GROUP DISCUSSION AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY AND PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT IN NORMAL ADOLESCENT GIRLS

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COPYRIGHTED

by HAROLD P I V N I C K

1951

Sponsoring C om m ittees

P r o fe s s o r B ria n E . T om lin son ,

P r o fe s s o r R ob ert Hoppock and P r o fe s s o r Vera Fry

Group D is c u s s io n And I t s R e la t io n s h ip To S o o ia l A c c e p t a b i l it y and P e r s o n a lit y A dju stm en t I n Normal A d o le sc e n t G ir ls

H arold P iv n io k

Subm itted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e req u irem en ts f o r t h e d egree o f D octor o f P h ilo so p h y i n t h e S ch o o l o f E d u oation o f New York U n iv e r s it y 1950

-i:i scoer.

September 15» 1950

The stu d en t hereby guarantees t h a t no p a rt o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n o r document which he has subm itted fo r p u b lic a tio n has b e e n h e r e t o f o r e published and (o r) copyrighted i n th e United S ta te s o f A m e ric a , e x c e p t in th e case of passages quoted from o th er published s o u rc e s ; t h a t h e i s t h e s o le author and p ro p rie to r of s a id d is s e r ta tio n or docum ent; t h a t t h e d is s e r ta tio n or document c o n ta in s no m atter which, i f p u b l i s h e d , w i l l be lib e lo u s o r otherw ise in ju rio u s , o r in frin g e in any way t h e c o p y r i g h t o f any o th er p a rty ; and th a t he w i l l defend, indem nify and h o ld h a r m le s s New York U n iv e rs ity a g a in st a l l s u i t s and proceedings w h ich may b e b ro u g h t and ag ain st a l l claim s which may be made a g a in st New York U n i v e r s i t y by reason of th e p u b lic a tio n of s a id d is s e r ta tio n or docum ent.'

Harold P iv n ic k

PREFACE The in v e s t i g a t o r became aware o f th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e group d is ­ c u s s io n p ro cess w h ile i n th e Armed S e r v ic e s during W orld War I I .

During

t h i s p eriod i n s e v e r a l h o s p it a ls he was engaged i n co n tin u o u s unorganised and organ ized group d is c u s s io n s w ith s o ld i e r s who w ere norm al, n eu ro tic and fr a n k ly p s y c h o t ic .

I t seemed p o s s ib le t o reaoh some in d iv id u a ls in a l l o f

t h e s e d ia g n o s t ic c a t e g o r i e s .

T h erefore i t was q u ite l o g i o a l for th e

experim enter t o employ th e group d is c u s s io n approach on th e f i r s t oooasion he met during c i v i l i a n l i f e , th e Calhoun S c h o o l. I t seemed t o th e e x p e r im e n te r , a lth o u g h th e r e was no o b je o tiv e ev id en ce t o s u b s t a n t ia t e h is judgm ent, t h a t some o f th e normal a d o lesce n t g i r l s w ith whom he had worked had undergone p e r s o n a lit y m o d ific a tio n .

This

judgment fu r n is h e d s t im u la t io n t o th e exp erim en ter f o r e s t a b lis h in g an o b j e c tiv e stu d y o f t h e e f f e c t s upon in d iv id u a ls o f group d is c u s s io n . The ex p erim en ter w ould l i k e t o acknowledge h is g r a t it u d e above a l l to P r o fe sso r Tom linson who l i t e r a l l y "spurred” on th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and aided i t no end w ith h i s c r i t i c i s m s and s u g g e s t io n s . P r o fe s s o r s Hoppook and Fry fo r t h e i r a i d .

G r a titu d e i s extended t o

The ex p erim en ter a ls o w ish es to

e x p r e ss h is a p p r e c ia t io n t o P r o fe s s o r R aths f o r h is in v a lu a b le a s s is t a n c e w ith th e e x p er im e n ta l d e s ig n .

A p p r e c ia tio n i s due t o t h e f a c u lt y and

s tu d e n ts o f th e Calhoun S c h o o l and th e v a r io u s members o f Riohardson, B e llo w s, Henry and Company who c r i t i c i z e d th e th in k in g o f the experim enter th ro u g h o u t. F in a lly , and by a l l c r i t e r i a m ost a p p r e c ia t io n i s due to th e w ife o f th e in v e s t ig a t o r f o r h er i n f i n i t e p a t ie n o e .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

I

II

III

Topic

The P r o b le m ........................................................................................ General Statem ent of the P r o b l e m ................................... S p e o ifio Problems ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D e f in it io n o f T erm s........................... ................................. ..... D e lim ita tio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B asic Assum ptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S ig n ifio a n o e o f the Problem R elated L ite r a tu r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . A dolescent Adjustments .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Body Changes i n Adolesoenoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sexual Adjustment in A d o l e s o e n o e ................................................................. R e la tio n sh ip s "with P arents During A d o le s c e n c e • • . . . . . . Peer R e la tio n sh ip s During A dolesoenoe • • . • • • • « . . • • R ela tio n sh ip s w ith A d ults Other Than P a r e n ts . . . . . . . . S elf-A ccep ta n ce During A dolescence Faoing the Future ...................................................................... The School and A dolescent Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychotherapy .............................. Group P sy c h o th e r a p y ............................................. H is t o r ic a l Treatment . . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • . . T h eo re tica l Prem ises and P r in c ip le s i n Group P s y c h o t h e r a p y . The Leader .............................................................................. Psyohodynamios in Group Psychotherapy . • • • • • • • • . • • Group Psychotherapy in U s e ................................ • • • • • • • • • • With Mothers o f Problem C hildren . • * . • • • • • • • . . • With R e la t iv e s o f Em otionally D istu rb ed P e r s o n s • • • • ■ ■ ■ In th e T raining o f T e a o h e r s ................................................ With Young C hildren ............................... With E p ile p t ic s ........................... • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • In Neighborhood Community W o r k ....................................... In M ilita r y S itu a tio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . With A d o l e s c e n t s ....................................... E ffo r ts a t R efin ed Researoh in Group P s y c h o th e r a p y . . . . . Summary and Comments about Group P sy c h o th e r a p y

Page

1 1 1 1 3 3 3 6 5 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 19 19 26 26 30 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 43 50 56

Procedure . . . . . . . ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 S u b jects in T his I n v e s tig a tio n . . • • • • • • • • • . . . • 58 M a teria ls Used ........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 I n t e llig e n c e and Reading Tests . . • • • • • . . . 61 P e r so n a lity T e s t s ....................................... 62 Group Rorsohaoh Test ...............................................................................................63 Cowan A d o lescen t Adjustment A nalyzer 64 (con tin u ed ) iii

(continued) Chapter

Page

Topio

S o c ia l A c c e p t a b i l it y T e s t ................................. R a tin g S o a le Im p rovised D e v ic e s . . . . . . . . .................... . . . . . . . . S tu d en t Log, MI M Chart and C on tam in ation C ontrol . . . . . . R eco rd in g s ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . • Procedure f o r C o lle c t in g Data . . . . . • • • « • • • • . » • S e t t in g Up t h e Matched Groups . • • • • • • • • • • . . . . • C o e f f i c i e n t o f C o r r e la tio n A n a ly s is o f C o e f f ic ie n t s o f C o r r e la tio n Among I n i t i a l T ests • E s t a b lis h in g C o n tro ls by M atching I n d iv id u a ls . . . . . . . . O r ie n ta tio n o f S u b jeo ts . . . . . ............................................................. A d m in is tr a tio n and S corin g o f T e s t s ........................ Group D is c u s s io n s ............................................................ E x p erim en ta l D esig n ............................................................ IV

V

66 67 67 68 68 69 69 72 73 78 81 82 86 88

S t a t i s t i c a l Treatm ent of th e Data 90 R orsohaoh I n s p e c t io n Technique Changes W ith in Groups . . . . 90 A n a ly s is o f G ains and L o sses i n R orsohaoh S o o r e s ....................... 98 Cowan A n a ly ze r Changes W ith in Groups (A n a ly sis o f S e l f Image C hanges) . . . . . . ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . 101 F u rth er S e lf-I m a g e Changes W ith in Groups 109 A n a ly s is o f Ohio S o c ia l A c c e p t a b ilit y Changes W ith in Groups . I l l G ains and L o s se s i n S o c ia l D ista n c e . . • • • • • ............................ 114 D if f e r e n c e s B etw een Groups i n R orsohaoh C h a n g e s ............................. . 118 D if f e r e n c e s B etw een Groups i n Cowan A n a ly zer Changes . . . . 123 D if f e r e n c e s B etw een Groups in S o c i a l A c c e p t a b ilit y Changes . 124 C o n tro l o f C ontam ination ............................ 124 S tu d en t Log A n a ly s is and R e la t io n s h ip s • • • • • ...................... 125 Summary ...................... 126 Rorsohaoh T e s t ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... 126 Cowan A n a ly zer 126 "I" C h a r t ..........................................................................................................................127 S o c ia l A c c e p t a b ilit y S oale . . . . ........................................................ 127 Q u a lit a t iv e Treatm ent of th e Data R a tio n a le f o r S e le c t io n o f Cases P r e s e n t a t io n o f Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary ..................................................

.......................

128 128 128 173

VI

G eneral Summary and C on clu sions ................................ 177 F in d in g s 177 Main F in d in g s .................................... 177 R orschach R e s u lt s ............................ . . . . . 177 Cowan A n a ly zer R e s u lts - A S e lf-Im a g e E v a lu a tio n . . . . . . 178 The "I" C h a r t ................................................................................................................179 Ohio S o c i a l A c c e p t a b ilit y S o a le ........................... 179 Supplem entary F i n d i n g s ....................... 180 C o n clu sio n s 181

VII

D is c u s s io n ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... 184 S p e c u la tio n s About Dynamics U n d erly in g Changes • ........................184 (oontinued) iv

(continued) Chapter

Topic

Pag®

S ig n ifio a n o e o f the F ind ings fo r E d u c a t io n • . • • • • • • • 186 Im p lica tio n s fo r P u b lio Mental H ea lth . • • • • • • • • • • • 187 Improvements in D esign o f th e S tu d y ......................... 188 Further R esearch P rop osals 189 ........................... 189 Study o f Adequacy o f Group Therapy M eth od s 190 The Role o f th e L e a d e r ................................. C o n stitu tio n o f th e T herapeutic Group ........................191 An E xp loration in to th e Nature o f t h e T herapy P r o c e s s in Group D iscu ssio n ................... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 191 S elected B ibliography . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

193

A p p e n d ix ..........................

201

v

LIST OF TABLES Table

I II III IV V

VI

Title

Page

R e s u lts on. M innesota M u ltip h asio P e r s o n a lit y Inventory A d m in istered B efore and A fte r Group P s y c h o th e r a p y ........... Groups o f S u b je c ts Matched on ACE O tis IQ E q u ivalen ts

• . . .

71

D is t r ib u t io n o f I n i t i a l T est R orschach I n s p e c t io n Teohnique S o o r e s ............................................. . • . . . .............................................

73

D is t r ib u t io n o f I n i t i a l T est Cowan A d o leso en t Adjustment A n a ly zer S oores . . . . . . . . . . .

74

D is t r ib u t io n o f I n i t i a l T est Ohio S o c ia l A c c e p ta b ility Soale S o o res When T est Was A d m inistered t o E n tir e Group in One S ittin g • . • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • » •

75

D is t r ib u t io n o f I n i t i a l T est Ohio S o o ia l A c c e p ta b ility Soale S o o res When T est Was A dm inistered t o Groups o f Ten . . . .

76

VII

C o e f f i c i e n t s o f C o r r e la tio n o f Zero Order o f I n i t i a l T ests

V III

C o e f f i c i e n t s o f C o rrela tio n o f Zero Order f o r Control V a r ia b le s and P o s t-T e st E xp erim en tal V a r ia b le s and fo r P r e - and P o s t-D is o u s s io n E xp erim en tal V a r i a b l e s ...............

IX X

XI XII X III XIV XV

52

•

77

79

M atchings on th e B a sis o f I n i t i a l S o o res on th e Rorsohaoh I n s p e c t io n T e o h n i q u e ................................

91

F R a tio s o f D iffe r e n c e s Between Means o f Groups E -l, E-2 and C -l on I n i t i a l Soores on Rorsohaoh I n s p e c tio n Technique T o ta l S core and Sub-Soores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

S ig n if ic a n c e o f D iffe r e n c e s i n Rorsohaoh I n s p e c tio n Technique Group S oores (Between I n i t i a l and F in a l S o o r e s ) ............... 95 G ains and L o sse s in Rorschach I n s p e c t io n Teohnique T otal A djustm ent S oores Changes ( i n i t i a l Minus F in a l S c o r e )

. . . . . . .

.................. .

M atchings on th e B a sis o f I n i t i a l S co res on th e Cowan A d o le so e n t Adjustm ent A n alyzer • • • • . • • • • • • • • •

99 100 101

D if f e r e n c e s Between Means o f E - l and C -l on I n i t i a l Scores on Cowan A n a l y z e r ........................... 102 (oontinued) vi

(continued) Table XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII

T itle

Page

D ifferen ces Between Means o f E -2 and C - l on I n i t i a l Soores on Cowan A nalyzer

103

S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe r e n c e s (B e tw e e n I n i t i a l and F in al Soores) in Cowan A d o le s o e n t A d ju stm en t A n a l y z e r ..................

104

S ig n ific a n c e o f Changes i n Cowan A d o le s o e n t Adjustment Analyzer Croup Soores . • . . . . . . . . .................. . . .

105

Cains and Losses i n Cowan A n a ly z e r S o o r e s . . . • • • • • • •

107

Changes ( i n i t i a l T est Minus F i n a l T e s t ) E xp ressed in Standard D eviation D n its . ..........................

108

D istr ib u tio n o f Scores on ”1 ” C h a r t .............................................

109

Standard D eviation U n its o f ,,I M S o o r e s

110

. • • • . * . . . • •

XXIII

Matohings on S o c ia l A c c e p t a b i l i t y (SA 3 0 ) on I n i t i a l Soores •

112

XXIV

Matchings on S o c ia l A c c e p t a b i l i t y (SA 1 0 ) on I n i t i a l Soores .

112

D ifferen ce s Between Means o n I n i t i a l S o c i a l A c c e p ta b ility Soores

.

113

S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe r e n c e s i n O hio S o c i a l A c c e p ta b ility Group Soores . . « • • • • • . • • ....................................

113

Changes in Ohio S o o ia l A c c e p t a b i l i t y S o a le Soores (When Test Was Administered to E n t ir e Group o f T h ir t y a t One S it t in g )

114

Changes in Terms of Standard D e v i a t i o n U n it 3

115

Changes in the Ohio S o o ia l A c c e p t a b i l i t y S c a le Soores (When Test Was Administered t o G roups S e p a r a t e l y ) ...........................

116

XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXEX

XXX Changes in Terms of Standard D e v i a t i o n U n i t s ..................... XXXI XXXEI XXXIII XXXIV XXXV

117

S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe r e n c e s i n G ain s ( o r L o s s e s ) Between Groups ...........................

119

S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe r e n c e s i n G ain s ( o r L o s s e s ) Between GroupB.........................

123

S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe r e n c e s o f G ain s B etw een Groups in Ohio S ta te S o o ia l A c c e p t a b ilit y Group S c o r e s . • • * • • . . .

124

Frequenoy o f Inquiry About D i s c u s s i o n T o p ic s by Control Group Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

125

129 A Complete Reoord of PM ( E - 2 ) S t a t e d i n Raw S o o r e s ................. (o o n tin u ed ) vii

( c o n tin u e d ) Table

T itle

Page

XXXVI

A C om plete Record o f PL ( E - 2 ) ,

S ta te d in Raw Soores . . . .

132

XXXVII

A Com plete Record o f YP ( E - 2 ),

S ta te d in Raw Soores . . . .

135

XXXVTII

A C om plete Reoord o f YE ( E - 2 ),

S ta te d in Raw Soores . . • .

138

XXXEX

A C om plete Reoord o f PQ ( E - 2 ),

S ta te d i n Raw Scores . . . .

141

XL

A C om plete Reoord o f AE ( E - l ) ,

S ta te d i n Raw Soores . . . .

144

XT.T

A C om plete Reoord o f HY ( E - l ) ,

S ta te d in Raw Scores • • • •

147

XLII

A Com plete Reoord o f CC ( E - l ) ,

S ta te d in Raw Soores . . . .

150

XLIII

A C om plete Reoord o f ZZ ( E - l ) ,

S ta te d in Raw Soores . . . .

153

XLIV

A C om plete Record o f AK ( E - l ) ,

S ta te d i n Raw Soores . . . .

156

XLV

A C om plete Reoord o f CZ ( C - l ) ,

S ta te d in Raw Scores . . . .

159

XLVI

A C om plete Reoord o f BQ,

( C - l ) , S ta te d in Raw Soores . . . .

162

XLVII

A C om p lete Reoord o f ZV ( C - l ) ,

S ta te d i n Raw Soores . . . . .

165

XLVIII

A Com plete Record o f JY ( C - l ) ,

S ta te d i n Raw Soores . . . .

168

XLVIX L

LI

A Com plete Reoord o f ZYZ ( C - l ) , S ta te d i n Raw Scores . . . .

171

D e v ia t io n s in R orschach S oores o f Most B e n e fitte d (MB) and L e a st B e n e fitte d (LB) Group Members from th e Average o f t h e S cores o f B oth o f th e D is o u s sio n Groups ( i n i t i a l T e s t i n g ) ...................................................

175

G ains o f Most B e n e f it t e d D is c u ss a n ts Compared w ith T otal Group on Rorsohaoh T e s t ....................................

viii

175

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM General Statement o f th e Problem The purpose of th i3 i n v e s t i g a t i o n , was t o d iscover whether or n o t group d isc u ssio n among normal a d o le s o e n t g i r l s o f "human r e la t io n s ” and p e r t i n e n t sim ila r m aterial would be accom panied by m a n ife s ta tio n s of ohanges i n a c c e p ta b ility by peers and i n t h e o v e r - a l l p e r s o n a lit y . S p e c i f i c P roblem s 1.

Do p o s it iv e ly - d ir e c t io n e d , s t a t i s t i o a l l y - s i g n i f i o a n t p e r s o n a lit y

and s o c ia l re la tio n sh ip changes o c c u r i n t h e experim ental groups? 2.

Do such ohanges o ccu r f o r t h e c o n t r o l groups?

I f so , are t h e y

greater or le s s than th ose w h ich t a k e p la c e i n the experim ental groups? 3.

Do the subjeots o f t h e e x p e r im e n t d e t e o t ohanges in th em selv es?

Are th ere any d iffer en ce s among t h e e x p e r im e n ta l and oontrol groups?

A re

th ese s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t ? 4.

Of what importance i s i t t o e d u c a t io n and personal adjustm ent i f

s t a t i s t i o a ll y - s i g n i f i o a n t , p o s i t i v e o h an ges a r e found to occur on ly i n t h e experim ental groups? D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms Group d iscu ssio n , fo r th e p u r p o se o f t h i s study, was defined a s & s it u a t io n in which the group members w ere p erm itted almost co m p letely f r e e exp ression o f th e ir op in io n s w it h a minimum o f lim ita tio n imposed b y t h e leader o f the group (th e i n v e s t i g a t o r ) .

2 S o o ia l a c c e p t a b i l i t y m eant, fo r t h i s stu d y, accep tan ce o f th e in d iv id u a l by her f e l l o w stu d e n ts* Normal a d o le s o e n t g i r l s i n t h i s s tu d y im plied absenoe o f d e v ia tio n s s e v e r e enough t o n e c e s s i t a t e p s y c h ia t r ic a t t e n t io n w ith r e la t io n t o the c r i t e r i a o f p e r s o n a lit y a d ju stm en t l i s t e d b elow . "Human r e la t io n s " and o th e r s im ila r m a te r ia ls were in te r p r e te d to in c lu d e t o p ic s such a s "Some B a s ic Human Needs," "Making D e c is io n s ," " R e la tio n s to P a r e n ts ," and " In d ep en d en ce." I n s p e c t io n T echn iq u e r e f e r r e d t o th e method developed by Munroe^ for t h e s c o r in g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e Rorsohaoh T est ad m in istered s im u lta n e o u s ly t o a group o f s u b je c ts * C ontam ination o f r e s u l t s r e f e r r e d t o p o s s ib le changes occasion ed by le a r n in g w hich m ight ta k e p la c e a s a r e s u l t o f in o id e n ta l d is c u s s io n s by n o n - p a r t ic ip a t in g o o n t r o l group members w ith d is c u s s io n group members. N o n -p a r tic ip a tin g im p lie d n o n -a tten d a n c e in th e d is c u s s io n s . The ex p erim en ta l p e r io d w as th e t o t a l number o f s e s s io n s i n which the d is o u s s io n groups p a r t i c i p a t e d . The co n cep t o f p e r s o n a lit y a d ju stm en t b ein g employed ( a f t e r Symonds) . . . would d e s o r ib e an in d iv id u a l who i s a d ap tab le, a o cep ts r e a l i t y (im p ly in g a w aren ess o f h er own str e n g th s and w eaknesses a s w e l l a s th e r e a l i t i e s o f th e e x t e r n a l w o r ld ), d e s ir e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h e r s e l f , f e e l s a d e s ir e f o r independence, has a f e e l i n g o f h a p p in e ss and p le a s u r e in l i v i n g (a z e s t fo r l i f e ) , f e e l s a d eq u a te and s e c u r e , i s a b le t o exp ress her emo­ t io n s when d e s ir a b l e , ca n en jo y o th e r p eop le, i s an a ccep ted member o f h er g ro u p , r e c o g n iz e s th e r ig h t s o f o th e r s, i s rath er c o n s is t e n t i n h er b e h a v io r (th ough f l e x i b l e a s im p lied in a d a p t a b i l i t y ) , h a s no u n r ea so n a b le f e a r s , and p o s s e s s e s ad equate en erg y and d r iv e .^

1. 2*

R . L. Munroe, " P r e d ic t io n o f A djustm ent and Academic Performance of C o lle g e S tu d e n ts by a M o d ific a t io n o f th e Rorschach Method," Applied P sy ch o lo g y M onographs, V I I, 1 9 4 5 . P . M. Symonds, The Dynamics o f Human Adjustm ent, pp. 5 6 9 -8 0 .

3 D e lim it a t io n s 1*

The su b jeo ts w ere t h i r t y norm al ad olesoen t g ir ls *

The l i m i t e d

s iz e o f the group was n e o e s s i t a t e d by t h e in te n siv e in v e s t ig a t io n p la n n ed and the nature o f th e p ro b lem . 2.

The d is o u s s io n s e r i e s c o n s is t e d o f ten sessio n s onoe a w eek o v e r a

period o f about th r ee m o n th s. Basio Assumptions 1*

I t was assumed t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y i s responsive to i n t e r n a l and

environmental f o r c e s , t h a t i t may ch an ge, and th at i t oan be d e s c r ib e d and evaluated* 2.

Further, i t w as assum ed t h a t p a r tic ip a tio n in group d i s c u s s i o n s

(o f such subject m atter a s h as b e e n r e fe r r e d t o ) fo r one c l a s s p e r io d a day, one day a week m igh t p rodu ce su ch changes* 3*

F in a lly , i t w as assum ed t h a t

t h e method o f i n v e s t ig a t io n p ro p o sed

would deteot suoh changes a s may o c c u r . S ig n ifica n ce o f the Problem This study i s an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e valu e o f an e d u o a tio n a l p r o c e s s in mental hygiene o r, p e r h a p s, p r e v e n t iv e p sych iatry.

That t h e r e i s much

need o f more and b e t t e r m e n ta l h y g ie n e e f f o r t s i s a tte s te d t o b y s t a t i s t i c s concerning mental h e a l t h .

I t h a s b een s ta te d th a t out o f ev ery one hundred

ch ild ren of sch ool age th r o u g h o u t th e U nited S ta te s , four w i l l e v e n t u a l l y enter some mental h o s p i t a l a f f e c t e d w it h some serio u s form o f m e n ta l d i s ­ order} one w i l l become d e lin q u e n t b e c a u se o f inner inadequacies or u n fa v o r ­ ab le environmental i n f l u e n c e s ; and e ig h t w i l l be handioapped w it h " s e r io u s breakdowns" or p e r s o n a lit y d i s t o r t i o n s w hich Trill in te r fe r e w it h t h e i r

h a p p in ess and e f f i c i e n c y th ro u g h o u t t h e ir liv e s .® I f i t oan be d e m o n stra ted t h a t the group d is o u s s lo n method in the s i t u a t i o n c i t e d i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith s i g n i f i c a n t , p o s it iv e p e r s o n a lity ohange i t seems t o f o llo w t h a t a t l e a s t a b egin n in g c o n tr ib u tio n w i l l have been made t o d em o n stra te t h e m en ta l h ygien e v a lu e of th e group d is c u s s io n p r o c e ss*

3^

H. E . B u l l i s , HWhy C la s s e s in Human R e la tio n s ? ” Delaware S ta te Committee o f M en ta l H ygiene un pu blish ed mimeographed b u l le t in s , 1948.

CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE Adolesoent A djustm ents The l i f e p e r io d b etw ee n oh ild h ood and adulthood, a d o le s o e n o e , i s fraught w ith n e c e s s i t y t o make adjustm ents perhaps even more s e v e r e t h a n those demanded of* t h e o h ild or t h e a d u lt.

P o ssib le a r e a s o f s t r e s s a r e

adjustments to p h y s i c a l ch a n g e s; th e strong surge o f th e d r iv e f o r independence; oh an ges i n in t e r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s h ip s, in o lu d in g t h e r i s e o f strong group i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s (g a n g s); new a ttitu d e s toward p a r e n t s and other a d u lts; h e t e r o s e x u a l a d ju stm en t; and career and m a rria g e i n t h e fu tu re. Body Changes in A d o le so e n o e Some o f th e b od y ohanges w h ich are coin cid en t w ith t h e o n s e t o f adolesoenoe in t h e human fe m a le a r e th e appearance o f fe m in in e c o n t o u r s i n the body, roundness and fir m n e s s o f th e b r e a sts, the d evelop m en t o f p u b io hair and the f i r s t m e n str u a tio n * 41 A ctu ally th e se ohanges do n o t o c c u r a t ex a ctly th e same t im e c h r o n o lo g ic a lly for a l l g i r l s .

A n x ie ty may be

aroused in th o se a d o l e s o e n t s w hose body development i s d e la y e d i n any of the above a s p e c ts *

Thus a g i r l who oontinues to be r a th e r s h o r t and

plump may e x p e r ie n c e a g r e a t d e a l o f oonoern when her f r ie n d s e x p e r i e n c e adolesoent ohanges i n h e ig h t and secondary sex o h a r a o t e r is t ie s * *

The lo n g e r

Because t h is s tu d y i s co n cern ed w ith adolesoent g i r l s , th e m a t e r i a l i n th e s e c tio n on a d o le s o e n o e a s much as p o ss ib le i s o o n o ern ed w i t h t h e female sex*

h er p h y s ic a l o h a n g es a r e d e la y e d , th e g r e a te r may he her d istr e ss*

Too the

f i r s t o f a group o f f r ie n d s t o e x p erien ce t h e s e changes may undergo some u n e a sin e s s i f h er f r i e n d s a r e n o t o u r r e n tly l i v i n g through the same changes, e s p e c ia lly i f

s h e h a s n ot b een prepared fo r them.

Body oh an ges a r e n o t alw ays a cau se o f d i f f i c u l t y .

Zachry pointed out

th a t many g i r l s a n t i o i p a t e t h e i r fu tu r e r o le a s women w ith pleasure. I f t h e y h ave b e e n c a r e f u l l y prepared f o r th e menarche they are r e a s s u r e d b y t h i s e v id e n c e t h a t th e y are growing toward woman­ hood, t h a t t h e i r r o le i s now a t l a s t c l e a r l y defined.^S ex u a l A d ju stm en t i n A d o le sc e n c e The o c c u r r e n c e o f th e s e oh an ges, th e secon d ary s e x ch a ra cteristics and o th er p h y s ic a l g ro w th changes i s accompanied by an other kind o f neoessary a d ju stm en t.

There i s not o n ly th e problem o f a d ju s tin g to th e ohange

i t s e l f , but a l s o t h e a d ju stm en t t o th e h e ig h ten ed awareness of sex differen­ t ia tio n .

F or th e g i r l th e r e may be i n f e r i o r i t y f e e l i n g s w ith rela tio n to

th e b o y . ■What i s im p o r ta n t f o r th e g i r l ’ s a d a p ta tio n to her s o c ia l role as a member o f h e r s e x i s t h a t oonoern over supposed in f e r io r it y ( p h y s ic a l or s o c i a l ) t o boys may be i n t e n s i f i e d by her experience o f s e x u a l m a tu r a tio n . D istu r b a n c e on t h i s accou n t may be d ir e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y to p h y s ic a l m a tu r a t io n . Thus some g i r l s se e k to overcome or to d is­ prove b y o u ts ta n d in g ach ievem ent in b o d ily a c t i v i t y - in sports or in o th e r s tr e n u o u s o cc u p a tio n s - i n f e r i o r i t y th a t they f e e l is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e fem in in e r o le in v a r io u s a s p e c t s .2 Perhaps i n o t h e r ways i t i s a somewhat more d i f f i c u l t and str e ssfu l ad ju stm en t f o r g i r l s th a n f o r b o y s. from a p s y c h o a n a ly t ic p o in t o f v ie w . ad justm ent t a s k i s 1. 2. 3.

Deutsch® d is c u s s e d -the differences She p o in te d out t h a t the boy’s

r e l a t i v e l y more c le a r - c u t th an th a t of the g ir l.

C . B. Z a ch ry , Em otion and Conduct in A d o leso en o e, p . 54. I b id . , pp. 1 1 2 -1 1 3 . H. D eu tsc h , The P sy ch o lo g y of Women, pp. 117-119.

For

7

the boy t h e r e a d in e s s o f h is sexual organ to f u n c t io n makes o le a r h i s p r o ­ g ressiv e g o a l .

H is problem s are to d isso lv e h is o ld t i e s

new ones and to m a ste r an y p a ssiv e ten d en cies.

( lo v e ) , d isc o v e r

In e f f e c t , h e has t o demon­

stra te t h a t he i s a man. However f o r t h e fe m a le ad olesoen t, she in d ic a te d t h a t t h e r o l e o f t h e sex organ i s n o t s o c l e a r l y or quickly r e a liz e d . We have s e e n t h a t t h e fem ale sex organ remains f o r a lo n g tim e ex clu d ed from d i r e c t p a r tic ip a tio n in the g i r l * s s e x u a l l i f e * It i s u n b e lie v a b le how many even very modern g i r l s s t i l l im a g in e during a d o le s c e n c e th a t the apertures of t h e i r b o d ie s s e r v e o n l y " d ir ty 11 p u rp o ses and have nothing t o do w ith l o v e . O nly p s y c h o ­ a n a ly s t s e v e r le a r n t h a t progressive g ir ls who so m etim es p a r t i c i ­ p ate in th e s t r u g g l e for womans p o lit ic a l e m a n c ip a tio n , and g i v e le c t u r e s on t h e n eed f o r th e sexual en ligh ten m en t o f c h i l d r e n , s t i l l c l i n g i n t h e i r unconscious to the t h e o r ie s o f e a r l y c h i l d ­ hood, deny a n a to m ic d if f e r e n c e s , reta in the a n a l id e a o f c h i l d ­ b i r t h , and b a se t h e i r id e a s of sex on the s a d i s t i c c o n c e p t io n o f c o it u s Other ways i n w h ic h th e female adolescent s e x u a l a d ju stm e n t i s

c o m p li­

cated a r e , o f c o u r s e , th e e x iste n c e of a "double stan d ard " w h ic h p e r m its r e la t iv e ly g r e a t e r p r e - m a r it a l sexual experience t o th e m a le th a n t o t h e female and t h e somewhat b e la te d a cq u isitio n o f i n s i g h t by fe m a le a d o lescen ts i n t o t h e r e la t io n s h ip of th eir g e n it a l ia and e r o t i o i s m , and perhaps th e somewhat f r e q u e n t "crush" situ a tio n s w h ic h fe m a le a d o l e s c e n t s experience f o r o ld e r f e m a le s .

These la s t may cause ex trem e f e a r o f homo­

sexualism and su b se q u e n t em otion al disturbance. The t r a i n i n g o f c h ild r e n in our culture w ith r e l a t i o n t o s e x u a l matters h as a l l t o o o f t e n u n fortu n ately been tin g ed w it h f e e l i n g s o f shame and w ith e v a s i v e n e s s .

Taboos have been the custom ary r e a c t i o n of p a r e n t s

and eduoators t o c h ild r e n who have questions and co n c e r n s w it h t h i s p h a se of l i f e . 4, 5.

The r e s u l t ha3 b een , according to Frank,® t h a t t h e s u b j e c t has

Ib id . , p p . 1 1 7 -1 1 8 . LJf.Frank, "The A d o le s c e n t and His Family," in A d o le s c e n c e , 4 5 rd Y ear­ book o f th e N a t io n a l S o c ie ty fo r th e Study o f E d u c a tio n , p p . 1 8 5 -1 9 7 .

8

b e en h i g h l y e m o tio n a lly oharged and a d o le s c e n t s have been anxious, guilty and i n h i b i t e d i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and f e e l i n g s w ith r e la t io n to sexual m a tte r s• R e l a t i o n s h i p s W ith P a r en ts During A d olesoen oe I t i s p r o b a b le t h a t t h e human b e in g b e g in s t o a s s e r t independence in some d e g r e e a lm o s t a s soon a s he i s a b le to do s o .

Even in nursery sohools

v e r y young o h ild r e n may b e ob served to i n s i s t upon fe e d in g themselves and t a k in g o a r e o f t h e i r own n eed s a s muoh a s p o s s i b l e .

In elementary school

when t h e o h i l d b e g in s to have th e su p p o rt o f in te r p e r s o n a l relationships d e v e lo p e d w i t h h i s p e e r s , t h e o h ild fu r th e r d e c la r e s h is independence*

The

g r e a t d r i v e f o r in d ep en d en ce, f o r em a n cip a tio n from th e parents, has been rem arked b y s t u d e n t s o f a d o le s c e n c e .^ D e s p ite t h i s g r e a t strivin g for in d e p e n d e n c e , how ever, t h e r e c o n tin u e s t o e x i s t a dependency relationship. I n our c u l t u r e t h i s r e l a t io n s h ip i s exten d ed i n d u r a tio n beoause of eco n o m ic n e c e s s i t y .

The s t r i v i n g fo r in d ep en d en ce i n c o n flic t with the

need f o r c o n tin u e d dependence c o n s t i t u t e s a major tr o u b le source for a ll t o o many o f ou r young p e o p le . I t m ust b e s t a t e d to o t h a t th e o th e r horn o f t h i s dilemma, the parent, p r e s e n t s a n a d d i t i o n a l c o m p lic a tio n . becom e in d e p e n d e n t.

P a r e n ts want t h e ir youngsters to

Yet t h e r e a r e w ith o u t doubt many qualms experienoed by

p a r e n ts a s t h e i r c h ild r e n become a d o le s c e n t s .

One has only to talk with

a d o l e s c e n t s a b o u t g o in g t o c o l l e g e s in c i t i e s w hioh are fa r enough away t o p r e v e n t commuting d a i l y .

A v e r y fr e q u e n t comment i s made whioh implies

t h a t p a r e n t s have fo r b id d e n t h e ir son s o r d au gh ters t o go to college away

6.

Z a ch ry , o p . c i t . , p p .3 3 6 -3 4 4 .

from th e p r o t e c t io n o f th e home. I n m a tter s o f d e c is io n when the a d o leso en t i s n o t r e a l l y eq u ip p e d t o reaoh a judgment p a r e n ts are hard put to know w hat to do a b o u t t h e a d o l e s ­ c e n t’s d e s ir e f o r independence.

I t i s ex trem ely d i f f i c u l t f o r p a r e n ts t o

draw a s e n s i b l e l i n e i n terms of n o n -in terferen ce w it h su c h d e c i s i o n m a k in g . Bios^ remarks t h a t t h i s ambivalence may have a profound i n f l u e n o e upon t h e a d o le s o e n t. These p r o h ib it io n s and restrain ts are not c o n fin e d a lo n e t o c h o ic e o f c o lle g e .

They a r e d ir e c te d toward choice of b o y f r i e n d , e x p e r im e n ts i n

sex u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c lo th in g , friendships and a lm ost a l l p h a s e s o f t h e liv e s o f t h e ir c h i l d r e n .

Obviously there are p a r e n ts who a x e s e c u r e en o u g h

p e r s o n a lly t o l i v e through the apparent r e j e o t io n of them b y t h e a d o l e s c e n t in h is s t r i v i n g f o r independence. love h im .

They manage t o s u r v iv e and c o n t in u e t o

T h eir r e la t io n s h ip seems to be a c o n tin u a n c e o f a b a s i c r e s p e c t

fo r the r i g h t o f a l l human beings to have o p p o r tu n ity t o a c h ie v e m a t u r it y . Peer R e la t io n s h ip s D uring Adolescence Tryon® in w r i t i n g about th is l i f e period d is c u s s e s th e t y p e o f p e r s o n ­ a l i t y r e a c t io n s w h ich a re considered d e sir a b le b y th e a d o l e s c e n t grou p its e lf.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g that in the age p e r io d from e le v e n t o t w e l v e ,

fem ales p r e fe r r e d t h o s e among th eir peers who w ere n o t b o i s t e r o u s and a g g r e s s iv e , who d id n ot cause disturbances and who w ere f r i e n d l y , p r e t t y , t id y and q u i e t l y g r a c io u s .

At fourteen to f i f t e e n y e a r s o f a g e , d o m in a n c e ,

buoysint a m ia b i l i t y , a g g r e ssiv e good sportsm anship, r e s t l e s s n e s s and glamorous appearance w ere the approved p e r s o n a lit y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 7. 8.

M arked

P. B io s , The A d o le sc e n t P ersonality, p. 2 3 7 . C. M. Tryon, "The Adolesoent Peer C ulture," in A d o le s o e n o e , 4 3 rd Y ea r­ book o f th e N a tio n a l Society fo r the S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n , pp. 2 1 7 - 2 3 9 .

10

o h a n g e s t o o k p la c e d u r in g h er stu d y i n s t a t u s p o s it io n in the groups* I m p l i c a t i o n s o f s u c h oh an ges in s t a t u s w ere an o n s e t of anxiety in those who d r o p p e d i n s t a t u s and a l s o th o s e who a scen d ed in status*

Those who

e x p e r ie n c e d s t a b i l i t y o f s t a t u s , th ou gh th e y may have oooupied status p osi­ t i o n s c a u s in g l i t t l e n o t i c e t o b e ta k e n o f them , d id not experience such s u ffe r in g * P e r h a p s t h e r e a r e some r a th e r b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s whioh can be derived from a n a l y s i s o f a d o le s o e n t r e la t io n s h ip s *

I t seem s, according to Zachry,9

t h a t b y and la r g e f r i e n d s h ip s among a d o le s c e n t s a r e based upon s im ila r itie s i n p o i n t 8 o f v ie w , o u t lo o k on l i f e , a t t i t u d e s , and perhaps common in te r e s ts . T h is i s

n o t t o im p ly t h a t d if f e r e n c e s make f r ie n d s h ip impossible*

Some­

t im e s a s e c u r e , p o p u la r g i r l may b e a f r ie n d o f a r e la tiv e ly insecure, g e n e r a l l y i s o l a t e d y o u n g ste r *

The d epen den t need o f the iso la ted g ir l may

form t h e cem en t o f w h io h t h e bond i s c o n s tr u c te d *

By and large, however,

su c h d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e c u r i t y , p h y s ic a l d ev elo p m en t, outlook and a ttitu d es a r e n o t c o n d u c iv e t o l a s t i n g peer r e l a t i o n s h i p s . D i f f e r e n c e s among p e e r s in a b i l i t y t o com pete for grades, for boys, f o r a t t e n t i o n from a d u l t s and f o r p o p u la r ity te n d t o prevent rather than b u i l d b r o a d e r p e er r e la t io n s h ip s * D e u t s o h , 10 from an a n a l y t i c p o in t o f v ie w , speaks of the importance of b e l o n g i n g t o th e group*

Her d is c u s s io n i s couched in terms of such mechan­

is m s a s n a r c i s s i s m and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n * R e l a t i o n s h i p s W ith A d u lts Other Than P a r e n ts I t h a s b e e n n o te d t h a t i n h is q u e s t o f independence, the adolesoent n e v e r t h e l e s s i s n o t e m o tio n a lly prepared f o r such a ro le.

10*

Z achry', op* o i t *', p p . 5 4 6 -3 9 4 . D e u t s o h , op* o i t *, p* 1 0 7 .

However he i s

11 a c t i v e l y moving toward i t .

Teaohers and o th er n o n -fa m ily a d u lt s r e p r e s e n t

a m ile s t o n e on th e road to emancipation a t w h ich t h e a d o le s o e n t c a n s t o p f o r su p p o rt and y e t continue t o m aintain h is p o s i t i o n .

As Z achry13- p o i n t s

o u t , te a o h e r s have not been and are n o t so c l o s e t o a d o le s c e n t s a s t o p l a c e a d o le s o e n t s i n the same dependency s it u a t io n i n w h ic h t h e y f u n c t i o n w it h p a r e n ts• One a s p e c t o f th e importance of th e s o h o o l may n o t b e rem arked in r e l a t i o n to th e a d o lescen t.

Many a d o le s o e n ts , d e v e lo p in g i n a home s i t u a ­

t i o n w h ich has had i t s share of p r o h ib itio n s and r e s t r a i n t s , f e a r t o e x p r e s s th e m s e lv e s , to vent th e ir h o s t il e f e e l i n g s tow ard t h e i r p a r e n t s . Perhaps t h e y f e a r even to express modest i n d i c a t io n s o f t h e i r s t r i v i n g s f o r in d ep en d en ce.

For suoh in d ividu als, th e s c h o o l w ith i t s som etim es u n d er­

s ta n d in g and a o o ep tin g adults i s a g r e a t s a f e t y v a l v e .

Even when th e

s o h o o l a d u l t s , tea ch ers and a d m in istra to rs, a r e n o t so u n d e r s ta n d in g , a d o le s o e n t s have le s s anxiety and g u i lt i n t h e i r d e f ia n o e o f t h e s e a d u lt s th a n th e y have i n expressing h o s t i l i t y toward t h e i r p a r e n t s ,

S e lf-A o o e p ta n o e During Adolesoenoe In d is c u s s in g the areas of adjustment so f a r t h e m a tte r o f a d ju stm e n t to o n e 1s s e l f has n o t been expressly m en tio n ed . in a l l o f th e d is o u s s io n .

N e v e r t h e le s s i t i s

im p lie d

In r e la tio n to her body im age a s i t u n d erg o es

ch a n g e, n o t o n ly does the adolescent r e a c t t o w hat o th e r s s a y t h e y t h in k o f h er and t o w hat she thinks they think o f h e r , but s h e a l s o r e a c t s i n a cco rd a n ce w it h her s e lf-c o n c e p t.

Zachry i s o f th e o p in io n t h a t t h e co n ­

c e p t o f th e s e l f in adolesoenoe, even i n a d u lt l i f e ,

is

. . . s t i l l la r g e ly influenced by p h y s ic a l e x p e r ie n c e . T h is i s tr u e f o r t h e . . . reason that the body has a r e a lis m g r e a t e r

11.

Z a c h ry , o p . o i t . , pp. 524-345.

12 th a n o th e r a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r s o n a lit y (important as these are t o th e i n d i v i d u a l ) b e c a u s e i t i s v i s i b l e and palpable as they a re n o t . One can n ot s e e o r to u ch thought or f e e lin g . But the body i s s e e n , i s to u o h e d . I t i s in co n tr o v e r tib ly th ere. By v i r t u e o f i t s p e r c e p t i b i l i t y i t overshadows other aspects of th e s e l f .1 2 F r a n k ie f e e l s th a t t h e co n cep t o f self-a c c e p ta n c e is most important. He im p lie s t h a t t h e a d o le s o e n t i s fa c e d w ith a great v a riety o f experiences demanding ohange i n h is s e l f - p i c t u r e .

The d ifferen t values of h is fr ie n d s ,

t h e more d i f f i c u l t req u irem en ts o f h i s p a r e n ts, the increasing load of s o h o o l w ork , t h e r e a d in e s s f o r new h e te r o s e x u a l experience, the l i f e in th e f u t u r e c o n fr o n t h im .

H is s e l f - p i c t u r e must be of adequaoy or he w ill

d e v e lo p much a n x i e t y . F a c in g th e F u tu re For many a d o le s c e n t s seco n d a r y s o h o o l i s the terminal eduoational p h a se.

These y o u n g ste r s m ust s u d d e n ly be ready to fu n ction more or le ss

in d e p e n d e n tly .

F o r some t h i s r e p r e s e n ts a phase of l i f e for whioh they are

n o t rea d y - i n ter m s of econom ic a b i l i t y , s o o ia l a b ilit y and personality m a tu r a t io n .

F or th e m , much d i s t r e s s may l i e ahead.

O thers m ust s t a r t t o th in k o f p rep arin g for a career. may r e p r e s e n t problem s w h ic h th e y c o n s id e r unsolvable.

Career ohoice

Many young people

i n l a t e a d o le s c e n c e are vagu e ab ou t t h e i r occupational fu tu re.

I t is not

a t a l l a s im p le t a s k t o d e c id e among many a ttr a c tiv e oooupational fie ld s when one i s t a l e n t e d in s e v e r a l and has l i t t l e or no experience in these fie ld s . Most g i r l s

i n l a t e a d o le s c e n c e a r e , o f course,

considering marriage.

I f a g i r l h as b e e n r e a s o n a b ly a d ju s te d and secure through the 12. 13.

Z aoh ry, o p . p i t . , p . 3 3 . F ran k , o p . o i t . , p p . 2 4 0 -2 5 4 .

rest

of her

13 l i f e , i t I s lik e ly th a t she w i l l m eet t h i s l a t e r phase v i t h s e c u r i t y * however w i l l face i t w ith less s e c u r it y * much or prepared to sao rifio e to o muoh

Many

They may e n te r i t e x p e c t in g t o o o f t h e i r own i d e n t i t i e s *

B oth

groups may encounter d iff ic u lty in a d j u s t in g t o t h i s in t e r p e r s o n a l s i t u a ­ tio n * Frank rather suooinotly sa y s t h a t a d o le s o e n t s must escape from their o h ild is h s u b m is s iv e s t a t e , m ust a c c e p t r e s p o n s ib ility f o r s e lf - d ir e c t io n , and t a k e t h e i r p la c e s among t h e ir contem poraries.^ The Sohool and Adolesoent Adjustment U n til r e c e n tly , the development o f a sou n d , a t t r a c t i v e and e f f e c t i v e personality has r e c e iv e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n fr o m ed u ca ­ t i o n , y e t i t is clear that th e s o h o o l may render a g r e a t s e r v i c e by p rovid in g an environment oonduoive t o t h e nourishm ent and co n serv a tio n of a salutary i n i t i a t i v e and w o rth w h ile in d i v i d u ­ a l i t y . 15 Muoh h as been said end w r itte n o o n o e m in g t h e g o a ls o f e d u c a t i o n . 1 6 *17 R ep ea ted ly i t has been stated th a t i t i s a r e o o g n iz e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e s o h o o l to concern i t s e l f with the d evelop m en t o f m ature p e r s o n a l i t i e s *

Yet

l i t t l e occurs in curriculum r e v is io n or e d u c a t io n a l p r a c t ic e w h ic h a t te m p ts to s a t i s f y t h i s objective, the developm ent o f m ature p e r s o n a l i t i e s . One o f th e few larg e-sca le programs w h ich h a s made s e r io u s e f f o r t s t o work toward th e achievement of t h i s g o a l i s t h e program sp o n so r e d b y th e Delaware S t a t e Committee of Mental H ygiene* 14. 15. 16.

B u ll i s 18 d e s o r ib e s th e

I b i d . , p . 247. H. R. Douglas. Secondary E ducation f o r Youth i n Modern A m erica , p , 1 0 . D. A* P reso o tt, Emotion and th e E d u c a tiv e P r o c e s s , A R ep o rt o f t h e Committee on the R elation o f Em otion t o th e E d u c a tiv e P r o c e s s , Amerioan Council on E ducation, W ash in gton , D. C ., 1 9 3 8 , p p . 3 1 8 , x v ii i . 17* L* K. Frank, "Adolescence in a P erio d o f T r a n s it i o n ,” i n A d o le s o e n o e , 43rd Yearbook of National S o c ie t y f o r t h e Study o f E d u c a t io n , p p . 6—7 . 18* H. E . B u llis , "Why Classes in Human R e la t io n s ? ” D elaw are S t a t e Comnittee on Mental Hygiene u n p u b lish ed mimeographed b u l l e t i n s , 1 9 4 8 .

14 o b j e c t i v e s o f th e program , i t s m ethods and provides h igh ly developed lesso n p la n s f o r u se by t e a o h e r s or d is c u s s io n lead ers. i n number. th a t

The t i t l e s

c l e a r l y p o in t

o f p r e v e n t iv e m e n ta l h y g ie n e .

These lessons are t h ir t y

toward the emphasis o f ihe program, Some of the t i t l e s are "Our Inner Human

D r iv e s ," " E m otion al Problem s a t Home," "Overcoming Personal Handicaps," " S t r iv in g f o r S u p e r i o r i t y ," and o t h e r s . The te o h n iq u e em ployed i s th e group disoussion method. d i s o u s s e s aim s and v a r io u s a s p e c t s o f th is technique.

O'Malley

She says

In fo r m a l group d i s o u s s i o n aims t o bring problems out and in to the l i g h t , and to a r r i v e a t some p o s s ib le so lu tio n . Group d isou ssion i s n o t a h a p h a z a r d , a im le s s procedure whioh can be su b stitu ted f o r o th er e d u c a t io n a l m eth od s, nor is i t one that people can engage i n w it h o u t some th o u g h t and preparation. I t enoourages t h e " a ir in g s " o f v ie w s and th e promotion of individual thinking and d e c i s i o n . The m ost im p o rta n t immediate ob jectives are th e grow th o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l members of the group and an improved u n d e r sta n d in g o f t h e ir r e l a t i o n s h i p to one another. The oh ild ren g a in I n s i g h t s by p r o j e c t i n g th em selves into the s to r ie s or dreams, by l i s t e n i n g t o t h e o p in io n s o f oth ers, by oonsoiously or un­ c o n s c io u s l y e x a m in in g t h e i r own l i v e s , and by p ro fitin g by the d i r e o t i o n g iv e n b y th e t e a c h e r .* - 9 I t i s a b u n d a n tly d e a r

t h a t th e major purpose of the Delaware Human

R e la t io n s program , ju d g e d fro m th e s e statem en ts, is therapeutic and/or p r o p h y la c t ic a s r e l a t e d to m e n ta l h e a lt h .

This project is to be commended

a s a g r e a t e f f o r t t o make t h e s o h o o l take it s rig h tfu l place in the van of i n s t i t u t i o n s i n our c u l t u r e w orking f o r the mental health of our s o c ie ty . D ouglas w as h i g h l y c r i t i c a l o f th e fa ilu r e of education to provide fo r su ch p u rp o ses.

He rem arked

M ethods s h o u ld be c h o s e n s o as t o provide most e f f e c t iv e ly f o r th e norm al grow th o f a h e a lt h y , in tegrated p ersonality involv­ in g i n i t i a t i v e , s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , oheerful d isp o sitio n , sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , g o o d - w i l l tow ard o th e r s ...^ 9 19. 20.

E . O 'M a lle y , T ea c h er A id No. 2 from "Why Classes in Human Eolations?" D elaw are S t a t e Com m ittee on M ental Hygiene unpublished mimeographed b u lle tin s , 1948, p. v . D o u g la s, o p . o i t . , p . 1 0 4 .

15 Psychotherapy Group disoussion whioh h as the aims d e s c r ib e d above I s , in e v e r y s e n s e of the word, psychotherapy.

A lthough i t may not be t e n s e d p s y c h o th e r a p y ,

th e d isou ssion aims at th erap y.

T herefore a d is o u s s io n o f p sy c h o th e r a p y i s

i n o rd er.* Perhaps psychotherapy may be d iv id e d in t o t h e k in d s o f p sy c h o th e r a p y whioh were in existence before p sy o h o a n a ly sis and d evelop m en ts from i t *

It

would seem correct th a t su g g e stio n in many forms fo u n d many u s e s from t h e e a r l i e s t days of psyohotherapy.

S u g g e stio n i s s t i l l v ery w id e ly used*

It

i s u sed with oases of immature p e r s o n a lit ie s and w it h i n d i v i d u a l s o f low in te llig e n c e .

According t o A p p el, i t is

. . . symptomatic, n ot e t i o lo g i c a l * I t i s a s s e r t i v e and a u t h o r i­ t a t iv e rather than u n d erstan d in g. I t i s s u p e r f i c i a l and dogmatio, not deep. In t h i s s e n s e , t h e r e f o r e , i t i s o n ly p a r tia l and it is u n r e a l i s t i c . I t g o es a g a in s t th e fu n d a m e n ta l p rin cip les of mental h e a lth beoause i t o b l i t e r a t e s r a th e r t h a n inoreases in sigh t. F in a lly , i t i s im p oten t i n s e v e r e conditions Another form of psyohotherapy w hich to o i s a u t h o r i t a t i v e i s

p e r s u a s io n .

In t h i s therapy attempt i s made to r e l e a s e th e p e r s o n a l i t y fro m h a rm fu l em o tio n s.

The patient ta lk s a t le n g th and a sy m p a th e tic r e l a t i o n s h i p i s

e s ta b lis h e d between the p a tie n t and th e t h e r a p is t .

A b r e a o tio n ( r e l e a s e )

f o r th e patient takes plaoe as a r e s u l t o f t h e t a l k i n g out •

The t h e r a p i s t

does n o t tr y to convince th e p a t ie n t , but r a th e r h o p es t h a t e x p la n a t io n s a re aocepted on the b asis of th e a b so lu te c o n fid e n c e w h ich the p a t i e n t h a s i n t h e th erap ist. There have been other p sy ch o th era p ies v h ic h have s e t u p r i g i d r o u t in e s *

This disoussion of psyohotherapy cannot be e x h a u s tiv e i n i t s t r e a tm e n t • The purpose of t h is b r ie f treatm en t i s to s e r v e a s e x p la n a to r y t o t h e m aterial to follow on group p syoh oth erap y. 2 1 . K. E. Appel, "Psychiatric T herapy,” i n P e r s o n a lit y an d th e B e h a v io r Disorders, p. 1112.

16 and a c t i v i t y f o r p a t i e n t s *

T h ese au th oritarian , d irect therapies have been

o f v a lu e i n d i v e r t i n g p a t i e n t s But

from w o rries, fe a r s and unresolved problems*

th e y may have b e e n h a rm fu l to o *

Too muoh d iversion has the e f fe o t o f

s u p p r e s s in g th e symptoms and p reven tin g abreaotion*

According to Appel

T h is ty p e o f th e r a p y i s b a se d on a f a u lt y psychology of w i l l • • • • w i l l tu r n s o u t t o b e e x e r o ise of good h a b its * ..* T h erap y assu m es a f a c u l t y o f w i l l . I t does not reoognize t h e im p o rta n c e o f e m o tio n , ea rly tr a in in g , experience and c o n f li c t * ..2 2 H y p n o sis was u se d r a t h e r e a r ly as a therapy in work w ith h y steria s su o h a s p a r a l y s e s , a n a e s t h e s ia s and amnesias* h y p n o s is t o c a u s e a p a t i e n t t o l o s e a symptom*

I t i s rather sim ple through However i t has been the

e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e r a p i s t s th a t t h e fundamental d if f ic u lt y soon is r e a s s e r t e d i n th e fo rm o f a n o th e r symptom, i f th e basio causes are not ap p roach ed *

I t i s now b e l i e v e d th a t hypnosis should be used as a sta r tin g

p o in t i n t h e s y s t e m a t ic r e -e d u c a tio n of the p a tie n t.

Of most s ig n ific a n c e

i s t h e p o in t t h a t • • • so m etim es s u g g e s t io n s accepted during the trance bring about ch a n g e i n h a b i t s . * . . T h era p ists are finding th a t in terp reta tio n s w h ic h w ould n o t o r d i n a r i l y be accepted may be more s a t is f a c t o r ily r e c e i v e d by th e p a t ie n t i f f i r s t given under hypnosis .^ I n t h e o p in io n o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t o r , the g rea test contribution to p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t ic t h e o r y and method occurred w ith Freud's founding of p s y c h o a n a ly s is .

I t m ig h t b e s a i d th at the th ree major phases of psycho­

a n a l y s i s a r e t r a n s f e r e n c e , r e s is t a n c e and in s ig h t.* 22. 23. *

Transference may be

A p p e l, op . o i t . , p* 1 1 1 9 . W. U. S n y d er , "The P r e se n t S tatu s of Psychotherapeutic Counseling," P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , 44, 1947, pp. 321-322. There a r e many o th e r p sy c h o a n a ly tic concepts which might be d iscu ssed . H ow ever, t h e y a r e n o t co n sid ere d necessary to the development o f th is tr e a t m e n t . T h e r e fo r e th e y are excluded from con sid eration . I t i s a l s o r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h i s d isc u ssio n o f psychoanalysis is sca rcely com m ensurate w it h i t s c o n tr ib u tio n to psychotherapy. For example, one c o u ld d i s c u s s r e p r e s s i o n , id e n t if ic a t io n , reg ressio n , and other mental m ech a n ism s, a s d e s c r ib e d b y Freud, with great value to the understand­ in g o f the p syoh od yn am ics o f the p a tie n t's d i f f i c u l t i e s .

17 considered as the estab lish m en t o f accep ta n o e o f th e t h e r a p i s t b y th e patient*

I t las teen o fte n s t a t e d t h a t th e t h e r a p is t becom es d u r in g

analysis a ll or most o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t persons in th e p a s t l i f e p atient.

o f th e

Resistance a p p lie s t o th e appearance d u rin g liie t h e r a p e u t i c

relationship of blocks, c r i t i c i s m s , and o th er n e g a t iv e r e a c t i o n s t o th e therapist by the p a t ie n t .

R e s ista n c e must be "worked th rou gh" and

. . . is the part o f the wcrk th a t e f f e o t s t h e g r e a t e s t ch a n g es in the patient and that d is t in g u is h e s a n a ly t ic tr e a tm e n t fro m every kind of s u g g e stiv e trea tm en t .2 4 Insight i s often d iscu ssed by p s y c h o a n a ly s ts .

I t is

su p p o sed t o o ccu r when

the patient reliv es h is ex p erien ces a s i f undergoing them a t t h e p r e s e n t tim e.

It may be considered to be an i n t e l l e c t u a l u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e

oauses of the symptoms.

I t comes a b o u t, how ever, th rou gh th e a n o t io n a l

reliv in g of the past e x p e r ie n c e s of th e p a t ie n t . Relationship th erap y i s a term a p p lie d to -the t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e s o f several groups of t h e r a p is t s .

I n e f f e c t , th e name i s

d e r iv e d from ih e

common agreement th a t th e th e r a p e u tic g a in stem s from t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the patient and t h e r a p is t .

A l l s c h o o ls of t h e r a p y , o f c o u r s e , g iv e

proper significance to t h i s in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . concept of psychoanalysis i s e x a c t ly th e same.

The t r a n s f e r e n c e

However th e b a s i c d i f f e r ­

ence is that the r e la tio n s h ip t h e r a p is t s in d io a te t h a t " th e c l i e n t be granted the freedom to u se th e a n a l y t i c s e s s io n as he chose."**® established are e s s e n t ia lly th o s e o f t im e .

The lim it s

Perhaps t h e s i n g u l a r , m ost

important change vhich t h i s ty p e of th erap y in tr o d u c e d was th e s t r o n g emphasis upon n o n -d irectiv en ess by th e t h e r a p is t . 24 ,

25.

The a t t e n t i o n p a id t o

S. Freud, ^Further Recommendations in th e T echnique o f P s y c h o a n a ly s is ," Chap. XXXII, i n C o lle c te d P a p er s, London: H ogarth P r e s s , 192 4 , a s quoted by N. J . R askin, "The Development of N o n - D ir e c t iv e Therapy," Journal of C on sultin g P sy c h o lo g y , 12, 1948, p . 9 4 . Snyder, 0 £ . c i t . , p . 525.

18 a c c e p t a n c e b y t h i s grou p of th era p ists and perhaps the n o n -d ireo tiv e group -which e v o lv e d from t h i s i s not a t a l l o r ig in a l.

I t i s l i k e l y that almost

a l l t h e r a p i s t s h a v e b e en accep tin g o f th e ir p a tie n ts , a t l e a s t so f a r as th ey are a b le .

I t i s a l s o lik e ly th at sueh acceptance has been oarried on

w it h d e l i b e r a t i o n . The l a s t s c h o o l o f th e r a p is ts to be considered, th e n o n -d ireo tiv e s c h o o l , i s d e r iv e d l a r g e l y , perhaps, from the e a r lie r s h i p s c h o o l*

e sta b lish e d r e la t io n ­

In th e m a in , i t introduced " recogn ition of f e e lin g ," a

c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h , red efin ed , or more c le a r ly d efin ed "acceptance," and r e c o g n iz e d t h e n e c e s s i t y for s e lf - h e lp by the p a tie n t.

This l a s t i s

c le a r ly sta te d * The i n d i v i d u a l i s cap ab le of d iscoverin g and p erceivin g tru ly and s p o n t a n e o u s ly th e in te r r e la tio n sh ip s between h is own a t t i t u d e s and t h e r e la tio n s h ip of h im self to rea lity .^ ® The f i r s t o f t h e s e , " recogn ition o f f e e lin g ," presents a main th era ­ p e u t ic a id .

A c c o r d in g t o Rogers,

The s u r e s t r o u te t o th e issu es whioh have importance, t o the c o n f l i c t s w h ic h a r e p a in fu l, to the areas w ith which counsel­ in g may c o n s t r u c t i v e l y d e a l, i s to fo llo w the pattern o f the c l i e n t * s f e e l i n g a s i t i s f r e e ly e x p r e s s e d .^ A c c e p ta n c e o f f e e l i n g s was meant by Rogers to be a double acceptance. N ot

o n ly w as i t

n e c e s s a r y f o r the oounselor to

acoept the c lie n t ashe was,

but

a l s o , and more im p o r ta n t, i t was necessary

fo r th e c l i e n t to " . . . come

t o r e o o g n iz e t h a t h e h a s th e se n egative f e e lin g s and can acoept: them as p a r t o f h i m s e l f , . ,**2 ® C o n ce rn in g t h e ty p e o f r e la tio n s h ip vhich e x is t s in n o n -d irectiv e t h e r a p y , R o g ers s t a t e d * 26. 27, 28•

C. R* R o g e r s , " S ig n if ic a n t Aspects of C lient-C entered Therapy," A m erican P s y c h o lo g is t , 1, 1946, pp, 415-422. C . R , R o g e r s , C o u n se lin g and Psychotherapy, p. 131. I b id ., p. 38.

19 I t i s a f a c t th a t th e c o u n s e lin g r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a r e l e a s i n g , non-threatening r e la t io n s h ip w hioh makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r him to consider h i s o h o io es w it h g r e a te r o b j e c t i v i t y and s e l e o t those whioh o f f e r t h e d e e p e s t s a t i s f a c t i o n * I t i s here th a t the th era p ist f in d s h im s e lf i n lea g u e w it h p o w e r fu l f o r o e s b io lo g ica l and s o c i a l - w hioh ten d t o make grow th and a d u lt ­ hood a rewarding ty p e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n *29 I f the n o n -d ir e o tiv e p rop on en ts d id n o th in g e l s e , t h e y have served t o emphasize the exp erim en tal v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r t e a c h in g s *

They have

welcomed - indeed, stim u la te d - a g r e a t d e a l o f r e s e a r c h , and some o f t h i s research has been i n th e a rea o f group p sy ch o th era p y * Group Psyohotherapy Although th e te ch n iq u e u sed i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t was group d i s c u s s io n , the program in whioh i t was em ployed was r e a l l y one o f p r e v e n t iv e p s y c h i­ atry or mental h y g ie n e .

T h erefo re i t i s a p p r o p r ia te t h a t a c a r e f u l stu d y

of group psyohotherapy b e u n d erta k en . H i s t o r i c a l Treatm ent One of the e a r l i e s t ap p roaches t o p a t ie n t s i n g ro u p s was t h a t o f P r a tt in Boston in 1906.30 oulous p a tien ts.

g e in tr o d u c e d "mass i n s t r u c t i o n ” i n t r e a t i n g tu b e r -

The method was e s s e n t i a l l y a l e c t u r e m ethod.

th is method came in t o u se i n t r e a t i n g p s y o h o n e u r o t ic s .

G rad u ally

A bout 1 9 3 0 th e

procedures acquired th e u n usual name, " th ou gh t c o n t r o l" c l a s s e s , when an ex-patient suggested t o a fr ie n d t h a t she a t t e n d D r. P r a t t ’ s "thought oontrol” c la s s e s . In New England Emerson®-*- worked w ith m a ln o u rish ed c h ild r e n who attended o la sses once a w eek. 29. 30. 31.

T h eir m others a tte n d e d t o o .

Each c la s s had

ib id .,' pp. 209-2l0'. 7TTI. P ratt, "The Group Method i n th e T reatm en t o f P sy ch o so m a tic D is ­ orders," i n Group P sy ch o th era p y , A Sym posium, p p . 8 5 -9 3 . W. R. P. Emerson, ’’The H y g ie n ic and E i e t e t i c t r e a tm e n t o f D e lic a t e Children b y th e C la ss M ethod," B o sto n M e d ic a l and S u r g ic a l J o u r n a l, 164.

20

f i f t e e n m em bers.

Mothers e s p e c ia lly , and th e ir ch ild ren , were in str u c te d

c o n o e r n in g e a t i n g and sleep in g h a b its. t h e y w ere i n a tte n d a n c e .

Their behavior was observed w h ile

It was thought that th e se o la sse s helped to over­

come some d i f f i c u l t cases of m alnutrition. M oreno, a b o u t 1909, le t children and ju v en iles aot "spontaneously” t h e i r own p r o b le m s.

In 1911 he

. . . c r e a t e d to g e th e r . . . with hundreds of ch ildren and a d o l e s c e n t s a c h ild r e n 's th eatre f o r spontaneity where the f i r s t r e c o r d e d psychodramatio sessio n s were produced.®^ As Moreno put i t , . . . . The t h e a t r e up to now has mirrored before our eyes the p a in s o f a l i e n th in gsj to n ig h t, however, i t has played to us our own w o e s ., .® 3 At K ings Park on Long Isla n d , a t about 1910, Marsh3^ conducted g rou p p s y c h o th e r a p y w ith em otionally disturbed p a tien ts as a kind of le o t u r e c la s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n .

These o la sse s were attended by p a tie n ts , p h ysi­

c ia n s and o t h e r s t a f f members. 1921 L a z e ll

ge

Large c la sse s were the usual s itu a tio n .

In

u se d p sychoanalytic explanations of p sychological d istu rb ­

a n c e s i n w o r k in g w it h p sychotic veterans of World War I .

These le c tu r e

c l a s s e s w ere h e l d i n S t , E lizab eth 's H ospital in Washington. A n o th er e a r l y worker was Burrow.^6 Working w ith psychoneurotics he d e v e lo p e d a f e e l i n g th a t there was a need in treatment of th ese people fo r a group o f o b s e r v e r s . p erso n s. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

He worked with as few as four and as many as twenty

The d i s t i n c t i o n between an alyst and analysand was done away w ith .

J . I . M e ie r s , "Origins and Development of Group Psychotherapy,” in Group Psyohotherapy, A Symposium, p. 265. I b id ., p . 266. L . C . M arsh , "Group Treatment of the Psychoses by the P sych ological E q u iv a le n t o f R ev iv a l,” Mental Hygiene, 15, 1931, pp. 328-349. E . W. L a z e l l , "The Group Treatment of Dementia Praeoox," PsychoA n a l y t ic R eview , 8, 1921, pp. 168-179. T. B urrow , "The Laboratory Method in Psychoanalysis, I t s Inception and D ev elo p m en t," American Journal o f Psychiatry, 1926 , 83, pp. 345-355.

21 Burrow f e l t th ere were s o c i a l r e p r e s s io n s e q u a l l y a s d is t u r b in g as p e r s o n a l repressions* S7

S oh ild er ' r e p o r ted a method o f p sy o h o th era p y -w ith n e u r o t ic s a t t h e Bellevue H o sp ita l in New York w hich was a t on ce in d i v i d u a l and group therapy.

This in clu d ed in d iv id u a l work f i r s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f in t e r v i e w s ,

free a s s o c ia t io n , dream in t e r p r e t a t io n and a u to b io g r a p h y w r i t i n g .

Group

psyohotherapy was c e n ter ed ab ou t r e p o r ts made b y t h e p a t ie n t s c o n c e r n in g th eir problem s. p a tien ts.

T heir r e p o r ts w ere in t e r p r e t e d b y t h e t h e r a p is t and t h e

Sometimes th e p a t ie n t s were a sk e d t o a s s o c i a t e in r e l a t i o n t o

the r e p o r ts.

D is c u s s io n s c e n te r e d about s e x , t h e g o a l s and aim s o f

individuals and a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e f u t u r e .

The im p ortan ce o f i d e o l o g i e s

as leading i n t o th e s o c i a l a s p e c ts o f th e l i v e s o f in d iv id u a ls was stressed .

This was a developm ent from an e a r l i e r a r t i c l e . ® 8

A s p e c ts o f

th is procedure were th e fundam ental i d e n t i t y o r com m onality o f p a t ie n t s ’ problems and le s s e n e d r e s i s t a n c e by a p a t ie n t i f a n o th e r p a t ie n t b rought out m aterial w hich th e f i r s t p a t ie n t was h i d i n g .

T r a n s fe r e n c e , p o s i t i v e

and n e g a tiv e , was n o t l e s s outspoken th an i n i n d i v i d u a l p sy c h o th era p y .

In­

sight seemed to be accom p lish ed idien th e i n f a n t i l e h i s t o r y and th e p r e s e n t situ a tio n were s u f f i c i e n t l y c le a r and th e p a t ie n t knew w hat h i s purpose was in l i f e .

S o h ild e r rep o rted t h a t some o f t h e r e s u l t s w ere p a r t ic u la r b en e­

f i t s fo r s o c i a l and o b s e s s io n a l n e u r o s e s , some c u r e s and b e n e f i t s fo r anxiety n e u r o se s, d e p e r s o n a liz a t io n c a s e s and c h a r a c t e r problem s and la c k of b en efit fo r a d e p r e s s iv e in the d e p r e s s iv e p h a se o f a m a n ic -d e p r e s s iv e psychosis. 57^ 38,

I t is c le a r th a t t h i s th era p y program w as v e r y s t r o n g ly

P. S c h ild e r , P syoh oth erap y, New York* W. W. N o rto n & C o ., 19 5 8 , p p . 344, v i i . ’’The A n a ly s is of I d e o lo g ie s a s a P s y o h o th e r a p e u tic M ethod, E s p e c ia lly i n Group T reatm en t,” A m erican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h ia t r y , 93, 1936, pp. 6 0 1 -6 1 7 .

22

p s y o h o a n a l y t i c a l l y o rien ted , e s p e c ia lly in i t s use o f free a s s o c ia t io n , dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n a ly tic use of r e s is ta n c e and tran sferen ce. U t i l i z i n g psychoanalytic conoepts, Wender oonduoted group psycho­ t h e r a p y i n a p r iv a te h o s p ita l.

Lectures -were g iv en once or tw ioe w eek ly*

H is g r o u p s d id not oontain both s e x e s .

Continual r e p e titio n of m a te r ia l

t o o k p l a c e s o th a t p a tien ts began • • • t o a c c e p t th e ir behavior problems and t h e ir n eu rotic symptoms as understandable compensatory defense meohanisms f o r t h e i r em otional d i f f i c u l t i e s . 3 I n 1 9 3 6 , Bender working w ith ch ild ren of ages two through f i f t e e n i n a c h i l d r e n ' s -ward in Bellevue H ospital in New York C ity , found that group a c tiv itie s

( a r t , m usic, puppets, sch ool and d lso u ssio n ) provided a s u c c e s s ­

f u l w ay t o g e t ch ild ren to express th e ir emotional problems, to g e t them t o g i v e f u l l p la y to aggressive or lo v e f e e li n g s , to r e lie v e them o f appre­ h e n s io n .

Bender sta te d that c h ild r e n 's wards 3hould

* . . a llo w fo r exp ression of n eu rotio complexes, provide r e l i e f fro m a n x i e t y , g u i l t , in f e r io r it y and in s e c u r ity , provide demon­ s t r a t i o n o f a ffe o tio n and approval from ad u lts serving them, p e r m it f r e e expression of a f fe c t io n by oh ild ren , allow free e x p r e s s i o n o f impulses for a g g r e ssio n , provide op portun ities fo r o h i l d r e n to become s o o ia lly a t ease and s o c ia l l y accep tab le, p e r m it c r y s t a lliz a t io n of id e o lo g ie s s u ita b le for them selves and t h e s o c i a l m ilieu they liv e i n . P r o c e e d in g from th e assumption that em otional d iso r ie n ta tio n and un­ s o c i a l i t y o r ig in a t e in fam ily r e la t io n s , S la v so n ^ who la te r co n trib u ted t o a m ajor d e g r e e t o the understanding of th e dynamics of group therapy s e t up i n 1 9 3 4 th e r a p y fo r groups in order to crea te an approximation of th e i d e a l fa m ily .

39. 40. 41.

I n h is groups he tr ie d t o have a v a ila b le fo r h is p a tie n ts a l l t h e

L* W ender, Group Psychotherapy: A Study of I t s A p p lica tio n ,” P s y c h ia t r ic Q uarterly, 14, 1940, p . 713. L . B en d er, hCroup A c t iv it ie s in a C hildren's Ward as Methods o f P sy ch o ­ t h e r a p y ,” American Journal o f P sych iatry, 93, 1936, pp. 1 1 5 1 -1 1 7 3 . S . R. S la v so n , Creative Group Education, pp. 227-240.

23 h ea lth y elem en ts w hich had b een la c k in g i n th e c h ild h o o d o f t h e p a t ie n t s * In h is a c t i v i t y group th e r a p y c r e a t iv e a c t i v i t y was i n c i d e n t a l , perhaps serv in g t o b rin g t h e c h ild r e n t o g e t h e r by way o f making c o n t a c t , coop era­ tio n and c o n v e r s a tio n p o s s ib le *

E ach grou p had u t e n s i l s n e o e s s a r y f o r

preparing r efresh m en ts w h ich w ere p rep a red by t h e members o f the group* The groups did a l l t h e i r own ch o res* e s ta b lish e d * or clu b s*

No

fo r m a l group o r g a n iz a t io n was

Many o r m ost o f th e o h ild r e n w ere r e j e c t e d by form er groups

A ll were r e c e i v i n g p s y c h ia t r ic a id *

Group d is c u s s io n f o llo w in g p la y s w r i t t e n b y and a c te d i n by a d o le s ­ cen ts in B e lle v u e H o s p ita l i n New York p r o v id e d o u t l e t s f o r a g g r e s s io n , c a t h a r s is , a c t in g out o f problem s o f s i b l i n g r i v a l r y and f e e l i n g s o f r e j e o t io n , l o s s o f f e a r and a n x ie t y when o th e r p a t ie n t s were h eard e x p r e ss­ ing a g g r e s sio n and crim es*

These a c t i v i t i e s a l s o seem ed t o make e l i c i t i n g

of p r a is e and lo v e more e a s i l y p o s s i b l e a c c o r d in g t o C u rra n * ^ I n 1942 Tarumianz and B u llis^ ® d e s o r ib e d a m en ta l h y g ien e program f o r normal c h ild r e n in th e s e v e n th and e i g h t h g ra d es* c la s s e s were h e ld once a week* or read a p er so n a l a n ecd o te*

"Human E o la tio n s"

I n t h i s program t e a c h e r s t o ld a s h o r t s to r y Then t h e o h ild r e n d is c u s s e d t h e s e s t o r i e s in

terms o f m o tiv a tio n s and t h e ir own e x p e r ie n c e s *

I t was ob served t h a t

o h ild ren p r o je c te d th e m se lv e s i n t o t h e s t o r i e s or dramas* be exam ining t h e ir own l i v e s liv e s *

They app eared to

w h ile l i s t e n i n g t o o th e r s t a l k ab ou t t h e i r

I t was remarked t h a t o f one hundred and

f o r t y - t w o t e a c h e r s , a l l but

f iv e or s i x cou ld conduct th e Human R e la t io n s c l a s s e s s u c c e s s f u l l y .

D is­

c u ssio n o f some o f th e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e c l a s s e s in d ic a t e d t h a t c h ild r e n

42* 43.

F* J* .Curran, "The Drama a s a T h e r a p e u tic M easure i n A d o le s c e n ts ," The American J ou rn al o f O r th o p s y c h ia tr y , 9 , 1939, p p . 2 1 5 -2 3 1 . M. A. Tarumianz and H* E* B u l l i s , "A P r e v e n tiv e M ental H ygien e Program fo r S c h o o ls," Am erican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h ia t r y , 9 9 , 1942, p p , 389-405.

24

g a i n e d i n s i g h t and s u p p o rt.44 Meanwhile i n England group psychotherapy was being u t i l i z e d a s a w ar t r e a t m e n t measure.4®*46*4?

Jones in d ic a te d th a t two years of i n d i v i d u a l

p sy o h o th e rap y under d i f f i c u l t conditions and a shortage of d o c to rs made n e c e s s a r y the employment of group psychotherapy. f u l l y s e le c te d on the b a s is of symptomatology.

F if ty p a t i e n t s w e re c a r e ­ I t is s ta te d t h a t

T here is no doubt ••• t h a t sin g le t a lk s on h e a lth problems . . . b e a r in g on . . . i ll n e s s e s prove of g rea t i n t e r e s t and value t o t h e men. The danger of f o s te rin g hypoohondriaos is f u l l y r e a l i z e d , but a hypoohondriaoal a t t i t u d e toward t h e i r symptoms was already present i n these p a tie n ts . . . and the v a rio u s n e g a tiv e symptoms had been in te r p r e te d as evidence of d i s e a s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y h e art disease . . . emotional d i f f i c u l t i e s and p e r s o n a l i ty problems were disoussed as being the le v e l a t w h ich disequilibrium in the nervous system could b e s t be tac k le d . • . . Further the preoccupation w ith h eart disease has a lm o st disappeared from the wards, and the number of men re tu rn in g f o r Army duty i s higher than a t any time since the u n it s t a r t e d two and a h a lf years a g o .46 I n 1943 Slavson49 published his An In tro d u ctio n to group T h e r a p y . T h is w ork represented the f i r s t major form ulation of group t h e r a p y .

It

encompassed records of seven hundred and f i f t y c h ild re n i n f i f t y - f i v e gro up s.

The ch ild ren ranged in age from nine to eighteen.

g ro u p s functioned fo r two y e a r s .

Each o f t h e

Guiding theory and p r a c tic e s w ere e v o lv e d

a s t o w hat needs of the c li e n t or p a ti e n t must be met, as to t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t , as to group composition and as to the procedure.

44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

"P sy ch ia try ’sOunceofP revention," School E xecutive, 62, 1943, pp. 33— 35. M. Jones, "Group Psychotherapy," B r i t i s h Medical Journal, 1942, pp. 276-273. D. B la ir , "Group Psychotherapy fo r WarNeuroses," TheL an c et, 1943, pp. 204-205. W. R. Bion and J. Rickman, "Intra-Group Tensions in T herapy," The Lanoet, 1943, pp. 678-681. Jo n e s, 0 £. c i t . , pp. 276-278. S . R. Slavson, An In tro d u ctio n to Group Therapy.

25 A l a t e r work. The P r a c t ic e o f Group Therapy, ^

r e p r e se n ts a c o lle c tio n

o f th e most advanced th in k in g on group p sy ch o th era p y up t o t h e d a t e of p u b lic a t io n .

The ch ap ter w r i t t e n by S la v s o n i s an o u t r ig h t a p p lic a t io n of

p sy c h o a n a ly tic p r in c ip le s to h i s group p sy c h o th e r a p y . In 1946 Klapman's 51 Group P s y c h o th e r a p y t Theory and P r a c t ic e appeared. T his was a m ajor c o n tr ib u tio n i n t h a t i t d is c u s s e d p r i n c i p l e s and th eo ry in group p sych oth erap y and s e t f o r t h a p r o s p e c tu s f o r group t h e r a p i s t s t o u s e . The p rosp ectu s w a s, i n e f f e c t , a s e r i e s o f somewhat d e v e lo p e d t o p ic s which cou ld be u sed in con d u ctin g s e s s i o n s . a n a ly tic .

K lapm an's p o in t o f v iew was psycho­

For exam ple, he p o s t u la t e d t h e o e d ip a l s i t u a t i o n and am bivalence

as b ases f o r group fo r m a tio n .

He d e v o te d muoh e f f o r t t o a d i s c u s s io n of

ty p e s of le a d e r s h ip in group t h e r a p y .

I t i s th e o p in io n o f Klapman th a t

th e le a d e r sh o u ld be a c t i v e , p r o v id e m a t e r ia l and i n i t i a t e d is c u s s io n . A treatm en t o f group p sy c h o th e r a p y (a p p e a r in g i n 19 4 9 ) w h ic h was rp

c l e a r l y p s y c h o a n a ly t ic a lly o r ie n t e d was t h a t o f F ou lk es • In h i s group th erap y t h e r e was a minimum of i n s t r u c t i o n , r u l e s and program. tio n .

There was a maximum o f freed o m o f s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n and p a r t ic ip a ­

Groups c o n s is t e d o f f i v e t o t w e lv e members.

S e l e c t i o n o f members

was n o t done by d e f i n i t e m ethods or c r i t e r i a , a lth o u g h t h e members had common p rob lem s. who had p rob lem s. d id not f i t . a s e s s io n .

Some women's groups w ere composed o f m oth ers o f c h ild r e n Members w ere e lim in a t e d b y th e group e x p e r ie n c e , i f th ey

The groups m et r e g u l a r l y , on ce w eek ly f o r an hour and a h a lf The groups la s t e d about t h r e e or fo u r months e a c h .

Thus fa r o n ly a few o f th e c o n t r ib u t io n s in group p sy ch o th era p y have been d is c u s s e d w ith a view tow ard p r o v id in g som ething o f an o v erv iew of th e 50. 51. 52.

— — - V e d i t o r . The P r a c t ic e o f Group T herapy, p p . 2 3 - 2 4 . J . W. Klapman, Group P s y o h o th e r a p y ? Theory and P r a c t i c e . S . H. F o u lk e s , I n tr o d u c tio n t o G ro u p -A n a ly tic P sy c h o th e r a p y .

26

h i s t o r ic a l growth of th e f i e l d . T heoretical Premises and Prinoiple3 in Group P sy ch o th era p y This d iscu ssio n has been divided in to phases r e la tin g t o ty p e s and o r it e r ia of leadership in group psyohotherapy and in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f psycho dynamics in group psychotherapy.

Whenever relev a n t and p o s s i b l e ,

referen o e has been made to th e psychotherapeutio sch ool o f th o u g h t im p lie d in th e study d ealt w ith . The Leader In the e a r lie r approaches to group psyohotherapy the t y p e o f le a d e r ­ s h ip could be considered a u th o r ita ria n .

I t was a type of l e a d e r s h i p i n

w h ich the leader lectu red and in sp ired p a tien ts and sought t e s t i m o n i a l s . The work of Pratt and Marsh were c h a r a c te r istic of such l e a d e r s h i p . 5 3 ,5 4 A'rather d iffe r e n t lea d ersh ip was described by Aokerman.5 ®

The r o l e

o f th e leader (th e r a p ist) was to serve in a tran sferen ce r e l a t i o n s h i p a s a p a ren t su b stitu te fo r th e c h ild i n group psychotherapy. be a ’’good parent," a lovin g and to le r a n t one. g iv e n but g r a t ific a t io n of needs was. conveyed to the c h ild ..

The le a d e r was to

Punishment was n ot t o

be

S ecu rity and a c c e p ta n c e w ere t o be

D iscu ssin g some of th e aspeots of t h e r o le o f th e

group leader (th e r a p ist) as d elin ea ted by Redl,®® Ackerman f e l t t h a t t h e s e w ere s a t i s f i e d by group psychotherapy.

%,

1.

53. 54. 55. 56.

They were as follow s*

The r o le of th e c en tra l person (leader) as an o b j e c t of i d e n t i f i ­ ca tio n on the bases of lo v e and fe a r .

J. E. P r a tt, *'The Group Method in the Treatment of P s y c h o s o m a tic D is ­ orders," in Group Psychotherapy, A Symposium, pp. 8 5 - 9 3 . L. C. Marsh, "Group Treatment of th e Psychoses by th e P s y c h o lo g i c a l Equivalent of R evival," Mental Hygiene, 15, 1951, p p . 3 2 8 - 3 4 9 . N. W. Ackerman, "Group Therapy from th e Viewpoint of a P s y o h i a t r i s t , " American Journal of O rthopsychiatry, 13, 1943, pp. 6 7 8 - 6 8 7 . F.Redlj ''Group Emotion and Leadership," P sychiatry, 5 , 1 9 4 2 , p p . 5 7 3 596.

27

2.

The r o le of t h e o e n t r a l p erso n as an o b j e c t of lo v e d r iv e s and a g g r e s s io n d r i v e s .

3.

The r o le o f th e c e n t r a l p e r so n as an ego su p p ort by p rovid in g means f o r d r iv e s a t i s f a c t i o n and by d is s o lv in g c o n f l i c t s it u a ­ t io n s th rough g u i l t and a n x ie t y v i t i a t i o n .

This e x p o s it io n o f th e le a d e r ’ s r o l e seems to be q u ite c l o s e ly r e la t e d to th e r o l e and s t a t u s o f th e p sy c h o a n a ly s t i n a n a ly t ic s it u a t io n s * C 17

"A ccept e v e r y t h in g , t o l e r a t e much, b u t s a n c t io n l i t t l e . "

These words

seemed t o th e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o b e an ad eq u a te c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f th e part th e t h e r a p is t p la y s i n S la v s o n ’s A c t i v i t y and I n te r v ie w Group T h era p ies. I t was p o in te d ou t t h a t far t h e c h i l d i n th e a c t i v i t y gro u p s, th e th era ­ p i s t s serv ed a s p aren t s u b s t i t u t e s * d e s c r ib e d by Ackerman*^® person s*

They w ere ex p e r ie n c e d a s a c c e p t in g , p o s it iv e

The p e r s o n a li t y o f t h e c h i l d was a c c e p te d u n c o n d itio n a lly , but

a n t i s o c i a l b eh a v io r was n ot* a p p r o v a l.

D isa p p r o v a l was dem onstrated by w ith h o ld in g

I t was in te n d e d t h a t th e t h e r a p is t a c c e p t th e c h i l d , not fe e d

h is need f o r d ep en d en ce. sid e r e d *

They became th e id e a l p a r e n ts, much as

D e n ia l and r e s t r a i n t w ere v e r y c a r e f u lly con­

At e a r ly a g es ( 6 - 7 ) t h e y w ere somewhat f r e e l y used b ecau se th e

s e l f - c o n t r o l s o f th e c h ild r e n w ere n o t f u l l y d e v e lo p e d .

At a d o le sc e n t age

l e v e l s , muoh l e s s d e n ia l and r e s t r a i n t w ere used i n c o n s id e r a tio n of th e needs f o r independence o f t h i s a g e group.

G en e r a lly as th e younger c h ild

was a b le t o w ith sta n d f r u s t r a t i o n , t h e u se o f d e n ia l was in c r e a s e d .

R raise

was u sed f r e e l y - som etim es i n spoken w ords and o th e r tim e s in a t tit u d e * S la v so n d e s c r ib e d th e r o l e o f th e le a d e r : The r o l e o f th e t h e r a p i s t i n a c t i v i t y groups i s b e s t d escrib ed as n e u t r a l. He s t r i v e s t o be i n a c t i v e * He a c o e p ts th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r o l e s each c h ild a s s i g n s him . He rem ains o u t s id e o f the emo­ t i o n a l f l u x o f th e g ro u p , s o a s t o a llo w in te r p e r s o n a l 57. 58.

i s . R. S la v so n , An I n t r o d u c t io n t o Group Therapy, p* 159* Aokerman, o p . o i t .

28

cq ©motional a c t i v it y between members.0 Another a n a ly tio group psyohotherapy was th a t o f K la p m a n .DU

He

p o stu la ted an oed ip al s it u a t io n and ambivaleno.e, e s s e n t i a l l y p s y c h o a n a ly t ic oon cep ts, as bases of group form ation .

He d escrib ed t h r e e t y p e s o f

lea d ersh ip in group psyohotherapy. 1.

The "P atriarch al. Soverign" ty p e was a s t e r n , b u t n o t u n f r i e n d l y in d iv id u a l who m aintained order and d i s c i p l i n e . R e a c t io n s t o him were love mixed w ith a n x iety about the lo s s o f l o v e b e o a u s e o f m istakes or r e b e llio n .

2.

"The Leader” ty p e was th e type of lead er -who i d e n t i f i e s writh t h e needs o f the group members and a lso c o i n c i d e n t a l l y i s i d e n t i f i e d w ith the a u th o r ity a sp e cts of the s i t u a t i o n . An ex a m p le o f t h i s s o r t of person might be a th e r a p is t in a m e n ta l h o s p i t a l . The lead er in th is con text i s an e g o -id e a l who s e r v e s a s a b a s i s f o r the group to develop group em otions toward e a o h o t h e r and h im . Crushes and other stron g id e n t if ic a t io n s a r e i m p lie d a s d a n g e r s in t h is ty p e o f le a d e r s h ip .

3.

"The Tyrant" evokes easy subm ission from t h e members o f t h e group who id e n tif y w ith him mainly on the b a sis o f f e a r . T h ere i s l i t t l e comradeship developed among members of th e g r o u p .

Speaking from a background of a n a ly tio e x p e r ie n o e , F o u lk e s

s a id

th a t the part of the conductor (th e r a p is t) was to e s t a b l i s h an d m a in t a in the group a n a ly tic s it u a t io n .

He was to wean the g ro u p fr o m b e in g l e d ,

r e fr a in from s e t t in g to p ic s and sy stem a tic d is c u s s io n and r e m a in a d i s ­ engaged p e r s o n a lity .

He spoke of psychoanalysts b e in g a b l e t o

. . . understand, handle and analyze tr a n sferen ce r e a c t i o n s i n terms o f th eir unconscious s ig n if ic a n c e . . . . to d iscer n and in te r p r e t r e s is ta n c e s . . . b e in g a b l e t o understand th e meaning o f d ir e c t ex p ressio n of t h e u n c o n s c io u s in symbolic and p r im itiv e , primary language, as e x e m p l if i e d in dreams. The r o le of the lead er (th e r a p is t) i s much th e sa m e i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f group psychotherapy by the R ela tio n sh ip T herapist as t h e r o l e of t h e le a d e r

59. 60. 61.

S. R. S lavson , The P r a c tic e Klapman, op. o i t . F ou lk es, o£. o i t . , p . 134.

o f Group Therapy, p . 3 3 .

29

i n a n a ly t ic group p sy o h o th era p y .

The r e la t io n s h ip s betw een t h e r a p is t and

group member have been q u it e th e same*

The d if f e r e n c e s in th e sc h o o ls l i e

not in the le a d e r ’ s r o l e but i n th e approach t o e t i o l o g y . The R e la t io n s h ip T h e r a p is t a c t s as a s o r t of b u ff e r to the f e e l i n g s o f th e p a t i e n t . She remains co n sta n t i n h er sympa­ t h e t i c o b j e c t i v i t y , i s p a s s iv e toward the f a c t u a l con ten t of the p a t ie n t ' s r e p r o d u c tio n s b u t p o in ts out i t s u n d e r ly in g em otional v a lu e s . She i s a t a r g e t fa r a l l th e f r u s t r a t in g d e v ic e s the p a tie n t has used i n ev ery d a y r e l a t i o n s . She a c c e p ts h is pro­ j e c t io n s w ith o u t becom ing th e bad mother or in d u lg e n t fa th e r or lo s in g h er i d e n t i t y . The t h e r a p is t b rin g s out t h e im p lic a tio n s of th e f e e l i n g s t h e p a t ie n t has f o r h er i n th e p r e s e n t, in c lu d ­ in g th e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y d e f e n s e p a ttern s u se d . She g ra d u a lly shows th e p a t ie n t how he u s e s th e r e la t io n s h ip i n a s u b s t it u ­ t iv e way and h e lp s th e p a t ie n t through t r a n s f e r e n c e to under­ stand th e d eep er s o u r c e s o f h is a n x ie ty and t h e reason s fo r which th e d e f e n s iv e p a tte r n s w ere d e v e l o p e d A s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a rtu re from a l l o f th e p r e v io u s con cep ts concerning t h e r o le o f t h e t h e r a p i s t was r ep resen ted by th a t of M alone. ment o f le a d e r s h ip was n o v e l and im p ortan t.

63

His t r e a t ­

L eaders i n h is program were of

two t y p e s , th e r a p y le a d e r s and p a t ie n t le a d e r s .

The th era p y lea d ers were

p e r m iss iv e , a c c e p te d a g g r e s s io n s p a s s iv e ly , t o le r a t e d group d iso rg a n iza ­ t i o n , w ith h e ld c o u n s e l u n t i l a s k e d , made no d e c is io n s o r judgm ents, were n o n -a u th o r ita tiv e and n o n -p u n itiv e and did n o t i d e n t i f y w ith any group members.

Malone f e l t t h a t t h e tr a n s fe r e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e th erap y

le a d e r s was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t when th e group was in i t s e l f th e r a p e u tic . P a tie n t le a d e r s ( r e p r e s e n t in g probably th e f i r s t in d ic a t io n in the l i t e r a t u r e o f group p sy c h o th era p y o f th e im portance o f ind igen ou s le a d e r s) w ere th e prim ary v e h i c l e o f group p sych oth erap y.

They were in stru m en tal in

th e growth o f in —group f e e l i n g , s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n and c o n t r o ls , in tr a n s­ l a t i n g th e t h e r a p e u t ic t r a d i t i o n t o newcomers and in v a lu a b le as a u x ilia r y 62. 63.

H. T. G la tz e r and H. E . D urkin, "The R ole o f th e T herapist in Group R e la t io n s h ip T h era p y ,11 The Nervous Chi I d , 4 , 1944, pp. 243-251. T. P. M alone, " A n a ly sis o f th e Dynamics o f Group Psychotherapy Based on O b se rv a tio n s in a Twelve Month E xp erim en tal Program,11 Journal of P e r s o n a lit y , 1 6 , 1 9 4 8 , pp. 2 4 5 -2 7 7 .

30 inform al therapy le a d e r s .

Malone remarked t h a t a p s y o h o n e u r o s is i s a

s o c ia l disorder of th e in d ivid u al*

Further he s t a t e d t h a t a p e r s o n e x is t s

M. . . in a group w ith a o u ltu r e .”®^ This l a s t s t a t e m e n t b e s t i n d i c a t e s an approach whioh transcends th at of the a n a ly tic and r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e r a p is t s , going beyond to in olu d e the cu ltu re in i t s e x a m in a tio n o f and trea tm en t of th e p e rso n a lity d istu rb a n ce.

I t i s an approaoh w h ic h seem s t o

come clo se

to th a t o f the F ie ld Theory of Lewin. Conoern l e s t persons not q u a lifie d by t r a i n i n g , e x p e r i e n c e and personal adjustment attem pt group psyohotherapy w as im p lie d b y Lowrey.

He

remarked . . . group th era p y , even more than in d iv id u a l t h e r a p y , s h o u ld be attempted o n ly by people w ell-grounded i n p s y c h o p a t h o lo g y and experienced in psychotherapy. Even th e n , t h e e x p e r ie n c e s h o u ld be under su p erv isio n * A ttitu d es must be p e r m is s iv e t o t h e n th degree, sh o c k ib len ess and in to lera n ce must b e a b s e n t , t e c h n iq u e s must be f le x ib le * Above a l l , the t h e r a p is t m ust b e a b le and w illin g to accept a l l s o r ts of c h a lle n g e s and w it h s t a n d a l l s o r ts of im pacts, i n f i n i t e l y more w earing b e c a u s e o f t h e grou p situ a tio n * I t i s not only the p a tie n t who i s r e v e a l e d i n th e group, and th e p a tie n t i s not th e o n ly one who may be u p s e t b y the exp erien ce. The th e r a p ist i s a ls o p a r t o f t h e g r o u p * The most important p o in t for the t h e r a p is t ’s s e c u r i t y i s t o b e thoroughly acquainted and a t ease w ith a t e c h n iq u e , and com­ p le t e ly co n fid en t o f what he i s d oin g. Then, th o u g h t h e th e o r e tic a l p o stu la te s and even the t e c h n iq u e s may be s u p e r ­ f i c i a l or in ad eq u ate, e f f e c t iv e r e s u lt s may be a c h i e v e d . T his i s due, in my fir m b e l i e f , to the r e l a t i o n s h i p ( r a p p o r t ) developed beoause o f th e inner s e c u r ity and c o n f id e n c e o f th e therapist.® ® This statem en t, in lig h t of a l l the to -d o a b o u t t h e r a p e u t i c a f f i l i a ­ tio n s w ith t h e ir d iff e r e n t points of view i s h i g h l y i n t e r e s t i n g * Psychodynamics in Group Psyohotherapy Treatment o f psyehodynamics in group p sy c h o th e r a p y i s l i k e l y to pre­ sent a p ictu re sim ila r to th at described in a s s a y i n g t h e r o l e o f th e leader 64. 65.

I b id ., p. 276. L. Lowrey, ’’Group Therapy f o r M o t h e r s A m erican J o u r n a l o f Ortho­ p sy ch ia try , 14, 1944, p . 592.

or t h e r a p is t as v iew ed by d i f f e r e n t p syohoth erap y s c h o o ls . Wender d e c la r e d th a t th e • . . group a c t s tow ard th e re-aw akening o f th e lib id o to o u tsid e c h a n n e ls. The n e u r o t ic has become in tr o v e r te d and engrossed in h im s e lf b ecau se o f h i s f a il u r e to o b ta in lib id in o u s g r a t i f i c a ­ t io n from t h e o u t s i d e . Group p sychoth erap y can provide a medium f o r r e -c h a n n e lin g o f lib id in o u s d r iv e s t o o u tsid e o b j e c ts . The p a tie n t beoomes in t e r e s t e d i n h is f e llo w - p a t ie n t and t r i e s to h e lp h i m . . . . h i s in t r o v e r s io n d im in is h e s . Perhaps he foi’ms an attachm ent to th e o th e r p a tie n t whom he t r i e s to h e lp , thus r e le a s in g h is ovm n a r c i s s i s t i o l i b i d o . 6 ® D is c u ss in g th e p r o c e s s of cure in group psychotherapy, S oh ild er traoed f i v e s t a g e s .

fi7

These were ( l ) the e s ta b lish m e n t o f fundamental

id e n t it y of o n e ’s problem s w ith th o s e of o t h e r s ; (2 ) the ending o f i s o l a ­ tio n ; (3 ) th e loxvered r e s i s t a n c e which r e s u l t s when a p a tie n t brings out m a teria l an oth er p a t ie n t was c o n cea lin g ; (4 ) p o s i t i v e and n eg a tiv e tr a n s­ fe r e n c e s become a s o u tsp o k en as th ey are i n in d iv id u a l psychotherapy; and (5 ) th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f i n s i g h t . D iso u ssin g i n s i g h t , h e remarked The p sy c h o th e r a p e u tic ta sk demands th a t t h e in d iv id u a l should g a in i n s ig h t i n t o h i s s o c i a l and p sy c h o sex u a l ad ap tation s and in idie prem ature s o lu t io n s whioh he b u i l t up in h is childh ood. These prem ature c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n s a re o b s t a c le s to an adapta­ t io n w h ich d oes n ot o n ly co n sid er th e e a r ly s it u a t io n but a ls o the s i t u a t i o n and s o o i a l r e a l i t y o f th e p r e s e n t. Only when th e in d iv id u a l d iv e s down in t o h is p erso n a l ex p erien ce or brings them forw ard i n th e group (d oes) th e c r y s t a l l i z e d in d iv id u a l developm ent oomes i n t o f lu x again w h ich a llo w s a new adaptation t o th e s i t u a t i o n . 66 These rem arks, though th ey are s t r o n g ly a n a ly t ic in r e fe r e n c e , n ever­ t h e l e s s , in r e c o g n it io n o f th e group and c u lt u r e tend toward a f i e l d t h e o r e t ic a l e v o lu t io n i n S o h ild e r ’ s th in k in g .

66. 67. 68.

L. Wender, ’’Group P sychotherapy” i n Group Psyohotherapy, A Symposium, p. 349. P. S o h ild e r , P sy o h o th erap y, p . 2 0 . P. S o h ild e r , HIn tr o d u c to r y Remarks on G r o u p s ," Journal of S o c ia l P sy ch o lo g y , 1 2 , 1 940, p. 94.

32 In a statem ent -which -was not r e p le te w it h r e f e r e n c e s t o any of th e e s o te r io p syohoanalytio term in ology, Blau and V eo rem ark ed con cerning a program in a s p e c ia l publio school fo r m a la d ju s te d c h i l d r e n t h a t the teaoher . . . attem pts a more adequate f u l f i l l m e n t o f c e r t a i n b a s i c oommon needs, of w h ich , experienoe has shown, t h e s e c h i l d r e n a r e e s p e c ia lly deprived* These in clu d e some o p p o r t u n it y f o r f e e lin g s of s u c c e s s , approval, s e lf - e x p r e s s io n and a f f e c t i o n (n e o e ssa r y in a l l o h ild r e n but most f la g r a n t ly a b s e n t i n t h e m a la d ju ste d ). She i s a ls o more to le ra n t of a g g r e s s i o n .. • D iscu ssin g th e e f f e o t of t h e group t h e r a p e u t i c a tm o s p h e r e , Glauber,^? a p sy o h ia trio s o o ia l worker, remarked t h a t t h e e n v ir o n m e n t ( i n group therapy) made few demands on the ch ild and t h e r e f o r e d e v e lo p e d r e l a t iv e ly few r e a c tio n s of h o s t i l i t y .

There w ere, fro m h e r p o i n t o f v ie w , opportuni­

t i e s to drain o f f a g g re ssiv e impulses* The R ela tio n sh ip th era p eu tio p oin t o f v ie w mas r a t h e r s u c o in o t ly sta te d by G latzer and Durkin. 71

They in d ic a t e d t h a t s o o n e r o r la te r the

p a tien t was bound to bring in to h is r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e t h e r a p is t a l l of h is f e e lin g s and b eh avior.

They p oin ted out t h a t t h e p a t i e n t had an oppor­

tu n ity to l i v e through them again .

I t was t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t th e r e la t io n ­

sh ip included the p a tie n t's t r a n s fe r e n c e s , b o t h p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e . They sta te d th a t the p a tien t i s allow ed t o b r in g o u t t h e w h ole range of h is f e e lin g s toward th e th e r a p ist and toward o t h e r s .

F i n a l l y t h e y remarked

th a t the p a tie n t through the tr a n sfe r e n c e i s h e lp e d t o u n d erstan d the deeper souroes o f h is a n x iety and the r e a s o n s f o r w h ic h t h e d efen siv e 69. 70. 71.

A. Blau and L. Veo, "Mental Hygiene in a S p e c i a l P u b lio Sohool fo r M aladjusted Children," American J o u r n a l o f O r th o p sy o h ia tr y , 11, 1941, p . 695. H. M. G lauber, "Group Therapy from th e V ie w p o in t o f a P s y c h ia tr ic Case Worker," American Journal of O r t h o p s y c h ia t r y , 1 3 , 1 9 4 8 , pp. 659664. H. T. G la tzer and H. S. Durkin, The N ervou s C h i l d , 4 , 1944, pp. 243251.

33 p a tte r n s were d e v e lo p e d . H a a k e tt ^ d e sc r ib e d a program d ev o ted t o a stud y of c h ild behavior conducted i n a p r iv a te s c h o o l.

This in v e s t ig a t o r con sid ers h is e x p o s itio n

o f the dynamics in v o lv e d i n th e r e s u l t s t o be a somewhat curious melange of p s y c h o lo g ic a l n a iv e t e and s o p h is t ic a t io n *

He a ttr ib u te d r e s u lt s to ( l )

tr a n s fe r e n c e t o th e te a o h e r , (2 ) i n t e r e s t i n f a s c in a t in g t o p io s -which d iv e r te d everyb od y away from t h e ir own problem, and d iv erted them in to ch an n els b e t t e r adapted t o r e a lit y ,.

He d isco u n ted th e c a th a r tic e f f e c t on

the b a s is o f u su a l a d o le sc e n t e x h ib itio n is m * *

He aooepted as h e lp fu l th e

o p p o rtu n ity t o r e c o g n iz e o b j e c t iv e ly o n e ’ s own c o n f lio t s when they are observed in o th e r p ersons* 73

C u r io u s ly , w hereas Klapman'

s t r e s s e d th e d e s ir a b i lit y of group forma­

t io n , S l a v s o n ^ remarked th at i t was d e le t e r i o u s to th era p eu tic r e s u l t s . Klapman p o in te d o u t th a t group s t r u c t u r in g r e s u lt e d in a sup pression of m utual h o s t i l i t i e s and f a c i l i t a t e d in tr a g r o u p m utual in flu e n c e s .

It

quickened tr a n s fe r e n c e i n which th e t h e r a p is t was accepted as a parent sub­ s titu te .

(One i s in c lin e d to be d o u b tfu l as t o whether i t i s s a lu ta r y fo r

mutual h o s t i l i t i e s t o be suppressed r a th e r th an ex p ressed , worked through and u n d e r s to o d .)

The g re a t advantage o f group th erapy as liv in g in a r e a l

s o c ia l s e t t i n g was reco g n ized by Klapman. im p laoab le enemy o f n a r c is s is m .

The group was viewed a s th e

I t was co n sid e r e d to " ex tro v ert” p a t ie n t s . nr

I n a d is c u s s io n r e la t in g t o r a c i a l and c u lt u r a l t e n s io n s , Konopka'0 72.

W. R. H a o k ett, "Child Care as a Means o f Group Psychotherapy," Am erican Jou rn al of O rth o p sy o h ia try , 1 5 , 1945, pp. 675-680. * .Not a l l a d o le s c e n t s are e x h i b i t i o n i s t s . A c tu a lly , when a shy a d o lescen t i s induced t o t a l k o f h is problem s and does so w ith strong f e e l in g , he i s o b v io u s ly r e l i v i n g and n o t in d u lg in g in e x h ib itio n ism . 7 3 . Klapman, o £ . o i t . 7 4 . S . R. S la v s o n , The P r a c tic e o f Group Therapy, p . 27. 7 5 . G. Konopka, "Group Therapy in Overcoming R a cia l and C ultural Tensions," Am erican Jou rn al o f O rth o p sy ch ia try . 1 7 , 1947, pp. 693-699.

34 deolared th a t in group psyohotherapy f e e l i n g s are b ro u g h t out in to the open in a o o n tr o iled s itu a tio n where th e y can b e h a n d le d .

The presence of an

accepting ad u lt rep resen ts a kind o f b a s ic s e o u r i t y .

In keeping w ith t h is

in v e s tig a to r 's comment about Klapman's s u p p r e s s io n o f m utual h o s t i l i t i e s , i t i s of in t e r e s t to remark th at Konopka f e l t t h a t f r e e ex p ressio n of p o sitiv e and n egative f e e lin g s in t h e p r e s e n c e o f an a c c e p tin g ad u lt brought the f e e lin g s in to th e open w h ere o h ild r e n c o u ld b e helped to work them through.

I t was sta te d that c h ild r e n w ere o f t e n h elp ed by a d e s ir e t o

id e n tify w ith an aooepting a d u lt and a d e s i r e to g a in s t a t u s among oontemporari e s . Ackerman76 paid due c r e d it to grou p th e r a p y b e c a u s e i t provided ex­ c e lle n t o p p o rtu n ities for a ctin g o u t r e a l e x p e r i e n c e s .

He in d ica ted a

susp ioion th a t th e deeper parts o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s e m o tio n a l l i f e were not reaohed.

Therefore a r e la t iv e ly i n s u f f i c i e n t d e g r e e o f in s ig h t i s

acquired. The supportive ro le of the grou p and th e t h e r a p i s t was described by S p ik er.77

The group was viewed a s a c h a n n e l f o r t h e r e le a s e o f h o s t i l e

f e e lin g s th a t have been in h ib ite d and as a means o f g r a n tin g eaoh c h ild th e amount o f freedom that he was a b le t o u se c o n s t r u c t i v e l y .

The lead er was

used as a support to learn how to d e a l w it h h o s t i l e f e e l i n g s which were to o f r e e ly exp ressed .

The group le a d e r s e r v e d a s a ” good p a r e n t,” an ad u lt who

was perm issive or firm as in d io a te d by t h e n eed s o f t h e o h ild . There seems to be l i t t l e doubt t h a t S la v s o n 7® h as contributed most s ig n if ic a n t ly to th e advancement o f group p sy o h o th e r a p y . 76^ 77, 78.

He i s r eferred t o

N. W. Ackerman, "Group Therapy from t h e V ie w p o in t o f a P s y c h ia t r is t ,” Amerioan Journal o f O r th o p s y c h ia tr y , 1 3 , 1 9 4 3 , p . 684. D, S p ik e r ,-'*Protected Groups, i n t h e T reatm en t o f Young C hild ren ,” American Journal of O r th o p s y c h ia tr y , 1 3 , 1 9 4 3 , pp. 659-664. S . H. S lavson , C reative Group E d u c a tio n , p . 1 6 .

35 m ost l i b e r a l l y th rou ghou t th e l i t e r a t u r e on th e su b ject*

Aocording to him

t h e good f a m ily , group e d u o a tio n and group therapy should p rovid e fo r th e r e c o g n i t i o n and s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e fo u r c a r d in a l needs o f most p eo p le. T h ese a r e (1 ) s a t i s f a c t o r y a f f e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s , (2 ) s a t is f y in g th e sen se o f s e l f w o r th , ( 3 ) l e i s u r e n e e d s, and, ( 4 ) s o c i a l u s e fu ln e s s and group par­ t ic ip a tio n . S la v so n f e l t th a t th e c h ild i n group th erap y . . . b e c a u s e o f th e d e c r e a s e i n h i s awn h o s t i l e a t t it u d e s and o th e r p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r e s s u r e s ,* . , does n o t a c t iv a t e th e h o s t i l ­ i t y and o o u n te r -a g g r e s s io n o f p a r e n ts , s i b l i n g s , tea c h e r s and p la y m a tes M oreover, so f a r a s a n x i e t i e s and b e h a v io r a l r e a c tio n s are concerned, S la v s o n th o u g h t th a t group th era p y had a d e c id e d ly h ea lth y e f f e c t .

He

rem arked t h a t group th erap y . . . s e e k s t o reduce th e in n e r s t r e s s e s o f whioh u n d esir a b le b e h a v io r i s o n ly a symptom. I t d e a ls w ith th e sou rces o f a n x ie t y t h a t a r i s e from d e s t r u c t i v e im p u lse s, on th e one hand, and th e f e a r o f punishm ent or r e j e o t io n , on th e o th e r ; th a t i s , i t s e e k s t o r e c o n d itio n th e ego stru ctu re.® ® The a lm o st l i t e r a l F reu d ian f l a v o r o f S lavson *s approach i s amply d em o n stra ted b y th e f o llo w in g e x c e r p t con cern in g dynamics i n group th erap y. . . . The atm osphere o f a th e r a p y group i s such th a t a t f i r s t i t c o m p le te ly suspends s o o i a l r e s t r a i n t s and th e c h ild f e e l s f r e e t o b eh ave -w ithout f e a r . He r e tu r n s to a s t a t e o f ir r e s p o n s i­ b i l i t y and i n f a n t i l e p a t t e r n s , b ut b ecau se th e group s e t s up a prim ary group cod e, he g r a d u a lly r e c o n s tr u c ts h is im p ulses ( id ) so a s to b e a c ce p te d by th e t h e r a p is t and th e other members o f t h e group ( su p e r -e g o )* 8^ S la v so n spok e fu r th e r o f r e l e a s e ( c a t h a r s is ) through a c t i v i t y , the d ev elo p m en t o f s e lf - a c c e p t a n c e , d evelopm ent o f accep tan ce o f o th e r s , i n c r e a s in g o f t o le r a n c e o f f r u s t r a t i o n , and th e developm ent o f a group

. 80. 81. 79

I b id ., ib id .,

An I n tr o d u c tio n t o Group Therapy, p . 182. p. 184. p. 186.

36 super-ego (group awareness o f o t h e r p e r s o n s ) * Some years la te r in 1947, S la v s o n had some in te r e s tin g remarks t o make concerning groups and group t h e r a p y .

He s t a t e d

. . . the g r e a te st s in g le t h e r a p e u t i c v a lu e o f suoh groups i s the very absence o f group f o r m a t io n . There i s compresence, in te r ­ a c tio n , in te r s tim u la tio n , e m o t io n a l i n f e c t i o n and in t e n s if ic a ­ t io n , and other dynamics t h a t a lw a y s o c c u r when people are in in tim a te r e la t io n s . These remarks and th e f o l l o w i n g th o u g h t e x p r e s s w e ll h is strong f e e l ­ ing a g a in st group s t a b i l i t y and c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n as n eg a tiv e p o rten ts i n group therapy.

He said

• . . The group i s m erely a m eans f o r a c t i v a t i n g in d iv id u a ls and supplying the kind o f e x p e r ie n c e t h a t h e lp s modify f e e lin g s and a t t i t u d e s .8® These l a s t lin e s are o f f e r e d a s a c a p s u le v e r s io n o f S la v so n 's p s y c h o ­ a n a ly tic concept of dynamics i n i n t e r v i e w group th erap y. . . . The dynamics o f i n t e r v ie w g r o u p s c o n s i s t s o f (1) tra n s­ feren ce r e la tio n s h ip s , ( 2 ) c a t h a r s i s , ( 3 ) in s ig h t and/or ego stren gth en in g, and (4 ) r e a l i t y t e s t i n g .® ^ Thinking concerning group p s y c h o th e r a p y i s

fa r from harmonious.

N everth eless there are some p o i n t s

o f p o s s i b l e agreem ent.

G. W. Thomas are probably a r a t h e r

f a i r a p p ro x im a tio n o f thinking c o n c e r n ­

in g th e sta tu s of group th e r a p y .

82. 83. 84.

Theoomments

of

T h e se a r e

1.

Group therapy seems t o b e v a l u a b l e .

2.

I t i s too new a method t o

3.

The a n a ly tic approach i s p r o b a b ly more e f f e c t i v e than the r e p r e s s iv e - in s p ir a t io n a l.

4.

I t has been shown t h a t t h e r e p r e s s i v e - i n s p i r a t i o n a l holds v a l u e .

5.

Since p a tie n ts a s s o c i a t e w it h e a c h o t h e r anyhow, i t i s w e ll t o g iv e guidance in t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n .

y ie ld

d e f i n i t e oon clu eion s.

S . R. Slavson, The P r a c t ic e o f Group T h erap y, p. 27. I b id . , p . 28. I b i d ., p . 36.

37 6.

The p r a c t ic e o f f u r t h e r in g f r e e d is c u s s io n on m en tal hygiene i s oonaonant w ith d em ocracy.

7*

P a t ie n t p a r t ic ip a t i o n in groups i s d em ocratic.

8.

Group p sy c h o th era p y i s w e l l s u ite d fa r t h e treatm en t of psycho­ n e u r o t ic and p syoh osom atio c a s e s .

9.

The two m ain ty p es o f group psyohotherapy a re r e p r e s s iv e i n s p i r a t i o n a l and a n a ly tic .® ® Group Psyohotherapy in U3e

Group p sy ch o th era p y i s a r e l a t i v e l y new approach to the p reven tion of and cu re o f e m o tio n a l d is tu r b a n c e s #

I t may be r e c a lle d that i t had more or

l e s s fo r m a l b e g in n in g s as a th e r a p e u tic means o n ly s e v e r a l y ea rs a f t e r the tu rn o f t h i s c e n tu r y .

However i t has gained ex trem ely wide aooep tan oe.

The f o llo w in g pages a r e in te n d e d t o in d ic a te some o f th e s it u a t io n s in w h ich i t has b een fou n d h e lp f u l# "With P s y c h o tio s Marsh#®® L a z e ll,® ^ and Klapman®® have used i t w ith seme degree of s u c c e s s w ith p sy o h o tio p a t i e n t s .

Klapman s ta te d th a t a la rg e number of

p a t ie n t s (in o lu d in g th o s e r e c e i v i n g shock treatm en t) w ere

t e s t e d w ith the

B e ll A djustm ent In v e n to r y and showed marked improvement a f t e r th ree months o f group p sy c h o th era p y . "With A l l e r g i c P a t ie n t s Group p sych oth erap y h as been used w ith a ll e r g y p a t ie n t s , ap p aren tly

85 • 86# 87. 88#

G. W. Thomas, Group P sycho therapy* A Review of t h e R ecent L ite r a tu r e ,” P sych o so m a tic M e d ic in e , 5 , 1943, pp# 166-180. M arsh, o p . o i t . , L a z e ll, op. c i t . J . W. Klapman, " D id a c tic Group Psychotherapy m t h P syoh otio P a tie n ts," i n The P r a c tic e o f Group Therapy, e d ite d by S . R. S la v so n , pp. 242260.

■with some su ccess.

Earuoh and M i l l e r 89 d escrib ed a program, o f p e r m is s iv e ,

informal group d is c u s s io n d e v o te d t o em o tio n a l con ten t, c l a r i f i c a t i o n and understanding. acceptance.

The program was n o n -a d v is o r y and was aimed a t r e l e a s e and

R esults w ere d e s c r ib e d a s good w ith four oases c le a r e d o f symp­

toms, three cases m arkedly im p ro v ed , two c a s e s somewhat improved an d one w ith no change.

There w ere t e n c a s e s i n a l l .

In d ication was n o t g i v e n a s

to how long th ese changes p e r s i s t e d . In Speech Disorders Speech disorders have b een t r e a t e d i n a group p sy ch o th era p eu tic p ro­ gram.

Greene'

sta te d t h a t

. . . stu tte r in g sp e ec h i s a so m a tic m a n ife sta tio n of an under­ ly in g p e rso n a lity d is o r d e r b a se d on a psychobio lo g ic v a r i a t io n in volvin g the organ ism a s a w h o l e . . . The speech d isord er appears to be p r e c i p i t a t e d b y e m o tio n a l shock...®® Cases were presented t o i l l u s t r a t e l o s s o f symptoms. With Mothers of Problem C h ild r e n The reco g n itio n t h a t tr e a tm e n t of a c h ild without c o in c id e n t t r e a tm e n t of parents was l i k e l y t o be som ewhat i n e f f e c t i v e resu lted in group th e r a p y programs with mothers o f e m o t io n a lly d istu r b e d ch ild ren . and oth ers,

89. 90. 91. 92. 93.

no

and G la tzer and B ederson-K rug

Qg

A m ster, 91 D u rk in

described such p rogram s.

D* W. Baruch and H. M i l l e r , ’’I n te r v ie w Group Psychotherapy -with A lle r g ic P a t i e n t s , ” in The P r a c t ic e o f Group Therapy, e d i t e d b y S . R, Slavson, pp. 1 5 6 -1 7 6 . J . D. Greene, ’’I n te r v ie w Group P sychotherapy f o r Speech D i s o r d e r s ,” in The P r a c tice o f Group T h erap y, ed ite d by S . R. S la v s o n , p . 1 7 7 • F . Amster, " C o lle c tiv e P sy o h o th e ra p y of Mothers of E m o tio n a lly D is ­ turbed C h ild ren ,” A m erican J o u r n a l of O rthopsychiatry, 1 4 , 1 9 4 4 , pp. 44—56. H. E. Durkin, E. T. G la tz e r and J . D. H irsch, ’’Therapy o f M others i n Groups,” American J o u r n a l o f O rth op sych iatry,. 14, 1944, p p . 6 8 - 7 5 . H. T. G latzer and G. P ed erso n -K ru g , " R elation sh ip Group T herapy w i t h a Mother of a Problem C h i l d , ” in The P ractice of Group T h erap y, ed ited by S . R . S la v s o n , p p. 2 1 9 -2 4 2 .

39 Am ster deol&red t h a t th e m others i n her group became b e t t e r groomed and r e la x e d , dropped sn ob b ery, became a r t ic u la t e and some reco g n ized t h e ir roles i n t h e i r c h ild r e n ’ s p rob lem s.

Durkin and o th e r s s ta te d th a t r e s u lt s were

more r e la x a t io n in d e a lin g w ith c h ild r e n , warmer r e la t io n s h ip s and s e l f a c c e p ta n c e .

G la tz e r and Pederson-Krug fo llo w e d through one c a se and

r e v e a le d t h a t a lth o u g h she was s t i l l s e x u a lly f r i g i d , she was now much improved i n in t e r p e r s o n a l r e la t io n s h ip s . W ith R e la t iv e s o f E m o tio n a lly D isturbed Persons E q u ally w orthy o f a t t e n t io n by Ross®^ were th e remainder o f th e family. He u n d ertook group p sy ch oth erap y w ith th e s e members o f th e immediate family, a s w e l l a s th e m oth ers o f p a t ie n t s .

A fte r u sin g a tech n iq u e w hich he de­

f in e d a s midway b etw een r e p r e s G iv e -in s p ir a t io n a l and a n a ly t ic , he stated t h a t t h e r e was no t a n g ib l e e v id en ce o f r e s u l t s .

However he co n sid ered that

t h e r e w ere ohanges i n a t t it u d e s p r e v io u s ly d e le t e r io u s to p a t ie n t s . In th e T rain in g o f T eachers In an area o f g r e a t im p ortan ce, th e t r a in in g o f tea c h e r s t o prevent and red u ce m ental h y g ie n e problem s, Baruch®^ conducted a program which em ployed Inform al group d is c u s s io n s o f classroom a d m in istr a tio n problems, f a m ily r e l a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o problem c a s e s in c lu d in g t o p ic s suoh as dynam ics o f a d ju stm e n t, em otion al n eed s, e f f e c t s o f f r u s t r a t io n , h o s t ilit y and o t h e r s , and th e te c h n iq u e s o f g u id a n ce.

Moreover te a c h e r s had t o

h a n d le problem s o f p a r e n ts o f the c h ild r e n and were in v o lv ed in d iscu ssions o f t h e ir own p e r s o n a l problem s.

94. 95.

Baruch s ta te d th a t in fo u r months, o f the

W. D. R o ss, “Group Psyohotherapy w ith P a t ie n t ’ s R e la t iv e s ," American Jou rn al o f O r th o p sy ch ia try , 18, 1948, pp. 6 2 3-626. D. tZ.' Baruch, ^ P roced u res i n T raining Teachers t o P revent and Reduce M ental H ygien e Problem s," Journal o f G en etic P sych ology, 67, 1945, pp. 1 4 3 -1 7 8 . "

40

s ix t y - f iv e t e a c h e r s , f i f t y —one moved toward aoceptanoe o f t h e r e a c t i o n s o f the ohildren and o f th e same s i x t y - f i v e , fo rty -fo u r were a b le t o a o o e p t t h e h o s t ile and c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n s o f a d u lt s .

Baruch r e la te d t h e movement i n

the acceptance o f otherB t o movement toward b etter s e lf - a d j u s t m e n t . With Young C h ild ren Young c h ild r e n have p a r t i c ip a t e d w id ely in group th e r a p y p ro g ra m s. Among th e programs d e s c r ib e d i n th e lite r a tu r e were S la v so n ’ s ^ 0 A o t i v i t y Group Therapy, th e w ork o f B o l l i n g e r 97 in a ch ild ren ’s c e n te r and t h a t o f no

Davisyo in a f i r s t - s e c o n d g r a d e c l a s s in elementary s c h o o l.

Lowrey

Q Q

studied the p r o c e d u r e s , t e c h n iq u e s and r e s u lts of group p s y c h o th e r a p y a t the Jewish Board o f G u ard ian s i n Hew York.

He sta ted th a t o f one h u n d red

and one c h ild r en f o r whom t h e r e was s u f f ic ie n t data, s e v e n ty —fo u r h a d made good progress and t w e n t y - s e v e n had made l i t t l e or no p r o g r e s s . YJ’i th E p ile p tic s E p ile p tic s h ave t a k e n p a r t i n group psychotherapy.

D e u tsc h and

Z im m e r m a n d e s c r ib e d a program conducted in th e Rfty C lin ic o f th e New York region of t h e V e te r a n ’ s A d m in istr a tio n .

Purposes of t h i s program w e r e

to provide in fo r m a tio n , t o d i s c u s s p erson al emotional p rob lem s and t o develop ooncepts o f r e h a b i l i t a t i o n .

Free d iscu ssion took p l a c e , b i o g r a p h i c

m aterials and a u d i o - v i s u a l a i d s w ere used.

Through t e s t i m o n i a l s , i t was

concluded that p a t ie n t s s u f f e r e d l e s s an xiety and i n s e c u r i t y , no lo n g e r 96. 97. 98. 99. 100.

S. R. S la V so n . An I n t r o d u c t io n to Group Therapy. D. M. BollingerT""'1Group P sychotherapy a t the C h ild r e n ’s C e n te r ," The Nervous C h i l d , 4 , 1 944 , p p . 226-227. R. G. D a v is,' "Group T herapy and S o c ia l Acceptance in a F ir s t - S e c o n d Grade," The E lem en ta ry S c h o o l Journal, 49, 1948, p p . 2 1 9 - 2 2 3 . L. G. Lowrey, " S p e c ia l S e c t i o n Meeting on Group T herapy," Arnerican Journal o f O r th o p s y c h ia tr y , 13, 1943, pp. 6 4 8 -6 6 0 . A. L. D eu tsch and J . Zimmerman, "Group Psychotherapy a s A d ju n ct Treatment o f E p i l e p t i c P a t ie n t s ," Amerl can Journal o f P s y c h i a t r y , 104, 1 9 4 7 , pp. 7 8 3 - 7 8 5 .

41

c o n s i d e r e d th e m s e lv e s f r e a k s and no lo n g e r f e l t a lo n e . I n Neighborhood Community Work Vfitteriberg-*-®-*- d e sc rib e d a program of neighborhood cooperative social a c t i o n i n w h ic h p e r s o n a l changes en sued.

The m ee tin g s, a c t i o n taken and

new e x p e r i e n c e s w e re r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p ro v id in g o p p o r t u n i t i e s fo r sublima­ t i o n , r e l e a s e o f h o s t i l i t y , and s a t i s f y i n g p e o p le ’ s dependency needs while e n a b lin g them t o move toward more in d ep e n d en t a c t i o n . In M ilita ry S itu a tio n s A g rou p o f s t u d i e s -was r e p o r t e d which i n d i c a t e s th e wide use of group p s y c h o th e r a p y b y t h e m i l i t a r y d uring t h e p a s t w ar.

Jones-*-®^ conducted

g roup p s y c h o th e r a p y i n England w ith f i f t y p a t i e n t s w i t h e f f o r t syndromes. He i n d i o a t e d t h a t i t was to o e a r l y t o e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the program .

K lo p f e r , -*-®® i n a lm o st th e f i r s t a tte m p t t o e v a lu a te quanti­

t a t i v e l y t h e e f f e c t s of group p sy c h o th era p y , used t h e group Rorschach te s t to in v e s tig a te r e s u lts .

Rorschaohs were g iv e n b e fo r e and a f t e r the therapy

t o n in e p a t i e n t s who had a n x ie ty s t a t e s .

Signs of improvement were cited

as fo llo w s;

101. 102. 103.

1.

g e n e ra l in c re a se in p ro d u c tiv ity

2.

ov ercom in g of r e j e c t i o n s o f c a rd s by p o p u lar resp o n se or some response

3.

i n c r e a s e d use of c o lo re d a r e a s of c ard s

4.

e l a b o r a t i o n on themes

R. M. W it t e n b e r g , " P e r s o n a l i t y A djustm ent Through S o c ia l Action," A m e ric an J o u r n a l of O rth o p s y c h ia try , 18, 1948, pp. 207-221. M. J o n e s , ^Group P s y c h o th e ra p y ," B r i t i s h M edical Jo u rn a l, September 1942, p p . 276-278. W. G. K l o p f e r , 7’The E f fic a c y of Group Psychotherapy as Indicated by Group R o rsc h ac h R e c o rd s," R orschach R e se arch Exchange, 19, 1945, p p . 2 0 7 -2 0 9 .

42

5*

g r e a t e r v a r i a b i l i t y o f conoepts

6.

p r e v io u s ly i n f e r i o r responses were r e je c te d

7.

d isa p p ea r a n c e o f distu rban ce as noted in c o n t e x t .

No a ttem p t w as made to secu re a control group o f a n x i e t y s t a t e s i n order t o f in d out w h eth er su ch changes would not h a v e t a k e n p la c e w i t h o u t group th er a p y . co n d itio n s.

P erhaps t h i s would have

The e f f e c t o f a ssu rin g the

been to o d i f f i c u l t under army men that t h e y w ere g o in g t o

charged a t th e end o f c o n v a lesc en ce was not known. tio n was n o t made o f th e Rorschach t e s t changes.

be d i s ­

And f i n a l l y i n t e r p r e t a ­ One cbes n o t know w h e th e r

or not a l l o f t h e s e changes were b e n e fic ia l. Abrahams and M cCorkle'1'0^ conduoted group p sy ch o th era p y w it h m i l i t a r y offen d ers.

T h eirs was a h i g h ly d ir e c tiv e , p u n itiv e program .

se le c te d by th e t h e r a p i s t s . p a t e r n a lis t ic l e a d e r .

T o p ic s w e r e

They admitted th a t t h e t h e r a p i s t w as a

T h e ir r e s u lts are given in term s o f s e v e r a l c a s e s

d e s c r ip tio n s . C oltharp 105 , i n a Navy program w ith men near or in r e m is s io n fro m fu n c tio n a l p s y c h o s e s , u sed a d ir e c tiv e approach, tio n , s u g g e s t io n , o o n t r o l o f aggressive

in c o r p o r a t in g i n t e r p r e t a ­

persons, humor and o th e r d e v i c e s .

R esults are in term s o f t e s t im o n ia ls . A d e v ic e s im ila r to th e suggest ion box in common u se i n in d u s t r y was employed by Freedman and G erhart

106

in an Army h o s p i t a l .

They w e r e n o t

g e ttin g s a t i s f a c t o r y re sp o n siv en ess to lectu res and t h e r e f o r e s e t up a "question b o x ."

The q u e s t io n s were taken from th e box and an sw ered

impromptu i n l e c t u r e s and group d iso u ssio n s. 104. 105. 106.

It w a s e s tim a te d t h a t s i x t y

J. Abrahams and M. 7\T. McCorkle, "Group P sych otherapy o f M i l i t a r y O ffe n d e r s," Am erican Journal of S o o io lo g y , 5 1 , 1 9 4 6 , p p . 4 5 5 - 4 6 4 . R. W. C o lth a r p , "Group Psychotherapy on P a t ie n t s R e c o v e r in g fr o m P s y ­ c h o s e s ," A m erican Journal of Psychiatry, 1 0 4 , 1 9 4 7 , p p . 4 1 4 - 4 1 7 . J . W. Freedman and L . W. Gerhart, "The Quest io n -B o x Method o f Group P sy ch o th era p y ," M ental Hygiene, 31, 194.7, p p . 2 4 6 - 2 5 6 .

43

p er c e n t sh ew ed d e f i n i t e improvement w h ile f o r t y per ce n t were not aided ty t h e p rogram . A program w ith c lo s e d ward Army p a t ie n t s was d escrib ed by Luohins.

107

T o p ic s w e r e p r e s e n te d d r a m a tic a lly , s m a ll d is o u s s io n groups met and i n d i v i d u a l c o n fe r e n c e s w ere h e ld . t h e p ro g ra m .

P a t ie n t s were asked what they got out of

T h eir r e sp o n se s were i n term s o f b e t t e r relation s with

p e o p le , b e in g a b le t o be more o b j e c t iv e and b e in g a b le to say things p r e v i o u s l y w it h h e ld . W ith A d o le s c e n t s Among t h e

e a r ly group th era p y programs w it h a d o le sc e n ts were those cf

Bender'*'00 ( s e e page 2 2 ) and Curran'*'09 ( s e e page 23 ) in Bellevue Hospital in New Y o rk .

The program d e sc r ib e d by Tarumianz and B u l l i s 1*-9 (mentioned

e a r lie r in t h is lite r a tu r e . s c h o o ls .

c h a p te r , se e page 2 5 ) was d e s c r ib e d s e v e r a l times in the

I t has b een adapted f o r use in elem en ta ry and secondary

However l i t t l e

or n o th in g has been done to evaluate it s e ffects

q u an t i t a t i v e l y . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f an in te r v ie w group th e r a p y program with s ix adoles­ c e n t g i r l s o f s u p e r io r i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e r io u s em o tio n a l disturbance was u sed a s i l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia l by S l a v s o n . T h e s e g i r l s were a l l in the age r a n g e , f i f t e e n to s ix t e e n .

D is c u s s io n s w ere h e ld concerning school,

c a r e e r s , c l o t h e s , boys and o th er p erso n a l p rob lem s.

R esults were c la r if i­

c a t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s , in c r e a se d t o le r a n c e of each other, no more 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112.

A . S . L u o h in s, " E xp erien ces w ith C losed Ward Group Psychotherapy,” A m erican J o u rn al o f O rth o p sy ch ia try , 1 7 , 1947, pp. 511-521. L . B e n d e r, op. c i t . C u rra n , o p . c i t . Tarum ianz and B u l l i s , o p . c i t . — — , "P s y c h ia tr y ’ s Ounce o f P r e v e n tio n ," S ch ool Executive, 62, 1 9 4 3 , p p . 3 3 -3 5 . S . R. S la v s o n , An I n tr o d u c tio n t o Group Therapy, pp.

44 parent b e a t in g .

There was no mention of q u a n t it a t iv e e v a l u a t i o n .

D is c u s s in g th e v a lu e of group therapy to c h ild r e n w hose a g e s ran ged from e ig h t to s i x t e e n , Spiker 113 declared th at t h e y w ere h e lp e d in t h e i r gen eral s o c i a l developm ent.

Zander and L ip p itt-1-1 4 d e s c r ib e d r o l e p la y in g

fo r a t h ir t e e n y ea r o ld adolescent g i r l .

The s i t u a t i o n was one ir w o lv in g

a daughter who w an ted t o wear lip s tic k and her m other and f a t h e r .

P sych o­

drama in a c h i l d g u id a n ce o lin ic and it s valu e i n making t h e c h i l d ’ s problems r e a l w ere d escrib ed by Sullivan*^® i l l u s t r a t e how psychodrama was used.

O ases w ere p r e s e n te d t o

Children p la y ed t h e m s e lv e s , t h e i r

m others, t h e i r te a c h e r s and other s ig n ific a n t f ig u r e s in t h e i r l i v e s .

It

was found t h a t c h ild r e n became more s o c ia lly a d a p ta b le and i t was p o s s i b l e to t e s t them more r a p id ly than could have been done w it h o th e r t e c h n iq u e s . A d o lescen t g i r l s to o k part in a group th e r a p y program d e s c r ib e d b y G a b r ie l.■*••*'6 S ix g i r l s between f if t e e n and s e v e n te e n y e a r s o ld h e l d group d is c u s s io n s once a week for two years.

They d is c u s s e d f a m il y r e l a t i o n s ,

m others, m a rria g e, d e a th , money, s u p e r s titio n s , dream s, f e e l i n g s , a d o l e s ­ cen ce, t o le r a n c e and other matters oommonly th e conoern o f a d o le s c e n c e . The lea d e r ( t h e r a p i s t ) remained in the background.

She u se d q u e s t i o n s ,

in d ir e c t s u g g e s t io n s , o la r ifie d s itu a tio n s , made i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and accep ted what was s a id and done without c r i t i c i s m . s e lf - c e n t e r e d .

Another became part of the group; sh e had b een v e r y s h y .

th ir d d ev elo p ed p o is e and control} made f r i e n d s .

113. 114. 115. 116.

One g i r l became l e s s

A f o u r t h made f r i e n d s

D. S p ik e r , ’’P ro tected Groups in the Treatm ent of Young C h ild r e n ,” American Jou rn al of Orthopsychiatry, 1 3 , 1943, p p. 6 5 9 -6 6 4 . A. Zander and R, L ip p itt, '’R eality P r a c tic e as E d u c a tio n a l M eth o d ,” S o c io m e try , 7, 1944, pp. 129-151. L. S u l l i v a n , ”Psychodrama in a Child Guidance C l i n i c , ” i n Group P sy ch o th era p y , A Symposium, pp. 5 8 -6 7 . B. G a b r ie l, "Group Treatment for A d olescen t G i r l s , ” A m erican J o u r n a l o f O rth o p sy ch ia try , 14, 1944, pp. 5 9 3 -6 0 2 .

A

45 m ore e a s i l y * d e s c r ib e d .

The f i f t h t o he d e s c r ib e d rem ained sh y .

The sixth was not

These e v a lu a tio n s w ere s u b j e c t iv e .

I n a stu d y w hich spoke f o r hom ogeneity of groups with the problem as b a s i s , Solom on and A x e lr o d ^ -^ r ep o rted on a group program fo r withdrawn a d o le s c e n ts .

The b a s ic dynamic was c o n s id e r e d to be satisfa o tio n of the

w • . • b a s i c n a r c i s s i s t im p u lse t o a d eg ree w hich helped the g ir ls to move on to

l a t e r s t a g e s o f p sy c h o se x u a l m a tu r a tio n .1’

Results (without objective

q u a n t i f i c a t i o n ) w ere f o r e ig h t o f e l e v e n , no more personal problems.

For

t h e o t h e r t h r e e , p r a c t ic a l a i d . F e c k ^ ® approached group th era p y a s p r o p h y la c tic . members t o b rin g t h e i r f r ie n d s to h is g r o u p s. •were some norm al boys i n th e g ro u p s. to s ix te e n .

He allowed group

The resu lt was that there

The boys ranged in age from fourteen

R e s u lts o f t h i s unusual procedure were that one of the normal

b o y s sto p p e d o th e r s from s t e a l i n g ; a r a th e r sh y boy was helped by his f r i e n d t o g a in group p r e s t i g e .

Moreover when a boy with a problem brought

o t h e r s w i t h p rob lem s, i t made p o s s ib le t r e a t in g the new group member. A s p e c i a l l i v i n g f a c i l i t y , a B oy's House, i t s group a c t iv it ie s and t h e i r e f f e c t upon a d o le s c e n t boys w ere d e sc r ib e d by Gula 120 A family s e t t i n g w ith o u t th e u s u a l demands and p r e ss o f the fam ily prevailed in that t h e d i r e c t o r and h is w if e w ere a v a ila b le a t alm ost a l l times and also in t h e a lm o s t c o m p le te ly f r e e run o f th e p la c e th e boys had. term s o f im p r e s s io n s . 117, 118. 119, 120.

Results were in

Immature boys used a d u lts and group for support.

J . C . Solomon and P . L. A x e lr o d , ’'Group Psychotherapy fo r TJithdrawn A d o le s c e n ts ," American Jou rn al o f D isea ses of Children, 68, 1944, p p . 1 6 -1 9 . I b i d . , p . 101. H. B . P eck , "Group Therapy S o c ia l Prophylaxis," AmericanJournal o f O rth o p sy c h ia tr y , 13, 194 5 , pp. 664-671. M. G u la, TlBoys House - The Use o f a Group fo r Observation and Treat­ m ent," M ental H ygien e, 2 8 , 1944, pp. 430-437.

46 There was r e d u c tio n of tension.

C ooperative a t t i t u d e s d e v e lo p e d .

c e n t r i c i t y was disapproved and disappeared.

E go-

D e fia n c e , b u lly in g and ly in g

w ere re d u ced . A n e u r o t ic g i r l of th irteen and a h a l f s u f f e r in g from ch o rea and e x h ib it in g many o th er symptoms took part i n an in t e r v ie w group th e r a p y program i n w h ich th e re were varying groups o f s i x t o e i g h t p s y c h o n e u r o t ic g ir ls .

T h is program was discussed by G a b r ie l, S p o tn itz and S i e g e l .

g i r l was d e sc r ib e d ca refu lly .

121

One

At the end o f n in e months o f i n d i v i d u a l

trea tm en t, sh e was given a Rorschach t e s t .

She was found t o b e h e l p l e s s ,

to have c a t a s t r o p h ic fears, to f e e l i n f e r i o r , t o be s o c i a l l y i s o l a t e d , s e x u a lly c o n f l i c t e d , Impractical and n on -conform in g. group p sy c h o th era p y .

She w as p la c e d i n

Her third Rorschach, th r e e y e a r s a f t e r h er f i r s t

t e s t , showed t h a t she was very l i t t l e i s o l a t e d , f r e e o f c o n s t r i c t i o n ,

th a t

her a n x ie t y was gone, that she had in c r e a se d f e m i n in i t y . B e tte lh e im and S y lv e ster-^ wrote o f th e e f f e c t o f th e group upon t h e in d iv id u a l.

At th e Orthogenic Sohool o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f C h ica g o ,

e m o tio n a lly d istu rb ed children in the age range from se v e n t o t w e lv e form ed groups around th e spontaneous a c t i v i t i e s o f th e c h il d r e n .

The u n iq u e a s ­

p ect o f t h i s procedure v/as that oh ild ren were f r e e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n v a r io u s groups and more than one group.

T herefore f a i l u r e i n any on e grou p was n o t

n e c e s s a r ily f a t a l and the value of b elo n g in g t o a group was more s u r e ly m a in ta in e d .

H o s t ile tendencies were e x p r e s s e d .

need t o p e r p e tu a te them. 1 21. 122.

T h ere fo re t h e r e w a s no

The group was view ed a s a s y m b io tic p a r t n e r s h ip

B. G a b r ie l, H. Spotnitz and M. G, S i e g e l , " In te r v ie w Group Therapy w it h in Neurotic Adolesoent G ir ls S u ffe r in g from C horea," The P r a c t ic e o f Group Therapy, pp. 1 9 1 -2 1 9 . B. B e tte lh e im and E. S ylvester, " T herapeu tic I n f lu e n c e o f t h e Group on th e Ind ivid u al," American Jou rn al o f O r th o p s y c h ia tr y , 1 7 , 1 9 4 7 , p p . 684-692.

47

f o r a c t in g o u t v a r io u s n e e d s . I n an in t e r v ie w group th era p y program , ten g ir ls from f if t e e n t o s e v e n te e n y e a r s o ld r e c e iv e d in d iv id u a l and group psychotherapy. around a t a b l e and spoke -whenever t h e y d e s ir e d to p artioip ate.

They sat I t was

n o te d th a t w h en ever th e group was s a t i s f i e d , there was group cohesion. Whenever th e group was f r u s t r a t e d , th e group was disrupted.

Two mein

f o r c e s seemed t o be a t work i n m o tiv a tin g th e adolesoent g ir ls #

Spotnitz 123

term ed one o f them th e R ep ro d u ctio n C o n s t e lla t io n , to indioate in te r e st in, c u r i o s i t y i n and d e s ir e f o r s e x u a l c o n g r e s s .

This led the group through

d i s c u s s io n s o f d o l l s , h o u s e s , how t o g e t a man, dating, sex d ifferen ces, p reg n a n cy , parents* a t t i t u d e s toward o h ild r e n and other top ios of a sim ilar n a tu r e#

The seco n d m ain f o r c e was o a l l e d th e Inadequacy C on stellation,

d e r iv in g from e a r l y f e l t in ad eq u acy t o d e a l w ith emotional d riv es, fear of h o s t i l e f e e l i n g s tow ard each o t h e r , in a d eq u a cy in meeting school demands and f e e l i n g l i f e w a s to o d i f f i c u l t .

These f e e lin g s were talked about.

g i r l s saw th a t o th e r s sh ared t h e i r f e e l i n g s , they revealed th eir own. th e group t a l k e d about w hat t o do a b o u t suoh fe e lin g s . th e n t h a t m ost a d o le s c e n t s f e l t t h e same way# s h ip s i n a r e a l i s t i c l i g h t .

As Then

They reoognized

They saw sib lin g rela tio n ­

They b egan t o understand something o f the

problem s p a r e n ts h ave w it h c h ild r e n and learn ed of the importance of p a r e n t a l in a d e q u a c ie s#

I t was c o n s id e r e d th a t as they operated increas­

i n g l y in harmony w it h t h e i r b a s ic d r i v e s , th e y moved toward m aturity. N in e m e n t a lly d e f e c t i v e problem boys aged from eleven and a h a lf to f o u r t e e n y e a r s and e le v e n months p a r t ic ip a t e d in group psychotherapy for t h r e e w e e k s , i n c l u s i v e , o f te n s e s s i o n s f o r an hour and a quarter each# 123#

To

H# S p o t n i t z , O b serv a tio n s on E m otion al Currents in Interview Group Therapy w ith A d o le sc e n t G i r l s , ” Journal of Nervous and Mental D i s e a s e s , 1 0 6 , 1947, pp. 5 6 5 -5 0 3 .

48

b e g in w ith the therapist was n e u tr a l. in g and u n in h ib ited .

The boys -were a g g r e s s i v e , c o m p la in -

Fights took p la c e , t h e y ra n w i l d l y a b o u t.

t h e r a p is t became a ctiv e.

Then th e

Fights w ere turned in t o b oxin g m a tc h e s.

i n i t i a t e d various programs.

He

He s e t up a mock cou rtroom p roced u re w it h him ­

s e l f as ju d g e .

The children defended t h e m s e lv e s , p r o secu ted o a s e s , and

se r v e d as ju r y .

After a w h ile, t h e group was smooth and c o n s t r u c t i v e .

R e s u lts were improvements in behavior and p e r s o n a lit y a s ju dged from th e th e r a p is t * s observations, reports o f te a c h e r s and a b sen ce o f r e f e r r a l s t o th e p s y c h o lo g is t. Human rela tio n s for college freshm an g i r l s was th e c o n c e r n o f a s t u d y by H o l w a y . S h e set up two d is c u s s io n groups o f t w e n t y - f i v e members e a c h i n home economics and nursing e d u c a tio n .

The pu rp oses o f t h e s t u d y w e r e t o

le a r n what methods were most e f f e c t i v e i n h e lp in g s tu d e n ts work th r o u g h t h e ir problems toward better adjustm ent, to d e v e lo p i n s i g h t s i n t o an d under­ sta n d in g o f the dynamios of human b e h a v io r , and to m o tiv a te s tu d e n t s t o experim ent w ith techniques that m ight le a d t o b e t t e r human r e l a t i o n s . P e r s o n a lit y sketches were w ritten a t th e b eg in n in g and end o f th e e x p e r i ­ m ent.

A cheok l i s t of problems was prepared b y each p erso n a t t h e b egirr-

riing and end of the experiment.

Case s t u d i e s , tr u e sto r ie s

m a te r ia l were given by the leader as i t L ectu res were given by s p e c ia li s t s .

and p sy ch o l o g i c a l

seemed n e c e s s a r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d in g .

S tu d en ts anonym ously r a t e d t h e m ethods

o f in s t r u c t io n on a fiv e point s c a l e w ith r e fe r e n c e t o w h ich was m o st h e lp fu l.

They also indicated how th e course h ad h elp ed them .

The s t u d e n t s

r a te d d is c u s s io n s , special le c tu r e r s and tru e s t o r i e s m ost h e l p f u l in t h a t

124. 125.

M. C otzin, "Group Psyohotherapy w ith M e n ta lly D e f e c t iv e P roblem B oys,” Ajrerioan Journal of Mental D e f ic ie n c y , 53, 1948, p p . 2 6 9 -2 8 3 . A . R. Holway, "Human R ela tio n s f o r C o lle g e Freshm en," J o u r n a l o f Home Economics, 40, 1948, pp. 135-136.

49

order.

At t h e end o f t h i s

se m e ste r th e s e freshmen g ir ls had 2*6 problems

per 3 tu d e n t a s compared w i t h 7 .6 problems per student freshman of the p r e v io u s y e a r a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e seoond semester.

Twenty-nine stu ­

d en ts r e p o r te d g r e a t e s t g a in s i n term s of in sigh ts into motives and the b eh a v io r o f th e m s e lv e s and o t h e r s .

Three reported aotual inoidents of

im proved r e l a t i o n s . D uring t h e se c o n d y e a r th e r e was more inform ality, more true s to r ie s f o llo w e d by g e n e r a l p u b lic d is c u s s io n . human r e l a t i o n s .

T h irty-five reported improved

Twenty r e p o r te d new understanding of human behavior.

Seven were more t o l e r a n t . most a d m ira b le e x p e r im e n t.

S even had fewer emotional u p sets.

This was a

However i t would have been in te r e stin g to

o b se r v e r e s u l t s w it h th e u se o f a c o n tr o l group and reporting of changes by m ethods more o b j e c t i v e th a n t e s t im o n ia ls . F u l t s ^ ® c a r r ie d on a n exp erim ent in learning over a five-m onths p e r io d i n o rd er t o f i n d o u t what w ould happen to persons who had learning d i f f i c u l t i e s when t e a c h e r s em phasized the betterment of human r e la t io n s . The c a u se s o f th e le a r n in g d i f f i c u l t i e s were fru strated needs, values o o n f l i o t s , in t e n s e p e r s o n a l p rob lem s, remoteness of g o a ls, inoapacity and en v ir o n m e n ta l b l o c k s .

The s tu d y d escrib ed in some d e ta il one th ir te e n year

o ld g i r l who was a n i s o l a t e , w hose needs and values were not being met and who had many problem a r e a s . h er.

One of th e teaahers worked a good deal with

She oommented f a v o r a b ly upon h er dress, assigned her tasks with

p r e s t i g e , g o t h e r t o j o i n c lu b s and drew her in to group d isc u ssio n s. V a lu e s , a t t i t u d e s , p r e j u d ic e s and good human r e la tio n s were emphasized with th e w h ole c l a s s . 126.

P r a is e and reward were used generously.

The g i r l

A , C . F u l t s , ^Im proving Learning Through Emphasis on Human Relations," C h ild h ood E d u c a tio n , 2 4 , 1948, pp. 305-307.

50 d escribed in d etail experienced rath er u n usual changes*

Her S o c i a l

A ccep ta b ility soore inoreased by f i f t y - o n e p o in ts ; h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e s o a r e in oreased twenty-one points and h er rea d in g t e s t s o o r e went up two p o in ts * She had more confidence, v o lu n teered i n c l a s s and became p r e s id e n t o f h er o la s s the next f a l l .

The co n c lu sio n was o f f e r e d th a t s i g n i f i c a n t im prove­

ment took place in growth and development of ch a ra cter when f u r t h e r in g human relations m s emphasized.

This was a m ost i n t e r e s t i n g exp erim en t

w ith highly important im p lica tio n s f o r e d u o a tio n . Efforts at Refined R esearch i n Group P sy ch o th era p y Among the studies d iscu ssed thus f a r , th e r e w ere few i n v iiio h e v id e n c e was to be noted of provisions fo r q u a n t it a t iv e a p p r a is a l of t h e r e s u l t s o f th e respective programs.

So fa r as c o n t r o lle d r e s e a r c h was o o n o ern ed , none

o f th e studies already examined p resen ted such e v id e n c e * om issions were necessitated by ex p ed ien ts*

P erhaps t h e s e

T h is would seem t o be s o i n th e

s tu d ie s done by m ilitary person nel in w artim e.

I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t m ost of

th e other studies were performed on th e b a s is o f th e z e a l o f th e i n v e s t i ­ g a to r who in a ll lik elih ood had to c o n v in ce a u t h o r it ie s of t h e v a lu e s o f th e group therapy program..

In such o a s e s , i t may be e a s i l y u n d ersto o d

th a t funds for research w ould not r e a d ily have been a v a ila b le * An early controlled experim ent i n m en ta l h ygien e was done by S m ith . 127 He paired one hundred c o lle g e stu d en ts i n th e New York S t a t e em ergency edu­ o a tio n program during th e e a r ly n in e te e n t h i r t i e s and p la ced -them in experimental and oontrol grou ps. m ental hygiene to p ics.

His ex p er im e n ta l s tu d e n ts d is c u s s e d

P o s it iv e changes (n ea r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e )

took plaoe in the experim ental group in p e r s o n a lit y ad ju stm en t* T27.

H is

R. B. Smith, Growth in ‘P e r s o n a lity Adjustm ent Through M en tal H y g ien et An Experimental Study, 1936.

51

c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s Beamed t o s u f f e r losses#

Analysis of in d ividu al personal­

i t y in v e n to r y ite m s r e v e a le d t h e same trend.

I t is of in te r e st th a t the

m a t e r ia l em p h asized i n t h e d iso u s sio n s was q u ite sim ilar to the personality in v e n to r y ite m s on w h ich t h e c o n tr o ls shewed con sisten t lo sse s and the e x p e r im e n ta l s u b j e c t s showed g a in s . A stu d y u n u su a l i n i t s thoroughness was one which disoussed the t r e a tment o f p e p t ic u l c e r s by grou p th erapeu tic measures*

128

Unusual in that

t h e r e was a c o n t r o l g r o u p , se p a r a te follow-up reports on the experimental and c o n t r o l groups done a t s i x months and three years a fte r completion of tr e a tm e n t , i t

used m ethods su ch as worry co n tro l, r e la x a tio n , roa&sur&nce,

s u g g e s t i o n , l e c t u r e s on d i e t and scheduling. two e v e n in g m ee tin g s c o n s e c u t iv e ly . from sym ptom s.

I t was continued fo r fo r ty -

The o rite r io n of suooess was freedom

The tr e a tm e n t p a tie n ts showed much more improvement than

th e c controls e v id e n o e d . The p a u c it y o f e x p e r im e n ta l studies in group psyohotherapy continued f o r e ig h t y e a r s u n t i l B a ru ch ^ ^ reported on an in v e stig a tio n of procedure i n t r a i n i n g t e a c h e r s i n m en ta l hygiene p rin c ip le s.

As disoussed e a r lie r

( s e e page 3 9 ) , la r g e p e r o e n ta g e s of teaohors moved toward acceptance of c h ild r e n and a d u lt s w it h whom th ey had r e la tio n sh ip s. i n v e s t i g a t e d and r e l a t e d to th e s e changes. r e l a t e d t o t h e ch an ges* to th e ch an ges.

128.

129.

Other fa c to r s were

Age was not s ig n ifio a n tly

Nor was length of teaching s ig n ifio a n tly rela ted

No s i g n i f i c a n t rela tio n sh ip was found to e x is t between

M. N. C h a p p e ll, J . J . S te fa n c , J. S. Rogerson, and F. H. Pike, "Value o f Group P s y c h o lo g ic a l Procedures in Treatment of Peptio Uloer," Am erican J o u r n a l o f D ig estiv e D iseases and N u trition , 3, 1937, pp. 8 1 3 -8 1 7 . D. W. B aruch, " P roced u res in Training Teachers to Prevent and Reduce M en tal H ygien e Problem s," Journal o f Genetio Psychology, 67, 1945, pp. 1 4 3 -1 7 8 .

52 personal adjustment a t th e b eg in n in g o f t h e e x p e r im e n ta l p e r io d ( a s obtained from a com posite r a tin g by t h e s u p e r v is o r y s t a f f ) and th e

changes*

A positive re la tio n sh ip -was found to p r e v a il b etw een movement i n t e a c h e r adjustment (own adjustm ent) and movement i n a c c e p ta n c e o f c h ild r e n *

In

other words as the te a c h e r s moved toward b e t t e r p e r s o n a l a d j u s t m e n t , th e y moved toward acoeptanoe of c h ild r e n . The study of Rashkis and Shaskan-1-30 m entioned e a r l i e r in c o r p o r a te d te s t results on the M innesota M u ltip h a sio P e r s o n a lit y I n v e n to r y ad m in istered before and a fte r group p sych oth erap y.

R e su lts were a s f o l l o w s .

TABLE I Results on Minnesota M u ltip h asio P e r s o n a lit y I n v e n to r y A d m in iste r e d Before and A fter Group P sychoth erap y (N s 2 2 ) Number h a v in g Syndrome b e fo r e Therapy

Number h a v in g Syndrome a f t e r Therapy

P e r c e n ta g e Change_____

9

5

44

Depression

13

6

54

Hysteria

10

5

50

Psychopathic D eviate

10

10

0

Mas ou linity-F eraininit y

6

4

33

Paranoia

6

3

50

Sohizophrenia

8

6

25

Hypomania

9

13

44

Psyohopathological Syndrome_______________ Hypochondriasis

These are most im p re ssiv e ohanges to be o b ta in ed i n o n ly f i v e w eeks o f group psychotherapy*

130.

However on ly th o s e p a t ie n t s were s e l e c t e d w hose

E. A. Rashkis and D. A . Shaskan, "The E f f e o t s o f Group P sy c h o th e r a p y on P erson ality In ventory S c o r e s ," American J o u r n a l o f O rth o psyohiatry, 16, 1946, pp. 345-349*

53

p r o g n o s is was f a v o r a b le f o r -therapy. em p lo y ed i n t h i s s t u d y .

Moreover no co n tro l group was

I f the s p e o ifio in te r e s t of th e group se ssio n s had

d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e con ten t of th e t e x t , one may be j u s t i f i e d in i n q u i r i n g w h e th e r p e r s o n a lit y change or t e s t s o p h is tic a t io n ensued. A n o n - d i r e c t i v e grou p play therapy program w ith n in e to eleven year o l d c h i l d r e n w as s t u d i e d and reported upon by Fleming and Snyder. 131 t e s t s w ere g iv e n b e f o r e and a fte r the treatm ent.

Three

The t e s t s , two personal­

i t y t e s t s and on e s o o io m e t r ic s c a le , were used to s e le o t th e ohildren as w e l l a s t o e v a l u a t e a n y ch an ges. F ou r b o y s form ed on e g r o u p .

Two experim ental groups were s e t up.

Three g ir ls made up the other group.

Two

c o n t r o l g ro u p s w e r e s e t up from the remainder of th e f o r t y - s i x o r ig in a l c h ild r e n t e s t e d . w eek s.

The th e r a p y sessio n s were oarried on tw ice weekly for s ix

Chi s q u a r e s w ere computed f o r th e d ifferen ces between changes in

e x p e r im e n t a l and c o n t r o l grou ps.

For the g i r l s on the socioraetrio t e a t ,

t h e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p showed s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if io a n t ly greater p o s itiv e fe e lin g .

The c o n t r o l s a l s o showed greater p o sitiv e f e e lin g but not s ig ­

n ific a n tly so .

On t h e p e r s o n a lity t e s t (Rogers t e s t ) , t h e ex p erim en ta l

im p ro v ed s i g n i f i c a n t l y more than the con trols on a l l four ca teg o ries of the te st.

The b o y s show ed no s ig n if ic a n t ohanges.

As a m atter of f a o t , the

c o n t r o l g ro u p ( b o y s ) im proved s li g h t l y w h ile the experim ental group regressed .

The la c k o f improvement for the boys was a ttr ib u te d to the f a c t

t h a t t h e t h e r a p i s t w as a fem a le. I n a s tu d y o f th e n o n -d ir e c tiv e method of tea o h in g a t the U n iversity o f B u f f a l o , G r o s s c o m p a r e d two c la s s e s on a p a r t ia lly standardized 131. 132.

L . F le m in g and W. U. Snyder, "S ocial and Personal Changes Follow ing N o n - D ir e c t iv e Group Play Therapy," Amerioan Journal of Ortho­ p s y c h i a t r y , 1 7 , 1947, pp. 101-116. L . G r o s s , '*An E xp erim ental Study o f the V a lid ity o f the N on-D irective Method o f T eaoh in g," Journal of Psychology, 2 6 , 1948, pp. 243-248.

54 " self-insight" s c a l e . non-direotively •

One o la s s i n th e Dynamics o f L ea r n in g was ta u g h t

The second c l a s s was ta u g h t i n t h e u s u a l f a s h io n th e

Prinoiples of Eoonomios. te sts.

F iv e w eeks e la p s e d b etw een b e f o r e and a f t e r

There was a v er y h ig h p e r c e n ta g e o f extrem e s o o r e in c r e a s e s i n th e

non-directively ta u g h t o l a s s .

L im ita tio n s o f t h i s s tu d y w e r e t h e non-

matohing of o la s s e s , th e a lm ost c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n t m o t iv a t io n s o f s tu d e n ts in the d iffer en t c l a s s e s , th e s u b j e c t m a tter and t h e t e a c h e r s . Davis

133

t r ie d t o f in d out w h eth er o r n o t s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y can be

inoreased by group th erap y i n a f i r s t - s e c o n d g r a d e . were made o f play therapy and c o n t r o l g r o u p s. experimental groups.

D a ily o b s e r v a tio n s

N ine c h i ld r e n w ere i n th e

The c o n tr o l group had no p la y t h e r a p y .

twelve session s o f p la y therapy to o k p la c e o v e r t e n w e e k s .

N ine t o Photographs

were made a t f if t e e n - s e c o n d i n t e r v a l s d u rin g t e n t o f i f t e e n m in u tes o f f r e e play.

Sooiometrio te c h n iq u es w ere u s e d .

R e s u lt s w e r e p o s i t i v e chan ges

for the experim ental groups in s o o io m e tr io t e c h n iq u e s b u t t h e s e g a in s w ere not retained in a fo llo w -u p e v a lu a t io n . suggested.

S e v e r a l c o n s id e r a t io n s a r e

Perhaps th e therapy program was t o o s h o r t .

S e c o n d ly , perhaps

the therapy program was to o s u p e r f i c i a l t o c a u se s i g n i f i c a n t em o tio n a l changes. Peres*®4 rep orted a stu d y done i n w hat sh e term ed a f t e r S la v s o n , "therapy w ithin a group."

T his was e s s e n t i a l l y a s e r i e s o f s e s s i o n s

devoted to verbal d is c u s s io n s o f p ro b lem s. disoussions were reo o rd ed .

S even o f t h e n in e h o u r -lo n g

A n a ly s is o f th e n a tu r e o f t h e le a d e r s h ip i n d i ­

cated that the d is o u s s io n s were a lm o st p u r e ly n o n - d i r e c t i v e w it h b u t v e r y

133* R. 6 . D avis, wGroup Therapy and S o c i a l A c c e p ta n c e i n a F ir s t-S e c o n d Grade," Elem entary S ch o o l J o u r n a l, 4 9 , 1 9 4 8 , p p . 2 1 9 -2 2 3 . 134. H. Peres, "An I n v e s t ig a t io n o f N o n -D ir e c tiv e Group T herapy," Jou rn al of C onsulting P sy ch o lo g y , 11, 194 7 , p p . 1 5 9 -1 7 2 .

55 little

d i r e c t i v e and sem i-d irectiv e p a rtic ip a tio n by the lea d er.

S u b jec ts'

s ta t e m e n t s d u r in g t h e therapy se ssio n s were c la s s if i e d as t o content and f e e lin g c a te g o r ie s .

Peres found th a t th o se who b en efitted ( c r it e r ia fo r

im provem ent n o t in d io a te d ) from the therapy exp ressed many more a ttitu d e s (b o th p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e ) toward them selves in th e second h a lf o f th e s e r ie s *

No o b s e r v a b le trend was noted in a ttitu d e s expressed toward other

p a r t i c i p a n t s and p e o p le ou tsid e the

group.

no t r e n d to w a rd th em selv es or oth ers.

The n on -b en efitted demonstrated

However, th ey did show a s li g h t r i s e

i n th e number o f n e g a tiv e a ttitu d e s toward the group during th e la s t s e s s io n s tu d ie d . I n a s t u d y d e sig n e d to t e s t n on -d ireotive group psychotherapy as a m ethod f o r t h e p r e v e n tio n or reduotion of fu tu re a n x iety symptoms, F ie d le r

135

s e t up f i v e experimental therapy groups and one con trol group.

The e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s got n o n -d irectiv e group therapy. c o n tin u e d i n i t s

u s u a l course.

The control group

The a n x iety producer was a six-hour

co m p r eh e n siv e ex a m in a tio n a t the U n iversity o f Chicago,

A graphic r a tin g

s c a l e ( t o m easu re in c r e a s e or decrease in em otional te n sio n s) was employed. Three e x p e r im e n ta l groups apparently b e n efitted s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t ly a s compared w i t h th e co n trol group.

I t is in te r e s tin g to note ih at one

g ro u p was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d iffe r e n t in two of th e te n items on th e graphic r a tin g s c a le .

One may be in clin ed t o sp ecu la te as to why one experim ental

grou p more c o n s i s t e n t l y than th e other three waB s ig n if io a n tly d iffe r e n t fro m th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . The number o f s ig n if ic a n t d ifferen ces to be expected f iv e per cen t of

135.

F . E* F i e d l e r , "An Experimental Approach to P reventive PsyohoT h erap y," Journal of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology, 44, 1949, pp. 3 8 6 -3 9 4 .

56 the time from chance f a c t o r s i n f i f t y com p arison s s h o u ld be exam ined. number is two and a h a lf s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . obtained, tw o o f them from one group.

The

In t h i s s tu d y , fo u r w ere

One may wonder on t h i s b a s is ab out

the worthrahileness o f th e d i s c u s s i o n s .

M oreover th e r a t i n g d e v ic e was o n ly

a ten ta tiv e o n e , n o t h avin g b een t e s t e d f o r r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y . ever this was an u nusual u se o f group th e r a p y and th e

How­

e v a lu a t io n method

gave promise f o r f u t u r e a p p l ic a t io n i n e v a lu a t in g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een several group p sy c h o th e r a p e u tic m eth ods. Summary and Comments about Group P sy c h o th e r a p y Studies have been p r e se n te d t r a c in g th e d evelop m en t o f group p sych o­ therapy and d e s c r ib in g some o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l b a se s u n d e r ly in g i t s practice.

Group p sy ch o th era p y a t work has b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d .

One oannot

f a i l to be im p ressed by th e e x trem e ly b road a p p l i c a t i o n i t h as h ad . research s tu d ie s a lr e a d y perform ed in t h e f i e l d h ave b e e n d is c u s s e d . there is y e t need o f c o n t r o lle d e x p e r im e n ta tio n i n th e f i e l d

The That

is s e lf -

evident. The im portance of t h i s th e r a p e u tic m ethod h a s fo u n d su p p ort in t h e writings o f a prom inent p s y c h o t h e r a p is t , K u b ie.

S p ea k in g o f t h e r o l e o f

education in th e developm ent o f mature p e r s o n a l i t i e s h e remarked . . . Some day ed u o a tio n must ta k e on th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f h e lp ­ ing to p rev en t th e d i s t o r t i o n of human d ev elo p m en t w h ich we c a ll t h e n e u r o tic p r o c e s s . . . The g o a l i s t o p r e v e n t or m in im ise the dichotom y betw een c o n s c io u s and u n c o n sc io u s p s y c h o lo g ic a l p rocesses - a dichotom y w hich o ccu rs in e v e r y in f a n t and c h ild . . . what we need t o add t o t h e g o a ls o f e d u c a t io n i s som eth in g that can be c a lle d e m o tio n a l m a t u r a t io n ... I s h o u ld l i k e to s e e th is b e g in i n the k in d e r g a r te n . There i s T here I f e e l su re th a t we cou ld ap p ly to in f a n t s and c h ild r e n t h e t e c h n iq u e s o f educa­ tio n w h ich during th e war f r e q u e n t ly was u se d w it h t r o o p s , under the name o f group th e r a p y . I n s te a d o f b r in g in g up in f a n t s and ch ild ren under a sy ste m o f ta b o o s w h ich makes i t im p o s s ib le f o r them t o t a lk among th e m s e lv e s or t o a d u lts ab ou t t h e i r h a te s and fe a r s , t h e i r J e a l o u s i e s , t h e i r b i t t e r n e s s a g a i n s t t h e a d u lt

57

■world, t h e i r b od ily Bhames and envies and l u s t s , a l l of them c o u ld "be liv e d out, acted ou t, and ta lk e d out in groups from the n u r s e r y y e a r s on. This would be a process o f s o c ia liz a tio n •which w ou ld tend to block and to counteract those fo r c e s which e x i s t in everyone and which make us repress in to unconsciousness th e raost v i t a l emotional problems of our development. I h a v e c a lle d th is the F ir s t Freedom, the c h ild 's r ig h t to know h i s own f e e lin g s and thoughts and im pulses - not to aot them ou t b lin d ly but to be con soiou sly aware of them.*®® T h is sta te m en t represents a h ig h ly important keynote on the r o le o f e d u c a t io n i n r e l a t i o n to the p erso n a lity development of i t s charges, t h e c h ild r e n * if

However one wonders

about the e f fe c t iv e n e s s of t h is co n c e n tr a tio n

t h e r e s t o f t h e f i e l d , the parents, th e tea ch ers and others

t h e e m o tio n a l growth of th e c h ild , are not s im ila r ly e f f e c t e d .,

important t o Harms*®*^

r e c o g n iz e d t h i s need and ind icated that group therapy must take in to a c c o u n t t h e f a t h e r as w e ll as the mother. s o c ia l

c o n d itio n s .

I t must reoognize the tru e

I t must be r e la te d to the sch o o l, the s t r e e t , th e

r e l i g i o n and o th e r s o c ia l r e a lit ie s to be tr u ly e f f e c t i v e .

136. 137.

L . S . K u b ie, 1,The P sy c h ia tr ist Considers Curriculum Development,” T ea ch ers C ollege Record, 50, 1949, pp. 241-246. E . Harms, HGroup Therapy - Farce, Fashion, or S o o io lo g ic a lly Sou n d ,” The Nervous C hild, 4, 1944, pp. 186-195.

CHAPTER I I I PROCEDURE This ch ap ter w i l l p r e s e n t a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t s in v o lv e d i n the exp erim en t, the m a t e r ia ls and d e v ic e s u s e d , t h e p roced u re f o r c o l l e c t ­ ing the d ata in o lu d in g an e x p la n a t io n o f how th e groups w ere s e l e c t e d and metehed, how t h e s u b je o ts w ere o r ie n t e d c o n c e r n in g th e e x p e r im e n t, how t h e t e s t s w ere a d m in istered and s c o r e d , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e group d i s c u s s i o n prooess and d is c u s s io n s u b je o ts and f i n a l l y t h e e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n . Subjeots i n T h is I n v e s t i g a t i o n The s u b je o ts i n t h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n w ere t h i r t y a d o le s c e n t g i r l s s e le o te d from th e sophomore c l a s s o f a p r iv a t e se c o n d a r y s c h o o l.

The

sohool i s a lo n g e s t a b lis h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s i t u a t e d i n a w e l l - t o - d o r e s i d e n ­ t i a l area on t h e w e st s id e o f M anhattan i n New York C it y .

The c u r r ic u lu m

of the sc h o o l i s o rg a n ized m a in ly to p r o v id e s tu d e n t s w it h background neoessary f o r s u c c e s s f u l co m p le tio n o f u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g .

However, i t

is

more than f l e x i b l e enough t o p r o v id e f o r t h e o th e r n eed s o f i t s s t u d e n t s . I t has sponsored cu rricu lu m s u b j e o t s d e s ig n e d to prom ote i n t e r e s t i n t h e o u ltu r a l a rea s of l i f e a s w e l l as e x t r a c u r r ic u la r a c t i v i t i e s t o prom ote p er so n a lity d evelop m ent.

Such a c t i v i t i e s a s s tu d e n t p a r t ic ip a t i o n in

sohool governm ent, s t u d e n t - f a c u l t y c o o p e r a t iv e c o m m itte e s, a s tu d e n t h on or system , a t h l e t i c s and s o c i a l w e lf a r e v o lu n t e e r w ork p a r t ic ip a t e d i n by stu d en ts are d ir e c t e d toward d e v e lo p in g more m atu re p e r s o n a l i t i e s . The f a m ilie s o f t h e s e s tu d e n t s a r e a l l fro m th e m idd le c l a s s econ om ic

59

str a tu m o f our s o c ia l order (in olu d in g the two scholarship stu d en t fa m ilie s ).

The parents are from p r o fe ss io n a l, managerial and p r o p r ie t o r y

b u s i n e s s o ccu p a tio n s.

None of the fa m ilie s has more than three c h ild r e n .

I n a l l there were th ir ty -n in e g i r l s in the sophomore c la s s .

T h ir t y

w e r e s e le c t e d (on the b a sis o f being fr e e from p sy c h ia tric h i s t o r i e s and h a v in g ta k e n the ACE P sychological Test in 1947) in order to p r o v id e f o r tw o ex p erim en ta l groups and one con trol group.

The age range o f t h e e n t i r e

group a t th e beginning o f the experiment was from fou rteen years and one month t o s ix t e e n years and one month. one m onth.

The mean age was f if t e e n y e a r s and

The in te llig e n c e range o f the whole group was from 102 t o 135

on t h e O tis Equivalent I n te llig e n c e Q uotients of the American C o u n o il on E d u c a tio n P sy ch o lo g ica l Examination fo r c o lle g e freshmen, a d m in iste r e d t o them on th e same date in 1947.

The mean in te llig e n c e qu otien t was 1 1 7 .8 3 .

The o l a s s was divided in to two groups, a r e la t iv e ly rapid lea rn in g group and a somewhat more slow learn in g group.

Although t h is fa o t was n o t

r e v e a le d t o the stu d en ts, they in d icated knowledge of i t .

The t h r e e g ro u p s

i n t h e experim ent were s e t up w ithout regard to t h is f a c t .

Reading a b i l i t y

o f t h e Calhoun group as derived from the Iowa S ile n t Reading T e st, form Am, ran ged from 151 to 195.

The mean of the soores was 169.17.

A lm o st a l l o f the students who have been graduated from t h is s o h o o l h a v e g o n e on to a four or two-year c o lle g e .

In the l a s t gradu ating o l a s s ,

o n ly on e stu d en t did not seek fu rth er educational tr a in in g .*

Many o f t h e

s t u d e n t s have gone ahead to seek preparation for p ro fe ssio n a l c a r e e r s . V ery fe w o f the g i r l s in t h is sohool have had any work experience f o r w h io h

*

The in v e s t ig a t o r , as p sy c h o lo g ist in the sohool, had access t o su oh in fo rm a tio n .

th e y have b een g iv e n rem uneration* had such employment* so h o o l fu n c tio n s*

I n t h i s sophomore o la s s none had ev er

T his o la s s s u p p lie d much le a d e r s h ip i n v a r io u s

I t s p a ren ts d id l i k e w i s e i n p a r e n t-s o h o o l f u n c t io n s *

None o f th e s e g i r l s had ev er r e c e iv e d a n y s o r t o f c o n tin u o u s m e d ic a l or p s y c h ia t r ic tr ea tm en t. M a teria ls UBed The l i t e r a t u r e was su rveyed co n cern in g p o s s i b l e e v a lu a tio n d e v ic e s and t e s t s b e fo re th e m easuring in stru m en ts w ere s e l e c t e d .

W herever p o s s i b l e ,

the fo llo w in g c r i t e r i a w ere c o n s id e r e d i n r e a c h in g d e c is io n s to em ploy th e t e s t s and d e v ic es f i n a l l y used i n th e stu d y* The f i r s t o r i t e r i o n was t h a t th e d e v io e s sh o u ld be e f f e c t i v e f o r measurement in the a s p e c t s o f a d ju stm en t w it h w hich th e s tu d y w as con cern ed . These w ere p e r s o n a lit y a d ju stm en t and s o c i a l a c c e p t a b ili t y *

I t was

n e c essa ry t o o b ta in a p e r s o n a lit y t e s t w h ich w ou ld p rovid e m a t e r i a l f o r a profound p ic tu r e o f p e r s o n a lit y s tr u c t u r e * A seoond o r it e r io n was t h a t th e d e v ic e s sh o u ld r e f l e c t ch an ges not o n ly a t th e end o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n s e r i e s

( i f s u c h changes o c c u r r e d ) , b u t

a l s o c o n tin u o u sly , i f p o s s i b l e . The t h ir d c r i t e r i o n was t h a t t h e d e v ic e s sh ou ld be s u i t a b l e . language had to be sim p le* ing*

The

The c o n te n t had t o be i n t e r e s t i n g and s t im u la t ­

The d e v ic e s had t o be a p p r o p r ia te f o r th e age o f -Mae s u b j e c t group*

F i n a lly th e y had to p ro v id e o p p o r tu n ity f o r a c t i v e p a r t ic ip a t io n i n th e experim ent* A fo u r th c r i t e r i o n was t h a t t h e d e v io e s sh o u ld be q u a n t if ia b le a s much as p o s s ib le in order t o p r o v id e f o r com p arison s o f s c o r e s on th e t e s t s g iv e n b e fo r e and a f t e r t h e d i s o u s s i o n s . r e fe r e n c e t o r e s u lt s o f o th er s t u d i e s .

A ls o q u a n t if i c a t io n w ould perm it For t h i s purpose t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y

61

o f norms was considered. The f i f t h requirement was th a t the t e s t s should be r e l i a b l e .

A lth o u g h

th e p o s s i b i l it y o f changes was b ein g in v e s tig a te d , n e v e r t h e le s s i t w as considered necessary to in v e s t ig a t e r e l i a b i l i t y in order t h a t i t m ig h t be p o s s ib le to negate the r o le f a c to r s con trib u tin g t o u n r e l i a b i l i t y m ig h t p la y in suoh p o ssib le changes.

I f accep tab ly r e lia b le in s t r u m e n t s c o u ld be

found, then i t was p o ss ib le th a t changes whioh might o ccu r o o u ld n o t b e a scr ib e d to u n r e lia b ilit y . I n t e l l i gence and Reading Testa The in t e llig e n c e t e s t and reading t e s t data were o b t a in e d from t h e sc h o o l reco rd s.

The Amerioan Council on Education P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s t

(h e r e a fte r c a lle d ACE), 1947 c o lle g e freshmen form, was a d m in is t e r e d t o th e s e students in the f a l l o f 1947.

Although t h is t e s t and t h e r e a d in g

t e s t were not se le c te d w ith th e u se o f c r it e r ia c it e d e a r l i e r , n e v e r t h e l e s s th e y both meet some o f th e o r i t e r i a . used by groups So fa r as

Thus they are both d e s ig n e d f o r

and

o f whioh the independent sohool p o p u la tio n i s o n e . r e l i a b i l i t y i s concerned, the ACE t e s t had a t o t a l s o o r e

Spearman-Brown r e l i a b i l i t y of+-.96 fo r 105 eleven th grade g i r l s e d it io n o f the t e s t .* v a l i d i t y o f th is t e s t .

on t h e

1939

L i t t l e or no inform ation i s a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n in g th e However i t has been used fo r s e v e r a l y e a r s b y t h e

independent sohool members o f th e Educational Reaorda B ureau a s p a r t o f t h e ir system atic t e s t in g program. So fa r as the Iowa S ile n t Reading T est, form Am, i s

concerned, th e

manual fo r the t e s t rep orts Spearman-Brown formula c o e f f i c i e n t s

(b a se d on

odd-even item c o r r e la tio n fo r 181 ten th grade stu d en ts) r a n g in g from .6 8 9

1.

Personal communication from M iss Agatha Townsend, R e s e a r c h A s s i s t a n t , Educational Records Bureau, January, 1950.

62 9

on ra ta o f read in g to a t o t a l s c o r e r e s u l t o f •918*’ W ith r e l a t i o n t o v a l i d i t y , th e manual s t a t e s . . . In g e n e r a l, v a l i d i t y may b e s t he ex p r e sse d i n term s o f th e e x te n t t o w h ich th e t e s t s e t s up s it u a t io n s c a l l i n g in t o p lay the s k i l l s or a b i l i t i e s w h ich e x p e rien ced o b se r v e r s con­ s id e r fundam ental to s u c c e s s i n a g iv e n f i e l d . Such judgm ents a re rep resen ted by t h e o p in io n s o f ex p e r ie n c e d t e a c h e r s , th e recommendations o f co m m ittees and o th e r q u a l i f i e d a u t h o r i t i e s , e tc . 3 The manual i n d ic a t e s t h a t e x a m in a tio n of th e t e s t i t s e l f r e v e a ls th e e x te n t t o whioh th e q u a l i t i e s exam ined r e p r e s e n t r e a l l y v a l i d m easuring instrum ents* P e r s o n a li t y T e sts I t has b een found t h a t p aper and p e n c il p e r s o n a lit y t e s t s a r e sometim es open to s im u la t io n .

A

One i n v e s t i g a t o r remarked c o n c e r n in g t h i s

s it u a t io n th a t . . . many prooedures f o r th e s tu d y o f p e r s o n a lit y r e l y upon th e s u b j e c t 's s e l f - d i a g n o s i s and r e v e l a t i o n of h is p r iv a t e w o rld o f p erso n a l m eanings and f e e l i n g s whioh th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n compels t h e in d iv id u a l t o c o n c e a l, ev en i f , as i s u n u s u a l, he had any c le a r u n d e r sta n d in g o f h im s e lf .5 S im u la tio n and oon o ea lm en t oombine t o make p e r s o n a lit y a p p r a is a l d iffic u lt*

However i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e v is e te c h n iq u e s w h ioh can overcome

th e se o b s ta c le s to a c c u r a t e a p p r a i s a l .

There has b een a grow in g body o f

p s y c h o lo g ic a l th o u g h t v iiic h has b e e n ooncerned w ith t r y in g t o e l i c i t from th e a ib je o t a p ic tu r e o f h i s p e r s o n a lit y n o t from r e s p o n s e s t o s t im u li the meanings of which th e ex p e r im e n te r h as a r b i t r a r i l y d e c id e d , b u t r a th er from

"zl 3* 4* 5.

Manual f o r Forms Am ( r e v i s e d ) , Bm ( r e v i s e d ) . Cm and Dm o f Iowa S i le n t Reading T e s t s , Advanced T e s t , p* 5 . I b W ., p* 3 . A. E l l i s , ” The V a l i d i t y o f P e r s o n a l it y Q u e s t io n n a ir e s ,” P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u lle t in , 4 5 , 1 9 4 6 , p* 4 2 0 . L. K* Frank, ”P r o j e o t iv e M ethods f o r t h e Study o f P e r s o n a l i t y , ” Journal of P sy ch o lo g y , 8 , 1 9 3 9 , pp* 3 8 9 -4 1 5 .

63 responses to a f i e l d o f r a th e r vague and form less s t i m u l i upon w h io h t h e su b jeot has projeoted h is own meanings. methods, Frank

Concerning t h e s e p r o j e c t i v e

remarked

. . . The su b ject w i l l respond to h is meaning o f t h e p r e s e n t e d s tim u lu s -s itu a tio n by some form of a c tio n and f e e l i n g t h a t i s ex p ressiv e of h is p e r s o n a lity . Such resp on ses may b e c o n ­ s t i t u t i v e aB when the su b ject imposes a s t r u c t u r e o r fo r m o r co n fig u ra tio n (G e sta lt) upon an amorphous, p l a s t i o , u n s t r u c ­ tured substance such as c la y , f in g e r p r in ts , or u p on p a r t i a l l y stru ctu red and sem i-organized f i e l d lik e th e R o r s c h a c h c a r d s »6 Group Rorsohaoh Test In view of t t e s e reasons i t was decided to c o n s id e r t h e Group Rorschach T est.

This i s a p r o je c tiv e t e s t in -which e x a m in e e s v ie w in k

b lo ts whioh have been p ro jected on a screen .

The b l o t s a r e p r o j e c t i o n s

enlarged from Kodasoope s l i d e reproductions o f th e t e n o r i g i n a l R o rso h a o h ink b l o t s .

The exam inees, i n the time lim it p r e s c r ib e d , w r i t e o n s p e c i a l l y

prepared "Group Rorschach Blanks" (arranged by n arrow er) "w hat t h e s e in k b l o t s , or any parts of them, resemble or look l i k e ," 7 t o t h e m . C onsideration of th e Rorschach Test dem onstrated t h a t i t m et t h e variou s c r it e r ia c it e d .

The Rorschach Test has b een em p lo y ed v e r y w i d e l y

fo r th e ev a lu a tio n o f personal adjustment by Abel,® M unroe,® Ross-*-0 and o th e r s.

That the Rorsohaoh Test r e f le c t s changes i n p e r s o n a l i t y a d ju stm e n t

was demonstrated by G a b riel, S potnitz and S i e g e l ^ and H ertzm an and 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11,

I b id . , p. 403. In stru ctio n s t o examinees on the Group Rorsohaoh B la n k , a r r a n g e d b y M. R. narrower, P sy c h o lo g ica l Corporation, New Y ork C i t y . T. M. Abel, "Group Rorschach Testing in a V o c a t io n a l H igji S o h o o l," Rar3ohach Research Exchange, 9 , 1945, pp. 1 7 8 - 1 8 8 . R. L. Munroe, '’P r e d ic tio n of the Adjustment and A cad em ic P erfo rm a n ce of C ollege Students by a M od ification of th e R o rsch a ch M eth od ," Applied Psychology Monographs, 7, 1945. W. D. Ross, wThe C ontribution of the Rorschach M ethod t o C l i n i c a l D iagnosis," Journal o f Mental Soienoe, 8 7 , 1 9 4 1 , p p . 3 3 1 - 3 4 0 . B. G ab riel, H. S p o tn itz and M. G. S ie g e l, " I n t e r v ie w Group T h era p y w ith a Neurobio A dolescent G irl S u fferin g fr o m C h o rea ," The P ra ctice of Group Therapy, pp. 191-219.

64

M argu lies.*'*

As to s u i t a b i l i t y , t h e language f a c t o r i s alm ost n e g lig ib le

i n th e Rorsohaoh a d m in is tr a t io n , i t i s co n sid ered in t e r e s t in g and the p r o ce ss o f ta k in g the t e s t i s one o f c o n tin u o u s, a o t iv e p a r t ic ip a t io n . Q u a n tif ic a tio n o f th e Rorsohaoh T e s t h as e x is t e d from i t s in c e p tio n as a d ia g n o s t ic p e r s o n a lit y t e c h n iq u e .

Rorsohaoh

13 h im s e lf had s e t up standard

ran ges o f r e sp o n ses f o r n o rm a ls, n e u r o tio s and p s y o h o t ic s .

A b el,*^ Hertz

and Hertzman and M argulies*® have a l s o d e s c r ib e d some norms f o r a d o le sc e n t g ro u p s.

As t o r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y , th e r e have been stu d ie s to

e s t a b l i s h th e s t a t u s o f t h e t e s t w ith r e s p e o t t o th e s e c o n s id e r a tio n s. Hertz*^ o b ta in ed r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s on some of th e important d e te r ­ m inants from .3 0 t o .8 6 on a p o p u la tio n of normal a d u lt s , c o r r e la tin g th e r e sp o n se s on th e odd numbered b l o t s a g a in s t th e r e sp o n se s on the even numbered b l o t s .

Spearman-Brown Prophecy form ula c o r r e c tio n s o f th ese co­

e f f i c i e n t s changed t h e ran ge t o from .7 3 t o .9 1 . was s e v e n ty .

The number of s u b je c ts

V a lid a t io n o f t h e te c h n iq u e was e s t a b lis h e d , at le a s t fo r

o e r ta in pur p o s e s , by Krugman*8 and Munroe.*® Cowan A d o le sc e n t A djustm ent A nalyzer The Cowan A d o lesc en t A djustm ent A n a ly zer, P relim in a ry E d itio n (h ere­ a f t e r c a lle d Cowan A n a ly z e r ) i s a q u e s tio n n a ir e paper and p e n c il p erson ality

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

M. Hertzman and H. M a r g u lie s , "D evelopm ental Changes as R e fle c te d in R orschach T e st P erform an ces," Jou rn al o f g e n e tic Psychology, 6 2 , 1943, pp. 1 8 9 -2 1 5 . H. R orsohaoh, P s y o h o d ia g n o s tic s , p p. 5 6 -1 1 9 . A b e l, o p . c i t . M. R. H e r tz , "R orschach Norms f o r an A d o lescen t Age-Group," Child D evelopm ent, 6 , 1 9 3 5 , pp. 6 9 -7 6 . Hertzman and M a r g u lie s , op . p i t . M. R . H e r tz , " R e l i a b i l i t y o f th e Rorschach Ink B lot T est," Psycho­ l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n , 1 8 , 193 4 , pp. 4 6 1 -4 7 7 . J . I . Krugman, **A C l i n i c a l V a lid a t io n o f t h e Rorsohaoh w ith Problem C h ild ren ," R orsohaoh R esearch Exchange, 6 , 1942, pp. 6 1 -7 0 . Munroe, o p . c i t . , p p. 3 9 -4 4 .

65 t e s t which c o n s is t s o f n in ety -sev en q u estio n s t o b e a n sw ered b y t h e su b ject ’’y e s," "no,” nr "?•"

I t 1 b probably su b je c t t o a l l o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s

whioh E l l i s ' 20 and Frank*2^ have ascribed to suoh I n s t r u m e n t s .

The c a t e ­

g o r ies examined by t h i s technique are fe a r , f a m ily e m o tio n , f a m il y author­ i t y , f e e lin g s o f inadequacy, non-fam ily a u t h o r it y , m a t u r it y , n e u r o t ic , and compensation.

R e su lts are in terp reted in term s o f ”Tn s c o r e s .

Some data

are a v a ila b le fo r a la rg e u n seleoted high s o h o o l a d o le s o e n t group (N ■ 500) and seven d ev ia te b eh a v io ra l groups.

With r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n

c r it e r ia o f t h is stu d y , t h is technique was s e l e o t e d m a in ly b e c a u s e i t i s an adjustment e v a lu a tio n , beoause i t i s sim ple i n la n g u a g e and e a s y t o admin­ i s t e r , because i t i s concerned w ith th e problem a r e a s of* t h e a g e group in t h is study and r e s u lt s are q u a n tifia b le . prelim inary stan d ard s. sc a n t.

As p o in t e d o u t , t h e r e a r e some

Data concerning v a l i d i t y a r e a s y e t a d m itte d ly

However i t i s to be noted th a t the u n s e le o t e d h ig h s o h o o l group

admitted t o ap p recia b ly moredisturbance

i n t h e a r e a o f in a d e q u a c y f e e lin g s

than in any other a r e a . This has been a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e a d o le s c e n t, w. . . recognized many tim es and has been p r e d ic t e d a s a l o g i c a l c h a r a c te r ­ i s t i c o f th a t age l e v e l . ,,*2‘2 Mainly the au th ors have in ferred v a l i d i t y i n sh o w in g t h e c l e a r d i f f e r ­ ences in favor o f t h e ir u n seleoted high so h o o l group a s a g a i n s t t h e d e v ia te b ehavioral groups.

Thus the co n tro l group ( u n s e l e o t e d ) e v id e n c e d l e s s im­

m aturity than th e c h ild r e n from broken homes and l e s s t e n d e n c y toward neuro t io symptoms.

The c o n tro l group showed l e s s in a d e q u a c y f e e l i n g s than th e

delinquent group.

20. 21. 22.

T his technique was employed i n t h i s s tu d y a s a d ev ice to

E l l i s , op. c i t . Frank, op. c i t . E. A. Cowan, W. J . M ueller and E. W eathers, M anual o f D ir e c t io n s and I n te r p r e tiv e Guide fo r the Cowan A d o le s o e n t A d ju stm e n t A n a ly zer, 1946, pp. 4 - 7 .

66

perm it t h e s u b j e c t s t o e v a lu a te th e m s e lv e s. S o c i a l A o c e p t a b ilit y T est A m o d if ic a t io n o f th e Ohio S o c ia l A ccep tan ce S ca le -was used t o obtain e v a lu a tio n s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

T hese were e v a lu a tio n s of th e

s u b je c ts* a c c e p ta n c e or r e j e c t i o n by t h e i r p e e r s .

This i s a s i x p oin t

s c a le w hioh p r o v id e s f o r th e r a tin g (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 or 6 ) by each in d iv id u a l o f the d eg ree o f a c c e p ta n c e of each other p erson in her o la ss to h e r s e l f . I t is b ased . . . on t h e a ssu m p tio n th a t s o c i a l a c c e p ta n c e i s measurable in term s of s o c i a l d is t a n c e , w hich may be co n c e iv e d o f as a oontinuum r a n g in g from very c lo s e a c c e p ta n c e t o d e f in i t e r e j e c ­ t i o n . Thus an i n d i v i d u a l ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f an other as a v e r y , v e r y c l o s e f r ie n d im p lie s v e r y c l o s e a ccep ta n ce, w h ile an I n d iv id u a l's u n w illin g n e s s to a ccep t a n o th er or th e u n w illin g ­ n e s s o f o th e r s to a c c e p t him a s a f r i e n d , im p lie s r e je c tio n .* ® T his i s an e x tr e m e ly sim p le d e v ice w h ich i s ap p rop riate f o r the age group w it h w hich i t w as u s e d .

I t is q u a n tifia b le .

Evidence concern in g the

v a l i d i t y o f t h i s s c a l e was in fe r r e d from s e v e r a l s tu d ie s in which i t was u se d .

T hese s t u d ie s used what Raths

24

ii

c a l l e d the " C riter io n Groups T est of

V a lid it y ” in w hich t e a c h e r s were asked t o i d e n t i f y th o s e o h ild ren in th e group who seemed t o be a c cep ted and th o se who were ap p aren tly r e j e c t e d .

In

th e se e x p lo r a t io n s v e r y o f t e n c lo s e agreem ent ob tain ed between th e judgment o f com petent and inform ed te a c h e r s and t h e t e s t r e s u l t s . a d m in iste r e d t o a l l t h i r t y s u b j e c t s , i t was termed SA 3 0 .

VSheaa. -the t e s t was When given to

groups s e p a r a t e ly , i t was c a lle d SA 10.

23. 24.

M. M. D ir k s , F a c to r s A s so c ia te d w ith the S o c ia l A cceptance of C ollege S tu d e n ts i n Home Economics w ith I m p lic a tio n s fo r Guidance, A b stract o f D o cto r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , The Ohio S t a te U n iv e r s ity , 1944, pp. 8 -9 . L. R a th s, E v id en ce R e la tin g to th e V a l i d i t y of th e S o c ia l Aooeptanoe T e s t , u n p u b lish ed ty p e w r itte n s ta t e m e n t .

67 R ating S c a l e The Hayes ’’P e r so n a lity Rating S o a le f o r th e A d o le s c e n t in the S c h o o l,” employed as a relev a n t co n tro l v a r ia b le , was d e s ig n e d p r im a r ily f or use by teachers*

I t s purpose i s to show th e h a b it p a t t e r n s o f a d o le s o e n ts in

terms of d e s ir a b le or undesirable p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p m e n t* o f one hundred ite m s, each of which i s pattern*

I t i s composed

p u r p o r te d t o r e p r e s e n t a h a b it

These item s are th e remainder o f a l a r g e r number o f item s v a l i -

dated by having a group o f one hundred c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s i n advanced psychology cou rses vote upon each ite m a s t o t h e d e g r e e o f r e la tio n s h ip of each item t o p e r s o n a lity adjustm ent.

Then t h e s e same it e m s were evalu ated

by a group of tw elve experts (not s p e c i f i e d f u r t h e r ) i n e d u c a tio n and psyohiatry*

Subjects are rated as d e s c r ib e d b y e a c h ite m i n terms of

" tr u e ,” " fa ls e ," or "unoertain."

The a r e a s o f b e h a v io r co v e r e d inolude

r e la tio n s to o th ers g e n e r a lly , r e s p e c t f o r t h e r ig j h t s o f o t h e r s , r e la t io n s to te a c h e r s, r e la tio n s t o other p u p ils , i n i t i a t i v e , h e a l t h h a b it s , g en era l in te r e s t s and sch o la rsh ip and study h a b i t s * b a sis of d iscrim in a tio n of

V a l i d i t y w as assumed on the

d e s ir a b le and u n d e s i r a b le p e r s o n a lit ie s in

ad o lescen t c h i l d r e n . A l t h o u g h i t seem ed l o g i c a l t o i n f e r th a t t h is so a le had a l l o f the lim ita tio n s commonly a s s o c i a t e d w it h p e r s o n a lit y q u estio n n a ires and ra tin g s c a le s , n e v e r t h e l e s s i t was u se d because o f i t s d ir e c t relev a n ce to the age range o f our s u b j e c t s a n d b e c a u s e of i t s r e la t iv e lad e o f tec h n ic a l jargon and s i m p l i c i t y o f a d m in is tr a t io n . Im provised D e v ic e s In order t o f i l l in gaps crea ted by t h e la c k s o f t h e stan d ard ized

25*

M* Hayes, ”A Scale fo r E valu atin g A d o le s c e n t P e r s o n a l i t y ," P edagogical Seminary and Journal o f G e n e tic P s y c h o lo g y , 3 9 , 1 9 3 4 , pp. 206-221.

t e c h n iq u e s , t h e ex p er im en ter d ev ised th e tech niq ues d escrib e d b elow . S tu d en t Log, "I" Chart and Contam ination Control S tu d e n ts i n t h e d is o u a s io n group w ere asked to w r ite a "log" each w eek.

A t t h e end o f eaoh s e s s io n approxim ately f iv e m inutes were s e t

a s id e f o r t h i s p u r p o se .

The lo g was a d ev ice by means of w hich d is c u s s io n

group members e v a lu a te d th em selv es and eaoh o th er w ith r e l a t io n t o each d is o u s s io n .

They in d ic a t e d who among them spoke o f te n , made good p o in ts ,

w ere oalm , w ere su r e o f th e m se lv e s, spoke f r e e ly or h e s it a n t ly about th e ir p e r s o n a l p rob lem s and o th e r o b s e r v a tio n s .

This was a paper and p e n c il

b la n k on w h ioh th e s u b j e c t s w rote names o f the persons whom th ey s in g le d o u t eaoh s e s s i o n . o f t h is d e v io e . p e r io d eaoh w ee k .

No c la im s can be made fo r th e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y I t was m eanin gful - an in t e g r a l p art o f th e d iso u s sio n I t reco rd ed changes a s the stu d en ts observed them.

A sim p le te c h n iq u e , th e "I" c h a r t, was s e t up i n whioh a l l t h ir t y s u b j e c t s e v a lu a te d th e m s e lv e s a t th e end of th e experim en tal p eriod w ith r e l a t i o n t o some o f th e "log" q u e s tio n s .

They were asked t o say whether

th ey had im p roved, r e t r o g r e s s e d or remained th e same as th ey had been b e fo r e th e ex p erim en t was begun. A c o n t r o l d e v io e a g a in s t contam ination was a p p lied t o th e c o n tr o l group ( C - l ) a t th e end o f th e d is c u s s io n s e r i e s . q u e s t io n s .

I t c o n s is te d o f f iv e

Only one q u e s tio n r e la te d t o how many tim es v a r io u s members

o f th e c o n t r o l group had spoken about s u b je c ts d isc u sse d i n th e classroom was o o n sid e r e d im p o r ta n t. R ecordings A d is k r e c o r d in g m achine (P r e s to ) was used to record most o f th e

69 d is c u s s io n s e s s io n s . io a l d i f f i c u l t i e s .

Two d is c u s s io n s w e r e n o t r e c o r d e d because of mechanThe reco rd in g o f th e E—1 s e s s i o n s was m onitored by a

member of the th ird year c l a s s .

The r e c o r d in g o f 1±ie E-2 s e ss io n s was

monitored by a member of th e s e n io r c l a s s .

N e it h e r m onitor took part i n

the d is c u s s io n s . Procedure f o r C o llec tin g Data In t h i s s e c tio n w i l l be d is c u s s e d t h e p r o c e d u r e s Involved in s e t t i n g up th e matched groups, o r ie n tin g t h e s t u d e n t s a n d a d m in iste r in g th e t e s t s , the group d iso u ssio n procedures, t h e e x p e r im e n t a l d e s ig n and methods o f s t a t i s t i c a l treatm ent of the d a ta . S e ttin g Up t h e M atch ed G roups Mien i t had been deoided more o r l e s s

a r b i t r a r i l y by 1he in v e s t ig a t o r

th a t a d isc u s sio n group o f te n members w o u ld be a b o u t th e proper s i z e f o r the p r o j e c t,* the in v e s tig a to r s e a r c h e d th r o u g h t h e permanent record oards of the sophomore c la s s fo r t h i r t y g i r l s who c o u ld be paired on the b a s is o f in t e llig e n c e q u o tie n t.

I t was assum ed t h a t i t w o u ld not be p o ssib le to

match s u b je c ts on the b a sis o f p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t

so o res.

I f th is was n ot

p o s s ib le , i t would then become n e c e s s a r y t o m a tch on the b asis of a o o n t r o l v a r ia b le which had a p o s it iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p w it h p e r s o n a lit y .

26

data a v aila b le to in d ic a te th a t s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s m igh t e x i s t . of Terman and Jones pointed out s u c h t r e n d s .

There w ere The s t u d i e s

2.7

A ccordingly the in v e s t ig a t o r s e t up t h r e e g r o u p s o f ten s u b je c ts e a c h , c o n s titu te d as ten t r i p l e t s e a c h , m atch ed w i t h r e l a i d on to in t e llig e n c e on *

I t may be re c a lle d th a t group t h e r a p i s t s h a v e worked w ith as few as th r e e and as many as s e v e r a l h un d red s u b j e c t s . 26. A. Edwards, S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s , p . 2 9 3 . 27. V. Jon es, 11Character D evelopm ent i n C h i l d r e n , ” p p . 714-718, in Manual o f Child Psychology, e d it e d by L . C a r m ic h a e l.

70 t h e Obis IQ e q u iv a le n ts o f th e ACE.

Two members of eaoh t r i p l e t were

p la c e d i n s e p a r a te ex p er im en ta l or d is o u s s io n groups and the th ir d member was p la c e d i n th e c o n t r o l group.

Sex and sc h o o l grade

v i r t u e o f th e nature o f th e p r o j e o t.

were equated by

Socio-eoonom ic s ta tu s was much the

sam e, a s in f e r r e d from a tten d a n ce a t a fe e -o h a r g in g s c h o o l. The f i n a l d i s p o s i t i o n o f group membership was made j o i n t l y by th e s c h o o l a d m in is tr a t io n and the experim enter a f t e r c a r e fu l c o n s id e r a tio n o f ea ch s t u d e n t ' s cu rricu lu m demands.

This d eterm in ation did not r e s u lt in a

d is tu r b a n c e o f th e a lr e a d y s e t up t r i p l e t s , alth ough s e v e r a l stu d en ts were s h i f t e d in to d i f f e r e n t groups from th e ones in which th ey had been o r i g i n a l l y p la c e d .

Thus f a r th e groups e x is t e d on ly on paper.

i n t e l l i g e n c e s t a t u s o f th e groups was d is tr ib u te d as below .

The

71 TABLE II

Groups of S ubjects M atohed on ACE O tis IQ E quivalents* T rip le t

** E - l

E -2

G-l

1

133

135

132

2

130

130

125

3

122

123

119

4

122

121

119

5

118

119

117

6

118

116

114

7

112

117

114

8

111

113

111

9

111

111

108

10

107

108

102

1 1 8 .4

119

116.1

Mean** SD T otal Mean T otal SD

8 .0 9

8 .2 2

8.06

1 1 7 .8 3 8 .2 2

Examination of th e se d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n d i c a t e s th a t th e m atching had been very clo se although i t d o e s n o t q u i t e m eet th e standards i n d i c a t e d b y P e te rs and Van Voorhis^® t h a t no d is c r e p a n c y between matchings sh o u ld exceed more than te n per c e n t of t h e r a n g e o f th e sc o res.

I t may b e n o te d

t h a t the means are only 2.9 p o i n t s a p a r t . However, when th e p r e - t e s t s had b e e n g iv e n (before d is c u s s io n s had * ** *** 28.

A ll s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s vrere com puted from ungrouped d a ta . E -l, E-2 and C-l were t h e names o f t h e two experim ental gro u p s and one c o n tro l group. A ll s t a t i s t i c a l form ulae a r e t o be found in th e appendix. C. C. P e ters and W. R. Van V o o r h is , S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures and T h e ir M athematical Bases, p p . 4 4 8 -4 4 9 .

72

b e e n s t a r t e d ) and s c o r e d i t seemed obvious upon in s p e c t io n t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een "good i n t e l l i g e n c e ” and "good ch a ra cter development" w h io h J o n es^ 0 had c i t e d d id n ot o b ta in f o r t h is sam ple.

A cco rd in g ly , to

v e r i f y t h i s o b s e r v a tio n , th e in v e s t ig a t o r computed c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e la ­ t i o n b etw een the i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n t e q u iv a le n ts o f t h e ACE and th e v a r io u s i n i t i a l t e s t d is t r ib u t io n s o f sco reso

At th e same tim e such

o o e f f i c i e n t e w ere o b ta in e d f o r a l l o f th e i n i t i a l t e s t s w ith each o th er. C o e f f i c i e n t o f C o r r e la t io n I t i s a p p r o p r ia te t o e x p la in t h i s term .

The o o e f f i o i e n t of c o r r e la ­

t i o n i s a m easure o f d i r e c t or in v e r se r e la t io n s h ip or a s s o c ia t io n between tw o v a r i a b l e s .

I t i s denoted by r , th e product-moment c o e f f i c i e n t ,

o r i g i n a l l y d ev elo p ed by Pearson.*50

Concerning the o o e f f i o i e n t o f c o r r e la ­

t i o n , G arrett*5^ s u g g e s t s broad and t e n t a t i v e c r i t e r i a by whioh th ey may be e v a lu a t e d . r from

.0 0 t o

± .2 0

d en otes in d if f e r e n t or n e g lig a b le r e la tio n s h ip ;

r from

£ .2 0 t o 1 .4 0

d en otes low c o r r e la t io n ; p resen t but s li g h t ;

r from

^ .4 0 t o

d en otes s u b s t a n t ia l or marked r e la t io n s h ip ;

r from

£ ,7 0 t o —1 .0 0

70

d en otes h ig h t o v ery high r e l a t i o n .

F u r th e r he s t a t e s t h a t a c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e la t io n sh ou ld always be c o n s id e r e d w ith regard t o

29. 30. 31.

1.

The n a tu r e of th e m a te r ia l d e a lt w ith ;

2.

PEr;

3.

The s i z e and v a r i a b i l i t y o f th e group;

4.

The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s o f th e t e s t s ; and

J o n e s, o£. c i t . H. E. G a r r e tt, S t a t i s t i c s in P sych ology and E d u cation , p. 257. I b i d ., p. 342.

73

5.

The purpose f o r w hioh t h e r was computed.

A nalysis of C o e ffic ie n ts o f C o r r e la t io n Among I n i t i a l Tests Having discussed t h e m eaning and im p lic a tio n s o f the c o e f f i c i e n t o f co rrela tio n , the i n v e s t i g a t o r c o n s id e r e d th a t i t might be w e l l t o

exam ine

the d istr ib u tio n s of i n i t i a l t e s t s c o r e s and th e ir c o - r e la t io n s h ip s . TABLE I I I D istrib u tion o f I n i t i a l T e st R orsch ach In sp ectio n Technique S o o r e s * T rip let

E -l

E-2

0-1

1

8

8

12

2

13

16

6

3

18

14

10

4

16

9

12

5

9

10

8

6

9

13

14

7

15

8

12

8

3

9

9

9

9

5

14

10

14

17

9

Ma SD

s

1 1 .4

M = 10.9

4 .3 2

SD = 3.7

M = 1 0 .6 SD S

2 .5

Total Mean 1 0 .9 7 Total SD

3 .5 9

Scrutiny of th e se d i s t r i b u t i o n s arranged as per IQ m atching made i t

*

Horsohaoh I n s p e c tio n T ech n iq u e s o o r e s are sums of n eg a tiv e R orsohaoh ob servation s. T h e r e f o r e , t h e h ig h e r the sco re, the more m a la d ju s te d i s the in d iv id u a l.

74

e v id e n t th a t th e R orsch ach s c o r e r e la t io n s h ip s did not p a r a lle l th o se of t h e ACS t e s t * TABLE IV D is t r ib u t io n s o f I n i t i a l T est Cowan A dolesoent Adjustment A nalyzer Soores* T r ip le t

E -l

E-2

C -l

1

6

15

8

2

0

18

0

3

30

38

6

4

1

16

12

5

7

13

0

6

15

11

45

7

6

8

14

8

2

9

13

9

14

11

0

10

4

8

0

8 .4

OS

SD r

II

SD = 8 .6

M s 1 4 .7

a

M = 8.5

SD = 12

T o ta l M - 11 T o ta l SD = 1 0 .5 4 These d i s t r i b u t i o n s too are q u ite d if f e r e n t from th e d is tr ib u tio n s of i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t ie n t s *

*

T hese s o o r e s a re sums o f d e v ia tio n s from a mt"32 sc o r e m iddle range from 40 t o 70* F o r exam p le, a sc o r e of 11 may be composed o f a deviation o f 5 WT" sQore p o in ts below th e group nTn so o re o f 40 and 6 MT" score p o in ts ab ove t h e group 11T'* so o re of 7 0 . MT” s c o r e s were computed for t h i s sam ple (N ■* 30) based upon t h e ir raw sco res* 3 2 . I b i d . , p p . 1 5 2 -1 5 5 .

75 TABLE V

D istrib u tio n o f I n i t i a l T e st Ohio S ta te S o o ia l A o o e p ta b ility S c a le S o o r e s * When T est Was A d m in iste r e d t o E n tire Group in One S e t t i n g (SA 30 ) T r ip le t

E -l

E-2

C -l

1

1 1 4 .4

35.6

3 9 .6

2

65 .2

45.2

1 0 6 .3

3

6 4 .4

19.2

8 4 .0

4

60*4

104.3

6 0 .4

5

8 1 .2

85.6

54.

6

1 1 0 .4

8 4.3

54.

7

8 2 .0

8 1.6

88.

8

8 2 .4

36.3

4 4 .3

9

9 5 .2

3 6.0

92.

10

9 7 .6

89.2

6 6 .4

M r 8 5 .3 2 SD « 1 7 .9 5

M r 61.38 SD

S

28.56

M = 6 9 .0 0 SD = 2 1 .2 7

T o ta l M a 7 2 .0 7 T o ta l SD r 2 5 .2 6 Again th er e w as a w id e d e v ia t io n from the d is t r ib u t io n s o f IQ s c o r e s on the ACE.

*

These are w e ig h te d s c o r e s o b ta in e d by the technique s u g g e s t e d by B r . L . E. Raths, D i r e c t o r , Bureau o f Research, Sohool of E d u c a tio n , New York U n iv e r s ity , i n s e p a r a t e mimeographed in s tr u c tio n s .

76 TABLE VI D i s t r i b u t io n o f I n i t i a l T est Ohio S t a t e S o c ia l A o o e p t a b ilit y Scale Scores* "When T e s t Was A d m in istered t o Groups o f Ten (SA 10) T r ip le t

E -l

E-2

C -l

1

1 0 4 .4

2 8 .8

2 7 .6

2

6 1 .2

34.8

115.2

3

5 6 .4

6 8 .4

7 5 .2

4

8 0 .4

109.2

4 4 .4

5

9 2 .4

103 .2

5 7 .6

6

1 0 4 .4

8 7 .6

5 7 .6

7

5 1 .6

7 5 .6

64.8

8

8 5 .2

4 4 .4

5 5 .2

9

9 1 .2

6 1.2

6 0 .0

10

9 2 .4

7 5 .6

4 5 .6

M = 8 1 .9 6

6 8 .8 8

6 0 f 32

SD = 1 8 .2 5

2 5 .6 3

2 1 .8 6

T o ta l M = 7 0 .3 2 T o t a l SD s 2 3 .8 7 T his s e t o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s t o o seems to in d ic a te ra th e r wide dis­ c r e p a n c ie s fro m th e d i s t r i b u t io n o f AGE i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t ie n t s .

It seemed,

t h e r e f o r e , i n ord er, t o exam ine th e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e la t io n between these i n i t i a l t e s t s and th e ACE IQ e q u iv a le n ts t o s e e w hat, i f any, relationships e x is te d .

*

These to o a r e w e ig h te d s c o r e s o b ta in e d by th e same procedure mentioned above•

77 TABLE VII

C o e f f i c i e n t s o f C o r r e la tio n of Zero Order o f I n i t i a l T e s t s PEr

S ig n if ic a n c e L ev el*

— 03**

12

above 5%

30

—13

12

above 5%

14

30

— 15

12

above

23

30

-#-32

11

above 5%

24

30

+12

12

above 5%

34

30

+ 36

16

a t 5%

r

N

Value

12

30

13

A c o n s id e r a t io n o f t h e s e r e su lts in d icates th a t what was a n t i c i p a t e d , a p o s itiv e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een the in te llig e n c e s o o r e s and t h e v a r i o u s p erso n a lity m easures* d id n o t o b ta in .

I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e , i n

p assin g, th a t t h e r e i s a s l i g h t p o sitiv e c o r r e la tio n among t h e s e v e r a l p e rso n a lity e v a lu a t io n s and th e s o c ia l distance s o a le and t h e p ap er and p en cil p e r s o n a lit y a p p r a is a l (Cowan).

Noteworthy a l s o i s t h e f a c t t h a t

these l a s t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e e ith e r sig n ific a n t or v e r y c l o s e t o s i g n i f i ­ cant.

I t sh o u ld be rsn ark ed th a t a l l three r e la t io n s h ip s b e tw e e n i n t e l l i ­

gence and p e r s o n a li t y a r e n e g l i g i b l e , but n e g a tiv e . However, a t t h i s p o in t in the experiment d is c u s s io n s had b e e n s t a r t e d and i t was t o o l a t e t o a tte m p t a resh u fflin g of th e g r o u p s .

T h e r e fo r e t h e

s e r ie s o f d i s c u s s i o n s was con tin ued to the end of t h e e x p e r im e n ta l p e r i o d . Then the f i n a l t e s t s w ere ad m in istered , scored and t a b u la t e d .

1." 2. 3. 4. * **

ACE Rorschach I n s p e c t io n Technique. Cov/an A n a ly z e r . SA 3 0 . S ig n if ic a n c e i n d i c a t e s whether an observed v a lu e o f r i s to r e j e c t a h y p o th e s is of zero c o r r e la tio n . Decimals a r e n o t used i n presenting these d a ta .

l a r g e en ou gh

78

At t h i s

tim e th e ex p erim en ter fa c e d a problem common to many in v e sti­

g a to r s -working w ith human s u b j e c t s *

how t o a c h ie v e matched groups.

A c c o r d in g t o L in d q u is t ^ t h i s i s a r a th e r u su a l s i t u a t i o n .

Many research­

e r s o o n d u o t t h e i r exp erim en ts t o t h e i r p ro ced u ra l c o n clu sio n and then do t h e i r m a tc h in g a t th e c l o s e o f th e e x p e r im e n t.

T h is , of course,

n e c e s s i t a t e s d is c a r d in g some o f t h e c a s e s b ecau se o f problems in securing c l o s e m a t c h in g s . E s t a b lis h in g C o n tr o ls b y M atching In d iv id u a ls I n o r d e r t o g e t a m atching w hich had meaning f o r t h is particular s t u d y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r n e x t lo o k ed i n t o th e r e la t io n s h ip s between in it ia l and f i n a l t e s t s c o r e s and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een other relevant extrae x p e r im e n t a l f a c t o r s and p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s .

I t may be recalled that

r e l a t i o n s h i p s among i n i t i a l t e s t s c o r e s had been in v e s tig a te d without p r o f i t f o r th e ex p erim en t.

T h e r e fo r e , c o e f f i c i e n t s o f correlation (zero

o r d e r ) w e r e so u g h t f o r t h e s e f a c t o r s f o r group C -l o n ly . • w ill be r e c a l l e d , d id n o t p a r t ic ip a t e in th e d is c u s s io n s .

Group C -l, i t Relationships

f o r th em b a se d upon i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t s would se r v e to s a tis fy q u e s t i o n s a b o u t th e r e l i a b i l i t y of th e in stru m en ts b ein g used, to provide a b a s i s f o r p r e d i c t in g f i n a l t e s t s c o r e s f o r t h e two d iscu ssio n groups and f i n a l l y t o p r o v id e a m atching y a r d s t ic k .

I n t h i s experim ent, of course,

th e t o t a l number was t o o s m a ll t o b e u sed i n c a lc u l a t in g a regression e q u a t io n t o e n a b le p r e d ic t io n .

However, r a th er in t e r e s t in g resu lts are to

b e n o te d w i t h r e l a t i o n to c o n t r o l b a se s and r e l i a b i l i t y evaluation.

S3,

E . F . L in d q u is t , S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is i n M duoational Research, p. 181.

79 TABLE Till

C o e f f i c i e n t s o f C orrelation of Zero Order f o r C o n tr o l V a r ia b le s and P o s t - t e s t Experimental Variables and f o r P r e - and P o s t D iscu ssio n Experimental V a r ia b le s S ig n if ic a n c e L ev e l

r

2L

Value

14

10

—06

21

above 5%

15

10

-1 1

15

above 5%

16

10

+ 35

13

above

17

10

-+44

12

above 5%

24

10

00

21

above 5%

25

10

— 09

21

above 5%

26

10

+ 21

20

above 5%

27

10

+ 16

21

above 5%

54

10

t 22

20

above 5%

35

10

+ 33

19

above 5%

56

10

—31

19

above 5%

37

10

-2 6

20

above 5%

*44

10

+ 66

12

a t 4%

*45

10

+39

18

above 5^

*46

10

+ 17

21

above 5%

*47

10

4-20

20

above 5%

*55

10

+ 58

14

above 5%

*54

10

+ 75

09

a lm o s t 1%

*56

10

+ 33

19

above 5%

PE

(c o n tin u e d ) 1. 2. . • • +

A ge. Iov/a S i l e n t Reading Test. Hayes S c a l e . R orschach I n s p e c tio n Technique. Cowan A n a ly z e r . I n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t soore c o r r e la tio n .

80

(c o n tin u e d ) S ig n ific a n c e L evel

r

N

V alue

*57

10

•+ 26

20

above 5%

*66

10

490

04

a t 1%

*64

10

423

20

above b%

*65

10

4 20

20

above 5%

*67

10

489

04

a t 1%

*77

10

486

06

a t 1%

*74

10

+ 35

19

above 5$

*75

10

+ 31

19

above

*76

10

+78

08

PE

at 1%

E x a m in a tio n o f t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n d a ta and em pirical matchings using t h e o t h e r t e s t s as b a se s in d ic a t e d th a t m atch in g on the b asis of the R o r s c h a c h I n s p e c t io n T echniq ue i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t scores would y ield t h e g r e a t e s t number o f u s a b le nm a to h e s.,,**The c o r r e la tio n , 4 6 6 , is fiv e t im e s i t s

p r o b a b le e r r o r and i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e four per cent le v e l,

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t l y large for us to reject the h y p o th e s is o f zero c o r r e la tio n .

M oreover, i t

should be noted that the

c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e i n i t i a l R orsch ach s c o r e s and th e other experimental v a r ia b le s a re p o s itiv e . .{-*66 i s

I t may a l s o be o b se rv ed that t h is c o e ffic ie n t of

t o be compared w ith th a t o f M u n r o e ,^ -+-.65, obtained from the

a g r e e m e n t o f h e r e x p e r t s i n e v a lu a t in g t h e adjustm ent of her subjects. SA 3 0 .

7. * **

SA 1 0 . I n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t s c o r e c o r r e l a t i o n . P r o f e s s o r Baths and th e i n v e s t i g a t o r a g reed th a t the pre- and p o st-te st c o r r e l a t i o n w h ich was b e s t sh o u ld be used as a matohing b a sis. A c t u a l l y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r m atched s e p a r a te ly for each t e s t . 3 4 . M u n roe, £ £ . c i t . , p . 3 3 .

81

However, m atching on the basis of th e R orschach a lo n e y ie ld e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een i n i t i a l group means and t h e r e f o r e s e p a r a te m a tc h in g s w ere made on t h e i n i t i a l scores of eaoh t e s t . C o n sid e r a tio n o f the p o sitiv e c o e f f i c i e n t s o b ta in e d f o r t h e r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip s betw een th e p erso n a lity t e s t s and t h e s o e i a l d is t a n c e s c a l e seem ed t o le a d to an in fe r e n c e that there must be a m e a n in g fu l r e l a t i o n s h i p , a lth o u g h none o f th e correlations is la r g e enough to b e s i g n i f i c a n t s ta tis tic a lly .

N everth eless, they are a l l in one d i r e c t i o n - p o s i t i v e .

To

be n o te d , t o o , i s th e relationsh ip between te a o h e r judgm ents o f b e h a v io r and th e s o c i a l d ista n ce peer evaluation.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p i s

n e g a t iv e in

b o th in s t a n c e s , —,3 1 and —,2 6 . F in a l m atchings are presented in th e n e x t c h a p t e r . Orientation of S u b je o ts A s e t sp eech was not prepared and d e liv e r e d t o th e s u b j e c t s o f t h i s e x p e r im e n t.

The subjeots were fa m ilia r w i t h th e p o s i t i o n and work o f th e

in v e s t i g a t o r b ecau se he had functioned as p s y c h o lo g is t fa r t h e s c h o o l f o r a f u l l y ea r b e fo r e th e experiment began.

S ev era l o f th e stu d e n ts in th e

c l a s s had d is c u s s e d some of th eir minor problem s w it h him d u r in g t h i s p e r io d .

p a st

M oreover, because of an episode o f p e t t y t h e f t s , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r

had o c c a s io n t o interview most of the members o f t h e c la s 3

( a l s o d u r in g t h e

p er io d p a s t ) . N e v e r th e le s s the whole group of t h i r t y s tu d e n ts w ere b rou gh t t o g e t h e r and th e p r o je c te d experiment was d iso u ssed w ith them p r io r t o th e a d m in is ­ t r a t i o n o f the t e s t s .

The purpose of th e exp erim en t was announced a s an

attem p t t o ex p lo r e the relationsh ip betw een group d i s c u s s i o n and p e r s o n a l­ ity ,

The need f o r control and experim en tal grou p s was d is c u s s e d wi t h th em .

A l l q u e s t io n s concerning the experiment w e r e a n sw ered .

The p rob lem w h ich

82 seem ed t o rank as m ost s e r i o u s t o t h e s t u d e n t s concerning the experiment waa why had some p e o p le b e e n put i n t o t h e o o n tro l group and others in the e x p e r im e n ta l g r o u p .

They w ere a s s u r e d t h a t the placement was a rb itrary.

seo o n d problem was c a u sed by th e n o n - in c lu s io n in the experiment of some members o f t h e c l a s s . l e f t o u t.

They w ere in fo rm ed as to reasons for t h e ir being

Such r e a s o n s w e r e

c l a s s , and 3 ) n o t f i t t i n g

l ) la c k of t e s t data, 2) newness in the

i n t o th e i n t e l l i g e n c e equating.

A d m in is tr a tio n and S co rin g of Tests The S o c i a l A c c e p t a b i l i t y t e s t (SA 30) and the Cowan Analyzer were a d m in is te r e d i n one s i t t i n g d is c u s s io n s e r i e s .

t o th e e n t i r e group, both before and a fte r the

S tu d e n ts w ere s e a t e d on both occasions in a room

d e s ig n e d t o aocoramodate a t l e a s t f o r t y s tu d e n ts .

A period of fo r ty

m in u te s was a llo w e d f o r t h e a d m in is t r a t io n o f these two t e s t s .

The time

a llo w a n c e was more th a n a m p le, A p r in te d s e t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s w as r e a d to the students in adm inister­ in g t h e S o c i a l A c c e p t a b i l i t y t e s t s .

F i r s t a sheet of paper lis t in g

a l p h a b e t i c a l l y t h e t h i r t y s tu d e n t s i n th e experiment was d istrib u ted to each stu d e n t. own nam es.

Then th e y w ere in s t r u c t e d to place a number 4 next to th eir

A f te r t h i s had b een done, t h e stu d en ts assigned numbers to a l l

o f t h e o th e r names r e p r e s e n t in g th e s o c i a l d istan ce they f e l t for these g ir ls .

These a s s ig n m e n ts or c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s were as follow s from

a c c e p ta n c e t o r e j e o t i o n * 1,

"My v e r y , v e r y b e s t f r i e n d s ."

2,

"My o t h e r f r i e n d s ."

3,

"Not f r i e n d s , b u t ok ay,"

4,

" D o n 't know th em ,"

5,

" D on 't c a r e f o r th em ."

A

83

6.

" D islik e them."

In sco rin g the Social A c c e p t a b ilit y T e s t, t h e s c o r in g s y s te m p r o v id e d by th e Bureau of Research of the S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n o f New York U n i v e r s i t y was e m p l o y e d . S c o r e s were m u lt ip lie d b y 15, 1 0 , 5 , 1 , O, and summed up to provide a weighted s c o r e ,

2 and

A c o r r e c t e d s c o r e was o b t a in e d by

d iv id in g th e weighted score by th e t o t a l number of* s c o r e s r e c e i v e d , and th e n m u ltip ly in g the dividend by t w e lv e .

The r e s u l t was t h e S o o i a l

A ccep tan ce soore. The Cowan Analyzer was a d m in istered as t h e m anual s u g g e s t s .

When raw

so o r e s w ere computed i t occurred t o th e i n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t i t w as a s im portant to know how much d en ia l of* problems e x i s t e d a s w e l l a s t o know how many problems were admitted.

T h e re fo re th e i n v e s t i g a t o r

s c o r e d is t r ib u tio n s for the e n tir e group o f t h i r t y s t u d e n t s .

com puted "T" The s t u d e n t Ts

Cowan A nalyzer soore was the sum o f th e d i s t a n c e s below a "T" s c o r e o f 40 and above a "T" score of 70.

These w ere a p p a r e n tly u sed b y Cowan a s

c r i t i c a l p o in ts in her own sta n d a r d iz a tio n d i s t r i b u t i o n .^ ^ The rea ctio n to these t e s t s was one o f c u r i o s i t y m in g le d w i t h i n ­ s e c u r i t y , a t lea st for some of t h e s t u d e n t s .

Some to o k a g r e a t d e a l o f

tim e more than others to complete t h e Cowan A n a ly z e r . f i l l e d w ith many writ ten -in q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .

The t e s t p a p e r s w e r e

The r e a c t i o n t o t h e S o c i a l

A c c e p t a b ilit y Test was not one of s o much d is q u ie t u d e .

H owever t h e b e f o r e -

d is o u s s io n s adm inistration fo llow ed by one day a n a c c u s a t io n b y on e o f t h e c l a s s th a t her group had been g u i l t y o f a b rea ch o f th e "honor sy stem " i n 35. 36. 37.

Form G-3, for the Interm ediate G rades, is s u e d b y t h e Ohio S c h o l a r s h i p and D ivision of Elementary S u p e r v is io n , S t a t e D epartm ent o f Education, Columbus, Ohio, 194 6 . T ypew ritten scoring procedure. Manual fo r Cowan Adolescent A djustm ent A n a ly z e r , p u b lis h e d b y t h e Bureau of Educational M easurem ents, K ansas S t a t e T ea ch ers C o l l e g e , Emporia, Kansas, 1946.

th e s c h o o l .

C o n seq u en tly sh e may have suffered a very much lowered

S o c ia l A c c e p ta b ility s o o r e . The i n i t i a l Group R orschach t e s t was administered to eaoh of the groups s e p a r a t e ly in th e f o l l o w i n g manner. th e Group R orsch ach B lanks.^®

Eaoh subject reoeived one of

The in str u c tio n s were read aloud by the

e x p e r im e n te r w h ile th e s u b j e c t r e a d them s ile n t ly .

Then the b lo ts were

p r o j e c t e d on a s c r e e n ab ou t t e n f e e t from the s u b je c ts. d ark.

The room was semi­

Eaoh b l o t w as p r e s e n te d f o r a period of two and a h a lf minutes

d u r in g w h ich tim e th e s u b j e c t s w r o te down th eir responses.

The assigning

o f d e te r m in a n ts was con d u cted w it h each b lo t being re-shown for about f i f t e e n se c o n d s i n order t h a t t h e su b jeo ts might r e c a ll with ease eaoh one o f th e card s.

The exam in er ( in v e s t ig a t o r ) explained how the determinants

( f a c t o r s w h ich th e y th o u g h t had ca u sed them to give eaoh response; e . g . , s h a p e , c o l o r , movement and s h a d in g ) should be in d icated . o f t h e s e d e te r m in a n ts w ere c i t e d b y th e experimenter.

Examples of eaoh

However attempts to

s c o r e th e t e s t r e o o r d s c o n v in c e d th e experimenter th a t the students had not u n d e rsto o d th e i n s t r u c t io n s c o n c e r n in g the determinants of th e ir resp onses. T h e r e fo r e i t was n e c e s s a r y to con d u ct rather extensive in q u iries w ith eaoh of th e su b je o ts.

I t was th e n p o s s i b l e to score th e ir records.

The

d i s o u s s i o n s e r i e s was a lr e a d y under way. The same p ro ced u re was f o llo w e d on the a fte r discu ssion s Group R o rsch a ch a d m in is t r a t io n w i t h th e excep tion of the exten sive in d ividu al in q u ir y .

P r e lim in a r y s c o r in g o f t h e s e protocols indicated that the sub­

j e c t s now u n d er sto o d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p of determinants to th e ir responses and w ere a b le t o make p rop er i n d i c a t i o n s .

38.

Group R orsch ach B lan k , arra n g ed by M. R. narrower, Psychological C o r p o r a tio n , New York C it y .

The Social A cceptability t e s t (SA 10) was a d m in is te r e d t o e a o h o f t h e groups separately in the same manner a s d e s c r ib e d f o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o th e e n tir e group at one s it t in g * The administration of th e Group R orschach and th e S o c i a l A c c e p t a b i l i t y t e s t (SA 10) required two c la s s p e r io d s of f o r t y m in u tes e a c h . Scoring of the Group Rorschach r e s u l t s was done i n two w a y s . the Inspection Technique of M unroe^ was u s e d . w hich y ie ld s negative adjustment i n d i c a t o r s . resp o n ses have been scored, i t i s

F ir s t

T his i s a s c o r i n g s y s t e m A fte r th e i n d i v i d u a l

p o s s ib le t o make u se o f M unroe’ s c h e c k

l i s t of negative adjustment i n d i c a t o r s .

F or exam p le, t h e u se o f W (w hen th e

w hole card is seen as a u n it, t h e resp o n se i s a W) may be t o o f r e q u e n t , t o o seldom , vague or bad in adherence to th e a c t u a l form q u a l i t i e s

o f th e b lo t.

Any o f these four conditions o f W would be one ( l ) n e g a t iv e i n d i c a t o r . There are tiventy-eight areas i n w hich one o r more n e g a t iv e i n d i c a t o r s may appear*

The sum to ta l of n e g a tiv e in d ic a t o r s i s t h e a d ju s tm e n t s c o r e .

The second way in which t h e Rorschach m a t e r ia l was em p loyed w a s t o o b ta in the raw scores of each one of th e l o c a t io n s and d e te r m in a n ts o f t h e resp on ses (whether the b lo t was se e n a s a w h o le , a v e r y s m a ll o r u n u su a l p a r t, whether the response was made b eca u se o f th e c o l o r , or s h a p e , o r fo r m and other determining f a c t o r s ) . The Hayes Scale was g iven w it h v e r b a l i n s t r u c t io n s a s w e l l a s w r i t t e n d ir e c tio n s to the teacher who f i l l e d

out t h e b la n k s .

She f i l l e d

o u t o n ly

b e fo r e-d isc u ssio n blanks, a lth ou gh she had plan ned to c o m p le te t h e a f t e r d iso u s sio n set of blanks.

U n forb u n ately h er m other became s e r i o u s l y i l l

when the after disoussion blanks were t o be co m p leted .

39.

R. L. Munroe, "Prediction o f t h e A djustm ent and Academ ic P e rfo rm a n ce of College Students," A p p lie d P sy c h o lo g y M onographs, 7 , 1 9 4 5 .

86

The lo g w as f i l l e d

ou t (a s in d ioated ) eaoh week in approxim ately the

l a s t f i v e m in u te s o f b ach d is c u s s io n period. The MI ” s c a l e was o o m p leted w ith the Group Rorschach a fte r the d i s c u s s i o n s e r i e s w as o v e r .

Scorin g was in terms of how many p o s itiv e

t h i n g s a g i r l s a id ab out h e r s e l f minus th e number of negative th in g s she sta te d * The c o n ta m in a tio n s c a l e w as f i l l e d out by the co n tro l group along w ith t h e Group R orsch ach and S o c i a l A c c e p ta b ility t e s t (SA 1 0 ). The tim e p e r io d b e tw e e n t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t s was fo u r months. Group D iscussions Ten d i s c u s s i o n s o f ab ou t t h ir t y - f i v e minutes eaoh took plaoe with the g r o u p s o v e r a th r e e -m o n th p e r io d .

I t was the purpose of the in v e stig a to r

t o s t i m u l a t e d i s c u s s i o n o f p e r so n a l m aterial.

Further, the nature of the

d i s c u s s i o n p r o o e s s was s u c h as t o permit departures from the p r e c ip ita tin g t o p i c b y t h e d i s c u s s a n t s i n a cco rd with whatever were th e ir needs or i n t e r e s t s o f th e moment.

Thus th e groups did not adhere to the same

m a t e r i a l d u rin g d i s o u s s i o n , alth ou gh both groups began th e s e s s io n s w ith a lm o s t th e same t o p i c s .

S e v e r a l of the topios were suggested by some of

t h e d is c u s s a n ts a lth o u g h m ost w ere chosen by the experim enter. E v e r y e f f o r t was made t o draw in to p a rtic ip a tio n the variou s members o f th e g ro u p .

Such t e c h n iq u e s as returning questions of in d iv id u a ls to the

g r o u p f o r c o n s id e r a t i o n , p o l l i n g of opinions of the group on debatable m a t t e r s , r e q u e s t in g members o f th e group to defend th e ir p o s itio n s , and p r o v id in g r e l u c t a n t p a r t i c ip a n t s w ith e a s ily answered q u estion s were used b y t h e g ro u p le a d e r t o g a in a c t iv e and frequent p a r tic ip a tio n .

The group

l e a d e r a tte m p te d t o r e f r a i n from being judgmental and censorious in every s i t u a t i o n and t o c o n v e y h i s accep tan ce of the group and the in d iv id u a ls in

87

it.

He tried to provide a v e h ic le f o r th e e x p r e s s io n of h o s t i l i t i e s , th e

relea se of tension, the v e n t i l a t i o n o f a n x i e t y , and th e c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f problems which viere d is tu r b in g t o th e group m em bers.

H ow ever, t h e le a d e r

endeavored to make the d is c u s s io n s i t u a t i o n one w h e r e in t h e le a r n in g w h ich took place occurred through v o lu n ta r y , a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n by t h e le a r n e r s , learning through a liv i n g e x p e r ie n c e . The topics in order o f d is c u s s io n w ere as f o llo w s * For experimental group E -l* 1.

R elationships v i t h p a ren ts (n o t reco r d e d b e c a u s e o f m e c h a n ic a l d if f ic u lt ie s ) .

2.

"Going s te a d y .”

3.

In ferio rity f e e l i n g s .

4.

lhat to do about i n f e r i o r i t y f e e l i n g s .

5.

Fears.

6.

"Parents don’ t lo v e me."

7.

Attention g e t t i n g .

8.

Popularity w ith g i r l s .

9.

Independence.

10.

"Feeling b lu e ."

For experimental group E-2 s 1.

R elationship betw een p a r e n ts and a d o le s c e n t g i r l s .

2.

S tr ic t parents and t h e ir e f f e c t upon c h i l d r e n .

3.

In fe r io r ity f e e l i n g s •

4.

TIShat to do ab ou t i n f e r i o r i t y f e e l i n g s .

5.

Fear.

6.

"Parents don’ t lo v e me."

7.

Attention g e t t in g ; te le p h o n e u se and p a r e n t s .

88

8,

P o p u la r ity w ith g ir ls .

9,

In d ep en d en ce.

10.

D e p r e s s iv e f e e l i n g s .

Experim ental Design Three g ro u p s o f t e n t r i p l e t s eaoh, matched as in d ic a te d e a r lie r , were c o n s t i t u t e d a s tw o e x p e r im e n ta l groups (E -l and E-2) and a control group (C -l).

Changes i n m a tc h in g were made as n e c e ssita te d by th e lack of corre­

l a t i o n b e tw e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e and p erso n a lity t e s t s c o r e s. C o n s e q u e n tly a t t h e term in a tio n of the a fte r -d is c u s s io n t e s t in g , data w ere a v a i l a b l e i n te r m s o f soores on the various t e s t s and d e v ic e s. w ere a r r a n g e d t o p r o v id e matched groups. ment i s

s e t f o r t h b e lo w .

These

An illu s t r a t io n of t h is arrange­

In the a ctu a l t a b le s , matchings were executed on

t h e b a s i s o f c o r r e l a t i o n o f i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t data on each t e s t . ________________T e s t R o rsch a ch I n s p e c t i o n Technique

E -l

E-2

C-l

I n i t i a l Score

I n i t i a l Score

I n i t i a l Score

T o ta l S c o r e

15

15

15

R

40

38

57

W

8

2

4

A f i r s t s t e p w as t o examine and analyze the data for the s ig n ific a n c e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s o f th e means of the before and a fte r r e s u lt s of each V

grou p s e p a r a t e l y . ch a n g es

I n e f f e c t th is could be viewed as a g e n e tic approach to

( i n t im e ) in e a c h group.

The sec o n d s t e p w as t o examine and analyze the changes in each of the th r e e grou p s.

T h is w as done without regard to the matchings on the

p e r s o n a lit y v a r ia b le s

th e m se lv e s.

I t was considered th a t th e meaningful

a s p e c t o f th e c h a n g e s i n t h i s part of the a n a ly sis was th e nature and

89

extent of the changes and n ot th e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . of th e data were u se d .

T h erefo re a l l

Tables w ere s e t up f o r e a c h t e s t i n d i c a t i n g f o r

eaoh of the three groups the e x t e n t o f changes i n s c o r e and i n term s o f standard d ev ia tio n u n i t s . The third major s te p 7/as th e exam in ation o f t h e d a t a to e v a lu a te t h e sign ifican ce of th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e means o f th e ch an ges in th e different groups.

This p rovid ed a com parison b e tw e e n th e g r o u p s .

Our

f i r s t analysis might have shown th a t a l l grou p s g a in e d o r l o s t s i g n i f i ­ cantly.

If t h is were s o , we w ould be unable t o draw a n y i n f e r e n c e s as t o

the e ffe c t of th e d is o u s s io n p r o c e s s . ^ analysis was in d ic a te d .

T h e r e fo r e th e u s e o f t h i s l a s t

A c t u a lly in t h i s s t u d y , i t was n o t n e c e s s a r y .

The f in a l s te p was t o s tu d y th e in d iv id u a l t e s t r e s p o n s e s o f f i f t e e n of the su b jeo ts, f i v e from ea ch group , and t o c o n s t r u c t c l i n i c a l e v a lu a ­ tions of these persons as o f b e fo r e and a f t e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n s .

40,

A. Edwards, S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is , p . 292

CHAPTER IV STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF THE DATA T h is c h a p te r t r e a t s the data q u a n tita tiv e ly .

I t presents the f i n a l

m a tc h in g s o f t h e groups based upon the b efo re-d iso u ssio n s ( i n i t i a l ) soores on e a c h o f t h e t e s t s and an ev a lu a tio n of th ese matchings for s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s between them.

There i s a presen tation and

a n a l y s i s o f t h e s ig n if ic a n c e of the d ifferen ces between the means of the i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t r e s u lt s f o r each group sep a r a te ly on each t e s t . a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x t e n t and nature of the ohanges i s p resen ted . a n a l y s i s u s e s a l l o f th e data p ertain in g to a l l t h ir t y su b jeo ts.

An

This An

e x a m in a tio n o f th e d a ta i s made to evaluate the s ig n ific a n c e of the d i f f e r e n c e s o f th e means of the changes of the groups.

This i s a compar­

i s o n b e tw e e n t h e g ro u p s. R o rsch a ch I n s p e c t i o n Technique Changes Within Groups The f i r s t s t e p ta k en was to matoh the th ree groups on t h is t e s t . m a tc h in g was done on th e t o t a l adjustment soore as below

The

TABLE IX

Matohings on th e B a s is o f I n i t i a l S c o r e s on t h e R orschaoh I n s p e c t io n T echnique (N = 8) E -l

T r ip le t

E -2

C -l

1

13*

14

14

2

8

8

9

3

9

10

10

4

14

13

12

5

9

8

8

6

15

16

14

7

9

9

9

8

3

5

6

Mean

10

Standard D e v ia tio n

3 .6 4

1 0 .3 8

1 0 .2 5

3 .4 3

2 .6 8

A fter th e t r ia d s had b ee n s e t up, i n th e c a s e o f t h e R orschaoh matoh— ings because i t was p o s s i b l e to o b ta in c l o s e m a tch in g s o f t h r e e s e t s of eight su b jects each , i t was d eoid ed t o t e s t d i f f e r e n c e s among a l l th e means at one tim e.

For t h i s purpose a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e and i t s t e s t o f

sig n ifica n ce, F , were u se d .

The n u l l h y p o t h e s is was assum ed t h a t th e means

of the groups and th e v a r ia n c e s w it h in th e group s and b etw een th e groups maybe expected "to d i f f e r o n ly w it h in t h e l i m i t s o f ch an ce f lu c t n a t i o n s . M F is the r a t io o f th e la r g e r o f t h e s e v a r ia n c e s d iv id e d b y th e s m a lle r o f the v a ria n ces.

I f t h e v a lu e of F i s g r e a t e r th a n t h e v a lu e a t t h e l e v e l o f

sign ifican ce agreed upon, t h e n th e n u ll h y p o t h e s is i s

d is p r o v e d .

Hence i t

* The higher th e s c o r e on t h i s t e s t , th e more m a la d ju ste d a p erso n i s assumed to b e. ** The n u ll h y p o th e s is was p o s tu la te d in a l l e x a m in a tio n s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . 1, A. Edwards, S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is , p . 1 93.

may be assu m ed th a t there are d ifferen ces in th e means. P is

le s s

I f the v a lu e f o r

th a n the value at the le v e l of s ig n ific a n c e agreed upon, th e n th e

n u l l h y p o t h e s i s i s te n a b le.

This may be taken to imply th a t th e se sam p les

o f f e r i n s u f f i c i e n t evidence to disprove i t . T here w ere no s ig n ific a n t d ifferen ces between groups a t the 5 per c e n t l e v e l o r b elow on any of th ese Rorschaoh soores and we may oonolude t h a t t h e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s ten ab le (no evidence was found to oontradiot i t ) . The F r a t i o s a r e in d icated below.

93

TABLE X

F R a tio s o f D if fe r e n c e s B etw een Means o f Groups E - l , E-2 and C - l on I n i t i a l Scores on Rorsohaoh I n s p e c t io n T ech n iq u e T o ta l S co re and S u b -S c o r e s E -l T otal Score R

Mean E-2

C -l

F R a tio

L evel o f S ig n ific a n c e

10

1 0 .3 8

1 0 .2 5

• 415

Above 5%

38*3

3 9 .3

4 0 .4

.0 1 5

Above 5%

YT

7 ,2 5

8 .3 8

4 .2 5

2 .7 7 0

Above 5%

D

2 7 .5 0

3 0 .2 5

2 5 .7 5

.1 8 0

Above 5%

Dd

2 .1 3

2 .8 8

7 .0 0

1 .8 3 4

Above 5%

• 88

1 .2 5

.7 5

•2 2 4

Above 5%

M

6 .0 0

4 .8 8

4 .2 5

1 .6 8 4

Above 5%

FM

4 .1 3

2 .3 8

3 .2 5

.9 3 9

Above 5%

m

.8 8

1 .1 3

.6 3

.2 7 3

Above 5%

k

.2 5

.6 3

1 .1 3

1 .3 7 5

Above 5 %

K

1 .6 3

.3 8

.6 3

2 .6 7 1

Above 5%

.6 3

.5 0

.5 0

.1 0 6

Above 5%

F

1 6 .7 5

2 3 .2 5

2 3 .6 3

.1 1 9

Above 5%

Fc

2 .2 5

2 .0 0

2 .3 8

.0 7 9

Above 5%

S

FK

c

.3 8

0

.38

1 .1 5 1

Above 5%

C1

.6 3

.3 8

.5 0

.2 0 0

Above 5%

FC

2 .7 5

2 .5 0

2 .3 8

.0 3 7

Above 5%

CF

2 .1 3

1 .0 0

1 .8 8

2 .8 7 1

Above 5%

.1 3

.7 5

.0 0

C

Too s c a n t d a ta

A fter th e R orschach m atch in gs had b een exam ined f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e s betw een i n i t i a l s c o r e s , th e n u l l h y p o t h e s is was assumed f o r th e d iffe r e n c e s betw een th e means o f i n i t i a l and f i n a l s c o r e s .

The nt ” t e s t o f

94

s i g n i f i c a n c e was used to determine whether the observed d iffe r e n c e s w ere g r e a t enough so as not t o he a ttr ib u ta b le to chance v a ria tio n ( im p lie d i n t h e n u l l h y p o th e sis).

I f the d iffe r e n c e s were la rg e enough, th e n i t w as

c o n c lu d e d that th e n u ll hypothesis of no d iffe r e n c e s between th e means o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l scores could he r e je o te d .

2.

Edwards, op. c i t . , p. 172.

95

CM co

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

■M*

CO

to

Os OS 1—4 •

M* I© rH •

rl* Os CO •

co

00 us • i—4

oo o • i—4

00 o

to

to t• 1—1

as to

•

V

CM CO • i— 1

CD

CO

as

CO

• CM

"Mi •

CM • r|*

e-

•P

o

CM l—1

»rl

13

to

00

to s

to

CM

o o

co

1

1

•

CO

as CM us •

C~-

• 1—4

c—

us CM •

US

• .-4

cO

•

to

.-4 • r—1

o o •

t-

us •

CO CM •

us CM •

CO CO

O •

1

O US •

e—

t—4

CO CO •

1

co • CM

US

CM •

co

1

CO

t•

CM CO • i—1

CM

o o

to

o

to

•

CO • rH CM

A

H

40

05 M

CM •

o H

Q

US

CO C•

to

CO

1

1

1

1

o rH

f—4 os US

o

to

CO co •

f—4

r—4

CO •

to

fr-

i—1 O •

CO o

1

1

i—I

rl*

00 os CO • 1—1

CM 00 rH • f—1

os

rl* rH • rH

CO OS rH • i—I

cc~ I—1 • I—1

o o o • r—4

O •

to

US t-

US E• to

US • f—4

00 CO •

to

CO •

CM •

CM * , C reative Group Education. 1 9 3 7 . P p . v , 247.

New Yorkt A sso cia tio n P ress,

S la v s o n , S . R . , An Introduction to Group Therapy. w e a l t h Fund, 1943. Pp. x v i, 352.

New York i The Common­

S la v s o n , S . R ., e d ito r , The P raotloe o f Group Therapy. n a t i o n a l U n iv e r s it ie s P ress, 1947. P. 271.

New York* I n te r ­

S m ith , R . B . , Growth in P erso n a lity Adjustment Through Mental Hygienei An E x p e r im e n ta l Stucly. ilew YorKj S ta te Education D epar^ent, Albany, 1936. S n y d e r , W. U ., "The Present Status o f Psyohotherapeutio Counseling," P a y p h o lo g io a l B u lle tin , 44, 1947, pp. 321-322. Solom on , J . C ., and Axelrod, P. L ., "Group Psyohotherapy fo r Withdrawn A d o l e s o e n t s , " American Journal o f D iseases of Children, 68, 1944, pp. 1 6 -1 9 . S p ik e r , D ., " P roteoted Groups in the Treatment o f Young Children," Amerioan j o u r n a l o f Orthopsyohia.try, 13, 1943, pp. 659-664. S p o t n i t s , H ., "Observations on Emotional Currents in Interview Group T herapy w i t h A dolescent G irls," Journal o f Nervous and Mental D ise a se s, 1 0 6 , 1 9 4 7 , p p . 565-583. S u l l i v a n , L . , "Psyohodrama in a Child Guidanoe C lin ic ," in Group Psycho­ t h e r a p y , A Symposium, pp. 58-67. Sym onds, P . M ., The Dynamios of Human Adjustment. C en tu ry Company, I n c ., 1946. Pp. x iv , 666.

New Yorkt D. Appleton-

T aru m ian z, M. A ., and B u llis , H. E ., "A P reven tive Mental Hygiene Program f o r S c h o o ls ," Amerioan Journal o f P sych iatry, 99, 1942, pp. 389-405. T aru m ian z, M. A . and B u llis , H. E ., "Psyohiatry’ s Qunoe of Prevention," S c h o o l E x e c u t iv e , 62, 1943, pp. 33-35. Thom as, G. W ., "Group Psychotherapyt A Review o f th e Recent L iteratu re," P s y c h o s o m a tic M edicine, 5, 1943, pp. 166-180. T ryon , C. M ., "The Adolescent Peer Culture," in Adolesoenoe, 43rd Yearbook o f t h e N a t io n a l S o ciety fo r th e Study o f Education, pp. 217-238. W ender, L», "Group Psychotherapyi A Study of I t s A pp lication ," P sy o h la tr lc Q u a r t e r ly , 1 4 , 1940, p. 713. W ender, L . , p . 349.

"Group Psyohotherapy," in Group Psychotherapy, A Symposium,

200

W ittenberg, R. M ., " P e r s o n a lity A d ju stm en t Through S o c i a l A c tio n ," A m erican Journal o f O r th o p sy ch ia tr y , 1 8 , 1948, p p . 2 0 7 -2 2 1 . Wolberg, L . R», M ed ica l H yp n osis. volum es. V o l. I , p p . x i , 4 4 9 .

Hew York* Grune and S t r a t t o n , 1 9 4 8 . V o l. I I , p p . v , 5 1 3 .

Zaohry, C. B ., Em otion and Conduct i n A d o le s c e n c e f o r t h e Commission on Seoondary S ch ool C urriculum . New York* D. A p p leto n -C en tu ry Company, 1943. Pp. x v , 5 6 3 . Zander, A. and L i p p i t t , R ., " R e a lity P r a o t ic e a s E d u c a tio n a l M ethod," Sooiom etry, 7 , 1 9 44, p p . 1 2 9 -1 5 1 .

Two

APPENDI X

The f o llo w in g i s a v e r b a tim t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f a p a r t o f one o f t h e d is o u s s io n s w h ich to o k p la c e i n th e f i f t h

s e s s i o n o f one o f t h e g r o u p s .

U n fo rtu n a tely t h e r e c o r d in g s a r e n o t a s c l e a r a s th e y m ight have b e e n . T h erefore t r a n s o r ip t io n i s d i f f i c u l t t o do a d e q u a te ly .

T h is r e c o r d

in o lu d e s about e ig h t m in u tes o f th e s e s s i o n . Ct

I have heard k id s sa y t h a t t h e i r p a r e n ts d o n 't lo v e them b e c a u s e th ey had a f i g h t or so m e th in g , and nI d o n 't lo v e them b e o a u se I d o n 't t h in k th ey lo v e m e."

B*

I was w a lk in g on t h e s t r e e t , and I heard a l i t t l e b o y sa y t o h i s mother - f i r s t o f a l l , h e had a l i t t l e gun - "I h a te y o u . I'm goin g t o sh o o t y o u , who c a r e s i f y o u d i e ." H is m other m ust have s a id som ething t o make him f e e l t h a t w ay.

LEADER*

Do you a l l u n d erstand w h at B i s s a y in g , sh e i s making a p o in t t h e r e . She i s sa y in g t h a t when a o h ild f e e l s th a t he i s n ' t lo v e d , th e o h ild s a y s h e d o e s n 't lo v e h is m oth er. When a o h il d f e e l s t h a t way, th e o h ild - l e t ' s u se a new word - p r o j e c t s h is own f e e l i n g s on t o h is m o th er. Can you a c c e p t th a t?

CHORUS OF ASSENTS AND DISSENTS M*

LEADER* K*

I d o n 't th in k t h a t l i t t l e o h ild r e a l i z e d what he was s a y in g . You c a n 't r e a l l y b e g in t o a p p r e c ia t e y o u r p a r e n ts u n t i l y o u 'r e 14 o r 15 y e a r s o ld , th e n you ca n r e a l l y u n d erstan d how much t h e y do f o r y ou . A o h ild d o e s n 't u n d ersta n d i t . Howab ou t someone your own a g e , t h a t ' s what w e ’re

t a lk i n g a b o u t.

A ll I know i s I have f i g h t s w it h my p a r e n ts about many l i t t l e t h in g s , b u t I w o u ld n 't p u t down on a q u e s tio n n a ir e - a t l e a s t I d o n 't th in k I w ould - t h a t I d o n 't lo v e my p a ren ts and my p a r e n ts don’t lo v e me. T h a t's a v e r y s e r io u s t h in g t o say no m a tte r how many argum ents y ou h a v e . U s u a lly t h e r e ' s a rea so n f o r them , and y o u ’r e u s u a lly w rong.

CHORUS OF VOICES LEADER*

I f a p erso n cou ld sa y su c h a t h in g , th e y must have a good r e a s o n , d o n 't you th in k ?

Ds

That l i t t l e boy p ro b a b ly d i d n 't e x a c t l y mean what he s a id , and he was p ro b a b ly a s p o i le d b o y . And h e w anted to se e how i t sounded f o r him t o say t h a t , and th e n he s a id i t a g a in t o s e e i f i t made h is m other a n g ry .

CHORUS OF VOICES AND SHOUTS

LEADERi

CU:

LEADER* CC: LEADER:

D sa id that th e oh ild may have said th a t t o g e t a r i s e o u t of* h i s mother, and may do i t again i f i t works* My own d a u g h ter h a s s a id sim ila r th in gs t o me. So what the o h ild says may h a v e a n e n ­ t i r e l y d iffe r e n t meaning fo r him than i t has f o r us* I s t h a t so? I f I had a very b ig f ig h t w ith my mother and f a t h e r , I m ig h t t h in k they didn’t lo v e me, beoause i f they did they w o u ld n 't do t h i s t o me* And when you th in k about i t and you th in k wth e y d o n 't l o v e me" and you b u ild i t up and b u ild i t up, and th en y o u blam e a l l your trou b les on your p a ren ts. What do you th in k about i t CC? have ooourred?

How do you th in k t h i s t h in g m ig h t

I d o n 't know, I think everything seems to be o o v ered . CC, I'm going t o ask you a d iffe r e n t q u estio n . Can y o u t h in k o f any s p e o ifio reasons why a o h ild might doubt h is p a r e n t s ' lo v e ?

CC:

W ell, i f your mother puts down s e t laws lik e when y o u sh o u ld oome in and everybody oame in so much la t e r , you might t h in k " sh e d o esn 't love me - she d o esn 't understand me."

M:

A mother might not understand a oh ild and she might s t a r t t o y e l l a t a oh ild and th e o h ild might think "my mother d o e s n 't u n d er­ stand me" and th e mother might th ink th e o h ild d o e s n 't u n d e r s ta n d . L i t t l e things oan s ta r t b ig arguments.

SHOUTS, SHRIEKS, LAUGHTER LEADER: B:

LEADER: CU:

One a t a tim e.

You have made sev era l p o in ts .

What a b o u t d iv o r c e ?

W ell, I would f e e l th at my parents d id n 't lo v e me i f I o o u ld n 't keep them to g e th er. I 'd th in k th at I tr ie d and I o o u ld n 't k e e p them to g eth er, maybe they d o n 't love me. I f they d id , th e y w o u ld sta y to g eth er. That sounds l i k e a good p o in t, d oesn 't it?

Do you a c c e p t i t ?

I f e e l that a o h ild who c a n 't hold h is parents t o g e t h e r , i t ' s h is f a u lt th e y 'r e g e ttin g divorced . He ca n 't help i t .

No? not

CHORUS OF VOICES LEADER:

Let me ask you a q u estion . Would someone your age f e e l t h a t i f s h e oou ld n 't hold her parents togeth er they d id n 't lo v e h er? Someone your age, r ig h t now.

F:

W ell, I 'd try very hard. And I think I would th in k t h a t , i f t h e y r e a lly lik e me, they would t r y t o make up.

K:

W ell, parents who are going t o g et divorced d o n 't lo v e ea ch o t h e r , but th ey have t o r e a lis e th a t they both s t i l l lo v e t h e o h ild and they have to remember th a t th ey both s t i l l have to h e lp th e c h i l d . They oould say th a t the oh ild could v i s i t e ith e r one o f them

■whenever he w anted to and t h in g s l i k e t h a t . They s h o u ld n ’t say t h in g s l i k e t h a t . Thqy s h o u ld n ’t say th in g s l i k e "your f a th e r i s n ’t r e a l l y v ery n ic e and so d o n ’t lo v e him" or "your mother i s n ’t a v e ry n ic e woman so you d on’t have t o lo v e h e r ." The w h ole th in g depends on how i t i s h a n d led . You o a n ’t make a r u le about th in g s l i k e t h a t . I t makes a d if f e r e n c e on how your p a ren ts t a l k to you a b o u t i t . LEADER: CC:

T:

So th e r e i s no sta n d a rd r u l e .

CC?

You know, i f your p a r e n ts d o n ’t t e l l you why you o a n ’t do some­ t h in g , i f th ey d on ’t g iv e you a r e a so n a b le e x p la n a tio n , I f e e l so h u rt th a t I th in k th e y d o n ’t lo v e me. There oan b e l o t s o f r e a s o n s why k id s t h in k p a r e n ts d o n ’t lo v e them . P a ren ts sh o u ld g i v e e x p la n a tio n s . They sh o u ld e x p la in t h in g s .

STATISTICAL FORMULAS The s t a t i s t i c a l formulas employed in t h is study a r e t o b e fo u n d below . The formula fo r the Mean was the fo llo w in g j

i n whioh N was th e number o f measures, X the s c o r e s, and t h e s i g n £ means th e "sum o f."

This i s th e formula fo r the mean o a lo u la te d from u n grou p ed

m easures. The formula for the Standard D eviation , o alou lated from un grou p ed data, was used when the assumed mean i s zero .

i n whioh the assumed mean i s zero , and eaoh score t h e r e f o r e becom es a d e v ia tio n (x^) from the assumed mean. th e "sum o f." 0.

N i s the number o f s o o r e s . £. means

C i s the d iffe r e n c e between the Mean and t h e assum ed mean -

Therefore C i s the Mean i t s e l f . The Pearson produot-moraent c o e f f ic ie n t o f c o r r e la t io n , r , w a s u s e d .

The formula fo r c a lc u la tin g the c o e f f ic ie n t from raw or o b t a in e d s c o r e s fo llo w s below .

I n t h is formula X and Y are obtained sco res, N i s the number o f s o o r e s , sums o f the squared X and Y v a lu e s , V t y i s th e produots o f X tim es Y, and

and

are th e s q u a r e s o f t h e sums

o f the Xs and the Ys. 1. 2. 3.

t h e sum o f

H. E. G arrett, S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and E duoation, p . 1 7 . I b id ., p . 50 I b id ., p. 275.

In obtaining the F ratios the following formulas were used.

1*

T otal sum o f s o o r e s “ where

^

i s th e sum o f a l l th e

i s th e sum o f a l l th e s o o r e s

^ ^

^ Ky*

^

so o res i n group 1 , where

i n group 2 , and so o n .

h 'iX ' 3

2.

C o rrectio n f o r o r i g i n =

where //Q

i s th e sum o f a l l

3.

th e so o res and N i s th e t o t a l number o f o a s e s . «. v T o ta l sum o f sq u a res = CK — where

^ i X 1" i s th e sum

o f the sq u ares o f a l l th e s o o r e s . 4.

Sum o f sq u ares b etw een columns = ( * \ ) *

i) r

~

where ( ^xi)

i s t h e square o f th e sum o f a l l o f th e so o r e s i n

group 1 , and

(j-^)

i s th e square o f t h e sum o f a l l o f th e

sco r es i n group 2 and so on; and n i s th e number o f o a s e s i n eaoh group. 5*

Sum o f sq u a res b etw een rows = ('£ > 0% (**h) t- • ^ when W

'

— K**)

i s th e square o f th e sum o f a l l o f t h e s o o r e s o f

in d iv id u a l a and N

‘

i s th e square o f th e sum o f a l l o f th e

soores o f in d iv id u a l b and so on t o t h e l a s t o a se ( in d iv id u a l n ); and r i s th e number o f g r o u p s. 6.

R esid u a l sum o f sq u a res = T o ta l sum o f sq u ares - (B etw een 'j columns and B etw een r o w s ).

I n e v a lu a tin g th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e s b etw een i n i t i a l and

4. 3.

A. Edwards, S t a t i a t i o a l A n a ly s is , p . 231. I b i d . , p . 231.

7. 8. 9.

I b id . I b id . I b id .

e. m

final b cores* the formulas below were used* I0

where

C

,

~"ci

= the standard error o f th e mean d i f f e r e n c e ( o r d i f f e r e n c e between th e means)* r th e standard d e v ia tio n o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e s between pairs* N = th e number o f p airs*

there M0 i s the observed mean* Mh i s a h y p o th e tic a l mean e q u i v a l e n t t o zero and

i s as ab ove.

To compare th e mean changes (gain s or l o s s e s ) b e tw e e n g r o u p s w e u sed th e fo llo w in g formulaj IV. (T c(

-

** “ where Id

i s th e standard

-

*

N pv^r error o f th e

mean d i f f e r e n c e i n g a i n s ,

i s the standard d e v ia tio n o f the d is tr ib u tio n o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n g a i n s , and N i s the number o f p a ir s .

10. 11. 12.

i b i d .* p. 177. iTJid., p . 293 Ib id .* p. 293 .

F orm l.

THE COWAN ADOLESCENT ADJUSTMENT ANALYZER A n In stru m en t o f Clinical Psychology E d w i n a A. C o w a n , P h .D ., W i l b e r t J. M u e l l e r , E d r a W e a t h e r s

DIRECTIONS: A nsw er the questions as fra n k ly and fairly as you can so th a t y o u r answ ers w ill tell exactly h o w y o u feel a b o u t each situation. If y o u r ansvyer to th e q uestion is yes, circle the w ord Y E S after the question. If y o u r answ er to a q u e stio n is no, circle the w o rd N O a fte r the question. I f y o u c a n n o t an sw er the question then circle the question m a rk ? a fte r th e q u estio n . If there are any w ords whose m ean in g you d o n o t k n o w ask y our leader to explain. T h ere are n o rig h t o r w ro n g answ ers. All the questions are ab o u t every day situ atio n s to w a rd w h ic h different people feel in dffercnt ways. T here are several questions ab o u t b rothers, sisters, m o th e rs, and fathers. If you are an o nly child or if one o r b o th o f y o u r parents are n o t living, leave the questions unansw ered w h ic h are about relatives you do not have.

N am e _ School

N u m b er o f sistersN u m b er o f b ro th ers-

?

YES

NO

2. 'D o you w o rry over y o u r m istakes?

?

YES

NO

YES

NO

relatives

are

4.

Is y our m o th er happy?

YES

NO

5.

Are you the favorite child in y o u r h o m e?

YES

NO

6.

D o you have to be quiet w hen y o u r fa th e r is a t home?

YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

7. 8.

9.

Are you alw ays afraid th a t you w ill d o the w rong thing?

? ,

YES

NO

10.

D o you th in k th a t you arc wicked a t tim es?

?

YES

NO

11.

M ust a school teacher be a very sm art person?

?

YES

NO

12. 13.

Are Sunday School teachers queer people? W ould you be afraid to go to the p rin c ip a l's office?

?

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

D o you have definite plans ab o u t w h a t you w an t to do after you are th ru school?

?

YES

NO

D o you hate to be nice to people unless they are nice to you first ?

?

YES

NO

D o you ever go off by yourself and ta lk a bout yo u r troubles?

?

YES

NO

Docs your back bother you if you w o rk very hard?

?

YES

NO

W ould you like to spend all y o u r tim e in the movies?

?

YES

NO

15.

16. 17. 18.

?

YES

NO

24.

D o you feel p eople fo llo w in g you w h e n you w alk alone a t n ig h t?

?

YES

NO

25.

H ave you ever been to ld th a t you c o u ld n 't be good?

YES

NO

26.

A re you m ade fu n o f a t hom e?

YES

NO

27.

D o y o u ever feel th a t y o u r parents d o n o t love you?

YES

NO

D id y o u r p a re n ts ever w h ip you w h en you did n o t deserve it?

YES

NO

D o m o d ern y o u n g p eople k n o w m ore th an th eir p a re n ts?

YES

NO

3 0.

D o y o u r p a re n ts tre a t y o u like a baby?

YES

NO

31.

Have you stupid?

YES

NO

YES

NO

29.

33.

20.

D o you feel glad one m in u te and sad th e next w ith o u t any apparent reason?

?

YES

NO

D o you m ake up stories ab o u t yourself h e lp ­ ing other people o u t of trouble?

?

YES

NO

21. 22.

D o you som etim es like to h u rt a person or anim al?

YES

C an you p la y gam es as m uch as m o st boys and girls?

?

YES

NO

A re y o u u su a lly able to find y o u r belongings w hen you w a n t th em ?

?

YES NO

Is it b e tte r t o listen to y o u r friends th a n to y o u r conscience?

?

YES NO

D o you spend y o u r tim e day dream ing w hen you sh o u ld be w o rk in g ?

?

YES NO

D o you w ish y o u co u ld sta rt over ag ain in a new place?

?

YES N O

D o you o fte n read fo r a long tim e a fte r you go to bed?

?

YES NO

D o you k ick y o u r bed covers a ro u n d a great deal ?

?

Y E S NO

D o you seem to act ju s t the opp o site from w h a t you feel ?

?

YES NC

42.

Is it fu n t o m ake th in g s sound bigger th an they really are?

?

YES NO

43.

D o you so m etim es feel like doing ju st a n y ­ th in g to get people to notice you?

?

Y ES N O

38. 39.

41.

?

NO

Duiii'huiii/ iiy. C O P Y R IG H T 1948, E D W IN A A . C O W A N

were

A re y o u r teachers a lw ay s b aw lin g y o u out a b o u t little th in g s?

40. NO

you

NO

3 7.

YES

th a t

YES

3 6.

?

to ld

?

3 5.

C an you stand pain quietly?

ever been

A re policem en w a tc h in g th eir chance t o get som ething o n a girl o r boy?

34.

19.

_ages_

A re y o u a fra id t o be o u t alone a fte r d a rk ?

3 2.

14.

agcs-

23.

28.

Does yo u r m other still consider you a baby? D o you quarrel a lo t w ith y o u r p a re n ts to get to go some places?

Sex_

G ra d e -

Age-----

1. Can you th in k of good answ ers in class b u t feel afraid to tell them ?

3. D o you th in k some of y o u r pests?

N o-

D ate-

< 3 » 44wm li Olialii O u l u .

CATEGORIES

PROFILE CHART

Resp.

30

40

1 Fear

0

1

II Pamily Emotion

0 1

0

V Non-family Authority

4

5

3

1

2

4 3

6

7

5

6

6

9 7

5

4

60

6

90

8 7

B

9 10

3

4

5

6

7

3

9

10

0

1

Z

3

4

5

6

7

B

9

1

2

V II Escape

0 ■ 1

Z

V III Neurotic

0

2

1 0

1

3

5

4 I

5

4

6

3

4

5

6

3

4

5

6

2 ). Afraid of d art

I

9

24, People following a m

I

9

I

9

7

B

9

7

7

6

10

a

T O P L O T T H E PR O FILE;

10

STEP 1. Determine the number of maladjusted answers for Category I by counting the marked dots on pages 2 a n d ! in the

10

9 9

10

9

9

8 8

7

10

9

Z

0

N ine categories of maladjusted answers are numbered verti­ cally from I to IX on the Profile Chart at the top of page 2. Numbered references to the questions are grouped in nine hori­ zontal sections extending across pages 2 and 3. T he sections are numbered in the center to correspond with the numbered categories on the Profile C hart. Any circled or crossed dot w ithin the sec­ tions represents a maladjusted answer to the question noted at the right of the dot,

10

1

V I M aturity

IX Compensation

9

3 z

0

III Family Authority IV FcdinE of Inadequacy

Z

DIRECTIONS FOR PLOTTING THE PROFILE

T SCORE 60 70

50

10

I. T hin ks of good answers— 1 afraid to tell. 1

9

2. W orries over mistakes.

1

I

24.

I

I

26, Made f i t of at bone;

I

|

27. Parents do not love,

I

9 |

9

Z8. W hipped when not

9

3, T hin ks some relatives are 1 pests. 1 4. T h in k s m other is unh app y]

9

5, Favorite child in home.

9

I

f. H ai to be quiet w hen father home.

deserved, I 9

I

9

I

2 ), Modern p u th knows more. , JO, Parent) treat like baby.

I

7. M other considers b.ihy

ISection II

9

9

9

9

34, Teachers bawling out.

9

9

12, S, S, teachers queer. 9.

35. Can’t li

36, No constiencc,

9

9

9

37, Daydreams.

9

| 9

9

38. Start over again,

9

39, Reads in bed,

9

40. Kicks bed cons,

9

IS ection y

13. A fraid g o to principal's

9

9

9 ; 9

9

41. Actions vs, feelings,

9

42, Exaggerates.

9

4 ), Wants attention,

9

78. Fusses with sibs.

9 52, Parent) not truthful,

8b. Doesn't lilt work with mother.

81. Doesn't ask questions.

9

55, Stage fright;

I

56. Teased.

9

9

83. Self-conscious working,

9

84, Principal a Hop.

9

85, Elders do as they please.

17, Back hurts, 9

18. Spend all tim e in movies.

9

19. C an 't stand pain.

9

21. M ake up stories helping others. 22. Likes to h u rt persons or anim als.

58, Worry about leli

86. W on't talk to teacher,

59, Teachiis cross,

87. School hard,

oil, N ot responsible lor mistakes,

88. W ork undone.

61, Can't plan, (2. Kids are a nuisance,

9

9

9b. R unaw ay.

|

63. Fight.

ISection V II 9

9

2b. A lternate glad and sad,

9

(

15. N ot nice to people first.

ISection 1 y in .9

9 51, L ilt behind,

82. Feelings easily hurt.

9

16. T alk troubles to self.

9 9

77. C an't talk to patents.

9

ISection VI 9

Stage fright,

9

14, N o vocational plans.

9

Talked about,

57, No use trying,

II, School teachers nog sm art.

9

75, W orry world ending, 7 0 . Laughed at.

lb . W icked at times.

9 9

74. Afraid of dark,

79. Parents strict,

ISection III

8. Q uarrels w ith parents.

9

STEP 3, Connect the circled numbers on the Profile Chart to ■eft, Sec the Interpretive Guide for explanation f the meaning of the Profile,

|

. A fraid w ill do w rong

32. Can't play games.

33. Policemen watching.

9

9 I

31, Told was stupid.

9

|

9

ISection IV 9

9 9

I 9

•

STEP 2, Repeat Step 1 for each category on the Ptofile Chart, t determining the "No, of Resp." for each category by counting the mailed dots in its corresponding horizontal section,

ISection I

I

9

horizontal section No, 1, Record this number on the Profile Chart at the right of 1 and in the column nwrlred "No, of Resp." In the line of numbers to the right circle the number that matches the "No, of Resp," for 1,

9 9

64. Dreams re school,

92. Eats few things.

65. Feels mean and hateful,

93. Uncontrolled laughter,

9 (6. Can't control temper,

94. Smothering,

67, Same dreams,

9

95. Teachers pet,

61, Boss people,

9

96. Knows queer people.

69, Fights,

9. 9

97. Likes to bluf.

9

■Section IX

91. Mystery stories.

9

9 70, Teases,

“ DO NOT WRITE IN HERE

I

11

IV

III

V

VI

V II

V III

IX

1

2

3

4

5

7

6

8

\

9

10

\

44. D id y o u r m o th e r g o t o college?

7

YES

NO

71. Does y o u r father live aw ay from you?

?

YES

NO

45. Did y o u r fath er g o t o college?

?

YES

NO

72. Does y o u r m o th e r live aw ay from you?

7

YES

NO

46. D o you p la n t o g o t o college?

?

YES

NO

73. D o any of the follow ing live w ith you?

47. Is y o u r m o th e r a n active m e m b e r of the P. T . A .?

48. D o y o u fear m e e tin g h o l d - u p m e n ?

?

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

YES

NO

50. Are y o u afraid w h e n y o u p e r f o r m o n a stage?

?

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

51. Are y o u afraid o f being left b e h in d o n a 52. Have y o u r p a r e n t s answ ered t r u t h f u l l y all

54. Are big bro th ers a n d sisters bossy ? 55. D o y o u teel t e r rib ly strange w h e n y o u give an oral them e?

□ G ran d m o th er

□ Stepfather

□ O th e r relatives

a t n ig h t? to an end?

76. Are you afraid th a t folks w ill laugh at you?

everything?

NO

?

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

YES

NO

82. Are y o u r feelings easily h u rt?

YES

NO

83. D o you m ind h aving friends see you w o rk ­

?

57. D o y o u often feel th ere is j u s t n o use t o try?

?

YES

NO

7

YES NO

7

YES

NO

?

Y ES

NO

?

Y ES

NO

?

Y ES

NO

?

Y ES

NO

?

Y ES

NO

7

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

NO

78. D o you fuss w ith y our brothers a n d sisters

YES

56. Have y o u been teased a lo t?

?

77. D o you feel free to talk to y o u r parents a bout

r

53. D o y o u r parents f in d f a ult w i t h yo u a great deal ?

□ S tepm other

75. D o you ever w o rry about the w o rld com ing

?

y o u r question s if t h e y k n e w th e answers?

□ Uncle or A u n t

74. Are you afraid to go into a dark room alone

49. Are y o u afraid t h a t y.ou will be talked about?

pleasure trip?

□ G ran d fath er

w henever you are w ith them ?

79. Are y o u r parents more strict th a n other parents?

80. D o you like to w o rk w ith y o u r m other? 81. D o you m ind asking questions w hen you do n o t feel sure?

ing?

58. Does it w o r r y y o u w h e n y o u c a n 't believe w h a t y o u r p a ren ts o r y o u r m in i s t e r say a bout religion?

?

YES

NO

84. Is y o u r school principal a flop?

7

YES

85. D o you th in k older people do as they please?

7

YES

NO

_?

YES

NO

86. D o you like to talk to y o u r school teacher?

?

YES

NO

60. Are y o u usually t o blam e f o r y o u r mistakes?

?

YES

NO

87. D o you find y o u r school w o rk burdensom e?

7

YES

NO

61. Is it difficult t o p l a n y o u r w o r k ahead?

?

YES

NO

88. D o you often leave w o rk unfinished?

?

YES

NO

62. D o y o u t h i n k t h a t little k i d s are a nuisance?

?

YES

NO

89. D o you hate things th a t are good for you?

7

YES NO

the best of you in a game?

?

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

D o you dream a b o u t school w o r k ?

7

YES

NO

?

YES

NO

59. D o y o u t h i n k sc h ool

teachers cross a n d n a r r o w - m i n d e d ?

arc

usually

63. D o y o u feel like figh ting w h e n so m eone gets

6 4 .

65. D o y o u ever feel m ean a n d

like

you

90. D o you feel like running aw ay w hen thin g s get to o hard?

91. D o you th in k m ystery stories are good read­ ing?

hate

?

YES

NO

92. D o you like m ost everything to eat?

7

Y ES

NO

66. Can you usually c o n tro l y o u r tem per?

7

YES

NO

93. D o you get started laughing and cannot stop?

7

YES

NO

67. D o y o u have the same dre am over?

7

YES

NO

94. D o you ever feel as if you were sm othering?

7

YES

NO

68. D o y o u like to be w i t h peop le y o u can boss?

7

YES

NO

NO

YES

NO

95. D o you th in k you have been teacher's pet ? 96. D o you know m any queer people?

YES

69. D o y o u like to fight?

7

7

YES

NO

70. Is it f u n to tease little c hildren?

7

YES

NO

97. Is it fu n to bluff people?

7

YES

NO

everybody?

HAYES PERSONALITY RATING SCALES FOR ADOLESCENTS

Directions For Rating Following is a list of habits which children 10 to 15 years old have been found to show. No one child could have all the habits listed, but is certain to have a considerable number of them. Draw a circle around the T, F, or U before each item to indicate: T - you believe the statement is true of the child being rated; F — you believe the statement is not true of the child being rated; U — you are uncertain whether the statement is true or not true of the child being rated. Be sure to draw a circle about one letter and one only for every item in the list. Two samples are given below: ©

F U Usually accepts responsibility when the occasion arises.

T ©

U

Often wastes time.

■x x •Jrx -j:- * x x x -x- x x- x- x x- -5;- x -x- -x

x

-x- x

ITM I* delation to others generally T F

U - 1. Often does little things to make others happy.

T F

U - 2. Usually thinks of consequences both to self and others.

T F

U -3. Usually accepts responsibility when the occasion arises.

T F

U - 4- Often shares with others.

T

F

U - 5. Usually does her share in any group activity.

T

F

U - 6. Often plays "hookey" from school.

T

F

D - 7- Usually does the work expected of her.

T F

U - 8. Usually

T F

U - 9* Usually makes friends easily*

T F

U -10. Often starts fights.

T

U -11. Usually quickly forgives wrongs done to her.

F

defends her friends only when they are in the right.

T F

U -12. Often uses vulgar or profane words.

T F

U -13. Usually eats lunch with a group.

T

F

U -14. Often brings flowers or other decorative objects for the schoolroom.

T

F

U -15. Often fights when attacked b y others.

T

F

U - 16*!I s usually on time.

T

F

U-

17. Usually comes in or goes out of classroom with group which is making unnecessary noise - takes part in disturbance*!

T

F

U—

IS* Often quarrels with others.

T

F

U

19* Usually comes in or goes out of classroom with group talking and laughing and taking part in talking and laughing. No unnecessary noise*

T F

U -— 20. 20. Often makes disturbing noises.

T F

U - 21,

sually chooses friends because of their wealth or social standing.

T F

U - 22,

iften pretends to know more than she really does*or to have something that she does not have.

T F

U - 23-

ften offers comments voluntarily when the majority of the class is commenting freely.

T F

u - 24.

T F

u - 25.

T F

u - 26

T F

u

- 27. angry.

T

F

U 28. Often boasts of accomplishments that she really has. u - 28,

II* Respect for ricjrts of others T

F

U - 29,

I

F

U - 30 .

T

F

U 31* Usually pays close attention while other pupils recite. u - 31.

T

F

u - 32.

T

FF

uU -— 33. 33* Usually cleans up and puts away school materials voluntarily.

T FF

uU -- 34. 34* Usually becomes angry when she cannot do what she wishes.

T F

uU - 35« 35. Often makes critical remarks about other children.

T T FF

uU - 36. 36. Often laughs when another pupil makes a mistake.

Ill* Relation to teacher T

F

U - 37* Is usually courteous to teacher and other adults.

T

F

U - 33. Often starts a whispered conversation during class period about topics other than the lesson. 2.'

T

P U - 39. Often eagerly performs small tasks at request of teacher.

T F U - 40. Often asks teacher unnecessary questions shout the assignment. T F U - 41. Often joins in whispered conversation during class period about topics other than the lesson. T F U - 42. Often shows her work to the teacher of own accord. IV. Relation to other pupils T F U - 43* Is usually courteous to other children. T

F U - 44. Often neglects her own work to do the work of others.

T

F U - 45* Often annoys other children by pulling at them, pinching, etc.

T F U - 46. Usually comes in and goes out of the classroom alone. T

F U - 47. Often tells on other pupils.

T

F U - 48. Often looks on another pupil’s paper while both are doing a class assignment.

T F

U - 49* Often smiles when humorous passage is read in class.

T F U - 50. Often starts a conversation with another pupil during free period. T F U - 51. Often makes "smart" remarks to other pupils during class. T

F U - 52. Often smiles first at other pupils in school*

T

F U - 53* Often smiles in response to smiles of other pupils.

T F

U - 54. Often talks with another pupil during free period (conversation started by another pupil).

T F

U - 55* Often borrows objects from other pupils.

T F U - 56. Usually definitely avoids the other sex. V. Initiative T F U - 57* Often does a piece of original, creative work of own accord. T

F U - 53. Usually tries to solve own problems and not escape them.

T

F U - 59* Has organized or helped to organize school club during past year.

T F U - 60. Often undertakes extra projects voluntarily. T F

U - 61. Often starts activities in which others join.

T F

U - 62. Often asks questions showing interest when majority of class is not asking questions.

T F

U - 63* Often holds office in school clubs. 3.

T

F U - 64- Leads i n s p o r t s (le a d s team o r h o ld s o f f i c e i n a t h le t ic organization).

T

F U - 6 5 .Often offers comments voluntarily when the majority of the c l a s s i s n o t ' commenting.

T

F

U - 66. Usually goes ahead after the first suggestion.

T

F

U - 6 7 . Often initiates pleasant surprises for the teacher.

T

F

U - 66. Usually finds own materials instead of ask in g teacher.

T

F

U - 6 9 . Often leads the conversation in a free group.

T

F

U - 70* Often asks questions showing interest when the majority of the class is also asking questions*

T

F U - 71. Often holds up hand in response to a question of the teacher when she (pupil) does not know the answer.

VI* Health habits T

F

U - 72. Is usually happy

T

F

U — 73* Usually dresses neatly and keeps herself clean.

T

F

U - 74* Often becomes easily upset.

T

F

U - 75* Often bites fingers or fingernails, rubs eyes, picks at fingernails, taps pencil on desk* arums on desk, or taps feet rhythmically on floor.

T

F U - 7 6 .Often puts feet on seat during class.

T

F U - 77* Often changes from feeling happy to feeling unhappy.

T

F U - 70. Often yawns during recitation*

T

F U - 79* Often sits in a slouched position during class.

VII* G eneral i n t e r e s t s T

F U — 60* Often reads good books in free time in school.

T

F U - 81. Usually takes an active part in club activities in school.

T

F U - 82. Often does a piece of creative work guided by another person.

T

F U - 83* Often talks about what she wishes to do when she grows up (vocational interest).

T

F U — 84* Takes an active part in sports.

f

F U - 85* Often walks aimlessly around the classroom*

T

F U - 86. O fte n w r i t e s a im le s s ly on t h e board or draws before c la ss. k-

T

F U - 87.Often looks around the classroom in an apparently aimless manner.

T

F U - 86*.Often shows her work to a visitor of her own accortl.

VIII. Scholarship and study habits T

F U *-89. Usually works well without seeking praise.

T

F U - 90. Usually pays close attention to instructions and explanations of teacher.

T F U - 91* Usually pays no attention to distractions while working. T

F U - 92. Usually works eagerly on class assignment.

T

F U - 93* Often asks questions for information-

T

F U - 94* Usually works very hard.

T

F U - 95* Usually carefully takes down assignment.

T

F U - 96. Usually does work neatly and carefully.

T

F U - 97» Usually gives up as soon as a difficulty arises.

T

F U - 98* Usually does class assignments correctly.

T F U - 99* Usually works as well after twenty minutes of effort as after two minutes of effort. T T U -100. Usually answers questions correctly.

#

Reprinted by permission of author.

Name

1.

Date

T oday’s d i s c u s s i o n was. hficansft

.spoke o fte n ..

name o r names 3.

.made some good points.

name o r names

.was calm when' she spoke.

4-

name o r names was n o t sure o f h e r se lf when she

5-

name o r names engaged i n d i s c u s s i o n .

6.

_was n o t v e ry w illin g to lis te n to name o r names o t h e r ’ s p o i n t o f view . .f r e e l y d is c u s s e d h e r personal a ffa irs . name o r names

8.

.became excited easily.

name o r names .v e ry su re of what she was saying .

9.

name o r names 10.

.was in t e r e s t e d i n o t h e r ’s point of view.

name o r names .was h e s it a n t about d iscu ssin g her per-

n .

name or names so n al a f f a i r s . 1 2 . I spoke o f t e n . not at a ll o n c e o r s e v e r a l tim e s. 13• The p o i n t s I made were m o stly £00