge . S tark , A1 841 A n A ccount o f t he P ar ish L ea a nd L ea ; fwd . G ainsborough . S trong , R1 969 M ar a nd J acobean P ortr aits , 2v ols . H MSO , L ondon . S turman , C1 987 T ennyson s tudies : t he l ocal h istorian 's r ole . L inco lnshire H ist A rchaeol 2 , 9 -14 . T ay lor , JJ 1 980 B ronze A ge G bldwork o f t he B r it ish I sles . C ambridge . T oller , TN 1 921 S upp le ment t o a n A ngloSaxon D ic t iona ry . O xford . T rol lope , E1 857 [ E xhibition o f C uxwold a rmlet .] A rchaeo l j r1 4 , 9 2-3 . T rollope , E1 865-6 N otes o n G ainsborough a nd o ther p laces i n i ts v icinity . A ssoc iated A rc hit S oc R ep P ap 8 , 2 13-54 . T rol lope , E1 872 S leaford a nd t he k apentakes o f F lame 11 a nd A sward hur n i n t he C ounty o f L incoln . L ondon a nd S leaford . W hite , W1 856 L incolnshire D irec tory . S heffield . W ilson , DM 1 964 A nglo-Saxon O rnamental h ktalwork AV11 1 90 . L ondon . W renn , CLa nd B olton , WF ( e ds ) 1 988 B eowu lf a nd t he F innesb urg F ragment , r ev e d . E xeter . W right , J1 898 W right , T L ondon .

T he i hglish D ia lect D ic t ionary , r eprinted 1 970 . O xford . RP ( e d ) 1 884 A ng lo-Saxon a nd O ld E ng lish V ocabu lar ies , 2 nd e d .

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7 :

B ODNIN M OOR, C ORNWALL - P OST S URVEY O BSERVATIONS

N icholas J ohnson a nd P eter R ose

I n t he e arly a nd m id-1970s N orman a nd h is O rdnance S urvey c olleagues r esurveyed t he 1 :10,560 m aps c overing B odmin M oor. A s ubstantial n umber o f p rehistoric a nd m edieval s ettlements, p rehistoric m onuments, a nd o ther s ites w ere s urveyed. M any o f t hem w ere n ew d iscoveries, a nd i n m any c ases t he d escriptions o f t hem c ontained t ypical Q uinnell u nderstatements, t antalising i n t heir b revity: ' An a ssociated f ield s ystem , w ith s tone f ield b anks u p t o 0 .4 m h igh c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately n ine h ectares ..' I t w as c lear f rom t his w ork t hat t here w as a v ery l arge n umber o f a rchaeological s ites o n t he M oor, a nd t hat t hey d isplayed r ecognisable c hronological d epth, v ariety , a nd o ften v ery g ood p reservation. M any o f t he c onclusions o f t he l ater B odmin M oor s urvey w ere a nticipated b y t he O S s urvey; t he v ariety , f or e xample, o f h ut c ircle a nd c airn m orphologies w ere n oted. T he d eficiencies i n t he S ites a nd M onuments R ecord w ere a pparent a t o nce a nd t his, w ith o ther p ressing r easons ( discussed i n C AU , R CHME f orthcoming ) n ecessitated a m ore s ubstantial a nd s ystematic s urvey. T his p aper r ecords i n b are o utline t he w ide v ariety o f m ethods u sed t o s urvey t he a rchaeology o f t he m oor, t he r esults p roduced, a nd t heir g eneral s ignificance. T he p eriod o f t he s urvey c oincided w ith t he a bsorption i nto t he R oyal C ommission o f t he O S A rchaeology D ivision. I n k eeping w ith t he C ommission's m ore g entlemanly i mage, N orman t hrew o ff t he h abit o f a l ifetime a nd b egan t o w ear a n a norak w hen i t p oured, w hen a j acket a nd t ie w ere d eemed q uite a dequate b efore. I t w as i n t he s hadow o f s uch e xtraordinary h appenings a s t hese t hat t he p roject g ot u nder w ay. T he s urvey w as t hat a ppeared t o p ost-medieval a nd c hronological o rder

t o b e b ased o n p hotogrammetric p lots o f e verything b e s ignificant, i ncluding p rehistoric, m edieval, i ndustrial r emains. B elow i s a l ist i n r oughly o f t he v arious s urvey m ethods e mployed.

1 .

P hotogrammetric p lot.

1 :2500 s cale.

2 .

F ield c heck o f 1 93 x 1 k m2. 1 . 1 5 b y C ornwall A rchaeological U nit a t 1 :1000. T he g rids w ere e nlarged t o 1 :1000 a nd f eatures a mended a nd a dded i n g reat d etail t hrough t he s urvey i n t he f ield. 2 . 1 78 b y t he R oyal C ommission t eam , N orman Q uinnell a nd M artin F letcher a t 1 :2500. T he g rids w ere u sed i n t he f ield a nd d etail a dded a nd a mended. N ot a ll a reas, s hown b lank o n t he p hotogrammetric p lots w ere t horoughly s earched. I ndustrial a rchaeology w as n ot c hecked. S everal i mportant s ettlements s urveyed a t 1 :1000. 3 . R esearch f ield w ork b y a n umber o f s tudents a dded t o s urvey r esults.

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1 93 k m2 .

4 .

C AU a nd R CHME s urveyed m any m onuments a t a l arger s cale ( 1:500; 1 :200; 1 :100; 1 :50 ) t o g ive a s g ood a s ample o f s ite t ypes a s p ossible.

5 .

C AU c arried o ut t he c hecking o f t he i ndustrial s ites i n f our p hases, e ach b ased a s f ar a s p ossible o n t he p hotogrammetric p lots. 1 . S ketch s urvey o f t he n orth-east s ector o f t he m oor a t 1 :2500 b y S andy G errard. U sing s ite c lassifications c ulled f rom h is d octoral t hesis o n t in w orking i n S t N eot p arish, ( Gerrard 1 986) t he a rea w as w alked a nd t he e xtensive a reas o f s treamworks w ere s ketched o n t o 1 :2500 g rids. 2 . T he C hina C lay i ndustry w as e xamined a s a s eparate a nd d istinct c lass b y J ohn S mith a ssisted b y A dam S harpe. A ll t he s ites w ere e xamined a t 1 :2500 ( sketch ) w ith s elected s ites b eing s urveyed a t m uch l arger s cales. 3 . T he r emaining t wo-thirds o f t he m oor w as s urveyed a t 1 :2500 b y P eter H erring a ssisted b y N igel T homas u sing c omposite m aps a s a b ase. D etails f rom a ir p hotos, e arlier e ditions o f t he O S m aps a nd t he r esults o f r apid d ocumentary s earches w ere a dded t o t he p hotogrammetric p lots t o b e u sed i n t he f ield. 4 T he s outh-east p art o f t he m oor ( Minions a rea ) w as e xamined i n m ore d etail. T his i s t he a rea o f t he m assive n ineteenth c entury C aradon c opper m ines a nd v arious i mportant g ranite q uarries. A dam S harpe d irected a C ommunity P rogramme ( MSC) s urvey o f t his a rea ( Sharpe 1 989). T he w hole a rea w as e xamined i n t he f ield a nd a c omposite m ap p roduced c omprising t he p hotogrammetric p lot, s upplemented b y s ketch f ield s urvey , f urther a ir p hoto s ketch p lotting a s w ell a s d ocumentary i nformation. M any m ine c omplexes a nd i ndividual s ites w ere s urveyed i n d etail.

T he s urvey p lans w ere a ccompanied b y a v ariety o f r ecording m ethods. M ost o f t he C AU s urveys i nvolved t he d etailed r ecording o f s ites o n t o c ontext c ards ( for d etailed e xplanation o f t hese s ee J ohnson 1 985). S ites s urveyed b y t he R CHME w ere r ecorded o n N AR f ield r ecord s heets. I ndustrial s ites i n t he M inions a rea w ere d escribed i n d etail i n t he s urvey r eport i nventory. H aving g athered a ll t he i nformation t ogether, i t h as n ow b een e ntered i nto t he C ornwall a nd I sles o f S cilly S ites a nd M cnuments R ecord, t hus a chieving au niformity o f d etail n ecessary f or f urther u se. T he v alue o f a s urvey o f t his t ype l ies f irstly i n p roviding a c onsistent o verall r ecord w hich c an b e u sed a s a b asis f or q uantification a nd c lassification; t o p rovide r ecommendations f or p reservation b y s cheduling, i n t he k nowledge t hat t he d ata i s r eliable n ot j ust i n t erms o f j ustifying t he r ecommendations b ut a lso f or d ocumentation p urposes; f or i dentifying a reas o f f uture r esearch a nd i dentifying s ites a nd a reas w hich h ave p articular p otential f or p resentation o r w here t here a re p roblems o f m anagement t o b e t ackled. A

m ajor

f eature

o f

t he s urvey

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i s t he

w ay

i n w hich

t he f ull

c omplexity o f s ome c lasses h as b ecome a pparent, f or e xample i n t he r ange o f c airns, m enhirs a nd h ut c ircle s ettlements. S imilarly s ome c lasses p reviously l ittle u nderstood a re n ow w ell r epresented i n t he r ecord a nd c an t ake t heir p lace i n t he h istory o f t he M oor; t he m edieval a nd p ost-medieval b uildings ( e.g. h erders' h uts a nd t ranshumance h uts) a re a g ood e xample o f t his. O ther c lasses s uch a s s tone r ows a nd e mbanked a venues w ere p reviously u nrepresented; t he i dentification o f t he s tone r ows i n p articular h as r adically a ltered o ur p erception o f t he p rehistoric l andscape. S ome m onuments d o n ot e asily f it i nto e xisting c lassifications - t wo ' kerbed b oulders', a n i rregular e nclosure o f s paced u prights, a nd t he ' stone s ettings' ( all d ifferent). T he l evel o f i nformation h as b een e nhanced m ost d ramatically o f a ll f or t he i ndustrial m onuments, m ost c lasses o f w hich w ere h itherto v irtually u nrecorded. M any o f t hese w ere w ell k nown f rom t he l iterature b ut h ad n ever b een s urveyed i n t he f ield b efore i n C ornwall. T able 1 i s i ncluded t o p rovide a n i nitial c haracterisation. I n e ffect, i t s ummarises t he c ontents o f t he S ites a nd M onuments R ecord f or B odmin M oor, a nd s o i s p rimarily a s tatement o f t he o rganisation , c ontent, a nd c ompleteness o f t he d atabase. ' Categories' ( column 1 ) h ave b een u sed f or d escriptive p urposes t o p rovide b road g roupings o f c lasses. T he ' class' i s n ormally t he S ites a nd M onuments R ecord ' site t ype'; s ome c lasses c an b e d ivided i nto s ub-types ( column 3 ). W here t here i s u ncertainty t he n umber o f m onuments i s g iven a s a r ange ( column 4 ). T he c lass o r s ub-type h as b een a sterisked w here t he r ecord i s t hought t o b e s ignificantly i ncomplete; t his i s p articularly t he c ase w ith a r ange o f p ost-medieval c lasses f ound i n t he f ringes o f t he m oor, a nd n ot e xamined i n a ny d etail a s p art o f t he s urvey. T he d ata g iven i n T able 1 g ive a n i ndication o f t he c omplexity o f t he a rea, a nd f or m any t ypes o f a rchaeological s ite, t he s ort o f d ensity o f o ccurrence t hat m ight b e p ostulated f or m ore l owland a reas o f C ornwall. T he B odmin M oor S urvey h as p rovided a v aluable a ssessment o f t he u ses, a dvantages a nd s hortcomings o f aw ide s pectrum o f s urvey t echniques. T he p reservation a nd r ecording o f s ites w ithin a pparently a rticulated r elict l andscapes a llows u s t o p lan w ith m ore t han n ormal p recision w hat a rchaeological w ork s hould b e c arried o ut i n f uture.

B ibliography G errard , GAM 1 986 T he E ar ly C orn ish T in I ndust ry . A n A rchaeo logical a nd H istor ica l S l i my . U npublished P h .D t hesis . U niversity o f L eeds . J ohnson , ND 1 985 A rchaeological f ield s urvey : aC ornish p erspective , i n SM acready a nd F H T hompson ( e ds ) A rchaeo logical F ie ld S urvey i n B ritain a nd A bro ad . S oc A ntiq O ccas P ap ( n s ) V I , 5 1-66 . R CHME f orthcoming B odk in h bor . S harpe , A1 969 T he M inio ns S urvey : A rchaeological S urvey a nd M anagement . C ornwall A rchaeological U nit ( C ornwall C ounty C ouncil ).

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C atego ry

C lass

S ubtype

N o

C ategory

C lass

S ub t ype

Z i a

4 . I t istcr ic s ettlem ent 1 . E ar ly N eosc r iu r aent M e d i e v a l s ettlement 2 24 3 -4 L ong c a irn S t i l l o c c u p i e d 1 5 6 1 -3 C hambered t omb M e d r e m a i n s 3 7 2 . l ate v 4 c er emcnial U nlocated 8 a an t r o ents P ost-med d esertion 2 3 3 93-452 C airn ( T otal l ong h ouses ) 6 2-69 S imple 3 28-351 P ost-med s ettlement 4 08 K erbed 9 4-109 M ed s till o ccupied 1 68 K erbed b oulder 2 M ed , d eser ted p i ned } 3 5 P latform 3 8-42 M ed , s hrunk p r -med i R ing 5 -8 T or 1 P -med s till o ccupied 1 47 P -med d eserted l 5 7 S tone c ircle 1 6 ( no o f c ircles ) P -med s hrunken ) R egu lar 6 I rregu lar 6 M ed b uilding 7 9 H erders ' h uts 6 2 C ircle-henge 1 M ultiple 2s ites ( 5 ) F ield b arns 1 7 P -me d b uilding 1 8 S tone r ow 8 L arge s tone-large g ap 2 H erders ' h uts 6 S ma ll s tone-sma ll g ap 6 1 0 *F ield b arns M enhir 1 6-20 U nclassified 2 I solated 1 B eehive h u t 1 3 M ed 3 P air 3 W ith c airn 3 P -med 1 0 C ircle o utlier 2 S helter W ith s tone ( m o stly P -m ad ) 1 9 s etting 1 C astle E mbanked a venue 2 R ingwork 1 C up m arked s tone 1 ? 5 . A dsto riclie ld !s y stems U nclass r itua l e nd l1 H istoric f ield s y stems 2 27 S tone s etting 5 a band o n ed 3 . P rehistoric s ettlement a nd f i eads m ad , m ad a bandoned H ut c ircle s ettlement 2 11 p -m ad , m ad s till i n U henclosed 2 9 u se , p d a bandoned A ssoc w ith s mall e ncls p -med , p In ed s till 1 6-35 i n u se ) W ithin e nclosure 5 -8 P ound/enclosure 1 8 W ith f ield s ystem 1 22 Po unds/manor ( T otal h uts ) c .1600 p ounds 5 F ield s ystem 1 89 M isc l arge e ncls 4 E nclosures 2 0-39 S ma ll e ncls 8 A ccretive 5 1-76 Ot h er 1 I rreg r ectilinear 1 6-27 *T rackway 1 2 R egular W alled 4 r ectilinear 8 -16 U nenclosed ( s ingle , B oundary b ank s ystem 8 m ultiple ) 2 3-24 *B oundary s tone 1 0 C learance o nly 2 6 . E cc le s iastic al S truc ture C hapel ( a ssorted ) 1 C emetery 2 E arlier p reh istoric H oly w ell 8 h illfort 3 P arish c hurch 4 I ron A ge h illfort 2 C ross 4 4 R ounds 1 2

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C ateg o ry

C lass

S ub t ype

7 . H istoric -r iver c rossings *F örd C auseway *C lapper b ridge *B ridge 8 . H istoric -m is ce llaneous R ock c arvings M illstone r oughou t C heese p ress b ase F ish p onds K ennel

W el

C atego ry

N o

1 4 6 1 2 5 4 0 2 2 2 6 1 1 2

I nn O thers 9 . L b ia z ym per ind M bund 8 &closure 7 1 0 . A rtefacts *F lin t s catter 1 5 O ther ( F lints , p ot , c oins , e tc ) 6 5 1. S u rface/ s ine -al e atract ion P rospecting w ork 7 6 P rospecting p it ( 5 9 g roups ) C osteaning t rench 1 7 S treamworks 1 47 A lluvial s treamworks 6 7 E luvial s treamworks 8 0 L eat W ith s treamwork ) 7 7 R eservoir W ith s treamwork ) 1 18 T inner 's b uilding W ith s treamwork ) 4 6 S hade w orking 2 4 O penwork 2 6 L ode-back w orking 8 3 ( r uns ) 1 2 . t hde r ign ounda t ilerm/ e xtraction M ine 10 T in 5 1

*r ecord s ignifican tly i ncogplete

T able 1

6 9

C lass

S ub t ype

M ine ( c on ti n u ed ) C opper W olfram U nknown m etal C omponents : S ha ft A dit L evel E ngine h ouse W him p latform W heel p it F la t r od t rench T urbine B oiler p ond C ount h ouse M agazine S mithy O ther b uildings 1 3 . N inera l r roo ess ing s ites S tamping m ill/processing f loor C alciner B lowing h ouse 1 4 . Q Uarryi l l7 D imension s tone q uarry P roto-industrial q uarry R oadstone q uarry R ab p it U nclassified 1 5 . C hina c layworis C hina c lay w orks 1 6 . O ther ( i ndustr ial ) P eat p latform *P eat c utting a rea I ce w orks C orn m ill T hreshing m ill S aw m ill R ailway A irfield

N o

3 0 3 2 6 1 93 6 1 9 4 8 2 7 5 9 2 2 4 4 2 0 1 7 2 7

7 7 7 1 2 9 1 1 5 2 3 2 6 3 1 9 52 2 4 1 5 1 2 1 1

8 :

S TOWE'S P OUND

M artin F letcher

S towe's P ound i s a l arge d ouble e nclosure a nd s ettlement o f u ndoubted p rehistoric o rigin, w hich o ccupies t he s ummit a nd u pper s lopes o f S towe's H ill i n M inions P arish, o n B odmin M oor, C ornwall ( SX 2 57726). T he s ite w as e xamined b y R CHME i n 1 986 a s p art o f i ts w ork o n p rehistoric m onuments o f B odmin M oor ( RCHME f orthcoming ). T he 1 :1000 s urvey w as c arried o ut b y M . F letcher a nd N .V. Q uinnell a nd i s b ased o n t he R CHME 1 :2,500 a ir p hotograph t ranscription o f t he a rea. C ontrol a nd c ontouring w ere e stablished b y E DM w ith g raphic s urvey m ethods u sed t o i nfill d etail. S towe's H ill i s a r ounded e longated h ill o f g ranite, 3 85m a bove O D , l ying o n t he s outh-east e dge o f B odmin M oor. I t o verlooks t he d eeply-cut v alley o f t he R iver L ynher t o t he E ast a nd f rom i ts s ummit, n ot o nly i s m uch o f t he M oor i tself v isible, b ut a lso a ll t he l and b etween i t a nd D artmoor t o t he E ast a nd t he E nglish C hannel t o t he S outh.

P late 1

T he u pper s tony r ampart ( looking N orth-West).

a nd

p ossible

b locked e ntrance

T he s outh-west s ide o f t he s ummit i s o ccupied b y a n e xposed g ranite o utcrop o r t or, a nd f urther t o t he s outh-west an umber o f s maller o utcrops h ave b een e roded i nto s egmented s tacks, o ne o f w hich i s t hat k nown a s T he C heesewring. T he w hole h ill i s c overed b y v arying a mounts o f g ranite s tones a nd b oulder k nown a s ' cu tter'. F ormed b y s olifluxion a nd w eathering a nd o ften e xposed b y s ail

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e rosion , t he c u tter o ccurs n aturally i n p atches o f v arious s izes a nd d ensities w hich c an r ange f rom l ight s cattered s preads o f e arth-fast b oulders t o c lose-packed p iles o f l arge s tones. S uch s oil c over a s t here i s o n t he h ill i s s parse a nd p atchy. T he h ill-top i tself c an b e d ivided i nto t wo d istinct p arts, a n u pper s ummit a rea t o t he S outh a nd a l ower b roader a rea t o t he N orth. T he a ctual s ummit c omprises a t urf-covered a rea f lanked o n t he W est b y t he t or w hile e lsewhere i rregular t urf t erraces a re s eparated b y r ock s labs, m assive b oulders a nd m inor v ertical r ock-faces. M uch o f t he s outh s ide o f t he h ill w as q uarried a way i n t he l ate n ineteenth a nd e arly t wentieth c enturies. T he l ower n orth p art o f t he h ill i s l argely c overed b y o utcrops o f g ranite, l arge b oulders a nd s labs o r e xtensive a reas o f c u tter. T he e ntire s urface o f t he h ill h as b een w orked o ver b y s tone c utters a nd q uarrymen, p erhaps f or c enturies. T he e vidence f or t his i s v isible i n t he n umerous s mall q uarry p its, s tone s plitting s ites, t racks, t ramways a nd h eaps o f s tone w aste. T he m ajority o f t he s tones a nd b oulders o n t he h ill-top a re n ow e arth-fast a nd t he a rea h as b een p icked c lean o f t he s maller p ortable s tones. W hether t his w as c arried o ut b y t he b uilders o f t he p rehistoric e nclosure o r b y n ineteenth o r t wentieth c entury q uarrymen i s n ot k nown. T he s ite c an b e d ivided i nto t hree p arts:

T he u pper e nclosure T he s outhern s ummit o f t he h ill i s o ccupied b y a p ear-shaped e nclosure, b ounded b y a s ubstantial s tone r ampart a nd e nclosing 0 .75 h a. T here i s n o e vidence o f a ny e xternal d itch. L arge n aturally o utcropping r ocks h ave b een u tilized i n t he c onstruction o f t he r ampart w hich i s o therwise m ainly c omposed o f h eaped p ortable b oulders. I t i s m ost m assive o n t he N orth w here i t i s 4 .5m h igh e xternally a nd 1 .6m i nternally. E lsewhere i t i s o nly 1 .8m t o 2 .6m h igh e xternally a nd 1 .0m t o 1 .5m i nternally. T he r ampart h as a f lat t op l m t o 4 m a cross w hich h as b een m utilated i n p laces b y m odern c ircular w indbreaks. M ost o f t he r ampart h as e ither c ollapsed o r b een d isturbed s o t hat i ts o riginal f orm a nd c onstruction c annot b e c learly d etermined. T he i nner s ide o n t he W est i s f aced b y l arge s labs u p t o 0 .7m h igh a nd a l ine o f l ow u pright s labs i s a lso v isible o n t he e astern, i nner s ide f or s ome 5 .0m. D rystone c oursed w alling u p t o 1 .0m h igh i s t raceable f or s hort l engths w ithin t he s pread o f t he s tone s pill o n t he i nner n orth a nd s outh s ides b ut h ow m uch o f t his i s o riginal a nd h ow m uch m ay b e s econdary o r r elatively m odern i s n ot c lear. E xternally , v ery l ittle f acing c an b e d etected e xcept i n as mall a rea o n t he n orth-west s ide w here t he r ampart w all i s v ery t hick. T he b est e vidence f or t he c onstruction o f t he r ampart m ay b e a t t he S outh w here i t h as b een a lmost c ompletely s tripped o f i ts l oose s tone b y e arly t wentieth c entury q uarrymen. W hat n ow s urvives a re t wo r obbed a nd t herefore i ncomplete l ines o f l arge o rthostats 0 .5m t o 1 .7m i n h eight, a nd s ome 3 .0m a part. T hese c ould h ave b een e ither t he f acing s labs o f a r ubble-filled w all, o r p ossibly t he c ore s tones o f a

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w ide r evetted s tone a nd b oulder r ampart, t he e vidence t hat n oted o n t he e ast a nd w est s ides o f t he e nclosure.

f or w hich i s

T he o nly c lear e ntrance i nto t he e nclosure i s a s imple g ap i n t he s outh-east c orner, t hough i ts p roximity t o t he s tripped-out r ampart m ay m ean t hat a ny d etails w ere a lso d estroyed b y t he q uarrymen. A l owering o f t he r ampart i n t he s outh-west c orner i s p robably t he r esult o f a l ong e stablished f ootpath c rossing i t a t t his p oint. W hat m ay h ave b een a b locked e ntrance e xists i n t he n orth-east c orner, b eside a l arge n arrow r ock o utcrop. I t s eems t o h ave b een a s imple s tone-lined g ap o nly 2 .4m w ide a nd m ay h ave b een l inked t o a c rude h ollowed t rackway w hich d escends t he h ill f rom t his p oint.

F ig 1

A n otable f eature o f t his e nclosure i s t he f act t hat t here i s n o a ccess b etween i t a nd t he l ower e nclosure t o t he N orth. T here i s, h owever, a r ather r agged s emi-circular l ine o f i rregularly s paced b oulders a nd s labs w hich e merges f rom t he t umble o f t he r ampart o n i ts n orth s ide. T his m ight i ndicate a n e arlier f eature, p erhaps a n e ntrance. T he d omed i nterior o f t he e nclosure r ises i n p laces u p t o 1 0m a bove t he t op o f t he r ampart a nd t here a re an umber o f n atural f lat t urf-covered a reas o n i t. H owever t here i s n o d efinite e vidence o f o ccupation , t hough t here a re t hree s light c ircular o r s emi-circular d epressions o r l evelled f eatures w hich m ight c onceivably b e h ut s ites. S hallow l inear s coops b ehind t he r amparts o n t he E ast a nd W est m ight a lso m ark t he s ites o f f ormer h uts.

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T he l ower e nclosure T his i s a s ub-oval e nclosure o f a bout 5 h a b ounded b y as tone r ampart c omposed o f b oulders a nd s tones p iled i n a s eemingly r andom f ashion. S hort l engths o f w all f acing s urvive i n p laces, s ome o rthostats a re e vident a nd l arge e arth-fast b oulders h ave b een i ncorporated w here t hey o ccur o n l ine. A w ell-defined i nner f acing o f u pright s labs o f 0 .4m t o 0 .7m h igh e xist o n t he W est, N orth a nd S outh-East, a nd s ections o f a n o uter r evetment o f c oursed d rystone b oulders a re v isible i n m any p laces. S ited a long t he f alse c rest t he w est r ampart i s p articularly i mpressive a gainst t he s kyline w hen v iewed f rom t he f oot o f t he s teep h ill s lope. P art o f t he r ampart o n t he N orth h as b een e ither r obbed o r s tripped a nd h ere a n i nner a nd o uter f ace o f e arth-fast b oulders s labs u p t o 0 .5m h igh a nd 4 .0m a part a re e xposed. T he r ampart i s u p t o 1 .0m h igh i nternally a nd u p t o 1 .5m e xternally. I n t he s outh-eastern c orner t he r ampart t erminates a bruptly 3 0m s hort o f a nd w ell b elow t he l evel o f t he r ampart o f t he u pper e nclosure. T he s urviving e nd i s r agged a nd t he m issing s ection m ay h ave b een r emoved o r q uarried a way i n r ecent t imes. O verall t he r ampart h as b een d isturbed i n m any p laces. T wo m ajor e ntrances o ne w ith a n a ssociated h ollow-way a nd b oth w ith o utworks ( see b elow ) c an b e c learly i dentified, b ut a t l east t welve o ther g aps e xist. S ome a re c ertainly l ater m utilations b ut a t l east f ive m ay b e o riginal g aps. O n t he n orth a nd e ast s ides o f t he h ill t he m ain r ampart h as b een a ugmented b y a s econd, a nd f or a s hort d istance a t hird , s tony r ampart w hich a re l inked t o t he m ain r ampart b y n arrow t ransverse b anks. T he i nterior o f t his e nclosure i s c overed b y t races, i n v arious f orms, o f p rehistoric o ccupation. A t a c onservative e stimate t here a re o ne h undred a nd t en i dentifiable h ut s ites o r w orking a reas, a nd o thers h ave a lmost c ertainly b een d estroyed b y l ater a ctivity o r c annot n ow b e r ecognized. S ome t wenty-seven c lear a nd d efinite h ut s ites d efined b y t races o f w all f ootings a nd a pproximately t wenty-five c leared p atches i n t he c litter a re v isible. M ost o f t he s tructures a ppear t o h ave b een o val o r c ircular, t hough s ome w ere c learly s ubr ectangular. I n a ddition t here a re a lso n ineteen p latforms o r s carps c ut i nto t he h ill-top, t wenty-one r oughly c ircular s mall t erraced f eatures a s w ell a s t welve l ess w ell-defined e xamples, a nd f ifty-seven v ague h ollows o r a morphous s coops. I n s ome p laces t hese o ccupation r emains e xhibit p articularly i nteresting d etails. O n t he l evel g round b elow a nd t o t he N orth o f t he u pper e nclosure i s ac ontiguous g roup o f s ub-circular p atches o f c litter-free g round b ounded b y c rude l ines o f b oulders a nd s tones w hich a ppear t o i ndicate t he f ormer e xistence o f a t ightly p acked g roup o f b uildings. A n arrow t rack, e dged b y b oulder c learance l ines, w inds t hrough t he a rea t owards t he w est e ntrance. T here a re a lso t wo v ery w ell-defined s tone w alled h ut c ircles, o ne w ith a c lear e ntrance, a nd b oth b uilt a gainst a c litter s pread i n t he n orth-western p art o f t he e nclosure. I n a ddition t o t he e vidence f or ah abitation, t he i nterior a lso c ontains an umber o f c airns a nd m ounds. A l arge a nd p rominent t urfc overed c airn 1 .4m h igh a nd c omposed o f b oulders l ies a t t he n orth

7 4

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e nd o f t he s pine o f t he h ill-top. T hough d isturbed a nd m utilated i t a ppears t o h ave b een f lat-topped w ith a c entral t ump. I t m ay h ave a lso h ad a k erb. A s econd m utilated c airn, 1 .3m h igh, l ies c lose t o t he n orth-east s ide o f t he e nclosure. I t t oo h as a f lat t op b ut w ith a r ing o f u pright s tones a round t he e dge o f i ts d epressed c entre. T he r eference, f rom a n u nnamed s ource ( Barnatt 1 982), t hat ' one o f t he t wo b arrows o n S towe's H ill c ontained a T revisker U rn w ith 1 00 f lint s pearheads, a rrowheads a nd a d agger i n a c ist w ith h uge c apstone' m ay r elate t o o ne o f t hese c airns. F our s mall s tone m ounds a djacent t o t he e nclosure r ampart n ear t he m ain w estern e ntrance m ay b e b urial c airns. T hey a re s ub-circular, a bout 3 .0m i n d iameter a nd u p t o 0 .5m h igh.

O utworks V arious f eatures a re v isible o n t he h ill s lopes b elow t he e nclosures, e xcept i n t he S outh w here p erhaps q uarrying h as r emoved a ll t races. O n t he E ast o f t he l ower e nclosure i s a f unnel-shaped s et o f b anks l eading i nto t he m ain e ntrance. T his m ay h ave s erved a s ad rove-way f or a nimals. O n t he W est t he w estern e ntrance i s c overed b y a c urious e longated o utwork w ith a s eries o f i nterlocking b anks w hich m ay h ave b een d esigned t o d eter o r i ntimidate. I t i s c rossed b y t he h ollow-way l eading i nto t he w estern e ntrance. I t t oo m ay b e c onnected w ith t he m anagement o f a nimals.

7 5

B eyond t he m ain e nclosure a nd t hese o utworks, a nd w ell d own t he s lope o f t he h ill i s a n arrow s inuous s tony b ank u p t o 1 .2m h igh e xtending a round t he w est, n orth a nd n orth-eastern s ides. T his m ay h ave o nce s urrounded t he w hole s ite b ut i t n ow e nds i nconclusively i n c u tter i n t he s outh-west, a nd t hough p artly d estroyed b y a l ater t ramway o n t he E ast m ay h ave o nce j oined t he e ast e nd o f t he n orth s ide o f t he f unnel-shaped o utwork. O n i ts W est i ts c ourse i s b roken b y s mall c ircular s tone-walled e nclosure. B eyond t he a rea o f s urvey u nenclosed h ut s ettlements l ie o n f airly l evel g round o n b oth t he e ast a nd w est s lopes o f t he h ill.

D iscussion W ithout e xcavation t he s pecific d ate a nd f unction o f S towe's P ound m ust r emain u nknown. C learly t he s ite i s m ulti-phase a nd i ts u se m ay h ave e xtended o ver m any c enturies. H owever, b oth i t a nd t he s omewhat s imilar s ite a t R oughtor ( SX 1 47808) a re s o d ifferent b oth i n a ppearance a nd l ocation f rom o ther l ate p rehistoric e nclosures i n C ornwall t hat i t h as b een s uggested t hat t hey m ay b elong t o t he e arly p rehistoric p eriod ( Mercer 1 981; S ilvester 1 979). T he R oyal C ommission's s urvey o f S towe's P ound s upports t his v iew f or a v ariety o f r easons. F irst, t he s ite i s a t a n a ltitude a nd i n a p osition w hich i s u nusual f or l ater p rehistoric e nclosures i n t he c ounty. S econd, t he e vidence o f n umerous h ut s ites w ith n o e vidence o f s tonework i n t hem s uggesting t hat t he b uildings w ere o f w ood, m ight i ndicate t hat t imber w as e asily a vailable c lose b y a t t he t ime o f t heir c onstruction. T hird, t he n umerous g aps i n t he r ampart o f t he n orthern e nclosure a re v ery s imilar t o t he m ultiple e ntrances a t C amn B rea, k nown f rom e xcavation t o d ate f rom t he p eriod 3 100-2700 b c ( Mercer 1 981, 7 ); f ourth, t he s imilarity i n t he r ampart c onstruction b etween S towe's P ound, C am nB rea a nd H elman T or; f inally t he v ery r ich a rchaeological r emains o f t he i mmediate a rea, m ost o f w hich a ppear t o b e o f B ronze A ge o r e arlier d ate. L arge n umbers o f B ronze A ge c airns a nd b arrows a re k nown f rom t he a rea, b ut m ore s pecifically T he H urler's a nd t he C raddock M oor S tone C ircles, a r ecently d iscovered s tone r ow , a c ursus-like f eature a nd t he w ell-known R illaton B arrow , a re a ll c lose b y. E xtensive B ronze A ge s ettlements w ith w ell-defined f ield s ystems h ave a lso b een r ecorded o n C raddock M oor. T here i s n o e vidence f or e xtensive I ron A ge o ccupation a t S towe's P ound a nd i t i s n ot u ntil t he m edieval p eriod, w hen t he u se o f t he u pper e nclosure a s a n a nimal p ound i s d ocumented, t hat t he s ite w as r e-used a nd p erhaps r emodelled. O n t he s trength o f t he p resent e vidence t herefore, S towe's P ound i s b est i nterpreted a s ad efended h ill-top s ettlement f irst o ccupied d uring t he 4 th-3rd m illennium B C, p erhaps a s a l ocal t ribal c entre.

A cknowledgements I w ould l ike t o t hank N .V. Q uinnell f or h is h elp w ith t he i nterpretation o f t he s ite a nd C .J. D unn a nd N . J ohnson f or t heir c omments. Ia m g rateful t o C .C. T aylor f or e diting t he f irst d raft o f t he t ext a nd t o M iss V . S mith a nd M rs M . H egerty w ho k indly t yped i t.

7 6

B ibliography

B arnatt , J1 982 P reh istor ic C or nwa ll , 9 3 . W ellingborough . D ixon , P1 976 C rickley H ill , G loucester , i n DW H arding ( e d ) I f illtört s : L ater P reh istor ic E arth r evrks i n B r itain a nd I re land , 1 61-175 . L ondon . F ax , A1 973 S outh W est E hgland , 8 2 , 1 41 . L ondon . M ercer , RJ 1 981 E Xcava tions a t C arn B rea . C o rnish A rchaeo l 2 0 , 1 -204 . M ercer , RJ 1 980 M amb ledon H ill . E dinburgh . R CHME f orthcoming B cdhdn M oor . T odd , M1 987 T he S outh W est t o A D 1 000 , 7 6-79 . L ondon .

7 7

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P REHISTORIC E ARTHWORKS O N C ODSEND A ND H OAR M OORS,

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D uring t he w inter o f 1 987-8 a n umber o f a rchaeological s ites o n C odsend a nd H oar M oors, E xmoor w ere s urveyed a nd a nalysed b y t he a uthors. T he w ork w as c arried o ut a s p art o f a j oint R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland/Somerset C ounty C ouncil S ites a nd M onuments R ecord ( SMR ) p ilot p roject d esigned t o e xamine t he c ontent a nd a ccuracy o f t he e xisting N ational A rchaeological R ecord ( NAR ) a nd S MR f or E xmoor. I nitially t he w ork i nvolved t he r apid f ield c hecking o f t he a rea c overed b y a s ingle 1 :10000 q uartersheet ( SS 8 4 S E ) b ut d uring t he r econnaissance i t b ecame c lear t hat t he c omplexity a nd c ondition o f s ites o n C odsend a nd H oar M oors d emanded a m ore d etailed s urvey. A s a r esult s everal s ites w ere p lanned a t 1 :2500 u sing a t heodolite a nd E DM e quipment t o e stablish c ontrol a nd a p lane t able a nd a s elf-reducing a lidade t o p lot t he a rchaeological d etail. T his p aper i s a s ummary o f t he p rehistoric s ettlements a nd f ield s ystems s o r ecorded a nd i s p resented a s a s mall c ontribution t o t he p itifully s mall a mount o f a rchaeological d ata w hich e xists f or t he p rehistory o f E xmoor. T he d etailed s urvey a nd f ield r eports a re h eld i n t he N AR, S outhampton. T he a uthors a cknowledge R CHME i n g ranting p ermission t o p ublish t he p lans a nd a dapted e xtracts f rom t he w ritten r eports a nd a lso M r H addon, M r S tevens, M r B awden a nd M r W eston, E xmoor f armers f or p ermission t o w ork o n t heir l and. A ll t he v iews e xpressed a re t he a uthors' o wn. C odsend a nd H oar M oors l ie o n t he e ast s ide o f E xmoor i n t he e xtreme N orth o f C utcombe a nd E xford p arishes, o n l and w hich f orms t he s outh-western f lank o f D unkery H ill. T he a rea i s l argely e nclosed m oorland b etween 2 80m a nd 4 80m a bove O D a nd c overs s ome 3 s q k m. A lthough e nclosed i t i s m ainly u nimproved r ough p asture e xcept a t t he e xtreme e astern e nd. T he t wo m oors o verlie ag eological b ase o f M iddle a nd U pper D evonian r ocks, s pecifically s oft s andstones, s lates a nd s iltstones o f t he I lfracombe B eds. W here n ot o bstructed b y v egetation, o r w here c learance h as n ot o ccurred, t hin s catters o f s mall r ounded s tones a re v isible. T hese h ave c learly b een u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he p rehistoric f eatures. I n p laces t here a re n atural ' benches' w hich f orm i rregular g roups o f t erraces w hich c an s ometimes b e c onfused w ith m an-made f eatures. R ecent

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7 9

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E xcept p erhaps i n o ne c ase ( Site 3 b elow ) n one o f t he f eatures c an b e a ssigned t o t he p ost-Roman p eriod. T he t wo m oors p rovided c ommon p asture a nd t urbary r ights f or a l arge n umber o f f arms i n C utcombe a nd E xford p arishes, p rior t o e nclosure w hich t ook p lace a t t he t urn o f t he e ighteenth t o n ineteenth c enturies. O nly t hen w ere s ome h alf a d ozen n ew s teadings e stablished a nd a c orn m ill e rected. I n 1 804 a n e laborate s cheme w as p ut f orward f or t he e nclosure o f C odsend M oor ( Cutcombe a nd E xford E nclosure M ap ). H owever, t his w as n ot f ully i mplemented a nd b y 1 842 t he l andscape s tructure w as s ubstantially a s i t i s t oday ( Cutcombe T ithe M ap ). B y t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury m ost o f t he n ew s ettlements h ad b een a bandoned ( OS 2 5 i n. 1 889). T hese n ineteenth c entury d evelopments, a nd p articularly t he i mprovement o f t he m oorland p astures, u ndoubtedly l ed t o t he d estruction o f s ignificant a reas o f p rehistoric r emains. H owever t he a ctivity s eems t o h ave b een l imited e nough t o l eave l arge a reas o f l and u ntouched o r o nly s lightly d isturbed. T he m ost m arked f eatures o f t his n ineteenth c entury a ctivity t oday a re t he b eech-topped h edgeb anks a nd a c omplex o f d rainage c hannels. T he e xistence o f i mportant p rehistoric s ites o n t hese m oors w as f irst n oted d uring r apid s urvey w ork o n E xmoor b y R ichard M cDonnell ( McDonnell 1 985, 1 -5). D etailed s ketch m aps a nd f ield n otes w ere p roduced f or t wo s ites a nd p arts o f t wo o thers ( McDonnell 1 981). A nother l arge s ite w as d iscovered d uring t he R oyal C ommission's s urvey ( Site 4 ). T he f ield r emains f all i nto f ive m ain g roups ( Fig 2 ), w ith s mall f ragments i n b etween t hem. O nly t he m ain g roups a re c onsidered h ere. T he m argins o f a ll f ive s how c lear s igns o f d isturbance, u sually e ither s tripping-out f or s tone o r d estruction b y p loughing. I n s everal p laces t he r emains e xtend i nto a reas o f m arsh o r b og a nd a re l ost. I t i s n ot c lear w hether o r n ot t hey c ontinue b eneath t he p eat.

S ite 1 ( SS 8 65406; F ig 3 ) T his c omprises a g roup o f i rregular a nd s ub-rectangular f ields t ogether w ith 3 8 s mall c airns, c overing s ome 8 h a a nd e xtending a cross t he E xford/Cutcombe p arish b oundary , h ere a n ear-straight n ineteenth c entury s tone-faced b ank. T he f ields, m ainly i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s ite, a re d efined b y s light s tony b anks o r l ynchets w hich h ave b een e xtensively r obbed. T o t heir N orth t here a re f our l arge l ynchets a ligned E ast t o W est, w hich t hough a pparently p art o f t he f ield s ystem , m ay b e g eological i n o rigin. A w ell-marked s tone b ank ( A ), 2 80m l ong a nd a ligned o n a b earing o f 2 0° l ies i n t he e xtreme n orthw est. I n i ts f orm , a nd m ore p articularly i n i ts a lignment, i t i s s imilar t o t he f ield b oundaries o f S ites 2 a nd 4 . M ost o f t he c airns a re c ircular o r s ub-circular, b etween 2 m a nd 1 4m i n d iameter a nd o nly 0 .1m t o 0 .7m h igh. T hey a re c oncentrated i n t he c entral p art o f t he s ite. F ive o ccur o n l ynchets a nd f our o n f ield b oundaries; o ne o f t he l atter a cts a s a b ank t erminal w hile a nother o ccupies aT -junction. T he m ajority a re u ndoubtedly f ield c learance c airns a nd a re p robably c ontemporary w ith t he f ield g roup. S everal h ave b een r obbed a nd m ay h ave p rovided s tone f or t he p arish b oundary b ank. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat s ome a re t he p roduct o f t he c onstruction o f t his b ank, w hereby s tones t aken f rom t he f ield s ystem

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i tself w ere l eft i n s urplus h eaps a fter t he c ompletion o f t he w ork.

S ite 2 ( SS 8 70406; F ig 4 ) T his s ite c omprises a f ield s ystem o f s ome 1 3 h a a ssociated w ith a h ill-slope e nclosure a nd t wo h ut c ircles. T he e nclosure ( A ) h as a n i nternal d iameter o f 4 8.0m a nd i s d efined b y am assive b ank o f p iled s tones 5 .5m t o 8 .0m w ide a nd u p t o 1 .2m h igh. A b uilding p latform o ccupies t he n orthern e nd. I t i s d amaged b y an ineteenth c entury h edge b ank a ligned N orth t o S outh w hich c uts a cross i t. T o t he N orth a nd E ast i s ag roup o f r ectilinear f ields, a pparently l aid o ut w ith a m ain a xis a ligned d iagonally a cross t he c ontours a t a b earing o f a bout 2 0° a nd w ith s ubdivisions a t r ight a ngles t o t his a xis. T he b oundaries a re p rominent c onsisting o f s tony b anks o r l ynchets a veraging 3 .0m w ide a nd 0 .6m h igh. S oil a ccumulation o ccurs c onsistently a gainst t he n orth a nd w est f aces. A s tony b ank a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he s ystem ( B ) i s p ossibly a t erminal. O n t he s outhw est a nd s outh-east t here i s e vidence o f e xtensive r obbing , p robably i n t he n ineteenth c entury , w hile o n t he n orth-east t he f ield b oundaries r un i nto m arshy g round. T he r elationship o f t he h illslope e nclosure t o t he f ields i s a mbiguous b ut f rom t he j unction o f t he e nclosure ( A ) w ith a f ield w all t o i ts E ast ( C ) i t a ppears t hat t he f ields a re p robably s econdary. T wo h ut c ircles, ( D ) a nd ( E ) b oth a bout 6 m i n d iameter, a re s ituated w ithin t he f ield s ystem b ut a re n ot i n a ny i dentifiable r elationship t o i t. T welve s mall s tone h eaps, a ll p robably c learance c airns, a nd r anging i n d iameter b etween 2 .5m a nd 5 .0m a nd a veraging 0 .6m h igh, a re s cattered i n t he f ields.

S ite 3 ( SS 8 77402; F ig 5 ) T his s ite c onsists o f s ome 2 0 h a o f f ield s ystems a nd l arge n umbers o f c learance c airns a nd i s s ituated j ust t o t he N orth o f t he R iver Q uarme, i mmediately W est o f B ank D own, a r uined n ineteenth c entury f arm a nd c orn m ill. A l eat f eeding t he m ill r uns E ast a cross t he f ield s ystems. T he e arliest p hase i s a pparently r epresented o ver t he w hole s ite b y a s eries o f l ong p arallel b oundaries, i n t his i nstance a ligned d iagonally a cross t he s lope a t a b earing b etween 4 5° a nd 6 0° a nd, a s w ith S ite 2 , s ubdivided l aterally t o t he m ain a xis b y s horter d ivisions. S harp b ends o r k inks v isible a t ( A ) a nd ( B ) i n t hese t ransverse e lements m ay i ndicate t he p ositions o f o ther l ong b oundaries w hich h ave b een d estroyed. T hese r emains a ppear t o b e a ll t hat s urvives o f a n a rrangement o f e longated r ectangular f ields p erhaps o f v arying l engths b ut b etween 3 0m a nd 3 5m w ide. D ouble l ynchets ( D ) a nd ( C ) m ay b e t he r emains o f t rackways b etween t hese f ields. L ater p loughing o f t hese f ields, w hich m ay o r m ay n ot b e c ontemporary w ith t he l aying o ut o f t heir b oundaries, h as r esulted i n t heir b oundaries b eing m arked b y m assive s tony l ynchets a veraging 3 .0m a cross a nd 0 .75m h igh, a lthough t hey m ay h ave o riginally b een m erely l ow b anks. L ater r obbing o f t hese b oundaries h as b een e xtensive o n t he e astern a nd w estern e dges w hile o n t he N orth t here i s a l arge a rea o f m arsh.

8 5

F ig 5

8 6

N o c lear t races o f a ny s ettlement c an b e i dentified b ut a s ubr ectangular l ynchetted f eature ( E ) a nd a s quare, p artly e mbanked, e nclosure ( F ) m ight b e o ccupation a reas. T he f ormer a ppears t o b e e arlier t han t he l ynchets t o i ts N orth, t hough a pparently a ligned w ith a f ield s ystem , b ut t he l atter i s o ut o f a lignment w ith t he s urrounding f ields. O verlying t hese f ields, m ost c learly v isible o n t he N orth a nd W est, i s a nother s ystem c omprising t he r emains o f ag roup o f l arge s ub-rectangular f ields b ounded b y s inuous s tony b anks. A t hird g roup o f b oundaries i n t he c entre a nd E ast o f t he s ite c onsists o f n umerous, s light, r ickles o f e arth-fast a nd s urface s tone f orming t he e dges t o l ong, n arrow s trips a veraging 2 0m w ide. F aint t races o f n arrow r ig f ollowing t he s ame N orth t o S outh a lignment a re p robably t o b e a ssociated w ith t hese s trips a nd m ay r esult f rom t he s ub-division o f t he l arger s ub-rectangular f ields. B oth s trips a nd r ig m ay b e m edieval i n d ate. A t otal o f 8 9 c learance m ounds h ave b een r ecorded o n t he s ite. M ost a re s mall s ub-circular c airns a veraging 2 .0m i n d iameter a nd 0 .3m h igh a nd a re p robably t he r esult o f t he c learance o f a rable a reas. T he m ajority l ie i n t hree m ain c oncentrations ( G , H , 3 ) a nd a ll m ay b e l ate i n t he s ite s equence. S everal l arger m ounds a veraging 5 .0m i n d iameter a nd 0 .5m h igh , l ie o n o r c lose t o l ynchets o f t he p resumed p rehistoric f ield s ystem a nd m ay b e c ontemporary , a lthough a g roup a t t he e astern e nd o f t he s ite s eemed t o b e r elated t o t he f ragmentation o f t he f ield b oundaries t here a nd a re t herefore p ossibly t he r esult o f r obbing i n m ore r ecent t imes.

S ite 4 ( SS 8 87403; F ig 6 ) T his c onsists o f s ome 8 .3 h a o f f ields, a ssociated w ith a h illslope e nclosure a nd o ther s ettlement f eatures. T he p robable e nclosure ( A ) i s c ut b y an ineteenth c entury h edge b ank a nd i s n ow v ery f ragmentary. H owever, w ith a d iameter o f s ome 4 5m a nd a n e ncircling s tone b ank 3 m t o 5 m w ide a nd 0 .5m h igh i t i s c omparable i n s ize a nd f orm w ith t he e nclosure ( A ) o f S ite 2 ( Fig 4 ). T his e nclosure i s s urrounded b y a c omplex o f f eatures. I mmediately t o i ts S outh i s ag roup o f a t l east n ine i rregular f ields b ounded b y s tony b anks o r s carps. T he f ields b ecome f ragmentary a nd a re l ost t o t he E ast a s t he r esult o f l ater s tone r obbing. T here a re u p t o 3 0 s mall s preads o f c leared s tone h ere w hich c oincide w ith t he f ragmentation o f f ield b oundaries. M any o f t hese c airns r un i n l ines w hich s eem t o m ark t he f ormer c ourse o f f ield b oundaries. O n t he s outhern s ide o f t he i rregular f ield s ystem i s a l arge c oncentration o f c leared s tone ( B ) a nd a nother ( G ) f urther t o t he S outh. O n t he s outh-east a nd n orth-west a re t wo n arrow s trip-fields b ounded b y s tony b anks ( C,D ), w hile i n t he e xtreme s outh-west i n a f ield o f i mproved p asture a re t he r emains o f a s eries o f r oughly p arallel l ynchets ( E ). I t i s n ot c lear w hether a ll t hese f eatures a re o f s imilar d ate t hough t here i s c ertainly s ome i ntegration o f p lan. F or e xample t he l ynchets ( E ) a nd f ield ( D ) a re o n t he s ame a lignment, t he e nclosure ( A ) a ppears t o b e i ntegrated w ith t he i rregular f ield s ystems a nd t he l atter a ppears t o b e l aid o ut f rom a l ong p arallel b oundary , a s d oes

8 7

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the field (D). A well-preserved isolated hut site (F) and a sub-oval stone-walled enclosure (ff), terraced into the hillside, have now no visible relationship with the other features on the site. Site 5 (SS 875411; Fig 7)

This site lies close to the limit of the moorland enclosures and has been extensively stone-robbed. It consists of two robbed-out hut circles (A and B), five cairns (C-G) and a fragmentary length of wall. The cairns, which are 3m to 12m in diameter and have been robbed, are probably clearance features and may be associated with the hut circles.

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Fig 7 Conclusions

The most significant element of the features surveyed by the Royal Commission on Codsend and Hoar Moors are the small areas of diagonally-aligned fields recorded on Sites 1-4 (similar isolated fragments between these concentrations have not been noted here). They appear to be the surviving elements of a more extensive field system possibly stretching continuously over the south-western flank of Dunkery Hill and thus forming an area of organized landscape of a type familiar on both Dartmoor and Bodmin Moor, albeit here on a much reduced scale. This suggestion has to take into account the problems 89

o f t he i ntervening a reas o f m arsh a nd p eat a nd b oring o r s mall-scale e xcavation w ould b e n ecessary t o c onfirm w hether o r n ot f ield b oundaries d o i ndeed c ontinue b eneath t he s urface i n t hese a reas. N evertheless t he o verall a lignments a nd c haracter o f t he r emains a re i mpressive a nd p ersuasive i n t his c ontext. T he i nterpretation o f t hese r emains i s m ade e xtremely d ifficult b y t he a lmost t otal l ack o f c omparative m aterial o n E xmoor. T here i s n o e xcavation d ata n or a ny s ubstantial b ody o f i nstrumentally s urveyed s ettlements a nd f ield s ystems f or E xmoor a s aw hole a nd o nly o ne o ther s ite h as b een e xamined a nd p ublished: G reat H ill, L uccombe, s ituated 1 .5 k m t o t he n orth-west. T here, o n a s outh-east f acing s lope a bove C hetsford W ater, l ies a g roup o f r ectangular f ields n ot u nlike t hose o f t he p resent s urvey a nd a rranged o n am ajor n orth-east t o s outh-west a lignment. F our h ut c ircles l ocated i n t hese f ields a re n ot d irectly l inked t o a ny f ield b oundary. A ir p hotographs a nd g round i nspections s trongly s uggest t hat t he s ystem c ontinues u nder p eat, e specially t o t he N orth ( McDonnell 1 980, 1 16-7). T he s ite h as b een r esurveyed b y R CHME a nd c opies a re l odged i n t he N .A.R. E lsewhere o n E xmoor, M cDonnell h as i dentified m any p otential p rehistoric s ites, m ostly s ingle o r i solated f eatures, b ut i ncluding a f ew l ocations w here t here a re c lear g roupings o f e nclosures o r h ut c ircles a nd/or f ields ( McDonnell 1 985, 1 -5 a nd a ppendix ). T hese s till r emain t o b e e xamined i n d etail. A s ar esult o f t he l ack o f a rchaeological d ata f or E xmoor, t here i s n o r eliable e vidence t o e stablish c hronologies f or s ites s uch a s t hose d escribed h ere. I n c omparison w ith s ites o n D artmoor a nd B odmin M oor t he f eatures o n C odsend a nd H oar M oors w ould p robably b e r egarded a s o f L ater B ronze A ge d ate. T he l imited a mount o f e nvironmental w ork o n E xmoor, o nly s ome o f w hich h as b een p ublished i s i nsufficient t o p rovide r eliable c hronological c ontexts. T he e vidence h as b een s ummarised b y F rancis ( 1986, 1 -9). P ollen e vidence f rom t he C hains ( SS 7 341) s uggested t hat b lanket p eat i n t he c entral p art o f E xmoor b egan t o f orm s ome t ime b etween t he B ronze a nd I ron A ges ( Crabtree a nd M altby 1 975, 3 8-43). S lightly e arlier w ork i n t he s ame l ocality p roduced a r adiocarbon d ated p rofile w hich i ndicated t wo p hases o f w oodland c learance l inked t o a gricultural a ctivity . T he f irst o ccurred p rior t o 2 220 ± 7 5 b c ( UB 8 21) a nd i s e quated w ith p rimary N eolithic i ntrusions i nto t he n ative w oodland. T he s econd s panned t he l ater I ron A ge a nd R omano-British p eriods b etween 3 50 b c a nd 4 00 a d ( Merryfield a nd M oore 1 974, 4 37-41). T he c urrent e nvironmental w ork r eferred t o a bove ( Francis 1 986, 1 9 ) h as f ocussed o n C odsend a nd H oar M oors w here m ore l ocalized p eat d eposits h ave b een i dentified, t ested a nd s ampled. T wo c ores t aken i n 1 985 c lose t o S ite 1a nd w ithin t he a rea o f S ite 2 r espectively ( SS 8 7014106) a nd 8 6264074 ) a re e xpected t o b e p ublished s oon. T he H oar M oor c ore h as p roduced a b asal r adiocarbon d ate o f 5 410 ± 1 10 b p o r 3 460 ± 1 10 b c ( without t he b ottom 1 5 c m o f p eat w hich i s n ot c ollected b y t he b orer; F rancis, p ers. c omm.). I t i s h oped t hat t he p ublication o f t hese t wo c ores w ill p rovide b ackground c hronological i nformation w hich w ill a ssist i n t he a ssessment o f t he f eatures d iscussed i n t his p aper.

9 0

B ibliography C rabtree , Ka nd M altby , EM 1 975 S oil a nd l and u se c hange o n E xmoor : s ignificance o f ab uried p ro file o n E xmoor . S omerset A rchaeol N atur ! f ist P roc 19 , 3 8-43 . C u tcombe a nd E x ford I nclosure N ap a nd A ward ( 1 804 ). S omerset R ecord O ffice , T aunton : d ocument C R 1 63 . C utcombe T ithe M ap a nd A ward ( 1 842 ). S omerset R ecord O ffice , T aunton : d ocumen t D /D/Rt 3 49 . F rancis , PD 1 986 Ar ecord o f v egetational a nd l and u se c hange f rom u pland p eat d eposits o n E xmoor . P art 1 : B ackground a nd f ieldwork . S omerset A rchaeol a nd N atur h r istI oc130 , 1 -9 . M cDonnell , RRJ 1 980 E Xmoor , C RAAGS A ir S urvey i n S omerset A rc haeo logy 1 979 e d . I B urrow ,S M innitt a nd B M urless . S omerset A rchaeo l N at u r h ist P roc 1 24 , 16-117 . M cDonnell , RRJ 1 981 C RAAGS f ield r ecord s heets f or C odsend a nd H oar M oors i n S omerset C ounty C ouncil S MR . M cDonnell , RRJ 1 985 A rchaeological S urv ey o n E Xmoor : a n I nter im R eport ( f or H BMC ). M ärryfield , DLa nd M oore , PD1 974 P rehistoric h uman a ctivity a nd b lanket p ea t i nitiation o n E xmoor . N ature 2 50 , 4 39-41 . O rdnance S urvey i st E dition O S 2 5" 1 889 .

9 1

92

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W OOLBURY F IELDS,

S TOCKBRIDGE D OWN , H AMPSHIRE

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I t i s m any y ears, N orman, I b elieve, s ince y ou l ast u ndertook f ieldwork i n H ampshire f or t he A rchaeology D ivision o f t he O rdnance S urvey. H owever, I h ope t hat y ou w ill f ind t he f ollowing a ccount o f t he a nalysis o f a n a ncient l andscape t o b e o f i nterest.

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S tockbridge D own , s ome 2 k m t o t he e ast o f t he R iver T est, r ises t o a bove 1 50m O D, a nd i s d ominated b y t he u nexcavated u nivallate h illfort o f W oolbury R ing. T he g eology i s U pper C halk, b ut a T ertiary c lay , s and a nd g ravel c ap i s e vident o n t hree v ery p rominent k nolls o n t he h igh g round s outh-west o f t he h illfort; t hese T ertiary d eposits h ave b een e xtensively q uarried. B elow W oolbury o n t he s outhern s lopes o f t he d own a nd i n t he d eep c ombe t o t he s outh-east, b arrows, p rehistoric l inear b oundaries a nd ' Celtic' f ields h ave s urvived i n a n a rea w here t here i s n o c lear e vidence o f l ater p loughing. I n 1 979 i nvestigation b y R CHME ( H.C. B owen, C .W. B utler a nd t he w riter), w hich i ncluded l arge-scale m easured s urvey o f s ome 4 8 h a ( 120 a cres) b ut n ot

9 3

o f t he h illfort i tself, m ade i t p ossible t o s uggest t he l ikely s equence o f t he v arious e arthworks. O .G.S. C rawford, i n h is s tudy o f t he a rea, h ad d rawn a ttention i n p articular t o o ne o f t he l inear b oundaries ( b ) w hich, h e p ostulated, h ad s eparated ' prehistoric g razing g rounds' a nd a rable ( Crawford a nd K eiller 1 928). T he o ldest a rchaeological r emains r ecorded f rom t his a rea a re t wo i nhumation b urials a ccompanied b y b eakers. T he g raves, o nly s ome 5 0m a part, l ay i mmediately b elow t he s ummit o f t he d own. O ne o f t hem w as a p rimary i nterment i n b arrow 1 2 ( see b arrow d escriptions g iven b elow ); t he o ther, e xcavated b y N . G ray H ill i n 1 939, w as a c ontracted f emale s keleton i n a v ery s hallow g rave ( x ) ( Stone 1 948; b eaker, C larke 1 970, n o. 3 48). M iddle B ronze A ge o ccupation i s i ndicated b y a p it a nd a q uantity o f f inds, p articularly p ottery ( y ). T he p it, e xcavated i n 1 938, w as 1 4ft ( 4.2m ) l ong, 6 ft ( 2m ) w ide a nd 7 ft ( 2.1m ) d eep, w ith s teep a nd u nweathered s ides. I ts t op l ayer, o verlying a d eep a nd a rchaeologica lly s terile f ill, f rom w hich i t w as a pparently s eparated b y a t urf l ine, c ontained a v ariety o f a rtefacts: c alcined f lints; m any s herds o f M iddle B ronze A ge p ottery , i ncluding c ollared, b iconical a nd b arrel u rns; a b one a wl; a f ragment o f a s andstone r ubber ( or q uern ); e leven f lint s crapers; o x, p ig a nd s heep b ones a nd t wo R omano-British s herds a nd ag lass b ead, p robably b rought d own b y r abbits. A bove t his l ayer w as a m ixed m ould, u p t o l ft 6 ins ( 0.5m ) d eep, w hich c ontained a f urther t hree o r f our R omano-British s herds ( Stone a nd H ill 1 938). T he m ixed m ould i s a lmost c ertainly t he r esult o f t he p loughing o f ' Celtic' f ields, t he t races o f w hich s till r emain i n t his a rea, p robably i n t he R oman p eriod. S ome 1 50m n orth-east o f t he p it, a b ank ( c ) 4 m a cross a nd a bout 0 .6m h igh, w ithout a v isible d itch, e xtends f or o ver 8 0m , w est t hen s outh-west, f rom t he o uter l ip o f t he d itch o f t he h illfort. I t m ay p ossibly b e r elated t o t his M iddle B ronze A ge o ccupation. I t a buts, a nd a ppears t o h ave b een c ut b y t he h illfort d itch, w hich w ould s uggest t hat i t i s e arlier t han t he h illfort. T his p resumed M iddle B ronze A ge s ite i s i n m any w ays c omparable w ith a nother, p ossibly p artly-enclosed, s ettlement o f t he s ame p eriod o n t he m ajor l andmark o f B eacon H ill, B urghclere ( RCHME f orthcoming ), w hich i s c learly v isible a lthough s ome 2 2 k m t o t he n orth-east. T here w as a t l east o ne s econdary M iddle B ronze A ge c remation b urial i n b arrow 1 2 o n F ig 2 ( see b arrow d escriptions). A l inear b oundary ( a ), n ow m arked b y a s carp v arying i n h eight f rom 0 .7m t o 2 .0m , e xtends f or s ome 5 00m s outh-west f rom a p oint a t t he s outh-west a ngle o f W oolbury h illfort. A fter a g ap o f 1 25m, m uch l ess a pparent o n a n a ir p hotograph o f 1 924 ( NMR O AP S U 3 835/10), t he l ine i s c ontinued b y a nother s carp f or 1 00m. T here i s n o a ccompanying d itch o n t he d ownhill s ide a nd o nly t he f aint p ossibility , i n p laces, o f o ne o n t he u phill s ide. I n t he 1 00m o r s o n earest t he h illfort t he s carp i s o n - o r m arks t he e dge o f - a g eological c ap t o t he C halk w hich i ncludes c lay , g ravel a nd s and, a nd p art o f i t m ay b e o f n atural o rigin. A bout 5 0m f rom t he h illfort t he s carp d ivides. T he u pper s carp, h ere s ome l m h igh a nd p robably a t l east i n p art c aused b y a p ositive l ynchet, m eets t he c ounterscarp b ank o f t he h illfort a t a n a cute a ngle. I t i s s eparated f rom a l ower s carp o f s imilar h eight b y a b erm w hich w idens t owards t he E ast, a nd t he l ower e lement i s t herefore p robably s olely t he r esult o f p lough a ction. T he a ngle o f c ontact o f t he u pper s carp a nd t he c ounterscarp b ank a nd t he f act t hat

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b arrows

a nd

t he l atter o nly a chieves m uch s ize e ast f rom t his p oint a rgue t hat a n e arlier b oundary i s b eing f ollowed. I n g eneral, t he u nconformity o f t he l inear b oundary w ith t he l ayout o f t he c ertain ' Celtic' f ields w hich o verlie t he a rea o f M iddle B ronze A ge o ccupation a nd t he l ack o f ' Celtic' f ield s ides s pringing f rom i t m ake i t o nly d ubiously a l ynchet i n o rigin. A b ank j oining t he l ine w est o f t he b reak, r eferred t o a bove, i s p lausibly a ssociated w ith t he d estruction a nd d egradation o f t he l inear. T he s carp n orth-west f rom S U 3 7753487, i n w hich a rea t he l inear b oundary s carp t o t he n orth-east i s v ery r ounded, c ould b e s imilarly v iewed. A ny l ink w ith t he l inear ( b ) h as b een d estroyed. T he l inear b oundary ( b ) e xtends f or 6 00m s outh-east f rom l inear ( a ) a t S U 3 8013508. F or 1 00m i t i s a l ow l ynchet o n a s lightly s inuous c ourse b efore i t m eets a b ank, w ith a d itch u phill o f i t o n t he w est s ide, w hich l ooks a s i f t his w ere i ts o riginal e nd, a lthough t he a rea i s m uch d isturbed. T wenty m etres f rom l inear ( a ), a s carp n o m ore t han 0 .3m h igh b utts t he l ynchet o n i ts w est f lank, c rossing t he l ine o f a ny f lattened b ank. V ariety i n t he f orm o f t he b oundary l ine i s i ndicated b y a v ery s hort l ength o f c ounterscarp b ank a t S U 3 8123499. T his g ives t he d imension o f 1 4.0m o verall, t he d itch 0 .75m b elow b oth b anks o n g round s loping o nly v ery g ently e ast. F urther s outh t he b ank i s a b are 2 .0m a cross. T he b ank a nd d itch c ease t o e xist a t a ' Celtic' f ield l ynchet, o ne o f s even s pringing e ast f rom t he b oundary l ine. T o t he s outh-east, t he f ield e dges i ntrude o n a l ine c ontinuing t he b ank w hich t herefore i n i ts p resent f orm p robably e nded t here. I t i s l ikely t hat t he f ields b elong t o a s ystem i nitiated c onsiderably l ater t han t he l inear b oundary, a lthough t he b ank a nd d itch, a t l east i n p laces, m ay b elong t o t he p hase o f a rable c ultivation. T wo p oints s uggest t his. F irst, t he s inuous l ine, w hich i s o nly i n p art d ictated b y t he c ontours, i s i ncompatible w ith t he n ormal ' Celtic' f ield p attern o f s traight e dges a nd s o i s e mbodied i nto, a nd i s n ot a n o riginal p art o f, t he s ystem. S econd, t he u nconformable l ine o f t he l ynchet s pringing n orth a t S U 3 8173498, i ts f oot c ontinuous w ith t hat o f l inear ( b ), s uggests a nother l inear b oundary w hich h as b een i ncorporated a wkwardly i n t he ' Celtic' f ield p attern. A ir p hotographs ( e.g. C UAP R C8 A Y 4 1) t end t o c onfirm t his c ontention p roviding f urther d oubt t hat t his l inear b oundary s ystem w as o riginally b ased o n t he h illfort. A t t he s outh-east, ' Celtic' f ield l ynchets a re w ell p reserved o ver s ome 5h a ( 12 a cres) i n t he d ry v alley e xtending s outh-east f rom t he s outh-west c orner o f W oolbury h illfort. T hey a re s urvivors o f a p attern o nce a lmost c ontinuous f or a t l east a m ile t o t he E ast. F or s ome 6 00m f rom t he v alley h ead t here i s a s eries o f f ields i n u nbroken s equence; t hereafter t he p attern i s f ragmentary. L ynchets a re u p t o 2 .0m h igh. T here i s n o s ign o f a ny p lough a ction t o t he e ast o f l inear ( a ), a nywhere a long t he w est s ide o f l inear ( b ), o r a gainst t he d itches o f t he b arrows. S ome a ccumulation o f p loughsoil b eside t he d itch o f l inear ( b ) o r t he b arrows w ould c ertainly b e e vident i f l ater p loughing h ad e ver b een o ther t han t he m ost e phemeral. I n M iddle f ields,

s ummary, S tockbridge D own e xhibits e arthworks o f t he E arly a nd B ronze A ge, t he I ron A ge a nd t he R oman p eriod. T he ' Celtic' c ertainly i n u se i n R oman t imes b ut p robably o f m uch e arlier

9 6

or1g1n, were d e limited at the South by linear boundaries, beyond which the ground was reserved f o r another purpose, possibly permanent pasture. The recognit i on o f varying ancient land use on either sid e of a boundary i s rarely possi ble in low land England t od ay and enhances great ly the archaeological importance of the D own and emphasises the need f o r its cont inued p rese rvation, which is happi ly i n the hands o f the National T rust . It may be ad ded that the subsequent hist ory of the area is o f no less int erest . The recovery, unf o rt unately not precisely locat ed, o f a 6th - cent ury brooch and a bracelet, most probably f rom an Anglo- Saxon grave, and an early Norman cemet e ry, wi th clear evid ence o f e xecut ions, which was d iscovered d u ring the preparation o f a sit e f o r a bonfi re t o mark Ki ng George V's Si lver Jubi lee in 1935, are particularly notable. Critical paints fer eonwic mvatial include the fol.l.oring: -

Across linear (a) to establish i f it is ditched and the nature of any lynchet fonnatioo Junctioo of linear (a) with the cnmterscarp bank of the hi llfort to establish the sequence Area of possible junctioo of (a) and (b) to establish the nature and sequence of any link Across linear (c) to establish its nature Jtmctioo of linear (c) and the hillfort ditch to establish the sequence.

Descriptims of 1 2 3

barrOlfs

and

.um

lbmd, }X)ss:ihJII! harrow (SU 37263474) diameter llm, height 0.3m. Disturbed. (Natiooal Archaeological Record SU 33 SE 17A) Ditched holfl (SU 37403472) nnmd diameter 14m, height 0.9m; ditch 3 .5m outside. ShcMl oo OS 2-inch drawing (1808) for First Editioo of 1-inch map. (NAR SU 33 SE 17D)

lbmd, �e harrow (SU 37423472) diameter Sm, height 0.5m, inmediately NorthFast of 2. (NAR SU 33 SE 17Da)

'Ibe following b«> IOOUOOS are oo the roc,st westerly of the three praninent flat-topped Jmolls oo the spur top. 4 5 6 7

lbmd, �e harrow (SU 37513489 ) diameter 15m, 0.3m high, at North end of natural lmoll towards the tip of a spur. (NAR SU 33 SE 19A) lbDi of uncertain ahle barrow (SU 37813479) diameter approx. llm; height 0.5m. Possibly ditched. (NAR SU 33 SE 18C) Pid>able barrow (SU 37823482) diameter llm; height O.Jm. Qi sunmit of hillock. (NAR SU 33 SE 18D) ? Ditched barrow (SU 37973492) diameter about 19m, height 0.4m with traces of a broad depression on the east side and a much � ooe oo the west. Inconspicuoosly sited, at the foot of a slope of about 8. and now crossed by a ride. If an wm.sturbed barrow, this insignificant height in relatioo to width would be unusual; it is possible that a barrow here has been dug,_ spread and suoothed by JIK)Vement along the ride. (NAR SU 33 SE 26A) Bowl barrow (SU 37943498) diameter Sm, height 0.4m. It is inconspicuously sited oo the slope above 26A. Excavation in 1938 disclosed: a IOCIUlld built al.roost entirely of flints, many burned; a primary, centrally placed, F.arly Bronze Age female inhumatioo with a beaker (Clarke 1970, no 349) and copper awl in a central grave surrounded by a ditch with five causeways; a seconda,ry, Middle Bronze Age crematioo with an inverted collar ed um; two unaccanpanied crematioos and scattered sherds of beaker, Middle Bronze Age (ooe vessel) and Ranano-British origin including m of samian ware; a fragment of a saddle quern; splintered ox and sheep bones; deer antler. (Stooe and Hill 1940.) (NAR SU 33 SE 26B) Bowl barrow (SU 38133481) diameter 15m, height 0.4m; inconspicuously sited oo a gentle slope. (NAR SU 33 SE 14B) Bowl barrow (SU 38223484) diameter 6.5m, height 0.4m; near shoolder of va lley oo a gentle slope, in old pasture with no sign of any lynchet actioo. Badly disturbed by 100les etc. (NAR SU 33 SE 14A)

Acknowledgeaents I am mos t g r a t e ful to m y col l e a gue , Ma rk Cor n e y, who has kindly prepared t h e i l lust r a t ions fo r pub l i c ation. Th e p l a n of t h e e a r th wo rks i s RCHME cop yr i ght. Bibliography Clarke, D L 1970 Beaker Pottezy of Great Britain and Ireland, 2 vols. Cambridge. Crawford, O G S and Keiller, A 1928 'flessex fran the Air, 154-6 and pl. X1N. Oxford. Staie, J F S 1948 A Beaker intennent on Stockbridge tom, Hampshire, and its cultural coonexioos. Antiq J 28, 149-56. Staie, J F s am Hill, NG 1938 A Middle Bronze Age site at Stockbridge, Hampshire. Proc Prehist Sec 4, 249-57. Stooe, J F S and Hill, NG 1940 A roond barrow oo Stockbridge Lam, Hampshire. Antiq J 20, 39-51.

98

1 1:

N ON-HILLFORT S ETTLEMENT A ND I TS I MPLICATIONS

D avid S cott M cOmish

I t i s i mportant t o r ealise t hat m uch o f o ur u nderstanding o f l ater p rehistoric s ociety f ocuses o n t he p erceived i nter-relationships e vident i n s ettlement p atterning. A s a rchaeologists w e v iew a n e ver i ncreasing d ata-body a nd c onstruct t he p ast f rom i t, t hrough t he m edium o f v arious r ecording t echniques. I nherent i n t his i s t hat w e c an c orrectly c ategorize w hat w e s ee. T hus w hen w e t alk a bout c haracteristics o f s ettlement f or e xample, w e s elect a n umber o f c ommon f actors w hich h ave m eaning f or u s, e .g. f orm o f e nclosure. I n t he a rea I i ntend t o d iscuss ( Fig 1 ), t here a ppears t o b e a p rolifera tion o f e nclosure. I n t he p ast, r ecognition o f t his a nd r ealisation o f t he u biquitous t hough r egional n ature o f t he e vidence h as l ed t o t he i mposition o f s uch c ultural t raits a s ' The W oodbury C ulture' ( Hodson 1 964 ). W hen e xcavated t hese s ites p roduced t he s ame o r s imilar t ypes o f i nformation. R ecurring e lements i nclude t he s ize a nd n ature o f t he e nclosing b oundary, w ithin w hich a re h ouse(s) a nd s torage f acilities. H . C ollin B owen ( 1969) h as c ollated e vidence f rom a n umber o f s ites i n W essex i ncluding L ittle W oodbury, G ussage A ll S aints a nd B oscombe D own W est. T he c ommon m orphological l inks b etween s ettlements w ere a llied t o w hat h e i nterpreted a s a s hared e conomic f oundation, n amely s elf-sufficient m ixed a griculture. B y i nference t he n otion o f t he i ndependent f armer i n l ater p rehistory w as b orn. I w ant t o l ook a t a r ange o f s ettlement t ypes w ithin w est W essex , a ll b elonging t o t he i st m illennium B C. I n d oing s o i t w ill b ecome a pparent t hat n o s ettlement n orm e xists. T he n umber o f v ariables i nvolved ( including s ize a nd t opographical l ocation o f s ite, a bsence o r p resence o f e nclosure a nd a ssociated s tructures, f orm o f e nclosure i f p resent, t ogether w ith t he a rtefactual r ecord ) a re p rohibitive. O nly n on-hillfort s ites w ill b e e xamined a nd i t w ill b e a ssumed t hat m ost o f t hese w ere o f a d omestic n ature. T hese a re a ll c halkland a nd r elated g eology s ites a nd i n a n umber o f c ases m ark t he w estern l imit o f t he C entral S outhern B ritish C halk e xpanse. I n g eneral, r iver v alleys a nd a reas o ff t he c halk a re u nder-represented i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. H owever, t heir p otential m ust n ot b e e xcluded f rom a ny s urvey o f s ettlement m atrices. F or t he p urposes o f t his p aper I s hall c oncentrate o n t he c onventional I ron A ge p eriod, s pecifically b etween 8 00 B C a nd A D 4 3, w ith i nception b roadly c oeval w ith t he e mergence o f d istinctive c eramic t raditions, n otably f urrowed a nd s cratched c ordoned b owls a nd j ars, s ome o f w hich a re h aematite c oated. C .F.C. H awkes' A BC S cheme ( 1931) h as c onditioned , m uch o f o ur a pproach t o I ron A ge c hronology , a lthough m ore r ecently t he i mportance o f c ontinental c ultural i nfluence, i n t he f orm o f p eriodic i nvasions, h as b een q uestioned ( with t wo i mportant e xceptions, n amely ' The B elgae' a nd t hose r esponsible f or t he ' Arras C ulture'). N onetheless, t he n eed t o p rovide p roper c hronological d efinition t o t he p eriod i s o f u tmost s ignificance. P ot s tyles a nd t heir c urrency r emain t he m ost r eliable s ource o f r elative d ating i n t he W essex I ron A ge, a nd w ill b e u sed e xtensively i n t his p aper. T wenty y ears o f e xcavation a t D anebury h ave p roduced a m assive c ollection o f w ell s tratified p ottery. F rom

9 9

F IG .1

-

f-

0

1 0 I K i lometres

CHALK

F ig 1

1 00

O

H ILLFORT

•

I RON AGE ENCLOSURE

O

ENCLOSURE ( UNDATED)

O

UNENCLOSED SETTLE MENT

t his C unliffe ( 1984b ) p ostulates a f ive-fold d ivision b ased o n n ine c eramic p hases. F urther c hronological v alidity h as b een p rovided b y t he s eventy a ssociated r adiocarbon a ssessments. H owever, t he e arliest p hase o f I ron A ge a ctivity i s n ot p resent a t D anebury. A g reat a mount o f r aw d ata f or t his h as c ome f rom A ll C annings C ross ( Cunnington 1 923). T his s ite l ies a t t he f oot o f ag entle s lope o f t he N orth W iltshire C halk D owns a nd h as b een h eavily p loughed i n r ecent t imes. C onsequently , n o s urface i ndications o f s ettlement s urvive. T he s ettlement a rea m ay h ave b een u nenclosed s ince e xcavation f ailed t o l ocate a ny s ign o f ab ank o r d itch o r a ny o ther e nclosing b oundary. T he e xcavators d id, h owever, f ind a n umber o f p its, ' post-holes f or d wellings', a nd b uilding p latforms, a s w ell a s a n e xtensive a rtefactual a ssemblage. I t m ay b e h elpful t o o utline, b riefly , t hree o f t he m ain l ocal c eramic d evelopments. 1

2 3

8 00-550 B C O ccurrence o f l arge, o ften h ighly d ecorated j ars w ith e verted r ims a nd s mall b ipartite b owls, o ccasionally f urrowed. L ater p hase d ominated b y f urrowed b owls. H aematite c oating p resent o n s ome e xamples. 5 50-400 B C F ine p ottery i ncluding ' scratched - c ordoned b owls'. H aematite c oating a gain p resent. 4 00-100 b c P lain , s imple c eramics. L inear t ooled d ecoration b ecomes i ncreasingly c ommon t hrough t ime; r egional s tyles d evelop. ' The S aucepan C ontinuum '.

T his s equence r efinement.

f ollows

C unliffe

( 1984)

a nd

m ust

a wait f urther

T he d evelopment o f e arliest I ron A ge f orms m arks a d istinct b reak w ith p receding D everel-Rimbury t raditions. D everel-Rimbury a ctivity i s w ell r epresented o n an umber o f s ites i n C ranborne C hase, a nd a t W ilsford S haft ( Ashbee 1 963), B oscombe D own E ast ( Stone 1 936) a nd T horny D own ( Stone 1 941). T hey s how l ittle e vidence o f c ontinuity b eyond t he n inth c entury b c. S ubsequent I ron A ge s ettlement a s w ell a s o ccupying t hese a reas w as a dditionally e stablished i n o thers p reviously l ess f avoured. B arrett ( 1980 ) i n h is a nalysis o f l ater B ronze A ge a nd e arly I ron A ge p ottery h as s uggested t hat t here i s n o d irect s equence b etween t he t wo a nd t hat t here i s a h iatus i n t he s ettlement r ecord. A t B oscombe D own E ast, f or e xample, a l inear d itch o f I ron A ge d ate b isects t he r edundant e nclosure. F inally , i t m ay b e o f i nterest t o n ote t hat t he m ost s uitable p arallels f or o ur e arliest I ron A ge c eramic s tyles c ame f rom t he c ontinent e specially i n t he M iddle R hine, s outhern G ermany a nd a lso p ossibly i n t he r egion S outh a nd S outh-East o f P aris, i ncluding t he M arne. S o i t s eems p lausible t hat c ontinental i nfluence d id p lay a p art i n s timulating t he d evelopment o f o ur i nsular I ron A ge c eramic t radition. I n ow w ant t o l ook a t a n umber o f c ase s tudies f rom w est W essex ( Fig 2 ). M ost o f t hese s ites h ave b een e xcavated t o ac ertain e xtent a nd f requently t he p ublished i nformation i s s ufficient t o e nable a t l east r elative d ates t o b e e stablished. I w ill a lso d raw u pon i nferences f rom a n umber o f f lattened s ites w hich, a lthough n ot e xcavated a re b y a nalogy p otentially c ontemporaneous. F irst a nd m ost f amous i s L ittle W oodbury ( Fig 2 .1). T his a pproximately s ub-circular e nclosure o f c 1 .3 h a w as e xcavated b y B ersu i n 1 938 a nd p ublished i n 1 940 ( and s ubsequently t he a rtefacts b y

1 01

F IG .2

2 1

2 .3

L itt le

Woodbury

B ishopstrow

2 .2

Longbr idge

2 .4

H ighf ie ld

Dever i l l

F arm

D ITCH

P I TS 2 .5

Swa l lowc l iffe

Down

DETA IL UNKN O W N

0

250 1 Metres

2 .6

L ord 's

H i l l

•

F ig 2

E nclosures: C omparative P lans.

B railsford a nd J ackson 1 948). T his w as a l andmark p ublication s ince f or t he f irst t ime s torage p its w ere i dentified a nd c lassified a s s uch a nd t imber r oundhouses w ere r ecognised i n d etail. I ts i mportance w as s uch t hat L ittle W oodbury b ecame t he t ype s ite f or t he S outhern B ritish I ron A ge. T he s ettlement a rea w as d efined b y a n i rregular d itch w ith E ast f acing e ntrance a nd a ssociated c omplex ' antennae d itches' f lanking e ither s ide o f i t. W ithin t he e xcavated s ector o f t he i nterior B ersu u ncovered t wo h ouses o f p ost-ring c onstruction, s torage p its a nd h ollows. T he c entral h ouse, w hich w as 1 5m i n

1 02

d iameter, h ad a c omplex s tructural h istory w ith a t l east t wo p hases b eing r epresented. A ssociated w ith t his w as a n a nomalous c entral f our-post a rrangement. I t m ay b e w orth n oting t hat t his s tructure, r econstructed a s b elonging t o a l antern r oof, i s u nparalleled a nd m ay n ot b e c ontemporary w ith t he h ouse. T he t wo p hases a re a pparently s eparated b y t he i nterrupted a rc o f a s hallow d itch - ' Dra' a nd ' Drb' ( 1940, p l 1 ). T he f ormer i ntersects p ost-holes o f p hase 1 b ut t he l atter i s t runcated b y p hase 2 f eatures. B ersu i nterpreted t he d itches a s d rainage c hannels a nd d id n ot a ssume t hat t hey w ere o f u nitary c onstruction, b ut ' Dra' a nd ' Drb' m ay b e t he v estiges o f a n e arlier d itched s tructure w hich w as s uperseded b y t he m ain e nclosure d itch. M ore t han t welve f ragments o f f urrowed b owl ( some n ot h aematite c oated ) w ere f ound a t L ittle W oodbury ( Brailsford a nd J ackson 1 945, f ig 5 ). S ingle s herds c ame f rom p ost-holes a ssociated w ith t he m ain h ouse a nd o ne o ther f ragment, p ossibly w ith r illing, f rom ' Dra'. C ontemporaneity b etween t he e nclosure a nd t he m ain h ouse i s n ot d emonstrable f rom p ublished d etails, a lthough t he e ntrance t o t he h ouse i s a ligned o n t hat i nto t he e nclosure i tself. L arge, c ircular p ost-ring s tructures a re a r ecurring e lement i n t he W essex E arlier I ron A ge. I nvariably , t hey a re a ssociated w ith p orch e ntrance a rrangements, t hough t he p orch i tself m ay b e t he o nly s urviving e lement o f f urther o uter r ings o f p ost-holes s ubsequently d estroyed. A t P imperne, t he l arge p ost-ring s tructure i s a gain s et w ithin a d itched e nclosure. T he c hronological r elationship b etween t he t wo i s n ot c larified; a n e arly I ron A ge d ate i s p ostulated f or t he e nclosure d itch ( Harding 1 963). S everal c enturies o f o ccupation a re p resent a t L ittle W oodbury. T his c ontrasts w ith t he s light e vidence f or t he b arrier d efining t he s ettlement a rea. W e a re u naware o f t he e xistence o f a ny b ank o r r ampart a ssociated w ith t he m ain e nclosure d itch. H owever, i t d oes s eem l ikely t hat o nce c onstructed t he e phemeral d itch w as t hen a llowed t o s ilt u p r apidly a nd m ay i n p laces h ave b een d eliberately b ackfilled. T he t wo l engths o f p alisade t rench n oted w ithin t he i nterior ( 1940, p l 1 , ' DP1' a nd ' DP2') m ay b e a ssociated w ith o ther a ttempts t o d efine t he s ettlement b oundary. T here i s c learly a l ong a nd c omplex s tructural s equence a t L ittle W oodbury. O n L ongbridge D everill C ow D own a s imilar l engthy o ccupation s equence i s e vident ( Fig 2 .2). S ettlement w as w ell e stablished b y a t l east t he s eventh c entury B C a nd i ncluded d omestic s tructures a nd f ield s ystem. S ignificantly , t his i nitial s ettlement b elonged t o a n u nenclosed p hase, t hough b ounded w ithin t he l ynchets o f a ' Celtic F ield' s ystem. O ne o f t he s tructures w as o f h uge p roportions, b eing o f d ouble p ost-ring c onstruction, 1 8m i n d iameter, w ith ap orch e ntrance a rrangement. W hen f ormal e nclosure w as i nitiated a round t he s ixth c entury B C i t t ook t he f orm o f a s ub-rectangular e nclosure o f 2 .63 h a ( 6.5 a cres), w ith a s maller o void c ompanion 1 00m t o t he N orthW est. I n b oth c ases t he e nclosing d itch w as o f s hallow i rregular c onstruction. A gain n o t race o f a ssociated b ank w as n oted. F ieldwork u ndertaken b y t he l ate B ob S mith h as r evealed a reas o f I ron A ge a ctivity o n t he v alley f loor i mmediately N orth o f t he L ongbridge D everill C ow D own c omplex. T his i s i mportant s ince i t u nderlines t he e xtent o f e nvironmental e xploitation d uring t he p eriod. O ne o f t he s ettlements i dentified t here, a t B ishopstrow F arm , w as p artially e xcavated ( Fig 2 .3). I t i s m arked b y a n a rc o f d itch, w ithin w hich t here i s a l arge n umber o f p its. O ccupation o f t he s ite o riginated i n t he s ixth c entury B C a nd c ontinued i nto t he e arly i st

1 03

m illennium A D. T here i s a lso e vidence f or i ron w orking a t B ishopstrow F arm. A nalysis o f s ediment d eposits f rom t he s outhern l imit o f t he s ettlement n ear t he R iver W ylye i ndicated t hat w aterlogging o f t he s ite h ad b een a p roblem ( recalling e vidence f rom M eare, w here a nalysis o f t he p eat d eposits h as s hown t hat t he s ite w as r egularly f looded ( Coles a nd O rme 1 981)). R eclamation m ay h ave t aken p lace a t B ishopstrow , t hrough t he d umping o f w aste m aterial o n t he w aterlogged a rea. T his m ay h ave b een a n a ttempt t o a lter a n a pparently s easonal e xploitation o f t he v alley f loor p rone t o f looding. A t B oscombe D own W est s ettlement a ctivity w as s pread o ver a pproximately 3 3 h a ( 79 a cres) a nd w as c oncentrated i n t hree z ones ( Richardson 1 951; F ig 3 ). I n t he f irst o f t hese ( 'Area Q ' o f t he e xcavations), t here w as a l arge n umber o f u nenclosed p its a nd h ollows; f rom o ne o f t he l atter c ame t wo h aematite c oated f urrowed b owls. S ix h undred m etres t o t he S outh a nother g roup o f p its ( 'Area R '), h ere p artially e nclosed w ithin a p ossibly c ontemporaneous l ength o f c urvilinear d itch, p roduced h aematite c oated b owls w ith i ncised s urface d ecoration. T he a rea b etween t hese t wo g roups w as o ccupied b y a d ouble-ditched e nclosure o f 3 .5 h a ( 8.6 a cres), o nly t wo s herds o f h aematite c oated p ottery w ere f ound t here, t he c eramic a ssemblage c onsisting o f aw ide r ange o f l ater I ron A ge a nd R omano-British f orms. N early o ne m illennium o f o ccupation i s e vident a t B oscombe D own W est. E vidence f rom o ther s ites t hough, s hows t hat o ccupation c ould b e m ore d isjointed.

F IG .3

A rea R A rea S

5 00 Me tres

F ig 3

B oscombe D own V est.

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A t H ighfield P it, S alisbury , t here w ere 6 9 p its a nd a c ircular d itched e nclosure, s ome 1 .6 h a ( 4 a cres) i n e xtent ( Stevens 1 934; F ig 2 .4 ). T here w as a lso a s econd, s maller, t rapezoidal, d itched e nclosure 1 0m t o t he S outh. T he l arger e nclosure d itch a pparently t runcated an umber o f t he p its. T his m orphological d ichotomy i s a lso r eflected i n t he r ange o f c eramics r ecovered. E arly I ron A ge m aterial i s p resent, i ncluding h aematite c oated a nd r elated s tyles; t wo f urrowed b owls w ere f ound, o ne h aematite, t he o ther i n b lack w are. A b reak i n t he s equence t hen f ollows a nd r enewed a ctivity o n t he s ite i s a ssociated w ith c eramics o f t he ' Saucepan P ot c ontinuum , a nd t he c onstruction o f d itched e nclosures. T he s ettlement a t S wallowcliffe D own c onsisted o f t wo m ain ' enclosed ' u nits ( Clay 1 925; 1 927; F ig 2 .5). T he l arge o ne, o f 1 .6 h a ( 4 a cres), c omprised a n a rea o f p its a nd h ollows w hich w ere e nclosed w ithin a s hallow , i ncomplete d itch. T he s econd u nit, 3 0m t o t he S outh, i s a s emi-circular e mbanked e nclosure, a gain i ncomplete. T he s ettlement h ere a ppears t o b e o f s hort-lived d uration, b etween 5 50-400 B C. T his c ontrasts w ith f ive c enturies o f o ccupation a t t he s ettlement s ites n ear F ifield B avant 4 km t o t he E ast o f S wallowcliffe ( Clay 1 924 ). T he e arliest a ctivity o n t he s ite i s a ssociated w ith a w ide r ange o f l ater h aematite c oated w ares, i ncluding c arinated v essels w ith i ncised d ecoration. R .C.C. C lay i dentified a nd e xcavated t wo s eparate, u nenclosed e lements: a n ' E g roup ' w ith 7 7 p its c overing a pproximately 1 .6 h a ( 4 a cres) a nd a ' W g roup' o f 3 0 p its o ccupying 0 .8 h a ( 2 a cres). U nfortunately , t here a re n o d etails o f d omestic s tructures f rom C lay 's e xcavations. B efore t he p ublication o f t he L ittle W oodbury r eport i n 1 940, i t w as w idely b elieved t hat p its w ere t he s tandard o ccupation u nits o f t he I ron A ge. E xcavators, i ncluding R .C.C. C lay , w ere n ot a ware o f t he e xistence o f f ormal p ost-built r ound h ouses a nd o ften d id n ot e xcavate o n a l arge e nough s cale t o r ecover g round p lans o f h ouses. B ersu a nd h is w ork a t L ittle W oodbury r evolutionised o ur u nderstanding o f d omestic a rchitecture a nd e liminated t he ' pit-dwelling ' t heory. T he a bove i nventory i n n o w ay r epresents t he f ull a ccount o f I ron A ge n on-hillfort s ettlement i n t he s tudy a rea. A t C old K itchen H ill ( ST 8 33388) a t l east 1 8 c oated f urrowed v essels h ave b een r ecorded ( Nan K ivell 1 925; B arrett 1 980 ). A nother p otentially i mportant f ind f rom t his s ite i s o f a s ocketed a xe w rought i n i ron. T here a re a lso b rief a ccounts o f h aematite p ottery f rom U pton S cudamore ( ST 8 64476) ( Annable 1 963), U pton C ow D own ( ST 8 77496) ( Annable 1 967), a nd M ancombe D own ( ST 8 95471) ( Annable 1 958). S cratched-cordoned b owl f ragments h ave b een f ound a t f our l ocal h illforts. A t W inkelbury ( ST 9 52217), p art o f a ' carinated ' v essel w as f ound w ithin t he r ampart m ake-up ( Pitt-Rivers 1 888, p l C XLV ). F ragments o f b ronze a nd i ron, a nd p re-rampart f eatures, p ossibly r elate t o a p re-enclosure s ettlement t here. A t Y arnbury ( SU 0 35404 ) C unnington r ecovered h aematite c oated s herds f rom t he e xcavation o f t he i nner e nclosure ( Cunnington 1 933). T here i s a lso a s maller n umber o f s herds f rom F igsbury ( SU 1 88338) ( Cunnington 1 925), A shley 's C opse ( SU 2 61349) ( RCHME f orthcoming ), a nd f rom p its b elonging t o a n e xtensive u nenclosed s ettlement p redating t he h illfort a t B attlesbury ( ST 8 98458) ( Chadwick a nd T hompson 1 956). W e c an t entatively a dd t o t his l ist a n umber o f s ites r ecorded o nly b y a erial p hotography. N oteworthy h ere a re t he s ettlement

1 05

F IG . 4

0

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5 00 me tres

H omington D own.

c omplexes a t B oyton ( ST 9 38385), L ord's H ill ( ST 8 70390) ( Fig 2 .6) a nd H omington D own ( SU 1 10268 - S U 1 35270 ) ( Fig 4 ); a s w ell a s t he r ecently d iscovered u nenclosed s ettlement o n S outhmill H ill, A mesbury ( only 2 km f rom B oscombe D own W est) ( Fig 5 ). F rom t his b rief s ummary w e c an s uggest t hat t here i s a t ripartite d ivision i n s ettlement m orphology: 1 M ultiplication o f e nclosure T his o ccurs f requently a nd i s n ot s olely e xplicable i n t erms o f s ettlement s hift. T he m ost c ommonly r epeated p attern i s o f a n e nclosure ( usually n ever m ore t han 2 .9 h a ( 7 a cres)), w ith a s maller a ttached a nnexe. T his i s s een a t L ongbridge D everill C ow D own a nd H ighfield P it, f or e xample. 2 P artially e nclosed s ettlement A s a t S wallowcliffe a nd B oscombe D own W est ' Area R '. 3 U nenclosed s ettlement T his i s c ommon a nd w here e stablished m ay c over l arge a reas. W e m ust v iew t hese m orphological d ivisions a s h aving a n o rganic c haracter. F or e xample, i t i s p ossible t hat a n e nclosure d efined b y a n e phemeral b arrier m ay h ave c ontinued t o b e i nhabited a fter t he b arrier l ost i ts s ignificance. C onversely , w e m ay s ee a n u nenclosed s ettlement s ubsequently e nclosed a s a t L ongbridge D everill C ow D own o r H ighfield P it. T he e xistence o f p artially e nclosed o r u nenclosed c omponents w ithin t he s ettlement s ystem s uggests t hat i n m any i nstances d efence w as n ot o f p rime c oncern. A lternatively , t he c onstruction o f a s ettlement b oundary r elates t o ad ivision i n s pace b etween d iffering a ctivity z ones ( see H ingley 1 984; B owden a nd M cOmish 1 987 f or f uller d iscussion ), f or e xample, b etween a reas o f d omestic u sage a nd a reas o f a gricultural e xploitation o r i ndustrial a reas. S ite s tatus i s n ot e asily d iscernible i n a s tudy o f s ettlement t ypes. A ny a ttempt a t h ierarchicisation m ust s urely f ounder w hen w e r ealise t hat o ur p erceived t ypes o f s ite a re o ften t ransitional i n n ature, i n m any c ases b eing a p alimpsest o f an umber o f o ccupational p hases. Iw ould s uggest t hat t he m ost ' visible' d ivision m ay b e t he d ichotomy b etween p ermanently i nhabited s ites a nd t hose o ccupied o n a

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eß ! J Y-I M ) SOUTH M ILL

H ILL

AMESBURY 0

1 00 t Me tres

F ig 5

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s easonal b asis. I n w est W essex a n a bundance o f s ettlement r emains o n t he c halk d ownland c ontrasts w ith t he i nsubstantial n ature o f s ettlement i n t he r iver v alleys. T his c onsists p redominantly o f p ottery s catters, b urnt f lint a nd s tone. S ome o f t hese, a s a t B ishopstrow F arm , a ssociated w ith s light e nclosing d itches. L ater a nthropogenic f actors h ave i nfluenced o ur l ow l evel o f r ecognition/discovery. H owever, s ettlement e stablished i n t his z one r epresents a uxiliary a ctivity a way f rom p ermanently e xploited a reas. A lternatively , t hey m ay b e p art o f a f ully-fledged t ranshumant c ycle i nvolving b oth ' upland' a nd ' lowland' s ites, a s h as b een n oted e lsewhere f or e xample, a t t he T hames V alley g ravel s ites o f F armoor ( Lambrick a nd R obinson 1 979) a nd A shville ( Parrington 1 978). T he l ower l ying a reas w ould h ave p rovided i mproved p asture d uring s pring a nd s ummer. A ccess t o a f ree f lowing w ater s upply w ith i ts a ssociated f ood r esources a nd t ransport f acilities w ould a lso h ave b een i mportant. I n t his c ontext i t i s s ignificant t hat a n umber o f s ettlement c omplexes a re l ocated a long t he e dge o f t he c halk e scarpment, l ocation h ere m aximising t he e xploitative p otential o f a n umber o f d iffering e nvironments. G enerally s peaking, t he n ature o f e nclosure w hen p resent i s r emarkably u niform. E ncircling d itches a re s hallow ( regularly l m - 2 m i n d epth ) a nd o ften i rregularly d ug a nd m aintained. E ntrances a re u nelaborate g aps i n t he e nclosure c ircuit. I t i s c lear t hat a n a ssessment o f s ite s tatus b ased o n t he n ature o f t he e nclosing b oundary i s f lawed. T he c hronological s equence s uggested b y n on-hillfort s ettlement i s o ne o f l ongevity. Iw ould a rgue t hat t he r ecord, a s i t s tands, p oints t o r elatively u ndisturbed p atterns o f e xistence i n an umber o f c ases. O ur c hronological d efinition i s n ot p recise e nough f or u s t o s tate w hether o r n ot t his e xistence w as c ontinuous. H owever, t he c eramic s equence e vident a t B oscombe D own W est, H ighfield, a nd L ittle W oodbury f or e xample, s uggests l engthy p eriods o f o ccupation, w ith s ites r emaining l argely u nchanged f or s everal c enturies ( Cunliffe 1 984a, t able 9 5; P almer 1 984, t able 1 ). C onversely , a nalysis o f h illforts, t he m ost c onspicuous e nclosed s ettlement c omponent, a ppears t o b e o ne w here m arked c hanges i n s ettlement f ormat a re e xpected. T his i s s tated c learly i n C unliffe's m odel f or D anebury a nd i ts e nvirons ( 1984a; 1 984b ). S ummarised b riefly , t he n umber o f h illforts d ecreases t hrough t ime, w ith e ach s urviving i ndividual b ecoming i ncreasingly e laborately d efended. I t i s s tressed t hat t hese s ites a re t he h igh s tatus r esidential c entres i n as tratified s ystem. T his i s d espite t he a bsence a t D anebury o f a n i solated, h igh s tatus h ouse o r c ompound. F urthermore, t here i s l ittle a mongst t he a rtefact a ssemblage h ere t o s uggest d ifferentiation f rom t he m ajority o f o ther c ontemporary s ites. F inally, t here i s a lso t he s uggestion o f t emporality i n t he l ightw eight a nd p ortable n ature o f t he s take b uilt s tructures a t D anebury ( Cunliffe 1 984a, 5 4; S topford 1 987, 7 2). I t i s c lear, h owever, t hat t here w as m assive c orporate i nvestment i n t he c onstruction o f t he s ettlement b oundary ( an o bvious c ontrast w ith n on-hillfort s ettlement) a nd t hat t he h illfort h ad a l arge p it s torage c apacity. E xcavation o f t he r amparts h as p rovided e vidence o n t he c hronological s equence o f e nclosure a t s ites s uch a s D anebury. W e r emain u nsure o f w hether t his c onstruction w as a n e pisodic p rocess t ypified b y ac oncerted b urst o f a ctivity l eading t o c ompletion, f ollowed b y c enturies o f s tability , o r i f i t w as a c ontinuous ( piecemeal) t ask t aking a s ignificantly g reater l ength o f t ime t o c omplete.

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Much has been written on the function of these sites. However, it is safe to assume that not all will have fulf illed the same role in society (Bowden and McOmish f orthcoming). Perhaps the most important function provided by some was one of central ized communal s torage within an extensive and diverse set tlement sys tem. I n the past too much attention has concentrated on interpreting the role of h ill:forts. Non-h illfort, which comprises the majorit y of sites in the system, and hillfort sett lement t ogether, will provide a more accurate indication of the nature of later prehistoric societ y in Southern Britain. Acknowledgeaents

I should like to thank my colleagues in S alisbury for their construct ive criticism of this paper, in part icular Mark C orney. John Barrett and R ichard Bradley also commented upon an earlier draft. The text has been t yped by Helga Lane. Mark C orney produced F igs 3, 4 and 5. Bibliography

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Bowen, H C 1969 'Ihe Celtic background, in A L F Rivet {ed.) '1fle RaMD Villa in Britain, 1-48. Brailsford, J and Jacksoo, J W 1948 Exr:avations at Little Woodbury, Wiltshire (193839), Part II and Part III. Proc Prehi.st Soc 14, 1-23. Chadwick, SE and '11lanpsoo, MW 1956 Note on an Iroo Age habitatioo. site near Battlesbury Qmq), lfarminster. 1/iltshi.re Archaeol Natur Hist Hag 56, 262-264. Clay, R C C 1924 An Early Iroo Age site oo Fifield Bavant �- 1/iltshire Archaeol Natur Hist Hag 42, 457-496. Clay, R C C 1925 An inhabited site of La Tene I date on swallowcliffe �- Wiltshire Arcbaeol Natur Hist Nag 43, 59-93. Clay, R C C 1927 Supplementary report oo the Early Iroo Age village m SWallowcliffe Down. Wiltshire Archaeol Natur Hi.st Hag 43, 540-547. 109

C oles , JM a nd O rme , BJ1 981 A rchaeology i n t he S omerset L evels 1 980 , i n C oles , JM ( e d ) S omerset L evels P ap n o 7 . C orney , MCf orthcoming t itle ).

Y arnbury C astle - s urvey a nd f ieldwälking ( p rovisional

C unliffe , BW 1 984a D anebury : a n I ron A ge h illfort i n H ampshire , V öls 1 a nd 2 . e xcavations 1 969-1978 . C BA R es R ep 5 2 .

T he

C unliffe , B1 984b I ron A ge W essex : c ontinuity a nd c hange , i n BC unliffe a nd D M iles ( e ds ) A spects o f t he l ren A ge i n C entral S outhern B ritain , 1 2-45 . C unnington , ME1 923 P its i n B attlesbury C amp . W iltshire A rc haeo l N atur K ist N ag 4 2 , 3 68-373 . C unnington , ME1 925 F igsbury R ings . A n a ccount o f e xcavations i n 1 924 . W iltshire A rchaeo l N atur H ist M a g r43 , 4 8-58 . C unnington , ME1 933 E Xcavations i n Y arn :bury C astle C amp 1 932 . W iltshire A rc haeo l N atur H ist M ag 4 6 , 1 98-213 . H arding , DW 1 963 A n e arly I ron A ge s ettlement i n D orset . A nt iqu ity 3 7 , 6 3-4 . H arding , DW 1 974 T he I ren A ge i n L ow land B ritain . L ondon . H äwkes , CFC1 931 H ill f orts . A ntiqu ity 5 , 6 0-111 . H ingley , R1 984 T he a rchaeology o f s ettlement a nd t he s ocial s igni ficance o f s pace . S cot A rehaeol R ev 3 (1 ), 2-27 . H ods o n , FR1 964 C ultural g rouping w ithin t he B ritish p re-Roman I ron A ge . F roc F rehist S oc 3 0 , 9 9-110 . H ogg , A HA 1 979 B ritish h ill-forts . A n i ndex . B r it A rchaeo l R ep 6 2 . J ohnson , De t a l 1 980 T he e xcavation o f ab ell-barrow a t S utton Vey , W ilts . W iltshire A rchaeol A r atur g .e/ T a g r72/73 , 2 9-50 . L ambrick , Ga nd R obins o n , M1 979 I ron A ge a nd R oman r iverside s ettlements a t F armoor , O xfordshire . C BA R es R ep 3 2 . N an K ivell , Rd e C1 925 O b jects f ound d uring e xcavations o n t he R omano-British s ite a t C old K itchen H ill , B rixton-Deverill , 1 924 . W iltshire A rchaeol N atur H ist N ag 4 3 , 1 80-191 , 3 27-332 . P a lmer , R1 984 D anebury a n I ron A ge H illfort i n H ampshire . A n a erial p hotographic i nterpretation o f i ts e nvirons . R OWE Sep S e 2- 6 . P arrington , M1 978 T he e xcavation o f a n I ron A ge s ettlement , B ronze A ge r ing -ditches a nd R oman f eatures a t A shville T rading E sta te , A bingdon ( O xfordshire ) 1 974-76 . C BA R es R ep 2 8 . P itt-Rivers , A LF 1 888 E xc av at ions i n C ranborne C hase , I I , 2 33-287 . R CHME f orthcoming P rehistoric a nd R oman e arthworks i n S . W ilts . R ichardson , KM 1 951 T he e xcavation o f I ron A ge v illages o n B oscombe D own W est . W iltsh ire A rchaeo l N atur H ist M ag 5 4 , 1 23-168 . S mith , RW1 985 E Xcavations a t B ishopstrow F arm a nd W atery L ane n ear W arminster , W ilts . U npublished P h .D T hesis . S tevens , F1 934 T he H ighfield p it d wellings , F isherton , S alisbury , e xcavated N ay 1 866 t o S eptember 1 869 . W iltsh ire A rc haeo l N atur H ist M ag 4 6 , 5 79-624 . S tone , JFS1 936 A n e nclosure o n B oscombe D own E ast . W iltsh ire A rc haeo l N atur H ist M ag 4 7 , 4 66-89 . S tone , JF S1 941 T he D everel-Rimbury s ettlement o n T horny D own , W interbourne G unner , S outh W iltshire . P roc P rehist S oc7 , 14-133 . S topford , J1 987 D anebury : a n a lternative v iew . S cot A rc haeo l R e t 74(2 ), 7 0-75 .

1 10

1 2:

M ULTIPLE D ITCH S YSTEMS A ND L ATE I RON A GE S ETTLEMENT I N C ENTRAL W ESSEX

M ark C orney

T he p urpose o f t his p aper i s t o d raw a ttention t o, a nd p ut f orward a p ossible i nterpretation o f, a g roup o f L ate I ron A ge s ites i n W essex. T he m ajority o f t he s ites t o b e d iscussed a re l argely e xtant a s e arthworks, a nd t hus f orm a n i mportant c omponent o f t he a rchaeological h eritage o f t he c ountry. O Z t he s even s ites t o b e c onsidered, s ix h ave b een s urveyed b y R CHME 1 , a nd t he o pportunity i s t aken h ere t o p ublish s implified v ersions o f t he p lans i n a dvance o f d efinitive p ublication.

h r e t

F ores t H i l l OS i iches ter

•B lagdon Copse

S tock ton • H ang ing L ang ford • C amp

• E bsbury •Hamsh i l l D itches

,ad e r

• Gussage H i l l

H eng is tb ury Head

F ig 1

P rincipal s ites m entioned i n

1 11

t he t ext.

T he s ites u nder d iscussion ( Fig 1 ) a re c haracterised b y t heir a ssociation w ith m ultiple d itch s ystems, t heir l arge e nclosed a reas, t he f inds o f l ate I ron A ge c oins a nd m etalwork, a nd, i n s ome c ases, r ich b urials a nd R oman i mports. W here d iscernible, t he s ites a ppear t o r each t heir g reatest e xtent i n t he c entury p rior t o t he R oman i nvasion o f A D 4 3, w ith m any c ontinuing a s l arge, n ucleated s ettlements w ell i nto t he R oman p eriod. A ll t hese s ites h ave b een o verlooked b y w riters o n t he l ate I ron A ge ( with n otable e xceptions c .f. B radley 1 984, 1 53-4). Y et t hey c learly p lay a n i mportant r ole i n t he a rchaeology o f t he p eriod, a nd d eserve t o b e r ecognised m ore w idely a nd p laced i n ab roader, n ational c ontext.

T HE S ITES B lagdon C opse, D oles W ood - D evil's D itch c omplex T his s ite, l ocated t o t he N orth o f e asterly o f t he s ites t o b e d iscussed, s ubject t o r ecent e xcavation.

( Fig 2 )

m odern A ndover, i s t he m ost a nd t he o nly o ne t o h ave b een

T he c omplex i s c omposed o f a t l east f our e nclosures, a ll s ituated N orth o f t he D evil's D itch , a s ingle l inear d itch d escribing a n a rc t o t he N orth a nd E ast o f A ndover. T wo d etached l engths a re k nown, b roken b y ag ap o f a pproximately 1 .5km. T he n orthern a rc r uns i n a n e astw est d irection c utting a cross a s outh-facing d ip s lope N orth o f t he R iver A nton V alley. T he w est t erminal i s a t t he h ead o f ad ry v alley f rom w hich t he d itch b ears E ast f or 2 .8km , c utting f urther d ry v alleys b efore t urning S outh a nd t erminating. W here s urviving a s a n e arthwork ( most n otably i n D oles W ood ), t he d itch h as a b ank o n b oth s ides. R ecent e xcavations a cross t he f eature h ave f ailed t o p rovide d ecisive d ating e vidence ( M. D acre p ers. c omm.). T he e nclosures a re o n c lay-with-flints, c apping t he c halk. T wo o f t he f eatures s urvive a s e arthworks w ithin d ense w oodland, s o t hick a s t o e ffectively p revent f ull g round s urvey. T hree o f t he e nclosures a re s ub-square o r t rapezoidal i n p lan, e ach e nclosing a n a rea o f a pproximately 1h a ( 2.47 a cres). T he f ourth e nclosure i s o f b anjo t ype ( Perry 1 972) a nd i s a ssociated w ith d itches a nd a f ield s ystem o f u nknown e xtent ( Fig 2 , A ). A s mall a rea o f t he b anjo e ntrance w as e xcavated i n 1 961. T he p ottery r ecovered t hen s uggests t hat t he e nclosure d ates f rom t he l ater I ron A ge ( Stead 1 968). T hirty m etres s outh-east o f t he b anjo i s a s mall, s ub-square b arrow , ( Fig 2 , B ), w hich w as e xcavated i n 1 905 a nd f ound t o c over ar ichly f urnished c remation b urial o f l ate L a T& le d ate ( Dewer 1 929; H awkes a nd D unning 1 930, 3 04-9 ). A f urther s mall m ound a nd s light r ectangular p latform t o t he S outh m ay i ndicate t he p resence o f am ore e xtensive c emetery. O ne o f t he t wo d itches l inked t o t he b anjo e ntrance r uns i n a n orth-east d irection t owards a s ub-square e nclosure s ome 2 50m d istant, ( Fig 2 , C ). T he l atter i s d efined b y as ingle d itch w ith i nternal b ank a nd i ntermittent c ounterscarp , h aving a w ide e ast-facing e ntrance. A f urther d itch , o f u nknown l ength, r uns f rom t he n orthe ast c orner o f t he e nclosure.

1 12

L i B anging L angford C amp a nd H amshill D itches .

D C '

r e .

B lagdon C opse / D oles W ood - D evil's D itch

E xcavation 2 o f a n a rea i nside t he e ntrance h as r evealed a n e xtensive s pread o f m etalling, w hich i n t urn s eals a n umber o f f eatures, o ne o f w hich u pon e xcavation p roved t o b e a s haft s ome 4 m d eep. O n t he b ase o f t he s haft t here w as a h uman i nfant b urial a ssociated w ith t he r emains o f y oung p ig a nd ah orse s kull. T he r emainder o f t he f ill c ontained m uch a nimal b one, l ate I ron A ge p ottery a nd o rganic m aterial. A t t he t op o f t he s haft w ere l arge, c onjoining b ody s herds o f ac ylindrical a mphora i n a f abric t ypical o f t he D ressel 1 f orm , d ated t o t he f irst c entury B C ( Peacock 1 971). W ithin t he m etalling w hich s ealed t he s haft, t here w as a c opper a lloy f ibula o f e arly t o m id f irst c entury A D d ate. S ome 5 m t o t he S outh, t he t op o f a nother l arge f eature w as e xposed, b ut n ot e xcavated. W here e xamined t he e nclosure d itch d isplayed a s harp ' V ' p rofile. T he s ections s howed t hat t he d itch f ill i ncluded l arge q uantities o f p ottery r anging i n d ate f rom t he l ate I ron A ge t o t he s econd c entury A D. F lagons f orm a l arge c omponent o f t his a ssemblage. T he n ature o f t he d eposits i n t he s haft a nd t he u nusually l arge p roportion o f f lagons r epresented i n t he d itch f ill s uggests a n ons ecular f unction. I t i s p roposed t hat t his e nclosure i s m ost l ikely t o b e a ' viereckschanze ' o f l ate I ron A ge d ate. S uch e nclosures a ssociated w ith f unereal a nd r itual a ctivities, a re w ell k nown o n t he m ainland o f E urope - e specially i n t he R hineland a nd G aul ( Decker a nd S collar 1 962, 1 75-8; P iggott 1 965, 2 32-5; R oss 1 967, 1 9-60). T he p resence o f v iereckschanzen o n c ontinental o ppida a nd r elated s ites i s w ell d ocumented ( Collis 1 984, 1 06). A lthough t heir e xistence h as b een l ong s uspected i n B ritain r emarkably f ew h ave b een c onfirmed, p ossible e xamples b eing p resent a t G osbeck's, C amulodunum ( Hull 1 958, 2 59-67) a nd R obin H ood's A rbour, B erks. A t t he l atter s ite a s imilar e nclosure t o t he B lagdon C opse e xample w as d emonstrated t o h ave a m etalled i nterior a nd t o b e o f l ate I ron A ge d ate ( Cotton 1 961). R obin H ood's A rbour m ay a lso b e a ssociated w ith a b roadly c ontemporary d itch s ystem ( Bowden, F ord a nd G affney 1 982). N orth o f t he b anjo i n B lagdon C opse a nd w est o f t he e xcavated e nclosure, a n umber o f i mportant l ate I ron A ge f inds h ave b een m ade b y M r J . P orter. T hese a re:t wo G allo-Belgic g old s taters ( at t ime o f w riting t he t ypes a re u ncertain ), t hree s ilver i ssues o f E paticcu, a c opper a lloy t erret a nd a l ate L a ' nne s cabbard b inding a nd c hape, ( J. P orter a nd M . D acre p ers. c omm.). I n a rable, b eyond t he n orth e dge o f B lagdon C opse, 6 00m n orth-west o f t he b anjo, a erial p hotographs s how s oil m arks o f a s ub-square e nclosure s imilar i n f orm t o t hat w ithin t he C opse ( Fig 2 , D ). A s ingle s outh-facing e ntrance i s c learly v isible. T o t he e ast a nd w est o f t he e nclosure s hort l engths o f d itch a nd b ank c an b e s een e merging f rom t he w ood. N o d atable m aterial i s r ecorded f rom t he s ite, b ut t he m orphological s imilarity t o t he e xample u nder e xcavation s uggests a c omparable d ate a nd p ossible f unction. A f ourth e nclosure s imilar t o t he a bove i s v isible a s as oil m ark 1 .75km s outh-east o f t he b anjo a nd 1 80m n orth o f t he D evil's D itch ( Fig 2 , E ). I t h as a n e ast-facing e ntrance. A s hort l ength o f d itch r uns n orth f rom t he D evil's D itch t o t erminate c lose t o t he s outh-east c orner o f t he e nclosure. A f urther d itch l eaves t he n orth-east c orner

1 15

a nd l inks w ith ap ossible f ifth s quare e nclosure, N o d atable m aterial h as b een r ecorded f rom t he a rea.

1 00m t o t he W est.

T he B lagdon C opse, D oles W ood - D evil's D itch c omplex i s o f g reat i mportance, h aving i n c lose a ssociation a n umber o f c ontemporary f eatures:- a b anjo e nclosure, d itch s ystems, a l ate L a 1 nne b urial a nd a t l east o ne e nclosure o f p robable r itual f unction. T o t his m ust b e a dded t he s tray f inds o f l ate I ron A ge d ate - a ll o f w hich p oint t o a c omplex o f s ome w ealth. N ote s hould a lso b e t aken o f t he d iscovery , 4 km s outh-east o f t he c omplex , o n F inkley D own , A ndover, o f ah oard o f c oins w hich i ncluded A V s taters o f B ritish QA t ype, T incommius a nd V erica ( Haselgrove 1 984, 1 21, 1 25-6).

T he N adder-Wylye R idge c omplex

( Figs 3 ,

4 a nd 5 )

T his d ominant c halk r idge, c apped b y c lay-with-flints, e xtends W est f rom W ilton, W iltshire, f or a d istance o f 2 0km. O n t he c entral a nd e ast p arts o f t he r idge a re f our m ajor n ucleated s ettlements w ith o rigins i n t he l ate I ron A ge. E ach i s d efined b y m ultiple a nd s ingle d itch s ystems, w ith t wo o f t he s ites, S tockton E arthworks a nd H anging L angford C amp , b eing c onnected t o t he G rim's D itch. T he l atter i s a n u ndated m ajor l inear f eature w hich c an b e t raced f or a d istance o f 1 6km a long t he r idge t op. H amshill D itches a nd H anging L angford C amp a re a ssociated w ith b anjo e nclosures, a nd, l ike t he r emaining s ites, S tockton E arthworks a nd E bsbury , d evelop i nto m ajor s ettlements d uring t he R oman p eriod.

H amshill D itches

( Fig 3 ;

B onney a nd M oore,

1 967)

H amshill D itches c overs a n a rea o f 2 5 h a ( 62 a cres). T he s ite i s d efined o n t he W est, S outh, a nd E ast b y am ultiple d itch s ystem , w hich i s p articularly i mpressive o n t he W est. T he e arthworks o verlook t he N adder V alley , o n t he s outh-facing s lope o f t he r idge, a nd t here a re t he r emains o f a n e xtensive f ield s ystem t o t he S outh , W est a nd E ast. T wo e ntrances a re k nown, o n t he S outh-East a nd S outh-West, t he l atter, n ow p loughed o ut, b eing t he m ost c omplex ( Fig 3 , A ). W ithin t he w est p art o f t he s ite i s a 1 .3 h a ( 3.2 a cre) e nclosure w ith a s outh-west f acing e ntrance ( Fig 3 , B ). A p air o f b anjo e nclosures ( Fig 3 , C , D ), s et b ack f rom t he e ast s ide a re i n a n e xceptional s tate o f p reservation. T he f unnel e ntrances a re v ery c learly d efined, a nd t he n orthern e xample ( C ) e xhibits a m arked c amber a nd f lint m etalling. L ate I ron A ge p ottery h as b e9n f ound w ithin t he e nclosure i nterior'. A r ecent g eophysical s urvey 'l o ver t he s outhern b anjo ( D ) s trongly s uggests t hat b oth s ides o f t he e ntrance f unnel w ere s tone r evetted. C asual f inds f rom t he s ettlement i nclude D urotrigian c oins, l ate I ron A ge f ibulae a nd p ottery ( unpub. m aterial i n S alisbury M useum ), i ndicating ad ate f rom t he l ate f irst c entury B C. T he s ite c ontinued t o b e o ccupied t hroughout t he R oman p eriod , a nd w as o f s ufficient i mportance t o b e p rovided w ith a f ormally m ade r oad a pproaching f rom t he E ast a nd c utting t hrough e arlier f ield s ystems.

1 16

H anging L angford C amp

( Fig 3 )

H anging L angford C amp, t he s mallest ( c. 1 6 h a ) i n a rea o f t he r idge t op s ites, c omprises f our e nclosures w ith am ultiple d itched f acade a long i ts e ast s ide. T hree o f t he e nclosures a re c onjoined ( Fig 3 , E , F , G ) a nd o verlook a d ry c ombe, a t t he b ottom o f w hich i s ab anjo e nclosure, k nown l ocally a s C hurch E nd R ing ( Fig 3 , H ). T he l atter i s l inked t o t he u pper p art o f t he s ite b y t wo d itches r unning f rom t he e ast s ide o f t he b anjo e ntrance. A ir p hotographs s how a d itch c urving t o t he W est f rom t he w est s ide o f t he b anjo w hich p robably r an u phill t o j oin w ith a s ingle d itch c ontinuing t he c ourse o f t he m ultiple d itches o n t he r idge t op ( Fig 3 , J ). F rom t he s outhernmost p oint o n t he o uter e nclosure a s ingle d itch r uns s outh f or 1 50m a nd l inks t he s ite t o t he G rim's D itch. K nown a reas o f s ettlement w ithin t he l arger e nclosure t otal 5 .5 h a ( 13.5 a cres). S urface f inds f rom t he s ite i nclude m uch l ate I ron A ge p ottery , f ibulae a nd D urotrigian c oins ( VCH W ilts I , i , p .107; u npub. m aterial i n S alisbury M useum ). O ther m aterial i ndicates t hat o ccupation c ontinues i nto t he R oman p eriod. O ne k ilometre t o t he N orth o f t he s ite i s t he h illfort o f B ilbury R ings. E xcavations ( unpub.) s uggest t hat i t w as o ccupied d uring t he l ate I ron A ge a nd i s c ontemporary w ith o ccupation a t H anging L angford C amp ( WAN 5 8, 4 69-9; 5 9, 1 86-7; 6 0, 1 35).

E bsbury

( Fig 4 )

E bsbury i s l ocated 2 km N orth o f H amshill D itches a nd 4 k m e ast o f H anging L angford C amp a nd c overs a n a rea o f 2 9 h a ( 71 a cres) o n a s pur o verlooking t he W ylye V alley. I t i s t he l east u nderstood s ite o n t he R idge. V ery l arge a nd e xtensive m ultiple d itch s ystems d efine i t t o t he N orth, E ast a nd S outh a nd t here a re e ntrances t o t he N orth a nd E ast. T he i nterior i s c overed w ith d ense, m ature w oodland. A t l east t hree e nclosures a re k nown w ithin t he d itch s ystems ( Fig 4 , A , B , C ). T he s quare e nclosure j ust w ithin t he e ast e ntrance ( Fig 4 , A ), i s w orthy o f n ote, b eing s imilar i n f orm t o t hose i n B lagdon C opse ( above p .112). O nly a f ew s urface f inds a re k nown, l ate I ron A ge p ottery ( VCH W ilts I , i , u ntil t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod.

S tockton e arthworks

b ut 7 4 ).

t his d oes i nclude s ome O ccupation c ontinues

( Fig 5 )

S tockton l ies 4 km w est o f H anging L angford C amp o verlooking t he W ylye V alley , a nd i s t he l argest ( 32 h a; 7 9 a cres) a nd t he w esternmost o f t he R idge s ites. E nclosed o n t he n orth, e ast a nd w est s ides b y i nterrupted, m ultiple a nd s ingle d itch s ystems, i t i s l inked t o t he G rims's D itch l inear. T o t he S outh o f t he m ain a rea o f s ettlement t here i s a c ircular e nclosure w ith t wo e ntrances, e ncompassing a n a rea o f 1 .2 h a ( 3 a cres), ( Fig 5 , A ). R ecent o f 3 .75 h a

s urvey b y R CHME h as r evealed a s econd u nivallate e nclosure ( 9 a cres), p artly o verlain b y R omano-British s ettlement

1 17

5

. . . . . .

" s tm t. . 1 1 1 1 1 1

F ig 4

E bsbury .

1 18

F ig 5

S tockton E arthworks.

1 19

r emains ( Fig 5 , B ). E xcavations i n t he w est a rea o f t he s ite i n 1 923 r ecovered m uch l ate I ron A ge m aterial i ncluding D urotrigian c oins, f ibulae a nd p ottery ( Nan K ivell, 1 926). M any q uestions a re p osed b y t he N adder-Wylye r idge c omplex. T he d ensity o f l ate I ron A ge n ucleated s ettlements o f t his f orm i s u nparalleled i n W essex a nd i t i s f ar f rom c lear w hether t hey s hould b e c onsidered a s i ndividual s ites o r c omponents o f a l arger, i ntegrated p attern. I n t his c ontext n ote s hould b e t aken o f t he o ppidum a t C amulodunum , w here a c ombination o f d y 4s a nd n atural f eatures d efines a n a rea o f t welve s quare m iles ( 20 k m4) ( Hawkes a nd H ull 1 947, 4 5). F inds s how t hat t he R idge s ites a re c ontemporary a nd p art o f t he D urotrigian t ribal g rouping. C unliffe h as n oted t hat t he c eramic a nd n umismatic t rends i n t he r egion s uggest a m ajor c ultural b oundary i n t he v icinity o f t he W ylye V alley b y t he f irst c entury B C, ( Cunliffe 1 973, 4 34). T his ' boundary ' i s s aid t o b e t he i nterface b etween t he D urotriges, D obunni a nd p ossibly t he A trebates. S uch a p eripheral l ocation m ay a ccount f or t he s ize, s tatus a nd f unction o f t he N adder-Wylye R idge C omplex.

T he G ussage H ill c omplex

( Fig 6 ;

R CHM 1 975,

2 4-5)

T his u nexcavated c omplex o f e nclosures, s ettlements a nd d itch s ystems l ies o n a c halk r idge b etween t he R iver A llen a nd G ussage B rook i n C ranborne C hase, n orth D orset a nd c overs a t l east 5 0 h a ( 123 a cres). A ctivity i s c entred a round t wo p aired b anjo c omplexes a t e ither e nd o f t he r idge ( Fig 6 , A , B ). R elated t o t hese a re a c omplex s eries o f m ultiple d itch s ystems. O n T hickthorn D own t o t he S outh , a re f urther d itch s ystems ( RCHM 1 975, 2 5, 3 9; H arding 1 960 ) w hich, i f r elated ( on m orphological g rounds t his i s h ighly p robable ), w ould d efine a n a rea i n e xcess o f 7 00 h a ( Bowen 1 979; B arrett a nd C orney i n p ress). A s quare d itched b arrow , o f l ate I ron A ge d ate a nd p robably r obbed i n a ntiquity ( White 1 970 ) l ies i mmediately a djacent t o t he n orth e ntrance t hrough t he m ultiple d itches ( Fig 6 , C ). T his m onument i mmediately i nvites c omparison w ith t he b arrow c lose t o t he b anjo e nclosure i n B lagdon C opse ( above p .112). G rouped a round t he s outh-east b anjo p air ( Fig 6 , B ), a re f urther e nclosures, t wo o f w hich a re m ost l ikely t o b e o f b anjo t ype ( Fig 6 , D , E ). I mmediately t o t he N orth i s a s quare e nclosure ( Fig 6 , F ). F rom i ts v icinity a re a n umber o f s urface f inds o f l ater I ron A ge a nd R omano-British d ate ( Corney i n p reparation ). D espite t he l ack o f e xcavation o n G ussage H ill, t hanks t o t he e xtensive f ield w alking a ctivities o f M r M artin G reen t here i s a n i mpressive g roup o f l ate I ron A ge m aterial f rom t he c omplex. T his a ssemblage i ncludes t hirteen D urotrigian c oins, L a T äne Ia nd I II f ibulae, a c opper a lloy t erret, a n i ron h orse b it o f l ate I ron A ge f orm , a r im s herd o f D ressel I A a mphora , a nd a h andle f rom a P ascaul I a mphora ( Barrett a nd C orney i n p ress; C orney i n p reparation ).

1 20

0 t

F ig 6

5 00 me tres

G ussage H ill C omplex . 1 21

M r G reen's e xperienced e ye h as r ecovered f urther l ate I ron A ge m etalwork, p ottery a nd D urotrigian c oins f rom t he v alley f loor s outh o f t he r idge ( Corney i n p reparation). I n c ommon w ith t he s ites o n t he N adder-Wylye R idge, o ccupation c ontinues i nto t he R oman p eriod. R oman m ilitary b allista h eads a re k nown f rom t he s ettlements a t R otherley , 6 km t o t he N orth-West, a nd W oodcutts, 4 km t o t he N orthW est, ( Pitt-Rivers 1 887, p late X XIX , n o. 2 2; 1 888, p late C IV , n os. 1 2 a nd 1 3). A f urther p ossible b allista h ead h as b een r ecovered b y M r G reen f rom G ussage H ill. T hese f inds h int a t e arly R oman m ilitary a ctivity i n t he a rea a nd, b y i nference, t he p resence o f a n i mportant c entre w orthy o f a ttack. I n a ddition, t wo k ilometres s outh-west o f G ussage H ill i s t he e xcavated s ettlement o f G ussage A ll S aints, w ith e vidence o f m etal w orking a nd a ctivity c overing t he m id t o l ate I ron A ge ( Wainwright 1 979). I n a 5 km r adius o f G ussage H ill a re a f urther f ive e nclosures o f b anjo t ype. S urface f inds f rom t hree o f t he l atter i ncludes D urotrigian c oins, a nd, i n o ne c ase, a n A rmorican c oin o f t he C oriosolites. L ate I ron A ge m etalwork a nd p ottery i s a lso p resent ( Barrett a nd C orney i n p ress). O f t he s ix s ites d escribed s o f ar, f our a re a ssociated w ith b anjo e nclosures i n e ither s ingle o r m ultiple f orm a nd a t G ussage H ill t here m ay b e s ix e xamples o f t his d istinctive e nclosure t ype. S uch a n a ssociation m ust b e o f s ignificance. T hree o f t hese s ites a re i n t he C ranborne C hase/South W iltshire a rea a nd f orm a d iscrete g roup o f b anjo e nclosures, d etached f rom t he l arger, H ampshire g roup b y ab reak i n d istribution o f s ome 2 0km ( Barrett a nd C orney i n p ress, f ig 6 .6). I t i s p roposed t hat, o n t he b asis o f a ssociation w ith m ultiple d itch s ystems, l ate I ron A ge c oinage, a nd, i n s ome c ases, t he p resence o f b arrow b urials a nd R oman i mports s uch a s a mphorae t hat b anjo e nclosures m ay f requently b e o f h igher s tatus a nd f unction t han h itherto s uspected. T his v iew i s a t v ariance w ith p revious i nterpretations ( Perry 1 972; H ingley 1 984, 7 3-4, 8 0), a nd i t i s p ossible t hat m orphologically s imilar s ites n eed n ot a ll h ave a c ommon f unction. T he C ranborne C hase/South W iltshire g roup, w hen p loughed o ut a nd v iewed f rom t he a ir, c ontain m any i nternal f eatures, a f act w hich m akes t heir p roposed f unction a s s tock e nclosures d ifficult t o a ccept ( RCHM 1 975, p late 6 2). T he m arked c amber a nd m etalling w hich s urvives i n t he e ntrance o f o ne o f t he H amshill D itches b anjos ( Fig 3 , C ) a lso a rgues h eavily a gainst u se a s s tock r elated u nits. A f urther p ossibility i s t hat b anjo e nclosures, w hen o ccurring i n p airs r eflect p art o f t he d ual n ature o f l ate C eltic s ociety r ecognised b y s ome w riters ( Nash 1 976, 1 25-9; C unliffe 1 978, 8 0). T his d uality i s a lso r eflected o n m any I ron A ge c oin t ypes - e .g. t he m utually e xclusive d istribution o f c ontemporary i ssues o f t he D obunni - C ORIO a nd B ODVOC; a nd d ual n amed i ssues o f t he C ORIELTAUVI:- A VNE ST, E SVP-ASV , e tc. ( for f ull l istings s ee A llen 1 961, a pp. I I). D urotrigian c oinage i s, w ith t wo r ecorded e xceptions, u ninscribed. I t i s p roposed t hat t he p airing o f b anjo e nclosures i n C ranborne C hase/South W iltshire m ay b e a p hysical m anifestation o f t he d uality e xpressed o n c oins i n o ther t ribal a reas ( for a f uller d iscussion o f t his a spect s ee B arrett a nd C orney i n p ress).

1 22

T he i ncidence o f b anjo e nclosures a nd R oman v illas o r l arge s ettlements o n t he s ame o r a djacent s ites m ay a lso b e s ignificant ( Perry 1 972, 7 2). I n t his c ontext t he d ual n ature o f m any v illa p lans i n G aul a nd B ritain i s n oteworthy ( Smith 1 978). T his a ssociation m ay h int a t c ontinuity o f l and t enure s urviving t he R oman c onquest. I n o ther p arts o f W essex i t h as b een s hown t hat m edieval b oundaries c ould h ave P agan S axon, R oman o r e ven I ron A ge o rigins ( Bonney 1 972). A lthough b eyond t he s cope o f t his p aper, t he p roblem c ould c ertainly r epay m ore i ntensive s tudy. T o c omplete t he e xamination o f l arge e arthwork c omplexes a ttention i s n ow d rawn t o t he K ennet V alley i n n orth W essex.

F orest H ill - S avernake c omplex

( Fig 7 )

O n a c halk e scarpment, c apped b y c lay-with-flints, S outh o f t he R iver K ennet a nd o verlooking t he s ite o f t he R oman s mall t own o f C UNETIO M ildenhall, W ilts, a re a s eries o f s tanding e arthworks a nd p loughed o ut f eatures. T he m ost p rominent o f t hese i s a l arge e nclosure o f s ome 1 1 h a ( 27 a cres) o n F orest H ill ( Fig 7 , A ). F rom t his e nclosure a b ank a nd d itch r uns d own t he s teep e scarpment t o t he v alley f loor ( Fig 7 , B ), w here a p ossible l ate I ron A ge i nhumation c emetery i s k nown ( Cunliffe 1 973, 4 37; V CH W ilts I , i , 8 7). T o t he S outh a nd W est, w ithin S avernake F orest a re l engths o f d itch, m any o f w hich a re d ifficult t o i nterpret b ecause o f d amage o r d estruction b y l ater t racks a nd m edieval w oodland m anagement. T he w hole a rea w ould b enefit f rom d etailed s urvey. A ssociated g enerally w ith t hese s ites i s a r emarkable s eries o f f inds a nd o ther r emains. T hese i nclude a L a i nne I II b urial w ith a b ronze b ound w ooden v at o r b ucket, w hich w as d iscovered i n 1 807 l km t o t he W est u nder m odern M arlborough, ( VCH W ilts I , i , 8 5); ( Fig 7 C ). A h oard o f a pproximately o ne h undred c oins w as f ound i n t he n ineteenth c entury d uring c lay e xtraction w ork, b eyond t he w est e dge o f S avernake F orest, o n S alisbury H ill, ( Allen 1 961, 2 91, n o. 2 3). I ncluded i n t he h oard w ere i ssues o f E paticcu a nd a d enarius o f T iberius. E xamination o f a ir p hotographs o f t he f indspot h as r evealed p art o f a p olygonal e nclosure a nd l ength o f d itch a nd b ank ( Fig 7 , D ), w hile t o t he W est i s a s ubstantial R oman b uilding. T he g eneral a rea a round F orest H ill - S avernake h as a lso p roduced l arge n umbers o f I ron A ge c oins ( VCH W ilts I , i , 8 5, 1 04; A llen 1 961; H aselgrove 1 978, 1 984). I ssues r epresented i nclude t ypes o f t he D obunni, D urotriges, E paticcu, C unobelin a nd C aratacus. T he c ombination o f a ll t he a bove e vidence a nd t he s trong p ossibility o f a C laudian f ort a t C UNETIO o nce a gain p oints t o am ajor l ate I ron A ge c entre i n t he i mmediate v icinity.

D iscussion a nd C onclusions I n t he a bove t ext a n umber o f l arge c omplexes, w ith m any c ommon e lements, h ave b een i dentified. A ll h ave d itch s ystems w hich a re f requently m ultiple. F our a re a ssociated w ith t he d istinctive b anjo

1 23

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e nclosure,

t hese o ften o ccurring a s p aired u nits.

D espite t he f act t hat e xcavation h as b een v ery l imited o n a ll t hese s ites, s urface f inds s how a h igh d egree o f s imilarity - m ost n otably , l ate I ron A ge c oinage, m etalwork a nd p ottery. T wo s ites, B lagdon C opse a nd G ussage H ill, h ave l ate I ron A ge b arrow b urials a nd t he b ucket b urial f rom M arlborough m ust b elong t o t he s ame g eneral t radition ( Whimster 1 981, 3 71, 3 90, 3 93). T he r ich b arrow b urial f rom L exden, C olchester ( Hawkes a nd D unning 1 930, 2 61-2), i mmediately i nvites c omparison w ith a ll t hese s ites. G ussage H ill a nd B lagdon C opse a lso h ave R oman i mports o f t he f irst c entury B C p resent a nd e specially n oteworthy a re t he D ressel I a mphorae. T he e xample f rom G ussage H ill i s o f I A f orm ( as w ere t he e xamples f rom G ussage A ll S aints, W ainwright 1 979, 7 2) a nd p robably r epresents l inks w ith t he p orts a t H engistbury H ead a nd P oole H arbour a rea ( Cunliffe 1 987; S unter a nd W oodward 1 987). A t B lagdon C opse t he e xcavated s ub-square e nclosure h as a ll t he i ndications o f b elonging t o a c lass o f h ighly s pecialised f unereal a nd r itual m onument - t he v iereckschanze . T wo o ther e xamples m ay b e p resent w ithin t he c omplex ( above, p .112) a nd t he u nexcavated s quare e nclosures a t E bsbury a nd G ussage H ill m ay b e f urther p ossible e xamples. T his e vidence s uggests a h igh s tatus p resence o n a ll t hese s ites d uring t he c entury b efore t he R oman i nvasion o f A D 4 3. T he o bvious p arallels f or s uch s ites a re t he o ppida o f s outh-east B ritain, w ith t heir e xtensive a nd o ften c omplex d yke s ystems. T hese s ites, o f w hich C olchester/Camulodunum, P rae W ood, S t. A lbans/ V erulamium a nd S ilchester/Calleva a re t he b est k nown , h ave l ong b een a ccepted a s m ajor p olitical a nd e conomic c entres ( Cunliffe 1 976, 1 356 1). T hey a nd r elated s ites a ppear t o d ominate t he c ontrol o f i mported R oman g oods i nto s outh-east E ngland b y t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury B C, t hough G ussage H ill, w ith f inds o f D ressel I A/Pascaul I a mphorae m ay p re-date t he s outh-east o ppida ( the D ressel I A f orm , o f e arly t o m id f irst c entury B C d ate, i s r are i n t he s outh-east, h owever s ee T row 1 988, 1 56-7). T he l ate I ron A ge p olitical s ituation i n t he r egion i s c learly c omplex , a nd w as d oubtless s ubject t o v ariation i n t he c entury p rior t o t he R oman i nvasion. E ven s o c ertain c onclusions m ay b e d rawn T he N adder-Wylye c omplex w as i n a ll t ribal b oundary ( above, p .117), a nd i t

l ikelihood c lose t o am ajor i s p robable t hat t he F orest

H ill/Savernake c omplex w as s imilarly p ositioned c lose t o t he b oundary o f t he A trebates a nd t he D obunni. R obinson ( 1977, 5 -20), h as i dentified a s eries o f s ilver, a nd p ossibly g old , c oins d isplaying s tylistic a ffinities w ith r egular D obunnic i ssues a nd t heir d istribution a ppears t o g roup a round c entral W iltshire. T he F orest H ill/Savernake c omplex i s t he o nly l arge l ate I ron A ge s ite k nown i n t he a rea; t he p ossibility t hat t he ' sub-Dobunnic' c oin s eries r elates t o t his c entre s hould b e g iven s erious c onsideration. I t i s a rgued e lsewhere t hat G ussage H ill m ay b e t he c entre o f a ' sub-Durotrigian ' p olitical e ntity ( Barrett a nd C orney i n p ress). A s

a lready n oted ,

t here i s v ery l ittle o verlap i n D urotrigian a nd

1 25

A trebatic c oin d istributions, a lthough t he f ormer m ay h ave m aintained c loser l inks w ith t he D obunni, ( Cunliffe 1 987, 3 45). T he N adder-Wylye R idge c omplex , h aving c lear D urotrigian a ffinities, m ay b e p art o f t his s ystem , b eing c lose t o t he p resumed s outhern l imit o f D obunnic o r s ub-Dobunnic t erritory. I n t his c ontext t he I ron A ge a nd R oman t emple s ite a t C old K itchen H ill, W ilts, a lso i n t he W ylye V alley m ay b e s ignificant, ( Hodder 1 977, 3 20-42, F ig 5 8). T he B lagdon C opse c omplex i s, i n a ll l ikelihood, w ithin t he A trebatic s phere ( the i ncidence o f c oins o f E pitaccu a t B lagdon C opse a nd t he F orest H ill - S avernake c omplex i s a lso o f s ome i nterest). F orest H ill - S avernake i s p robably a n ' oppidum ' t ype s ite, w hilst B lagdon C opse, w ith i ts a pparently m ore s pecialised f unction r equires f urther i nvestigation b efore i ts s tatus c an b e a ssessed. D espite t he l ack o f l arge-scale e xcavation o n t he s ites d iscussed, s urface f inds i ndicate l ittle a ctivity b efore t he f irst c entury B C. I f t his p roves t o b e t he c ase t he a ppearance o f s uch s ites c oincides w ith t he a bandonment o f an umber o f W essex h illforts ( Cunliffe 1 984, 3 4). T he f orm a nd c haracter o f t he m ultiple e arthworks w hich d efine t he s ites, t heir c omplex e ntrances a nd t he o ccurrence o f l ate I ron A ge c oinage, m etalwork a nd R oman i mports a re d irectly c omparable w ith t he o ppida o f s outh-east E ngland. U ntil n ow o nly B agendon, G los. h as b een p roven a s am ajor l ate I ron A ge c entre o f ' oppidum ' t ype o utside t he s outh-east z one ( Clifford 1 961) a nd a f urther p ossible s ite o f s imilar c haracter h as b een p ostulated a round t he O xfordshire G rim 's D itch ( Cunliffe 1 978, 9 5, 2 86). T he g roup d iscussed i n t his p aper n ow f ills a b lank i n t he l ate I ron A ge s ettlement p attern o f W essex , a nd i t i s p roposed t hat ' oppida' t ype s ites a re n ot c onfined t o s outh-east E ngland. T 4is p aper m akes n o c laims t o b e a n e xhaustive s tudy o f s uch s ites ' ', a nd m uch f ieldwork r emains t o b e d one. T he s ites d iscussed f orm a n i mportant g roup a nd c learly m ark am ajor d evelopment i n t he p ost-hillfort l andscape o f W essex. T hey d eserve w ider r ecognition a nd i nvestigation. Ih ope t hat t his p aper w ill a ct a s a s timulus t o f urther s tudy a nd g ive o ur c olleague N orman Q uinnell f ood f or t hought d uring a l ong a nd f ruitful r etirement.

N otes 1 .

2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

G ussage H ill ( RCHM 1 975 a nd f orthcoming ). H amshill D itches, E bsbury , H anging L angford C amp, S tockton E arthworks a nd B lagdon C opse. T he f ollowing i s b ased o n i nformation k indly s upplied b y M r M . D acre, t o w hom I a m i ndebted. B y R CHME s taff, d uring f ieldwork, 1 989. D iagnostic f orms s how s trong D urotrigian t raits. B y M essrs J . G ater a nd C . G affney , o n b ehalf o f R CHME. O ther s ites w orthy o f c onsideration w ithin a b roader s cheme i nclude C asterley C amp, W ilts a nd t he F roxfield E ntrenchments, H ampshire t o n ame b ut t wo.

1 26

A cknowledgements T he i deas p resented i n t his p aper h ave d eveloped d uring f ieldwork i n S outh W iltshire a nd Ih ave b enefitted g reatly f rom d iscussions w ith m any f riends a nd c olleagues. I n p articular Iw ould l ike t o t hank D avid M cOmish, M ark B owden, M artin G reen a nd R ichard B radley. C hris T aylor a nd R ichard B radley k indly c ommented o n a n e arlier d raft o f t his p aper. A ny e rrors, o f f act o r j udgement, a re t he a uthor's s ole r esponsibility. Iw ould a lso l ike t o e xpress t hanks t o t he S ecretary a nd C ommissioners o f R CHME f or a llowing t he u se o f C ommission m aterial i n a dvance o f f ull p ublication. T hanks a re d ue t o M r P . S pencer f or i llustrations a re t he w ork o f t he a uthor.

r eprographic w ork.

T he

B ibliography A llen , DF 1 961 T he o rigins o f c oinage i n B ritain : ar eappraisal , i n S SF rere ( e d ) P rob lems o f t he I ron A ge i n S outhern B ritain . U hiv o f L ondon O cc P ap 1 , L ondon . B arrett , JCa nd C on ley , MCi n p ress T he L ate B ronze A ge a nd t he L ate I ron A ge , i n J C B arrett , R J B radley a nd M G reen L andscape , h i onuments a nd S öciety : t he F rehistoryof C ranborne C hase . C ambridge U hiv P ress . B onney , DJ 1 972 E arly b oundaries i n W essex , i n PJF owler ( e d ) A rc haeo logy a nd t he L andscape , 1 68-86 . B onney , DJ a nd M oore , CN 1 967 H amshill D itches , B arford S t M artin . W iltshire A rc haeo l A k a g r62 , 18-21 . B owden , M , F ord , Sa nd G affney , V1 982 E xcavation o f a n e arthwork o n M aidenhead T hicket 1 982 . B erk sh ire A rc haeo l j r71 , 2 1-31 . B owen , HC 1 979 G ussage i n i ts s etting , i n GJW ainwright , G U ssageAdl S aints , a n I ron A g e S ett lement i n D orset . D orset . B radley , RJ 1 984 T he S ocial F ound at io ns o f P rehistor ic B r itain . L ongmans , L ondon . C lifford , EM 1 961 fte nd on , aB e lg ic O pp idum . W . H e ffer , C ambridge . C ollis , J1 984 O ppidä , E arliest 7 bwa s N orth o f t he A lps . S heffield U niv . C orney , MCi n p reparation I ron A ge a nd R c r a ana -Br it ish O bjects f rom G ussag e H ill , D orset . C o tton , MA 1 961 R obin H ood 's A rbour : a nd r ectilinear e nclosures i n B erkshire . B erksh ire A rc haeo l j r59 , 1 -35 . C unliffe , BW 1 973 T he L ate P re-Roman I ron A ge , c1 00 B C -A D 4 3 . V ie W ilts , v ol 1 , p t 2 , 4 26-38 . O x ford U niversity P ress . C unliffe , BW 1 976 T he o rigins o f u rbanisation i n B ritain , i n C unliffe a nd R ow ley ( e ds ) O ppida i n B arbarian &rope . B AR S upp S er 1. B AR , O x ford . C unliffe , BW 1 978 I ro n A ge C ommun it ies i n B ritain , r ev e d . R outledge & K egan P aul , L ondon . C unliffe , BW 1 984 I ron A ge W essex : c ontinuity a nd c hange , i n BW C unliffe a nd D M iles ( e ds ) A spec ts o f t he I ron A ge i n C entral S outhern B r itain . O UCA m onograph n o .2 , O xford . C unliffe , BW 1 987 H eng istbu ry H ead , D orset , V o l . 1 . T he P rehistor ic a nd Ra ß an S ettlement , 3 500 B C -AD 5 00 . O UCA m onograPh n o . 1 3 , O xford . D ecker , KV a nd S collar , I1 962 I ron A ge s quare e nclosures i n t he R hineland . A nt iqu ityY MVI(143 ), 1 75-78 . D ever , H SL 1 929 T he f ield a rchaeology o f D o les . P roc H ampshire F ld C lub : K , 18-26 . H arding , DW 1 960 E xcavati o n o f m ultiple b anks , T hickthorn D own , D orset . P roc D orset N atur H ist Archaeo l S oc 8 1 . H aselgrove , C1 978 S upp le mentar y G äzetteer o f F ind S pots o f C e lt ic C oins i n B ritain , 1 977 : U hiv L ondon O dd P ap 1a . H aselgrove , C1 984 C eltic c oins f ound i n B ritain 1 977-82 . B u ll I hst A rchaeol

1 27

L o r i c h a n 2 0 , 1 07-54 . H awkes , CFCa nd D unning , GC 1 930 T he B elgae o f B ritain a nd G aul . A rchaeo l J L XXXVII , 1 50-335 . H äwkes , CFCa nd H ull , MR1 947 C amulodunum . S oc A nt ig R es R ep X IV . S ociety o f A ntiquaries , L ondon . H ingley , R1 984 T ow ards s ocial a nalysis i n a rchaeology : C eltic s ociety i n t he I ron A ge o f t he U pper T hames V alley ( 4 00 - 0 B C ), i n BW C unliffe a nd D M iles ( e ds ) A spects o f t he I ron A ge i n C entral S outhern B r itain . C UCA m onograph n o . 2 , O xford . H odder , I1 977 S ame n ew d irections i n t he s patial a nalysis o f a rchaeological d ata a t t he r egional s cale ( m acro ), i n DL C larke ( e d ) S pat ial A rchaeology . A cademic P ress , L ondon . H üll , MR1 958 R oman C olchester . S oc A ntiq R es R ep X X . S ociety o f A n tiquaries , L ondon . N an K ivell , Rd e C1 926 O b jects f ound d uring e xcavations o n t he R omano-British s ite a t S tockton E arthworks . W iltshire A rchaeo l AWXLIII , 3 89-94 . N ash , D1 976 T he g rowth o f u rban s ociety i n F rance , i n BWC unliffe a nd T R ow ley ( e ds ) C ppida i n B arbarian E urope , B AR S upp s er 1. B AR , O xford . P erry , BT1 972 E Xcavations a t B ramdean , H ampshire , 1 965 a nd 1 966 , a nd a d iscussion o f s imilar s ites i n s outhern E ngland . P roc H ampshire F ld C lub 2 9 , 4 1-78 . P iggo tt , S1 965 A ncient Drupe . E dinburgh U hiv P ress . P eacock , DP S1 971 R oman a mphorae i n p re-Roman B ritain , i n J esson a nd H ill ( e ds ) T he I ron A g e a nd I ts hllf orts , 1 61-88 . S outhampton U niv . P itt-Rivers , A HL r -F 1 887 E xc av at ions i n C ranborne C hase , V o l I . P rivately p rinted . P itt-Rivers , A HL rF 1 888 E xc av ations i n C ranborne C hase , V o l 1 1 P rivately p rinted . R obinson , PH 1 977 Al ocal I ron A ge c oinage i n s ilver a nd p erhaps g old i n W iltshire . B rit A Umis jXLVII , 5 -20 . R CHM 1 975 A n I nv ento ry o f H istor ic al M onument s i n t he C o unty o f D orset . V o l 5 , E ast Deset . H MSO . R oss , A1 967 P ag an C e lt ic B ritain . R outledge , L ondon . S mith , JT1 978 V illas a s ak ey t o s ocial s tructure , i n MT odd ( e d ) S tudies i n t he R omano -Brit ish V i lla . L eicester Mi l " P ress . S tead , IA 1 968 E Xcavations i n B lagdon C opse , H urstbourne T arran t , H ampshire 1 961 . P roc H ampshire F ld C lubXXIII , 8 1-9 . S unter , Na nd W oodward , PJ1 987 R omano-Br itish I ndustries i n P urb eck . D orset N atur H ist A rchaeol S oc m onograph n o . 6 . T tow , SD 1 988 B raughing-Puckeridge i n t he l ate p re-Roman I ron A ge , i n TW P otter a nd S DT tow P uckeridge-Braugh ing , H ertfordshire , t he E rmine S treet e xcavations 1 9712 . H ertfordshire A r chaeol 1 0 . W ainwright , GJ 1 979 G ussage A ll S aints : a n I ron A ge S ett lement i n D brset . H MSO . W himster , R1 981 B urial p ractices i n I ron A ge B ritain . B AR 9 0 . B AR , O xford . W hite , DA 1 970 E Xcavation o f a n I ron A ge r ound b arrow n ear H andley , D orset , 1 969 . A ntiq j70 .

1 28

1 3: C ASTLE D ITCH H ILLFORT, E DDISBURY, C HESHIRE , R ECONSIDERED: T HE E XCAVATIONS O F 1 935-38 I N T HE L IGHT O F R ECENT F IELD S URVEY

W .D. C ocroft, P . E verson , H . J ecock a nd W .R. W ilson-North

T he r elationship b etween t he f indings o f w ell-observed n one xcavational f ield s urvey a nd e xcavations o n t he s ame s ite i s n ot a lways s traightforward, n or a re t he r esults a lways m utually i ntelligible. T his i s p articularly t he c ase w ith e arly e xcavations, a nd c an b e m ade m ore d ifficult w hen t he c onclusions o f t hose e xcavations h ave b een w idely a ccepted a nd b ecome i ngrained i n t he s econdary l iterature. Y et i t h as a lways b een t he r ole o f f ield s urvey i n t he h ands o f p ractitioners s uch a s N orman Q uinnell t o r eturn t o t he a ctual f ield e vidence t o r ecord s ystematically w hat i s o n t he g round, h ighlighting a nomalies o r m isconceptions i n p revious a ccounts o f t he s ite i n t he p rocess. I t i s a s a n e xample o f t his f acet o f N orman's s kill t hat t he p resent p aper i s o ffered.

I ntroduction E arly i n 1 987 t he h illfort o f C astle D itch, E ddisbury , w as s urveyed a t 1 :1000 b y t he K eele o ffice o f R CHME. P revious d iscussion o f t he s ite i n t he a rchaeological l iterature h ad b een l argely d etermined b y t he e vidence f rom e xcavations c arried o ut h ere i n t he 1 930s. H owever, t he s urvey r esulted i n ag reatly i mproved u nderstanding o f t his i mportant s ite a nd s everal o f t he o bservations m ade s eem t o c onflict w ith p ublished v iews o f t he e xcavator. R esearch i s c ontinuing i n a n e ffort t o r e-evaluate t he e xcavation r eport, a lthough t o d ate n either t he f inds n or a ny s urviving o riginal s ite d ocumentation h as b een t raced w hich m ight a id t he t ask. I t m ay b e d oubted a nyway w hether i t w ill b e p ossible t o a rrive a t a ny m eaningful r einterpretation o f t he e xcavated d ata b y t his m eans a lone. A s B arrett ( 1987) h as a rgued, a ny r e-appraisal b ased s olely o n t he i nternal e vidence o f t he r eport c an b e n o m ore t han a n e xercise i n s ource c riticism , i t b eing i mpossible n ow t o k now w hat t he e xcavator f ailed e ither t o r ecognize o r r ecord. H owever, b y u sing t he e vidence o f t he f ield s urvey w e m ay b egin t o e xamine t he v alidity o f s ome o f t he a ssumptions m ade b y t he e xcavator w hich i nfluenced h ow h e c hose t o i nterpret h is d ata i n t he f inal r eport. T his i s d one h ere f or j ust o ne a spect o f t he r eport w hich h as r eceived u niversal a cceptance a mongst a ll s ubsequent c ommentators - n amely t he g rounds o n w hich t he h illfort h as b een s een a s b eing t wo-phased, g rowing t o i ts p resent s ize o ut o f a s maller f ort w hose w estern c ircuit i s d efined b y t he m odern f ield w all n ow d ividing t he i nterior i n t wo.

S ite d escription a nd h istory C astle D itch h illfort i s c entred a t S J 5 53693, a nd i s s ituated t owards o ne s ide o f E ddisbury H ill, p art o f t he r idge o f T riassic S andstone r unning n orth-south t hrough t he c entre o f C heshire. I ts d efences a re i n p art d estroyed b y q uarrying, p articularly a long t he S outh a nd E ast,

1 29

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1 30

f rom R CHKE

a lthough e lsewhere t win r amparts s urvive r easonably i ntact, e nough t o i ndicate t hat t he o riginal i nternal a rea o f t he f ort i s l ikely t o h ave b een i n t he o rder o f 3 .5 h a. W ith t he p ossible e xception, t herefore, o f t he r ecently d iscovered f ort l ying b eneath B eeston C astle s ome 1 0km t o t he S outh, a bout w hich l ittle i s y et k nown ( Hough 1 984 ), E ddisbury r anks a s t he l argest a nd t he m ost d eveloped o f t he e ight I ron A ge h illforts o ccupying t he C heshire r idge. T he s ite i s d ocumented a s b eing r eused i n t he e arly t enth c entury w hen i n A D 9 14 A ethelflaeda i ncluded E ddisbury w ithin h er d eveloping n etwork o f d efended b urhs t o p rotect M ercia a gainst t he t hreat o f t he I rish S ea V ikings. N othing f urther i s r ecorded a bout t he b urh b ut i t m ay o nly h ave b een s hort-lived: c ertainly n o m int w as e stablished h ere. I t h as e ven b een s uggested t hat i t w as s uperseded b y t hat b uilt a t R uncorn t he f ollowing y ear, 9 15 ( Bu'lock 1 972, 6 1). A fter t he N orman C onquest, E ddisbury w as h eld b y t he E arls o f C hester. W ith t he a fforestation o f t he r oyal F orest o f D elamere, E ddisbury b ecame b oth i ts a dministrative c entre a nd a r oyal h unting l odge. I n t he t welfth c entury i n a r eorganisation o f t he h undredal p attern i t a lso b ecame t he c entre o f t he h undred t hereafter n amed E ddisbury a nd t he l ocation o f t he h undred's m eetings. I t w as s ituated w ithin ' The O ld P ale', a n a ncient e nclosed t ract o f t he f orest e xtending t o 9 0 h a, w hich s urvived t he g radual r eduction o f t he f orest t o t he b oundaries o f t he l ater p arish o f D elamere F orest u ntil a fter p arliamentary e nclosure i n 1 819. T he m odern o wnership o f t he s ite i s s hared, b ut i s i mportant f or h ow t he s ite h as c ome t o b e i nterpreted: M errick's H ill a nd t he f ield i mmediately t o t he W est b elong t o E ddisbury H ill F arm w hile t he s maller f ield l ies w ith O ld P ale. I t i s c onceivable t hat s uch a l and d ivision r eflects t he d ecline o f t he s ite f rom a n a dministrative c entre i nto a t enanted f arm: c ertainly t he f ield w all d ividing t he f ort i nterior i s s hown o n a ll t he e xtensive s eries o f e state m aps o f t he e arly n ineteenth c entury. B ecause o f t he i mportance o f t he s ite t hrough m any p eriods t herefore, i t w as s elected f or e xcavation b etween 1 935 a nd 1 938 b y P rofessor W .J. V arley , t hen o f L iverpool U niversity 's D epartment o f G eography. I n h is r eport, p ublished a fter i nterruptions o ccasioned b y t he s econd w orld w ar, V arley ( 1950 ) a rgued f or s even p hases o f o ccupation a nd d evelopment a t E ddisbury. T hese m ay b e s ummarized a s f ollows: P hase 1 P hase 2 P hase 3

P hase 4 P hase 5 P hase 6 a P hase 6 b P hase 7

P re-rampart p alisaded e nclosure C onstruction o f a n o riginal u nivallate h illfort a gainst t he e ast s ide o f E ddisbury H ill L ater I ron A ge e xtension W est o f t he o riginal h illfort, c ontemporary w ith t he c onstruction o f a n o uter b ank a round t he w hole s ite R oman s lighting o f t he p rehistoric d efences D ark a ge r eoccupation a s a n o pen s ite E arly-mid S axon o ccupation e videnced b y ah ut o f t he 6 th-8th c enturies i n t he i nfilled w estern d itch R e-erection o f t he d efences a s t he b urh o f A ethelflaeda, A D 9 14 M edieval a nd m odern o ccupation a ssociated w ith t he s ite's u se a s t he a dministrative f ocus f or t he F orest o f D elamere.

1 31

S ubsequent a uthors h ave c onfined t heir c omments m ostly t o p rehistoric a spects o f t he r eport, s uggesting v ariations t o p recise f orm a nd s equence o f V arley 's p hases 2 a nd 3 ( Cotton 1 954, 2 ; F orde-Johnstone 1 962, 4 0-42; C hallis a nd H arding 1 975, 4 4-5; 1 987, 1 10-11). A ll, h owever, a ccept i n s ome f orm V arley 's c laim a n e arly e astern n ucleus, l ater e xtended.

t he t he 6 1V CH f or

T he e xcavations T he v ery n umber o f a lternative s equences t hat h ave b een s uggested u tilizing V arley 's o riginal d ata i s p erhaps i n i tself i ndicative o f t he p roblems i nvolved i n u sing h is r eport. V arley p resented m uch o f h is e vidence i n t he f orm o f a n e xtended e ssay w ith m inimal u se o f p lan a nd s ection e xcept t o c onvey t he a ctual s tratigraphical o r p lan r elationships u pon w hich h is g ross a rguments r ested. T he q uality o f t he d iagrams t oo - i n p articular t he p lans - l eaves m uch t o b e d esired: t hese a re h ighly g eneralized a nd s elective i n w hat t hey s how a nd ( perhaps m ore i mportantly ) i n w hat t hey o mit. I n a ddition, h e p ublished n o r eport o f t he e xcavated p ottery o r o ther f inds. T hus, w ithout t he o riginal m aterial, t he c laims m ade f or i t c annot n ow b e c hecked. V arley s elected f our a reas a t E ddisbury f or e xcavation, b ut i t i s t he e vidence o f o nly o ne o f t hese - a rea 2 - t hat l ed h im t o s uggest t hat t he h illfort h ad e xpanded f rom a n e arly u nivallate e nclosure t o t he s ize a nd s trength w e s ee t oday. A rea 2 w as s ited t o i nvestigate a p oint o n t he n orthern d efences w here t he r amparts a ppeared t o p ull i n s lightly ( a o n F ig 1 ), a nd V arley s tates t hat p rior t o e xcavation h e c onsidered t wo p ossible e xplanations f or t his, s uch c hanges b eing ' usually a ssociated e ither w ith e ntrances, o r j unctions o f t wo s ets o f d efences b uilt a t s eparate t imes' ( 1950, 2 8). T he p ublished a ccount o f t he s ummarized a s f ollows ( 1950, 2 3-29, h ere r eproduced a s F ig 2 ):

e xcavation f igs 8 a nd

o f a rea 2 m ay b e 9 ; V arley 's f ig 8 i s

T he o uter d itch w as c ontinuous a cross t he w hole w idth o f t he e xcavated t rench, a nd a t t he w est e nd w as c ontemporary w ith t he o uter r ampart. T he r ampart i tself, h owever, w as t wo-phased, c omprising a n e arlier l ength t o t he E ast a butted b y a l ater e xtension W est. T his p hasing i n t he o uter r ampart w as m irrored b y t he i nner w hich o riginally t urned t hrough n early 9 0° t o d isappear i nto t he s outh b aulk o f t he e xcavated a rea, a lthough i t t oo w as l ater e xtended W est, t he n ew r ampart a butting o nto t he f ace o f t he f ormer t urn. T he i nner d itch o riginally e nded o n t he t urn b ut w as a lso l ater e xtended W est w ith t he n ew r amparts, b ut w ith a 5 m g ap l eft b etween t he t wo d itch l engths. F rom t he p lan t he e vidence f or t he i nturn o f t he i nner r ampart a nd i ts a buttal b y a nother c oming f rom t he W est i ndeed a ppears i ndisputable. V arley i nterpreted t his a s t he j oin b etween a p rimary s mall e astern h illfort a nd a l ater w estern e xtension d ismissing h is e arlier a lternative t heory o n t he g rounds t hat t he o uter d itch ' sweeps s traight a cross t he p oint a t w hich t here s hould h ave b een a g ap i n i t i f t his h ad b een a n e ntrance' ( 1950, 2 8). H owever, l ater o n t he s ame p age h e s eems t o c ontradict t his b y s aying ' the o riginal o uter r ampart

1 32

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C hitty , LF 1 949 S ubsidiary c astle s ites w est o f S hrewäbury w ith s chedule a nd m ap . T rans S hropshir e A rchaeo l S oc53(1 ), 8 3-93 . C olvin , HM 1 976 T he H isto ry o f t he K ing 's W orks . H MSO , C ambridge . D arvill , T1 988 E xcavations o n t he s ite o f t he E arly N orman C astle a t G loucester 1 983-84 . M ed iev al A rchaeo l 3 2 , 1 -50 . D omesd ay B ook , D orset . 1 973 . P hillimore , C hichester . G ood , R1 966 T he O ld R oads o f D orset . H or ace G . C ommin L td ., B ournemouth . H u tchins , J1 863 T he H istory a nd A ntiqu it ies o f D orset . J ohn B owyer N ichols & S ons , W estminster . J ope , EM a nd T hrelfall , R I1 959 T he t welfth c entury c astle a t A scot D oilly , O x fordshire . A nt iq J39 , 2 19-74 . P oole , AL1 955 F ra n D a lesday B ook t o M agna C arta . C larendon P ress , O x ford . P otter , KR1 955 G esta S tephand . N elson M edieval T exts , L ondon . R enn , DF1 959 M ottes : ac lassification . A nt iqu ity 3 , 1 06-12 . R enn , DF 1 973 A brman C ast les i n B r itain . J ohn B aker P ublishers L td , L ondon . R CHME 1 952 W e st D orset . H MSO , L ondon . R CHME 1 970 S outh R ae D o rset . H MSO , L ondon . V CH I 1 908 h istoryof D orset . C onstable , L ondon .

1 71

1 7:

E ARTHWORK C ASTLES A ND S ETTLEMENT A T H AMSTEAD M ARSHALL, B ERKSHIRE

D .J. B onney a nd C .J. D unn

D uring M ay 1 986 R CHME u ndertook t he r ecording o f t he e arthworks, w hich i nclude t he r emains o f t wo m otte a nd b ailey c astles, w ithin t he g arden o f N orth L odge, H amstead M arshall, B erkshire ( SU 4 22669) ( Fig 2 ). T hey l ie o n l and t hat h ad f ormerly b elonged t o t he C raven e state a nd w hich w as a t t hat t ime i n p rocess o f s ub-division a nd s ale. T he c astles a re s cheduled m onuments a nd a s a c onsequence o f t he c hanges t aking p lace E nglish H eritage a nd t he D epartment o f P lanning, B erkshire C ounty C ouncil r equested R CHME t o m ake a l arge-scale s urvey o f t he e arthworks. T he s urvey h as s hown t hat t he r emains w ithin a nd a djoining t he g arden a t N orth L odge a re m ore v aried a nd e xtensive t han w as o nce r ecognised. T he m ore w esterly c astle m ound, f ormerly b elieved t o e xist i n i solation, i s n ow s een t o h ave a n e xtensive b ailey o n t he w est s ide a nd a p ossible s econd, s maller ( earlier?) b ailey o n t he n orth s ide. T he s urvey h as a lso c onfirmed t he p resence o f f ishponds i n t he n arrow , m arshy r e-entrant b etween t he c astle m ounds a nd, i mmediately e East o f t he c hurch, h as r evealed t he h itherto u nrecognised r emains o f p art o f t he f ormer v illage o f H amstead M arshall; t he p resent v illage l ies s ome 1 .5km t o t he s outh ( Fig 1 ). O n t he e ast s ide o f t he g arden a re t he r emains o f t he f ormer m edieval d eer p ark e nclosing s ome 1 09ha ( 270 a cres) o f t he n orth-east c orner o f t his p arish a nd m uch o f w hose c ircuit i s s till t raceable a s ab ank a nd o uter d itch. W ithin t he p ark, l km e ast o f t he c hurch, o n ap rominent s pur o verlooking t he r iver a re t he r emains o f a t hird e arthwork c astle, c learly u nfinished: t his w as s urveyed d uring t he s pring o f 1 989 ( Fig 3 ). T he t hree c astle m ounds, w hich f or l ong w ere t hought t o b e t he r emains o f l arge r ound b arrows, w ere d escribed a nd d iscussed i n s ome d etail n early s ixty y ears a go b y J .N.L. M yres ( 1932) w hose n umbering h as b een r etained i n t his p aper. M uch o f h is d iscussion i s a s v alid n ow a s i t w as t hen a nd d oes n ot r equire r eiteration i n d etail h ere. H owever, i n t he a bsence o f e xcavation a nd o f u nequivocal d ocumentary i nformation, M yres w as u nable t o o ffer m ore t han a t entative e xplanation f or t his s ingular c oncentration o f e arthwork c astles w ithin t he c onfines o f o ne p arish a nd v iii. T oday w e c an s till o nly s peculate a s t o t heir p recise p urpose, s tructural s equence a nd d ate b ut ab rief r econsideration o f t he p roblem i s w arranted b y t he n ew i nformation b rought t o l ight i n t he r ecent s urvey. H ere i t i s i nstructive t o l ook a t H amstead M arshall i n m ore g eneral t opographical t erms. I t i s o ne o f a s eries o f s ettlements s ited a long t he s outh s ide o f t he v alley o f t he R iver K ennet b etween H ungerford a nd N ewbury. T he p lace-name O E h an istede ' homestead ' ( Gelling 1 974, 2 99), w hich f irst o ccurs i n D omesday B ook, s uggests a m odest o rigin f or t he e arly s ettlement a nd e state. T he p arish t o w hich i t g ives i ts n ame i s a r elatively s mall o ne l ying e ntirely s outh o f t he r iver a nd p robably c arved f rom t he m uch l arger p arish o f i ts

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1 000 METRES Con tours a re i n me tres

F ig 1

E arthworks a nd o ther r emains a t H amstead M arshall.

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m other c hurch, K intbury , o n t he w est ( VCH B erks I V , 1 83). T he o nly o ther e arly s ettlement n ame w ithin t he p arish a ppears t o b e t hat n ow c orrupted t o I rish H ill, t he e arlier f orms o f w hich s uggest t hat i t i s d erived f rom O E e a, h rycg ' ridge b y t he r iver' ( Gelling 1 974, 2 99), a d escription t hat w ell s uits i t. I t i s p robably t o b e e quated w ith t he o ne-hide D omesday v ill o f E brige w hich t ogether w ith H amstead c omprised t he t otal h oldings o f H ugolin t he S teersman i n B erkshire. T he l ack o f s ubsequent m edieval r eferences a nd n ame f orms f or I rish H ill s uggests t hat i ts l ands b ecame m erged w ith t hose o f H amstead M arshall t o f orm a s ingle e state. A c omparison o f t he D omesday e ntry f or H amstead M arshall w ith t hose f or s urrounding v ills s uggests n othing t o d istinguish i t f rom i ts n eighbours e ither i n t erms o f r ecorded p opulation, v alues o r o ther a ttributes. T here i s n o m ention o f a c astle, t hough c astles w ere n ot o f p rimary c oncern t o D omesday B ook, n or i s t here a n i ncrease i n t he v alue o f t he v iii b etween 1 066 a nd 1 086, w hich i n s ome i nstances a ppears t o b e a ssociated w ith t he p resence o f a c astle. T he s iting o f t he c hurch, s ettlement a nd c astles w ithin t he p arish i s, h owever, o f s ome i nterest. T he p arish l ies a t ap oint w here t he c lays, s ands a nd g ravels o f t he T hames B asin b egin t o o verlie t he c halk o utcrop o f n orth-east W essex; m uch o f i t i s h eavy c lay a nd p oorly d rained, i n p articular t he s outhern v alley s ide o f t he K ennet w hich i s f urrowed b y t he n umerous s prings w hich b reak o ut u pon i t. T he d riest a reas a re t hose o n t he h igher g round a bove t he v alley w here d eposits o f P lateau G ravel o verlie t he c lays a nd i t i s s ignificant t hat t he c hurch a nd v illage r emains a t H amstead M arshall o ccupy s uch a n a rea. I rish H ill, t oo, i s s imilarly c apped. B y c ontrast t he t wo c astles ( 2, 3 ) a re s ited o n t he p oorly d rained l and o f t he v alley s lope a nd c learly r espond t o a d ifferent n eed. T oday t he c hurch s tands l argely i n i solation. T hough m uch a ltered i n t he s eventeenth a nd n ineteenth c enturies ( Clarke a nd C olvin 1 952-3, 8 8) i ts e arly d ate i s a ttested b y a t welfth c entury d oorway. A djacent t o t he c hurchyard o n t he e ast, i n t he c orner o f N orth L odge g arden ( SU 4 2086676), t he 1 986 s urvey r ecorded s light e arthworks, c omprising l ow b anks a nd s carps, e ssentially t he r emains o f a s mall d eserted s ettlement, a lthough g arden r emains o f l ater d ate m ay a lso b e p resent. S herds o f m edieval p ottery w ere o bserved o n t he s urface a t t he e ast e nd. T he e arthworks c ontinue, m uch d egraded, s outh o f t he g arden w all a nd t erminate a gainst a s hallow e ast-west h ollow w ay. T here s eems l ittle r eason t o d oubt t hat t he v illage w as m oved t o i ts p resent l ocation, o n h eavy w et c lay n ear t he m argin o f t he p arish, b ecause o f t he s ubstantial r emodelling a nd e nlargement o f t he p rincipal r esidence a nd i ts g ardens o n t he p lateau t op s outh-west o f t he c hurch. W ork h ad b een c arried o n i ntermittently s ince 1 590 b ut r eached a p eak i n t he y ears b etween 1 660 a nd 1 690. A K ip e ngraving o f c . 1 709 ( VCH B erks I V , o pp. p .180) s hows a n e laborate f ormal l ayout o f w alled p arterres a nd a venues w hich i mpinge o n t he s outh s ide o f t he c hurchyard a nd w hich m ust l argely h ave b een r esponsible f or o bliterati ng m uch o f t he r emains o f t he v illage. T he h ouse w as d estroyed b y f ire i n 1 718 a nd t oday i ts s ite i s m arked b y a n e xtensive h ollow. A n umber o f m assive g ate p iers a nd l engths o f b rick w alling a re a ll t hat i s l eft s tanding o f t he g ardens b ut a ir p hotographs ( NAR S U 4 166/5/ 2 016-20 ) s till s how a s s oil m arks m uch o f t he d etailed l ayout a s

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d epicted b y K ip. I t w as p ossibly d uring t he s eventeenth c entury t hat t he a bandoned c astle e arthworks o n t he v alley s ide b elow t he h ouse a nd f ormal g ardens w ere i ncorporated i nto a w ilderness g arden. C ertainly t he r amp w hich c rosses t he d itch a nd l eads u p t he s outh s ide o f t he m otte o f ( 3 ) d oes n ot f it s ensibly w ith i ts u se a s a c astle, b ecause i t l ies o utside t he b ailey(s), a nd s uggests r ather i ts r e-use a s ap rospect m ound. C astle e arthworks w ere f requently i ncorporated i nto g arden l ayouts, s ome i n a f ormal c ontext, a s a t M arlborough ( Wilts) a nd D unham M assey ( Cheshire); o thers i n a w ilderness g arden a s, f or e xample, a t D ownton ( Wilts), w here t he r emains o f t he l arge r ing motte w ere l andscaped a nd t aken i nto t he e arly e ighteenth c entury g arden o f t he h ouse k nown a s T he M oot ( RCHME f iles). D escription C astles ( 2 ) a nd ( 3 ) l ie v ery c lose t ogether, t heir c entres o nly 1 15m a part, b elow t he c hurch a nd f ormer v illage o n t he p oorly d rained c lays a nd s ands w hich h ere o utcrop o n t he v alley s ide ( Fig 2 ). T hey o ccupy l ow s purs g iving w ide v iews o ver t he v alley o f t he K ennet a nd o verlooking w hat w as p robably a n e arly c rossing p oint o f t he r iver. C astle ( 2 ) ( SU 4 2206683) i s t he s maller, a nd l ies s outh-east o f i ts c ompanion ( 3 ) a t t he n orth e nd o f a n arrow r ib o f l and f lanked o n e ither s ide b y l ower m arshy g round. T he m otte i s 4 .7m h igh, h as a m aximum d iameter o f 5 0m a nd i ts t op i s i rregular f rom d isturbance. I t i s s urrounded b y ad itch w hich o n t he s outh-west r eaches a m aximum d epth o f a bout 2 m. O n t he n orth-east t he d itch s eparates t he c astle m ound f rom a s quarish b ailey , o rientated n orth-east t o s outh-west, a nd m easuring 5 0m a cross i nternally. T he p erimeter o f t he b ailey i s d efined b y ab ank w ith a p rominent o uter s carp. T he m otte i s o ffset s lightly f rom t he b ailey w ith t he r esult t hat o n t he s outh-east t he o uter f ace o f t he b ailey b ank t urns s harply t o e nd a gainst t he m otte d itch; t here i s a l ow m ound i n t he a ngle s o f ormed. A lthough t he n orth-east e nd o f t he b ailey h as s uffered s ome d amage, a s hallow l inear h ollow , w hich i s a lso p resent o n t he n orth-west, m ay b e a n i nternal q uarry s coop f or t he b ank. M yres ( 1932, 1 18) s uggested t hat o utside t he c astle o n t he e ast ' a w ider B ailey ' m ight b e r epresented b y e arthworks l ying w ithin H amstead P ark a nd l abelled ' Park P ale' b y t he O rdnance S urvey. T hey d o n ot, h owever, a ppear t o m ake a p hysical c onnection w ith e ither t he c astle o r t he p ale a nd a re m ore l ikely t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he f ormal a pproach t o t he l ate s eventeenth c entury m ansion. F ishponds ( Fig 2 ) A t t he h ead o f t he n arrow m arshy r e-entrant b etween t he t wo c astles i s a s pring-fed, r ectangular p ond ( SU 4 2136683) m easuring 6 9m b y 2 0m b y 1 .5m d eep. N orth o f t his t he a rea h as b een m uch d isturbed b ut a s econd r ectangular h ollow , 3 2m b y 1 4m b y 0 .5m d eep, m ay b e t he s ite o f a s econd p ond. S tew p onds a t H amstead M arshall a re m entioned i n 1 230 a nd 1 275-6 a re s aid t o h ave b een d estroyed ( VCH B erks I V , 1 82) b ut i t i s u nclear w hether t hey a djoined t he c astle e arthworks o r l ay e lsewhere. T he O S i st e dition m ap o f 1 817 s hows a s tring o f p onds a long t he s mall s tream i nside t he p ark, p redecessors o f t he l arger p onds w hich e xist t oday. T he c lose p roximity o f t he p onds t o t he c astles n eed n ot, h owever, i mply c ontemporaneity.

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possi bl e

bail e y

S ite o f f o rmer b u i ld ings N o r th L odge

C as t le 2

S t Ma ry 's C hu rch

Ga te p ie rs

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F ig 2

T he E arthworks i n N orth L odge G arden.

C astle ( 3) ( SU 4 2126691), t o t he n orth-west, h as a s teep-sided m otte a lmost c ircular i n p lan , 6 .8m h igh a nd 6 2m i n d iameter. I t i s s urrounded i n p art b y aw ide d itch , 2 .7m d eep , w ith a c ounterscarp b ank o n t he s outh-east. T he t op i s a pproached b y ar amp w hich c rosses t he d itch o n ac auseway a nd f ollows a s lightly c urved c ourse u p t he s outh s ide o f t he m ound. T he f lattish s ummit h as a l ow b ank n ear i ts n orth-west e dge. O n t he n orth-west a nd n orth-east t he m otte i s f lanked b y t wo p rominent, e longated m ounds w hich M yres ( 1932, 1 20 ) s uggested w ere c onnected w ith t he c ontrol o f t raffic u sing t he r oad w hich b orders t he m otte o n t he n orth a nd w est, b ut i t c an n ow b e s hown t hat t his r oad c uts t hrough t he w estern b ailey . T he m ounds m ay b e t he e nds o f ac ounterscarp b ank d estroyed d uring t he c onstruction o f t he r oad b ut t hey a lso a ppear t o l ine u p w ith a l ow c urving s carp n orth o f t he r oad , p ossibly t he r emains o f as mall n orthern b ailey.

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A l arge, w ell-defined b ailey i s p resent o n t he w est s ide o f t he m otte. A f lattened b ank l eaves t he o uter l ip o f t he d itch a nd s trikes s outh-west f or a pproximately 4 5m b efore c hanging d irection. I t i s c ut b y s carps a ssociated w ith N orth L odge g arden w all a nd b y t he p resent r oad b ut i t r eappears o n t he s ame a lignment i n t he a djacent p asture f ield. T o t his f ield a ccess w as d enied a nd m easured s urvey t herefore i mpossible; a s ketch p lan, u tilising a ir p hotographs a nd g round o bservations f rom t he p ublic h ighway , i s i ncluded o n t he e arthwork d rawing ( Fig 2 ). I n t he f ield t he b ank h as a p rominent o uter s carp, a veraging 1 .5m t o 2 m i n h eight, w hich e ncloses a s lightly d omed, r oughly r ectangular a rea 0 .65ha ( 1.6 a cres) i n e xtent. T he b ank t ermi nates n ear t he m otte o n t he n orth-west w here i t w as c ut t hrough d uring t he c onstruction o f t he r oad. P latforms a nd h ollows o n t he s ummit a nd n orth s lope o f t he b ailey p robably r elate t o s ubstantial f ormer b uildings - p erhaps t he r emains o f t he t hirteenth c entury h ouse. T he s outh e nd o f t he b ailey i s d ivided i nto t wo u nequal p arts b y an orth t o s outh s carp w hich f aces w est. T he m otte l ies t o o ne s ide o f t his b ailey , n ear i ts e ast c orner, a n a rrangement w hich m ay m ean t hat t hey a re n ot c ontemporary i n c onstruction. I f t he c astle o riginally h ad a s mall b ailey o n t he n orth t hen i t i s l ikely t hat t he w est b ailey w as e ither a r eplacement o r a n a ddition. C astle ( 1) l ies i n t he n orth-east c orner o f t he p arish s ome 8 00m e ast-south-east o f ( 2 ), a t t he n orth e nd o f ap rominent g ravel-capped s pur ( SU 4 2986661). I t c omprises a n u nfinished m otte w ith n o t race o f ab ailey ( Fig 3 ). T he m ound, w hich i s c ircular i n p lan a nd o f s imilar s ize t o t hat o f C astle ( 3 ), s tands t o am aximum h eight o f 7 m a bove t he d itch b ottom o n t he f inished ( north-west) s ide, w here i t i s a t i ts s teepest. I t d eclines i n h eight s outhwards a nd o n t he s outh-east a nd e ast t here i s n o m ound a s s uch, o nly t he m arking o ut b ank f or i ts b ase. T he s urrounding d itch h as b een f ully d ug o nly o n t he n orth-west s ide w here i t i s u p t o 2 .75m d eep; e lsewhere i t i s s hallower a nd p arts o f i t a re u ncut o n t he n orth-east. I t i s p ossible t o s ee h ow t he m ound w as b eing c onstructed. M aterial f rom t he s urrounding d itch w as t aken i nto t he i nterior t hrough t he g ap l eft i n t he d itch o n t he n orth a nd d umped o n a nd w ithin t he m arking-out b ank t o f ill i n a nd r aise t he m ound. T he w ork w as c learly a bandoned b efore t he e astern h alf w as f inished b ut d espite t his t he m otte i s a n i mpressive s ight, e specially w hen v iewed f rom t he s ide f acing t he o ther t wo c astles. D iscussion T hree a lternative e xplanations h ave b een s uggested f or t he p resence o f t wo o r m ore c astles c lose t ogether: t hat t hey a re t he p roduct o f s eparate o wnership, o f a c hange o f s ite, o r o f s iege w arfare ( Cathcart K ing 1 983, x xix , x xx ). T o t ake f irst t he t wo c ompleted c astles ( 2 , 3 ) a t H amstead M arshall, t heir c lose p roximity h ardly s uggests o r a llows t hat t hey w ere i n s eparate o wnership a nd t here i s n o e vidence w hatsoever t hat t he m anor w as e ver d ivided. T here a re d ifficulties, t oo, i n s eeing o ne c astle a s a s iegework f or t he o ther. C astle ( 2 ) i s w eakly d efended o n t he s outhern, u phill s ide a nd i ts b ailey i s o verlooked b y t he m otte o f ( 3 ) s o i f s iege w ere t he p urpose t hen o ne w ould e xpect ( 2 ) t o b e t he b esieged c astle. B ut a gain t heir e xtreme c loseness - a s l ittle a s 4 0m a t t heir n earest p oint a nd n o m ore t han 1 15m b etween t he c entres o f t he m ounds - m akes s uch a n e xplanation

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°

_

. .. . .

1 00 METRES

F ig 3

M E R , 9 1 ,m ,

C astle 1 , R amstead M arshall.

d ifficult t o a ccept. R enn ( 1959, 1 10) h as s uggested t hat i n t he h eyd ay o f t he e arthwork c astle ' a s iegework c ould b e t hrown u p w ith e ase a t a ny d istance o ver ( say ) 1 50 y ards [ 137m ] f rom t he d efenders' a nd f rom a r ange o f e xamples c oncluded t hat 2 00-300 y ards ( 183m-274m ) w as t he o ptimum. H e a lso c oncludes t hat m ost s iegeworks c omprised a s imple m ound w ithout a b ailey. O n t hese c riteria C astles ( 2 ) a nd ( 3 ) a re n ot g ood c andidates f or a c astle a nd s iegework. T he t hird p ossibility i s t hat o ne c astle i s a r eplacement f or t he o ther, p resumably t he l arger a nd m ore h eavily d efended ( 3 ) r eplacing t he s maller ( 2 ). T he m otte a nd b ailey o f C astle ( 2 ) a re o f m odest p roportions b oth i n p lan a nd i n e levation a nd i ncapable o f s traightf orward e nlargement b ecause o f t he c onstricted n ature o f t he s ite. T hey a re r eadily o verlooked b y h igher g round o n t he s outh a nd e ast a nd t he b ailey , i n p articular, i s o verlooked b y t he m otte o f ( 3 ). C astle ( 3 ) w ith i ts a ltogether m ore s ubstantial m otte, t races o f ap ossible b ailey o n t he n orth a nd a l arge, w ell-sited b ailey o n t he w est d oes s upport t he v iew t hat i t i s t he l ater o f t he t wo. T he p latforms a nd s carps w ithin t he w estern b ailey s uggest t hat i t m ay h ave c ontinued i n u se i nto t he t hirteenth c entury a nd b eyond a s t he s ite o f t he l ater m anor h ouse ( see b elow ). T he s iting o f C astles ( 2 ) a nd ( 3 ), w ell d own t he v alley s ide f rom t he c hurch a nd v illage, s uggests t hat t heir b uilders w ere m uch c oncerned w ith t he c ontrol o f m ovement a long a nd a cross t he v alley.

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T he p resent r oad w hich c rosses t he b road, m arshy v alley f loor s outhw ards f rom M arsh B enham i s v ery p robably o n t he l ine o f a n o ld r iver c rossing. O riginally i t a scended t he v alley s ide o n a l ine i mmediately e ast o f C astle ( 2 ) b efore c urving w estwards t owards t he v illage. A t s ome d ate u nknown, b ut p ossibly a ssociated w ith t he e xtension a nd r eorganisation o f t he g ardens i n t he s eventeenth c entury , t he r oad w as d iverted w estward a fter c rossing t he r iver t o t ake i t r ound t he t wo m ottes a nd t hen u p t o t he c hurch. T his r ealignment s evered t he m otte o f C astle ( 3 ) f rom i ts b ailey(s) a nd f urther c onfused i nterpretation o f t he s ite. T he u nfinished t hird c astle, ( 1 ), o ccupies t he s trongest n atural s ite o f t he t hree. O n t he w est s ide, f acing t he o ther t wo c astles, i t i s o f i mposing p roportions a nd f rom i ts s ummit g ood v iews ( now i mpeded b y t rees) w ould h ave b een h ad o f t hem. T he i dea t hat C astle ( 1 ) i s a n i ncomplete s iegework, r ather t han a n u nfinished a ttempt t o r e-site a n e xisting ' manorial' c astle, i s i n s ome m easure r einforced b y i ts p eripheral l ocation w ithin t he m anor, w ell a way f rom t he c hurch a nd v illage. A s w ith s o m any e arthwork c astles t here a re n o d irect d ocumentary r eferences t o t hose a t H amstead M arshall. A fter i ts e ntry i n D omesday B ook H amstead n ext a ppears i n 1 218 w hen W illiam M arshal, e arl M arshal a nd p rotector o f t he y oung k ing H enry I II, w itnessed L etters P atent g iven f rom t here ( VCH B erks I V , 1 79). T his i s t he f irst r ecorded a ssociation o f t he M arshal f amily w ith t he m anor a nd p arish t o w hich t hey g ave t heir n ame, t hough w hen t hey a cquired i t i s n ot k nown. S ince, h owever, p ossession o f t he m anor a ppears t o h ave b een l inked t o t he r oyal o ffice o f m arshal - i n t he f ourteenth c entury t hose w ho h eld t he o ffice c laimed H amstead M arshall a s t heir c hief m anor - i t r aises t he p ossibility t hat t he M arshal f amily h ad h eld t he m anor f or s ome c onsiderable t ime b efore 1 218, p erhaps f or t he b etter p art o f a c entury. S ubsequent d ocumentary r eferences t o H amstead M arshall m ake n o m ention o f c astles o r o f f ortifications. I n 1 232 R ichard M arshal, s econd s on o f W illiam , e ntertained t he k ing t here b ut i n t he f ollowing y ear f orfeited h is l ands a nd o ffice t hrough r ebellion, a nd t he S heriff o f B erkshire w as o rdered t o l evel h is ' houses a nd g ardens' a t H amstead. A fter R ichard's d eath i n 1 234 h is b rother, G ilbert, m ade h is p eace w ith t he k ing a nd w as s oon r estored t o h is p roperty a nd o ffice. B etween 1 235 a nd 1 241 h e c arried o ut am ajor r ebuilding p rogramme ( VCH B erks I V , 1 80; M yres 1 932, 1 23-4 ). I t i s t o t his p eriod t hat M yres i s i nclined t o a ssign t he d ismantl ing o f C astle ( 2 ) a nd i ts r eplacement b y C astle ( 3 ) o n t he g rounds t hat ' there i s n o d irect e vidence f or d estruction a nd r e-building s uch a s m ight a ccount f or t he s upersession o f o ne m otte s ite b y a nother e xcept i n t he y ears 1 233-41' ( Myres 1 932, 1 24). T his i s u ndeniably t rue b ut t he d ocuments m ake n o m ention o f a c astle o r f ortifications. M yres a ccepts t hat m otte a nd b ailey c astles a re e ssentially a p roduct o f t he c entury f ollowing t he C onquest a nd t hat b y t he s econd q uarter o f t he t hirteenth c entury s uch c astles w ere o ld - f ashioned a nd o utmoded i n E ngland. B ut b ecause h e w as u naware o f a ny b ailey h e s uggested t hat t he l arge m ound o f C astle ( 3 ) w ith i ts r amped a pproach w as f rees tanding , a f orm o f l atter-day m otte r aised t o a ccommodate o n i ts b road s ummit t he n ew b uilt m anor h ouse o f G ilbert M arshal. H e

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d escribes i t a s ' in m any w ays a t horoughly d ecadent s pecimen o f t he t ype .. t he m issing l ink b etween t he c astle m ound a nd t he m oated g range' ( Myres 1 932, 1 26). M yres g oes o n t o a rgue t hat n o o ne w as ' more l ikely t o b e b uilding a m otte i n E ngland i n 1 235 t han t he E arl M arshal h imself' b ecause o f h is e xtensive e states a nd m ilitary e xperience i n I reland w here e arthwork c astles c ontinued i n u se w ell i nto t he t hirteenth c entury . T he s uggestion i s e legant b ut n ot e ntirely c onvincing , p erhaps t oo m uch i nfluenced b y t he s ole d ocumentary r eference t o d ismantling a nd r ebuilding. A n a lternative v iew , w hich s ees t he w hole p hase o f c astle b uilding a t H amstead M arshall o ver b efore, p erhaps w ell b efore, t he e nd o f t he t welfth c entury , a ccords m ore r eadily w ith c urrent p erceptions o f t he p eriod o f c onstruction a nd u se o f e arthwork c astles i n E ngland ( e.g. C athcart K ing 1 988, 4 2). I n p articular s uch c astles p roliferated, m ostly b uilt a s t emporary d efences a nd m any i llegally , i n t he a narchic c onditions o f t he r eign o f S tephen ( 1135-54). C ontemporary a ccounts m ake i t c lear t hat c astles, w hether a s c entres f or d efence o r f or l ocal d epredations, p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he u pheaval n ot l east i n t he z one o f d isputed t erritory i n O xfordshire, G loucestershire, W iltshire a nd B erkshire ( Cathcart K ing 1 983, x xviii). T he K ennet v alley l ay w ithin t he h eart o f t his z one, a n i mportant r outeway ( today t he A 4) l inking L ondon a nd t he T hames v alley w ith n orth-central W iltshire a nd b eyond. A long o r c lose t o t his l ine l ay a n umber o f c astles w hich f igured p rominently i n t he p eriod o f t he A narchy R eading, N ewbury , M arlborough a nd D evizes - a nd i t i s p erhaps s igni ficant t hat J ohn M arshal ( the f ather o f W illiam M arshal m entioned a bove) w as m uch i nvolved w ith t hese, e ssentially i n h is s upport f or t he E mpress M atilda a gainst S tephen. J ohn f ortified M arlborough a nd L udgershall i n 1 138, w as b esieged i n t he f ormer t he f ollowing y ear a nd i n 1 144 w as u sing i t a s ab ase f or p redatory e xcursions. I n 1 152 h e w as b esieged b y S tephen i n t he c astle a t N ewbury. T hese l ast t hree c astles a ll l ay w ithin 1 5 m iles ( 24km ) r adius o f H amstead M arshall. J ohn M arshal i s c astigated i n t he G esta S tephani , a s ource a dmittedly b iassed a gainst S tephen's o pponents, a s ' a c hild o f h ell, a nd t he r oot o f a ll e vil' t hough o ther a ccounts d escribe h im i n m ore f avourable t erms ( DNB X II, 1 106). E vil o r n ot, h e l ived t hrough a nd w as d eeply i nvolved i n t he t urbulent e vents o f S tephen's r eign a nd i t i s i ndeed t empting t o s ee h is h and i n t he a ctivities w hich l ed t o t he p roliferation o f e arthwork c astles a t H amstead M arshall. L ater r eferences t o t he m anor, w hen i t w as i n r oyal h ands b etween 1 345 a nd 1 361, i ndicate t he p resence o f s ubstantial d omestic b uildings, c omprising a n u pper a nd a l ower c ourt, a ' new c ourt' c ontaining t he h all, c hambers a nd a k itchen; a lso, a n e ast g arden c ontaining a f ishpond, a nd a w est g arden ( Brown e t a l 1 963, 9 55-6). P ossibly, t oo, t hese b uildings a re t o b e r elated t o t he r emains i n t he w est b ailey o f C astle ( 3 ); a nd t he e ast g arden a nd i ts f ishpond t o t he a rea o f t he m ottes, w hich b y n ow , p resumably , h ad l ong o utlived t heir o riginal p urpose. I t i s, p erhaps, a ppropriate t o e nd t his c ontribution t o a c ollection o f ' festival w ritings' i n l ighter v ein a nd t o l eave t he l ast w ord o n t his c lutch o f c astles i n B erkshire t o o ne f amous f or h er o pinions a nd w hose a ssociations w ith t he c ounty a re o bvious, L ady B racknell. S he i t w as w ho m ay b e b elieved t o h ave s aid ( with h umble

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a pologies t o h er c reator) ' For a p arish t o p ossess s carcely r emarkable; f or i t t o p ossess t wo , i s; f or t hree l ooks l ike l awlessness'.

o ne c astle i s i t t o p ossess

A cknowledgements W e w ish t o e xpress o ur t hanks t o t he C ommissioners a nd S ecretary o f t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland f or t heir p ermission t o p ublish i nformation a cquired i n t he c ourse o f t he C ommission's s urvey o f t he e arthworks a t H amstead M arshall. T he f ieldwork w as c arried o ut b y t he f ollowing a nd i t i s a p leasure t o r ecord t he r ecipient o f t his v olume a mong t hem: C .J. D unn, M .J. F letcher a nd N .V. Q uinnell w ith a ssistance f rom D .J. B onney a nd C .F. W ardale. W e w ish, a lso, t o t hank o ur c olleagues M ark C orney , M artin F letcher a nd P eter S pencer f or p roducing t he f inal v ersions o f t he i llustrations; a nd M iss V eronica S mith f or u ndertaking t he t yping. W e a re g rateful t o C .J. S purgeon ( RCAHM W ales) f or h elpful d iscussions a nd a dvice. A m ore d etailed d escriptive a ccount o f t he r emains a t H amstead M arshall i s d eposited i n t he a rchives o f t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord, R CHME.

B ibliography B rown , AR , C olvin , HM a nd T aylor , AJ 1 963 i n HM C olvin ( e d ) T he H istory o f t he K ing 's W ork s I. H MSO , L ondon . C athcart K ing , DJ 1 983 C ästellarium A ng lican = I . K raus I nternational P ublication , N ew Y ork a nd L ondon . C athcart K ing , DJ 1 988 T he C ast le i n E hgland a nd W ales . C roam H elm , L ondon . C larke , BFL a nd C olvin , HM 1 952-3 T he r ebuilding a nd r epair o f B erkshire c hurches d uring t he s eventeenth , e ighteenth a nd e arly n ineteenth c enturies . B erkshire A rchaeol ( 753 , 6 5-99 . D B B erks 1 979 D omesd ay B ook 5 : B erkshire , e d . P . M organ . P hillimore , C hichester . E NE T he D ic t iona ry o f N ational B iogrg e. ( XII , r eprin ted 1 921-2 . G elling , M1 974 T he P lace-N ames o f B erkshire 1 1 . E nglish P lace-Name S oc V ol 5 0 . M yres , JN L 1 932 T hree u nrecognised c astle m ounds a t H amstead M arshall . T rans N ewbu ry D ist I ld C lub V I , 14-126 . R enn , DF1 959 M ottes : ac lassifica tion . A nt iqu ity 3 , 1 06-112 . V G /B erk s 1 924 T he V ictoria H istory o f t he C ounties o f E ngland . AH istory o f B erk sh ire I V .

L ondon .

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1 8:

R OXBY H ILL,

T HORNTON D ALE: T HE L OST V ILLAGE O F R UBY?

V ivien G .

S wan a nd D onnie A . M ackay

I n h is p aper o n t he ' Lost v illages o f N orth Y orkshire', P rofessor M aurice B eresford ( 1954, 3 05) s uggested t hat t he s ite o f t he l ost h amlet o f R ouceby ( now R oxby ) m ight b e r epresented b y t he e arthworks n ear ' Roxby C astle', o n R oxby H ill. S ubsequent w riters h ave a ccepted t his h ypothesis w ithout q uestion ( for e xample, R ushton n .d., 1 28), a nd ' Roxby H ill' i s n ow f irmly e stablished i n t he D om sday g eography o f Y orkshire a s s ynonymous w ith t he s ettlement o f R oxby i . T he p urpose o f t his p ape i s t o p ublish a n ew d etailed s urvey o f t he e arthworks o n R oxby H ill 4 , t o d iscuss t heir h istorical b ackgroynd a nd i nterpretation i n t he l ight o f f resh d ocumentary e vidence a nd t o s uggest a n a lternative l ocation f or t he D omesday s ettlement o f R oxby. T he e arthworks c omplex k nown a s R oxby H all o r R oxby C astle, 2 .5km e ast-south-east o f P ickering a nd c entred a t S E 8 2778287, i s s ituated b etween 4 4m a nd 5 4m a bove O D , o n K immeridge c lay o ver s andstone. C urrently u nder p asture, i t o ccupies t he s outh-west e nd o f a s outhp rojecting p romontory k nown a s R oxby H ill, o n t he s outhern f ringe o f t he N orth Y ork M oors, w ith c ommanding v iews a long t he V ale o f P ickering. T he p resent c entre o f T hornton D ale, a l arge a nd c omplex v illage, a pparently r esulting f rom t he a malgamation o f s everal s maller D omesday v ills ( Allerston 1 970), l ies a pproximately 6 50m e ast-northe ast o f t he s ite. I n 1 086 R oxby w as o ne o f s everal v ills u nder t he j urisdiction o f t he r oyal m anor o f P ickering, b ut i ts e xact e xtent i s n ot i ndicated i n t he D omesday S urvei* . I ts t enurial h istory c an o nly b e t entatively r econstructed. I t s eems t hat, a round t he b eginning o f S tephen's r eign, t he m esne L ordship o f P ickering a nd i ts t erritory ( together w ith t he L ordship o f t he a djacent l ands a ttributed i n 1 086 t o B erenger d e T oepy ) h ad p assed, v ia R obert d e L isle, t o H ugh B igod , E arl o f N orfolk'. I n 1 284-5, R oger B igod, E arl M arshal, h eld t hirteen b ovates i n R oxby , a s m esne l ord. O f t hese, f our w ere i n t he h ands o f E dmund H astings ' in l ordship a nd s ervice', a nd t he r emainder w ere s plit b etween f ive o ther p ersons i ncluding a c ertain ' heir o f A lexander d e R ouceby ' w ho h eld t wo b ovates ° . T his l ast f amily , w hich p resumably t ook i ts n ame f rom t he p lace, i s d ocumented a s e arly a s 1 180 a nd c ontinued t o a ppear i n r ecords r elating t o t he a rea u ntil a t l east 1 408'. T he H astings f amily h ad c learly b een m ajor t enants o f l and i n t he a rea ( particularly i n R oxby a nd F armanby ), s ince a t l east t he f irst h alf o f t he t hirteenth c entury a nd p robably b efore. I n 1 247, N icholas d e H astings, L ord o f A llerston g ranted h is e ldest s on a ' capital m essuage .. i n H undgate i n T hornton i n t he v ill o f P ickering' w ith t wo o xgangs o f l and i n R oxby i n f ee, § nd w ith s uccessive r emainders t o h is y ounger s ons E dmund a nd N icholas ° . T his s eems t o b e a r eference t o a m anor h ouse, b ut i t c learly l ay n ot i n T hornton, b ut o n a d etached p art o f t he m anor o n t he e ast s ide o f P ickering, n ow 3 -4 H ungate ( RCHME r ecords, Y ork ). B y 1 272 t he H astings' F armanby h olding w as i n t he f ee o f t he y ounger s on N icholas, L ord o f A llerston ( VCH

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1 923, 4 22,495, n .82), w hile b y 1 284-5, E dmund d e H astings, t he o ther y ounger s on, a s a lready i ndicated, h ad f our o xgangs a t R oxby 9 . A t a bout t hat t ime, t herefore, R oxby a nd F armanby m ex h ave b een b riefly h eld b y s eparate m embers o f t he H astings f amily' v . E dmyyd c learly l ived l ocally , a s h e a ppears o n t he L ay S ubsidy o f 1 301/2 ;w hether a t F armanby o r R oxby i s n ot i ndicated. T he l atter s eems m ost l ikely , s ince i n 1 302-3 h e i s r ecorded a s h d ing ( from R oger B igot) t hirteen P resumably b y t hen h e h ad b ovates o f K ing's l and i n R oxby . N ot u ntil 1 316 i s t here a ny s ucceeded t o t he L ordship o f A llerston. oxby i tself b ut a n E dmund d e c lear r eference t o aH astings' h ouse a t R 1 334 1 3 . T his m ay p erhaps H astings w as c learly l iving t here i n ( or a n E dmund h is i mmediate i ndicate a n ew f oundation b y E dmund o f t he R oxby a nd F armanby p redecessor) f ollowing t he s eparation h oldings. T he R oxby p roperty , a nd t he l ocal r oyal o ffices w hich g radually b ecame a ssociated w ith i t, r emained w ith t he H astings f amily u ntil 1 489, w hen H enry V II b egan t o b estow t hese h onours o n o thers ( Ve l l 1 923, 4 96). A crimonious d isputes b etween t he H astings a nd t hose p ersons n ewly f avoured w ith s uch o ffices ( in p articular S ir R ichard C holmley ) c ulminated i n a v iolent a ffray o n D ecember 2 6th 1 497/8, w hich w as v ividly d escribed b y S ir R oger d e H astings, i n aB ill o f C omplaint ( Turton 1 894, 1 72-9). A pparently S ir R anfe E vans, R oger C holmley ( younger b rother o f S ir R ichard ), J ohn B ukton, J ohn K empe, J ohn H astings a nd t wo h undred o thers h ad a rrived a t t he H astings' m anor h ouse a t R oxby , a rmed t o t he t eeth, b lowing h orns, a nd t hreatening t o b urn i t d own u nless S ir R oger c ame o ut. H e w as a ttacked, a nd h is w ife, s ix o f h er s ervants, a nd s everal g uests a t d inner w ere a lso b eaten u p. I t i s e vident f rom t his a ccount t hat b y t he e nd o f t he f ifteenth c entury , a f amily r esidence o f s ome s tatus s tood u pon t he m anor o f R oxby. B y 1 499, R ichard C holmley h ad a cquired a ll t he g reat l ocal o ffices o f h onour ( Turton 1 894, 1 18, 1 79) a nd i n 1 501 t he H egtings f amily b egan t o d ispose o f s ome o f t heir e states i n t he a rea ". F ollowing t he d eath o f R oger d e H astings i n 1 513, h is s on a nd h eir F rancis H astings " c onveyed t he m anor o f R oxby a nd K ingthorpe ( and o ther l ands m ostly i n t he v icinity o f T hornton ) t o S ir R obert C onstable o f F lamborough, f ather-in-law o f R ichard C holmley 's b rott i9r, R oger ( Cholmley 1 777, 5 ), a nd t o o thers, p robably a s t rustees' ° . I n c . 1 519-20 t hese t rustees b ought R 94by f or R oger C holmley. H e w as d escribed a s ' of R oxby ' i n 1 522 -", a nd t hereafter i t b ecame t he p rincipal s eat o f t he C holmley f amily ( Cholmley 1 777, 5 ). R oger, w ho w as k nighted a t F lodden, d ied i n 1 538 a nd t he e state p assed t o h is o nly s urviving s on, R ichard, n icknamed ' the g reat B lack k night o f t he N orth' a fter h is k nighthood o n t he M usselburgh f ield i n 1 551 ( ibid ., 5 -6). H e s ubstantially i mproved h is e state b y a cquiring o ther p roperty , i ncluding t he W hitby A bbey E states - a p urchase o f g reat s ignificance f or t he f uture o f R oxby. H e l ived c hiefly a t R oxby ' in g reat p ort', w ith a l arge f am 4y a nd a t l east f ifty o r s ixty s ervants, u ntil h is d eath i n c . 1 579 ". I t i s e vident t hat h e r ebuilt o r g reatly a ltered t he e xisting h ouse t here. B etween 1 547 a nd 1 561, a l ong s eries o f c harges w as b rought a gainst h im f or m isappropriating l arge q uantities o f t imber f rom t he Q ueen's w oods t o u se f or t his w ork, i ncluding o aks f or t he c onstruction o f a ' gallyrey ', a s w ell a s t wo l oads o f s lates f rom P ickering c astle, a nd m asonry f rom t he s ame,

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b oth f rom t he K ing's H all, a nd f rom t he s tairs o f i ts m ain t ower; t hirteen o r f ourteen w aggon l oads w ere m oved b y h is t enants t o R oxby ( Turton 1 894, 2 5-6, 2 05-10). T he e ldest s on , F rancis C holmley , w ho h eld t he t itle f rom 1 579-86 w as n ot i nterested i n R oxby. D uring t hat p eriod h e r ebuilt a nd b egan t o r eside i n t he f ormer s ubstantial A bbot's H ouse n ext t o W hitby A bbey , a m ansion f or w hich t he C holmley f amily w ere g radually t o a bandon t heir R oxby r esidence ( Cholmley 1 777, 6 ). B y 1 586 t he e state h ad p assed t o F rancis' h alf-brother H enry. H is e xtravagant l ife-style a massed h uge d ebts, e ventually p recipitating t he s ale o f R oxby a nd o ther f amily p roperty . H e l ived a t R oxby u ntil 1 598, w hen h e m oved t o t he W hitby r esidence f ollowing t he d eath o f h is w ife, a nd d ied i n 1 617. H enry 's h eir, R ichard ( born 1 580) a lso l ived a t R oxby a t t his p eriod, a nd i t w as h ere t hat R ichard's h eir, H ugh C holmley , a uthor o f t he f amous m emoirs, w as b orn i n 1 600. F rom t his p ublication ( 1777, 2 2) f urther h ints o f t he s tructure o f R oxby H all m ay b e g athered. W hen H ugh w as t hree, h is m aid l et h im ' tumble .. o ut o f t he g reat c hamber w indow ' a nd ' a s ervant w aiting u pon [ Hugh's] g randfather a t d inner .. l eaped t o t he w indow a nd c aught h old o f [ his] c oat a fter [ he] w as o ut o f t he c asement'. S oon a fter t his, H ugh w as r emoved f rom R oxby t o l ive w ith h is p arents ( initially a t F yling, i n t he h ouse a cquired t hrough h is m other's f amily ). F rom t hat p oint R oxby w as e ffectively a bandoned a s t he C holmley f amily h ome, a nd t he W hitby A bbey m ansion b ecame t heir p ermanent m ain r esidence. O n H enry C holmley 's d eath i pA J anuary 1 615-16, h is w ife M argaret w as a ssigned v arious p roperties I 3 i ncluding R oxby H ouse, ' with a ll b uildings, s tables, d ovecots, o rchards, g ardens e tc. a nd w ith [ associated ] c loses c alled L e W est C lose, N orth C lose, B ullgarth, D unkill, D unkill H ill, L e H opyard, L e L ittle A wnam , B enson H ouse a nd C lose a nd L e L ady C lose .. u sually o ccupied ..[by ] t he h ouse' ( Figs 1 a nd 2 ). I t i s d oubtful w hether M argaret e ver w ent t o l ive a t R oxby. T en y ears a fter h er h usband's d eath s he w as d escribed a s o f Y ork, a nd i n 1 627 s he s old h er l ife i nterest i n t he R oxby e state t o h er e lder s on S ir R ichard a nd h is h eir H ugh ( the a uthor o f t he m emoirs). T he y oung H ugh s truggled t o r esolve h is f ather's m ounting d ebts b y o ffering s ome o f t he f amily p roperties t o t he c reditors. T hus, b y a c omplicated s eries o f d eeds, b etween 1 627 a nd S ir R i nard's d eath i n 1 632, R oxby u ltimately p assed t o H enry E arl o f D anby ". I t w as p robably h e w ho, a t a bout t his d ate, c ommissioned t he p reparation o f a s urvey o f R oxby ( Fig 2 ), a long w ith o ther m aps o f h is e states, n ow d eposited i n t he N orth Y orkshire C ounty R ecord O ffice, N orthallerton. B y t he t ime o f t he P a laiamentary S urvey o f 1 651, R oxby h ad p assed t o S ir J ohn D anvers ", b ut n o h ouse i s r ecorded o n t he l and, s uggesting t hat i t w as a lready d emolished o r n ot h abitable b y t hen. H ugh C holmley 's M emoirs , a pparently w ritten m ainly i n t he l ate 1 640s o r v ery e arly 5 0s ( he d ied c . 1 654), r eferred t o t he R oxby H ouse a s ' now a lmost d emolished' a nd ' now m uch d emolished' ( 1777, 2 1). T he s ite o f t he m ansion a pparently r everted t o p asture, b ut f rom d etails o n t he E arl o f D anby 's e state p lan, m any o f t he f eatures n amed i n H enry C holmley 's i nquisition p ost m ortem c an b e i dentified a nd c orrelated w ith s ome o f t he s urviving e arthworks o n R oxby H ill.

1 85

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Roxby: survey of earthworks (RCHHE copyright); Topography of Thornton Dale (simplified), showing main Domesday settlements, and the later manorial establishments of Roxby and Farmanby. 186

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The earthwork re■ains The extant earthworks fall into two main parts - a concentration of buildings, and attached to them a series of enclosures containing possible garden features. In the southern part of the site a complex of stony banks (0.3m to 0.8m high) marks the site of the manor house and its subsidiary Its location was carefully selected to maximise its view, buildings. having been positioned on the southern tip of the promontory at the point beyond which the ground begins to fall away quite sharply. At maximum extent, the building appears to have comprised a central east­ west range (A) with projecting wings,. (V) and (E) at each end forming a squat ff-shape. The south-projecting (front) wings are terraced into the hillside. The rooms, often obscured by the debris of robbing and collapse, mostly appear relatively small (between 8m to 12m by Sm to 7m), but a single much larger one in the centre of the central range (c. 27m by 12m) probably represents the hall or 'great chamber'. This is sketched on the Danby estate plan as a substantial west-east building with a tall chimney in the north-west corner, and a central protruding porch approached by steps from the south, and flanked on either side by a window with vertical bars. Perhaps it was from one of these that the infant Hugh Cholmley almost fell. Only the north­ projecting west wing (E) (detached by then), is apparent; indeed, the east end of the main range lacks any outline, as if to indicate the absence of an end wall. A comparison of this sketch plan and the surviving earthworks suggests that both ends of the main range, the cross wings, except (E), and some outbuildings had already been demolished by 1632. Even so, the general character of the house, as depicted, compares closely with contemporary buildings in the region, for example those sketched by Samuel Buck in the early eighteenth century {Hall 1979, 284, 298, 300), in particular the pre-Palladian house at Ebberston. The survey of this property, also commissioned by Danby, may, on stylistic grounds, have been drafted by the same hand as that of Roxby {RCHME 1987, fig 21). North of the main building at Roxby, a series of grass-covered banks up to 0.Sm high marks the sites of two long detached buildings, (B) and (C), which, in conjunction with the north-projecting wings of the house, effectively formed a back courtyard. Both are damaged by the digging of a modern pond immediately to the south. One (B), overlying the south-east corner of the boundary bank of Orchard Garth, comprises a range of two to three rooms (each about 7m by Sm). The other (C) also consists of at least two rooms {c. Sm by Sm, and 10m by llm), of which the westerly was possibly subdivided; according to the estate map it was faced externally with dressed stone blocks. A small gap between these outbuildings presumably provided access to North Close or to the banked garth (M) within it. The latter, not depicted in 1632, may belong to an earlier stage in the development of the Low scarps immediately west of the main house mark the site complex. of a small rectangular building (F), sub-divided into at least two rooms; it was built against the boundary bank of a garth (N), which was also not depicted by Danby's surveyor. It appears as a detached structure on the 1632 estate map, but may represent an extension of the main house, by then partly demolished. Another long narrow detached structure (D), perhaps a barn, (about 26m long and Sm to 7m wide) is evidenced by very low earthworks. It too is absent on the 188

Danby map. By 1632, when this area was the main access point to the Its siting house, the building had presumably been dismantled. appears to coincide with the line of the early manorial boundary. Thus, its position in particular, and also its general character (and indeed that of several of Roxby's detached structures) may be compared with the outbuildings at Hackness Hall, another Elizabethan mansion on the North Yorkshire Moors (RCHME 1987, fig 22). The function of these long narrow wings or outbuildings is uncertain, but some are reminiscent of stables or farm-buildings. The close relationship between farmyard and great family house that pertained at the period of Roxby's heyday is vividly reflected by an incident in Hugh Cholmley's Memoirs (1777, 22); as an eight-year old, he was attacked by a fierce sow just outside the kitchen door of his Whitby home. Some of the Roxby buildings may, of course, have originally been constructed for other purposes and reused for animals when dilapidated. In the mid 1500s, Sir Richard Cholmley kept fifty to sixty men-servants (ibid., 6); these would have needed quarters. The whole complex clearly represents a number of structural phases which cannot be disentangled without excavation. Dovecotes feature in Henry Cholmley's inquisition post mortem of 1615-16. A small stone-faced structure, marked on the Danby survey in A close but upper Dunkill, must surely represent such a building. undated parallel may be found locally at Cloughton Hall (RCHME 1987, 185, fig 336). At Roxby, however, the only surface evidence now apparent is a small shallow depression in the middle of the garth (N). Enclosures and possible garden features The area surrounding Roxby House is subdivided into a series of embanked compounds, only some of which are named or depicted on the 1632 map. Their relationships appear complex and suggest a long sequence of development with some boundaries already obsolete by the 1630s. The area covered by the RCHME survey falls into two distinct parts, the eastern nucleus, a more or less trapezoidal-shaped enclosure containing the manor house within Lady Close, Upper Dunkill, Orchard Garth, the eastern part of North Close, and several smaller unnamed embanked compounds; and the western part - a roughly rectangular peripheral area which is subdivided into two large closes of generally similar size, West Close and the western part of North Close. The north-south boundary between these two main zones, probably deliberately sited on the top of the west edge of the spur, is marked by a corridor with a sequence of banks and scarps which suggest a protracted history. The most westerly (H), and probably the earliest of these banks (averaging 5m wide and up to 0.3m high), probably pre­ dating the establishment of the manor on the site, constituted the headland of ridge-and-furrow cultivation immediately to the west. On the steep south extremity of the site these selions were once lynchetted, but slumping has removed part of their headland. At (H) the ploughing has later encroached on to the headland itself. Immediately east of (H) and parallel to it, a low spread bank (J) probably represents the earliest recognisable boundary of the manorial compound, but has been very eroded by the superimposition of an 189

access-track to the house. All that survives of its south-west part is a west-facing scarp and its north extremity has been removed by later boundary alterations, and relatively modern disturbance. On the east side of the compound a slight bank (K), underlying a later almost parallel boundary feature, probably formed part of the same circuit. Further south, this early boundary is overlain by buildings, but reappears near the south extremity of the site (L), turning west and then south, its course closely mirrored by the current hedge line. Its extreme southward continuation into Lower Dunkill beyond the area surveyed is cut by a hollow-way and then eroded by ploughing in Onams, the field to the south, but it presumably ran along its east boundary. The only internal enclosure which may belong to this earliest recognisable phase is represented by bank {M). It appears to have been attached to, or integral with the first precinct bank, but most of the garth was later obliterated by the laying out of Orchard Garth and outbuildings (B) and {C). The ditch immediately north of {M) and parallel to it has clearly been cut or recut as a later drain, slicing through features post-dating its bank. The earliest access to the manor house was apparently via a broad track {X) up the southern tip of the spur. Now deepened by the erosion of traffic, and up to 16m wide and 1.5m deep, it was clearly deliberately cut at an angle to the hillside in order to ameliorate its steep incline. It was approached from the east and west by a hollow-way, which runs beside the present east-west field boundary, dividing West Close from Lower Dunkill on the south edge of the 1986 survey. A subsequent phase in the history of the site seems to have involved a drastic remodelling of its layout. The old hollow-way was put out of commission and replaced by a completely new approach track; a new more formal entrance and internal closes were set out and the existing manor house underwent very substantial alterations and extensions. Two prominent enclosures, {N), and Orchard Garth {P), bounded by substantial earthen banks {up to 0.9m high and 0.6m wide) were now laid out. The former {N), situated in Upper Dunkill and terraced into the hillside {perhaps levelling earlier buildings), overlay part of the old west bank of the manorial circuit and was built right across the old hollow-way, clearly rendering it unusable. It is hard to see how Richard Cholmley's cartloads of building-stone from Pickering Castle could have been delivered to Roxby Manor up that inconveniently steep old track (X), and this phase of remodelling may almost certainly be associated with his lavish rebuilding activities in the mid 1500s. Buildings {A), (V) {C) and {D), and parts of other wings probably belong to this period. The need to establish a new access point may have triggered off alterations to the west side of the manorial circuit. Its boundary was moved, 2m to 6m further east. The old bank (J) was now overridden by the main access track which turned into the manor between garths The very prominent banks of the latter, perhaps once (P) and {N). surmounted by statuary or other garden features, would have formed impressive flanks to the new entrance of the manor house. The re­ sited west precinct boundary comprised several elements, all on the same alignment - banks (R) and (Q), and the west side of Orchard Garth. Of these, the last two show evidence of later refurbishing. 190

P robably a t t he s ame g eneral t ime, t he e ast a nd n orth s ides o f t he m anorial c ircuit w ere r enewed o n l ines s imilar t o, b ut n ot a lways c oincidental w ith, t he b ank o f t he p revious p hase. T he e ast b oundary b ank ( generally 5 m w ide a nd u p t o 0 .4m h igh) n ow h ad a n e xternal d itch ( 5m w ide a nd u p t o 0 .8m d eep ). O n t he n orth s ide o f t he c ompound t his e xternal d itch h as p robably b een d estroyed b y t he e ighteenth c entury t urnpike r oad, b ut i nside t he b ank i s ab road d itch-like f eature ( 0.8m d eep a nd 8 m t o 9 m w ide), c rossed b y a c entral c auseway , w ith a m atching b reak i n t he a djacent b ank. I ts s ituation o n a s lope p recludes i ts i nterpretation a s ap ond, a lthough s ome w ater w hich c ollects i n i t h as b een d rained o ff b y b reaching i ts w est ( lower) e nd. T he r esultant e rosion h as o bscured r elationships t o a djacent b oundaries. I t i s p erhaps b est v iewed a s a n o rnamental g arden f eature. A s imilar i nterpretation m ay a ccount f or a n umber o f o therwise i nexplicable e lements i mmediately t o t he s outh, i ncluding a l ow i solated m ound, a nd s everal s light s carps a nd b anks, o ne o f w hich r uns d iagonally a cross N orth C lose. I n t he w estern p art o f t his g arth i s a s eries o f v ery s hallow f urrow-like f eatures, w hich d o n ot a lign w ith t he o lder r idge-and-furrow c ultivation t o t he w est. T hese a re d ifficult t o i nterpret a s t hey a ppear t o s lice a cross t he h eadland ( H ) a nd t he t rack, b ut d o n ot c ut i nto b ank ( R ). T hey c ould p erhaps i ndicate a b rief p ost-manorial a ttempt a t n arrow r ig c ultivation r especting t he l atest b oundary , o r m ay m erely r epresent l ater d rainage f eatures. I t w as p erhaps i n t his g eneral s econdary p hase t hat o utbuilding ( D ) e xpanded o ver p art o f t he s outh-east p recinct b ank. T his, o r t he f inal r epositioning o f t he a ccess r oute t o t he m anor, m ay h ave n ecessitated t he s hift o f t his b oundary 1 0m f urther e ast t o ( T ). T he c ontinuation o f t he s ame c ircuit ( L ), o n t he s outh f ringe o f t he s ite, w as p robably n ow o r l ater m oved s lightly f urther s outh a s p art o f t he s ame p rocess. P ossible a dditional t races o f m anorial g arden l andscaping m ay a lso b e d istinguished o n t he h illside s outh o f R oxby H all a nd e ast o f t he o riginal a ccess-track. S everal e ast-west l ynchets w hich d o n ot m atch t he e arlier n orth-south r ig i mmediately w est o f t he h ollow-way m ay i ndicate a rtificial t erracing. S uperimposed o n t hem i s ap rominent r oughly c ircular m ound ( G ), a bout 6 m i n d iameter a nd 0 .5m h igh, s urrounded b y ad itch ( 4m t o 6 m w ide a nd u p t o 0 .5m d eep ). T he e arthworks s how n o s ign o f h aving b een t erraced i nto t he h illside, s o i t i s d ifficult t o s ee i t a s t he s ite o f a f ormer b uilding, s uch a s a w indmill. O n t he w hole, i t s eems b est i nterpreted a s a g arden f eature. T his a rea w ould, i ndeed, h ave b een i n f ull v iew o f t he h all a t t he t ime w hen t here w as a n i ncreasing i nterest i n t he f ormal g arden a s a n a djunct o f t he g reat h ouse. T he D anby s urvey i ndicates t hat t rees h ad b een p lanted a t i ntervals a long t he f ringes o f m ost c loses i mmediately a djacent t o t he m anor h ouse, a lso i ndicative o f a n i nterest i n t he g arden s urrounds. T he e arthwork r emains a nd t he D anby p lan t ogether, s uggest y et a nother p hase o f a lterations t o t he l ayout b efore R oxby H all w as f inally a bandoned. T he m ain a ccess p oint w as m oved t o t he m iddle o f t he e ast s ide o f t he c ompound, a nd a s lightly r aised t rack ( Z ), b ranching s outhwards f rom t he m ain S carborough - P ickering r oad, w as l aid p arallel t o a nd i mmediately e ast o f t he e ast c ircuit d itch. I t o versailed t races o f n orth-south r idge-and-furrow c ultivation w hich

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a pparently p re-dated t he e stablishment o f t he m anor h ouse o n t he s ite. T he a bandoned w est a ccess t rack m ay n ow h ave b een b locked o ff b etween U pper D unkill a nd O rchard G arth b y t he i nsertion o f a l ow b ank, a lthough a lternatively t hat f eature c ould b e o f a v ery m uch l ater d ate a nd u sed i n c onnection w ith s heep-folding o n t he s ite. A t t heir g reatest e xtent, t he m anor b uildings h ad c learly s pread o ver t he e ast a nd n orth b ank o f U pper D unkill C lose ( N ), a nd o ver t he s outh-east c orner o f O rchard G arth. S ubdividing N orth C lose, a nd o verlying a p robable g arden f eature a nd t he e ast m anorial b oundary , w as b ank ( S ), a lso p robably a l ate a ddition, b ut p re-dating t he 1 632 s urvey. T he d itch b eside i t i s a pparently a r elatively m odern d rain, s ince i t c uts t hrough a ll t he l atest f eatures o n t he s ite, i ncluding t he r aised a ccess t rack ( Z ). T he w estern z one o f t he m anorial e state, c omprising W est C lose a nd t he w est p art o f N orth C lose i s c overed w ith t races o f r idge-andf urrow c ultivation w hich h ad e vidently p receded i ts e nclosure o f t he g round i nto t he m anorial c omplex. O n t he s teep s outhern s lopes, l ynchets h ad d eveloped, w hich w ere a ccentuated a nd d istorted b y t he l ater t racks w hich c rossed t hem , h eading f or a s pring t o t he w est, a nd b y t he h ollow-way l eading t o t he e arliest s outh a pproach t o t he H all. A n e ast-west s tone w all d ivides W est C lose f rom N orth C lose, a nd t here i s a s imilar w all o n t he w est e xtremity o f t he p roperty , a nd a v ery s ubstantial b ank ( up t o 9 m w ide ) o n i ts n orth b oundary. A ll a pparently o verlie t he e arlier s elions a nd t heir h eadland a nd m ust b e c ontemporary w ith t he m anor. N orth o f t he n orth b oundary b ank, a s eries o f l ater r idges r epresents t he r utting o n t he o ld t urnpike r oad a s t raffic f anned o ut f or t he s teep a scent o f R oxby H ill. T he p resent P ickering r oad h as b een r e-aligned t o i mmediately n orth o f t he m odern f ield b oundary. N earby a nd a lso o f r elatively r ecent d ate a re t he e arthwork r emains o f a f ormer b uilding, p erhaps a s table o r b arn. T he r emainder o f t he l and b elonging t o R oxby H all l ies o utside R CHME's s urvey a rea. T he D anby p lan i ndicates t hat i t c omprised t hree m ore e nclosures t o t he s outh -L ower D unkill a nd O nams ( now o ne f ield ), a nd B enson C loses. A ll a re a t p resent u nder p lough, b ut s ome n ow d eleted f eatures a re v isible o n a ir p hotographs t aken b efore p loughing c ommenced ( CUCAP. A RM 4 -6). T he e nclosures o f L ower D unkill a nd O nams w ere s eparated b y ad itch ( and p ossibly a l ow b ank t o i ts e ast), a pparently a c ontinuation o f t he w estern m anorial b oundary e arthwork. R ig r uns p arallel t o i t i n O nams t o t he e ast. T o t he w est w as a s eries o f f ish p onds ( Fig 1 , l ower) f ed b y a s pring i mmediately t o t heir n orth. T hese w ere n ot m arked o n t he 1 632 m ap, - e vidently o f n o a ccount b y t hat p eriod. T hey e ither p re-date o r w ere c ontemporary w ith r idge-and-furrow c ultivation t o t heir e ast, s ince i ts n orth-south h eadland l ies o nly a s hort d istance a way f rom t he p onds, c learly o bserving t heir e xistence. T he e vidence f or r ig i n B enson C loses i s l ess c ertain, b ut o nly p art o f t he f ield i s c overed b y a vailable a irp hotographs. A B enson H ouse w as m entioned i n H enry C holmley 's 1 615-16 i nquisition p ost m ortem ( q.v.).

S ummary

A t entative h istory o f R oxby H all m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows. T he m anor h ouse o f R oxby w as e stablished, p erhaps b y E dmund d e H astings i n

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t he l ate t hirteenth c entury f ollowing a p ossible t emporary s eparation o f t he f amily h oldings o f R oxby a nd F armanby. I t o ccupied a n ew s ite, w est o f t he s ettlements i n t he v alley , o n l and h itherto u nder r idgea nd-furrow c ultivation. I ts n ucleus c omprised a t rapezoid e mbanked e nclosure s ubdivided i nternally , a nd w ith t he m anor h ouse s ituated t owards t he s outhern e nd, a pproached b y a s teep h ollow-way t o i ts s outh. B etween t he 1 540s a nd 1 560s, a t t he i nstigation o f S ir R ichard C holmley , t he c omplex u nderwent a m ajor r efurbishment i nvolving t he c onstruction o f a s ubstantial m ansion w ith ah all, ag allery , a nd e nough a ccommodation f or a l arge f amily a nd f ifty o r s ixty s ervants, a nd a lso a f ormal r eplanning o f t he g rounds t o i ncorporate b oundary m odifications, a n i mposing n ew w est e ntrance, a nd p robably a g arden w ith t erraces a nd e mbanked g arths. F urther a dditions w ere s ubsequently m ade t o t he h ouse a nd i ts w ings w hich e ncroached o n t he a djacent g arths. T hese l ater a lterations m ay r easonably b e a ttributed t o H enry C holmley ( probably b etween 1 586 a nd 1 598) a nd a lso p robably i nvolved t he r e-siting o f t he e ntrance t o t he e ast s ide o f t he c ompound, a nd p erhaps t he s etting o ut o f a dditional g arden f eatures. B y H enry 's d eath i n 1 615-16 R oxby H all h ad n ot b een u sed a s a f amily r esidence f or o ver a d ecade a nd s ome d ismantling m ay h ave a lready c ommenced. C ertainly b y c . 1 632, t he f ront w ings, t he e ast b ack w ing, p art o f t he m ain b lock, a nd a n o utbuilding h ad a lready b een d emolished. B y t he 1 650s t he h ouse w as a lmost t otally g one. T he s ite r everted t o p asture, a nd h as r emained s o e ver s ince, a part f rom a s hort-lived p ossible a ttempt t o c ultivate o r d rain a s mall a rea o f N orth C lose.

T he V iii o f R oxby I t i s c lear f rom t he a bove t hat a ll t he e arthworks o n R oxby H ill c an b e r elated t o t he m anor h ouse o f R oxby a nd t hat n o e vidence e xists f or a n e arlier d eserted s ettlement o n t he s ite. T his b eing s o, t he m edieval s ettlement o f R oxby m ust b e s ought e lsewhere. I n 1 086 t here w ere t hree o ther s ettlements i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f T hornton ( now T hornton D ale), L iedtorp ( not m entioned i n l ater d ocuments), R oxby , F armanby , a nd T hornton i tself. R oxby a s a s eparate e ntity i s d ocumented i n K irkby 's 4quest ( Skaife 1 866, 1 44 ), a nd i n t he 1 284-5 l ist o f K nigh W F ees , b ut i n t he 1 301 L ay S ubsidy i t w as l inked w ith F armanby'". I t i s a bsent f rom t he N omina V illarum , l ater L ay S ubsidy l ists a nd P oll T ax r eturns. A ll s ubsequent d ocumentation r elates t o t he t itle o r m anor o f R oxby r ather t han t he s ettlement. I n ad iscussion o f t he d evelopment o f v illages i n t he P ickering d istrict, A llerston ( 1970, 1 03, 1 06) h as s uggested t hat, j ust a s F armanby ( probably i n t he c entre o f t he p resent T hornton D ale v illage ) b ecame a malgamated w ith t he c ontiguous s ettlement o f T hornton t o i ts e ast a nd h ad s hed i ts i ndependent n ame b y t he n ineteenth c entury , s o R oxby h amlet h ad p robably g rown a nd c oalesced w ith F armanby , t herefore l osing i ts n ame. T he h amlet o f R oxby i s, t herefore, a lmost c ertainly i ncorporated i n t he p resent v illage o f T hornton D ale, a nd i s m ost p robably r epresented b y t he a pparently p lanned b lock o f c rofts a nd t ofts i n t he w est s ide o f t he m ain M altongate S treet w ith i ts b ack l ane ( now c alled R oxby L ane ) b ehind ( Fig 1 , l ower ). T he b lock l ies i mmediately e ast o f R oxby H ill m anorial c omplex a nd w as p resumably e ncroached o n f rom t he n orth-east b y F armanby , s o l osing i ts s eparate i dentity. 44

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J otes 1 . 2 .

3 .

4 .

5 . 6 . 7 .

8 . 9 . 1 0 .

1 .

1 2 .

F or R oxby i n t he l atest e dition o f D omesday B ook f or Y orkshire s ee F aull a nd S tinson 1 986 , 1 Y , 4n ote ; S N , D1 2 ; S N , L 9n o te . T he s urvey w as c arried o ut i n 1 986 a t a s cale o f 1 :1000 b y V .G . S wan a nd D .A . M ackay o f t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland a s p ar t o f a p ro ject t o r ecord a s election o f i mportant m edieval e arthwork s ites i n R yedale . T his p aper c omprises a b rief s ummary o f t he w ork b ut f ull a rchival d escriptions a nd p lans h ave b een d eposited i n t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord o f R CHME ( F ortress H ouse , S avile R ow , L ondon , W 1 ), w here t hey a re a vailable f or c onsultation ( N .A .R . S E 8 S W 9 ) . W e a re g rateful t o o ur c olleagues D r . B ridgett E .A . J ones ( L ondonb ased d ocumentary r esearch ), P hilip S inton ( g raphics a nd a ssistance w ith s urvey ), R oger T homas ( p hotography o f d ocument ), D avina T ürner ( w ord-processing ) a nd C hris T ay lor f or m uch s timulating o n-site d iscussion a nd f or c ommen ting o n ad raft o f t his p aper . F or a ccess t o d ocumentary s ources a nd l ocal h istory p ublica tions , t hanks a re d ue t o t he P ublic R ecord O ffice , L ondon ; t he B ritish M useum L ibrary ; Y ork C ity L ocal H istory L ibrary ; a nd t he N orth Y orkshire C ounty R ecord O ffice , N örthallerton . P ermission t o s urvey w as k indly g ranted b y t he o wner M rs M organ ( p er t he a gents S miths G ore ) a nd t he t enant , M r S hepherd . T he d ocument f rom w hich F ig 2 i s d erived w as d eposited i n t he N orth Y orkshire C ounty R ecord O ffice , N orthallerton i n 1 969 , b ut i n t he a bsence o f at opographical i ndex t here , i ts e xistence f ailed t o e merge i n t he c ourse o f o ur i nitial e nquiries , a nd w as d iscovered o nly b y c hance a fter t he s urvey h ad b een c ompleted . S ee n ote 3 ; t he v ills u nder P ickering c omprised O ud u lue m ersc , A llerston , E bberston , F armanby , K ingthorpe , A sche les i nersc , W ilton , R oxby , C hi/vesn erscand M äxudesmersc , t ogether t otalling 3 7 c arucates a nd 6 b ovates . T he R oxby i n F aull a nd S tinson S N , L 9n ote i s t hought t o b e R oxby n ear L o ftus . R oxby c ontinued t o b e p art o f t he H onour o f P ickering u ntil a t l east t he t ime o f K irkby 's S urvey i n c . 1 284-5 ( S caife 1 866 : 1 44 ). F arrer , W ( e d ) E ar ly Y orkshire C harters I ( 1 914 ), 4 66-7 , N o . 5 93 : h ereafter E IV . F eudal A ids V I 1 284143 1 , 1 284-5 , p .81 . I n 180 R obert d e R ouceby w as w itness t o t he g rant o f ar ight o f w ay m ade b y t he m esne l ord , W illiam d e M andeville ; a s s uch h e m ay w ell h ave b een a M andeville t enant (M U , 4 86 , N o . 6 17 ). A J ohn d e R ouceby i s r ecorded i n t he n eighbourhood i n 1 401-2 ( Feudal A ids V I 1 284143 1 . 1 , p .621 , 1 401-1402 ) a nd I sobel d e R ouceby a nd I sobel R ouceby s enior o ccur i n 1 408 ( P RO , D .L . 3 9/2/2 ). F orest P roceedings : 2 A pril 1 408 . B ritish M useum , H arleian M S 3 881 , f ol .2 . S ee n ote 6 . T here w as a c apital m essuage a t F armanby f rom 1 436-7 u ntil 1 620 (Ian . I PM 1 5 H enry V I , n o . 5 8 ; W indsor C hurch C omm . 17122 , F armanby S urvey o r T errier , 1 620 ). T his m anor h ouse w as p robab ly a d jacent t o t he p resent W est G ate , o n t he s outh f ringe o f T hornton D ale ( a t S E 8 3298229 ), o n l and d etached f rom t he e arly m edieval s ettlement-block o f F armanby ( F ij 1 , l ower ). T he p osition o f t he h ouse , a nd t he s iting o f t he d wellings n ow i n i ts i mmediate v icinity ( p robably s ubsequently b uilt o n i ts o riginal m anorial t erritory ), s uggest i ts s uperimposition b oth o n e arlier f ields a nd o n t he s outh e xtension o f t he b ack l ane o f t he e arly m edieval s ettlement o f R oxby , i mmediately t o t he n orth ( q .v .). F armanby m anor h ouse m ay , t herefore , h ave b een a r elatively r ather l ate d evelopment , p erhaps e stablished b y N icholas d e H astings i n t he m id/late 1 200s . F armanby a nd R ouceby w ere g rouped t ogether i n t he 1 301-2 L ay S ubsidy , w ith 2 9 p eople a ssessed , i ncluding B eatrice d e H astings 1 4s 4 d ( ? Nicholas ' w idow a t F armanby ), a nd E dmund d e H astings 1 2s 9 d ( p resumably a t R oxby : P RO , E .179/211/2 , 3 0 E d . I , N ov . 1 301-2 ; B rown 1 897 , 6 3 ). A r elatively s ubstan tial c ommunity a ppears t o b e i ndicated i n t hose s ettlements . F or E dmund 's h oldings i n 1 302-3 s ee P RO E .179/211/3 , R eturn o f K nights ' F ees , 3 1 E d . I : F euda l A ids V T , 1 284 , p .136 , 1 302-3 .

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1 3 . T urton 1 895 , 7 3 ; i n 1 316 , E dmund H astings w as c aught r ed-handed w ith a d eer w hich h e h ad i llegally k illed i n t he f orest a nd c arried b ack t o ' c ibmum s uam a p ud R o uceby ' ( P RO , D .L . 4 2/1 . C arte R egum , f ol .207 ). 1 4 . I n 1 504 E dward H astings o btained a l icence t o a lienate t he m anor o f F arm anby a nd E sthallegarth , a nd h oldings i n a d jacent E llerburn a nd T hornton , t o t he D ean a nd C anons o f W indsor ( P RO , C .142/18/17 ). I nquisition a d q uod d amans , 2 0 H enry V II , 1 2 N ov . 1 504 ). P art o f t his l and l ay i mmediately s outh-east o f R oxby a nd w as i ndicated i n t he D anby s urvey o f 1 632 ( q .v .; F ig 2 ; s ee a lso n ote 1 0 ). I t i s n ot i mpossible t hat s ome o f t he l and o n w hich R oxby m anor w as b uilt h ad o riginally b elonged t o F armanby . T he a pparently d eta c he d F armanby W est F ield l ay i mmediately w est o f R oxby m anor 's w est c loses . 1 5 . C han . I PM ( s er . 2 ) , X XVIII .89 . 1 6 . F eet o f F ines f or t he T udor P eriod . Y orkshire A rchaeo l Teog A ssoc R ec S er I , p t .1 ( 1 887 ), 3 6 . 1 7 . P RO , L . a nd P . H enry V III , II , p t . 2 , N o . 2 712 , p .1144 , 1 2 D ec . 1 522 . 1 8 . C han . I PM ( s er . 2 ) , C CXCIV , p .157 , 1 583 . 1 9 . P RO , C .142/368/127 , I PM , 2S ep t . 1 617 . H enry C holmley w as a lso a t enant o f f ormer H astings ' l and i n F armanby ( i ncluding t he ' m anor h ouse '), E llerburn , a nd P ickering , f rom t he D ean a nd C anons o f W indsor ( W indsor C hur c h C omm ., 17122 , F arm anby T errier , 2 7 F eb . 1 594/1595 ). 2 0 . m aw , A nnu R ep t or 1 970 , 7 . 2 1 . P RO E .317 , Y orks ., P arliamentary S urvey o f P ickering H onor , 1 651 . 2 . F eud al A ids V T 1 2841341 , p .81 , 1 294-5 . 2 3 . P RO , E .179/211/2 , N ov . 1 301-2 , 3 0 E d . I , 1 5th a nd 1 0th P ickering W apentake .

B ibliography a nd a bbreviations A llerston , P1 970 E nglish v illage d evelopment . F indings f rom t he P ickering d istrict o f N orth Y orkshire . Tans I nst Btit G eogr 5 1 , 9 5-109 . B eresford , MW 1 954 T he l ost v illages o f Y orkshire , P art I V . Y orkshire A rchaeo l J X XXVIII (151 ), 3 05 . B rown , W ( e d ) 1 897 Y orkshire l ay s ubsidy , b eing a f ifteenth c ollected 3 0 E dward I , 1 301 . Y örks iiü reAtc haeo l S oc R ec S er X XI . C UCAP C ambridge U niversity C ommittee f or A erial P ho tography C holmlgy , H1 777 T he M emo irs o f S ir H ugh C holmley K nt a nd B art . . L ondon . E YC E ar ly Y orkshire C harters F aull , MLa nd S tinson , M( e ds ) 1 986 D omesd ay B ook : 3 0 . Y orkshire . C hichester . H all , I1 979 S amue l B uck 's Y orkshire S ketchbook , r eproduced i n f acsimile f rom L ansdowne M S 9 14 . W ake field . N YCRO N orth Y orkshire C ounty R ecord O ffice R CHME 1 987 M ouses o f t he N orth Y ork et m H MSO , L ondon . R ushton , J [ 1 97] T he eedale S tory . R yedale D istrict C ouncil . S kaife , RH ( e d ) 1 866 S urvey o f t he C ounty o f Y ork t aken b y J ohn d e K irkby , c ommonly c alled K irkby 's I nquest . S urtees S oc X LIX , 1 -186 . T Urton , RB ( e d ) 1 894 T he H onor a nd F orest o f P ickering ( P t . i ) . NR idi ngRec S ocns I . T ürton , RB ( e d ) 1 895 T he H onor a nd F orest o f P ickering ( P t . i ). N R id ing R ec S oc n s I. Mi1923 T he V ictoria C o unty H isto ry . Y orksh ire . M irth R iding , i .

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H OWLEY H ALL, W EST Y ORKSHIRE: F IELD S URVEY

S tewart A insworth

T his r eport d escribes t he p reliminary f indings o f a n o ngoing p rivate r esearch p roject b y t he a uthor t o s urvey a nd r ecord t he r emains o f t he s ixteenth c entury h ouse a nd g ardens o f H owley H all, s ituated a pproximately 3 km s outh-west a nd 2 km n orth-east o f t he W est Y orkshire t owns o f M orley a nd B atley r espectively ( OS 1 :50000 S heet 1 04, M GR S K 2 5502515).

' Y, 71 ,

F ig 1

( From W hitaker ,

1 816 )

I ntroduction H owley H all, b uilt a t t he l atter e nd o f t he s ixteenth c entury a nd d emolished i n t he e arly p art o f t he e ighteenth c entury , m ay l ay c laim t o h ave b een o ne o f t he f iner c ountry h ouses o f t he E lizabethan p eriod i n Y orkshire. W illiam C amden, w ho s aw t he h ouse w hen n ew w as c learly i mpressed: ' The l ordship o f W akefield h as a s teward o ne o f t he b etter s ort o f g entleman: a t t his d ate S ir J ohn S avile k night .. h as a v ery s ightly f air h ouse n ot f ar o ff a t H owley, w hich m aketh a g oodly s how ' ( Camden 1 610, 6 96). A nother w riter,

S ir H enry S lingsby w as a lso s imilarly i mpressed:

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' We s ee a n e mulation i n y e s tructure o f o ur h ouses, i f w e b ehold y t a t T ibbalds [ Theobalds], a nd y t o f m y L d S uffolk's a t A udley E nd; S o i n t his c ountry m y L d S avil's a t H owley , S r A rthur I ngram's a t T emple N ewson' ( Parsons 1 836, 5 2). T o b e c ompared w ith s uch a rchitectural m agnificences H owley H all i n i ts h eyday m ust h ave p resented i tself a s a n o utstanding r esidence, b ut a s a r esult o f i ts d emolition i n t he e arly p art o f t he e ighteenth c entury f ew d etails o f t he f abric o f t he h ouse a nd i ts s etting a re r ecorded. A s mall n umber o f e levation d rawings o f t his b uilding s urvive ( e.g. F ig 1 ) w hich i llustrate i ts g randeur a nd r einforce t he a ssessment, m ade b y t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland i n i ts r ecent p ublication o n t he r ural h ouses o f W est Y orkshire, t hat t his w as p robably t he m ost i mpressive o f t he f our g reat p rodigy h ouses o f t his p eriod i n t his a rea ( RCHME 1 986, 5 0 ). H ad t his h ouse s urvived u ntil t he p resent d ay a s a s tanding s tructure i t w ould u ndoubtedly h ave b een a n e stablished a nd w ell r ecorded p art o f Y orkshire's a rchitectural h eritage. A s i t i s, o ther t han f rom a f ew d ocumentary r eferences a nd d rawings, l ittle i s k nown a bout i t o r i ts s etting. P ublished d ocumentary s ources a nd c urrent r ecords f or H owley H all c oncentrate a lmost e xclusively o n t he b uilding, i ts a rchitectural s plendour, a nd i ts t itled a nd p restigious f amilies. B ut, a s n oted b y c ontemporary w riters s uch a s S ir H enry S lingsby , t he d esign o f H owley H all f ollowed a n a rchitectural f ashion. T herefore, i n k eeping w ith t he o ther g reat E lizabethan c ountry h ouses w ith w hich S lingsby c ompares i t, H owley H all s hould h ave p ossessed i ts o wn m icro-landscape o f p leasure g ardens, o rchards a nd k itchen g ardens - a ll a n ecessary a djunct t o a ny p restigious r esidence o f t he p eriod, a nd a s m uch s ymbols o f s tatus a nd f ashion a s t he h ouse i tself. I f g ardens e xisted a t H owley w hat b ecame o f t hem w hen t he h ouse w as d emolished? W ere t hey s lighted a t t he s ame t ime a s t he d eliberate d estruction o f t he H all, o r w ere t hey s imply e roded b y t he d estructive p rocesses o f s ubsequent l and u se? I n a n e ffort t o a ddress t hese q uestions a r econnaissance v isit w as m ade t o t he s ite i n A ugust 1 988. T his i ndicated t hat n ot o nly d oes a s ubstantial p art o f t he g round p lan o f t he h ouse s urvive i n e arthwork f orm , b ut a lso, h itherto u nrecognised o n t his s ite, t he r emains o f aw ell-preserved a ttendant f ormal g arden l ayout . I n a n a ttempt t o u nderstand a nd r ecord t he s urviving r emains o f t he H all a nd i ts g ardens a l ong-term f ield s urvey p roject h as b een i nitiated w hich, w hen c omplete, w ill b e o ffered f or d eposition i n t he N ational A rchaeological R ecord c urated b y R CHME.

H istorical b ackground I t h as b een s uggested t hat H owley H all w as b uilt b etween t he y ears 1 585 a nd 1 590, b eing c ommissioned b y a nd b ecoming t he r esidence o f, S ir J ohn S avile, l ater B aron o f P ontefract a nd s ubsequently F irst A lderman o f L eeds a nd a n i nfluential f igure a t b oth t he H ouse o f C ommons a nd t he c ourt o f J ames I . L ater a dditions f or H owley a re a lso s uggested b etween 1 646 a nd 1 661 ( Scatcherd 1 874, 1 15). T hat t he o riginal c onstruction o f t he h ouse w as i nitiated b y S ir J ohn S avile i s s omewhat s ubject t o d ebate a s i t h as a lso b een a lleged, b ut w ith l ess c ertainty, t hat t he f ounder w as S ir R obert S avile, S ir J ohn 's f ather, w ho d ied i n 1 585 ( Smith 1 881, 3 ). I t i s n ot c ertain w hether i t i s

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t his H owley H all w hich a ppears o n S axton 's m ap o f Y orkshire d ated 1 577, w hich m ay i ndicate a d ate e arlier t han 1 585 f or i ts c ommencement, o r w hether t his i s t he e arlier m ansion o f t he M irfield f amily w ith w hom t he S aviles b ecame r elated b y m arriage s o a cceding t o t he e states, a nd w hich i s r ecorded a s b eing s ituated t wo h undred y ards t o t he n orth-west o f t he l ater H owley H all ( Smith 1 886, 1 63). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he r emains o f t his e arlier m ansion w ere i ncorporated i nto o utbuildings f or t he s ixteenth c entury H all a nd s urvived i nto t he n ineteenth c entury i n t he b uildings o f H owley H all F arm ( Whitaker 1 816, 2 38; S catcherd 1 874, 1 15). M uch o f t his f arm s till s urvives w ith o ne o f t he p rincipal b uildings ( known a s t he B ailiff's H ouse) n ow f orming t he c ore o f t he H owley H all G olf C lub p remises; t he B ailiff's H ouse i s c urrently t he s ubject o f a s eparate a nalysis ( Neil C ookson , p ers. c omm.). T he a rea o f t he f arm a nd t he c lub h ouse m ay f orm p art o f ad iscrete s tudy i n i tself t o e stablish i f a ny r emains o f t he e arly r esidence s urvive. T he d ate a nd c ircumstances o f t he d estruction o f H owley H all a re s ignificant b ecause o f t heir r elevance f or a t erminus a nte q uem f or t he d evelopment o f a f ormal g arden l ayout o n t he s cale t hat i s e xhibited i n t he r emains t oday. I t i s c ommonly r eported t hat t he h ouse w as d eliberately a nd a lmost t otally d emolished a bout 1 730 ( Scatcherd 1 874, 1 17; A tkinson 1 973, 9 4; L instrum 1 978, 5 ) b y t he t hen E arl o f C ardigan w ho h ad a cquired t he e state t hrough m arriage a lthough i t i s c lear t hat s ubstantial d ismantling h ad b een o ccurring s ince a t l east 1 719, a s a ccounts r elated t o t he b uilding o f t he O ld P resbyterian C hapel i n B radford l ist n umerous p ayments f or r emoval o f i tems o f s tanding f abric f rom H owley f or r euse i n t his b uilding , i ndicating t hat t he h ouse w as p robably u noccupied b y t hat d ate ( Anon 1 888, 5 4). T he d ecline a s ag rand r esidence m ay h ave b een u nder w ay f rom a m uch e arlier d ate, p ossibly a fter t he d eath o f L ord J ames S avile i n 1 671, a fter w hich t he h ouse a ppears t o h ave b een l ittle f requented b y i ts n oble o wners, i nstead b eing o ccupied b y t hree m inor t enant f amilies b efore i ts f inal d estruction i n a bout 1 730 ( Scatcherd 1 874, 1 22; R obinson 1 871). I t w ould s eem p robable, t herefore t hat t he d evelopment o f t he e xtensive f ormal g arden l ayout o bservable n ow i n e arthwork f orm a t H owley H all w ould h ave e volved d uring t he p eriods o f o ccupation b y t he p restigious o wners o f t he H all. T he a rchitectural s tyle e mployed o n H owley H all h as b een l ikened t o t hat e xhibited o n h ouses d esigned b y t he g reat E lizabethan a rchitect R obert S mythson ( Girouard 1 983, 1 41) a lthough i t i s s uggested t hat a l ocal a rchitect, A braham A kroyd , m ay h ave b een t he d esigner ( Linstrum 1 978, 3 70); i t i s r eputed t hat I nigo J ones h ad a n i nvolvement h ere ( Ward 1 973, 5 ) a lthough t his h as l ittle f oundation. L ittle c ontemporary m aterial s urvives t o i llustrate t he l ayout o f t he h ouse a nd g ardens b ut o ne n ineteenth c entury s ource s uggests H owley H all w as s ixty y ards s quare, w ith t wo g ateways t o t he w est, a nd w as b ased o n a n o pen c ourtyard p lan w ith p assages l eading f rom t his i nner c ourt t o i ts t hree e ntrances o n t he n orth, w est a nd s outh ( Scatcherd 1 874, 1 21). I n t he 1 672 H earth T ax r eturns H owley H all p ossessed f orty-four h earths w hich, a lthough t his f igure m ay n ot b e e xact, g ives s ome i dea o f i ts s tatus ( RCHME 1 986, 5 0 ). T he f ew d rawings o f t he H all w hich e xist i ndicate a s ymmetrical e xterior ( at l east o n o ne f acade ) c omprising t wo s toreys w ith a p rojecting t hree s torey t ower a t e ach c orner, c anted b ays, a nd a c entral p avilion w hich a ppears t o h ave p ossessed o rders o f c oupled p ilasters o n e ach s torey; t he e xterior h as

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g enerous f enestration o f f our a nd f ive l ight w indows a nd i s s urmounted b y c renellations a nd a n umber o f c upolas ( Fig 1 ). A n e levation d rawing o f 1 711 ( Atkinson 1 973, 9 2), w hich i s p ossibly t he m ost d etailed o f t he s urviving d rawings, c learly s hows t he H all h ad a w alled f orecourt w ith a c entral r ectangular, c renellated g atehouse. T his g atehouse s urvived i ntact u ntil e arly t his c entury a nd g ood s ketches o f t his s urvive ( Whitaker 1 816, 2 36; S mith 1 886, 1 62). T his g ateway d iffers f rom t hat d epicted o n a nother d rawing ( Wood n d ) t he d ate o f w hich i s u nknown a nd w hich s uggests a s impler g ate p erhaps i ndicating t hat t his r ectangular g atehouse r epresented a r eplacement o r r emodelling o f a n e arlier a rrangement ( alternatively t hese d rawings a re o f d ifferent e levations). T he d rawing o f 1 711 d epicts w alled g ardens, w ith t rees a nd p aths a djoining t he n orth a nd s outh s ides o f t he h ouse, a s w ell a s ap ossible p arterre b etween t he g atehouse a nd t he h ouse i tself. T his d epiction o f g ardens c losely r eflects t he g arden l ayout a s s uggested b y t he c urrent e arthwork s urvey d escribed l ater. T hat H owley p ossessed a n a ttendant g arden a rrangement, a s i s i ndicated o n t he 1 711 d rawing a nd w hich w ould b e a nticipated f or a h ouse o f s uch s tatus, i s s eemingly i ndicated b y t he f ollowing e xtract: ' Of t he a ppearance o f t he H all i n 1 643, w e h ave t he f ollowing a ccount:O n t he W est s ide o f t he H all w as a f ine b owling g reen; o n t he N orth, a nd, p robably N orth E ast, w as t he p arlour g arden. O n t he W oodchurch s ide ( east) t here w as a c herry o rchard, a nd m any o f t he t rees w ere t here a c entury a go. T he k itchen g arden s trange t o t ell - w as o n t he S outh; a nd s till m ore s ingular i t i s t hat t he k itchens e ven w ere o n t his m ost p leasant s ide o f t he m ansion' ( Smith 1 886, 1 58). I t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t he d egree o f r eliance t hat c an b e p laced o n t his e xtract a s i t a ppears t o b e a lmost a d irect c opy o f a d escription g iven b y S catcherd ( Scatcherd 1 874, 1 21) f rom w hich i t i s n ot c lear i f t he d ate a nd d escription o f t he g ardens i s b ased o n a d irect b ut u nattributed c ontemporary 1 643 a ccount, s ubjective i nterpretation b y S catcherd, o r a c ombination o f b oth. T he g ardens a re f urther r eferred t o b ut n ot d escribed i n a ny d etail b y R alph T horesby , t he L eeds h istorian, w ho v isited H owley i n M arch 1 702: ' The g ardens a nd o rchards a re c urious, k ept i n t he n ew o rder o f d warf t rees, e xcept a r emarkable y ew t ree - t he w all f ruits f orward t o a w onder - t he a pricots s et, a nd s ome p retty l arge' ( Scatcherd 1 874, 1 61). A s y et o nly o ne p lan h as b een l ocated w hich g ives a ny i ndication o f ag arden l ayout a t H owley. T his f orms p art o f a s eries o f p lans s urveyed b y W illiam S ikes s howing t he C ardigan e states i n 1 735 ( Fig 2 a ). I f t he l ayout o f l andscape i mmediately a djacent t o H owley H all i s f ollowed c hronologically t hrough t he d iagrams i n F ig 2 i t c an b e s een t hat t he l ayout h as c hanged l ittle e ven u p t o t he l atest m apping d ate o f 1 968. S ikes' p lan c learly s hows t he h ouse a s n ear r ectangular ( ignoring d istortion i ntroduced b y e nlargement o f t he c opy o f t he o riginal f rom w hich t his w as t aken ) w ith a c entral c ourtyard, f orecourt w ith a c entral g atehouse t o t he w est a nd w ith a p attern o f e nclosures i mmediately a djacent t o t he n orth a nd s outh. D etached, a nd t o t he w est o f t he f orecourt, i s a r ectangular e nclosure r eferred t o

2 00

Based o n ap lan b y Wi l l iam S ikes

0

4 00

1 00

me tres

F ig 2

a ll d iagrams ( apart f rom a ) b ased o n O S 2 5" m apping . S tippling i ndicates s ite o f h ouse a nd g atehouse.

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a s t he B owling G reen . W ithin t he e nclosure s hown a djacent t o t he n orth o f t he h ouse t here i s s ome a ttempt t o p ortray ar egular p atterned l ayout, a nd w ithin t he e nclosure i mmediately t o t he e ast o f t his l ines o f t rees a re d epicted s uggestive o f a n o rchard; t here i s a lso p ossibly a n a ttempt t o p ortray ap attern i n t he s mall e nclosure a djoining t he e ast o f t he h ouse a lthough t his i s n ot s o c lear. I t i s p ossible t hen t hat s ome d egree o f c orrelation m ay b egin t o b e e stablished b etween t he a ccount o f 1 643 r elated e arlier a nd i nformation p ortrayed o n t his p lan, p articularly t he r eference t o p arlour g ardens a nd o rchards t o t he n orth a nd e ast w here a r egular l ayout a nd t rees a re d epicted o n t he p lan a nd s pecific r eference t o a b owling g reen t o t he w est. T wo r outeways t oward t he h ouse a re d epicted w hich b oth f orm p arts o f p rincipal r outes a cross H owley P ark, t he e astern o ne a pproaching f rom W oodkirk a nd t he w estern o ne f rom t he d irection o f B atley. B oth t hese r outes m erge a t a c omplex o f b uildings a nd e nclosures w hich c an b e e quated w ith t he l ayout o f H owley H all F arm. A s ingle r outeway r uns n orth f rom h ere, b ounded f or p art o f i ts l ength, t oward t hree e nclosed f ields, F ormer L odge C lose , U pper L odge C lose , a nd L odge C lose , t hese n ames p erhaps i ndicating t hat a l odge m ay h ave o nce e xisted i n t his v icinity. B y 1 894 ( Fig 2 b ) a lthough l ittle s urvives o f t he h ouse, o ther t han t he s outhern e xtremity o n w hich p rojecting c orners a re s uggested, t he b asic o verall l ayout o f e nclosures w ould s eem t o f ollow c losely t hat o f 1 735, a lthough n one o f t he s outhern e nclosures a re s hown. T o t he w est o f t he h ouse a c omplex o f f arm b uildings h as b een e rected i nto w hich t he g atehouse h as b een i ncorporated ( Smith 1 886, 1 63). L ater, b y 1 907 ( Fig 2 c), m any o f t hese f arm b uildings h ad b een r emoved a nd l ess o f t he s outh-west c orner o f t he h ouse w as v isible t o t he t opographic s urveyors t han p reviously. T hrough t o 1 933 ( Figs 2 d-2e) i t s eems t hat t he p attern o f e nclosures i s s tarting t o b e b roken u p a nd t hat t he f arm c omplex ( apart f rom t he g atehouse) h as b een r emoved; t his b reakup w ould a ppear t o c oincide w ith t he u se o f t his a rea a s a g olf c ourse. A t t he d ate o f t he m ost r ecent s urvey o f t he s ite ( 1968) t he b asic o verall l ayout i s s till o bservable a lthough a lmost a ll t races o f e nclosures e tc. h ave b een r emoved; o nly t he s outh-east c orner o f t he h ouse i s d epicted i n a ny d etail ( Fig 2 f).

P rocess I t c an b e s een f rom t his b rief h istorical s ummary t hat l ittle i s k nown o f t he g ardens w hich e xisted a t H owley H all. T hrough t he p rocess a nd a pplication o f n on-destructive f ield s urvey o n t his s ite i t i s p ossible, b y c lose e xamination o f t he c urrent g round s urface a nd p lanning o f t he s urviving e arthworks, t o b egin t o f orm a n u nderstanding o f b oth t he h all a nd i ts g ardens a s w ell a s a ssessing t he i mpact o f m odern l and u se o n a rchaeological l evels. A f undamental p art t o b e p layed i n a ny s uch u nderstanding o f t he s ite i s t hrough t he a pplication o f t he d etailed p lanning a nd r ecording p rocess o f m easured f ield s urvey. T o a chieve t his a n a ccurate, t hree-dimensional c oordinated n etwork o f s urvey c ontrol p oints h as b een e stablished o n t he s ite b y t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland. T he p recise p ositioning o f t his c ontrol f ramework w as a chieved u sing a n e lectronic t otal s urveying s tation a nd P C-based c omputation a nd p lotting s oftware. A ll p oints w ere c omputed o n a l ocal g rid w hich c an b e a djusted b y m athematical t ransformation t o O S

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N ational G rid. P olyester d ocuments c ontaining t he p lotted p ositions o f t hese c ontrol p oints a re t hen a vailable t o b e t aken i nto t he f ield, u pon w hich p recise m easurements o f t he e arthworks c an b e d irectly p lotted a nd f ine d rawn w hilst s till o n t he s ite. A t H owley t he f ield s urvey i s t o b e c onducted a t f our p rincipal s cales, e ach c hosen f or i ts s uitability t o f acilitate i nterpretation a nd a dequately r ecord t he a reas t o w hich i t i s b eing a pplied. L evel O ne 1 :2500 P reliminary s urvey a t O S b asic s cale o f t he m ajor e arthworks a nd t opographic s ituation. P lanning a t t his s cale i s a chieved r apidly ( the s urvey u pon w hich F ig 3 i s b ased w as a ccomplished i n f our d ays) a nd a llows p reliminary i nterpretations t o b e m ade o n t he a rchaeological v alue o f t he s ite. L evel T wo 1 :1000 C omplete e arthwork r ecord o f h ouse a nd g ardens. T his s cale a llows d etailed r ecording o f e ven t he s mallest e arthworks a nd t heir r elationships, a nd f orms t he p rincipal b asis f or s ite i nterpretation. M ost s uitable s ale f or r ecording a ll e arthworks a t t he d ate o f s urvey. L evel T hree 1 :200 A rea o f h ouse a nd g atehouse. T his s cale w ill a llow d etailed r ecording o f w all l ines, t hicknesses, e tc., w hich c annot b e a dequately r ecorded a t t he s maller s cale o f t he L evel T wo s urvey. L evel F our 1 :10000 M ap b ased r ecording o f t he l andscape d evelopment w ithin t he s urrounding H owley P ark. A s t he s urvey p rogresses i t i s a lso i ntended t o r ecord d etails o f s tanding f abric a nd w orked s tone o n t he s ite a t s uitable s cales.

S ite d escription T he f ollowing d escription o f H owley p reliminary i nterpretations a re b ased c ompleted d uring F ebruary 1 989.

H all a nd i ts o n t he L evel

g ardens a nd O ne s urvey ,

T he s ite c hosen f or H owley H all a nd i ts g ardens o ccupies a f airly l evel s pur o n a s evere a nd t opographically c ommanding s outh-west f acing s andstone e scarpment e dge a t 1 25m a bove O D. T his s pur h as b een f ormed b etween r un-off v alleys, r esulting i n t he p artial i solation o f a b lock o f l and a pproximately 4 00m l ong w ith i ts l ongest a xis n orthw est - s outh-east, p arallel t o t he e scarpment e dge ( Fig 3 ). T he d rama d isplayed b y t he w estern a spect, w ith o utstanding v iews a cross t he C alder V alley , i s c ontrasted b y g ently u ndulating g round r ising a way f rom t he s ite o f t he h ouse o n t he r emaining s ides. H owever, t he r elative t ranquillity o ffered b y t he t opography o n t hese s ides, e specially t o t he n orth-east, i s n ow p unctuated b y e xtensive a nd o btrusive s tone q uarries a nd w aste m ounds. T he w estern p art o f t he s pur o ccupied b y t he h ouse h as i tself b een h eavily d isturbed b y n ineteenth c entury s andstone q uarries, n ow d isused. T he m ajority o f t he a rea f ormerly c overed b y t he h all a nd g ardens n ow f orms p art o f t he H owley H all g olf c ourse, c omprising p rincipally t he f airways o f t he s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth h oles w hich l ie a t t he s outh-west e xtremity o f t he c ourse. T he u se o f t his l and a s ag olf

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c ourse h as i n a ll p robability f acilitated t he s urvival o f t he g arden e arthworks a s t heir r egularity a nd s ubstance i ntegrate w ell w ith t he r equirements o f a g olfing l andscape; t he v egetation v aries f rom c losely m own g rass ( to t he n orth o f t he h ouse ) t o l ong g rass, w eeds a nd b rambles ( around a nd t o t he s outh o f t he h ouse ). A n umber o f p aths a nd o ld r oads r un a cross t he s outhern l imits o f t he s ite c lose t o t he e scarpment e dge w itnessing b oth t he a ssociation w ith q uarrying a nd o ther i ndustrial a ctivities c lose t o t his a rea, a nd a lso t he l ongstanding p opularity o f t he f ormer r uins a s a r ecreational a ttraction f or m any y ears ( Atkinson 1 973, 9 3). U nfortunately t he m odern r ecreational u se o f t he a rea s outh o f t he h ouse f or u nofficial m otor c ycle s crambling i s r apidly d amaging g arden e arthworks w hich s till s urvive c lose t o t he e scarpment e dge. T he s ite c hosen f or t he h ouse w as t oward t he e ast e nd o f t he s pur w ith t he p rincipal a xis o f t he s ite r unning p arallel t o t he l ine o f t he e scarpment. W hen s tanding, t he h ouse w ould n ot o nly h ave h ad m agnificent v iews o ver t he C alder V alley a nd t he P ennines, b ut e qually i mportantly w ould h ave b een v isible i n a ll i ts m agnificence f rom t he v illages a nd t owns b elow i n t he v alley , r einforcing t he d esired s tatus o f t he S avile f amily a mongst t he l ocal w oollen m erchants ( Baines 1 871, 4 47-8). T he e arthworks w hich i ndicate t he s ite o f t he h ouse ( stippled o n F ig 3 ) s tand t o ah eight o f c . 2 .5m a nd i ndicate t hat t he b uilding w as 5 5m t o 5 6m s quare b ased a round a c entral c ourtyard a pproximately 2 5m s quare. T here a re i ndications o f p rojecting t owers a t t he c orners. L ast c entury c learing o perations s uggested t his c ourtyard w as p aved ( Robinson 1 871). T wo w ell d efined r ubble f illed g aps c entral t o t he n orth a nd w est r anges a re m ost p robably o riginal e ntrances i nto t his c entral c ourtyard, t he p rincipal o ne a t t he w est, w hich p rojects f rom t he l ine o f t he f acade, a ligning e xactly o n t o t he r emains o f t he g atehouse ( a o n F ig 3 ). A t t he n orth-west o uter c orner o f t his p assageway a s ection o f a s tone d oor j amb a ppears t o b e s till i n s itu . T here i s n o s uggestion i n t he s urface e arthworks o f a ny g round l evel a ccess t o t he c ourtyard f rom t he o ther r anges. T he m ost i mmediately o bvious r emnant o f t he h ouse i s t he s tanding f abric s urmounting t he e arthwork a t t he e ast o f t he s outh r ange a lthough n umerous w all l ines a nd v aulted c ellars d o s urvive e lsewhere, p articularly a long t he e ast r ange, t o s uggest t hat t he l arge s cale s urvey t o b e u ndertaken a t 1 :200 w ould g ive a c learer i ndication o f t he l ayout. A long t he w est r ange a c ant i n t he w all l ine o f t he e xterior f acade, e xaggerated b y a b ulge i n t he e arthworks c entrally b etween t he p assageway a nd t he n orth-west c orner, m arks t he p robable s ite o f ap rojecting w indow b ay. A ppended t o t he e ast r ange o f t he h ouse a re t he w ell p reserved r emains o f aw alled p rivy g arden e xactly 4 0m s quare ( b o n F ig 3 ) w hich i s s et w ell b elow t he l evel o f a f lat t errace w hich f ronts t his s ide. T o m aintain a l evel f or t his g arden t he g round a t t he e ast a ppears t o h ave b een r aised a bove t he n atural g round s urface. W ithin t his p rivy g arden t here h as b een m uch t urf c utting f or g olf c ourse r epairs, b ut a f ew l ow e arthworks s urvive t o i ndicate t he p resence o f a s quare, s lightly r aised t errace o r p ath a round a n a rea c ontaining aw ell d efined c entrally p laced d epression, p ossibly t he s ite o f a s mall p ond.

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F ig 3 S ubstantial s carps w hich c ontinue t he l ines o f t he n orth a nd s outh s ides o f t he h ouse w estwards a nd w hich m aintain t he p rincipal a xial a lignment o f t he s ite m ark t he l imits o f a f lat s trip o f l and 8 8m n orth-west - s outh-east b y 5 5m w hich h as b een t erraced i nto t he g entle s outh f acing s lope. T erminating t he w est e nd o f t he s trip i s aw ell d efined, r aised r ectangular l evel a rea ( c o n F ig 3 ) m easuring 5 2m n orth-south b y 6 4m , c urrently h osting t he s eventeenth g reen, w hich i s t he s ite o f t he b owling g reen m arked o n t he 1 735 p lan a nd s imilarly i ndicated o n t he T ithe A ward o f 1 843. M assive s carps o n t he s outh s ide w hich r aise i t a bove t he s urrounding s urface, i ndicate t hat m uch l andscaping w as n ecessary t o a chieve b oth c ontinuity o f l evel a nd s ymmetry; s ections o f a s lightly r aised t errace 5 m i n w idth a re e vident a round t he p eriphery. T he e arthworks m arking t he n orth s ide

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o f t his b owling g reen o verlie r idge-and-furrow p loughing. T he e ast s ide i s r aised t o ah eight o f 1 .5m a bove t he l evel o f a f lat, f eatureless c ompartment m easuring 5 5m n orth-south b y 3 0m a nd w hich f orms t he f orecourt t o t he c entrally p laced g atehouse a long i ts e ast s ide. T he r emains o f t his g atehouse a re m arked b y a r ectangular m ounding, l argely o vergrown w ith w eeds a nd b rambles w hich c onceal t he l ower c ourses o f f inely d ressed a shlar w alling m arking t he s outh, w est a nd e ast s ides. P reliminary s urvey s uggests t his b uilding w as r ectangular, m easuring a pproximately 9 m n orth-south b y 6 .5m w ith a c entral p assageway. C entrally p laced a long t he w est s ide o f t he f orecourt a s loping b reak 3 m w ide p robably m arks t he s ite o f o riginal s teps l eading u p f rom t he f orecourt t o t he b owling g reen; a l ine o f s ight c an b e t raced f rom t he c entral p assageway o n t he w est f acade o f t he h ouse, t hrough t he g atehouse p assage d irectly o nto t his b reak f urther c onfirming t he s ymmetry o f i ts s iting. A t t he n orth-west c orner o f t his f orecourt a b reak 3 m t o 4 m w ide w ith f lanking s carps c urving a way t o t he n orth a nd w ith a g round l evel m aintaining t hat o f t he f orecourt i ndicates t he s ite o f t he o riginal e ntrance i nto t he e nclosed a rea. T he w esternmost o f t hese c urving s carps c an b e t raced a way t o t he w est f or a d istance o f s ome 1 00m o n a n a lignment p arallel w ith t he p rincipal a xis o f t he s ite, m arking t he s outh b oundary o f t he o riginal c arriage a pproach t o t he f orecourt ( d o n F ig 3 ). T he u nsympathetic a lignment o f t he e nclosure t o t he n orth ( e o n F ig 3 ) w ith t he a pproach a nd t he p rincipal a xis o f t he s ite, a nd t he w ay i ts s outh b oundary a ppears t o t runcate t he e ast f orecourt e ntrance s carp, s uggests t his e nclosure, a lthough s hown o n t he 1 735 p lan, p ost d ates t he o riginal s ymmetrical l ayout o f t he g ardens a nd e nclosures t o t he w est o f t he h ouse. A s light b ut s eemingly e ngineered h ollow w ay w hich c limbs t he s lope w est o f t he e ighteenth g reen i n t he d irection o f H owley H all F arm m ay b e ac ontinuation o f t he o riginal a pproach. Am iscellany o f e arthworks b etween t he g atehouse a nd t he w est s ide o f t he h all, a n a rea w hich i s a lmost e xactly 5 6m s quare, c an b e a ttributed t o t he l ayout o f t he f arm d epicted o n t he 1 894 O S m ap , c ompounded b y m odern l andscaping a nd t urf c utting. H owever a mongst t hese l ate f eatures i t i s s till p ossible t o o bserve e arlier e arthworks w hich i ndicate an orth-south d ivision o f t his a rea i nto t wo e xact h alves w ith t he e ast s ector d isplaying e vidence o f a c entral s lightly r aised d rive 6 m w ide b etween t he g atehouse a nd t he m ain e ntrance t o t he h all. F ronting t he w est f acade a re a s eries o f t wo, p ossibly t hree, s tepped t erraces e ach n o m ore t han 0 .3m h igh, f ronted a t t he s outh b y a r aised r ectangular a rea, n ow b adly d amaged b y t urf c utting, a nd w hich a re p ossible r emnants o f a f ormal p arterre o utside t he m ain e ntrance t o t he h ouse. T he s ense o f o rder a nd s ymmetry o f l ayout o f t hese e nclosed a reas w hich m irror t he s ize a nd l ayout o f t he h ouse i tself a t a pproximately 5 6m s quare i s c learly d emonstrated i n t his a rea w est o f t he h ouse. F urther e arthwork e nclosures t o t he s outh a ppear t o h ave b een o riginally w alled ( footings a re v isible i n s ome e xposed p laces), t he l argest d irectly s outh o f t he h ouse r epeats t he 5 6m s quare l ayout. T here a re s light s uggestions o f t erraces o r p athways p arallel t o t he m ain a xis o f t he s ite w ithin t hese e nclosures. T here i s a lso a s uggestion o f s ome a ttempt a t l andscaping o r l evelling a long t he e scarpment t op o n t his s outh s ide. S ome o f t he e arthworks a re o f am orphology s imilar t o o thers i n t he g arden l ayout b ut a re s kewed t o t he m ain a xis a nd d isplay c hronological d epth, a lthough i t i s n ot y et p ossible t o d etermine t he c ontext f or t his a rrangement.

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T o t he n orth o f t he h ouse, i n t he c entre o f t he s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth f airways, a re t hree r aised l arge p arallel g arden e arthwork t erraces a pparently d efining t wo r ectangular ' sunken' c ompartments o f e qual s ize, 4 0m w ide b y 8 6m l ong ( f a nd g o n F ig 3 ). A lthough c learly l aid o ut i n r elation t o t he h ouse t hese t erraces s it s lightly s kewed t o t he p rincipal a lignment o f t he s ite. E ach o f t hese t erraces i s d ifferent. T he w esternmost m easures 9 .5m w ide b y 0 .7m h igh, i s f lat a nd t erraced i nto a s light e ast f acing s lope; a n e mbanked s ection, 0 .6m h igh a long i ts w est e dge a t t he n orth e nd, w hich h as b een i ncorporated a s a g olf h azard, p robably r epresents t he r emains o f a w all f eature. T he c entral t errace, 9 .5m w ide a nd 1 m h igh, h as a m ore r ounded p rofile a nd i s d irectly a ligned w ith t he p assageway t hrough t he n orth r ange o f t he h ouse. T he e asternmost t errace i s t he m ost s ubstantial o f t he t hree b eing o verall 1 5m w ide a nd 1 .3m h igh w ith a b road f lat t op 1 1m i n w idth. A ll t hree t erraces a re w ell e ngineered t o m aintain a c onstant l evel, a nd a lthough p ossibly w alled ( as i ndicated o n t he 1 711 d rawing ) m ost l ikely c onstituted as ystem o f l evel w alking t erraces o verlooking d isplay g ardens b elow , c onnected b y t he c ommon t errace w hich a buts t he n orth s ide o f t he h ouse. U nder g ood l ow s unlight c onditions, a l ow r aised c auseway r unning c entral t o t he l ongest a xis o f t he w est ' sunken ' g arden c an b e o bserved. T wo f urther c ompartments ( h a nd j o n F ig 3 ), a lso o f s imilar s ize, a re e videnced b y s light s carps, t he l atter h aving r emains o f w alling o n t he s outh s ide. O f t he t hree m ain t erraces, b oth t he w esternmost a nd t he e asternmost a ppear t o h ave e xtended f urther n orth t han t he c entral o ne, a nd c an b e t raced i nto s mall s helter-belt w here t hey a ppear t o b e a bruptly t runcated b y t he p lanting o f t he t rees. I f t he l ayout e xhibited i n t he e arthworks i s c ompared w ith t he p lan o f 1 735 ( Fig 2 a ) i t c an b e s een t hat t here i s a c lose c orrelation b etween t he t wo a nd i t i s p ossible t o s uggest t hat t he d ecorative g ardens d epicted n orth o f t he h ouse o n t hat p lan c an b e e quated t o t he ' sunken ' c ompartments ( f a nd g ), p ossibly t he p arlour g ardens r eferred t o b y S catcherd w hilst t he o rchard c an b e e quated w ith t he c ompartment t o t he e ast ( j ). C rossing t he n orth o f t hese t erraces, a nd p arallel t o t he m ain a lignment t o t he h ouse a nd f orecourt a rea i s a s hallow t rench-like d epression 1 m w ide, r esulting f rom t he r obbing-out o f a w all ( a f eature c orresponding w ith t he p osition o f t his i s d epicted o n t he 1 735 p lan ), w hich d espite i ts a lignment w ith t he p rincipal a xis o f t he s ite i mpinges u ncomfortably w ith t he e arthworks m arking t he n orth l imits o f t he s unken g ardens. I t i s p ossible t he s lightly s kewed t erraced g ardens p re-date t he s ymmetrical w alled l ayout, s uggesting a r emodelling o f t he g ardens o n t his s ide. H owever, i t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he m isalignment i s n ot s ignificant a nd t he l arge t erraces a nd w alling a re c ontemporary, w ith t he t erraces h aving c ontinued o utside t he w alled a rea a s r eturning w alks. I t i s h oped t hat f urther i nvestigation o f t his a rea d uring t he L evel T wo s urvey w ill r esolve t his q uestion.

C onclusion I f, a s h as b een s uggested b y S catcherd, t here w ere a dditions t o t he h ouse d uring t he m id s eventeenth c entury, i t i s p ossible t hat t he g arden l ayout i tself m ay h ave b een s ubjected t o s ympathetic a lteration; e qually p ossible i s t hat t he g arden l ayout m ay h ave e volved i n r esponse t o c hanging g arden f ashion. A s y et n o d irect a nd u nequivocal e vidence h as b een o bserved o f p hasing o r l arge s cale

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r emodelling w ithin t he g ardens w hich m ay r eflect s uch c hanges, a nd i t m ay b e t hat t he f orm d isplayed h ere i s i n t he m ain c ontemporary w ith t he f oundation o f t he h ouse, a lthough a f ew e arthworks t o t he s outhw est o f t he h ouse n ear t he e scarpment e dge m ay r epresent f eatures e arlier t han t he s ymmetrical l ayout o f t he g ardens o n t his s ide, a nd t he l ack o f s ymmetry i n t he t erraced c ompartments t o t he n orth m ay a lso i ndicate c hanges. C loser e xamination d uring t he L evel T wo s urvey o f a reas s uch a s t hese w hich s uggest c hronological d epth m ay p rovide a c lear u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment o n t his s ite. A t H owley H all t he n on-destructive p rocess o f m easured f ield s urvey i s b eing a pplied i n a n e ffort b oth t o r ecord a nd u nderstand t he e arthworks o f t his o nce g reat E lizabethan r esidence. T his s ame p rocess h as b een a pplied t o m any h undreds o f s ites o f a ll p eriods i n N orman Q uinnell's c areer a s a f ield a rchaeologist a nd s urveyor, b oth w ith t he O rdnance S urvey a nd l atterly w ith R CHME. E xpertise w hich h as b een b uilt u p b y N orman i n h is c areer i n t he r ecognition, i nterpretation a nd r ecording o f a rchaeological s ites, h as b een p assed o n t o m any o f h is j unior c olleagues i n t heir e arly c areers a s f ield a rchaeologists. B eing o ne o f t hose j unior c olleagues I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y t hanks.

A cknowledgements G ratitude i s e xpressed t o t he D irectors o f t he H owley H all G olf C lub f or p ermission t o u ndertake t his s urvey ; p articular t hanks g o t o M rs A udrey P epper, S ecretary o f t he C lub f or h er c ontinued p ractical a ssistance. T he c ontrol f ramework f or t he s urvey w as p rovided b y R CHME a nd s pecial t hanks a re e xtended t o s taff o f t hat o rganisation, p articularly P aul E verson f or o rganising t his c ontribution, a nd t o M arcus J ecock f or a ssistance o n s ite. F urther c ontributions a nd c omments f rom t he f ollowing s ources a re g ratefully a cknowledged; D r N eil C ookson, S ites a nd M onuments R ecords O fficer f or W est Y orkshire f or m aking d ocumentary i nformation a vailable a nd u seful d ialogue o n s ite; D r T .H. C ocke a nd C olum G iles o f R CHME f or c omments o n t he a rchitectural s tyle o f H owley H all; M essrs G . a nd D . A tkinson f or h elp i n p roviding r esearch m aterial a nd r eadily s haring t heir d etailed k nowledge o f l ocal h istory a nd d ocumentation f or t his a rea; M iss R . W atson, f or s upplying d ocumentary i nformation f rom N orthamptonshire R ecord O ffice. A ny e rrors a re, o f c ourse, t he r esponsibility o f t he a uthor.

B ibliography A non 1 888 T he O ld P resby terian C hapel , B rad ford . B r adford A nt iq I . A tkinson , DK1 973 l er ley B oroug h 1 886197 4 . M orley B orough C ouncil . B a ines , T1 871 Y ork sh ire P ast a nd P resent , V ol I. M ackenzie , L ondon . C amden , W1 610 B r itann ia . G irouard , M1 983 R ob ert S my thso t 2 a nd t he E lizabethan C o untry H o use , r ev e d . L instrum , D1 978 W est Y orksh ire A rch itec ts a nd A rch itec ture . L und H umphries , L on don . P arsons , D1 836 T he D ia ry o f S ir H enry S lingsby , B art . L on do n . R ob inson , JR 1 871 H ow ley H a ll . N orth o f E ng land 7 ' r ac tates 9 , 1 -6 . R CHME 1 986 R ura l H ouses o f W est Y ork sh ire . H MSO , L ondon . S catcherd , N1 874 H isto ry o f M or ley . W1 881 O ld Y orksh ire , V o l 1 .

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S mith , W1 886 M or ley : A nc ient a nd M odern . W ard , N1 973 T here 's N o P lace L ike M or ley . T he R id ings P ublish ing C o ., D riffield . W hitaker , D r 1 816 H istory o f L eeds , V o l . I I : L o id is a nd E lmete . W ood , G1 916 S to ry o f M or ley .

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2 0: S ONERSHAN P ALACE, C AMBRIDGESHIRE: AM EDIEVAL L ANDSCAPE F OR P LEASURE?

C .C. T aylor

T he s ite o f t he m edieval p alace o f t he s outh s ide o f t he v illage o f S omersham o n t wo e ast-flowing s treams ( TL 3 59775; F ig w as g iven t o E ly A bbey b y E arl B rithnoth t he a bbey 's e xtensive e states u ntil t he 1 926, 3 42a; 1 932, 2 24).

b ishops o f E ly l ies o n t he t he f lat i nterfluve b etween 1 ). T he m anor o f S omersham i n 9 91 a nd r emained p art o f e arly t welfth c entury ( VC I I

i

S OMERSHAM V I LLAGE

B ishop 's P a lace a nd

D eer P ark

.

F ig 1

1 000

S omersham P arish ,

2 000 metres

0

V illage ,

P ark , P alace a nd G ardens.

I n 1 109 t he m anor w as t ransferred t o t he n ewly e stablished b ishopric o f E ly a nd t hus b ecame p art o f t he b ishop's e state. A lthough t he s ite m ay h ave b een u sed a s ar esidence b y t he a bbots b efore 1 109 i t i s n ot u ntil t he l ater t welfth c entury t hat i ts

2 11

f unction i s c lear. F rom t hen o n S omersham b ecame a n e piscopal r esidence o f s ome i mportance. N ot o nly w as i t r elatively c lose t o E ly i tself, b ut i t w as a lso a t t he e nd o f t he f irst s tage o f m ost j ourneys m ade b y t he b ishops f rom E ly t o L ondon. A s a r esult t he m edieval b ishops w ere f requently a t S omersham a nd t he p alace w as a lso u sed a s a s topping p lace o n v arious r egal p erambulations. B y t he f ifteenth c entury t he p alace w as r arely u sed a nd t hough s ome b uilding w ork a pparently t ook p lace t here i n t he e arly s ixteenth c entury , i n 1 520 B ishop W est d escribed i t a s h is ' poor h owse'. A d etailed s urvey m ade i n 1 588 i ndicates t hat t he b uilding w as s till i n a d ilapidated s tate. I n 1 600 t he m anor p assed t o t he C rown u nder a n a greement t o e xchange l ands, a nd f rom 1 620 i t w as l eased t o av ariety o f t enants. T he p alace b uilding w as c ertainly r uinous b y t he e nd o f t he s eventeenth c entury a nd w as p ulled d own i n 1 762. T he 1 588 s urvey a nd t o a l esser e xtent a s urvey o f 1 653 g ives d etails o f t he p alace, t hough t hese p rovide l ittle i nformation a bout t he a rrangements o f b uildings b eyond t he f act t hey w ere l aid o ut a round t wo c ourts ( VCH 1 932, 2 25-26). T he d ocumentary h istory o f t he p alace, s light t hough i t i s, s uggests t hat p erhaps t he m ain p eriod o f o ccupation o f S omersham w as i n t he t welfth t o f ourteenth c enturies a nd t hat l ittle i n t he w ay o f m ajor c hanges t ook p lace a fter t hat. T his i s p articularly i mportant w hen t he s urrounding e arthworks a re c onsidered. T he e arthworks w hich s urvive a round t he s ite o f t he p alace a re i n r easonable c ondition a part f rom s ome p eripheral d amage a nd t here a re a lso a ssociated s oil a nd c ropmarks. T hey f all i nto f our s eparate p arts w hich c an b e c onveniently d escribed i n c onventional t erms a s a m oat, t wo s ets o f f ishponds, a d eer p ark a nd a f urther s mall m oated s ite a nd a ssociated b anks ( Fig 2 ). T he m oated s ite , c overing 1 1ha, l ies o n t he h ighest p art o f t he i nterfluve b etween t he t wo s treams. I ts s urrounding d itch h as t wo q uite d istinct f orms. T he w estern h alf b ounds t he n orth, w est a nd p art o f t he s outh s ide o f a r ectangular a rea a nd c omprises a m assive d itch 1 3m w ide a nd u p t o 3 m d eep, f ed b y t he s tream w hich e nters t he n orth-west c orner. T here i s w hat i s p robably a n o riginal c ausewayed e ntrance n ear t he s outh-west c orner. A part f rom a s hort l ength a t t he w estern e nd t here i s n o d itch o n t he s outh s ide o f t he m oat. N or i s i t l ikely t hat t here e ver w as o ne. T he n orth s ide o f aw alled e nclosure, n ow o ccupied b y f arm b uildings ( see b elow ), c ontinues t he a lignment o f t he m oat. T he e astern h alf o f t he m oated s ite i s q uite d ifferent i n c haracter. I n p lan i t f orms a n e xtended h alf c ircle b ut i t i s t he s urrounding m oat w hich d istinguishes i t f rom t he w estern h alf o f t he s ite. T hough t he m oat h as b een g reatly a ltered a nd d amaged a long t he n orthern s ide i t i s c lear t hat t he o riginal f orm o f t he e ntire m oat i n t his h alf o f t he s ite w as ab road d itch u p t o 2 2m a cross, w ith t he a ctual w atercourse l ittle m ore t han a n arrow s hallow s tream 1 .5m w ide c ut i nto i ts b ase. T he e ffect w as t o p roduce a w ide ' berm ' b etween t he s tream a nd t he i nner s ide o f t he d itch. T he o verall r esult i s o f a ' moat' w hich i s c ertainly n on-defensive a nd t o s ome e xtent, a t l east t oday , p icturesque i n i ts a ppearance. A t t he e xtreme e ast e nd o f t his p art o f t he m oated s ite i s aw ell-marked i nner b ank u p t o l m h igh,

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a pparently o f s tone r ubble. T he s outh s ide o f t he m oat t erminates s hort o f t he w alled e nclosure a s d oes i ts c ounterpart t o t he w est. T here i s n o i ndication t hat i t n ever e xtended f urther w est. T he i nterior o f t he s ite i s a lmost f lat. A part f rom a m odern b ungalow n ear t he c entre o f t he n orth s ide a nd t he n ow r uinous e arly n ineteenth c entury S omersham P ark H ouse j ust w est o f t he c entre, i t i s a ll p ermanent p asture a nd t hus a n umber o f m inor e arthworks a re v isible. A round P ark H ouse a nd w est o f t he b ungalow t here i s d isturbed g round. S ome o f t his d isturbance r elates t o a n a pproach d rive f rom t he n orth-west a nd a c ircular g arden, b oth a ssociated w ith P ark H ouse a nd s hown o n t he i st e d 2 500 O rdnance S urvey p lan o f 1 886.

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T races a re v isible o f a nother t rackway p assing d irectly a cross t he s ite, f rom t he n orthern a pproach r oad a nd b ridge. T his i s a lso m arked o n t he s ame O S p lan. A part f rom a d iagonal s hallow d itch n orth-west o f P ark H ouse, t he m ajority o f t he r est o f t he v isible f eatures w ithin t he m oated s ite f orm a r ectangular p attern o f s mall a reas e nclosed b y l ow b anks, s carps a nd d itches. I n t he e astern p art o f t he i nterior o ne o f t hese e nclosures i s o ccupied o n t he s outh s ide b y a s mall r ectangular p ond w hich d rains i nto a l arger m arshy d epression t o i ts e ast. T his p ond i s m arked o n t hl T ithe M ap o f S omersham o f 1 842. I n t he w estern p art o f t he i nterior a l ow b ank a nd s carp p arallel t o e ach o ther a ppear t o m ark a t rack f rom t he s outh-west c auseway t o ap oint j ust s outh-west o f P ark H ouse. T he m ain a pproach r oad t o t he m oated s ite f rom t he n orth c rosses o n am odern c oncrete c ulvert a t t he p oint w here t he t wo f orms o f m oat d itch j oin. I n 1 926 t he R oyal C ommission r ecorded a b ridge h ere. I t h ad a n a rch o f ' modern' b rick w hich s prang f rom a shlar a butments p erhaps o f m edieval d ate, s uggesting t hat t he e ntrance i nto t he s ite w as a lways i n t his p osition. T his i dea i s c onfirmed b y t he f act t hat, i mmediately t o t he n orth, t he a pproach r oad r uns o n a f lat-topped r aised c auseway. T he c auseway w as o nce a lso t he m edial d am b etween t wo l arge r ectangular f ishponds w hich l ay i n t he b ottom o f t he v alley o f t he n orthern s treams. T he e astern p ond h as n ow b een e ntirely d estroyed b y am odern h ousing e state. I ts d etails o n F ig 2 a re t aken f rom O S 1 :2500 p lans b ut t he l arger w estern o ne r emains a lmost c ompletely i ntact a nd i s b ounded b y am assive b ank o r s carp u p t o 2 .5m h igh. I mmediately s outh o f t he e ast s ection o f t he m oated s ite i s a l ine o f f our s mall f ishponds u p t o 1 .5m d eep, a ll o f w hich w ere p robably o nce r ectangular a nd w hich i ncrease i n s ize f rom w est t o e ast. T hese l ie o n t he n orth s ide o f as ub-rectangular a rea, b ounded o n t he n orth b y t he m oat, o n t he w est b y t he r aised c auseway k nown a s L ady 's W alk l eading s outh, o n t he s outh b y an ow d egraded b ank a nd o uter d itch a nd o n t he e ast b y am odern d yke b eyond w hich i s am assive f lat-topped b ank a nd o uter d itch. A part f rom a m inor s carp, m odern p loughing a nd r eseeding h as d estroyed a ny f eatures w hich m ay o nce h ave e xisted w ithin t his a rea. T o t he w est o f t he r aised c auseway i s a nother, m atching, s ubr ectangular a rea a lmost e xactly t he s ame i n s ize a nd s hape a s t hat t o t he e ast. I ts s outh b oundary i s n ow m arked b y am odern f arm t rack a nd d rain, t hough t his c ertainly e xisted a s ab oundary i n 1 842, w hile t he w estern l imit a ppears t o h ave b een n ot t he d rain a round t he m odern f armyard b ut ab ank, n ow d estroyed f urther w est ( see b elow ). T he n orthern b oundary i s, i n p art, a s hort s ection o f t he m ain m oat. T he i nterior o f t his a rea i s l argely o ccupied b y n ineteenth c entury a nd l ater f arm b uildings, b ut t hese h ave b een i nserted i nto a r ectangular w alled g arden 9 0m b y 7 0m. T he w all s till s tands u p t o 2 .5m h igh a nd i s c onstructed o f n arrow r ed b rick s aid t o b e o f s ixteenth c entury d ate ( RCHME 1 926, S omersham ( 4 )). T here i s am odern o pening i n t he n orthern s ide g iving a ccess t o t he f armyard a nd t he s outh-eastern c orner h as b een r emoved b y t he c onstruction i n t he e ighteenth c entury o f a c ottage a nd i ts y ard. T he p resent o pening i n t he c entre o f t he s outh s ide i s, h owever, o riginal f or i t s till r etains t he s tone p iers f or a 4 .5m w ide g ate. N ear t he c entre o f t he e astern p art o f t he n orth s ide i s a l m w ide o riginal o pening w ith t he s pringing o f a f our-

2 14

c entred h ead. T o t he s outh o f t hese t wo a reas t he l and i s a lmost e ntirely a rable. H owever a s eries o f a ir p hotographs t aken b y t he R AF, a c ommercial c ompany a nd C ambridge U niversity C ommittee f or A erial P hotography, b etween 1 946 a nd 1 975 n ot o nly s how t hat t his a rea w as o nce o ccupied b y v arious e arthworks b ut a lso r ecord t heir p rogressive d estruction ( Meridien; R AF; C UCAP ). T he e arthworks w ere c onfined w ithin a l arge a rea o f r oughly t rapezoidal s hape, a ttached t o t he s outh s ide o f t he m oat a nd w ith t he t wo p aired r ectangular a reas c ontaining t he w alled g arden a nd t he l ine o f f ishponds ( described a bove) o ccupying t he n orthern p art. T his t rapezoidal-shaped a rea w as b ounded o n t he w est b y w hat a ppears t o h ave b een a b road f lat-topped b ank, p erhaps w ith d itches o n e ither s ide. T he b ank s prang r om t he s outh-western c orner o f t he m ain m oat a nd r an s outh-west f or s ome 3 70m a t w hich p oint i t t urned s outh-east a nd f aded o ut. I ts a lignment i s c ontinued t o t he e at b y a m odern d rain ( recorded a s a f ield b oundary i n 1 842) w hich c rosses L ady 's W alk a nd, a fter a s hort d og-leg, e xtends a s f ar a s t he p arish b oundary. T he m odern d rain h ere t urns n orth-west f ollowing t he p arish b oundary. O n i ts e ast s ide a nd c ontinuing n orthw est t o t he s outh-east c orner o f t he m ain m oat i s ab road f lat-topped b ank a nd o uter d itch. T he f orm o f t his b ank a nd t he e vidence f rom t he a ir p hotographs s uggest t hat c ertainly t he w estern b oundary o f t his t rapezoidal a rea w as a lso a f lat-topped b ank a nd t hus p ossibly t he s outh b oundary a s w ell. T he t rapezoidal a rea i s b isected b y t he r aised c auseway o r t rack ( Lady 's W alk ) r unning s outh f rom t he m ain m oat. T he e nclosures t hus f ormed o n e ither s ide h ad v arious i nterior f eatures, n ow o nly v isible o n a ir p hotographs. I n t he e xtreme s outh-western o f t he w estern h alf w as f ormerly a s mall m oated s ite . T his s hown a s a s mall s quare i sland s urrounded b y am arshy d itch o n a ll O S p lans u p u ntil 1 972 b y w hich t ime i t h ad b een d estroyed. T oday o nly a s mall s catter o f s tone f ragments m arks i ts p osition. A ir p hotographs s how t he r emains o f t his m oat t ogether w ith s light t races o f w hat w as p robably a n o uter d itch o n i ts n orth a nd e ast a nd f urther d itches f orming a s mall r ectangular e nclosure t o t he e ast. A n i rregular d ark p atch t o t he e ast a gain m ay h ave b een a s mall p ond. A f urther s ubdivision o f t his h alf o f t he t rapezoidal e nclosure w as m arked b y a nother l ong f latt opped b ank e xtending s outh f rom a nd a ligned u pon t he w est e nd o f t he w alled e nclosure t o t he n orth. I t c rossed t he a rea a nd t erminated a gainst t he m odern d rain. B etween t his b ank a nd L ady 's W alk a ir p hotographs s how t hat t here w ere f ormerly f our e xactly s traight l ow r idges p arallel t o t he b ank a nd t o t he w alk, h aving t he g eneral a ppearance o f r idge-and-furrow. T o t he e ast o f t he c auseway t he e astern h alf o f t he t rapezoidal a rea w as a lso s ubdivided i nto t wo p arts, b ut h ere a pparently b y ad itch, t he n orthern h alf o f w hich s till s urvives i n p asture. A t i ts s outhern e nd t his d itch c urved b efore i t m et t he m odern d rain. B etween t his d itch a nd t he W alk a ir p hotographs s how a b road r oughly r ectangular d ark a rea, a gain p erhaps a f ormer p ond. T o t he e a. o f t he d itch a ir p hotographs s how t wo o ther f eatures w ithin t he t rapezoidal a rea, o ne a s mall s quare e nclosure a nd, i n t he s outh-eastern c orner a nother d ark o void f eature w hich w as c ertainly w ater-filled i n 1 969. A ll t he a bove f eatures, e xcept f or t he t wo l arge n orthern f ishponds, l ie w ithin a nd a gainst t he n orth-eastern s ide o f a l arge

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d eer p ark c overing s ome 2 50ha a nd e xtending s outh o n t o t he r ising g round w hich r eaches a m aximum h eight o f 8 2ft ( 30m ) a bove O D ( Fig 1 ). F rom t his h igh g round t he e ntire c omplex o f e arthworks a nd f ormer e arthworks w ould h ave b een c learly v isible. T he p ark i s b ounded b y c ontinuous c urving h edge-lines o n i ts n orthern, n orth-western, s outhern a nd e astern s ides a nd m arked b y a s ubstantial b ank u p t o 1 .75m h igh a long i ts e xtreme s outhern e dge. O nly o n t he s outh-western s ide i s t here n o c lear b oundary , t his p erhaps h aving b een d estroyed w hen t he a djacent l and o f t he f ormer S omersham H eath w as e nclosed i n t he n ineteenth c entury. T hese f eatures h ave b een d escribed i n t erms o f a ccepted a rchaeological t erminology a nd h istorical f unction. H owever i f t hey a re c onsidered i n t heir o verall s etting a nd t ogether w ith s ome f urther l imited d ocumentary i nformation, a s omewhat d ifferent i nterpretation i s p ossible. A n e piscopal p alace s uch a s t his w ould b e e xpected t o h ave h ad, a t l east b y t he f ifteenth c entury a nd p erhaps e arlier, g ardens a ssociated w ith i t. C ertainly b y t he l ate s ixteenth c entury g ardens d id e xist a t S omersham t hough t hey w ere p erhaps n ot t hen k ept u p. I n t he 1 588 s urvey a mongst t he m any r ooms l isted i s a ' chamber u pon t he g arden' a nd ' one o ther l ittle c hamber l ooking i nto a l ittle c ourt b y t he g arden'. T his i mplies t hat a g arden o r g ardens l ay a t t his t ime w ithin t he m oat, p resumably a round o r t o o ne s ide o f t he p alace b uilding. T hat g ardens e xisted m uch e arlier i s s een b y t he r ecords o f f ees p aid t o t he c hief g ardeners a t S omersham i n 1 169-72 ( Harvey 1 981, 1 2) a nd f rom a d ocument o f 1 327 w hich, i n l isting t he B ishop's s ervants e mployed o n t he m anor o f S omersham , g ives a g ardener ( Miller 1 951, 9 1). A g arden c overing 4 a cres ( 1.6ha ) a nd t wo f ishponds a re s pecifically l isted a s p art o f t he b ishop's m anor i n 1 279 ( Rot H und , 6 05). I t i s t herefore l ikely t hat s ome f orm o f g arden l ay w ithin t he m oat a s e arly a s t he t welfth c entury a nd p resumably s till e xisted i n t he e arly t o m id f ourteenth c entury, i ncidentally s hortly b efore a k nown v isit o f E dward I II i n 1 334 ( Y U 1 932, 2 25). T he m ain m oat a round t he p alace c an t herefore b e s een n ot a s a s emi-defensive p rotection f or t he p alace i tself b ut a s ab ack-cloth t o f ormal g ardens w ithin i t, a n h ypothesis w hich t he a ctual f orm o f t he m oat a s w ell a s t he i nternal f eatures s upports. T his a rrangement, h owever, w ould h ave o nly p roduced a r elatively s mall g arden o f n o m ore t han 3 .5ha, i ncluding t he a rea o f t he p alace i tself, t hough t his i s c onsiderably m ore t han t he 1 .6ha g arden o f 1 279 w hich a lso i ncluded t he p alace. M ore s ignificant a re t he t wo f ishponds t o t he n orth o f t he m oat. T hey l ie o n e ither s ide o f t he a pproach r oad t o t he p alace, a gainst t he m oat, a nd w hen f illed w ould h ave p roduced f or v isitors t o t he p alace t he e ffect o f c rossing a b road s heet o f w ater o n a n e mbankment. T hese p onds d o n ot h ave t o b e s et i n t his p articular s pot. G iven t he l ocal t opography t hey c ould h ave b een c onstructed b oth f urther u p o r d ownstream o f t heir p resent p osition o r i ndeed i n t he a djacent v alley t o t he s outh. I f i ndeed t heir o nly p urpose w as t he u tilitarian o ne o f p roducing f ish f or t he t able, t hen p erhaps a b etter s ite f or t hem w ould h ave b een o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he m oat. Y et t he t wo p onds a re p laced i n aw ay t hat m ust s urely i mply a n a esthetic m otive a s w ell a s a p urely f unctional o ne. T he

i nterpretation o f t he f eatures o n

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t he s outh s ide o f t he m oat

i s m ore d ifficult. T he f our s mall p onds c ould b e e ither f unctional f ishponds o r s ome f orm o f w ater d ecoration f or t he r ectangular p addock i n w hich t hey l ie. T o t he e ast o f t hese p onds t here w as c ertainly , b y t he s ixteenth c entury , t he w alled g arden p artly b reaking i nto t he l ine o f t he m oat a nd b eyond , a gain b y t he m id n ineteenth c entury , a nd w as a f urther r ectangular p addock w hich a lso o verlay t he l ine o f t he m oat. T his a rea, i ncluding t hat o f t he w alled g arden, w as n ot o nly a lmost e xactly t he s ame a rea a s t he p addocks a nd p onds t o t he e ast ( 1.069 a nd 1 .084ha r espectively ) b ut a lso, g iven t he s lightly c urving n ature o f t he m oat o n t he e ast, a lmost e xactly t he s ame s hape. T hey a re s eparated b y t he e xisting t rackway , L ady 's W alk, i tself e xactly o pposite t he m ain a pproach r oad f rom t he r oad f rom t he n orth o n t he o ther s ide o f t he m oat. T his m ay n ot b e f ortuitous. B eyond t he p addocks a re t he s played b anks, t he f ormer m oated s ite a nd o ther f eatures a ll v isible o n a ir p hotographs. T he m oated s ite, i f i t h ad s tood a lone, w ithin t he d eer p ark, m ight h ave b een i nterpreted a s a p ark k eeper's l odge a s i n m any c ases e lsewhere ( e.g. R CHME 1 975, x lii). H owever, i ts r elationship t o t he b ank a nd t hat o f t he b anks t o t he p alace m oat d emand a d ifferent i nterpretation a nd p oint t o i ts f unction a s p art o f t he b ishop 's g arden. T he a pparent a dditional p onds t o t he e ast g ive f urther s upport t o t his i dea. A n a lmost e xact p arallel i s t he m oated h erbarium , p ond a nd e xternal d rains o r d itches, a t P eterborough A bbey , f irst r ecorded i n 1 721 b ut a pparently l aid o ut o n 1 302. T he P leasance o f K enilworth C astle ( 1414-17) h as m uch t he s ame f orm t hough i t i s, o f c ourse, l arger ( Harvey 1 981, 8 5, 1 06-7; C olvin 1 963, 6 82-85). I f t his m oated s ite i s i ndeed a p leasance t hen t he w hole o f t he s outhern p art o f t he t rapezoidal a rea m ust a lso b e p art o f t he p alace g ardens. T he f lat-topped b oundary b anks t ogether w ith t hat t o t he w est o f L ady 's W alk m ay b e r aised w alkways w hile ' ridge-and-furrow ' c ould b e t he s ite o f a f ormally p lanned o rchard. T he o ther p ossible p onds t o t he e ast w ould f it i n w ell w ith t his i dea. I f t his i nterpretation i s c orrect t hen t his s outhern g arden e nclosure i s i n a s ignificant p osition i n r elation t o t he d eer p ark , i n t hat i t e xtends w ell i nto t he d eer p ark i tself r ather t han a butting a gainst i t. T his m ight m ean t hat e ither t he g arden e nclosure i s l ater t han t he l aying o ut o f t he d eer p ark o r t hat t he e nclosure h as b een d eliberately p ositioned s o t hat t he p ark f orms a b ack-drop t o t he g arden o n t wo s ides. T his l atter i nterpretation w ould s uggest t hat t he d eer p ark t oo i s n ot m erely a f unctional a ttachment t o t he b ishops' p alace b ut f ormed a n a esthetic l ink t o t he g ardens t hemselves. T he p ossibility t hat t he g ardens a nd p erhaps t he p alace w ere m eant t o b e v iewed f rom t he r ising g round i nside t he p ark i s i mportant h ere. I t t hus s eems p ossible t hat m oats, f ishponds, r oads, e nclosures a nd e ven t he d eer p ark w ere p art o f ad eliberate a rrangement i ntended t o e nhance t he v isual a ppearance o f t he b ishop's p alace a nd t o p lace i t w ithin a n e ntirely m an-made a nd o rdered l andscape. T here i s y et a f urther a spect o f t his a pparent a im v isible i n t he r elationship b etween t he p alace s ite a nd v illage o f S omersham i tself a s w ell a s i ts p arish c hurch. T he m ain e ast t o w est r oad a cross S omersham p arish t urns a nd r uns i n a b road a rc a t t he p oint w here i t f orms S omersham H igh S treet, l eaving t he p arish c hurch o ddly s ited

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a way f rom t he v illage c entre a nd h alf-way a long t he r oad b etween t he c entral c ross-roads i n t he v illage a nd t he s ite o f t he p alace ( Figs 1 a nd 3 ). Am ore o bvious a nd t opographically m ore s uitable a lignment o f t his r oad, a nd t hus t he m ain v illage s treet, w ould h ave b een t o t he s outh o f t he c hurch. S uch a l ine w ould t hen h ave p laced t he c hurch a t t he c entral c ross-roads t o t he v illage w ith t he e ntrance t o t he b ishop's p alace c lose b y. C ould t his h ave o riginally b een s o?

0

1 00

F ig 3

3 00 me tres

S omersham V illage; 1 842 T ithe N ap .

T wo p ieces o f i nformation s upport t his. F irst, a t t he w est e nd o f t he v illage, a t t he p oint w here t he H igh S treet t urns n orth-east t o b egin i ts n orthward c urve, t he T ithe M ap o f 1 842 s hows a s hort l ane o r c ul-de-sac c ontinuing t he l ine o f t he m ain r oad a l ittle f urther t o t he e ast ( Fig 3 ). T his l ane r an f or s ome 7 0m a nd t hen t erminated a bruptly. I f e xtended e ast t he l ine o f t his l ane w ould h ave p assed b etween t he c hurch a nd t he f ishponds a long a nother s hort l ane s hown o n t he T ithe M ap a nd n ow k nown a s P infold L ane, i mmediately s outh o f t he c hurchyard. T his s uggested a lignment w ould t hen h ave r ejoined t he m ain v illage s treet a t t he p oint w here i t c ompletes i ts n orthern a rc a nd b egins t o r un w est a gain. S econd, t hough t he o lder v illage c loses a nd c rofts h ave a lmost a ll b een a ltered o r d estroyed, n otably b y l arge-scale m odern d evelopments n orth o f t he H igh S treet, t he T ithe M ap s hows t hem c omplete. P articularly o n t he n orth s ide o f t he v illage t he p roperties a re s hown a s l ong a nd n arrow a nd s ome w ith i ncipient r eversed-S c urves. T his s uggests t hat t hey w ere f ormed b y t he e nclosure o f f ormer o pen f ield s trips a nd t hat t he v illage i s t hus l aid o ut o ver e arlier a rable.

t he

O ne f urther p oint i s w orth n oting. A t t he c entral c ross-roads i n v illage t here o nce s tood a m arket c ross, d ocumented i n t he

2 18

f ifteenth a nd s ixteenth c enturies. I t p resumably i ndicated t he p osition o f t he m edieval a nd l ater m arkets h eld t here ( VCH 1 932, 2 23). T he r oughly t riangular a rea, c entred o n t he c ross, o nly 4 0m a cross, s eems r ather s mall f or a m arket p lace u nless s ome e ncroachment h as t aken p lace. T hat t his m ay b e s o i s i ndicated b y t he s hort n orth t o s outh l ane o n t he s outh s ide o f t he H igh S treet 9 0m w est o f t he c ross, w ell p ortrayed o n t he T ithe M ap. A r ight o f w ay f rom t he s outhern e nd o f t his l ane b ack t o C hurch S treet t hen f orms t he s outhern b oundary o f a n a lmost e xactly r ectangular a rea 5 0m a cross o n t he s outh s ide o f t he H igh S treet a nd a djacent t o t he p resent t riangular m arket a rea. T his m ay b e t he w estern p art o f am uch l arger a nd, f rom i ts s hape, p robably p lanned m arket p lace, l ater m uch e ncroached u pon. T he i mplication o f a ll t his i s t hat t he v illage o f S omersham , a t s ome t ime, h as b een r elocated t o t he n orth o f i ts o riginal s ite, p resumably i n o rder t o m ake u se o f t he l and t hat i t o riginally l ay o n. O ne p ossible r eason f or t his l ocation i s t hat t he l and w as r equired b y t he B ishops o f E ly f or p urposes c onnected w ith t heir p alace. T his m ight h ave b een t o p rovide r oom f or l odgings a nd o ther n ecessary b uildings o utside t he m oated p alace o r p erhaps t o f urther i mprove t he a pproaches t o t he p alace i tself. T he l imited n umber o f b uildings, t heir d ispersed a rrangement a nd s hort t ofts, s hown o n t he T ithe M ap, i ndicates t hat t hey m ay h ave h ad a d ifferent o rigin t o t he m ain v illage p roperties t o t he n orth. T he f act t hat t he p arish c hurch w as a lmost c ompletely r ebuilt i n t he m id t hirteenth c entury o n a f airly l avish s cale ( RCHME 1 926, S omersham ( 2 ); P evsner 1 968, 3 43-4) m ay b e s ignificant h ere. T he a rgument t hus p ut f orward h ere i s t hat p erhaps s ometime i n t he m edieval p eriod t he b ishop 's p alace a t S omersham w as g iven n ot m erely a n e nclosed g arden t ypical o f t he t ime b ut w as s et w ithin a w ider l andscape. T his p roduced a n a rrangement o f b uildings, w ater, o pen s paces, e nclosed a reas a nd p arkland w hich w as i ntended t o g ive p leasure t o t he v iewer. I t i s n ot s uggested t hat a ll t he n ecessary w ork w hich g ave r ise t o t his l andscape w as c arried o ut b y o ne p articular b ishop, o r w ithin a s hort t ime. T his p roblem i s d ealt w ith b elow. M ore i mportant i s w hether o r n ot s uch a h ypothesis, i nvolving t he t ransformation o f a l andscape f or p leasure i n t he m edieval p eriod, c an b e s upported o n t he b asis o f s uch l imited a nd m ainly i nferential e vidence. C ertain a spects o f t his p resumed t ransformation c an, o f c ourse, b e p aralleled i n m any p laces. T he r ebuilding o f c hurches a t a ll p eriods b y l ords o f a ll t ypes a nd e specially b y b ishops i s r elatively c ommon a nd h ardly r equires f urther d iscussion h ere. A ll t hat s hould b e n oted i s t hat t his p henomenon d oes n ot, b y a ny m eans, n eed t o b e c onnected w ith m ajor l andscape c hanges. T he p lanned r elocation o f v illages i n m edieval t imes, o ften f or a v ariety o f r easons, i s a lmost a s c ommon a s t hat o f t otal r ebuilding o f c hurches, t hough p erhaps l ess w ell k nown. M ost o f t he b est e xamples a ppear t o h ave e ither c ommercial e nhancement o r r eligious n eeds a s t heir d riving f orce. T hese i nclude t he v illages o f R ockingham , N orthamptonshire, S tainfield, L incolnshire a nd T arrant C rawford, D orset ( Taylor 1 982, 2 7; R CHME f orthcoming, S tainfield ( 1 ), ( 2 ); R CHME 1 972, 8 6). A t n one o f t hese v illages h as i t b een s uggested t hat t he r elocation w as c onnected w ith t he i mprovement o f t he l andscape, a

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m otive w hich w as r elatively c ommon i n e ighteenth o r n ineteenth c entury e mparking. T he e arliest k nown e xample o f r elocation f or t rue e mparking i s t hat a t H oldenby , N orthamptonshire, i n t he 1 580s ( RCHME 1 981, H oldenby ( 3 ), ( 4 )). N evertheless, a t l east r elocation o f v illages w as w ell k nown a nd c ommonly p ractised f or w hatever r eason d uring t he m edieval p eriod. N o p articular p eriod c an b e a ssigned t o t his p rocess. T here a re t welfth c entury e xamples a s w ell a s l ater o nes. O n t he w hole t hough m ost r elocation s eems t o h ave b een c ompleted b y t he f ourteenth c entury. T here i s a lso n o d oubt t hat s uch r eplanned v illages w ere o ften l aid o ut o ver p re-existing a rable l and. T he p henomenon h as b een r ecognized i n an umber o f p laces, f or e xample a t C axton, C ambridgeshire, L ilbourne, N orthamptonshire a nd H eapham , L incolnshire ( Taylor 1 983, 1 58, 1 60; R CHME 1 981, L ilbourne ( 3 ); R CHME f orthcoming, H eapham ( 1 )). T here i s n o d oubt t hat g ardens a lbeit a llegedly s mall a nd e nclosed a nd c lose t o t heir a ssociated b uildings, w ere c ommon i n m edieval t imes. T he r ange o f d ocumentary , a rchaeological a nd a rchitectural e vidence i s w ell k nown ( Harvey 1 981; M cLean 1 981; T aylor f orthcoming; R CHME f orthcoming , N ettleham ( 1 )) a nd t hey r ange i n d ate f rom t he e leventh c entury t o t he e nd o f t he m edieval p eriod. T he m ajor d ifficulty o f t he h ypothesis p ut f orward h ere i s t he n eed t o e stablish p arallels f or t he l arge-scale m odification o f t he r ural l andscape f or p leasurable p urposes o ver a nd a bove t he r elocation o f t he v illage, t he r ebuilding o f t he c hurch o r i ndeed t he c onstruction o f s mall e nclosed g ardens. Y et t he e vidence d oes i ndeed e xist a nd i t i s m erely t hat i t h as n ot b een a ssembled w ith t he p ossibility , h ere s uggested, i n m ind. T here a re, i n f act, a n umber o f m edieval e xamples o f l arge-scale l andscapes f or p leasure i n E ngland w hich s till s urvive a s a rchaeological s ites. T he c losest p arallel t o S omersham i s t hat a t S tow P ark, S tow , L incolnshire ( RCHME f orthcoming, S tow ( 3 )). T here, t he a pproach r oad t o t he B ishop o f L incoln's m oated p alace i s e dged b y t he s ites o f f ormer s heets o f w ater, u sually t ermed f ishponds, b ut w hich p roduced e xactly t he s ame a ppearance a s d o t he f ishponds a t S omersham. F urther t he m oat a nd i ts p onds p roject s outh i nto t he a ssociated d eer p ark a s d o t he c loses h ere. T hough n ot c losely d ated t he p onds m ay h ave a lready b een i n e xistence b y 1 186 w hen t hey a ppear t o f orm t he s etting f or G iraldus C ambrensis' t ale o f S t. H ugh's p et s wan. T he a ssociated d eer p ark i s r ecorded f rom t he l ate t welfth c entury o nwards. C ertainly t he w hole c omplex m ust d ate f rom b efore t he m id-sixteenth c entury w hen t he p roperty w as a lienated. F ieldwork a t S tow h as a lso r evealed m edieval o ccupation d ebris f rom a longside t he a pproach r oad, i ndicating t hat, p erhaps a s a t S omersham , i n a s imilar p osition, t here w ere o uter l odgings o r s ervants q uarters ( RCHME f orthcoming, S tow ( 5 )). A nother p arallel f or S omersham, i n a d ifferent w ay , i s B odiam C astle i n S ussex, b uilt i n 1 385. R ecent w ork b y R CHME h as i ndicated t hat n ot o nly a re t he e laborate e arthworks a round t he c astle p art o f a n e xtensive a rea o f c ontemporary o r n earc ontemporary g ardens, l akes a nd p onds, b ut t hat, a s a t S omersham , t he w hole a rrangement w as b oth i ntended t o b e v iewed f rom a n a djacent h ill-top a nd w as a pproached b y a c auseway b etween s preads o f w ater ( NAR T Q 7 2 N E 1 ). A m uch b etter k nown e xample o n a m ore e xtensive s cale, w hose c onstruction s eems t o h ave e xtended o ver a l ong p eriod, i s K enilworth C astle, W arwickshire ( Thompson 1 964, 2 22-3; 1 963, 6 84-85; H arvey 1 981,

2 20

1 06-7; C olvin 1 963, 6 82-85). T he c umulative e ffect o f t he m eres, t he f orework o r T he B rays, t he P leasance a nd f ishponds, b y a ny r eckoning l andscape a lteration o n av ast s cale, d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a chieved u ntil t he e arly f ifteenth c entury ( 1414-17) a nd w as i ndeed r efurbished i n t he s ixteenth c entury f or a v isit o f E lizabeth I . Y et t he m ain m ere o r G reat P ool t ogether w ith T he B rays, s urely p art, a t l east, o f av isual e nhancement o f t he C astle, w as c onstructed i n t he t hirteenth c entury o n t he s ite o f a t welfth c entury p ond. O ther p laces w here e xtensive w aterworks s eem t o h ave a esthetic p urposes a s m uch a s d efensive i nclude t he h uge l ake a t L eeds C astle, K ent, c ertainly i n b eing b y t he l ate t hirteenth c entury ( Colvin 1 963, 6 957 02). S imilar i f l ess e xtensive m edieval l andscape g arden a rrangements m ay h ave a lso e xisted a t F otheringhay , N orthamptonshire, w here t he a dmittedly s ixteenth c entury d ocumentation s uggests t hat am oated ' old' o rchard o r g arden e xisted i mmediately s outh-east o f t he c astle t here, a ssociated w ith a ' great p ond' a nd a ' little p ark' o f s ome 1 2ha. T he l atter w as q uite d ifferent f rom t he ' Great P ark ' o f 1 20ha e lsewhere i n t he p arish ( RCHME 1 975, F otheringhay ( 34), ( 36), ( 37)). A nother p ossible s ite i s t hat a t S omerton C astle, B oothby G raffoe, L incolnshire. T he e laborate b ut i ll-recorded e arthworks t here a re c ertainly p art o f av ery l arge a nd c omplex g arden l ayout. T hey m ay d ate f rom t he l ate t hirteenth c entury , o r m ore p lausibly , f rom t he m id f ourteenth c entury ( Pevsner 1 964, 6 40; C olvin 1 963, 8 38-8; N AR S K 9 5 N E 1 ). I f s uch a reas o f l andscaped c ountryside c an b e i dentified o n t he g round, w hat o f t he d ocumentary r ecord? P art o f t he p roblem i s t hat h istorians h ave a ssumed t hat m ost m edieval g ardens w ere u sually s mall a nd e nclosed b y h igh w alls o r h edges a nd t hat, e ven i f s ome w ere e xtensive i n a rea, t hey w ere s till i nward l ooking a nd s hut o ff f rom t he o utside w orld ( Colvin 1 986). Y et a r e-examination o f t he e vidence s uggests t hat b y n o m eans a ll m edieval g ardens a re o f t his t ype. C ertainly n ot a ll g ardens w ere s mall, e ven i f t hey w ere e nclosed. M almesbury A bbey a pparently h ad a n a rea o f s ome 1 8ha n ext t o t he c onventual b uildings, w hich i ncluded a s tream , a p ool, s ome f ishponds a nd a n o rchard. L ikewise t he g ardens a t t he P riory o f L lanthony a t G loucester i n 1 277, e xtended t o a lmost 1 km n orth o f t he P riory s ite. P erhaps t he b est e xample o f am edieval m odified l andscape i s t hat a t t he R oyal P alace o f W oodstock, O xfordshire. T he s ite i s n ow u tterly d estroyed b y l ater e mparking s o t here c an b e l ittle t opographi cal i nput. I n a ddition, h istorians h ave c oncentrated a lmost s olely o n t he r emarkable b uilding a nd i ts a ssociated w ater g ardens b uilt b y H enry I I f or h is m istress R osamund C lifford, t he j ustly f amous E verswell o r F air R osamund 's B ower. Y et t he B ower w as o nly p art o f a c omplex l andscape e volved t hrough a n umber o f r eigns. I t w as a pparently b egun b y H enry I w ho p robably b uilt ap alace t here, s et w ithin a w alled ' deer' p ark w hich t he k ing h ad s tocked w ith w ild e xotic a nimals o btained f rom a broad. T he k ing's p alace w ith i ts o wn g arden l ay o n t he h illside a bove t he v alley o f t he R iver G lyme a nd R osamund's B ower w as a l ittle w ay u pstream , b oth w ithin t he p ark ( Colvin 1 963, 1 009-17). B y H enry I II's r eign t he p alace w as a pproached f rom t he w est b y c auseways a cross t he v alley w hich p assed b etween t he K ing's ' fishponds', a n o bvious p arallel t o S omersham a nd S tow ( J. B ond, p ers. c omm.). O ne f inal a ddition t o W oodstock,

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p articularly i mportant i n t he c ontext o f l andscapes, w as t he t imber b alcony c onstructed i n 1 354 o utside t he c hamber o f t he t wenty-two y ear o ld P rincess I sabella, d aughter o f E dward I II, i n o rder t o g ive h er a v iew o f t he p ark. S uch a b uilding w as v ery c lose i n p urpose t o t he g loriettes w hich t hough o f v ery v aried f orm a ppear t o h ave b een o bservation p osts f or t he c ontemplation o f g ardens a nd w ider l andscapes a s w ell a s f or v iewing j ousting a nd h unting. T hat a t L eeds C astle, c onstructed t ogether w ith t he s urrounding l ake f or E leanor o f C astile i n 1 278-90, i s p erhaps t he b est e xample ( Colvin 1 963, 6 95-96). T he r elationship a t S omersham b etween t he d eer p ark a nd t he t rapezoidal e nclosure p rojecting i nto i t i s s ignificant. T hough a n umber o f e xamples o f t his a rrangement a re k nown, f or e xample a t S tow p ark, L incolnshire, n oted a bove, b y f ar t he b est, l argely b ecause o f i ts r oyal a ssociations, i s t hat a t W indsor C astle. T hough t he d etails a re r ecorded i n m edieval d ocuments, t he a ctual l ayout i s k nown f rom N orden 's m ap o f 1 607 w hich a lmost c ertainly s hows t he g eneral o utlines o f t he m edieval a rrangement. T here t he g reat d eer p ark c ertainly s prings f rom t he c astle w alls b ut i n a ddition, a ttached t o t he c astle a nd e xtending i nto t he p ark, a re t wo e nclosures, o ne c ontaining a n o rchard a nd t he o ther f ormal g ardens. F urther, a t l east b y 1 607, t he p ark w as m ore t han m erely a n e nclosure f or d eer. N ot o nly d oes t he m ap d epict w hat s eems t o b e d eliberately s ited t rees w ithin t he p ark b ut t he v iew a cross t he p ark f rom t he c astle i s t erminated a t i ts f ar e nd b y a c opse o r s mall w ood. T his, i n a n o therwise t otally b are l andscape m ust h ave b een i ntended a s t he e nd o f a v ista ( Harvey 1 981, 7 7 a nd p assim ). T hat m edieval d eer p arks c ould h ave h ad a n a esthetic, a s w ell a s a f unctional, p urpose h as b een n oted b y H arvey ( 1981, x ii) w ho h as w ritten o f ' composed l andscapes' i n t his c ontext a nd S omersham c ertainly s eems t o e xemplify t his. T his i s n ot t he p lace f or a n e xtensive d iscussion o f e ither t he c lose s ocial, p olitical a nd e conomic c ontacts b etween E ngland a nd t he c ontinent d uring t he M iddle A ges, o r ah istory o f c ontinental p arks a nd g ardens ( Harvey 1 981, p assim ). H owever, t hat ' landscapes f or p leasure' d id e xist, r elatively c lose t o t his c ountry a nd w ere s een a nd a dmired b y E nglish p eople i s c ertain. T he g reatest a nd c ertainly t he m ost f amous w as a t H esdin, i n B urgundy , c reated i n t he l ate t hirteenth c entury b y C ount R obert I I ( Van B uren 1 986). T here, o n a s cale w hich d warfed a nything k nown i n E ngland, w as a w alled p ark 4 km l ong, a n e nclosed g arden c lose t o t he c astle o f H esdin, b ut p rojecting i nto t he p ark, o rchards a nd a n e laborate g loriette o r ' paveillon' s et w ithin i ts o wn g ardens a nd w aterworks. H esdin a nd t he D ukes o f B urgundy s eem a f ar c ry f rom r ural S omersham a nd t he B ishops o f E ly. Y et t he s imilarities a re t here a nd t he l inks, v ia p laces s uch a s W indsor a nd W oodstock e xist. A part f rom t he w ork a t B odiam , S tow , F otheringhay , a nd h ere a t S omersham t he f ield a rchaeology o f m edieval l andscapes o f p leasure h as h ardly b een e xplored. O r r ather i t h as p erhaps a lready b een s een, b ut n ot y et p erceived. A n a rticle, p ublished i n 1 972, o n t he e arthworks a t t he B ishop's P alace, A lvechurch, W orcestershire ( Aston 1 972), w as, i n k eeping w ith t he d eveloping i nterest i n f ield a rchaeology a t t he t ime a nd w ith t he c onsiderable a bility o f i ts a uthor, a n e xcellent d escription o f w hat r emains t here. T he m ill p ond, f ishponds a nd m oats w ere a ll c orrectly i dentified a nd, u sing t he e asily a vailable

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d ocumentary e vidence i nterpreted, a gain c orrectly , a s f unctional p arts o f t he m edieval l andscape a ssociated w ith t he b ishop's p alace. N ow , w ith t he u nappreciated e vidence f or g ardens f rom t hose s ame d ocumentary s ources ( Harvey 1 981, 1 0, 1 03) a s w ell a s a d ifferent v iew o f t he a rchaeological r emains, i t i s p ossible t o s uggest t hat A lvechurch, l ike S omersham a nd p erhaps m any o ther p laces, w as p rimarily a l andscape f or p leasure. O ne f inal p roblem - w hat i s t he d ate o f t he S omersham l andscape? I s i t o f o ne p eriod o r, a s w as s uggested e arlier, i s i t o f m any p eriods? T here a re a n umber o f p ossible d ates w hen c ertain a spects o f t hat t otal l andscape o f S omersham m ight h ave b een c reated. T he e arliest i s p erhaps 1 109, w hen t he b ishops a cquired S omersham , a nd m ay h ave r elocated t he v illage. O n t he o ther h and t he l atter m ay h ave b een m oved a s l ate a s 1 190 w hen t he g rant f or t he m arket w as o btained. T he c hurch w as c ertainly r ebuilt i n t he m id t hirteenth c entury. H owever, i n 1 279 t he g ardens a t S omersham s eem t o h ave b een l ess t han 1 .6ha a nd t hus c an h ave h ardly f illed t he i nterior o f t he m ain m oated s ite. T he p ark a lso e xisted i n 1 279, b ut a t 2 00 a cres ( 83ha ) w as f ar s maller t han i ts f inal s ize. R egardless o f t he e stablishment o f t he p alace, t he r emoval a nd r eplanning o f t he v illage, t he r ebuilding o f t he c hurch a nd t he l aying o ut o f a t l east a n e arly p art o f t he g arden, a ll p erhaps c ompleted b y 1 279, t he e laborate g arden a nd p ark a rrangements d escribed m ust d ate t o a p eriod a fter 1 279. T he w alled e nclosure i s s ixteenth c entury i n d ate b ut t his m ay o nly r eflect m inor a lterations a t t he v ery e nd o f t he e piscopal o ccupation o f t he s ite. I t i s o bviously d angerous t o u se t he v arious p arallels c ited h ere f or d ating p urposes, b ut i n l ieu o f a nything b etter i t i s p erhaps w orth r epeating t hat t he d ate o f t he m oated h erbarium a t P eterborough i s 1 302, t he g ardens a t W oodstock w ere l aid o ut i n t he m id t hirteenth c entury, t he l andscape r eorganization a t A lvedhurch i s p erhaps m id t hirteenth c entury a s i s p erhaps K enilworth, t hough i ts P leasance w as b uilt i n 1 414-17, a nd H esdin w as c onstructed b etween 1 295 a nd 1 302. T he o verall i mpression a nd i t i s n o m ore t han a n i mpression, i s t hat t he S omersham g ardens a nd p ark, i n t he f orm t hat t hey s urvived i nto t he p resent c entury , m ight b e l ate t hirteenth o r f ourteenth c entury i n d ate. W ith s uch a w ide r ange, n o p articular B ishop o f E ly c an b e s uggested a s t heir c reator.

B ibliography A ston , MA1 972 E arthworks a t t he B ishop 's P alace , A lvedhurdh , W orcestershire . T rans W orcester sh ire A rchaeo l S o c . 3 , 5-59 . C olvin , HM ( e d ) 1 963 H istory o f t he K ing 's W orks I. H MSO , L ondon . C olvin , HM 1 986 R oyal g ardens i n m edieval E ngland , i n EBM acDougall , L Umbarton C äks C o lloquium o n t he H isto ry & Landscape A rc hitecture I X , 9 -22 . C UCAP C ambridge U niversity C dmmittee f or A erial P hotography : B TI 2- 2 3 , E C 2 4-25 , R C 8 -CX 1 76-78 , R C 8 -EC 2 45 , 2 58-60 . H arvey , J1 981 M ed ieval G arden s . B atsford , L ondon . M cLean , T1 981 M ed iev a l E ng lish G ardens . C ollins , L ondon . M eridien M eridien A ir M aps L td : 5 6/69/126-28 , 9 .6 .1968 ; h eld b y R CHME . M iller , E1 951 T he A bb ey a nd B ishopr ic o f E ly . C UP , C ambridge . N AR N ational A rchaeological R ecords ; h eld b y R CHME . P evsner , N1 964 L inco lns h ire . P enguin , L ondon . P evsner , N1 968 B edfordshire , H unt ingdonshire a nd P eterborough . P enguin , L ondon . R AF R AF V ertical A ir P ho tographs , 1 06G/UK 1 589 , 6 034-36 , 2 1 .6 .1946 ; V 58 R AF 1 921

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071-72 , 1 5 .11 .1955 ; F 22 5 8 R AF 5 754 , 0 157-59 , 4 .6 .1963 ; h eld b y R CHME . R CHME 1 926 R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland , h unt i mdara ire . H MSO , L ondon . R CHME 1 972 R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onumen ts o f E ngland , D orset I V . H MSO , L ondon . R CHME 1 975 R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onum ents o f E ngland , N orthamptonshire I . H MSO , L ondon . R CHME 1 981 R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onum ents o f E ngland , N orthamptonshire II . H MSO , L ondon . R CHME f orthcoming R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland , C hange a nd C ontinu ity ; H MSO , L ondon . R ot H und 1 818 R otuli h Undra d arumII . R ecord C ommission , L ondon . T ay lor , CC1 982 M edieval m arket g rants a nd v illage m orPhology . L andscape K ist 4 , 2 1-28 . T ay lor , CC1 983 V i llage a nd F a rrstead . G eorge P hilips , L ondon . T ay lor , CC f orthcoming S paldwick , C ambridgeshire . l toc C ämtr idg eAntiq S oc . T hompson , MW 1 964 R eclamation o f w aste g round f or t he P leasance a t K enilworth C astle . M ed iev al A rchaeo l 8 , 22-23 . T hompson , MW 1 965 T Wo l evels o f t he M ere a t K enilworth C astle . M edieval A rrhaeol 9 , 1 56-61 . T ithe M ap 1 842 H untingdon R ecord O ffice . V an B uren , AH1 986 R eality a nd l iterary r omance i n t he P ark o f H esdin , i n EB M acDougall , D Umbarton C äks C olloquium i n t he H isto ry o f L andsc ape A rch itecture 9 , 17-34 . V CR 1 926 V ictoria C ounty H isto ry , Antingddnshire I . S t . C atherine 's P ress , L ondon . M 3 V1932 V ictor ia C ounty H isto ry , H untingdonshire I. S t . C atherine 's P ress , L ondon .

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2 1:

F ORMAL G ARDEN E ARTHWORKS A T M ORETON C ORBET C ASTLE,

S HROPSHIRE

V .R. W ilson-North

A p reliminary r apid s urvey a t 1 :2500 s cale o f p reviously u nrecorded e arthworks a round M oreton C orbet c astle s uggests a n e laborate s etting f or a g reat r esidence w hich w as n ever c ompleted a nd p rovides a c losely d ated e xample o f a n e xtensive f ormal g arden. M oreton C orbet ( Moreton T oret u ntil t he e arly s ixteenth c entury ) w as o ne o f t he l esser M archer c astles - e stablished b y t he T oret f amily a nd o nly p assing b y m arriage i nto t he h ands o f t he C orbets o f W attlesborough i n t he m id-fourteenth c entury. T he p rincipal C orbet r esidence w as a t C aus, b etween S hrewsbury a nd M ontgomery ( Weaver 1 981, 4 4). T he c astle d escended w ith t he C orbets u ntil t he m id-seventeenth c entury w hen i t w as s old b y S ir V incent C orbet t o p ay o ff d ebts a ccumulated d uring t he C ivil W ar ( Acton 1 868, 3 6), t he h ouse h aving b een d amaged b y f ire a fter a P arliamentary f orce w as g arrisoned t here i n 1 644 ( Acton 1 867, 6 3; W eaver 1 981, 4 6). I t w as r edeemed b y A ndrew C orbet o f S hawbury P ark i n 1 743 ( Acton 1 868, 3 6), a nd d espite p lans t o r ebuild i t m ade i n 1 776 ( SSL i x 1 00), i t w as r etained i n i ts r uinous s tate. O f t he m edieval c astle o nly p art o f t he k eep , c urtain w all a nd g atehouse s urvive, t he l atter m uch r ebuilt; f ragmentary r emains o f t he c astle m oat s urvive a long t he n orth s ide o f t hese b uildings b ut t o t he s outh t he m edieval l ayout h as b een o bliterated b y a lterations m ade i n t he s ixteenth c entury. T he a ggrandisement o f t he r esidence t ook p lace b etween t he 1 560s a nd 1 583 a nd w as t he w ork o f f ather a nd s on: A ndrew a nd R obert C orbet. T here s eems t o h ave b een l ittle c ollaboration b etween t he t wo m en; t he i nitial w ork , c arried o ut b y A ndrew C orbet, b eing o n a r elatively m odest s cale i nvolving t he r ebuilding o f t he m edieval g atehouse, a nd s ome r ebuilding o f t he s ection o f t he c urtain w all t o t he w est, a nd t he a ddition o f a n ew e ast w ing w hich h as n ow a lmost t otally d isappeared ( Weaver 1 981, 4 4). A fter h is f ather's d eath i n 1 579, R obert C orbet s tarted a f resh b uilding c ampaign o n a n a ltogether m ore p retentious s cale; h is n ew s outh w ing i s ' amongst t he m ost i mpressive a nd c onsistent d esigns i n t he c ountry. I t o ught t o r ank w ith K irby H all' ( Pevsner 1 958, 2 05). T he n ew w ing h as a p rincipal f acade o n t he s outh s ide; i t i s o f t wo t all s toreys w ith t hree m assive a nd s ymmetrical w indows o f f ive l ights, s eparated b y t wo s ets o f t hree t hree-light w indows. ' It i s a rticulated t hroughout i n t he F rench w ay b y a ttached T uscan c olumns b elow, b y s lim f luted I onic c olumns a bove, a n e xceptional t hing i n E ngland ..' ( Pevsner 1 958, 2 05). T wo s mall d oorways g ive a ccess a t g round f loor l evel. R obert C orbet d ied s uddenly i n 1 583 a nd l eft t he ' new w ork u nfinished a nd t he o ld c astle d efaced' ( Acton 1 867, 6 3, q uoting f rom C amden 's B ritannia ). I t i s c lear t hat h e i ntended g reater t hings f or M oreton C orbet, f or a part f rom t he e vidence i mplicit i n t he s heer s cale a nd o stentation o f t he n ew w ork, a s urvey o f 1 588 r efers t o t he e ast w ing c reated b y A ndrew C orbet a s b eing ' in r uins a nd p artly

2 25

p ulled d own b y R obert C orbet w ho m eant t o r epair a nd r ebuild i t b ut a n e arly d eath b ore h im o ff' ( SRO 3 22/Box 2 ). T he s ame s urvey m akes i t c lear t hat w hilst t he p rincipal c hambers w ere i n t his n ew w ing, t he s ervice a ccommodation w as r etained i n t he m edieval b uildings, a nd i n a c omplex o f n ewly b uilt a ccommodation t o t he w est, n o t race o f w hich n ow s urvives. T his w ould b e i n k eeping w ith ap rolonged b uilding p rogramme a nd a ccounts f or t he d emolition o f A ndrew C orbet's e ast w ing s o s oon a fter i t w as b uilt. T he e arthworks t o t he s outh o f t he c astle c omplement t he p retensions o f t he n ew h ouse i n t heir s heer s ize a s m uch a s i n t heir e laboration. F or d espite h aving b een s moothed d own b y m odern f arming , t hey c onfirm t he e xistence o f a n e xtensive f ormal g arden r eferred t o i n 1 588 ( SRO 3 22/Box 2 ) o f w hich t he n ew b uilding i s a n i ntegral p art: ' On t he s outh s ide o f t he n ew b uildings t here i s a g arden w ith a n o rchard a djoining i t, i n t he m iddle o f w hich g arden a re d ivers s olars ( solaria ) c ut i nto o ne r ock, a nd o n t he s outh s ide o f t he g arden i s a s mall h ouse c alled a k eep f or t he u se o f t he g ardener, a nd a w ell f or w atering t he g arden, a nd t here a re d ivers c overed w alks a nd a rbours, a nd t he g arden a nd t he o rchard c over t wo a cres a nd o ne r ood o f l and'. T he e arthworks f orm a m assive s quare p latform s tretching a way t o t he s outh o f t he h ouse, w ith t he b uilding l ying c entrally a long t he n orth s ide, i ts m agnificent s outh f acade n ot o nly e nhancing t he s ymmetry i nherent i n t he e arthworks, b ut a lso b ecoming a s howpiece t o b e v iewed f rom t he g arden. T he g arden i s e xactly s quare w ith s ides m easuring a pproximately 1 30m, a nd i s d efined b y l ong a nd s pread s carps o n i ts s outh a nd e ast s ides, t he w est s ide h aving b een a lmost t otally o bliterated b y t he m odern r oad d og-legging a cross t he p latform, a nd b y am arked h ollowing t o t he e ast - p erhaps t he r esult o f p iecemeal q uarrying, o r l ess l ikely , t he s ite o f a s mall c ottage a nd y ard. L evel t erraced w alks s urvive o n t he s outh a nd e ast s ides, w ith a n a verage w idth o f 6 m , a lthough b est p reserved o n t he s outh s ide, b eing s ome 2 2m w ide. T he c oherence o f t he s outh w ing w ith t he g arden i s f urther a rticulated b y t he i dea t hat a w alk r an t he l ength o f t he b uilding: t he g arden e vidently i ntended t o b e v iewed f rom t he h ouse a nd, m ore s pecifically , f rom a bove, s uggesting t he p resence o f a p attern o f b eds b elow , w hose g eometry w ould b e r evealed: ' and o n t he t op a nd s ummit o f t he b uildings a s pacious a nd w ide w alkway o r g allery s tretching t he l ength o f t he b uildings' ( SRO 3 22/Box 2 ). T he s ymmetry o f t he g arden i s f urther e mphasised b y t he p resence o f p ronounced b ulges o r ' bastions' o n t he s urviving c orners a t ( A ) ( B ) a nd ( C ), p erhaps t he s ites o f s ummer h ouses. O f t he i nternal l ayout s light d etails s urvive i n t he f orm o f a morphous s carps o rienting w ell w ith t he b uilding. A s light m ound a t ( D ) l ies i n t he v ery c entre o f t he g arden a nd u ndoubtedly m arks t he p osition o f a n o rnamental f eature: a f ountain o r s tatue. F urther a field i n t he v alleys t o e ast a nd s outh r eferences t o ' Pond M eadow ' a t ( E ) a nd ' pool m eadow ' s outh o f ( C ) ( SRO 2 609/1) a re i n e arthwork t erms d isappointing. A n i nfilled p ond a t ( E ) a ligns w ell w ith t he h ouse, a nd o ther s crappy e arthworks d own t he v alley m ight t antalizingly s uggest t he p resence o f p onds a nd o ther o rnamental w ater

2 26

F ig 1

M oreton C orbet C astle a nd f ormal g arden e arthworks.

2 27

f eatures,

b ut t he r emains a re t oo s cant t o b e i ntelligible.

H owever,

t he t errace w alks o n t he s outh a nd e ast s ides o f t he g arden a re s urely d esigned t o b e o utward-looking; t o p rovide ap latform f rom w hich t o e xperience p arts o f t he g arden b eyond t he s quare p rivy g arden. T he e arthworks a t M oreton C orbet p rovide a n e xtremely w elld ocumented a nd c losely d ated e xample o f a f ormal g arden , w hose c onstruction i s c ontemporary w ith t he n ew b uilding o f R obert C orbet, i .e. 1 579-1583. T he g arden i s l aid o ut p recisely i ncorporating t he s outh w ing o n i ts n orth s ide, a nd, w ith i ts h uge w indows a nd e levated w alkway t he h ouse w as c onceived a s a p lace f rom w hich t o v iew t he w hole c reation. B ut e qually t he e xtravagance o f a rchitectural d etail o n t he s outh f acade, a nd t he o stentatious u se o f c lassical i deas c onfirm t hat t he i nspiration f or t he n ew b uilding c ame f rom R obert C orbet's d iplomatic m issions a ll o ver t he c ontinent, b ut s pecifically f rom I taly ( Acton 1 867, 6 3, q uoting f rom C amden's B ritannia ; W eaver 1 91, 4 6). I nsufficient o f t he e arthworks s urvive t o s uggest t he s ource o f i nspiration f or t he g ardens, b ut i f i t i s i nfluenced b y t hat o f t he h ouse i tself, M oreton C orbet m ight b e p laced - a lbeit d own t he s ocial s cale - a longside o ne o f t he ' rarities' s uch a s L umley 's N onsuch ( Strong 1 979, 6 3).

N otes F urther e arthworks a t ( F ) f orm a n e arthwork c auseway a ligning w ell w ith t he c astle a nd p erhaps f orming a n e arlier l ine o f a ccess f ram t he m ain r oad p assing t he s ettlemen t t o t he w est . O ther e arthworks f lanking t he f eature d isplay a m arked r ectangularity a nd m ay b e a ssociated w ith i t . T he f ield i s n ow c u t o ff f rom t he c astle b y t he n ineteenth c entury C astle F arm . H owever , t he a rea i s s hown a s o ne p arcel w ith t he c astle b uildings i n 1 740 a nd c alled ' C astle C ourt ' ( S RO 2 609/1 ). I n t he f ield t o t he s outh o f ( F ) a re t races o f r idge a nd f urrow a nd r emoved h edgelines , w hilst f urther n orth i n p addocks w ithin t he m odern s ettlement a re e phemeral r emains n one o f w hich h ave b een i ncluded i n t he p resen t s urvey .

A cknowledgements I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y t hanks t o M rs H alford o f S hropshire C ounty R ecord O ffice f or t he t ranslation o f t he 1 588 s urvey , a nd t o S ir J ohn C orbet f or p ermission t o r eproduce p arts o f t he s urvey i n t his a rticle. I a m a lso g rateful t o P aul E verson f or h is a dvice o n t he i nterpretation o f t he e arthworks, a nd t o m y o ther c olleagues a t R CHME K eele f or t heir h elp a nd c omments.

B ibliography A cton , FS1 867 C ast les a nd O ld M ans ions o f S hropsh ire 1421660 . S hrewsbury . A cton , F S1 868 G arrisons o f S hropshire D ur ing t he C ivil W ar . S hrewsbury . ( E x tracts c hiefly t aken f rom a c ollection o f C ivil W ar p apers i n t he B ritish M useum ) P evsner , N1 958 B uildings o f E ng land . S hropshire . L ondon . S RO S hropshire C ounty R ecord O ffice S SL S hrewsbury S chool L ibrary S trong , R1 979 T he R ena issance G arden i n E ng land . L ondon . W eaver , 0J1 981 M oreton C orbet C astle . A rchaeol j r , 1 38 .

2 28

2 2:

B EARDOWN W ARREN ,

P RINCETOWN ,

D ARTMOOR

S imon P robert

F ig 1

B eardown W arren ( SX 6 00754 ) l ies 2 km n orth-east o f P rincetown , o n t he s outhern s ide o f B eardown H ill a t 4 00m a bove O D ( Fig 1 ). T he a rea w as s urveyed b y t he R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f E ngland d uring t he c ourse o f a rchaeological w ork o n t he f arms o f t he D uchy o f C ornwall. T he l ate e ighteenth c entury w itnessed a s urge o f a grarian o ptimism , a s mall t hough s ignificant p roportion o f i t d irected a t D artmoor. V ast a mounts o f m oney w ere p oured i nto t he a ncient f orest t enements i n ah uge a nd o ften c atastrophic o rgy o f i mprovement. T he e nclosure o f B eardown F arm w as p art o f a n ew p hase i n t hese i mprovements. I t w as c onsolidated f rom o pen m oorland a round 1 780 b y E dward B ray , S teward t o t he D uke o f B edford's W est C ountry e state.

2 29

F or t he f irst t ime i n s everal c enturies n ew f arms w ere t hen b eing c reated i n t he R oyal F orest o f D artmoor. A t rend w as s tarted b y T homas T yrwhitt a t T or R oyal, a nd b y B ray a t B eardown w hich l ed t o t he e nclosure o f m uch o f D artmoor's c entral b asin b y 1 820. A s B edford's s teward, B ray p resumably p ossessed a n a gricultural b ackground w hich w as a pparently p ut t o g ood u se. H is c ontemporaries, m ostly m inor g entry a nd L ondon m erchants w ere s everely s tretched b y t heir u nbridled e nthusiasm, w hereas B ray w as r ewarded w ith a m oderate d egree o f s uccess. H e w as a lso p erhaps q uick t o s ee a n o pportunity; M arshall, w riting o n W est C ountry a griculture i n t he 1 790s, r ecommended t he e stablishment o f r abbit w arrens i n ' the h igher w eaker l ands', p resumably D artmoor, s tating t hat ' the m arkets o f P lymouth a nd i ts D ock [ Devonport], w ould n ot f ail t o t ake o ff t he p roduce' ( Marshall 1 796, 2 71). A p recise d ate f or t he e stablishment o f t he w arren i s u nknown t hough t he d etailed r elationships o f f eatures o n t he g round c oupled w ith t he p ublishing o f M arshall's d iscourse i n 1 796 p oints t owards t he v ery l ast y ears o f t he e ighteenth o r t he s tart o f t he n ineteenth c entury. C ertainly b y 1 808 B ray 's W arren a t B eardown w as a r ecognized f eature o f c entral D artmoor ( Duchy o f C ornwall 1 808). A t i ts c reation, a bout 1 780, t he i n-bye f ield b oundaries o f B eardown F arm w ere l argely m ade o f t urf a nd s tone, m any o f w hich r emain a s r edundant f eatures i n t he s outh a nd w est o f t he f arm 's l and t oday. A r emodelling o f t he i n-bye l and , p robably p rompted b y t he c onstruction o f t he D evonport L eat a long t he 4 05m c ontour a bout 1 794 l ed t o t he c onstruction o f m any o f t he e xisting d rystone w alls o f t he f arm. T he w arren, l ying o n t he m oderate s outh-facing s lope a bove t he n orth b ank o f C owsic R iver, i s b isected b y o ne o f t he e arly t urf a nd s tone b anks a nd i s c ompletely e nclosed b y t he l ater d rystone w alls. I t s eems u nlikely t hat t he w arren w as e stablished b efore t he r estructuring o f 1 794 a s M arshall s tates: ' an o bjection t o r abbits, i n o r n ear t he e nclosed c ountry l ies i n t heir b eing d estructive t o t he l arge h edge m ounds o f t his D istrict; i n w hich t hey b urrow , a nd b ecome a s pecies o f v ermin, d ifficult t o e xtirpate' ( Marshall 1 796, 2 71). T he e arly p eriod b anks t herefore, t hough i deal f or r abbits, w ould n ot h ave c ontained t hem. O n t he o ther h and t he r emodelled f arm l ayout a fter 1 794 i ncluded a n a lmost p erfect w alled ' island' f or a w arren. I ts n orth w all v isibly m irrors t he D evonport L eat, w hich c oupled w ith t he C owsic t o t he s outh a nd t he s tream t o t he e ast, w ould h ave p rovided f urther i nsurance a gainst t respass b y t he r abbits o n t o t he i n-bye l and. O f t he f ifty p illow m ounds ( Fig 2 ) a ll b ut o ne ( 50 ) l ie w ithin t his i sland. W ith f ew e xceptions t hey a re e venly d istributed a nd a ligned a gainst t he c ontours. A ll e xcept ( 5 ), ( 23) a nd ( 35) a re l inear w ith s harply d efined s quare e nds. T he t ops a re r ounded o r, l ess c ommonly , f lattened w ith m ound ( 37) d isplaying a s harply p ointed c rest. W here d isturbed, t he m ounds e xhibit a l oosely p acked b oulder b ase a pparently d esigned t o d rain t he s tone-free t urf c ap. T heir d imensions v ary f rom 5 .4m t o 1 6m l ong, 2 .2m t o 5 .0m w ide a nd 0 .5m t o 1 .0m h igh. M ost p ossess a c ontinuous s urrounding d rainage d itch 1 .0m t o 2 .9m w ide a nd 0 .2m t o 0 .5m d eep. T he s ub-circular f eatures ( 5 ),

2 30

F ig 2

2 31

(23) and (35) probably represent disturbed linear or round pillow mounds. A low boulder revetted platform 0.3m high is visible near the sharp bend in the north wall at the north-eastern end of the site. This is depicted as a building in 1818 (Duchy of Cornwall 1818) but its purpose and its relationship to the warren is uncertain. The linear ditches in the eastern half of the site are apparently attempts to ensure adequate drainage. A pipeline diverting the Devenport Leat to the aqueduct across the Cowsic River runs roughly north-east to south-west across the eastern half of the site. It was laid in 1888 but there is no trace of it on the ground. Little development can be seen within the warren as few relation­ ships exist. Mounds (19), (22) and (26) overlie turf and stone walled boundaries of the early farm layout. These were probably redundant by the time the warren was established. The long segmented mound (37) interrupts the linear ditches and the drainage channel surrounding mound 36. Its ditches have, in turn, been used at a later date to aid the drainage of a marshy area near the north wall. Mound (37) may thus represent a second phase in the use of the warren as does perhaps mound (50). Both are sharply defined, remain undisturbed and do not relate to the general layout of the warren. Reminiscent of modern battery farming, the intensive concentration of pillow mounds here undoubtedly fulfilled a commercial role. Despite Marshall's hopes, however, 'Plymouth and its Dock' (1796, 271) were probably not the main outlets for Beardown. The numerous warrens of the Plym Valley seem to have had a virtual monopoly there. It is more likely that Beardown supplied the area of West Devon and, after 1809, perhaps the war prison at Princetown. The 5,000 men and their guards would have created a vast local demand for provisions, and Beardown might well have supplied much of the necessary protein. The warren apparently had a short life. Though no terminal date is recorded, it is surprisingly lacking from the 1839 Tithe Map (Lydford Parish 1839) and it is not mentioned in an 1835 lease to Bray's son (Duchy of Cornwall 1835). The repatriation of the French prisoners-of-war in 1815-16, coupled with Bray's death in 1816, may have been prime factors in its early demise. The prison was not reoccupied in its present criminal capacity until 1850 (Gill 1970, 259) Hemery (1983, 396) claims that Beardown had a sporting role, however such a use is very unlikely for the early phase. Sporting warrens are only documented on Dartmoor in the late nineteenth century and until World War I (ibid. 160). Mounds (37) and (50) might represent a re-establishment of the warren during this period. Local oral tradition leans in favour of a sporting role during the early The Prince Regent is said to have frequented the warren years. between bouts of debauchery and, positioned at one end by his flunkeys, fired at the rabbits as they were driven towards him. Legend does not allude to his marksmanship but years of loose living must have taken their toll on his aim and he is better remembered for his patronage of the Hellfire Club than as a slaughterer of rabbits. Beardown is unique amongst Dartmoor rabbit warrens. Nowhere else is such a concentration of pillow mounds found within enclosed land. Other commercial warrens in the area covered 100-400ha of largely 232

u nenclosed m oorland a gainst B eardown's t otally e nclosed 4 .2ha. O n t hese t oo t he p illow m ounds a re g enerally l onger a nd m ore d ispersed t han a t B eardown w ith t he r abbits a lso b eing e ncouraged t o b urrow w herever t here w as s ufficient s oil c over. A lthough i t s eems l ikely t hat t he B eardown W arren w as d issolved a fter a b rief p eriod, t he o ther D artmoor w arrens, s ome w ith m edieval o rigins, c ontinued w ell i nto t he t wentieth c entury. T he f inal a bandonment o f t his i ndustry w as t he r esult o f t he R abbit C learance O rder s erved b y D evon C ounty C ouncil i n F ebruary 1 956. W ar w as t hen d eclared o n r abbits, n ot o nly o n D artmoor b ut i n D evon a s aw hole. W arrening b ecame i llegal.

A cknowledgements T hanks a re d ue t o M r A listair F orbes f or a llowing a ccess t o t he f arm , t o M artin F letcher w ho h elped w ith t he s urvey , t o m y w ife, F rances, f or t yping a nd c ommenting o n t he t ext a nd t o C hris D unn a nd J ack S purgeon f or t heir h elp.

B ibliography D uchy o f C ornwall 1 808 L ease o f 5 28 a cres t o J ames M ason , D uchy o f C ornwall R ecord O ffice . D uchy o f C ornwall 1 818 M ap o f F reehold a nd E arly E nclosures o n D artmoor , D uchy o f C ornwall R ecord O ffice . D uchy o f C ornwall 1 835 L ease o f 1 203 a cres t o E dward A tkyns B ray , D uchy o f C ornwall R ecord O ffice . G ill , C( e d ) 1 970 D artmoor : aA r e h rStudy : D avid a nd C harles , N ewton A bbot . H emery , E1 983 H igh D artmoor . R obert H ale , L ondon . L ydford P arish 1 839 T ithe M ap , D evon R ecord O ffice . M arshall , W1 796 heml E conomy,o f t he W est o f &gland , r eprinted 1 970 . D avid a nd C harles , N ewton A bbot .

2 33

2 3:

A SPECTS O F T HE M EDIEVAL D EFENCES O F B RISTOL:

T HE T OWN W ALL ,

T HE C ASTLE B ARBICAN A ND T HE J EWRY

R oger H . L eech

T he f irst a rchaeological e xcavations i n B ristol t ook p lace i n 1 948-50: ' In t he s pring a nd s ummer o f 1 948, t he f irst e xcavations i n t he c ity w ere m ade... D uring t he t hird s eason M r Q uinnell a nd l ater M r G .C. B oon u ncovered s ections o f t he C ity W all i n W ine S treet a nd m ade s everal v aluable c uttings i n t he M ary-le-Port a rea ' ( Marshall 1 951, 6 -7). T he p urpose o f t his p aper i s t o r eassess t he c hronology a nd s equence o f a p art o f t he e astern d efences o f l ater m edieval B ristol, i n w hich t he e vidence p rovided b y t he w ork o f Q uinnell e t a l i s o f i mportance. T he e astern p art o f t he w all r ecorded b y Q uinnell e t a l , a lthough p roven t o e xist b eyond r easonable d oubt a nd s hown b y t he H istoric T owns A tlas p lan ( Lobel a nd C arus W ilson 1 975), h as b een d isregarded b y m any r ecent a ccounts, w hich h ave p roduced i nstead a t otally m isleading p lan s howing a n i nner t own w all t urning s outhwards s omewhere n orth o f S t P eter's c hurch ( see f or i nstance W illiams 1 981, 4 ; B oore 1 982, 7 ; W atts a nd R ahtz 1 985, 1 7; I les 1 987, 1 26; J ones a nd W atson 1 987, 1 36).

T he T own W all B y l ater m edieval t imes, t he w all r ecorded b y Q uinnell e t a l h ad b een s uperseded b y a nother o uter w all t o t he n orth ( Fig 1 ). T his w all e xtended f rom a t l east F rome B ridge o n t he w est t o N ewgate o n t he e ast, a nd h as n ever b een i nvestigated a rchaeologically. I t w as c ertainly i n e xistence w ell b efore c . 1 350 w hen t he i nner a nd o uter g ateways o f F rome B ridge w ere l et o ut a s t enements ( Bickley 1 900, 4 ), a nd w as p robably c onstructed d uring t he m id-thirteenth c entury ( see L obel a nd C arus W ilson 1 975, 7 f or r eferences). T his w all w as s till p artly s tanding i n t he s eventeenth c entury , w hen l engths o f i t a re r ecorded o n M illerd 's m ap ( Millerd 1 678). A b astion p rojecting i nto t he R iver F rome w as s till v isible i n t he 1 820s ( BRSMG M .2703, 2 895). T he w all r ecorded b y Q uinnell e t a l i s e ven m ore d ifficult t o d ate. I t f orms p art o f t he i nner t own w all ( Fig 1 ), a nd f rom t he p resence o f c hurches o n g ateways a nd e nclosing a n a pparently S axon s treet p lan c ould b e o f S axon d ate ( Lobel a nd C arus W ilson 1 975, 5 ). Q uinnell's i nvestigation s howed t hat n orth o f N arrow W ine S treet t he w all w as o f t wo p hases, t he e arlier b eing t hicker a nd b onded i n a b uff c oloured m ortar ( Marshall 1 951, 3 4). T o t he e ast t his w all w as t erminated b y N ewgate. N ewgate i s f irst r ecorded i n t he l ate t welfth o r e arly t hirteenth c entury ( Cartulary o f S t A ugustine's A bbey , f ol. 1 68). T he w estern t ower o f t he g ate i s s hown i n aw atercolour o f t he 1 820s t o h ave h ad a t refoil h eaded a rched n iche, p resumably f or a s tatue, o f t he m id-thirteenth c entury a t t he e arliest ( BRSMG M b.13). T he l ocation o f N ewgate i s t aken f rom a p lan o f 1 798 ( BRO S t J ohn's/P/Plans) c orrelated w ith t he e vidence

2 35

BROADMEAD

R t v E R OUTER

QU INNELL 'S

NE WGATE

WALL

E XCAVAT IONS

ADA M

TE WKESBURY ABBEY

DE BUCTON 9

BARB I CAN D ITCH OLD SCH O OL 2

POSTERN GATE

9

ST

PETER 'S CHURCH

KEYNSHA M ABBEY

ST AUGUST INE 'S ABBEY

WALLS REC ORDED PROJECTED CONJECTURAL

5 0 i mm

F ig 1

0

5 0

1 00

B ristol: A rea b etween t he T own W alls a nd t he C astle , c .1290 ( see t ext f or e xplanation o f l etters; s ee A ppendix f or r eferences t o n os . T he o utline o f S t P eter's C hurch i s a s s hown i n 1 885).

f rom t he w atercolour p ainting. A f urther w all r unning s outhwards f rom t he i nnermost t own w all w as f ound b y e xcavations i n 1 970. I t w as t hought a t f irst t o b e p art o f t he c astle b arbican, b ut h as s ince b een r e-interpreted a s t he e astern s ection o f t he t own w all ( Ponsford 1 977, 1 16; P rice 1 979, 2 0-1). T he w all w as 2 .5m t hick, b onded i n b uff m ortar, a nd a butted b y a r ecta ngular s tructure o f s imilar b uild c onstructed n o l ater t han c . 1 200. A f urther p art o f t he s ame w all w as e xcavated b y B oore i n 1 975-6, t hough t he r elationship o f t his t o t he p art e xcavated b y P onsford i s

2 36

n ot a t a ll c lear i n t he p ublished i nterim r eport ( Boore 1 982, 8 -9). I n 1 987 f urther e xcavation b y J ones r evealed w hat w as p robably p art o f ' the 1 2th c entury O ld G ate', t he g ateway b y w hich W ine S treet p assed t hrough t his s ection o f w all ( Iles a nd K idd 1 987, 4 9). T o t he e vidence t hat h as c ome f rom t he f ollowing o bservations m ay b e a dded.

t he e xcavations o f

t his w all

1 . T he j unction o f t he w all w ith t he i nnermost t own w all h as n ot b een e xcavated, l ying b etween l engths o f w all r ecorded b y Q uinnell e t a l ( Fig 1 ). 2 . T here i s a r elationship b etween t he a lignment o f t he n orth-south w all a nd t he p osition o f S t P eter's c hurch. T he t ower o f S t P eter's l ies p arallel t o a nd i mmediately t o t he e ast o f t he e ast f ace o f t he p rojected l ine o f t he w all. O n F ig 1 t he r elative p ositions o f t he t wo a re t aken f rom t he p ublished e xcavation p lan ( Boore 1 982, f ig 9 ) a nd t he O S 1 :500 p lan ( OS 1 885). M ost e vidence f or t he w all a t t his p oint h as a lmost c ertainly b een d estroyed b y g rave d igging i n S t P eter's c hurchyard, a nd a s mall e xcavation i n 1 970 f ound n o t race o f i t ( Dawson, J ackson a nd P onsford 1 972, 1 59-61). 3 . T here i s a s imilar r elationship b etween t he p rojected l ine o f t he n orth-south w all a nd t he e astern p art o f t he l arge m edieval h ouse k nown a s N orton's h ouse, l ater S t P eter's H ospital. T he p lan o f N orton's h ouse c an b e l argely r econstructed f rom p lans o f c . 1 899 ( BRO 2 1508(1-9)). I t c an t hen b e s een t hat t he w est w all o f t he c ross w ing i n t he c entre o f i t w as a ligned u pon a nd c . 1 .5m t o t he e ast o f t he n orth-south t own w all ( Figs 1 a nd 2 ). T he a ctual d ate o f t he c ross w ing i s u ncertain; a f ireplace o n t he f irst f loor a nd t he r oof o ver w ere b oth o f t he f ifteenth c entury, b ut c ould w ell b e a lterations t o a n e arlier b uilding. I t s hould b e a dded t hat t he f oundations o f a d oorway t hrough t he s outh w all, s till v isible i n 1 989, a re u nlikely t o b e o f t he f ifteenth c entury a s c laimed ( Price 1 979, 3 6-7). T he d oorway t o w hich t he f oundations b elonged w as o f t he e arly s eventeenth c entury r ebuilding, a nd i s c learly v isible i n a p hotograph o f c . 1 926 ( Simpson 1 926, f ig ( not n umbered ) o f w est f ront o f A ldworth 's h ouse). 4 . T he g ate t hrough t he n orth-south w all h as b een r eferred t o a s ' Old G ate', p resumably a r eference d erived f rom W illiam W yrcestre's m idf ifteenth c entury m ention o f t he ' antiquissimam p ortam d e l e O ldg ate', ' modo p rostrata ' ( now t hrown d own ), a t t he l ane l eading t o t he e ntrance t o S t P eter's c hurch ( Dallaway 1 834, 4 9). B y W yrcestre's t ime t he g ate w as t hus a lready d emolished, a nd o nly a m emory. W hat i s o f i mportance h ere i s t hat i t c an b e s hown t hat ' Old G ate' w as n ot t he n ame b y w hich t his g ate w as k nown w hen s tanding; t his i s o f s ignificance i f i ts r elationship t o N ewgate a t t he e ast e nd o f W ine S treet i s t o b e a ssessed. I n 1 316 i t a ppears t o h ave b een k nown a s ' Bloudegate'; t he t ax a ssessment f or t he t allage i s c learly a rranged t opographically , l isting p roperties i n W ine S treet, t owards t he B loudegate, i n f ront o f t he N ew G ate, n ext t o t he C astle, a nd t hen r eturning b y S t P eter's c hurch t owards S t M ary l e P ort S treet ( Fuller 1 894-5, 2 65). B y t he e arly f ifteenth c entury i t w as k nown a s B lind G ate. A g rant o f 1 405 r efers t o t wo s hops ' in a w ay b etween B lind G ate a nd N ew G ate' ( BRO 2 6166 ( 45)); i n 1 409 W alter S eymour l eft ' two t enements w ith g arden i n W ynchestret, b y t he g ate c alled B lyndegate, b etween t he t enement o f J ohn B ruton a nd t he l ane a s o ne g oes t owards

2 37

P late 1

S t P eter's H ospital, f ormerly N orton's H ouse , l ooking n orth f rom t he R iver A von. T he t ower o f S t P eter's C hurch i s b ehind . W atercolour b y H . O 'Neill, 1 820 , r eproduced b y p ermission o f B ristol C ity M useum a nd A rt G allery .

2 38

S t P eter's c hurch' ( Wadley 1 886, 8 5). T here w as h owever a s econd B lind G ate, t he o ne r eferred t o b y W illiam W yrcestre a s l ying b etween S t J ohn's G ate a nd P ithay G ate ( Dallaway 1 834, 4 2), a nd k nown a s s uch p robably b y c . 1 350 ( Bickley 1 900, 6 ). B oth t hese g ates w ere ' blind' i n t he s ense t hat a nother w all l ay b eyond. 5 . T he n orth-south w all w as s trategically p laced a cross t he n arrowest p art o f t he p eninsula b etween t he r ivers F rome a nd A von. W hether i t w as t o p rotect t own o r c astle i s n ot k nown.

T he C astle B arbican T he n orth-south w all d elimited t he w est s ide o f a n a rea o f t he t own w hich w as b ounded o n t he e ast b y t he c astle d itch a nd b arbican ( Fig 1 ). T he p osition o f t he c astle d itch i s w ell a ttested a rchaeol ogically ( Pritchard 1 929, 2 28; P onsford 1 977, 1 08). T he f irst m ention o f t he b arbican i n f ront o f t he c astle g ate i s o f c . 1 221-4 ( ed S harp 1 982, 3 ). I ts e xact l ocation h as n ot y et b een c onfirmed b y e xcavation, b ut i ts a pproximate p osition t o t he e ast o f S t P eter's c hurch h as b een d educed f rom a s eries o f t hirteenth-fifteenth c entury d eeds ( Ponsford 1 977, 3 33-5). F urther e xamination o f d ocumentary s ources n ow e nables t he l ocation o f t he b arbican a nd t he w all a long i ts w est s ide t o b e e stablished w ith g reater p recision. C rucial t o t he f ollowing a rguments i s t he l ocation o f a p roperty g ranted b y H ugo D agun t o t he a bbey o f S t A ugustine's i n t he t hirteenth c entury ( see A ppendix , n o 4 , f or d etails). F rom t he t hirteenth t o t he f ifteenth c enturies t he p roperty ( or p arts o f i t) i s s aid t o e xtend t o t he c astle d itch. T he p recise l ocation o f t he p roperty i s k nown f rom m uch l ater s ources, f or i ts d escent c an b e t raced i ntermittently a s p art o f t he l andholdings o f t he A bbey a nd t hen t he D ean a nd C hapter o f t he C athedral d own t o t he n ineteenth c entury ( ibid .). T o t he n orth o f t his p roperty w as o ne w hich f ronted o n t o P eter S treet o n t he n orth, a nd e xtended f rom t he c emetery o f S t P eter's o n t he w est t o t he d itch o f t he c astle b arbican o n t he e ast; i ts h istory c an b e t raced f rom 1 248 o nwards ( see A ppendix , n o 5 , f or d etails). Y et f urther t o t he n orth, o n t he n orth s ide o f P eter S treet, w as a p roperty d escribed i n 1 392 a s b eing ' opposite t he g ate o f B ristol C astle'; t his c an b e i dentified a s 1 8-19 P eter S treet ( Fig 1 ) ( BRO P /St T /D/60 e tc.). T o t his c an b e a dded t he e vidence f or a s ubstantial w all r unning a long t he w est s ide o f t he c astle d itch. F ollowing i ts d emolition i n 1 655, t he c astle p recinct w as i mmediately r edeveloped f or h ousing b y t he C ommonalty. W ithin t he C at a nd W heel, b uilt c . 1 660 a t t he c orner o f C astle G reen, w as e ncapsulated aw all 1 .2m ( c. 4 f eet) w ide, a pproximately o n t he l ine o f t he w est s ide o f t he d itch ( 'a ' o n F ig 1 ) ( BRO 3 5438/38/44). O n t he s outh s ide o f C astle S treet, t he ' old w all' d escribed i n 1 657 a s b eing b etween p roperties t hat c an b e i dentified a s 8 4 a nd 8 5 C astle S treet w as o n t he s ame a lignment ( 'b' o n F ig 1 ) ( BRO 0 4335(4 ),fol. 6 9). T his w as p ossibly t he w all t o w hich W illiam W yrcestre r eferred b eside t he c astle d itch b etween S t P eter's a nd N ewgate ( Dallaway 1 834, 8 8).

2 39

T he w est s ide o f t he c astle p recinct m ay b e m arked b y t he p arish b oundary o f S t P eter's ( OS 1 885), f or t his f ollows p recisely t he l ine o f t he s outhern l ength o f w all, a nd r uns p arallel b ut t o t he w est o f t he n orthern. B etween t he t wo, t he c onfiguration o f t he p arish b oundary m ust i ndicate t he p recise l ocation o f t he o uter g ateway o f t he b arbican o r c astle g ate ( 'c' o n F ig 1 ), e xactly a s w here d escribed i n t he c ontemporary d ocuments t o w hich r eference h as b een m ade a nd b y W illiam W yrcestre ( ibid ., 9 9). T he w alls s o f ar d iscussed, t he t own w alls a nd t he b arbican , t hus d efined ap recinct o r p articular p art o f t he t own. I t i s t o w hat l ay w ithin t his a rea t hat w e m ust n ow t urn.

T he J ewry i n t he t welfth a nd t hirteenth c enturies T he h istory o f t he J ewish c ommunity i n B ristol i n t he t welfth a nd t hirteenth c enturies, p rior t o t he e xpulsion o f 1 290, h as b een d iscussed b y A dler ( 1931, 1 939). H e p laced t he J ewry i n B ristol i nitially o utside S t G iles' G ate, a djacent t o a g roup o f b uildings a long t he t own w all l ater k nown a s ' the O ld J ewry '; b y o r a fter 1 275 a n ew q uarter w as e stablished i n W ine S treet a nd c lose t o t he c astle, a s h as b een n oted s ubsequently b y B oore a nd N eale ( Boore 1 982, 7 ). W e m ay n ow e xamine w hether i t w as t he a rea b etween t he n orth-south t own w all a nd t he c astle d itch w hich b ecame t he m ain J ewish q uarter. F rom t he i nquisition u ndertaken a t t he e xpulsion i n 1 290, t he l ocation a nd r ental v alue o f h ouses o f B ristol J ews m ay b e s ummarised t hus ( Adler o p . c it . q uoting f rom P RO E 101/249.27): 1 . B enedict o f W inchester, h ung, t enement i n W ine S treet i f r epaired e tc., 1 3s 4 d ( By 1 297-8 t his h ad b een d emised t o a nd r ebuilt b y T homas M ountsorel ( Sharpe 1 982, 4 9 n 2 1)). 2 . I n s ame s treet H ak t he p riest, h ung, t wo p laces n ow r ebuilt b y P eter d e l a M are, c onstable o f t he C astle, 2 5s a nd p aying a lso 4 %d l andgable. 3 . M oses o f K ent, h ung, o utside t he c astle, a h ouse a nd o pen g round i n t he t enure o f J ohn d e L eygrave, 4 0d, 4 s 8 d i f r epaired. 4 . I saac o f C aerleon i n W ine S treet h eld a t enement t hat w as h eld b y J ohn o f W oodstock, 6 d a nd p aying a lso 3c 1 l andgable, n ow h eld b y T homas d e B ardeney , M arshal, f or 2 0s. 5 . I saac i n t he s ame s treet h eld a t enement w hich h e g ave t o h is s on C ress w ho s old t he s ame t o W illiam M ayleden, 6 s. 6 .

I n t he s ame s treet a p lot o f g round h eld b y C rese,

7 . J ossius d e C aerleon h eld a c astle w hich w as h eld f rom J ohn a lso i n W ine S treet

h ung,

6 s.

t enement i n t he s treet n ext t o t he o f L eygrave f or 1 2d, 4 0d. ( This w as

( ed V eale 1 933,

7 5)).

8 . A c ertain h ouse i n w hich w as t he w hich a djoined t he t wo p lots r ebuilt

2 40

' scole J udeorum ' ( i.e. S ynagogue) [ 2 a bove ], h eld f rom t he h eirs o f

M argaret T oly , 3 s. ( The e ntry i n t he l andgable l ist o f 1 295 ( ed V eale 1 931, 3 03) s hows t hat t hese w ere o n t he n orth s ide o f W ine S treet). A ll t hese p roperties w ere t hus i n W ine S treet o r c lose t o t he c astle, a nd i t m ust b e a sked w hether t here i s a ny e vidence t hat a ll w ere c lose t o t he c astle, i n t he a rea s eparated f rom t he r est o f t he t own. T he a ccounts o f t he C onstable o f t he B ristol C astle p rovide a p ossible a nswer. A ll t he a bove a re l isted i n t he a ccounts ( in t he y ears 1 282-1303) u nder t he h eading o f ' Castrum B ristoll e t B erthona' ( Bristol C astle a nd B arton ) r ather t han f ollowing ' redditu a ssiso i n e adem v illa' w hich a ppears i n a p receding s ection i n t he a ccounts ( Sharp 1 982, 1 0 f f). T he s ame a ccount f or t he c astle a nd b arton i ncludes r ents f rom o ther v ills i n t he b arton, a r ent f rom t he J ewish c emetery o n B randon H ill, a nd t hree o ther r ents f rom p roperties w ithin t he l ist t hat i ncludes 1 -8 a bove. T wo o f t hese a re n ot l ocated, b ut a t hird i s f rom t he k ing's g arden w ithout t he c astle, s trengthening t he p robability t hat a ll w ere i n t his a rea. T he C onstable o f t he C astle's a ccount o f r ents f or t he s ame y ears i n t he s ection f or t he t own, t hat p recedes t he a bove, i ncluded o nly t wo J ewish p roperties: 1 . P eter M iparty , h ouses t hat w ere o f J oseph a lso i n W ine S treet ( ed V eale 1 933, 7 4)). 2 .

5 s f rom t he h ouse o f M eir t he J ew ,

t he J ew ,

5 s

( this w as

c onverted.

T here i s a lso e vidence t hat o n t he n orth s ide o f W ine S treet, w here t he J ewish q uarter h as a lready b een s hown t o h ave b een c entred ( Fig 1 ), t hree t enements i n t he J ewry , p ossibly i ncluding t hat o f B enedict o f W inchester ( see a bove), w ere h eld i n f ee b y S t A ugustine's A bbey f rom t he c rown i n 1 285 ( ed V eale 1 933, 9 8). I n t he l ater f ifteenth c entury t he A bbey h eld t hree s hops ' in W ine S treet n ext t o t he B lind G ate' ( ed B eachcroft a nd S abin 1 938, 2 14-6). A lthough t he J ewish q uarter w as t hus c oncentrated b y t he l ate t hirteenth c entury i n t he a rea b etween t he w all a nd c astle d itch, t he p opulation t here w as n ot e xclusively J ewish. T he f ollowing n onJ ewish p roperties c an b e i dentified a s e xisting p rior t o 1 290: T he f irst o f t hese i s m entioned i n c . 1 243 a s ' the l arge s tone h ouse c alled t he S chool, n ear S t P eter's c hurch' ( Bickley 1 899, 2 ). A n i nquisition o f 1 285 p robably r efers t o t he a bove, ' the t enement t he o ld s chool o pposite S t P eter's c hurch', o ne o f an umber o f p roperties h eld i n c apite a nd n ot b y b urgage t enure ( ed V eale 1 933, 1 00 ). I n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury , R oger P ert p aid 1 2d f or W alter t he p arson o f S t P hilip 's c hurch, f or t he o ld s chool o pposite S aint P eter's ( op . c it ., 7 3-7). T his s ame t enement w as p ossibly ' the s chools o f B ristol f or t he J ews a nd f or t he t eaching o f o ther c hildren' r eferred t o i n a n i nquisition o f 1 318 i nto t he r ights o f t he G uild o f K alendars. O rme ( 1978, 3 4) h as a rgued t hat i t w as u nlikely t hat s uch a s chool w ould h ave e xisted u nder t he c ontrol o f t he K alendars a nd t hat l ater c onfusion h as r esulted i n ' scola J udeorum ' ( or s ynagogue) b ecoming a ' school'. T his i s u nlikely h ere b ecause ' scola J udeorum ' a nd ' veteribus s colis' a ppear i n t he s ame a ccount ( ed V eale 1 933, 7 4-5). T he l ocation o f t he s chool w ithin t he J ewish q uarter m ust a lso b e o f s ignificance.

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P ossibly a djacent t o t his p roperty w ere t hose l isted w ith i t i n t he 1 285 i nquisition, t he ' tenements o f H ugo d e H ells a nd t he t enement B arnalby o pposite t he J ewry ' ( ed V eale o p .cit .). A ll w ere p art o f t he l ands o f A dam d e B ucton ( Fig 1 ). S outh o f S t P eter's c emetery , F rom w est t o e ast t hese w ere:

s everal t enements c an b e i dentified.

1 . B etween t he a bove a nd t he l ine o f t he n orth-south w all w as a p lot m entioned f rom t he t hirteenth c entury w hen i t w as h eld b y J ohn d e W eston ( see A ppendix , n o 2 , f or d etails). 2 . B etween 1 o n t he w est a nd t he p roperty o f S t A ugustine's A bbey o n t he e ast, w as a p lot m entioned f rom t he t hirteenth c entury , a nd f rom 1 289 h eld b y t he P roctors o f S t P eter's. F ollowing N eale, P rice ( 1979, 3 6) l ocated t his p roperty f urther t o t he w est, b ut i ts c orrect p osition i s n ow c lear ( see A ppendix , n o 3 ). 3 . T he p roperty A ppendix, n o 4 ).

o f

S t A ugustine's

A bbey ,

a lready

m entioned

( see

4 . S outh o f P eter S treet, ap roperty b etween t he c emetery o f S t P eter's a nd t he c astle b arbican, a lready m entioned a bove ( see A ppendix , n o 5 ). I t i s n ot c ertain w ho a ctually l ived i n a ny o f t hese p roperties, b ut t here i s n o s uggestion o f a ny J ewish o ccupancy i n t he a vailable e vidence. T he J ewish q uarter w as t hus c onfined t o t he n orthern p art o f t he a rea b etween t he n orth-south w all a nd t he c astle d itch, t o e ither t he n orth s ide o f W ine S treet o r t he s outh s ide c losest t o t he c astle. I f t he n orth s ide o f W ine S treet w as p artly d eveloped b y 1 290, i t i s t hen p ossible t hat t he i nner t own w all w as a lready d emolished, f or t he t enement b oundaries h ere t ake n o a ccount o f t he e arlier w all. A lternatively , a n e arlier t enement p attern c ould h ave b een c ompletely o bliterated b y t he e xtension n orthwards o f t he w alled a rea. I t h as a lready b een s een t hat m ost o f t he J ewish p roperties w ere h eld d irectly f rom t he k ing a s p art o f t he r oyal f arm o f t he c astle a nd b arton o r t he t own. T he q uestion n ow a rises w hether t he e ntire a rea b etween t he n orth-south w all a nd t he c astle d itch w as h eld d irectly f rom t he k ing a nd w as f ormerly p erhaps p art o f t he c astle i tself, o r l and r eserved a s o pen s pace b etween c astle a nd t own. S outh o f P eter S treet, t he S t A ugustine's A bbey p roperty a nd t hat t o t he w est w ere h eld f rom K eynsham A bbey , w hich i n t urn h eld t hem i n f ee f rom t he K ing. T he p roperty t o t he w est, l ater h eld b y t he p rocurators o f S t P eter's, w as k nown a s ' the K ings H ows' ( ed V eale 1 933, 9 8; A ppendix, n o 3 ). N orth o f P eter S treet, a t l east t hree p roperties a re m entioned i n t wo s ets o f a ccounts, o f f ourteenth c entury d ate, t hat f orm t he f irst e ntries i n t he G reat R ed B ook o f B ristol a nd h ave b een w rongly d educed t o b e r entals o f t he t own l ands ( Livock 1 966, x vi). I n f act, t hey a re o f t he r oyal f arm a nd p resumably b ecame o f i nterest t o t he C ommonalty o f B ristol o nce i t o btained t he l ease o f t he f arm , i ntermittently f rom 1 257 o nwards ( ed C ronne 1 946, 4 7 f f).

2 42

T he t hree p roperties a re: 1 . T he o ld s chool, a ccording t o t he i nquisition o f 1 285 h eld i n f ee f rom t he K ing b y A dam d e B ucton, ( and i n t he f irst s et o f a ccounts). 2 . A p iece o f l and b elow t he o ld s chool h eld b y t he P eter's c hurch, f ormerly o f [ blank ] ( in t he s econd s et).

p arson o f S t

3 . T he t enement o f J oceus d e R eigny n ext t o t he o ld s chool f ormerly o f [ blank ], r ent 6 d ( in t he s econd s et o f a ccounts). T his w as p ossibly t he s hop h eld i n 1 316 b y J oceus d e R eyni ' towards t he B loudegate', a lready m entioned a bove. B oth t his a nd 2c ould c orrespond t o t he o ther p roperties o f A dam d e B ucton i n 1 285). I t s hould b e a dded t hat a lthough t he f irst s et o f a ccounts i ncludes a ll t he p roperties t hat w ere e arlier l isted u nder c astle a nd b arton, i t i ncludes o thers t hat w ere c learly i n t he t own. I t i s t hus n ot p ossible t o u se t hese a ccounts t o s eparate o ut t he p roperties i n t he t own o n t he o ne h and a nd t he c astle a nd b arton o n t he o ther, f or u nfortunately t he t wo s ets a re m ixed u p. I t i s c lear t hat t hese a ccounts n ever b ecame aw orking d ocument, b ecause t he n ames o f t he c urrent t enants w ere n ot e ntered. B y t he f ifteenth c entury t he d istinction b etween t he t wo h ad p ossibly c hanged, p erhaps b ecause o f t he e xtension o f t he t own's l imits i n 1 373 o r f or b ureaucratic r easons. A n a ccount o f t he k ing 's r ents f or 1 437 t hus i ncluded r ents f rom t he t own ( including s ections o f b oth t he a ccounts i n t he G reat R ed B ook ) a nd s ome p reviously i ncluded u nder c astle/barton s uch a s t he J ewish c emetery ( Bush 1 828, 8 -17). S ignificantly t his 1 437 r ental d id n ot i nclude a ny o f t he r ents p reviously o f t he J ewish h ouses i n t he c astle a nd b arton; n or d id i t i nclude t he a dditional t hree p roperties l isted i n t he G reat R ed B ook a ccounts, c learly i dentifiable a s l ying b etween t he t wo w alls a nd l isted a bove. T his m ay i ndicate t hat t he a rea b etween t he t wo w alls w as s till f or r oyal a ccounting p urposes a s eparate e ntity g rouped w ith t he c astle r ather t han t he t own. T o t he e ast, t he p lot l ater o ccupied b y 7 -9 P eter S treet w as a lso h eld i n f ee f rom t he c rown; l ater e vidence ( see b elow ) i ndicates t hat t his w as p artly o ccupied b y t he 2 0 t enements h eld b y t he P riory o f S t J ames ( a c ell o f T ewkesbury A bbey ) i n 1 285 ( ibid ., p p. 9 8-9). O n t he n orth s ide o f W ine S treet, a f urther t hree t enements i n t he J ewry w ere a lso h eld i n f ee b y S t A ugustine's A bbey f rom t he c rown i n 1 285 ( see a bove ). F rom t he a bove w e c an t hus c onclude t hat t he g reater p art o f t he l and b etween t he n orth-south w all a nd t he c astle d itch w as h eld f rom t he k ing o r h is t enants, a nd w as n ot h eld b y b orough t enure. T his m ay b e c ompared w ith t he s ituation w ithin t he w alled a rea w here a lthough s ome t enements w ere h eld i n f ee, m any w ere h eld b y b orough t enure ( ed V eale 1 931, 1 61 f f).

T he f ourteenth a nd f ifteenth c enturies W e m ay t urn f inally t o t he l ater h istory o f t he a rea b etween t he n orth-south w all a nd t he c astle. T he t enurial s ituation a t t he b eginning o f t he f ourteenth c entury h as a lready b een o utlined. T his c an n ow b e i ntegrated w ith t he e vidence f rom a rchaeological e xcavation

2 43

a nd t he r econstruction o f d emolished b uildings. B y t he e arly f ourteenth c entury , a lthough t here a re n o r eferences t o ag ate w here t he w all p resumably c rossed t he l ine o f P eter S treet, a p ostern g ate m ay w ell h ave e xisted. T he 1 316 t allage ( see a bove ) s eems t o h ave f ollowed t his r oute.

BROADMEAD

NE WGATE

R I VER

TO WER

DETA IL

NOT

SHO WN

ST P ETER 'S CHURCH

P R IEST 'S CE METERY

HOUSE 1 408

NORTON 'S 50

0

5 0

HOUSE

1 00

mm 1 0

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40

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F ig 2

RHL

B ristol: A rea t o t he W est o f t he C astle c .1450 . r ecorded b uildings s hown s tippled . F or t he S t P eter's P riest's H ouse s ee K eele U niversity A rchives ( 9p c it).

2 44

T he

w esternmost

b oundary o f t enements

n orth a nd

s outh o f P eter

S treet w as t he n orth-south w all i tself. S outh o f P eter S treet t he r elationship o f t his t o t he c entral p art o f N orton's H ouse h as a lready b een o utlined. T he d emolition d ate f or t he w all c an b e s hown t o b e b efore 1 382. A g rant o f t hat y ear r efers t o w hat l ater b ecame t he w estern p art o f N orton's h ouse a s h aving b een ' acquired f rom t he M ayor a nd C ommonalty o f t he a foresaid t own a nd n ewly b uilt', w ith n o m ention o f a t own w all a s a n a buttal ( see A ppendix , n o 1 ). I n 1 402 t he h ouses c onveyed b y J ohn C om e t o T homas N orton t o f orm t he c entre p ortion o f h is h ouse ( Fig 2 , n o 2 ) w ere d escribed a s h aving o n t he w est ' the d welling w hich J ohn H ey c aused t o b e n ewly b uilt o n t he g round f ormerly b elonging t o t he C ommonalty ' ( Fig 2 , n o 1 ), a gain w ith n o m ention o f t he t own w all a s a n a butted f eature ( ibid .). T he l ater h istory o f N orton's H ouse l ies b eyond t he s cope o f t his p aper. N orth o f P eter S treet, t he p roperty c losest t o t he n orth-south w all w as a s w e h ave s een a lready h eld b y t he c rown. I t h ad r everted b y e scheat t o Q ueen A nne w ho r elet i t t o S imon O liver i n 1 396 ( Bickley 1 900, 2 4). T hen i t w as d escribed a s b eing i n t he s treet w hich l eads t owards W ine S treet, a s i f t he n orth-south w all s till s tood. I t w as r ebuilt b y h im b efore 1 419, w hen h e l eft h is d welling h ouse a nd f our s hops b uilt b y h im i n S t P eter's S treet t o h is b rother J ohn ( Wadley 1 886, 1 04 ); i n 1 434 t hese w ere r eferred t o a s ' the s hops o f o ur l ady t he Q ueen, w hich S imon O lyver l ately c aused t o b e b uilt a new ' ( ibid ., 1 22). O liver's h ouses w ere 5 -6 P eter S treet. T he p roperty t o t he w est, 1 -4 P eter S treet, c an a lso b e i dentified. I n 1 434 N icholas E xcestre l eft ah all a nd 1 4 s hops, b etween O liver's h ouse [ on t he e ast] a nd ' the l ane c alled S tretedefence'. T his p roperty w as b y t he s ixteenth c entury , i f n ot e arlier, l argely p art o f t he t own l ands ( ed L ivock 1 966, 1 1). I t i s c lear f rom a n e arly t wentieth c entury p hotograph s howing n os. 1 -6 P eter S treet, t hat 4 ( held b y E xcestre) a nd 5 ( held b y O liver) w ere o f i dentical c onstruction ( Plate 2 ); g round o r c ellar p lans a lso i ndicate t hat t hey w ere o f a pproximately s imilar d epth. I t w ould t hus a ppear t hat t he r edevelopment o f t his p art o f P eter S treet w as c arried o ut r oughly a t t he s ame t ime, b efore 1 419. T he c onstruction o f t hese h ouses a t t he s ame t ime n ecessitated t he d emolition o f a t l east p art o f t he t own w all w hich w ould h ave r un t hrough n o. 4 . P rior t o O liver's r ebuilding t here w as p robably h ere a t enement p lot 4 0 f eet w ide, i ts e ast b oundary t he w all r unning t he l ength o f C hurch L ane. . B oore ( 1982, 8 ) h as s uggested t hat t his c ould b e t he w all b uilt i n t he b urgesses' r evolt o f 1 313, b ut i f t he a bove a rguments f or t he l ater d emolition d ate o f t he n orth-south w all a re a ccepted t here w ould h ave b een n o p oint i n b uilding a nother w all o nly 4 0 f eet t o t he e ast. A w all f rom w hich w hich t he b urgesses w ere a ble t o f ire a rrows i nto t he c astle i s m uch m ore l ikely t o h ave b een i n W ine S treet, a s t he a ccount s ays, a nd m ost p robably a cross i ts w idth c lose t o N ewgate ( Cal. P at. R olls 1 313-1317 p . 6 9). C hurch L ane i tself i s n ot m entioned b efore 1 409, a nd w as p ossibly t he r esult o f t he c ollaborative r edevelopment a nd i ntensified u se o f t he p lots o n e ither s ide. T o t he e ast, 7 -9 P eter S treet w ere p robably o riginally o ne t enement p lot, c onstituting a s ingle b lock l ater p art o f t he l ands o f

2 45

P late 2

N orth s ide o f P eter S t. l ooking E ast; t he g abled h ouses a re N os. 1 , 4 a nd 5 , a ll p robably o f t he e arly 1 5th c entury . N ineteenth c entury p hotograph, r eproduced b y p ermission o f B ristol C ity M useum a nd A rt G allery .

F oster's A lmshouse. T he a rchaeological e vidence i ndicates t hat t his t oo w as 4 0 f eet w ide. B y 1 377 t he p lot w as h eld b y T ewkesbury A bbey , t hrough i ts c ell o f S t J ames' P riory ( BRO 5 139 ( 99,126)), a nd a lready s ubdivided i nto s eparately l et p lots. B y 1 409, t here w ere p robably t hree p lots f ronting P eter S treet, o f s imilar w idth t o t hose r edeveloped o n t he o ther s ide o f C hurch l ane b y O liver ( Wadley 1 886, 8 5). F urther e ast, d eeds o f t he 1 390s o nwards s how a s imilar i ntensity o f d evelopment. A t 1 8-19 P eter S treet o n t he s ite l ater h eld b y S t T homas's c hurch t here w ere a lready t wo s hops b y 1 392. T o t he e ast, t he e nd p lot h eld b y t he P riory o f M aiden B radley w as a lready s ubdivided i nto s hops ( Figs 1 , 2 ) ( BRO P /St T /D ).

R esponsibility f or t he n orth-south w all T o t he s outh o f P eter S treet t he w all a nd t he s trip o f l and w ere e vidently p art o f t he t own l ands b y 1 382 ( see a bove ). N orth o f P eter S treet a s imilar s ituation e xisted b y t he s ixteenth c entury , a nd i t w ould b e o f i nterest t o k now i f t he E xcestre/Canynges p roperty w as a lso h eld f rom t he t own , f or a t t his e arlier d ate t he t enurial s ituation r emains u nknown. F rom a vailable e vidence i t a ppears t hat t he n orth-south w all a nd a s trip o f l and t o t he e ast w ere h eld b y t he

2 46

c ommonalty.

S o f ar a s w e c an c onclude,

t he

t own w all

e astern

r ather t han

t he

t he n orth-south w all w as t hus w estern w all

o f t he c astle

p recinct. I ts r elationship t o S t P eter's c hurch a nd t he e astern p art o f N orton 's h ouse r emains t o b e c onsidered. T he t ower o f S t P eter's i s p robably o f S axon d ate ( Dawson e t a l 1 972). I t i s u nlikely t hat t he c hurch t ower i s l ater t han t he n orth-south w all, s ince i t w ould h ardly h ave b een b uilt h ard u p a gainst i t; i t i s a lso c lear t hat S t P eter's w as n ot ag ateway c hurch a s w ere t hose o f S t G iles, S t J ohn, S t L eonard a nd S t N icholas e lsewhere o n t he t own d efences. T he n orths outh w all a ppears t herefore t o h ave b een b uilt a fter S t P eter's a nd i ts a lignment d etermined s o a s t o l eave t he c hurch j ust w ithin t he a rea b etween t own a nd c astle. N orton's h ouse i s s et a l ittle f urther b ack f rom t he w all, a nd c ould t herefore b e l ater i n d ate, r especting t he e xisting a lignment o f t he t own d efences a t t his p oint. I t h as b een s aid t hat ' the o rigin o f t he t own l ands h as n ot b een t raced ' ( ed L ivock 1 966, x vi). T he a bove o ffers a p ointer t o o ne o rigin, n amely t hat t hey m ay h ave d eveloped o ut o f t he r edevelopment o f l and f ormerly p art o f t he t own d efences. E xamination o f t he r ental o f t own l ands d ated c . 1 350 s hows t hat a t t hat d ate t he m ajority o f h oldings w ere a ssociated w ith t he t own w alls, d itches a nd g ates ( Bickley 1 900, 2 -7).

C onclusions I t i s t hus p ossible t o d raw a n umber o f c onclusions a bout t he d evelopment o f t he a rea b etween c astle a nd t own i n t he p ost c onquest p eriod: 1 . T he e astern b oundary w as t he c astle b arbican a nd d itch, a bove.

a s o utlined

2 . T he w estern b oundary w as t he n orth-south w all, w hich b y t he f ourteenth c entury w as c ertainly t he r esponsibility o f t he t own. 3 . T he n orth-south w all i s l ikely t o h ave r emained i n e xistence u ntil t he m id- o r l ate f ourteenth c entury , i .e. a fter t he c onstruction o f t he o uter t own w all i n t he m id-thirteenth c entury; b ut t here i s n o e vidence o f i ts r elationship t o e ither i nner o r o uter w alls b ecause t he p art o f t he i nner w all n orth o f W ine s treet w as n ot e xcavated. T he a bsence o f a ny h int o f t he w all's l ine i n t he p attern o f t enement b oundaries t o t he n orth o f W ine S treet, a nd i ts l ack o f a lignment w ith t he n earby t ower o n t he o uter t own w all ( Fig 2 ) i ndicate t hat i t p robably d id n ot e xtend t o t he o uter w all. 4 . L and b etween w as h eld b y k night s ervice f rom t he c rown o r i ts t enants, r ather t han b y b orough t enure. T his r aises t he p ossibility t hat i nitially t his a rea w as t reated s eparately f rom t he r est o f t he w alled t own n orth o f t he r iver. I t h ad c ertainly b ecome p art o f t he t own p roper b y c . 1 400. 5 . I n B ristol, a s i n o ther m ajor t owns ( for r efs s ee K eene 1 985, 3 84 f f), t he J ewish q uarter w as p laced f or s ecurity c lose t o a r oyal c astle. I t o ccupied o nly a s mall p art o f t he a rea h ere d iscussed.

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6 . T his s tudy h as a lso o ffered t wo p ointers t o t he o rigins o f t he t own l ands, b efore t he a dditions m ade a t t he R eformation. F irst, t here w ere t hose l ands t hat w ere d eveloped o ut o f t he t own d efences. S econdly , t hese w ere a ugmented b y t he r ents f rom t he r oyal f arm, f inally a cquired b y t he t own a s ap erpetual f ee-farm g rant i n 1 467 ( Cronne 1 946, 5 5). 7 . O n t he e ast, f uture a rchaeological e xcavation c ould p robably p rovide m ore e vidence f or t he d evelopment o f N ewgate a nd t he c astle b arbican. T o t he w est, a lthough f ourteenth/fifteenth c entury c ellar e xcavation h as c learly r emoved m ost o f t he e vidence f or e arlier h ouses, i ncluding t he o ld s chool, t here i s p otential f or e xamining f urther t he r elationship o f t he n orth-south w all t o S t P eter's c hurch ( albeit w ith m uch d isturbance f rom l ater g raves), t o P eter S treet i tself, t o n os. 4 a nd 5 P eter S treet a nd a s h as r ecently b een s hown b y J ones, p ossibly e ven t o N arrow W ine S treet. F or t he r elationship o f t he w all t o t he i nner a nd o uter w alls t o t he n orth, t he l ast c hance t o p rovide t he n ecessary e vidence p robably r ested w ith N orman Q uinnell.

A ppendix S ELECTED T ENEMENT H ISTORIES F OR T HE S OUTH S IDE C F eirER S TREET T he h istories o f t he t enements s outh o f P eter S treet , e xcluding t hose b uilt w ithin t he c hurchyard , a re a rranged f rom w est t o e ast . 1 .

N ex t t o t he l ane t o S t E dith 's W ell o n t he w est a nd t he c emetery o f S t P eter 's a nd 2o n t he e ast B efore 1 382 t he M ayor a nd C ommonalty g ranted t he p roperty a nd a n ew ly b uilt t enement t o R obert P lomer , b urgess . H e g ranted i t i n 1 382 t o T homas a tte H ay a nd W illiam F orst , b urgesses ( K eele A rchives , M 72/16/14 ). W illiam F rost , b urgess , d ied i n 1 391 l eaving h is h ouse ' i n W örschipstret , b y S t E dith 's w ell ', t o h is w ife M argaret ( W adley 1 886 , 4 2 ). I n 1 402 t he p lot w as o ccupied b y ad welling n ew ly b uilt b y J ohn H ey , o n g round f ormerly b elonging t o t he C ommonalty ( S impson 1 926 , 9 4 ). B y 1 4 35 t he p roperty , n ow a ' g reat m essuage ', w as h eld b y W alter N orton ( K eele A rchives , M 72/16/23 ); i n 1 461 i t w as s aid t o b e o f t he M ayor a nd C ommonalty ( e d V eale 1 951 , 1 46 ). B y t he 1 470s i t w as p artly o ccupied b y t he g reat h ouse o f T homas N orton t hat e x tended a lso o ver t he t wo p lots ( 2 a nd 3 ) t o t he e ast ( D allaway 1 834 , 1 45-6 ). I ts l ater h istory c an b e t raced t hrough t he d eeds o f S t P eter 's H ospital , o f w hich i t f ormed p art ( B RO 0 9864 ). 2 .

B etween t he c emetery o f S t P eter 's a nd t he R iver A von , b etween 1 o n t he w est a nd 3 o n t he e ast I n t he t hirteenth c entury , a ll o r j ust t he w estern p art w as t he t enement o f J ohn d e

W eston , b y 1 333 u ntil b efore 1 365 o f J ohn a tte W all ( p ossibly a r eference t o t he t own w all t o t he e ast ), a nd b y 1 390 o f P hilip E xcestre ( a buttals f rom 3 ) . I n 1 402 J ohn C om e g ranted t wo m essuages h ere t o T homas N orton , s enior , b urgess ( S impson 1 926 , 9 4 ). T hese t wo t enements p robably c orrespond t o t he c entre p art o f N orton 's h ou se , a nd w ere e n feo ffed t o W alter N orton , b urgess , a nd I sabella h is w ife , i n 1 461 ( e d V eale 1 951 , 1 46-7 ). T heir l ater h istory c an b e t raced t hrough t he d eeds o f S t P eter 's H ospita l . 3 .

B etween

t he c emetery o f S t P eter 's a nd t he R iver A von , b etween 2 o n t he w est a nd 4

o n t he e ast A r ent o f a ssize , r eferred t o a s t he ' K ings H ows R ent ', f rom t he p roperty w as g ranted i n t he t hirteenth c entury b y J ohn B indare t o J ohn d e W eston . B y 1 289 t he

2 48

p roperty w as o wned b y t he P roctors o f S t P eter 's . I t w as l eased t o W alter S weyn a nd I sabel h is w ife f rom 1 289 ( K eele A rchives M 72/16/1 ,4 ) a nd t o J ohn d e V enerel a nd C hristine h is w ife f rom 1 333 ( B RO 2 6166/165 ). I n 1 348 a l ately b uilt t o ft w as l eased b y t he P roctors t o D om R ichard G eruny le , s ub ject t o ar en t c ha rge o f 1 0d p ayable t o t he A bbot o f K eynsham ; i n 1 365 i t w as l eased t o J ohn B ruton , c arpen ter , A gnes h is w ife a nd J ohn h is s on ( K eele A rchives M 72/16/10 ,12 ). I n 1 389 a n ew l ease o f t he s ame w as g ranted t o J ohn M ärleburgh a nd i n 1 390 a g rant o f t he s ame w as m ade b y J ohn H ead t o E dward F oster ( B RO 2 6166/166 ; B RO F ox t ranscripts , x vi ). I n 1 439 t he P roctors o f S t P eter 's l eased t he p roperty t o M aster R obert L onde , c haplain , i n 1 462 t hey q uitclaimed t he s ame t o H umphrey C odrington a nd h is w ife a nd t hen l eased t he p roperty t o R obert D erby , r eserving o u t o f i t o ne r oom f or t he p riest o f t he c hurch O W 2 6166/172-4 ). B y 1 616 i t w as d escribed a s h aving b een f ive a lmshouses w ith f ive c hambers a nd f ive c ocklo fts o ver t hem b ut n ow r ebuilt b y T homas A ldworth . T he m easuremen ts o f t he p lot , i n b readth 2 f eet 4 i nches a nd i n l ength f rom t he c hurchy ard t o t he r iver 1 04 f eet 8 i nches , e nable i ts l ocation t o b e p recisely p laced ( B RO 0 9864 ( 6 )a ). I ts l ater h istory c an b e t raced t hrough t he d eeds o f S t P eter 's H ospital . 4 .

B etween 3 a nd t he c astle d itch I n t he e arly t hirteenth c entury F resel , d raper , g ranted t his t enement w hich h e h ad b een g ranted b y R oger W aspail t o H ugo D agun , b u tcher , w ho i n t urn g ranted i t t o S t A ugustine 's A bbey s ub ject t o a r ent o f 1 0d p ayable t o t he a bbo t o f K eynsham f rom w hom i t w as h eld i n f ee ( C artulary o f S t A ugustine 's f ol . 1 68 ). F rom 1 248 t o a s l a te a s 1 390 t he n orthern p art w as s aid t o h ave b een h eld b y R alph W aterledere ( a buttals f rom 5 ) . T he s outhern p art h ad b een h eld b y W illiam A drian b efore 1 289 , w as t he g arden o f H ugh H unt i n 1 333 a nd p art o f t he c urtilage o f J ohn a tte W alle i n 1 348 ; b y 1 390 i t t oo w as d escribed a s b eing f ormerly o f R alph W aterledere ( a buttals f rom 3 , e specially B RO F ox t ranscripts x vi ). F rom 1 427 t o a t l east 1 497 i t w as h eld b y t he N orton f amily ( a buttals f rom 5 ) . F rom 1 542 i t f ormed p art o f t he l ands o f t he D ean a nd C hapter o f B ristol C athedral , a nd i ts h istory c an b e t raced i ntermittently t o t he n ineteen th c entury ( B RO D C/E /3/2 ; D C/E /3/4 f ol . 1 47 ). 5 .

B etween t he c emetery o f S t P eter 's o n t he w est a nd t he d itch o f t he c astle b arbican o n t he e ast , b etween t he r oad o n t he n orth a nd 4 o n t he s outh I n 1 248 W illiam d e B ello M on te g ave t he p lot a nd b uildings h ere t o J ohn d e K ingswood , c arpen ter , s ub ject t o a p erpetual r ent o f 6 s ; h is w idow , A lice , i n t urn r eleased a nd q uitclaimed i t t o h is s on , a lso J ohn d e K ingswood , c arpenter , i n 1 295 . I t t hen p assed t o J ohn s on o f W illiam d e K ingswood , f ormerly b urgess , w ho i n t urn r eleased a nd q uitclaimed i t t o J ohn d e K ingswood , af ellow b urgess . I n 1 309 W illiam G y lemyn d e B oy s , e xecu tor t o J a in d e K ingswood t hen g ranted t he p roperty t o J ohn d e K ingswood , s on o f J ohn d e K ingswood , c arpenter , w ho i n t urn g ranted i t t o J ohn H asard , l isted a s ' i uxta c astrum ' i n 1 312 ( K eele A rchives M 72/16/3 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ; F uller 1 894/5 , 2 65 ). B y 1 427 t he p roperty h ad b een d ivided , at enement o f M ark W illiam o n t he n orth a nd o ne i nherited f rom t he l egacy o f F elicia H olewey a nd t hen g iven b y R oger A ndrew , b ut c h er a nd b urgess , t o J ohn S cacy , ' d ornyser ' a nd b urgess , o n t he s outh . I n 1 497 i t w as g ranted b y J ohn G riffith , m erch ant , t o t he P roctors o f S t P eter 's ( K eele A rchives M 72/16/21 ,22 ,25 ). I t r emained p art o f t he c hu rch l ands i n 1 701 ( B RO 0 0873 ).

B ibliography A dler , M1 931 T he J ews o f m edieval B ristol . T rans J ewi sh H ist S cc 1 2 , 17-186 . A dler , M1 939 T he J ews o f M ed iev a l E ng land . J ewish H istorical S ociety , L ondon . A ston , Ma nd I les , R( e ds ) 1 987 T he A rc haeo lo gy o f A v on . C ounty o f A von , B ristol . B RO B ristol R ecord O ffice r ecords . B RSMG B ristol C ity M useum a nd A rt G allery c ollections

2 49

B eachcro ft , Ga nd S abin , A( e ds ) 1 938 T wo c ompotus r olls o f S ain t A ugustine 's A bbey , B ristol . B risto l R ec S oc 9 . B ickley , FB1 899 AC alend ar o f D eed s ( C hief ly M ating t o B r isto l ) C o llec ted b y G eorge N eare B raik enr idge , F .S .A . C onstable , E dinburgh . B ickley , FBe d 1 900 T he L itt le R ed B ook o f B r isto l , 2v ols . S outheran a nd C o ., L ondon . B oore , E1 982 E Xcavations a t P eter S treet , B ristol 1 975-1976 . B risto l a nd A von A rchaeo l 1 , 7 -11 . B ush , H1 828 B r isto l T o D e ities . J .M .Gutch , B ristol . C artulary o f S t . A ugustine 's A bbey B RO [ M icro film ] 3 7943 . C ronne , HA ( e d ) 1 946 B ristol C harters 1 378-1499 . B r istol R ec S oc 1 . D allaway , J1 834 A nt iqu it ies o f B r istow i n t he M idd le C entur ies I nc luding T he T opogr aphy b y W illiam ercestre . . M irror O ffice , B ristol . D awson , DP e t a l 1 972 M edieval K iln W asters f rom S t P eter 's C hurch , B ristol . T rans B ristol G loucestershire A rchaeol S oc 9 1 , 1 59-67 . F uller , EA 1 894-5 T he t allage o f 6E dward I , ( D ec . 1 6 , 1 312 ) a nd t he B ristol r ebellion . T rans B risto l G loucestershire A rc haeo l S oc 1 9 , 1 71-278 . I les , Ra nd K idd , A1 987 A von A rchaeology 1 986 & 1 987 . B ristol a nd A von A rchaeol 6 , 4 4-56 . I les , R1 987 M edieval c astles a nd m onasteries , i n A ston a nd I les ( e ds ), 1 23-130 . J ones , Ja nd W atson , N1 987 T he e arly m edieval w aterfront a t R edcliffe , B ristol . B rit A rchaeol AT ) 1 81 . K eene , D1 985 W inchester S tudies 2 . S urv ey o f M ed iev al W inc hester , 2v ols . C larendon P ress , O x ford . L ivock , DM ( e d ) 1 966 C ity C hamberlains ' a ccounts i n t he s ixteenth a nd s even teenth c enturies . B r isto l R ec S oc 2 4 . L obel , MDa nd C arus-W ilson , EM 1 975 H istoric T ow ns : B risto l . S colar P ress , L ondon . M arshall , K1 951 E xcava tions i n t he c ity o f B ristol 1 948-51 . T rans B r isto l G loucestershire A rchaeo l S oc 7 0 , 5 -50 . M illerd , J1 678 A n D eac t L e lineat ion o f t he F amous C itty o f B r isto ll a nd S uburb s [ m ap ]. B ristol . O G 1 885 O rdnance S urvey 1 :500 p lans o f B ristol . O rme , N I1 978 T he G uild o f K alendars , B ristol . T rans B r isto l G loucestershire A rchaeol S oc 9 6 , 3 2-52 . P RO P ublic R ecord O ffice r ecords P onsford , M1 987 B risto l , i n A ston a nd I les ( e ds ), 1 44-159 . P onsford , MW1 977 B r isto l C ast le : A rc haeo logy a nd t he H istory o f aR oya l F ortress , M .Litt . t hesis , U niversity o f B ristol . P rice , R1 979 S urvey a nd e xcavation n ear S t P eter 's C hurchyard , B ristol , 1 972 . R escue A rc haeo l i n t he B risto l A rea 1 , 3 5-48 . P ritchard , JE1 929 B ristol A rchaeological N otes . T rans B r isto l G loucestershire A rchaeol S oc 5 1 , 25-43 . S harp , M ( e d ) 1 982 A ccounts o f t he C onstables o f B ristol C astle i n t he t hirteenth a nd e arly f ourteenth c enturies . B r isto l R ec S oc 3 4 . S impson , JJ 1 926 S t P eter 's H osp ital , B ristol . T rans B risto l G loucestersh ire A rchaeo l S oc 4 8 , 1 93-226 . V eale , EWW 1 931 T he G reat R ed B ook o f B ristol , I ntroduction ( P art 1 ) . B r isto l R ec S oc , 2 . V eale , EWW 1 933 T he G reat R ed B ook o f B ristol , T ext ( P art 1 ) . B risto l R ec S oc 4 . W adley , TP1 886 N otes o n t he W i lls i n t he G reat O rphan B ook a nd B ook o f W i lls . B ristol a nd G loucestershire A rchaeologica l S ociety , B ristol . W atts , La nd R ah tz , P1 985 M aryle-Port , B r isto l D coavat ions 1 9621 963 , ( C ity o f B risto l M useum a nd A rt G allery M onograph n o 7 ) . B ristol . W illiams , B1 981 D ccavat icns i n t he M edieva l S uburb o f R edc liffe , B r isto l , 1 980 . B ristol C ity M useum a nd A rt G a llery , B ristol .

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2 4:

T HE N AMES O F T HE B ATTERIES O N T HE G ARRISON , S T M ARY 'S, I SLES O F S CILLY

C harles T homas

I t i s n ot g iven t o m any i n B ritish a rchaeology t o h ave t he c hance o f w orking o n i slands; a nd s till f ewer o f u s h ave h ad t he g ood f ortune t o l odge o n i slands f or a ny l ength o f t ime ( and t o b e p aid f or d oing s o!). W hen N orman Q uinnell h eaded a s mall t eam i n t he I sles o f S cilly j ust o ver a d ecade a go , e ngaged u pon O rdnance S urvey a rchaeological r evision , h is d irection o f t he w ork w as - a s a lways - m arked b y e nthusiasm , p ersistence a nd t horoughness. S ince t hen m uch w ater h as f lowed b etween S cilly a nd L and's E nd. V ery l arge s ums o f p ublic m oney h ave b een s pent o n s uccessive p rojects, c reating a s ites a nd m onuments r egister f or t he a rchipelago, m onitoring t he m iles o f t renches d uring e lectrification o f t he ' off-islands' a nd, d uring 1 988, p utting t ogether a c omplete a rchaeological m anagement p lan. C ircumstances p ermitted f urther f ieldwork b etween 1 985 a nd 1 988 a nd t he r efinement o f p lans o f k nown s ites, b ut t he G rundwerk f or a ll t his l abour r emains t he s ame - V ivien R ussell's s plendid I sles o f S cilly S urvey ( Russell 1 980 ) a nd i ts c ompanion c orpus, t he y ard-long b atch o f O S c ards c ompiled b y Q uinnell & C o. I n l isting e nthusiasm, p ersistence a nd t horoughness I d o n ot o verlook a f ourth, m ore p ersonal, q uality: g enerosity i n c ommunicating r esults t o o thers. T his w riter, r ecently c ompiling a g eneral h istory o f S cilly o ver t he l ast f our m illennia ( Thomas 1 985), h as m any r easons t o r ecord h is o wn g ratitude t o N orman Q uinnell. A nd s o, l ooking a round f or a n a ppropriate t opic a s am ark o f t hanks, I d ecided t o d raw a ttention t o w hat w as p robably t he m ost v aluable, s pecific, o utcome o f t hat O rdnance S urvey r evision: t he l ight t hat i t m ust c ast o n S cilly 's e arly d efences. W e h ave a ll h eard a bout T ilbury F ort, D over C astle a nd B erwick u pon T weed. D o w e a ll r ealise j ust h ow m any v eritable o pen-air ' museums o f d efensive w orks' o ur c ountry s till b oasts? T he c ollection o f m assive f ortresses t hat m ake u p t he l andward p rotection o f P lymouth i s h ardly k nown ( yes, l andward: t he F rench m ight h ave c ircumvented t he s hore b atteries a nd h ave a ttacked D evonport f rom t he r ear ). S uperb f orts r emain i n b oth C ork a nd L erwick. I n S cilly , t here a re t he p roperties i n c are - H arry 's W alls, C romwell's C astle, D over F ort o r ' the B lockhouse', K ing C harles's C astle a nd S tar C astle. B ut t here a re a lso m iles o f c oastal b reastworks, f orgotten b atteries, r edoubts a nd p lacements t hat a wait a m ajor, u nified s tudy , a nd a re d aily t hreatened b y t he e rosion o f l ow c liffs a s m uch a s b y t he f eet o f v isitors. M ost i mpressive, o f c ourse, i s t he l argest c omplex o f f ortificat ion, t he n atural e minence o f t he H ugh t hat f orms t he s outh-west c orner o f S t M ary 's I sland, w ith i ts n ot-quite-complete G arrison a round i t. I t i s a s tring o f b atteries, p latforms f or g uns o f p osition, c onnected b y r ampart w alling o f h igh q uality , t he w hole b eing t he o utcome o f s uccessive m aster-schemes. N o d ecent g uide e xists f or t he w alker, a nd t he l atest b atteries w hich w ere i n t heory c ommissioned u p t o W orld W ar I w ere a s u sual o mitted f rom t he O S f irst e dition 2 5-inch m aps f or s ecurity p urposes. T here i s n ow a r eliable,

2 51

s hort s tudy o f t he G arrison a nd i ts n ucleus f ortress, S tar C astle ( Adams 1 984), w hich m akes i t u nnecessary t o d escribe t he f ortification 's b ackground h ere. C uriously , t he o utstanding h istorical p uzzle o r m uddle, a nd t he o ne l ikely t o h ave m ost i mpact o n t he c asual v isitor, i s t hat o f t he n ames o f t he i ndividual b atteries. T hey h ave b een s ubject t o c hanges t hrough t ime a nd a lso t o a d egree o f c onfusion. W hile c ompiling a n ecessarily r ather l engthy w ork o n t he p lace-names o f S cilly f rom t he e arliest r ecords ( several t housand n ames), I b ecame i nterested i n t he b atteries a s t oponymic u nits a nd p ut t ogether a ll t he f orms t hat I c ould f ind, a t ask m ade a l ittle e asier b ecause o f h aving a n i ntimate k nowledge o f t he w ider s ubject a nd s etting. I n o ffering t his s hort e ssay , I a dmit t hat b y i ts n ature i t r emains i nconclusive; I d o n ot k now a ll t he a nswers a nd s ome m ay n ever b e k nown. N evertheless, i t w ill a lmost c ertainly r emind N orman o f m any a s unset s troll a round t he H ugh, a nd p erhaps t oo o f t hat s plendid p anorama f rom a bove t he G arrison g ate - o ut o ver M ount H ollis, t he r ooftop o f T regarthen's a nd t he b uzzing n oise o f h appy h umans i n t he s aloon b ar b elow , H ugh T own l ike am odel v illage, t he h arbour a nd a ll t he b oats - t hat s ums u p s o m uch o f S cilly a nd i ts p ast. T he c learest a nd b est m ap, o r p lan, o f t he G arrison i s a R oyal E ngineers p roduct, s igned b y C olonel J .F. B irch, R .E, a nd d ated 3 1 M ay 1 834. A c opy ( immediate c opy o f o riginal, w hich i s p resumably e ntombed i n t he a rchives o f t he f ormer I nspector-General o f F ortificat ions) i s h eld b y t he D uchy o f C ornwall o ffice a t 1 0, B uckingham G ate, S .W., a nd I a m g rateful t o t he l ate S ir J ohn H iggs, S ecretary a nd K eeper o f t he R ecords, f or p ermission t o r eproduce i t r e-lettered l egibly ( here, a s F ig 1 ). O ther d ated s tages i n t he s equence o f b attery n ames a re i ndicated b elow. Ih ave n ot u sed a p lan ( PRO ) d ated 1 830, b y aL t. W .E. D ilvesB roughton, R .E. - r eproduced b y A dams ( 1984, 1 0) - b ecause I h ave n ot s een t he o riginal a nd a nyhow t he f orms o f t he n ames s uggest s traight c opying f rom s ome m uch e arlier p lan, n ot a t rue r ecord o f a ffairs i n 1 830. I n l isting t he e ntries b elow , I g o c lockwise a round t he G arrison f rom t he s outh-east s ide o f t he G arrison g ate-complex - t his i s t he u sual r oute f or a nyone w alking a round t he G arrison - a nd s tart w ith C olonel B irch 's 1 834 ' King G eorge's B attery ', m arked Eo n h is p lan ( Fig 1 ). S ources f ollows: 1 655

1 715

c orresponding t o

t he d ates c ited

i n t he

e ntries a re a s

P lan: ' A M ap o f t he H EW H ILL t he c heife f fortification ', h and-drawn a nd m uch f aded , d ated 1 655, h eld a t C ornwall C ounty R ecord O ffice, T ruro ( acc. D .D.G0.575, G odolphin p apers). C olonel C hristian L illy , ' Reports o f t he p resent S tate a nd C ondition o f h is M aiesties F ortifications, B uildings a nd A rtillery , i n t he S outh W estern D epartment o f E ngland. O therwise c all'd P lymouth D ivision o r D istrict'. C ompleted 1 715; B odleian L ibrary , O xford, M S M isc. 1 7, 5 56 ( = G ough, M isc. A ntiq. 1 ).

2 52

a

a

a

a

S tar C as t le

Two sma l l o ld T owe rs

F ig 1

P lan o f t he F ortifications o f S t M ary's , S cilly , t o a ccompany C ol. B irch's L etter t o t he I nspector-General, d ated 3 1 M ay 1 834 . K ey: A - K ing C harles B attery; B S torehouse B attery; C - W ell B attery; D -J efferson's B attery; E -K ing G eorge's B attery; F - D uke o f L eeds' B attery; G -B enham's B attery; H -M orning P oint B attery; J - W oolpack B attery; K - B artholomew B attery; N - M aster G unner's H ouse; N - M agazine; 0 - O fficers' Q uarters; P PP S torehouses, c arriage s heds , e ngineering w orkshops; Q QQ S ally P orts; R - I nvalid g unners' b arracks; S - b arracks; T - G uardhouse; V - S torekeeper's H ouse; a aa -G ardens o ccupied b y i nvalid g unners; b bb -G ardens o ccupied b y i ndividuals o f t he T own, w ith t he s anction o f t he B oards , p aying a n a cknowledgement f or t hem t o t he G overnor . 2 53

1 742

P lan: h and-drawn, i nk, p robably t he w ork o f a n e ngineer o fficer, s howing t he G arrison o r H ugh, a nd S tar C astle ' with t he p arts o f i ts F ortifications a nd A venues u pon S T M ARY 'S I SLAND i n S CILLY 1 742'. U npublished; H istorical P lans r oom , D OE ( now E nglish H eritage) a t F ortress H ouse, 2 3 S avile R ow , L ondon W .1. N o m ark o f p rovenance s ave a n i nk s tamp o f ' broad a rrow ' a nd B .O., f or B oard o f O rdnance. 1 750 P lan: h and-drawn, u npublished, s howing d etails o f t he G arrison, d ated 1 750 a nd a ttributed t o A braham T ovey ( Master G unner, a nd b uilder o f m uch o f t he d efences i n t heir l ater f orm: s ee A dams 1 984, 5 5 f f.). A pparently f rom t he G odolphin p apers, b ought i n 1 957 f rom a Y ork b ookseller a nd n ow h anging f ramed i n S tar C astle, w hich i s c urrently a n h otel. 1 796 T routbeck, J ohn: A S urvey o f t he A ncient a nd P resent S tate o f t he S cilly I slands .. ( etc), C rutwell, S herborne ( n.d., b ut g enerally t aken a s 1 796). 1 850 N orth, I saac W illiam: A W eek i n t he I sles o f S cilly , R owe, P enzance ( 1850). 1 887 M aps: O rdnance S urvey , 6 i nches t o t he m ile, I sles o f S cilly , i st e dition ( published 1 887-88). 1 897 O wen, J ames G .: F aire L yonesse - A G uide t o t he I sles o f S cilly , C oles & O wen, B ideford ( 1897). T he d ate 1 834 r efers t o C olonel B irch's p lan, a s i n F ig 1 .

1 .

K ing G eorge 's B attery

1 655 1 715 1 742 1 750 1 834 1 850 1 897

S tiller P [latform ] t he h igher B astion H igher B astion K ing G eorge 's B attery d o . d o . d o . ' S tiller ' i s u nexplained . ' H igher ' m ay b e i n r elation t o as mall l ower o utl ying p latform o r b attery , f or a s ingle p iece , o n t he c urious l ittle m ound c alled M ount H ollis - s hown a s s uch o n t he 1 742 p lan - f or w hose e arlier h istory s ee A shbee 1 974 , 20 : T homas 1 985 , 1 61-3 . T he c hange i n h onour o f G eorge I i s p robably d ue t o A braham T ovey . 2 .

D uke o f L eed 's B attery

1 655 1 715 1 742 1 750 1 796

G arden P [latform ] t he G arden B astion G arden P latform G arden B attery t he D uke o f L eed 's B attery ( ' la tely n amed ', p .43 ) 1 834 D uke o f L eeds ' B attery 1 850 d o .

j ust

' G arden ' r e fers t o c ultivated p lots s outh-south-west o f t his b attery

l inked b y ap ath t o S tar C astle , a s s hown o n t he 1 742 p lan . T he D uke o f L eeds i n q uestion , p resumably F rancis G odolphin ( 5 th d uke , b . 1 751 , d . 1 799 ) w as t he s on o f T homas O sborne , 4 th d uke , w ho m arried M ary G odolphin . S he w as t he e ventual s ole h eiress o f F rancis G odolphin , 2 nd e arl , a nd t he g overnorship a nd l ease o f S cilly u nder t he C rown p assed t o t he d ukes o f L eeds , w ho s urrendered t he p osition i n N ovember 1 831 . T he o ccasion o f r e-naming m ay h ave b een o n t he d eath o f t he 4 th d uke a nd t he s uccession o f h is s on F rancis . 3 .

B enham 's B attery

( hbte T here w ere o riginally t wo b atteries h ere , t he l ower o ne b eing s ligh tly i n a dvance o f t he l ine o f t he G arrison a nd a lso e xposed t o e ncroachment b y t he s ea ; b y t he e nd o f t he 1 8th c entury , i t h ad b ecome a d etached g arden f or t he L ieutenant-Governor ( s ee F ig 1 ) a nd n ow c ontains a s mall m odern h ouse a nd s heltered g arden . ) 1 655 B ynham a nd L ower B yn .[ h am ] 1 715 U pper B enham B astion , L ower B enham B astion 1 742 U pper B enham B attery , L ower B enham B attery 1 750 H igher B entreim [ s ic ] B a ttery , L ower B entreim B attery

2 54

1 742 d o . 1 750 M y L ord G odolphin 's B attery a t W ool P ack P oint 1 796 W oolpack B attery 1 834 d o . 1 850 d o . 1 897 d o .

1 796 B enham B a ttery 1 834 B enham 's B attery ' B en treim ' ( 1 750 ) m ust b e am iscopy . T routbeck ( 1 796 , 4 3 ) c laims t he b attery w as ' s o c alled f rom a l arge p it o r q uarry c lose b y ' ( w here t he T rinity H ouse c ottages n ow s tand ), b ut t his m erely i mp lies a n o lder ' B enham 's P it ' o r s imilar . T his t erritorial s urname i s n ot C ornish . T here i s a B inham i n N orfolk , a nd B enham H ouse a nd M arsh B enham a re w est o f N ewbury , B erks . 4 .

T he b attery i s a gain n amed a fter t he f eature - t he s outh-south-west e x tremity o f t he H ugh - o n w hich i t s tands . ' W oolpack ' i s t he p oint , a lso t he r ocky e nd a nd a p artly-detached l edge i n t he s ea ; p robably a n ame n o o lder t han t he 1 7th c entury , a rising e ither b ecause s ome f ea ture w as t hough t t o r esemble a b ale o f w ool o r ( t his i s n ot u ncommon i n S cilly ) b ecause o f s uch b ales c oming a shore a t t his s po t f rom a w reck .

M o rning P oint B attery

1 655 M äwnan P [latform ] 1 715 M onan B attery 1 742 M orning P latform 1 752 M orning P oin t B attery 1 796 d o . 1 834 d o . 1 850 d o . 1 887 d o . U dism .[ounted ] o r [ a ntled ]')

6 .

T oday , M orning P oint f orms t he s outhe ast c orner - a l ow b lunt p oint o f r ocks o f t he w hole H ugh o r G arrison . I t w ould b e t empting t o s uppose t hat t his i s b ecause i t f aces t he s unrise . B ut t he 1 655 H a man i s r ather c onfirmed b y t he 1 715 e ntry ; L illy 's A tnan i n t he B odleian M S i s p robably t o b e c orrected b y t he r eading o f h r ornon i n as eparate c opy B ritish M useum , n ow B ritish L ibrary , K ing 's M S .45 . f ol .7 ( ' Plan a nd p rospect o f H ugh F ort o n S t M ary 's I sland '). N o s eparate r ecords o f t he p lace-name a s a l ocality h ave b een f ound , o ther t han t hose a ttached t o t he s uperimposed b attery . M äwnan i s t he n ame o f aC ornish p arish , n ear F almouth ( f rom a p atronal s aint h äuna n(us ) o f w hom n othing i s k nown ). I f t his n ame w as s omehow b orrowed f or a v ery m inor h eadland i n S cilly , t he c ircums ta nc e s a re n ot e asy t o i magine ; a1 7th c en tury ' M äwnan P oin t ' o ugh t t o t ranslate a n e arlier , C ornish , p lace-name l ike *Anmawnan ( n ot i tself a v ery l ikely f orm ). A lternatively , E nglish ' m orning ' m ay b e t he a nswer , b ut r ather o ddly t ransm itted i n w riting . 5 .

W oolpack B a ttery

1 655 W o ollpack P [latform ] 1 715 W oolpack B a ttery

B artholomew B attery

1 655 1 715 1 742 1 750 1 796 1 834 1 850

B artlemew F lat [ f or m ] B artolomew ( and B arthol c r aew ) B attery B artholomews B attery M rs G odolphin 's B attery B artholomew B attery d o . B artholomew 's B attery

T he s hort-lived ' M rs G odolphin ' t itle o ught t o s tand m ore f ittingly f or L ady G odolphin ; t he f amily b arony s tarted i n 1 684 . T he s ubmerged B artholomew L edge l ies o ff-shore h ere , a nd t his i s a no ther c ase w here a m arine f eature h as g iven i ts n ame t o t he n earest l andward p oint a nd t he b attery e rected u pon i t . 7 .

S teval B attery

1 655 S tivoll F lat [ f or m ] 1 715 S tevell B attery a nd t he S tevel P latform 1 742 S tevels B attery 1 796 S teval r ock ( . .. a b attery , l ately e rected ) 1 850 a t ap oint c alled S teval . . o ne 1 8p ounder 1 897 T he S tevel ( b attery ) N ot s hown o n C ol . B irch 's 1 834 p lan ( F ig 1 ) . T he o nly v arian t t o n ote i s i n t he B .L . K ing 's M S .45 , v ersion o f L illy 's r eport , 1 715 , w hich a ppears t o r ead ' S tewil ' ( o ne w ould e xpect ' S tevil '). A ll t his a lludes t o ap lace-name o f t he p oint

2 55

( o n l and ) a t t his s ide o f t he H ugh a nd a lso o f o ne o r t wo r ocks i mmediately o ffshore . T he r ange o f f orms i ncludes S teval , S tevel , S tivel a nd S tivell , a nd t he o nly e arlier i nstance i s a' h ouse c alled t he S teevall ' o n t he w est s ide o f H ugh H ill , m en tioned i n t he P arliamentary S urvey ( 1 652 ), w ith a p ossible v ariant i n a nother M S . a s ' S teeveall ' ( P ounds 1 984 , 1 47 ). S tevel - t o t ake a s afe f orm o ught t o b e as traightforward d escriptive n oun . I t c ould b e v ery w ell b e e ither f rom M iddle C ornish o r M iddle E nglish , b ut i n n either i nstance d oes a ny p articular w ord s eem t o f it . 8 .

K ing C harles 's B attery

1 655 1 715 1 742 1 750 1 796 1 834 1 850 1 897

1 0 . W e l l 1 655 1 715 1 742 1 750 1 796 1 834 1 850

R esolution C harles B attery a nd C harles P latform K ing C harles 's B attery d o . d o . K ing C harles B attery C harles 's B attery C harles ' B attery

I t m ust r emain a nybody 's g uess a s t o w hich ( i f a ny ) o f t he n umerous 1 6th a nd 1 7th c entury m eanings o f t he w ord ' r esolution ' i s e mbodied i n t he 1 655 n ame , o r i ndeed i f t he p latform c ould s imply h ave h eld a p iece t aken f rom a s hip o f t hat n ame . T he l abel i n h onour o f K ing C harles I o ugh t t o d a te f rom t he R estoration ( 1 660 ). 9 .

p rivate h ands , a nd t he b attery f orms p art o f i ts g arden - a t t his p oin t t oday 's p erambulation o f t he b atteries h as t o c ease , s ince t he r emaining s tretch i s n ow i naccessible w ithin m odern h ouses a nd g ardens . ' N ewman ' i s t he n ame o f ar ock m ass i n t he s ea , j ust o ff t he p oin t h ere . A part f rom i ts a pplication t o t he b attery , t his p lace-name i s f irst i ncluded o nly o n G osselo 's m ap o f 1 708 , i s i nvariably s pelled N ewman , a nd i s s traightforward E nglish ( p ossibly t he n ame o f ap erson o r as hip ? ). B attery

W ell p [latform ] t he W ell P la tform W ell P latform W ell B attery ' a b attery ' W ell B attery T he M aster G unner B attery ( t hree 1 8-pdr c arronades )

A s mall b attery a t t he n orth-east a ngle o verlooking R at I sland a nd t he n orth-west e xterior s eaward f lank o f t he p ier . T he m ain f reshwater w ell o f t he g arrison ( ' exceeding g ood W ater . .upwards o f h alf a S core Y ards i n D epth ') w as h ard b y t his ( H eath 1 750 , 7-8 ). T he p lan o f 1 742 s how s ah ouse a nd g arden j ust w est o f t he b a ttery , m arked ' 2 . T oveys H ouse ' ( A braham T ovey , M aster G unner ), a s d oes C olonel B irch 's p lan ( m arked ' M ' i n F ig 1 ) .

S tore-House B attery 1 1 . J e ffreyson 's B attery

1 655

N ewman Kla tform j ( s hown i n f ront o f ' S torehouse ') 1 715 N ewman B attery 1 742 N ewmans P latform 1 750 t he N ewman B attery 1 796 t he S tore-house B attery 1 834 S torehouse B a ttery 1 850 S tore-house B attery

1 742 1 750 1 796 1 834 1 850 1 897

T he B .L . K ing 's M S .45 c opy o f L illy ( 1 715 ) h as ' N ewmans P latform ', a nd t he f irst r ecord o f c hange i s a ctually ' t he S tore-House B attery ', o ne o f t he f ew s pecific t itles r ecorded i n 1 750 b y R obert H eath ( H eath 1 750 , 7 ). T he g arrison s tore i n t he 1 8th c entury w as p art o f a c omplex h ere , l ater i nvolving a b arracks ( s ee F ig 1 ) . I t i s n ow N ewman H ouse , i n

C onstructed b ehind t he l ine o f t he w all , n ot s hown o n t he 1 655 p lan a nd a pparently b uilt o r r e-built b e fore 1 742 , t his s mall b attery i s n amed a fter C aptain C harles J e ffreyson - n o te t he c orrect f orm o f h is s urname - w ho w as t he s enior o fficer o f t he G arrison b y 1 738 . H is c orrespondence w ith t he E arl G odolphin i s p rinted b y T routbeck ( 1 796 , 2 08 f .), a nd

2 56

Ar epaired P latform J efferson 's B attery J effreyson 's B attery J efferson 's B attery J efferson ( b attery ) J efferson 's B attery ( 9 -pdr , t wo 6 p drs , t hree 1 8-pdrs )

h e

a ppears i n o ther

s ources a s aC aptain

i n a n I ndependent C ompany o f I nvalids , c ommissioned t o t hat r ank 2 1 J anuary 1 737/8 , a nd s tuck i n S cilly u ntil 1 764 . G eorge J effreyson , a n e nsign , a nd a n o fficer o f t he g arrison f rom 1 787 t o 1 795 , w as p resumably a s on . V anished b a tteries T he n umbered l ist a bove s ets o ut t he b atteries o r p latforms t hat c an b e s een t oday , t ogether w ith t hose f orms o r v ersions o f t heir n ames ( a s e ntry h eadings ) t ha t i t i s s uggested s hould b e u sed n ow , a nd w hich c an b e s upported h istorically . T hese a re n ot h owever a ll t he b atteries t hat c an b e t raced , a nd a f ew m ore - b ecause s pecific n ames f or t hem h appen t o h ave s urvived - m ust b e m en tioned . T he 1 3 r xxm B atteries ( O a C olonel B irch 's p lan , F ig 1 , t hese w ould h ave o ccurred o n t he s tret c h b etween ' G ' a nd ' H ' -t he U pper b attery a t t he l ittle k ink o r d og-leg i n t he w all a t t he s outh e nd o f t he L ieu tenant G overnor 's G arden , a nd t he L ower a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he s tretch , w here t he w all a gain g oes t hrough a n a ngle j ust b y t he c orner o f t he f ields .) a .

c reso 1 652 , P ortcresoe 1 652 , P ortcraser 1 689 , P orcresa 1 708 , P orthkressoe 1 712 , e tc ., u p t o ' P orthcressa ' t oday - s how t hat i t i s t he C ornish p orth m eaning ' l anding-place , c ove , a ccessible b each ', a nd p robably a M iddle C ornish p lural w ord * czys ce , eres cm , m eaning ' c lothes , c lothing ' a nd h ere ' l aundry ' ( l aid o u t t o d ry o n t he g rass ). T ovey 's 1 750 p lan n otes t hat b oth b atteries a re ' w ashed d own b y t he s eas '. T he l ow c liff h ere e rodes f ast a nd t he p resent l ine o f t he g arrison w all h as p robably b een r e-built i nland o f t he l ine s hown i n t he 1 7th c entury . T he K ing 's M S .45 v ersion o f L illy 's 1 715 r eport g ives a s lightly d ifferent r eading o f ' B roome ' ( w ith f inal e). B oth a re a pparently n amed a fter a ' B room H ill ' w hich w ould s eem t o b e t he e astfacing s lope o f t he H ugh a t t his p oint . F or t he v ariant s pellings o ne c ould n ote a p lace B roomhill i n D orset ( W in frith N ewburgh p arish ), w hich w as r ecorded a s B romehill o r B romehyll i n 1 464 , 1 478 , 1 587 a nd 1 795 ( M ills , P lace-N ames o f D orset , 1 .175 ). T he b room p lant , S ärothamnus s copar ius ( L .), i s n ative t o S cilly a nd o ccurs o n t he G arrison - J .E . L ousley , F lora o f t he I sles o f S c illy 1 971 , 1 64 - a nd o ne c an o nly i nfer t ha t ' B romehill ' o r ' B roomhill ' i s ag enuine l ost p lace-name o f t he 1 7th c entury .

U pper 1 3 roa n T h e B arn P latform

1 655 1 715 1 742 1 750 b .

F olcresoe p [latform ] U pper B room P latform U pper B room B attery H igher B room B attery

l ßwer B ry ce

1 655 1 715 1 740 1 750

B romehill L ower B room P latform L ower b room B a ttery L ower B room B attery

I n t his p air , ' U pper ' a nd ' L ower ' r efers t o n orth /south d istinction o r t o d istance ( ' ne a rer/f u rther ') f rom t he G arrison e ntrance , a nd n ot t o r elative v ertical h eights . ' P olcresoe ' i s s imply t he n ame o f t he b ay o r c ove a d joining t he b ay a t t he b ack o f H ugh T own , a nd i s s o m arked , i n t he s ea , o n t he 1 655 p lan . T he n umerous f orms o f t he p lace-name - P ort

1 655 B arne p lat [ f orm ] 1 715 t he B arn P latform T he o nly r ecord o f t his s mall p latform , a s a bove , i s ad epiction o n t he 1 655 p lan s howing i t o n t he s hort s tretch o f g arrison w all b etween t he S tore-House a nd W ell B atteries , s lightly c loser t o t he l atter . I t w as p robably o bsolescent a t t he t ime o f C olonel L illy 's 1 715 r eport a nd i s a bsent o n b oth t he 1 742 a nd 1 750 p lans . T he ' b arn ' w as p robably a b arn a ttached t o w hat b ecame t he M aster G unner 's H ouse , b ut t here w ere n umerous n on-domestic s tructures i n t his c orner o f t he G arrison , r eplaced o r e xpunged a t i ntervals a nd n o t r eally d etectable . P resumably t he B arn P latform w as r emoved i n A braham T ovey 's s cheme .

2 57

!bmt lbllis

'nri.s has been mentioned above in connect­ ion with King George's Battery {no. 1), and deserves sare further discussioo. Mount Hollis, now sanewhat reduced, is or was a small natural granite outcrop, earn or tor, standing in front of the lines due east of King George's Battery and separ­ ated fran it by the wall, the outer ditch and a rough lane {now rootalled) • Today It>unt Hollis is a feature in a private garden. It appears to have served as an outlying battery until the 18th century, but is not included in Colonel Birch's 1834 plan. 'nie name itself has two sets of records, thus: (as a batter}?

1655 1715 1742 1796 1750 1756 1792 1831 1897

(Here) M:>unt M:>unt Hollis detached Bastioo lt)unt Hollies M:>unt Hollis (remains of an old fort)

( and

as a feature)

K:>unt Hollis (Heath) Mount-Hollies {Borlase) M:>unt Hollis (in a Godolphin lease) M:>unt Olives (Duchy survey) 1'bunt of Olives (OWen)

No explanation can be offered, and the early fonn may well be a post-Civil War Fllglish introductioo. '1'b.mt of Olives' is perhaps due to Methodist influence! CoJmeJ Gecrge Bascuen IS Battery

In Fig 1, which is an accurate depictioo

of what was visible in 1834 (but is obviously not periodicized), the south­ east corner of the Garrison - bottan left in the illustration - includes an obtuse­ angled bastion or battery with no letter, just left of Colonel Birch's Bartholanew Battery. ('nri.s goes along with the slight trace of a fortification, outside the lines and west of the termination of the Garrison wall, also with no letter and representing an earlier site or version of the Steval Battery, which Birch similarly does not name.) 1be battery west of Bartholanew can be identified with one indicated on Abraham Tovey's 1750 plan, where it is named as 'Col. George Boscawen's Battery'. 'nri.s is the only reference to it, apart fran the version of Lt. W.E. Dilves-Broughton's plan of 1830 as reproduced by� (1984, 10), which notes 'lt:dern fort on the site of Col. Boscawen's Battery'. George Boscawen, a younger son of Hugh, first Viscount Fal.Ioouth, was through his paternal grandloother a great-grandson of Sir Francis Godolphin. Born in 1712, he entered the Army and rose to general officer's rank, before dying in 1775. His involvement with the Isles of Scilly quite apart fran any connection with his Godolphin relatives as 1£>rds Proprietor was that in 1745, as a major-general, he was appointed lieutenant (or deputy) governor at 10/- per diem, and is stated to have died in the Islands. 1bis battery will therefore have been re-furbished (rather than re-built) and named after him., sanetime between 1745 and 1750.

Thi s acco unt records all o f t h e known name s o f t h e i ndiv idual p a r t s o f t h e fo r t i f i c at ions sur ro undi ng the Hug h {tho ugh it l e a v e s o t h e r s o n t h e Hug h or Garr i son, some o f them defensive works from t h e sixt e e n t h c e n t ury o nwards, to be di scus s ed elsewhere). Th e comp l e t e seque n c e , fo llowing clockwise from t h e Gar r i so n Gate or main entry poi n t , i s therefore: 1 . King George's Battery 2. Duke o f Leeds ' s Battery 3. Ben h am' s Battery {Si te of Lower Be nham Ba ttery, ou t s ide ) {Si te o f Upper Broom Ba ttery) (Si te of Lower Broom Ba ttery) 258

4 . M orning P oint B attery 5 . W oolpack B attery 6 . B artholomew B attery ( Colonel G eorge B oscawen 's B attery , 7 . S teval B attery 8 . K ing C harles's B attery 9 . S tore-House B attery ( Site o f B arn P latform ) 1 0. W ell B attery 1 1. J effreyson's B attery

r e-used )

- a nd i t m ust b e a dded t hat i t i s h ighly d esirable t hat s ome s uch s cheme o f f ixed n ames, p referably a s s et o ut h ere a nd s upported b y t he f oregoing d etails a nd d ated o ccurrences, s hould n ow b e a dopted. S ome o f t he b atteries b ear n ame-plaques, n ot a ll o f t hem w ith t he n ames s elected h ere a s t he h eadings. T here i s s till n o s imple g uide o r w alk-around l eaflet t o t he G arrison , w hich w ould i deally g ive i n o utline t he v arious s tages o f c onstruction a nd a llow t he t housands o f i nterested v isitors t o k now p recisely w here t hey a re, a nd w hich b attery i s w hich, o n a r amble t hat o nly t he d ullest o f s pirit c ould f ail t o f ind o f e njoyment. I n a ll t he v oluminous l iterature o f f ortifications, e arly a rtillery a nd g uns o f p osition, I h ave f ound v irtually n o d iscussion o f b attery n ames. T he b attery a dmittedly l acks t he i mmediate g lamour o f t he i ndividual g un o r p iece ( an a rtefact t hat, l ike s hips a nd l arge r ailway e ngines, i s c uriously t hought o f a s b eing i n s ome w ay f eminine - M ons M eg, B ig B ertha, e tc.). B attery n ames s eem t o b e o f t hree s orts; t hose d erived f rom p roximity t o a n atural f eature, t hose n amed f rom a djacent a nd o ften n on-military s tructures, a nd t hose c ommemora ting i ndividual n otables. T he s equence a round t he G arrison e xhibits c ases o f a ll t hree. T his e ssay i s a t b est a c ontribution t o m ore s pecific a nd d etailed s tudies o f am ajor o pen-air m useum o f f ortificat ion, b ut i t i s o ffered t o N orman Q uinnell i n t he k nowledge t hat h is l ong-standing i nterest i n t he I sles o f S cilly i s u nlikely t o f ade a way; a nd t hat h e w ould j oin w ith t he w riter i n s upposing t hat t he G arrison d eserves an ew, a nd g reatly i mproved , p resentation t o t he s ympathetic v isitor.

B ibliography

A dam s , Fa nd P 1 984 S tar C ast le a nd I ts G arr iso n . B elvedere P ress , L iskeard . A shbee , P1 974 A nc ient S c illy -F ru n t he F irst F an ners t o t he E ar ly C hr ist ians . D avid a nd C harles , N ew ton A bbot . H eath , R1 750 AN atura l a nd H istor ica l A ccount o f t he I s lands o f S c illy . . L ondon . R ussell , V1 980 I s les o f S c illy S urvey . I sles o f S cilly M useum a nd I nstitute o f C orn ish S tudies , T ruro . T ha nas , C1 985 E x p lor at ion o f aD row ned L and sc ape . A rc haeo logy a nd H isto ry o f t he I s les o f S c illy . B atsford , L ondon .

2 59

2 5:

L EPROSY I N C ORNWALL A ND D EVON: P ROBLEMS A ND P ERSPECTIVES

J ohn H art

I n v iew o f N orman's s ubstantial c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f t he f ield a rchaeology o f s outh-west E ngland , i t i s h oped t hat a b rief o utline o f t he a uthor's r esearch w ithin t his a rea w ill b e o f g eneral i nterest h ere. T his r esearch a ims t o p rovide a d etailed r egional a nalysis o f t he a rchaeological a nd d ocumentary e vidence f or l eper h ospitals i n C ornwall a nd D evon i n a n a ttempt t o p rovide i mportant d ata b earing o n t he p revalence a nd d emographic s ignificance o f l eprosy. T he b ackground t o t his r esearch h as b een o utlined e lsewhere ( Hart 1 987), b ut t he m ain r easons f or s tudying t his a rea w ill b e b riefly r estated. T he s outh-west p eninsula o f E ngland w as c haracterised b y a n u nusually h igh d ensity o f l eper h ospitals i n t he m edieval p eriod. I n 1 307, f ollowing t he d eath o f T homas B ytton, B ishop o f E xeter, b equests w ere m ade t o t hirty-nine h ospitals i n t he d iocese o f E xeter ( twentyt hree i n C ornwall, s ixteen i n D evon ). T his t antalising r eference i s t he o nly k nown r ecorded r eference t o m any o f t hese h ospitals. I t s eems c lear t hat l eprosy l ingered a mong t he r ural a nd i solated c ommunities i n C ornwall a nd D evon u ntil t he m id s eventeenth c entury , l ong a fter i t h ad d isappeared f rom m ost p arts o f t he B ritish I sles. I n C ornwall, t he d etailed e cclesiastical s urveys o f C harles H enderson a nd t he d ocumentary a nd t opographical r esearch o f S omerscales p rovide a n i mportant f ramework f or t he s tudy o f t he d emographic, s ocial a nd e conomic i mportance o f l eper h ospitals a nd t heir c hronology, s iting a nd d istribution w ithin t he m edieval l andscape. T oday a t l east 1 1.5 m illion p eople s uffer f rom l eprosy i n t he t ropical a nd s ub-tropical a reas o f t he w orld ( World H ealth O rganisation 1 985). I t i s c lear f rom h istorical d ocumentary s ources t hat t his i nfective, b acterial d isease w as w idespread t hroughout t emperate m edieval n orth-west E urope, b ut t he d egree o f i ts p revalence i n t his c ountry i s c ontroversial. W ells ( 1964, 9 4) h as s tated t hat ' at t he h eight o f i ts s pread i n E urope a bout o ne p erson i n e very t wo h undred m ay h ave b een a l eper'. C onversely , R ichards ( 1977) a rgues t hat n o m ore t han a bout t wo t housand B ritish l epers a re l ikely t o h ave b een i n a n i nstitution a t a ny o ne t ime o ut o f a p opulation o f a bout t hree m illion. S ome 5 30 h ospitals w ere f ounded i n E ngland a lone i n t he t welfth a nd t hirteenth c enturies r eflecting a r evival o f C hristian c harity a nd c ompassion f or t he a ged, t he p oor a nd t he s ick. T he s tudy o f m edieval h ospitals a nd t heir b urial g rounds h as b een m uch n eglected u ntil r ecently b ut i s n onetheless c rucial t o t he s tudy o f e cclesiastical a nd m edieval h istory. A lthough t he s tudy o f s keletal e vidence f rom a rchaeological e xcavations c an p rovide i nformation o n t he d iet, h abits, d iseases a nd p opulation s tructure o f m edieval E ngland, e vidence o f l eprous l esions i n s keletal r emains i s m eagre ( Manchester 1 981; M anchester a nd R oberts 1 987). I n C ornwall a nd D evon, f or e xample, t he o nly r ecorded i ndividual s howing l eprous b one c hanges h as b een r ecorded f rom T ean, I sles o f S cilly ( Brothwell 1 961). T he

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e xcavation o f l eper b urial o r c emetery s ites i s p roblematic a nd h as b een v ery l imited i n s cope ( for e xample L ewis 1 964). D ifferential p reservation a nd t he l oss o f s mall p ostcranial b ones e xacerbates t he s ituation. O f t he t hirty-three m edieval h ospital e xcavations r ecorded i n t he R oyal C ommission's n ational E xcavations I ndex , o nly s ix l eper h ospitals h ave b een i nvestigated a nd n one f alls w ithin t he s tudy a rea. E xcavation o f t he l eper h ospital a nd c emetery o f S t. J ames a nd S t. M ary M agdalene, C hichester, c urrently a t t he p ost-excavation s tage, r epresents t he f irst d etailed i nvestigation o f i ts t ype i n t his c ountry a nd p ublication o f t he r esults w ill p rove i mportant t o t he s tudy o f a rchaeology a nd p alaeopathology i n g eneral a nd t o t he s tudy o f m edieval l eprosy i n p articular. I n c ontrast, t he e xtensive e xcavations o f m edieval l eper h ospital c emeteries i n n orthern E urope ( Moller-Christenson 1 953; 1 961) r emain t he o utstanding s tudies o f m edieval l eprosy. I n v iew o f t he c urrent l ack o f d irect e vidence f rom a rchaeological e xcavation, d ocumentary s ources p rovide a v ast r ange o f r esearch m aterial i n t he f orm o f c entral g overnment r ecords, b equests, w ills a nd p robate i nventories, d eeds, p arish a nd o ther r egisters a nd o ther s ources s uch a s t ithe m aps a nd c ontemporary l iterature. T hese s ources a re n onetheless o ften m eagre, u nreliable a nd d ifficult t o a ssess. B equests, d onations a nd p arish r ecords p rovide r elatively l ittle i nformation u ntil t he s ixteenth c entury , w hen b uried l epers o r l azars ( an a llusion t o t he p arable o f L azarus ( Luke 1 6: 1 9-31) ' who l ay a t t he r ich m an 's g ate f ull o f s ores') a re s ometimes n amed. A t L iskeard, f or e xample, t here i s a r eference i n 1 614 t o ' John B isbye l azar' a nd a t S t. G oran t he f ollowing r eference h as s urvived t o i ndicate t hat c hildren m ay h ave b een p articularly s usceptible: 1 596 4 d t o a p oore m an o f S aint g oren c hildren ( Goulding 1 898, 7 7).

t hat g athered f or 3 l aser

T he s tudy o f t he m odern e pidemiology o f t he d isease a nd d etailed i nvestigation o f p arish r egisters s hould p rove v ery i nformative. V ery f ew l eper h ospitals a re w ell d ocumented e ven a t t his r elatively l ate p eriod. I n C ornwall o nly t hose a t L aunceston, B odmin a nd L iskeard c an b e t raced i n a ny d etail; i n D evon o nly S ts. M ary M agdalen a t E xeter ( Russell 1 976) a nd T otnes ( Windeatt 1 880 ) h ave r eceived m uch a ttention. E xamination o f l arge s cale O rdnance S urvey m aps, T ithe A pportionments a nd p lace n ame e vidence i s l ikely t o p rovide d etailed l ocal i nformation c apable o f t esting p revious h ypotheses, s uch a s t he s iting o f l eper h ospitals n ear p arish b oundaries o n l and f urthest f rom t he m anor. T he n ame ' Clodgy ', r elatively c ommon i n w estern C ornwall, m ay b e d erived f rom t he C ornish ' clavdy ' o r t he W elsh ' clafdy ', m eaning ' sick-house' o r i nfirmary ( Henderson 1 929). T he e xact l ocation o f m any o f t hese s ites r emains u nknown. F ield n ames s uch a s ' Lazarus F ield' o r ' Lazar P ark ' a nd t ithe m ap r eferences t o ' Magdalen c hapel, o rchard a nd g arden ' a nd s imilarly n amed l and p arcels a re o ften t he o nly a vailable e vidence t o d etermine t heir s iting a nd r elative s ize. F ew r ecorded l eper h ospital s ites n ow h ave e xtant r emains ( although s ome c hapels, s uch a s L ittle T orrington, D evon, h ave s urvived ) a nd l ittle a rchaeological f ield d ata i s a vailable. T he i mportance o f f ield s urvey a s p art o f am ultid isciplinary a pproach h as b een s hown a t t he m edieval h ospital s ite a t S outra i n t he L othians ( SHARP 1 986).

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T he l ack o f d ating e vidence, i mprecision o f f oundation a nd d issolution d ates a nd d iscrepancies a mong s ubsequent a ntiquarian a ccounts i nevitably m ean t hat l ongevity a nd c hanges o f u se t hrough t ime a re o ften d ifficult t o a ssess. D ifficulties i n t he m edieval i nterpretation o f t he n ature o f t he d isease a nd i ts e ffects h ave l ed w riters t o u se t he t erm l eprosy t o d escribe s everal r elated d iseases w hich w ould n ot b e d escribed a s t rue l eprosy t oday. I n a ddition, i n m any c ases i t i s w ell k nown t hat l eper h ospitals w ere n ot n ecessarily e xclusively o ccupied b y l epers a nd t hat s ome w ere a ccommodated e lsewhere. T he h ospital o f S t. M ary M agdalene a t L iskeard w as f ounded p rior t o 1 379 h alf am ile f rom t he t own a t M audlin G ate f or l epers, t he p oor, t he a ged a nd t he s ick. H istorians r ecord t hat t he h ermit a t R oche w as a l eper; o thers w ere a llowed t o s tay a t h ome o n c ondition t hat t hey d id n ot a ssociate w ith t he h ealthy p opulation ( Somerscales 1 965). S ome g eneral s urveys ( for e xample K nowles a nd H adcock 1 953; C lay 1 966) h ave e mphasised t hat t here i s d ocumentary e vidence f or b etween 2 00-250 l eper h ospitals o r ' lazar-houses' i n E ngland d uring t he t hirteenth c entury - w hen h ospital b uilding w as a t i ts p eak - f ounded b y r oyal, e cclesiastical o r a ristocratic p atronage. H owever, d etailed s tudy o f t hese e stablishments h as a lmost e ntirely b een l imited t o a s mall n umber o f d escriptive a ccounts a t l ocal o r c ounty l evel. H oneybourne ( 1963) a nd R ubin ( 1987), i n t he s tudy o f t he l eper h ospitals o f L ondon a nd t he C ambridge a reas r espectively, a re t wo o f t he b etter a nd m ore r ecent e xamples. C onsequently , t he i mportance o f l eper h ospitals t o t he s tudy o f m edieval h istory i n g eneral a nd t o t he h istory o f l eprosy i n p articular, h as b een u nderestimated. T here h as b een c onsiderable s peculation a s t o h ow a nd w hen l eprosy f irst e ntered B ritain. T he t raditional b elief t hat t he d isease w as b rought b ack b y C rusaders f rom t he M iddle E ast, o r b y p ilgrims f rom t he H oly L and, i s n ow d isputed f ollowing t he e xcavation o f aR oman s keleton s howing e vidence o f l eprous b one c hanges f rom P oundbury C amp, D orchester ( Reader, 1 974), a nd a s mall b ut s ignificant n umber o f l eprous r emains f rom o ther p re-Conquest c ontexts a nd w ritten d ocumentary s ources, w hich p robably i ndicate i ncreasing p revalence o f t he d isease a t t his t ime ( Manchester 1 981; M anchester a nd R oberts 1 987). T he e arliest r ecorded l eper h ospital f oundations d ate f rom t he e leventh c entury a t R ochester, H arbledown ( near C anterbury ), L ondon a nd B everley. R oberts ( 1986; 1 988), h as a ttempted a c rude a nalysis o f l eper h ospital d evelopment a t t he e nd o f t he f ourteenth c entury , i n a ssociation w ith P oll T ax R eturns o n a c ounty b asis b ut f ound n o c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f l eper h ospitals p er c ounty a nd e stimated c ounty p opulation s ize. H owever, i t h as b een a rgued t hat t he d istribution o f e arlier r ecorded l eper h ospital s ites t ies i n w ith t he p opulation d ensity p attern o f m edieval E ngland, w ith a h igher d ensity i n t he s outh-east a nd E ast A nglia ( Bayliss 1 977). T he d istribution o f t welfth c entury l eper h ospitals i n h igh p opulation a nd c oastal a reas i s c onsistent w ith t he i dea t hat t he s pread o f l eprosy w as a n e xtension o f c ontact f rom a broad, b ut m ore r esearch i nto t he g eographical d istribution o f l eper h ospitals i s c urrently b eing u ndertaken b y t he a uthor a nd, a s a p recursor t o t his, a n ational g azetteer o f s ites i s i n p reparation. T he e stablishment o f l eper h ospitals a mbivalent r esponses o f c haritable c are

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w as t he t angible o utcome o f ( the w ashing a nd k issing o f

l epers' f eet b y Q ueen M atilda, w ife o f H enry I , i s w ell k nown ) a nd g rowing d emands f or s eparation, t he f ear o f m oral c ontamination a nd r etribution f or s inful l ives. S uch a ttitudes t owards l epers a re w ell i llustrated b y ad eed o f 1 163 w hich g ave l epers o f S t. M ary M agdalen, E xeter, t he r ight t o a t oll o f c orn a nd b read s old i n t he f airs a nd m arkets o f t he c ity a nd t he c ollection o f a lms, a nd w hat a c ontemporary o bserver t hought o f i t: ' The p oor p eople h aving r eceived t hese t he B ishop's B lessings c ame i nto t he s aid M arkets a ccordingly w ith t heir C lap-dishes d emanding t he s aid T oll: b ut t he P eople ( having n ot b een a cquainted w ith a ny s uch C ustom , a nd w ithal n ot b rooking s uch u gly F aces, n or t he i ntruding o f s uch s ick F olk a mongst t hem ) s ome g ave t hem r ough s peeches, o thers s hunned t heir c ompany , a nd t he r est f orbade t hem o f t he s aid M arket, i nsomuch t he A lms-people f ound t here l ittle r elief' ( quoted b y R ussell 1 976). A s l ate a s 1 912 p ublic o pinion w as m uch t he s ame w hen t he L iskeard B oard o f G overnors r equested t hat a W est I ndian l eper i n t heir c are b e h oused a t t he R oyal C ornwall I nfirmary , w hich h ad a cquired t he e state a nd a ssets o f S t. L awrence H ospital i n 1 809. T he h ospital r efused t o a dmit t he m an o r p rovide f or h is u pkeep a t t he h ospital ( Andrews 1 975). L eper h ospitals h ave t raditionally b een v iewed a s c ommon f eatures o f t he m edieval l andscape, c onsisting o f ag roup o f c ottages w ith a djoining c hapel a nd c loister s urrounding a g reen e nclosure, i n t he m onastic t radition. S t. M ary M agdalen, E xeter, w as a t ypical t welfth c entury e xample c omprising s mall s ingle-storied b uildings a round t hree s ides o f a c ourtyard o f w hich t he c hapel f ormed t he g reater p art o f o ne w ing, a pproached t hrough a n a rched g atehouse w ith a r ecreation g round o r g raveyard m arked a s ' the M audlyn' o n a m ap d ated 1 599. N onetheless, t heir s ize a nd n ature w ere e xtremely v ariable; t hey a re k nown t o h ave b een b uilt a s ag roup, r ow o r f ormal q uadrangle. A t S t. L awrence, B odmin, a s urvey i n 1 810 l isted a r uined c hapel, a h ouse, m ill, s everal c ottages, a p rison a nd ad ungeon. D ocumentary r ecords o f r epair w ork s uggest t hat s ome w ere m ade o f s tone. I n u rban c ontexts, l eper h ospitals w ere i nvariably s ited o utside t own w alls ( for e xample S t. M ary M agdalen, E xeter ) o r g ates o n t he o utskirts; i n r ural l ocations t hey w ere o ften s ited n ear s prings t hought t o h ave h ealing p owers ( Harbledown, P eterborough, N ewark a nd L aunceston a re e xamples), o r b y a r iver ( St. M ary M agdalene, T otnes), o r o n a m ain r oad o r r oad j unction o utside a t own o r v illage. H owever, a s w e h ave s een, t heir p recise l ocation i s g enerally u nrecorded a nd d ifficult t o d etermine. I n C ornwall i t h as b een a rgued t hat m ost w ere w ithin e asy r each o f a n avigable r iver o r t he s ea, b ut c urrent r esearch i nto t heir t opography a nd s iting i s l ikely t o u nderline o ther l ocational f actors. M any w ere l arge, s elf-supporting c ommunities v ariously s upported b y i ncome f rom e ndowments, m arkets, f airs a nd t olls, c haritable d onations a nd a lms a nd m ay h ave p ossessed a g arden, o rchard o r f armland a nd o utbuildings. T he l eper h ospital o f S t. L awrence a t B odmin, f ounded i n t he t hirteenth c entury t o t ake t hirty-nine p oor m ale a nd f emale l epers, o wned a f arm o f 5 4 a cres a nd w as g ranted a m arket a nd a nnual f air b y J ames I ( Andrews 1 975). T he f oundation

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c harter o f S t. M ary M agdalen, E xeter, d etails p lots o f l and o n w hich m onies w ere t o b e p aid t o t he h ospital a nd a t oll o n a ll c orn s old i n E xeter o n t he f ourth a nd s ixth d ays o f t he w eek. M any s mall l eper c ommunities w ere p robably t ransient, u nendowed u nits l iving o ff a lms a nd p robably d ied o ut l eaving n o h istorical r ecord a part f rom p lace n ame e vidence ( Rubin 1 987). T hese c ommunities l ed h arsh, m onastic l ives c onforming t o t he s tatutes o f t he O rder ( generally A ugustinian ) t o w hich t hey b elonged a nd t ypically c onsisted o f l epers, ' clean' l ay b rothers o r s isters r esponsible f or d ay t o d ay w ork, a nd a p roctor w ho s olicited a lms i n t he o utside w orld u nder t he g uardianship o f a w arden o r c ustos a nswerable t o t he b ishop o r p atron. I n t he l ate s ixteenth c entury p ayments m ade t o t he p roctors o f t he r espective h ouses a re f requently r ecorded i n t he f ollowing f orm: 1 583 6 d t o ap oore m an o f L itill t orynton t he 2 4th o f m arche t hat g atheryd t o ah ospytall h ouse c alled t adyportt ( Goulding 1 898, 7 1). ' Inmates' w ere s ubject t o ap enitential d iscipline, s eparated b y s ex , d onned a h abit a nd o bserved s ome c anonical r outine. A t S t. M ary M agdalen, E xeter, a dministered b y t he m ayor, b ailiffs a nd t wenty-four c ouncil m embers, n o b rother o r s ister w as a llowed t o w ander o utside t he c onfines o f t he h ospital n or v isit t he h ouses o f o ther i nmates, a nd t he s exes w ere s egregated. T here i s e vidence t o s uggest t hat l epers o ccasionally r ebelled a gainst t he r estrictions i mposed b y t heir h ouses. I n 1 303 t he l epers o f K ingston r ioted a nd d emolished t he h ouse. T he m edieval v iew o f l eprosy a s ad ivine p unishment f or s in i s s een i n i ts m ost e xtreme f orm i n F rance i n 1 318 w hen P hilip V p roposed t o b urn a live a ll l epers s o t hat ' the f ire m ight p urge a t o nce t he i nfection o f t he b ody a nd o f t he s oul'. I n E ngland, l epers w ere d eprived o f c ivil r ights a nd o utcast u nder t he s tatute ' De L eproso A movendo '. O nce a djudged l eprous b y c lergy o r j ury , t he l eper l ost l iberty o f m ovement, t he r ight t o b equeath o r i nherit p roperty a nd w as f orbidden f rom p ublic p laces. A s pecial f orm o f s ervice ( 'The O ffice a t t he S eclusion o f aL eper') p ronounced a l eper t heoretically d ead t o t he w orld a nd f orbade c ontact w ith ' clean ' p ersons. L eprosy , a n i nfective d isease o f l ong i ncubation p eriod w hich i s o ften a ssociated w ith p oor l iving c onditions a nd p oor d iet, i s n ormally t ransmitted t hrough c lose c ontact a nd n eeds a s ubstantial m inimum n umber o f s usceptible p eople w ithin a c ommunity t o s urvive. I n t he a bsence o f d emographic d ata o n m edieval l eprosy , t he s ums r ecorded b y t he B ytton b equest h ave b een u sed, i n t he c ase o f C ornwall, t o p rovide a c rude e stimation t hat 5 81 l epers w ere s upported a t t his t ime. C omparison w ith a n e stimated t otal p opulation o f C ornwall a t t his t ime s uggests t hat o n t he b asis o f t his f igure o ne p erson i n 1 07 w ould h ave b een a n ' inmate' o f a l eper h ouse. I n s ome a ntiquarian a ccounts, t he r ecorded ' bed s tate' h as b een c ompared t o t he e stimated t own p opulation i n a n a ttempt t o p rovide s ome i nsight i nto t he p revalence o f t he d isease. T he h ospital o f S t. M ary M agdalen, E xeter, b uilt b etween 1 161-84, w as b uilt t o a ccommodate t hirteen l epers ( this a postolic n umber w as f airly c ommon ). A n e stimated p opulation o f 1 438 a t t his p eriod s uggests a n i nfection r ate

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o f 0 .9%. A l eper h ospital d edicated t o S t. B artholomew a t O xford t o m aintain t welve l epers, w ith a s imilar e stimated t own p opulation s ize, p roduces a f igure o f 0 .84% ( Bayliss 1 977). T hese f igures a re c omparable w ith d etailed n ineteenth c entury d emographic e vidence f rom n orth-west E urope, w here l eprosy p ersisted i nto t he n ineteenth a nd t wentieth c enturies. T he l ast r ecorded c ases i n F inland a nd I celand, f or e xample, w ere 1 955 a nd 1 956 r espectively. I n 1 869 a c ensus o f l epers i n F inland s howed 2 ,858 i n a p opulation o f 1 .5 m illion ( two p er t housand ) o ver t he w hole c ountry , b ut l eprosy w as a lmost e ntirely c onfined t o t he w est c oast w here 2 0-25 p er t housand w ere l epers ( Richards 1 977). S uch ap attern o f d isease i s c omparable w ith a vailable f igures o n t he p revalence o f l eprosy t oday , w here t he n umber o f c ases v aries f rom r egion t o r egion a nd i s c haracterised b y p ockets o f h igher i ncidence. E vidence f rom n ineteenth c entury S candinavia s hows m arked f oci w ithin s usceptible f amilies a nd i ntermarriage w ithin f amilies i n i solated c ommunities w as c ommon. I t s eems p robable t hat m edieval B ritain w as c haracterised b y a s imilar p attern a nd, d epending u pon t he a vailability o f p rimary s ources, i t m ight b e p ossible t o i nvestigate w hether f oci o f l eprosy c an b e s een i n c ertain p arishes a nd w hether t he d isease s hows a n oticeable i ncidence w ithin p articularly s usceptible f amilies. D ocumentary e vidence s uggests t hat t he n umber o f l eper h ospital f oundations d eclined f rom t he f ourteenth c entury o nwards. O ne o f t he m ajor e xplanations f or t his d ecline h as b een t he e ffects o f s egregation, b ut t here i s m uch e vidence t hat t his w as n ever s trictly i mposed. T he f oundation c harter o f S t. M ary M agdalen, E xeter, s tipulated t hat b rethren s hould n ot e nter t he c ity o r w ander e lsewhere e xcept b y p ermission. H owever, i n t he e arly p eriod l epers w ere o ften a llowed t o b eg f or a lms u nhindered a nd K ing J ohn, f or e xample, g ranted t hem t he r ight t o c ollect a h andful o f c orn f rom o pen s acks a t S hrewsbury m arket. I n 1 163 t he B ishop o f E xeter c onfirmed t he r ight o f l epers t o v isit t he m arket t wice a w eek a nd c ollect f ood a nd a lms. I n t he C ity o f L ondon f requent p roclamations f orbidding l epers t o b eg i n t he c ity s treets i n t he t hirteenth a nd f ourteenth c enturies s eem t o a ttest t o t heir i neffectiveness a gainst l epers e ntering t he g ates f rom t he t en l eper h ospitals o n t he m ajor r oads r adiating o ut o f t he c ity . L eprous i ndividuals f rom t he c emeteries o f m onastic h ouses n ot a ssociated w ith l eper h ospitals h ave b een r ecorded f rom t he p riories a t N orton a nd G uildford ( Manchester a nd R oberts 1 987). T he h igh p roportion o f s keletons ( 69.7% ) e xhibiting b one c hanges d iagnostic o f l eprosy f rom N aestved ( Moller-Christensen 1 978) a nd S outh A cre, N orfolk ( Wells 1 964 ), w here s even o f t he e ight s keletons e xamined s howed p athological e vidence o f l eprosy , m ay i ndicate t hat o nly t he m ore s everely m utilated l epers w ere s egregated p robably d ue t o f ear o r r evulsion r ather t han r eligious p iety o r f ear o f i nfection. I n v iew o f t he l ong i ncubation p eriod o f l eprosy, d uring w hich t ime t here a re n o p hysical m anifestations o f t he d isease t o w arrant s egregation, s egregation w as c learly i neffective a s a p reventative m easure. A ccording t o J ohn o f G addesden ( 1280-1361): ' no o ne i s t o b e a djudged a l eper o r s eparated f rom t he i ntercourse o f m ankind u ntil t he f igure a nd f orm o f t he f ace i s a ctually c hanged'. O ther p ossible e xplanations f or i ts d ecline i nclude c limatic c hange, i mproved l iving c onditions a nd t he o nset o f p lague w hich d ecimated t he p opulation a nd, i t h as b een a rgued, c arried o ff t he m ore s usceptible l epers, p articularly i n t he m ore d ensely p opulated s outh

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a nd e ast b ut m ore s lowly i n t he l ess p opulous n orth a nd w est. I n a ddition, s ome v ariation i n t he h ost s usceptibility o f t he c ommunity d ue t o n utritional o r o ther f actors ( thus p roviding i nherited r esistance) h as a lso b een p ut f orward. M anchester ( 1984 ) h as s uggested t hat c ross-immunity b etween t uberculosis a nd l eprosy p robably l ed t o t he d ecline o f t he l atter, d ue t o c oincident i ncrease i n t he i ncidence o f t uberculosis. A t S herburn, D urham , b y 1 434 t he o riginal e stablishment o f 6 5 l epers w as d rastically r educed t o a m aster, f our c haplains, f our c lerks, t wo b oys, t hirteen p oor m en, o ne h onest m atron a nd t wo l epers ' if t hey c ould b e f ound i n t hose p arts o r w ould w illingly c ome t o r emain t here'. B y 1 552 S herburn h oused n o l epers. B y t his t ime R ipon h oused o nly t wo p riests a nd f ive p oor p eople t o p ray f or a ll ' Christen s owlez', w hile I lford h ospital, f ounded f or t hirteen l epers, t wo p riests a nd a c lerk c ontained ' one p ryest a nd t wo p ore m en '. S hrewsbury h ospital h ad b een w ithout l epers f or s o l ong t hat t he t own h ad f orgotten t he p urpose o f i ts f oundation: t he h ospital w as r eportedly ' founded b y t he K ing 's [ Henry V III] m ost n oble p rogenitors, t o w hat i ntent o r p urpose t hey c annot t ell' ( Richards 1 977). B y a bout 1 360 S t. J ames' i n W estminster, f ounded b y c itizens o f L ondon f or t he m aintenance o f ' leprous v irgins', w hich a t o ne t ime h oused f ourteen l epers, w as e mpty e xcept f or o ne s urvivor w ho a cted a s c aretaker. A nother e ffect o f t he d ecline w as t hat w eakening o f c ontrol o ften l ed t o p lunder o r a buse. B y 1 753 i t w as r eported t hat p eople w ere o ften a dmitted ' for a s um o f m oney , w ho h ave n o o ther d isorder t han a l ittle l ameness o r t he l ike' t o S t. L awrence H ospital, B odmin, ' a p lace o f r efuge f or a ll s orts o f r ogues a nd v agabonds' ( Somerscales 1 965). B y t he s ixteenth c entury t he r elatively f ew n ew l eper h ospitals f ounded w ere i n l ow p opulation d ensity a reas o f s outh-west E ngland a nd S cotland a nd a c ommission d uring t he r eign o f E dward V I ( 1547-1553) r eported t hat m ost l eper h ouses w ere e mpty. I n 1 582 S t. L awrence H ospital, B odmin, w as r e-founded f or f orty l epers. I n t he l ast d ecade o f t he s ixteenth c entury , b orough a ccounts a t S t. I ves r efer t o a g roup o f s everal l epers a nd t heir c ottages. A t L iskeard, b urials o f l epers w ere r ecorded b etween 1 553 a nd 1 653 a nd a t R edruth u ntil 1 596. B y t he e ighteenth c entury t he d isease a ppears t o h ave b een l imited t o i solated c ases f rom t he S cottish I slands. T he l ast r ecorded c ase f rom t he H ebrides d ates f rom 1 855 ( Newman 1 895). A t t he D evon a nd E xeter H ospital, f our c ases w ere l isted a s ' leprosies' i n 1 741-2 a nd i n 1 834 S hapter o utlined c ases a t S t. M ary M agdalen's H ospital w hich h e c onsidered l eprous ( Shapter 1 835). T hese p ublished a ccounts s eem u nlikely t o b e i ndicative o f t rue l eprosy ( Manchester p ers. c omm. 1 989). I n 1 825 t he h ospital w as s aid t o b e i n a ' fair s tate o f r epair' b ut h oused o nly p oor p eople. B y 1 862 t he o ld b uildings w ere d ilapidated a nd u nfit f or o ccupation a nd w ere d emolished t he f ollowing y ear. I t i s c lear t hat t here i s c onsiderable s cope f or a rchaeological a nd d ocumentary r esearch i nto t he f oundation a nd d evelopment o f l eper h ouses i n s pecific a reas i n r elation t o t he l andscape a nd l ocal p opulation s tudies. O nly t hrough s tudy o f p articular c ommunities a t d ifferent p eriods c an w e b egin t o p iece t ogether a nd u nderstand t he h istory o f t he d isease. S uch a n a nalysis c ould b egin t o t est t raditional a ssumptions a nd c omplement c urrent r esearch a t B radford U niversity i nto t he o rigins a nd d emographic s ignificance o f l eprosy.

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I n v iew o f t he i mprecise d emographic d ata, m ethods o f h istorical d emography m ay a dd t o o ur m eagre o verall k nowledge o f t he s tructure a nd s ize o f l eper c ommunities a nd h elp u s t o e xamine t he e ffects o f d isease o n i solated c ommunities i n g eneral a nd i nvestigate r elated s ocial a nd c ultural a ttitudes.

A cknowledgements I w ould l ike t o t hank K eith M anchester a nd C harlotte R oberts f rom t he C alvin W ells L aboratory o f t he S chool o f A rchaeological S ciences, U niversity o f B radford, f or t heir h elp a nd s upport a nd m y c olleague N eil B eagrie f or s upplying i nformation f rom t he E xcavations I ndex.

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E p idem io logy o f L eprosy i n