Good Practice in the Early Years 9781350934276, 9780826490049

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Contributors Penny Borkett is Course Leader for the Foundation degree in Early Years at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Prior to this, Penny was the Centre Coordinator of a Sure Start Children’s Centre. She also worked as a Portage worker in a Local Authority and her main interests are all areas of inclusion. Damien Fitzgerald is Principal Lecturer at Sheffield Hallam University, UK, where he teaches on a range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses. He is also engaged in research around children and parenting. He has written on a variety of issues relevant to students and practitioners in the childcare workforce. Karen Hardy is Senior Lecturer in Early Years at Sheffield Hallam University, UK, where she currently leads an Early Years Professional Status (EYPS) pathway for undergraduates on an Early Childhood Studies degree and teaches on the Early Years FdA and BA (hons) courses. She has experience working with children in schools, out-of-school clubs and nurseries. Janet Kay is Principal Lecturer in Children and Childhood at Sheffield Hallam University, UK, where she teaches safeguarding and social policy subjects on undergraduate and postgraduate courses. She worked for many years as a social worker with children and families. Anne Kellock is Senior Lecturer in Childhood Studies and Award Leader for the MA Education at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Her research interests include child wellbeing and participative and creative research methods, as well as international studies of wellbeing, disability and pedagogy in the UK, Malaysia, New Zealand and Ghana. Sarah Procter is Course Leader for the Early Years Professional Status at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Prior to this, Sarah was the Programme



viii Contributors Manager for a Sure Start Children’s Centre. She has worked on numerous regeneration programmes with a focus on the health and social care needs of children and families. Philippa Thompson is Senior Lecturer in Early Childhood Studies at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Her research interests include play, gender and children’s popular culture. Previous roles have included Advisory Teacher for Early Years, Head of Nursery/Foundation Stage in a range of settings, Early Years Teacher, Outdoor Education. Jonathan Wainwright is Senior Lecturer in Educational Leadership and Management at Sheffield Hallam University, UK, where he teaches principally on the Early Childhood Studies degree. His doctoral research focuses on the experiences of leaders in Sure Start Children’s Centres. He became involved in the Early Years sector through his work on the NPQICL programme.

Introduction: The Role of Good Practice in the Early Years Janet Kay

Chapter Outline Introduction 1 Principles and values 3 Principles of good practice in the early years 6 The development of good practice 8 The role of the early years practitioner in promoting good practice 9 Limitations on good practice 11 Conclusion 12

Introduction Good practice in the early years is a concept that you may have given some thought to already if you are studying on an early years course or working in practice. You may have considered an aspect of practice and thought about how this could be improved, or critically analysed approaches to care and education of young children as part of your studies. On placement or in work you may have observed different standards of practice and developed your own views on what is ‘good’. These views may be shaped through your own



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Good Practice in the Early Years studies or reading, your own observations of children or the support of a mentor or supervisor. Good practice takes place in settings all the time, through careful planning, consideration of ‘what works’, and because practitioners are skilled and knowledgeable in their roles. Much of this practice is taken for granted and is what you would expect to find in an early years context. However, practice is not always ‘good’ and sometimes services to young children and their families fall short of the standards that should be expected. This may be due to poor leadership, lack of training, lack of knowledge of recent research and best practice, or limited interpretations of government guidance. Practitioners may hold outdated views on what is quality provision for young children and what their role should be in providing this. They may not have the tools or the opportunities to improve practice and develop their understanding of quality. The elements of good practice change over time. Childcare and education standards and practices are not static but developing, bringing new challenges to and expectations of practitioners. Practices that were accepted in the past may now seem outdated, reflecting poor quality or even being damaging to children’s development. New research and evaluations of aspects of existing practice, lessons learned from other countries, changes in government policy goals and recent efforts to raise the qualification levels in early years practice all challenge existing early years standards and contribute to new developments in policy and practice. Practitioners are expected to be responsive to such developments and to develop their own practice in line with new expectations. However, since 1997 there has been an extraordinary amount of legislation affecting practice in the early years compared to previous decades. This has put considerable pressure on early years providers and practitioners to keep up with developments and what can seem to be ever-expanding roles and responsibilities. Practitioners also need to respond to issues within their own setting or context. Choices in practice at this level are not all influenced by external policy but may still make a difference to the level of quality on offer to children. For example, routines may make it easier or more difficult to spend time talking to parents. Planning may offer the opportunity for children to ‘wallow’ in their own play or may restrict this. The extent to which children can play outdoors may depend on planning decisions but also on the value practitioners place on this. It can feel quite daunting to not only be able to do a demanding job or course of study and placement and also to keep up with new ideas and

Introduction developments in what is considered quality practice. Practitioners may not feel that they can easily influence setting policy and practice unless they have a senior role. However, quality is not just the responsibility of managers. It is the responsibility of all staff involved with young children to make sure that they receive excellent standards of care and education to support their development most effectively. Gaining knowledge and understanding of what is good practice and developing skills are important steps to becoming an effective practitioner. However, perhaps even more importantly, recognizing that there are many approaches to early years work and that there are choices to be made is the key to understanding quality. This book aims to offer students and existing practitioners a discussion of various aspects of good practice to support personal development and understanding of quality issues in the early years. However, it also includes aspects that are aimed at supporting you to become a reflective practitioner so that change becomes part of your understanding of your role, rather than something that is externally imposed and possibly unwelcome. Reflective practice is based on the belief that standards can improve if practitioners can think about what they have done, what could be done differently and what the possible range of approaches are to an aspect of early years work. This reflection does not take place about all aspects of practice all the time but should be part of the day-to-day work of a setting so that work practices are reviewed regularly. Knowledge and understanding of early years practices, research and theories of practice, and policy requirements and the thinking behind these, all inform reflection. A deeper understanding of issues such as children’s rights and diversity and inclusion underpin the development of quality practice across aspects such as play, safeguarding and supporting children’s healthy development. To achieve good standards, practitioners need to develop skills to question different practices and approaches in the early years and to instigate and support change and new developments.

Principles and values Values are about the standards or attributes which a culture, society or individual holds as being important or desirable. Values are general statements about how a society functions and, as such, they do not reflect how we might behave in all situations. Different values may conflict at times, presenting us with moral or ethical dilemmas. Many values are reflected in the laws of society, such as the right to life, which is a basic value in many

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Good Practice in the Early Years countries. Heavy penalties for unlawful killing demonstrate that this value is held to be significant. However, even this strongly held value can conflict with other values and lead to moral dilemmas. For example, although the right to life is a basic value in the UK, exceptions are made in the case of war, selfdefence and sometimes ‘mercy killings’. In some cases where individuals have helped suffering friends or relatives to die prematurely, the legal penalties have been light and there has been public sympathy for those involved. The defence of the nation, which requires sending armed forces into battle, can come before the right to life of those involved. In some states in the USA, capital punishment is used as a penalty for murder, effectively sanctioning state killing of individuals. These are all examples of where the right to life value has been superseded by other values. They are also all controversial issues that are hotly debated, with individuals and social groups holding opposing views on the morality of the actions taken. Principles are more detailed statements about standards and expectations, which may provide a clearer guideline for our behaviour. Principles are based on the wider social values of the society in which they are developed. They underpin practice in the early years, but, like the values they are based on, they can be evolving, contentious and raise ethical dilemmas for practitioners. Ethical dilemmas arise when more than one principle or value cannot easily be met at the same time because they conflict. Most ethical dilemmas have no easy answers and can be difficult to negotiate without leaving individuals or groups aggrieved. For example, some religious groups or communities in the UK are educating their children in faith schools, separate from the mainstream education system, in order to teach their religion and maintain their community’s cultural values. Some may argue that this could be discriminatory and widen existing divisions within society. Others may argue that mainstream schooling is not value-free, being based on Protestant Christianity, and that other groups have the right to ensure that their own religion is promoted to their children within the educational context. Ethical dilemmas can raise strong feelings and be stressful for all involved, especially where basic values conflict.

Introduction

Case Study: Conflicting rights Amy and Sam Amy’s father complained that Amy had been hit several times by another child in nursery. Amy received a bruise to her face during the last attack and her father was extremely angry. The other child, Sam, has learning difficulties that involved some problems with controlling impulses. Sam had been in the nursery only a short while and was still finding the environment bewildering and hostile at times. Sometimes the other children teased him or made comments about him. Amy’s father has expressed the view that ‘handicapped children’ should be educated separately on several occasions. Practitioners at the nursery are concerned that this situation could escalate. • What are the conflicting principles or values in this case? • Whose rights should you support in this situation? • What steps could be taken to improve this situation and who should be involved?

One of the most difficult situations for practitioners may be where the interests of the child and parent conflict. This is most apparent in child protection cases where the child’s right to safety and nurturing care may conflict with the parent’s right to raise their child in privacy. This issue is discussed in more detail in Chapter 7. In this situation, the law is clear that the child’s welfare is paramount, establishing the principle that the child’s right to a safe upbringing is most significant. However, despite the legal basis for protecting children, professionals involved often face serious uncertainties in determining the threshold for interrupting parental care. This dilemma surfaces in the media as criticism of the professionals involved for leaving children in unsafe situations or intervening unnecessarily in family life. The law acts as a guideline in this situation, but not all principles and values relating to early years are embodied within it. Values and principles help us to make decisions about different courses of action, and provide guidance on standards and expectations in terms of the type and style of early years practice offered. However, they do not give detailed guidance on specific situations and how to deal with these. Early years settings should have policies based on agreed values and principles that are in line with wider legislation and guidelines, to provide the practitioner with clear guidance on how to respond in a variety of situations. However, the quality of policies is variable and may not always be helpful. Early years practitioners need to develop their own skills in understanding and

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Good Practice in the Early Years applying sometimes conflicting principles in a range of situations. Becoming a reflective practitioner also involves thinking about and discussing and refining your own values and principles.

Principles of good practice in the early years So what is good practice in the early years, and how can we determine this? There are many contributions to what good practice is seen to be, and these are culturally determined and so may vary between countries and social groupings. Views on good practice will also change over time as new developments inform our ideas. For example, in terms of child abuse, neglect was for a long time considered to be less damaging than other forms of abuse (physical abuse, for example). However, since research into brain development has shown the long-term and serious damage neglect can cause to young children’s brain development and functioning, views on neglect have changed significantly. Good practice therefore is based on legal and policy requirements, and the expectations of children, parents and practitioners in the context of wider social values. These expectations will be based on what is acceptable practice at the time and in the particular culture. But many societies are made up of a range of cultures and this may make it more difficult to establish good practice if the values of these cultures conflict.

Reflection point Principles of good practice may not all be easy to establish and agree on. For example, the principle of keeping children safe is one, which seems on the face of it to be straightforward. But then we start to question how safe we need to keep children. Do we try and rule out all risks to their physical safety? What impact does this have on their learning and development? If we know that risk-taking, experimenting and doing things for themselves are important aspects of children’s emotional and social development, then what is the impact of restricting these opportunities? How might this affect children’s mental health? Is physical safety at all times most important? These are not easy questions to answer and, in the end, it is about making judgements about degrees of safety and balancing this with children’s need for independence. Obviously children need to be kept safe from major injuries and accidents, but the risk of a few bruises and scrapes

Introduction

should not prevent them enjoying freedom in the outdoors and ‘running wild’, as children need to do. Too many restrictions may have a negative effect on development, particularly building confidence and self-esteem.

Activity Playworker colleagues have a motto: ‘Better a broken bone than a broken spirit’. • Comment on what you think this motto means and whether you agree with it. • Discuss how you might explain this idea to parents and other colleagues. In early years contexts, principles of good practice offer guidelines for planning and delivering high-quality services to children. They offer a baseline standard from which to offer quality early years care and education. They also offer a basis of comparison so we can measure or assess improvements over time and understand that good practice is a developing concept. Principles in early years are often written down to guide practice. Policies in settings are briefly discussed above, but these should be based on national and local guidelines and policy documents, and, where applicable, on the law. Written statements of principles are important because they act as reminders of what is expected. However, they are not substitutes for thinking and learning about good practice, developing your own views and actively working together with your colleagues to raise standards. Policies and written statements of principles all too often remain remote from day-to-day practice. However, in order to raise standards, the principles of good practice should underpin the activities that practitioners are involved in day-to-day. This does not mean pausing to consider the principles underpinning everything you do, but it does mean raising your own levels of awareness and thinking about and challenging your own practice.

Activity Make a note of five or six activities or tasks you do frequently on placement or at work, e.g. setting up activities, putting out snacks, taking children to the toilet, playing with children. • Taking each task in turn, make a note of the relevant good practice issues and how these might influence the way in which you perform the task. • Discuss this with colleagues and see if their views are similar to yours.

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The development of good practice Early years practice is not static but changes over time and in context, as mentioned above. Many of the early years practices of the last century or even of 20 years ago may now seem to be outdated and unacceptable. Sending children to bed without food, beating them with belts and locking them in small spaces would seem outlandishly cruel today, but were common punishments not so long ago. Changes in practice come about in many ways, but there are not always neat transitions from one way of doing things to another. Early years practices tend to reflect the norms and values of society, and therefore to change to reflect developments in these. However, these transitions are often based on debate and discussion about sometimes conflicting or opposing values, and therefore may take time to develop.

Reflection point Smacking children has been a controversial issue for some time in UK society. While many children’s organizations and individuals wish to see smacking made illegal, others believe that this would impinge on parents’ rights to raise their children as they see fit. They argue that smacking children is an effective punishment. The anti-smacking lobby argue that it is cruel and demeaning and impinges on children’s rights. They also point out the links between smacking and physical abuse of children and argue that it is ineffectual as a punishment. There has been no agreement between the two sides of this debate for some decades, although there have been changes in the law and in what is considered acceptable in society. Physical punishment was made illegal in schools in 1986 but continues to be legal in family homes. The Children Act, 2004, clarified the law in terms of making any physical chastisement that causes injury such as a bruise or mark illegal, but stopped short of outlawing all physical punishment of children as other countries have done.

Activity • What are your views on parents’ rights to smack their children? Note down how your ideas have developed and what has informed them. Is it your own experiences? What you have read? Discussion with others? Do you know enough about this issue to have an informed opinion?

Introduction

• Write down some childcare practices from the past that are not used now (ask an older colleague or friend) and try and make sense of why these are no longer considered acceptable. Why have they changed over time? What has influenced this change?

Developments in good practice also depend on what is seen as quality. This is culturally determined and may reflect the values and norms of that culture. As mentioned above, this can create dilemmas in a multi-cultural society where values and norms may vary between groups. For example, members of the travelling community in the UK have expressed concerns about the erosion of their lifestyle and culture by mainstream society. However, education authorities express concerns about the low educational achievements of many traveller children and the resulting impoverished lifestyles they experience. There are no absolute rights and wrongs here, but this situation exemplifies some of the difficulties practitioners may face in establishing and applying values and principles to their work. The principle that all children should have equality of opportunity may conflict with the principle that children’s diverse backgrounds and lifestyles should be all accepted equally.

The role of the early years practitioner in promoting good practice While guidelines and policies are useful to provide information about expectations of good practice, practitioners have a responsibility to be able to make decisions and judgements about quality in a very wide range of situations. Promoting good practice cannot be achieved by simply following guidelines. Practitioners need to be knowledgeable about early years issues, included contested debates and emerging understandings that may change the way we think about an aspect of practice. For example, during the Second World War many children were evacuated from major cities to avoid enemy bombings and to free their parents for war work. At the time little was know about attachments and bonding between child and parent, and the level of trauma some of these children experienced due to this separation was not recognized. The work of John Bowlby and colleagues changed our understanding of the impact of separation and therefore changed working practices with children.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Practitioners therefore need to keep up with new research findings and the debates about these, through publications, relevant websites and access to staff development events. However, practitioners also need to ensure they are knowledgeable about the needs of the children in their care. Lack of understanding can lead to poor practice that may have a negative effect on a child.

Case study: Understanding children’s individual needs Sandra Sandra had been in the reception class of her new primary school for one term and seemed to have settled well. However, she remained shy and rather anxious at times. In her second term, Sandra’s teacher started a new project, which involved asking the children to bring in photos of themselves as babies to make into a display. Sandra came home very distressed that day and told her mum she was not going back to school again. Sandra knew that her family did not have any photos of her as she had been adopted 6 months previously. She liked to look at family photos and knew that none showed her as a baby. She also knew that no-one had taken any photos of her as a baby because the social worker had asked her birth parents if any existed. Sandra’s teacher was aware of her background and that she was in an adoptive family.

Activity • What impact might this situation have on Sandra and her parents? • What could have been done differently to avoid this situation? • What are the good practice issues here? • How could Sandra be helped to recover her confidence in school and enjoy the project?

Checklist of good practice issues • Know the policies and guidelines relevant to your work, and work within these. • Know the legal framework for early years practice and how this impacts on your role. • Take opportunities to extend your own learning where possible and to develop your career through additional qualifications. • Reflect on your practice and how this could be improved. • Question practices in your setting which need improving. • Reflect on your own views on a range of cultures and lifestyles and how these can be valued in your setting. • Consider how children’s rights are promoted in your setting.

Introduction • Participate in staff development, team meetings and training. • Participate in monitoring and review processes in your settings, including updating policies and preparing for inspections. • Contribute to developing an enquiring approach to practice in your setting through discussion with colleagues.

Limitations on good practice Good practice is not a defined goal but an ongoing process by which practice develops and improves to meet children’s needs in line with wider policy. However, not all policy is considered positive by those involved in early years. School starting dates in the UK are considered too early by many academics and practitioners in the field, compared to other countries where children start formal learning at six or even seven years old. The role of play in children’s learning is valued but competes with the requirement to reach targets and monitor and improve achievement levels (see Chapter 1). Children’s centres and extended schools provide valuable resources for children and parents, but some argue that the drive to get parents back to work to improve family living standards means that very young children may be in care and education from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m., and that this is not positive for their development. Practitioners may find themselves disagreeing with the policies within which they work. This is not necessarily a negative aspect of work, as practitioners should be seeking opportunities to involve themselves in policy development where possible. Understanding the issues and debates is a key starting point for this involvement. Limitations on good practice can be budgetary, but this should not be an excuse for lack of interest in improving quality. Staff training and development are important aspects of quality and should not be seen as luxuries available rarely and only to the few. Not all settings and organizations actively promote good practice in all areas of work. You may find yourself in a setting where there is only ‘lip-service’ paid to implementing some policies or other principles of good practice, or where there is a culture of tokenism towards issues such as inclusion. These limitations may be due to weak management or lack of understanding of the relevant issues and their impact on children and families.

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Reflection point While visiting a student on placement in a nursery, the author asked to see the nursery’s child protection policy, as this was an area of interest for her. The student supervisor looked embarrassed and bewildered and then disappeared for 10 minutes, before returning to say that the policy was not available because it was ‘at the manager’s home’. When asked about what was in the policy, the student supervisor admitted she had never seen it.

Activity • What are the good practice issues here? • How might this situation reflect the ethos in the setting? • How should it be remedied and what steps should be taken to establish good practice around child protection in the nursery?

Conclusions Good practice is a dynamic concept and over your career in the early years sector your concept of what this involves should change and develop considerably. You may look back on your own practice now in a few years time and consider it no longer ‘good’ in the light of the changed principles underpinning practice. The main issue is to equip yourself with the skills to reflect on practice, develop new understandings, gain knew knowledge and make sense of it in terms of your own role. This book is intended to support you with these developments. It contains a number of features for self-assessment, including reflection points, activities and case studies. These are designed to extend your understanding and learn reflective skills. The term ‘parent’ is used throughout to mean anyone who has parental responsibility for a child or who is caring for a child. This could include parents, relatives, childminders and foster carers. The terms ‘early years practitioner’ or ‘practitioner’ are used to mean anyone working with children in a voluntary or paid capacity in a range of settings, such as schools, family homes, childminders, pre-schools, crèches or other relevant contexts. The book primarily focuses on children aged 0–8, although reference is made to older children where this is relevant.

1 Play in Early Years Education Philippa Thompson

Chapter Outline Introduction 13 Early pioneers: an historical perspective on play 14 Policy and curriculum: where does play fit in? 20 What is play – just playing? 22 The role of the adult 28 Listening to children 33 Time to play 35 Contexts for play 38 Conclusion 40

Introduction So much has been written about play in early childhood that it can seem overwhelming when you are new to the theoretical perspectives. It seems everyone has an opinion on play – its value, its status, what it is and how it should be harnessed to provide a quality learning experience for children in their earliest years (0–8). This chapter aims to bring together some of the more recent theories on play and to give them a context within early childhood education. The starting point is that play was around long before the ‘play pioneers’ (the play theorists who first explored the meanings of play) began to see its value, and that it is driven by the child (intrinsically motivated). Bringing different perspectives together may challenge the views of those who have only considered play as an ‘add on’ or a ‘tool’ to support children along their stages of development. This chapter challenges this perception and identifies good practice implicitly through this discussion. Many early childhood educators appear to feel passionately that young children have a right to play and that they should not be faced with formal



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Good Practice in the Early Years learning activities too soon. When asked to expand on this theory, the arguments appear to weaken as perhaps a definition of play is difficult to provide (Moyles et al., 2002). It could also be argued that there is certain hostility towards the concept of play because it is not easily quantifiable and therefore not easy to understand. Many Early Years Foundation Stage practitioners will recognize comments such as “well, you only play” as a response from curriculum leaders to questions concerning curriculum provision in a through primary school. According to many, the assumption is that the real learning only happens when more formal activities are introduced. The key points that will be considered in this chapter aim to raise questions for consideration, rather than give answers. Those working in this field need to develop their own philosophy based on experience embedded within a theoretical perspective. The aim is to provide understanding of the concept of play within the field of early years and to discuss the role of play in quality early years provision. So how does the case for play become convincing? What do those working in the field of early years need to know and understand about play? This chapter covers the following: • Early pioneers: an historical perspective on play • Policy and curriculum: where does play fit in? • What is play – just playing? • The role of the adult • Listening to children • Time to play • Contexts for play.

Early pioneers: an historical perspective on play To be able to develop an understanding of play and its controversial role in the education of young children, it is necessary to consider the historical context. To understand the development of ideas about play over time helps those who want to become advocates of play to be able to see that current perspectives and theories are not new, but grounded in research. This section provides an overview of the ideas of the key play pioneers and how their perspectives have been acknowledged and developed by modern-day theorists.



Play in Early Years Education

Rousseau Whilst we could go as far back as Plato, this section will begin with Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78), most well-known for his mainly fictional characterization of the growth and development of a young boy (Emile). Rousseau was concerned with what he considered to be the pointless questioning of children by adults, who he saw as interrupting the thinking and reasoning that children themselves would develop through their play. He appeared frustrated by the constant ‘testing’ of children, rather than adults using informed judgements to make decisions about children’s knowledge and understanding (Frost, 2010). The assumption could be made that Rousseau would not have enjoyed some of the practice we still see today, for example, children being shown flash cards of shapes, colours, words, pictures and being asked to repeat their names ‘parrot fashion’ and out of context. Rousseau pioneered the idea that adults could observe children at play, for example with blocks, and consider how a child was using their knowledge of shape to construct buildings and patterns – a far deeper understanding of the child’s knowledge should come from this.

Case study: Play and numbers Jack’s mum and dad attended parents’ evening for the first time following his entry to Year One at a through Primary School. Comments were fairly positive until the parents were told that Jack (aged 5 years 8 months) needed to work on his ‘number bonds’ (0–10) as he had scored 8 out of 10 in a computerized test. Jack’s mum, a strong believer in supporting Jack to develop ideas and concepts through play, challenged this assumption. This was based on an observation of her son at play the previous day with two close friends – Emily (7 years 8 months) and Lucy (4 years 6 months). The children had sat at the top of the stairs and were estimating the number of stairs before counting them by bouncing down to the bottom on their bottoms with shrieks of laughter! This soon turned in to a game where one child had to bump down the stairs a certain number and another child had to bump down the number that they would have to add to make a total of ten (Jack deciding that they should only do numbers up to 10 as Lucy was ‘only 4’!) This then turned into a competition to see who could reach the bottom first, so problem-solving was key if you wanted to win. The children called the two mums (who had been eavesdropping), who suggested they made some numbers and then pulled them out of a hat. The children became very excited and wrote numbers from 1 to 20. A number was pulled out and all had to work out how many to bump down to make 10. Jack was extremely fast at this and soon wanted numbers

ð

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Case study (Continued) to make 20, which he completed with ease. The game lasted over an hour, with the mums tiring before the children, and with Lucy taking the role of number caller. The following parents’ evening Jack’s parents were told that Jack was felt to be ‘gifted and talented’ at mathematics.

Reflection point Consider the summary of the work of Rousseau in the context of this Case Study. • What are your initial thoughts? The test that was used to measure Jack’s knowledge was a computer test in which children had to click on the appropriate number. • Why do think Jack scored 8 rather than 10 when clearly the day before he had demonstrated a depth of knowledge?

Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) reformed the development of children’s education, following the ideas of Rousseau. He supported the idea that adults should follow children’s interests and give children time to gain experience and develop. It is suggested that he deplored the rotelearning approach, and felt that the belief that there is a ‘correct’ answer to all questions should not be encouraged (Nutbrown et al., 2008; Frost, 2010). Pestalozzi believed that teachers had the role of nurturing children’s wellbeing rather than applying harsh punishments, and this underpinned the concept of the child as a person who could grow and develop in the right conditions. Pestalozzi’s approach to learning could be seen as ‘playful’, or, in other words, he saw the intrinsic motivation that children have to play. He also considered that children have a certain readiness to take on ideas and concepts at particular times – an idea that more recently has been supported by research in neuroscience (Frost, 2010).



Play in Early Years Education

Case study: Following children’s interests Having witnessed the ‘twisters’ in America on the television news, Tom (aged 6 years 3 months) wanted to know how a tornado was formed. The first answer given was not one that satisfied him. He knew it was a strong wind and had figured out that it was called a ‘twister’ because it ‘twisted round and round’ (his interest in all things rotating being strong at this time). He wanted to know how it was formed and why it had destroyed people’s homes. Tom’s dad spent the evening researching this concept so that he could talk it through with Tom the following day. Tornados are expected to feature in Tom’s play while he makes sense of this new concept. This had already happened previously from the age of 3 when he wanted to understand the cause of an eruption of a volcano. Ideas were gathered then developed into imaginative play with dinosaurs/lava/ molten rock, which then continued to feature in his play for three years in different guises.

Reflection point Consider the idea that Pestalozzi mooted, that there are times when children have a certain readiness to take on new learning. • Do you think Tom would have gained as much from waiting until this new concept was taught in school? • Why?

Froebel Freidrich Froebel (1782–1852) studied under Pestalozzi and developed his own approach to the use of play, which was embedded into the curriculum and which focused on the natural play environment. Similarly to Pestalozzi, Froebel concentrated on ‘learning by doing’. He suggested that the sensory experience of handling open-ended materials which he called ‘gifts’ was the passage to exploring meaning and developing hypotheses. This worked alongside the development of ‘occupations’ that provided some skills based learning intended to provoke creativity. Froebel developed a fascination with play in early childhood, seeing it as a tool for learning. However, the best approach to achieving this was ambiguous in Froebel’s time. Play as a tool for learning (and whether in fact it should be viewed as this at all) is a concept that has still not been clarified in recent curriculum documentation in England (DCSF, 2008; Tickell, 2011).

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MacMillan and Isaacs Margaret MacMillan (1860–1931), her sister Rachel (1859–1917) and Susan Isaacs (1885–1948) all made contributions in terms of how they felt children’s play should be supported and nurtured. The Macmillans created the first open air nursery and used this to improve the health and well-being of disadvantaged children. This is echoed today in the principle that young children need to develop their ideas outdoors as well as indoors, and that outdoor play affords children many benefits in their early years (see Bilton, 2002, 2004; Tovey, 2007; White, 2008; Ouvry, 2003; Garrick, 2004). Susan Isaacs was one of the key pioneers of the role of observation in the understanding of children’s play. She supported the idea of recording children’s thoughts and ideas to try to understand the child from the inside out with little adult ‘interference’ (Howard and McInnes, 2010). Observation is now seen as a key element of quality early years practice, as a way of understanding children’s play and how children make sense of the world. There is still work to be done on how practitioners understand the role of observation, but the practice has been embedded. Isaacs also stressed the importance of social interactions, and her belief that children’s work is play is widely known, if perhaps disputed. This is a difficult notion to unravel as, whilst it seems to be valuing play by giving it the label of ‘work’, it is perhaps demeaning play by not valuing it in its own right.

Reflection point • Think of examples where you have seen children being able to develop their own ideas in an outdoor learning environment. What might prevent this? • How have you seen observation being used in settings? What do you think is the purpose of observation? • What do you feel about play being labelled as ‘children’s work’? Consider your answer again when you have read this chapter.

Piaget Piaget (1896–1980) considered a staged approach to play in an attempt to give it a definition and thus further status. His three types of play followed the notion of practice play, symbolic play and games with rules. These were seen as consecutive developmental stages, a concept which has since been challenged by post-developmental theorists (Nolan and Kilderry, 2010).



Play in Early Years Education

Children are no longer believed to follow through a complete stage of play before moving on to the next in a linear fashion. Very young children can be seen to develop games with rules, but the adult has to be skilled enough in their observation to identify these. Consider the simple game of ‘peek-a-boo’ and how the adult responds to the rules suggested by the child. The concepts of assimilation and accommodation are also attributed to Piaget and need to be understood by those considering perspectives on play. Smidt (2010) believes these concepts can help us to understand play when it may seem ‘purposeless’. Assimilation in a play context may involve young children discovering something new in their play, but not altering the views they already have because of this. Accommodation takes this a stage further so that the new discovery changes the child’s ideas or views, and a new category of understanding is created by the child.

Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) focused his attention on social interaction as a way of learning. He believed that play only evolved when children created it for a purpose, so that there was no ‘just playing for play’s sake’. Vygotsky focused on the role of children’s social interaction with either adults or peers in play, which led to the concept of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD). This can be defined as the zone between what children can achieve independently and what they can achieve with support from peers or supportive adults. This is a key concept that is still playing a major role in early years pedagogy today. The Tickell (2011) review of the Early Years Foundation Stage (DCSF, 2008) makes strong reference to ZPD when discussing the role of play in the early years and how important ‘meaningful interactions’ are in children’s play (Tickell, 2011: 29). Vygotsky believed adults should use observations skilfully, drawing on their knowledge of child development, to support that development further. Rather than being ‘controlled’ by the stages of development, quality practice would involve a supportive environment in which children could challenge their own thinking, often at a much higher level than expected (Nutbrown, 2006). Key pioneers have played a key role in the formation of practice involving play, but the debate is still continuing today amongst modern theorists such as Bruce, Moyles, Fisher, Brooker, Broadhead and Wood, to name but a few (their work contributes to the rest of this chapter but further reading is recommended).

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Reflection point • What are your experiences and views of the role of play at this point? • What are these views based on?

Policy and curriculum: where does play fit in? Brooker (2007) describes the changes in early years policy from 1997 onwards, with the advent of a new Labour Government, as intense. The election of another new government in 2010 has led to further changes in education and early years policy, with more to come at the time of writing. Not all of this policy has had a direct impact on children and their play, but it has certainly put the spotlight on young children and the provision they receive. The Government Green Paper, ‘Every Child Matters’ (DfES, 2003) and the subsequent Children Act (2004) has meant professionals and practitioners working together in a more unified way towards key objectives for children. The workforce also came under review, with a commitment to improving the qualifications of staff through such initiatives as the Early Years Professional status (Reardon, 2009). The Early Years Foundation Stage (DCSF, 2008) was implemented, and heralded a new curriculum from birth, based upon sound principles around play, but still lacking in explicit recommendations for practice. This has very recently been reviewed and will undergo further changes (Tickell, 2011). There are some criticisms that the Foundation Stage should be more explicit in its description of ‘playful learning’, and place an emphasis on HOW children learn, not WHAT they learn. Also, there is still no definition of play, and the document focuses more closely on the role of the adult. For example: ‘… playing and exploring, active learning and creating and thinking critically are highlighted in the EYFS as three characteristics of effective teaching and learning’ (Tickell, 2011: 58). But what is effective learning and teaching (pedagogy) with regard to play? This is open to misinterpretation, and we will consider this in more detail in ‘The role of the adult’ (pages 28–29). The impact of policy is reflected in the developing role of play within the context of the curriculum. The introduction of a curriculum for children under school age has been controversial, with concerns expressed by experts and practitioners about the impact that prescribed learning outcomes (Early



Play in Early Years Education

Learning Goals, Foundation Stage Profile) can have on play. Every day, early years practitioners wrestle with the outcomes they are expected to achieve at the end of a child’s reception year, against the belief of many that children have a need, or a right, to play in order to develop their learning in a more meaningful way. A simple definition of curriculum as ‘a programme of learning’ (Brock et al., 2010: 21) provides a way for us to consider whether a ‘free-flow’ model of play could ever evolve amongst systems of assessment and attainment (Bruce, 2010). Bruce considers the 12 features of play and suggests that, if practitioners have an understanding of these, then the planning of play becomes more informed, as does the analysis. At the centre of this debate are concerns that play will be led by curriculum requirements, resulting in practitioners feeling they must adapt play to suit the needs of the outcomes, rather than the implicit agenda that play is at the heart of, and should drive the process of, learning that is embedded in the Early Years Foundation Stage (DfES, 2007). Twelve features of free-flow play (Bruce, 2010: 284): 1 It is an active process without a product. 2 It is intrinsically motivated: children cannot be made to play. 3 It exerts no external pressure to conform to rules, pressures, goals, tasks or definite direction. It gives the player control.

4 It is about possible, alternative worlds, that lift players to their highest levels of

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

functioning, freeing them from the here and now. This involves being imaginative, creative, original and innovative. It is about participants wallowing in ideas, feelings and relationships. It involves reflecting on, and becoming aware of, what we know: meta-cognition. It actively uses previous first-hand experiences, including struggle, manipulation, exploration, discovery and practice. It is sustained and, when in full flow, helps us to function in advance of what we can actually do in our real lives. During free-flow play, we use technical prowess, mastery and competence we have previously developed, and so can be in control. Play is not so much about learning new things as it is about applying and reflecting on what has been learned. It can be initiated by a child or an adult, but if by an adult he/she must pay particular attention to 3, 5 and 11 of the features. Play can be solitary. It can be in partnership or groups, with adults and/or children who will be sensitive to each other. It is an integrating mechanism, which brings together everything we learn, know, feel and understand.

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What is play – just playing? Play is a fundamental learning mechanism that begins with absolute basics like touch, where the interface between the child’s skin and the worlds exists. Play is primarily a process that has no external motivation. Therefore what is gained during play is for the benefit of the child as an organism. That is, play has no interest in future career, or a particular relationship, in travel or in any conscious objectives. (Hughes, 2007: 56–7)

Playworkers’ perspectives The passage quoted above is not from an early years educator, but rather a from playworker. Playworkers study play in-depth, and view play as a ‘fundamental learning mechanism’ that does not have to be used as a tool for other purposes (Hughes, 2001: 56). There is a ‘common language’ when working with play, and ‘practitioners’ work to understand the play frame and the cues that children and young people may be giving. Else (2009) believes that there is a need to understand the ‘play process’ to be able to support children at play.



Play in Early Years Education

Elements of the ‘play process’ are the types of play that children are engaged in at different times and perhaps different stages of their play. Again, playwork provides us with a challenging list of play types. In the list that follows, Else (2009) summarizes the work of Hughes (1996, cited in Else, 2009) who began with 15 types of play but who recently (2002, cited in Else, 2009) has added one more type (recapitulative play) in the constant process of reflection: 1

2

3

4

5

6

7 8

9

10

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Communication play: Play using words, nuances or gestures. For example, mime, Creative play: Play which allows a new response, the transformation of information, awareness of new connections, with an element of surprise. For example, enjoying creation with a range of materials and tools for its own sake. Deep play: Play which allows the child to encounter risky or even potentially lifethreatening experiences, to develop survival skills and conquer fear. For example, leaping onto an aerial runway, riding a bike on a parapet, balancing on a high beam. Dramatic play: Play which dramatizes events in which the child is not a direct participator. For example, presentation of a TV show, an event on the street, a religious or festive event, even a funeral. Exploratory play: Play to access factual information consisting of manipulative behaviours such as handling, throwing, banging or mouthing objects. For example, engaging with an object or area and, either by manipulation or movement, assessing its properties, possibilities and content, such as stacking bricks. Fantasy play: Play, which rearranges the world in the child’s way, a way which is unlikely to occur. For example, playing at being a pilot flying around the world or the owner of an expensive car. Imaginative play: Play where the conventional rules, which govern the physical world, do not apply. For example, imagining you are, or pretending to be, a tree or ship, or patting a dog which isn’t there. Locomotor play: Movement in any and every direction for its own sake. For example, chase, tag, hide and seek, tree climbing. Mastery play: Control of the physical and affective ingredients of the environment. For example, digging holes, changing the course of streams, constructing shelters, building fires. Object play: Play which uses infinite and interesting sequences of hand–eye manipulations and movements. For example, examination and novel use of any object, e.g. cloth, paintbrush, cup. Recapitulative play: Play that is a recapitulation of aspects of collective human evolutionary history. For example, rituals, fire making, den and cave making, using weapons, caring for other species. Role play: Play exploring ways of being, although not normally of an intense personal, social, domestic or interpersonal nature. For example, brushing with a broom, dialling a telephone, driving a car. Rough and tumble play: Close encounter play which is less to do with fighting and more to do with touching, tickling, gauging relative strength, discovering physical

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Good Practice in the Early Years flexibility and the exhilaration of display. For example, playful fighting, wrestling and chasing where the children involved are obviously unhurt and giving every indication that they are enjoying themselves. 13 Social play: Play during which the rules and criteria for social engagement and interaction can be revealed, explored and amended. For example, any social or interactive situation which contains an expectation on all parties that they will abide by the rules or protocols, i.e. games, conversations, making something together. 14 Socio-dramatic play: The enactment of real and potential experiences of an intense personal, social, domestic or interpersonal nature. For example, playing at house, going to the shops, being mothers and fathers, organizing a meal or even having a row. 15 Symbolic play: Using symbols in play to represent other ‘real’ objects. This play supports children’s control, gradual exploration and increased understanding, without the risk of being out of their depth. Examples include using a piece of wood to symbolize a person, or a piece of string to symbolize a wedding ring.

Reflection point • What do you think about the discussion about playwork? • How might these ideas apply to early years provision?

Activity Consider the photographs below. Identify the types of play from those mentioned above. How can knowing the type of play help us to learn more about the child and how they like to learn?



Play in Early Years Education

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Play types in early years There are some types of play that early years educators are readily familiar with. Fisher (2008) also refers to Hughes’s play types, but considers only seven (4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 15, 16) to have distinct relevance to early years. She then adds ‘games with rules’ and ‘free flow play’ to this list. Other types include superhero, war and weapon play (Holland, 2003). Play will not always be fun for children, it can be dark, it can provide conflict, it may not always be fair (Greishaber and McArdle, 2010). Fisher (2008: 121–2) developed the idea of social contexts for play that often become confused with play types: • Solitary play • Spectator play • Parallel play • Cooperative play.

It is important that these are not seen as a measure of whether the child is competent in play. Solitary, spectator and parallel play are significant in their own right and not stages of development to go through before children learn to be cooperative.

Reflection point • Why do you think that cooperative play could be valued more highly than other social contexts for play? • What attitudes have you seen in practice towards superhero, war and weapon play? • Think about times when you prefer to do things by yourself, watch others before you try something, do something alongside others without talking. What is it that affects the way in which you like to ‘play’?

Observation of practice has shown that there is sometimes confusion between concepts such as free play, structured play and free flow play and what they actually mean. Group planning sheets from birth to five often have ‘free play’ in time slots, which in themselves are restrictive (varying in length between 15 and 40 minutes). This may be a well-intentioned effort to give children time to make choices in play and an acknowledgement that children need to do so. However, it can also be seen as a time when practitioners can engage in paperwork and spend time apart from the children. In reality, play resources may be put out quickly with very little thought, the children rushed to choose before the materials became scarce, and the opportunity for adults to be



Play in Early Years Education

sensitive co-constructors (see the role of the adult, page 28) or observe the children engaged in deep-level learning and wallowing in play may be lost (Laevers, 1997; Bruce, 2010). Sometimes there is a ‘laissez-faire’ approach to play as described above which highlights the theory that play is to be used for the purpose of recreation (when work is completed or in golden time) or to ‘let off steam’ (playtime, unresourced outdoor play) (Fisher, 2008). Other, more structured, play approaches reflect the benefits of play as a rehearsal for adult life (role play set up by the adults), play as a reflection of the cultural environment of the child, or play as having therapeutic possibilities (Fisher, 2008; Wood, 2009).

Play in Key Stage One The majority of children enter Key Stage One (KS1) in England at the age of five, and the pressure for a more structured experience in the classroom is increased by the intensity of the curriculum. ‘Play’ in many classrooms is reduced to ‘golden time’ at the end of the week (if behaviour has been deemed appropriate) or the type of play that takes place is adult controlled and time restricted. Play takes on the new role of recreation without practitioners challenging this change (Bruce, 2001). Definitions of play become more explicit as children are allowed to ‘play’ once they have finished their ‘work’, and whilst in some schools the approaches to ‘work’ may be playful this could be interpreted as devaluing the role of play. This concept will be explored further in the section on the role of the adult.

Importance of recognizing types of play There are implications for training here, and of course this does not reflect the many examples of excellent practice in settings. We have seen Bruce’s (2010) definition of free-flow play earlier in the chapter, and structured play will be considered as part of the discussion on the role of the adult. However, in order to meet curriculum requirements, structured play in many contexts is by far the more favoured form as it is more easily quantifiable, fits into learning objectives and retains an element of control. Moyles et al. (2002) made various recommendations for early years practice as an outcome of the SPEEL (Study of Pedagogical Effectiveness in Early Learning) project, but none of these recommendations explicitly mentioned play. However, there was the recognition that there was a need for early years teams to be able to demonstrate effective pedagogy and to

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Good Practice in the Early Years articulate this. In order to achieve this, it is essential that practice that misinterprets the theories of play to the detriment of children’s experiences (such as adult controlled activities that provide no choice for children), and that is justified as an approach to learning, should be questioned and challenged rather than accepted.

Reflection point • How much emphasis has been placed on play in your learning environments (college/university/work-based learning)? Has the emphasis been on adult directed, structured play or understanding children’s free-flow play? • To what extent do you think types of play may influence the quality of your interactions with young children? • Think about your recent placement experiences in relation to the 12 features of free-flow play. What roles have you been given as a student in relation to what types of play, and why?

The role of the adult Relationships are paramount in early years settings and the role of the key person (a named adult who has developed a significant relationship with the child and family) is essential for children to feel safe and secure to explore and learn. When faced with what may seem to be the conflicting demands of the curriculum and children’s right to play, practitioners may then try to find a ‘middle ground’ where they can demonstrate achieved outcomes that are required, but which may compromise the quality of the play experiences. Play will never provide a ‘guarantee’ that the curriculum will be covered, but a ‘tick box’ culture may not be needed if good-quality observations can demonstrate that children are often achieving at a higher level than expected when developing their own skills in a meaningful way (Fisher, 2008). Play may be compromised if curriculum is applied by the adult using a deficit model (i.e. what are the gaps in the child’s learning and how can I target these?). However, play that follows children’s interests, combined with good observations, will apply a credit model (i.e. what can this child do and how can we build on it from what we know of this child and their disposition to learn?) (Carr, 2001). Grieshaber and McArdle (2010) discuss how play has almost become a commodity in Western politics as early years provision can provide financial savings for society later on. This means a shift in emphasis, as early years



Play in Early Years Education

provision must also give value for money and therefore adults must justify how they achieve this. With play being so difficult to define and regulate in terms of having distinct outcomes, it becomes problematic for practitioners to define its value. Curriculum documentation is one way of a government achieving regulation and so it is deemed that play must be ‘purposeful’ (Tickell, 2011). It has been established that the role of the adult in play is complex and at times problematic, and yet there is still excellent practice to be found. How does this practice evolve when curriculum constraints face everybody? What skills, knowledge and understandings do effective practitioners possess? This section will discuss the key concepts that should underpin quality practice from a play perspective. Edgington (2004) considers the ‘essential’ qualities of an early years practitioner in terms of personal characteristics as well as the requirement of specialist knowledge and skills. This supports the belief that early childhood education is complex and demanding in terms of the adults who work within this field. Research suggests that not all practitioners are attaining this high level of expectation, and that there is still a wide range in the quality provided for young children (Sylva et al., 2007).

The adult as a learner Those practitioners who are continually enthralled by the learning of young children are the ones that strive to find out more, which in turn enhances their practice. Placing themselves in the role of the ‘learner’ creates an empathy with the children as well as demonstrating a desire to improve the quality of provision. The need to understand mirrors the same requirement in the children. Most adults can remember a good training course or seminar they have attended. It probably engaged the learner in some ‘active learning’ and handed over some of the control. Arnold (2003) discusses the framework that the team at the Penn Green Centre (Northamptonshire) use to analyse the observations of individual children. This also provides a useful framework for adults to consider their knowledge and understanding of children’s play (adapted from Arnold, 2003: 37). • Level of involvement (Laevers, 1997) • Level of well-being (Laevers, 1997) • Which schemas are being explored? (Athey, 1990; Bruce, 1991) • Interests in areas of learning (DfES, 2007)

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Good Practice in the Early Years • Preferred learning style (Gardner, 1991) • Who does the child play with? (Pollard, 1996) • Dispositions (Carr, 2001) • How adults relate to the child (Pascal and Bertram, 1997)

It can be argued that, if the practitioner is skilled in their knowledge and understanding of the above concepts (with a background expertise in types and theories of play), then through good-quality observations and evaluation, they can help children achieve at a higher level. They can provide the opportunity for children to make choices in free-flow play without adult control and structured activities. The children themselves make the experience purposeful (because they want to know and to find out) and with an adult as co-constructor there is plenty of opportunity to grapple with complex theories and concepts. Wood (2009: 27) describes children acting as ‘playful pedagogues in their self-initiated activities’.

The adult as co-constructor The outcomes of the Effective Provision of Pre-School Services (EPPE) project suggested that sustained adult–child interactions led to higher attainment and quality provision for young children. The phrase ‘sustained shared thinking’ was used to describe quality interactions where “two or more individuals ‘work together’ in an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate activities, or extend a narrative” (Siraj-Blatchford, 2010, cited in Peters and Davis, 2011: 7). So how does this link to the context of play? The role of the adult as a ‘sustained shared thinker’ or as a co-constructor, in which the adult does not have a learning objective or goal, works well within the context of play. This of course takes skill and knowledge, as discussed previously, and is not always prevalent in current settings (Siraj-Blatchford, 2010). Peters and Davis (2011) discovered a reluctance for practitioners in New Zealand to let go of the role of ‘facilitator’, where good-quality resources were provided and changed according to the needs of the children, and to become the co-constructor instead, listening and talking with the children and developing the idea of ‘working theories’ (ideas and theories that are created by the children as they play). Peters and Davis (2011) also discuss the danger of adults assuming they understand meanings when they think they have discovered the child’s interest. As any parents will know, this can lead to anger and frustration on the part of the child as they soon sense whether the adult has ‘really’ listened and understood.



Play in Early Years Education

Planning for play The idea that play needs to be planned for provides immediate challenges for adults engaged in early years practice. How much planning is required? How much should the children lead? Should there be learning objectives or should the process, rather than the product, be most valued? How rigidly should the planning be adhered to when the play takes another direction? The list of questions is endless and represents the daily dilemmas of a practitioner wanting to improve their own practice. The seemingly endless requirement for paperwork, recently challenged in the latest review of the Early Years Foundation Stage, adds another dimension to the culture of play in the early years (Tickell, 2011). Practitioners expected to produce detailed weekly plans with a string of learning objectives may find difficulty in trying to express the pedagogical practices associated with play. Planning meaningfully for young children is therefore difficult within the context of play and curriculum. PLODs (Possible Lines of Direction) were developed as a planning model by the Penn Green Centre. There have been subsequent adaptations of this model and the one suggested here is open for discussion. Penn Green uses the child’s interest at the core to map ideas on to the six areas of learning from the Early Years Foundation Stage (DfES, 2007). This is done in discussion with the child, the child’s family and practitioners, and then the result is displayed. The interests of the child are discovered through quality observations and the system of analysis discussed on page 29 (Arnold, 2003). This approach has been adapted by Chesworth and Thompson (2009) for use with Level 4 students developing their skills in the analysis of observations. This type of plan has an indefinite timespan (short or long) so that the child is enabled to follow through a concept, idea or challenge in their play without the learning objectives of the adult interfering and changing the direction. The ‘theme’ or ‘topic’ comes from the child not the adult, which can lead to the ‘deep-level learning’ Laevers (1997) describes as being so important. As the planning evolves and changes, the practitioner can evaluate and understand what concept the child has grasped and at what level. The planning then builds on this without the need for lengthy recording of skills acquisition.

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Possible Lines of Direction (P.L.O.D.) for _____________________________________ Age: _____________

Date: _______________

Personal, Social & Emotional Development

Creative Development

Comments on Involvement

Written by: ___________________________________________ Communication, Language & Literacy

Comments on Schema

Comments on WellBeing

Focus of Interest:

Comments on Dispositions

Problem Solving, Reasoning & Numeracy

Resources:

Fig 1.7  Possible lines of direction (PLODs) Source: Chesworth and Thompson (2009), adapted from the Pen Green model.

Knowledge & Understanding of the World

Physical Development



Play in Early Years Education

Reflection point Consider some of the planning you have experienced. • Who do you think has really benefitted from these plans? • What skills do you feel you need to develop to be able to engage with play as part of early childhood education?

Listening to children Children have the right to say what they think should happen and have their opinions taken into account. (United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1959, cited in Edmiston and Taylor, 2010)

Consideration has implicitly been given to children’s perspectives in the previous discussion of play and the role of the adult. However, it is important to be explicit about this aspect so that the children do not get forgotten whilst the adults try to juggle all the other needs and demands of the day. A recent publication commissioned by the DCSF and subsequently the DfE (2010) reported on children’s perspectives of the Early Years Foundation Stage. One of the key questions related to play and whether children related play to their experiences in their setting, and was it enjoyable. Of course, children find play as difficult as adults to define.

Case study: A child’s perspective on play I asked my 6-year-old son what he thought play was (bearing in mind it was bedtime and he had crept into my bed while I was typing on my laptop next to him – not the best research environment!). It is interesting to consider some of the comments, which I’m sure would be common to many parents and their children … ‘You can play running games’ ‘We usually play [at school] when we’ve finished our work. We build quite a lot of things. I think sums are play – I think they are fun working them out and playing with the sums’ [Not what is expected, I’m sure, but he often problemsolves and plays with patterns of numbers in his head.] ‘We play in the “workshop” I guess – we build things anyway’ [The workshop is a move towards one area of continuous provision but is not available all the time.]

ð

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Case study (Continued) ‘I think dressing up is fun – we get to do that at “golden time”. I dressed as Snow White. We usually play until everyone’s finished their work’

The definition of play was very focused at this point on school and the rules that are associated with it, perhaps reflecting the constraints that are placed on choices and behaviour. This is a child who spends long periods of time developing games, with a huge range of open-ended materials, and whose rules are only those created by himself. Most of his play involves classification and developing collections (strong mathematical links) but could fit into many of Hughes’s play types alongside a strong schematic (trajectory, envelopment and rotation) influence. (Schema: a pattern of repeatable behaviour into which experiences are assimilated and that are gradually co-ordinated (Athey, 1990: 37).) This is an important area to consider for further reading and to observe in practice.

Garrick et al. (2010) found large discrepancies in how children talked about their play experiences, perhaps reflecting the huge differences in provision that exist for children aged 0–7 years. Children do have an opinion on play and how they would like to play, on what would be fun and how they would like to learn. Sometimes this is difficult to articulate, particularly for younger children, but the adult should be skilled in observation and evaluation so that, by reading some of the play cues, children are listened to and their needs provided for (Else, 2009). The methods described in this chapter all point towards the participation of children in their own learning, and this is where play has such a strong role. Play is at its best when it is child-led and the adult follows in one of the skilled roles suggested. Children will soon let adults know if they have got it wrong and will often ‘vote with their feet’. Anyone will understand this scenario who has walked into a full roleplay area, ready to join in with the play, only to suddenly find themselves all alone.

Reflection point • How often do you really listen to children by giving eye contact and being genuinely interested in what they have to say? • What are your feelings about children’s participation – about children being actively engaged in the decision-making of the setting? Can children make decisions on how opportunities for play are provided? • What do you know about different methods of observation and their role in children’s play?



Play in Early Years Education

Time to play Time can be taken away from play in many different guises, and practitioners will sometimes state that they have too many children in their care to spend one-to-one time with any of them. However, this is about priorities in the setting and the value placed on play. In play, children often display the positive attributes and dispositions that are considered essential to lifelong learning, such as planning and organisation, problem-creating and problem-solving, concentration, engagement, involvement, participation, and metacognitive capabilities … . However, in school contexts, time for sustained play is reduced and work takes centre stage. Constraining play beyond childhood may therefore deny its many benefits, including opportunities for children to become master players, and to develop emotional resilience. Wood (2008: 113–14)

Not only in school but from the very earliest years there seems to be a ‘myth’ that children ‘thrive’ on rigid routine which often manifests in a prescribed fixed timetable displayed on the wall for parents (rather than children) stating what their children will be doing on a half-hourly basis. MacNaughton and Williams (2009) argue that children need a regular pattern to the day to give them predictability and ‘allay uncertainty’, but also that flexibility and large blocks of time will support children to practise new and familiar skills without interruption (2009: 35). This approach provides an opportunity for children to go at their own pace rather than at the pace of adult life (home or school setting) which may consist of using time to fit in with others’ needs. Children following an adult-directed task or worksheet can have a time limit decided upon by the practitioner (Fisher, 2008), but play can be problematic for practitioners, as it does take time – sometimes a long time. This is where the value of play must override the adult’s need to have control, and the child’s needs must be at the heart of the experience. Problem solving, creativity and developing a working theory will not take only five or ten minutes. Children also sometimes need to leave their play and return to it, which again takes up time. Adults should remember the feeling of achievement when they have solved a problem or completed a task without interruption, and they have been given enough time to do so. How does it feel to rush from one ‘activity’ to another just because the clock is ticking?

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Time for play outdoors One of the key areas that suffers from this ‘lack of time’ is outdoor play. Research has shown that children with access to outdoors have better concentration, better physical and motor development and varied and imaginative types of play. (Papatheodorou, 2010: 152)

Despite the evidence, some young children appear to spend little time outside, and often the weather is the dictating factor as to whether children will play outside that day. We only have to consider the Forest Schools approach (see Knight, 2010) to know that children can go out in all weathers as long as they are appropriately dressed. Consider the amount of time that children will spend in the park in the holidays and have to be ‘persuaded’ to leave by the adult who brought them. Then consider the 15 minutes the routine allows in some settings. Outdoor play can just become time to ‘let off steam’ – a selffulfilling prophecy, because that is all there is time to do. There needs to be provision for those children who like to engage in ‘rough and tumble’ play (Jarvis and George, 2010). Quality practice in outdoor play should be planned alongside indoor play, to follow children’s interests and cover all six areas of learning (DCSF, 2008). There are many good examples of children moving from indoors to outdoors in their play without interruption, and even the smallest spaces can be developed so that there is more on offer than just wheeled toys (Bilton, 2004). Further reading on outdoor play is recommended for those wishing to develop a deep understanding of play; see, for example, Bilton, 2005, 2010; Garrick, 2004; Tovey, 2007; White, 2007, 2011. Access to outdoor play needs advocates so that those children who prefer to play outside get this opportunity on a daily basis.

Gender MacNaughton and Williams (2010) report on gender and approaches to routines during the day. They cite Gevers Deynoot-Schaub and RiksenWalraven, whose research discovered that aggression levels were reduced in some of the boys if adults spent more time with them, and that there was more chance of this in the presence of provisions such as pretend play, sand play and water play. This in turn links to contexts for play, and the chapter will go on to discuss the requirements of a quality play environment for young children.



Play in Early Years Education

Case studies: Theory into practice School A Two reception classes form part of a ‘through’ primary school (4–11 years) in which the approach to learning is based on formal teaching methods. Children spend long periods (30–45 minutes at a time) seated on the carpet and engaged in whole-class teaching. The emphasis is on writing throughout the school, due to this having been highlighted in a recent Ofsted inspection. Children enter the school at 4 years of age from a wide range of nursery provision, and whilst the early days of entry are based on structured play activities (table-top rather than continuous provision), after a few weeks the children are expected to engage in ‘formal’ writing sessions, particularly filling in words on worksheets and ability-based phonics sessions in large groups. Children are expected to start the day engaging in activities set out on the table by practitioners, either copying words or copying their own name. Some children noticeably find it difficult to settle in the mornings, and large groups of boys are seen rolling around on the carpet engaged in rough-and-tumble play (Hughes, 2001).

School B Two reception classes form part of a ‘through’ primary school (3–11 years) in which many of the children feed in from the school nursery as well as from surrounding nursery provision. The Foundation Stage and KS1 have developed continuous provision and free-flow play simultaneously, indoors and outdoors, alongside small-group work supported by adults and based on recognized pedagogical practices (Sylva et al., 2007). Some whole-group teaching takes place for short periods supported by at least two adults, focused on literacy and mathematics. Writing has been highlighted as an Ofsted priority, but the focus has been on staff training to understand appropriate practice in early years. There is a policy of no worksheets, and children entering the classroom choose from a wide range of continuous provision with parents encouraged to stay and take an active role in supporting their child’s decisions. The classrooms are small, but tables have been removed to create spaces for play. Children appear purposeful and engaged in enthusiastic conversations, and adults have time to support both children and parents at the beginning of the day.

Activities • Both schools are working within the same curriculum and in the same local authority. Why do you think their approach to play differs so much? • Why do you think that some parents may prefer the approach to play favoured in the first case study? • How does reading these two case studies make you feel about your own practice and the practice you may have had experience of?

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Contexts for play Environments for play do not just mean the physical environment. ‘Contexts for play’ refers not only to the setting environment of practitioner and resources, but also the home context and the important position it should take when valuing the play experience. Manning-Morton and Thorp (2003: 16) suggest that: High quality play for children from birth to three takes place in a context of: • • • • •

a secure relationship between key person and child, shared care between parents/carers and practitioners, high levels of communication and support between practitioners, well thought-out routine care times, an appropriately designed and prepared environment.

High quality play for children from birth to three is planned across all aspects of the provision with attention to the detail of how play experiences are presented and supported.

These five attributes contribute to the enhancement of play provision in early childhood education, but this section will focus on just two of them: ‘shared care between parents/carers and practitioners’, and ‘an appropriately designed and prepared environment’.

Shared care between parents/carers and practitioners The focus on shared care and the notion that parents are partners as well as their child’s first educator are essential to the success of play in the early years setting. Practitioners need to feel confident in pedagogical practice so that they can work alongside families to provide the best learning environment for children. Cultural expectations of a product from play rather than the importance of the process of play can sometimes dominate views on effective early years provision. ‘Have you done me a painting today?’ is a favourite phrase heard at the end of the nursery day, rather than expressing an interest in reading a good quality observation or looking at a series of photographs based on a play experience that day. Practitioners need to gently challenge the notion that, if a young child has produced a drawing, painting or model, then they have done something worthwhile, whereas if they have developed a sophisticated game of ‘chase’ outside, then this is somehow less significant. Only practitioners confident in their knowledge and understanding of play practice will be able



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to convey the value of all types of play. This will then in turn support parents to value the play their children engage in at home. Many of the strategies parents use to support play come from their in-depth knowledge of their own child, but only where good practice occurs does the parent feel confident to share their beliefs, things that happened yesterday, observations and funny stories. Most parents want their child to be happy and thrive and they want to support them to continue to do so when they are in a setting with other adults. Childminders often demonstrate excellent practice in the ‘shared care’, and it is seen as essential for them to be part of that child’s play environment. Whalley and the Pen Green Centre Team (2007) have clear methods when working in partnership with parents and work hard to share key concepts about play so that parents can be true partners. Sessions are run on a regular basis in which information on concepts such as schema (see page 29), well-being and involvement are shared. Practitioners are highly skilled in respecting families as the primary educators, and work in a genuine partnership to understand the child’s play. This is in stark contrast to some settings in which children are left at the door and the main communication is at a parent’s evening (lasting approximately ten minutes!) during which it is generally the practitioner who does most of the talking.

An appropriately prepared environment The physical environment must also be planned and prepared so as to allow young children the opportunities for different styles of play. Papatheodorou (2010: 148–9) considers the response of children when asked to consider what they would like to see in their school. They suggested that it should: • provide multi-sensory and stimulating areas; • support real-life tasks; • encourage active and adventurous play and balance it with quiet play areas and areas for relaxation and rest; • promote cooperation, and cross age and gender play; • take care of safety, health and hygiene; • give a sense of fun and exuberance; • show respect to the individual; • minimize friction and arguments.

This research supports the idea that children like to consider their environments as playful and that this in turn will enable children to create a zone of proximal development through their play. If the environment feels controlling

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Good Practice in the Early Years and restrictive, then the play may not be allowed to thrive and develop at a deep level.

Continuous provision One of the key terms associated with early years education is the concept of ‘continuous provision’. This is not to suggest that one system or one style of environment is best, but this approach does mould itself to the interests and needs of the children and adults who are using it, while remaining flexible and stimulating. Continuous provision in many ways has developed out of the High-Scope Approach to early learning. Resources are accessible to children in ‘workshop’ areas, and some resources remain constant whilst others are added to reflect the interests shown by children during thorough observations. Children play on the floor, at tables and outside, and ‘tabletop’ activities (readily set out for the children with resources selected by the adults) are not in sight. Children are allowed to move resources from one ‘workshop’ area to another if practice is based on a good understanding of play. Continuous provision, when approached from a sound pedagogical background, provides a playful approach to learning, and opportunities for children to engage in many types of play. This style of environment can also have pitfalls. If the approach is not based on sound principles, then two things tend to happen. Children are left to play with resources that are not stimulating while adult interactions are based around conflict or ‘catching up’ on jobs; and the children see the potential for freedom but the adult still controls the space.

Reflection point • Consider the provision of the Reggio Emilia pre-schools (see Rinaldi, 2006, Malaguzzi, 1996) and the consideration of the environment as the third educator. • Consider the ‘Te Whariki’ belief (A New Zealand perspective) that children are ‘competent learners and communicators’ (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2010: 21; also see Carr, 2001).

Conclusion This chapter has highlighted the need for play to be understood on a much deeper level than it currently is. If early years educators want to be listened to, then they must take a proactive role in promoting play in its own right.



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Research and government reports support a pedagogy of play, and these voices need to be heard rather than misrepresented – consider the case of the Cambridge Primary Review, which recommended a pedagogy of play until the age of 6 (Alexander, 2009). Key points of the chapter: • A pedagogy of play in early childhood education would lead to best practice for children and their families. • Free-flow play is purposeful play if the adults understand it! • The adult role is multi-faceted, but it is crucial in the development of quality practice. Practitioners need to view themselves as knowledgeable co-constructors rather than as facilitators. • Time is essential for play to be meaningful. • The environment does not have to ‘look’ a certain way, but practitioners need to understand the pedagogy of why and how it can operate. • Children need to be engaged as co-constructors of their environment and to see it as ‘playful’. • Play does not always happen to be fun, but adults need to be alert to opportunities to address stereotypes that may arise. • Planning for play in early years education must involve all the ‘players’, including children and families, so that it can be ‘purposeful’. Play needs to be able to reflect both home and school/setting culture.

The final words go to a four-year-old who had only been at school a few weeks and came home stating, ‘Mummy, I don’t like painting any more, they make me sit down and they tell me what to paint.’ Keeping the child’s perspective at heart should make all early years educators keen to have a strong pedagogical perspective on play.

References Alexander, R. (2009), Children, their world, their education: Final Report of the Cambridge Primary Review. London: Routledge. Anning, A., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (2010), ‘Research contexts across cultures’. In Anning, A., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds), Early Childhood Education: Society and Culture (2nd edn), London: Sage. Arnold, C. (1999), Child Development and Learning 2-5 years: Georgia’s story, London: Hodder and Stoughton. —(2003), Observing Harry: Child Development and Learning 0–5, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Athey, C. (1990), Extending Thought In Young Children: A Parent–Teacher Partnership, London: Paul Chapman. Bilton, H. (2002), Outdoor Learning in the Early Years: management and innovation, London: Routledge.

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Good Practice in the Early Years —(2010), Outdoor Learning in the early years: management and innovation (3rd edn). London: Routledge. Broadhead, P., Howard, J. and Wood, E. (eds) (2010), Playing and Learning in the Early Years: From Research to Practice, London: Sage. Brock, A., Dodds, S., Jarvis, P. and Olusoga, Y. (2009), Perspectives on Play, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Brooker, L. (2007), ‘Changing the landscape of early childhood’. In Moyles, J. ed. Early Years Foundations: Meeting the Challenge, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Bruce, T. (1991), Time to Play in Early Childhood Education, London: Hodder and Stoughton. —(2001), Learning Through Play: Babies, Toddlers and the Foundation Years, Abingdon: Hodder and Stoughton. —(2010), ‘Play, the universe and everything!’ In Moyles, J. ed. The Excellence of Play, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Carr, M. (2001), Assessment in Early Childhood Settings, London: Paul Chapman. Chesworth, L. and Thompson, P. (2009), ‘Notes for students’ (unpublished), Sheffield Hallam University. Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2003), Every Child Matters, London: HMSO. —(2004), The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education Project: Final Report. A Longitudinal Study Funded by the DfES 1997–2004, Nottingham: DfES. —(2007), Practice Guidance for the Early Years Foundation Stage, Nottingham: DfES. Edgington, M. (2004), The Foundation Stage Teacher in Action: Teaching 3, 4 and 5 year olds (3rd edn), London: Paul Chapman. Edmiston, B. and Taylor, T. (2010), ‘Using Power on the Playground’. In Brooker, L. and Edwards, S. (eds), Engaging Play, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Else, P. (2009), The Value of Play. London: Continuum. Fisher, J. (2008), Starting from the Child (3rd edn), Maidenhead: Open University Press. Frost, J. L. (2010), A History of Children’s Play and Play Environments: Toward a Contemporary Child Saving Movement, Abingdon: Routledge. Gardner, H. (1991), The unschooled mind: how children think and how schools should teach, New York: Basic Books. Garrick, R. (2004), Playing Outdoors in the Early Years, London: Continuum. Garrick, R., Bath, C., Dunn, K., Maconochie, H., Willis, B. and Wolstenholme, C. (2010), Children’s Experiences of the Early Years Foundation Stage. Research report DFE-RR071. Sheffield Hallam University, Centre for Education and Inclusion Research. Greishaber, S. and McArdle, F. (2010), The Trouble With Play, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Holland, P. (2003), We Don’t Play With Guns Here: War, Weapon And Superhero Play in the Early Years, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Howard, J. and McInnes, K. (2010), ‘Thinking through the challenges of a play-based curriculum: Increasing playfulness via co-construction’. In Moyles, J. ed. Thinking About Play: Developing a Reflective Approach, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Hughes, B. (2001), Evolutionary Playwork and Reflective Analytic Practice, Abingdon: Routledge.



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Hutt, C. (1979), ‘Play in the under 5s: form, development and function’. In Howells, J. G. ed. Modern Perspectives in the Psychiatry of Infancy, New York: Brunner/Marcel. Jarvis, P. and George, J. (2010), ‘Thinking it through: rough and tumble play’. In Moyles, J. ed. Thinking About Play: Developing a Reflective Approach, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Laevers, F (1997), A Process Oriented Child Follow Up System for Young Children, Centre for Experiential Education, Leuven University, Belgium. MacNaughton, G. and Williams, G. (2009), Teaching Young Children: Choices in Theory and Practice (2nd edn), Maidenhead: Open University Press. —(2010), Teaching Young Children: Choices in Theory and Practice (3rd edn), Maidenhead: Open University Press. Malaguzzi, L. (1996), The Hundred Languages of Children catalogue: narratives of the possible, Newcastle: Sightlines. Manning-Morton, J. and Thorp, M. (2003), Key Times for Play: The First Three Years, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Moyles, J. ed. (2010), The Excellence of Play (3rd edn), Maidenhead: Open University Press. Moyles, J., Adams, S. and Musgrove, A. (2002), SPEEL: Study of Pedagogical Effectiveness in Early Learning, DfES Research Brief and Report 363. London: DfES. Nolan, A. and Kilderry, A. (2010), ‘Postdevelopmentalism and professional learning: implications for understanding the relationship between play and pedagogy’. In Brooker, L. and Edwards, S. (eds), Engaging Play, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Nutbrown, C. (2006), Key Concepts in Early Childhood Education and Care, London: Sage. Nutbrown, C., Clough, P. and Selbie, P. (2008), Early Childhood Education: History, Philosophy, Experience, London: Sage. Ouvry, M. (2003), Exercising Muscles and Minds: Outdoor Play and the Early Years Curriculum, London: National Children’s Bureau. Papatheodorou, T. (2010), ‘The pedagogy of play(ful) learning environments’. In Moyles, J. ed. Thinking About Play: Developing a Reflective Approach, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Peters, S. and Davis, K. (2011), ‘Fostering children’s working theories: pedagogic issues and dilemmas in New Zealand’, Early years: An International Journal of Research and Development, 31(1): 5–17. Powell, S. and David, T. (2010), ‘Play in the early years: the influence of cultural difference’. In Moyles, J. ed. The Excellence of Play, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Reardon. D (2009), Achieving early years professional status, London: Sage. Rinaldi, C. (2006), In dialogue with Reggio Emilia: listening, researching and learning, London: RoutledgeFalmer. Siraj-Blatchford, I., Sylva, K., Muttock, S., Gilden, R. and Bell, D. (2002), Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years, Research Report No. 356, DfES. London: HMSO. Smidt, S. (2010), Playing To Learn: The Role of Play in the Early Years, Abingdon: Routledge Sylva, K., Taggart, B., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Totsika,V., Ereky-Stevens, K., Gilden, R. and Bell, D. (2007), ‘Curricular quality and day-to day learning activities in preschool’, International Journal of Early Years Education, 1(1): 49–65. Tickell, C. (2011), The early years: foundations for life, health and learning. An independent report on the Early Years Foundation Stage to Her Majesty’s Government. D16 (8857)/0311.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Tovey, H. (2007), Playing Outdoors, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Whalley, M. and the Pen Green Centre Team (2007), Involving Parents in Their Children’s Learning, London: Paul Chapman. White, J. (2008), Playing and Learning Outdoors: Making Provision for High Quality Experiences in the Outdoor Environment, Abingdon: Routledge. —(2011), Outdoor Provision in the Early Years, London: Sage. Wood, E. (2008), ‘Everyday play activities as therapeutic and pedagogical encounters’, European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling, 10(2): 111–20. —(2009), ‘Developing a pedagogy of play’. In Anning, A., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (eds), Early Childhood Education: Society and Culture (2nd edn), London: Sage.

2

Children’s Rights and Participation Anne Kellock

Chapter Outline Introduction 45 The background to children’s rights 46 Children’s rights in practice 50 Different views of children’s rights 53 Children as citizens 54 Childhood as socially constructed 55 Promoting children’s rights and participation 56 Conclusion 63

Introduction Children’s rights have come a long way in the past few decades. Changes in law and policy on an international scale have seen children being granted some of the same rights as adults. This relatively new approach to children within society has brought about many changes in the way we work with children in the early years. The history of such changes can be traced back to Victorian times, when education first became compulsory for children, and the various policies and acts since then can be seen as a gradual move towards children being acknowledged as equal human beings and as citizens within our society. The development of children’s rights has derived from numerous perspectives. The various influences on children’s rights include, for example: a range of protective and safeguarding measures; ensuring children are within loving and safe family environments; providing children with equal access to learning and play; and empowering their voices to be heard and giving them the ability to make decisions. At times, some of these issues may seem to be taken for granted in today’s society, but it has been a long journey to reach



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Good Practice in the Early Years this point and there is still much to be done. We need also to ensure our own understanding of how we can adhere to and encourage children’s rights in practice. Encased in problems around interpretation and understanding children’s rights within culturally diverse countries and continents, some of the issues around how children’s rights are accepted or appreciated are equally intricate. Some international perspectives are engaged in this chapter to broaden concepts of how we understand and view children within our own society. The chapter will commence with an examination of some of the developments in recent history on children’s rights and what these equate to in early years practice. In view of understanding children’s rights, the concept of participation will also be explored. Commonly misunderstood and misinterpreted, young children’s participation will be defined, along with examples of how this can be developed in practice as well as some of the complexities involved. Consideration towards children being acknowledged as citizens and what this means will also be addressed. The chapter covers the following: • The background to children's rights; • Children’s rights in practice; • Children as citizens; • Childhood as socially constructed; • Promoting children’s rights and participation.

The background to children’s rights The rights of the child are examined in this section, in order to understand the development of children’s rights and where they stand today. The rights of the child are described after a look at the background of opinion surrounding children’s rights and the opinion of children’s ability to make informed decisions – a phenomenon that has changed considerably. Save the Children, and The League of Nations, which adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, are mentioned here as landmarks of change in the rights of children. Traditionally or, rather, historically, children have been deemed as both unable to make informed decisions and irresponsible. Children of all classes and cultures have experienced a lack of control over their own lives and a sense of powerlessness. Adults have perceived children as vulnerable beings, requiring support in order to fulfil their needs. This vulnerability has taken two forms: inherent vulnerability, requiring basic needs such as food, shelter,



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education and so on; and structural vulnerability, which refers to a lack of civil rights and political and economic power (Lansdown, 1994). Hill and Tisdall (1997) trace the rights of the child back to the emergence of compulsory (and free) education in the mid-to-late nineteenth century, along with the development of juvenile justice systems. The juvenile justice system brought about changes that provided the means for children under the age of 16 to be tried for crimes and possibly sentenced to imprisonment for crimes which today would be considered minor offences. Despite the continuing punitive nature of such imprisonment, this was a progression from previous treatment that may have meant transportation to another continent or even hanging (National Archives, 2011). Save the Children, a charity, was established in 1919, and was originally started to protect starving children, gaining international status in 1923 (Hill and Tisdall, 1997: 27). The League of Nations then adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child in 1924, which granted all children basic rights and protection. This was known as the Geneva Declaration and was revised in 1948 by the addition of two clauses, namely non-discrimination and respect for family. Civil rights and protective rights were further added in 1959 by the UN Declaration and, by the 1970s, equal rights existed for children as for adults (Hill and Tisdall, 1997: 27).

Current policy and legislation The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1989), adopted in 1989 by the UN General Assembly, saw some further changes to children’s rights. Whilst children continued to be recognized as vulnerable beings requiring support, an all-embracing framework was provided including the need for care, protection, adequate provision and participation (Lansdown, 1994: 36). The area of participation is particularly relevant, acknowledging the rights of children to their own identities, freedom of speech and opinion, and to challenge decisions made on their behalf (Lansdown, 1994: 36; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1989: Article 12). The Children Act 1989 was significant in the development of children’s rights because the principles underpinning the welfare aspects of the Act were based on the UNCRC. The key message was that children should be participants in welfare decisions made about them rather than just passive recipients of welfare. It became law that children in Care Proceedings, and in other proceedings which involved decisions about who they should live with,

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Good Practice in the Early Years have contact with and where they should live, must be consulted about their views on these matters. However, as discussed above, the view of children as vulnerable and needing care continued to dominate and, despite the requirement to consult the child, the Act made it clear that a child’s wishes could not be put before his or her welfare needs.

UNCRC The UNCRC (1989) Rights of the Child were adopted in the UK more than 20 years ago. From over 40 rights in the Bill, the key rights that all children under the age of 17 were ensured included: • the right to life, survival and development; • the right to have their views respected, and to have their best interests considered at all times; • the right to a name and nationality, freedom of expression, and access to information concerning them; • the right to live in a family environment or alternative care, and to have contact with both parents wherever possible; • health and welfare rights, including rights for disabled children, the right to health and healthcare, and social security; • the right to education, leisure, culture and the arts; • special protection for refugee children, children in the juvenile justice system, children deprived of their liberty and children suffering economic, sexual or other forms of exploitation.

Within the early years sector, it can be seen how some of these rights can be implemented in daily practice. Being aware of individual children’s needs and circumstances enables practitioners to take appropriate care of children as well as providing them with further opportunities to continue developing in a holistic manner. Further consideration into how practitioners can support young children, in terms of protecting their rights, is explored later in this chapter.

Criminal Records Bureau The Protection of Children Act (1999) (Department of Health, 2006) brought about new legislation that was to further protect children from those they might come into contact with. A ‘list’ was created that provided names of those who were considered to be unfit or unsuitable to work with children, so as to ensure the children would be protected. This involved the introduction of Criminal Records Bureau checks. However, the list has proved not to be



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entirely successful, since those without an existing criminal record remain unknown as a threat to children. Indeed, due to the very high demand for CRB checks from people working with children, individuals have slipped through the net with opposite result of what the Act endeavoured to deliver.

The Laming Report and Children Act (2004) In 2003, we saw the publication of Lord Laming’s Report (House of Commons Health Committee, 2003), following the case of Victoria Climbié, a foster child from the Ivory Coast who suffered extensive abuse leading to her death in 2000. The report commented upon the importance of agencies working together to protect children’s rights. Some of the key concerns highlighted included the quality of practice, the following of procedure and the provision of adequate resources to meet children’s needs. A key role of the early years practitioner is to be aware of children’s rights and how to protect the children in their care. Working with other agencies can be a challenging task (see Chapter 9 on Multi-Agency Working), yet forming positive and effective working relationships is essential so that clear communication can take place. The culmination of factors leading to Victoria Climbié’s death included poor information-sharing and ineffective communication between agencies. However, lessons were learnt and practice continues to be scrutinized under the sometimes very challenging circumstances in which the various services may operate. The Children Act (2004) was introduced in reaction to the Laming Report to provide a legal basis for better integrated working between agencies. The Every Child Matters agenda (introduced by a Green Paper; see DfE, 2004) has significantly raised the profile of children’s rights through a range of interconnected measures to support all children’s positive development more fully. The Act included a requirement to register privately fostered children with a local authority to try to improve standards and safety for this group of children. Also, in 2005 the first Children’s Commissioner was introduced in the UK. The role of the Children’s Commissioner is to promote the awareness of children’s views and the interests of all children, and to inform those who make decisions on their behalf. The Children’s Commissioner has a remit to encourage children’s wellbeing, presently through the five outcomes of Every Child Matters (DfES, 2004). This development was a further recommendation following the Laming Report, acknowledging the role of families and supporting children into their journey to adulthood.

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Activity • Considering the vast developments in children’s rights in the past 130 years, how do you perceive children’s rights today? • Do you think that children’s rights are where they should be; and further, are they being implemented appropriately in the early years sector? • What can you do to ensure that, as a practitioner, you can demonstrate your awareness of children’s rights? • What support is available to you to continue your ability to exercise children’s rights?

Children’s rights in practice In terms of implementing law and policy as a statutory part of practice in early years settings, practitioners and their leaders are required to be aware of current developments and changes in order to fulfil their obligations to young children and their families. For example in recent years, as discussed above, the Protection of Children Act (1999) saw the introduction of Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) checks with various changes for those in regular contact with children. Often the realization of such procedures is onerous, but they are considered to be a necessary step towards protecting children. With the 2010 change of government in the UK, changes are afoot once again and the Every Child Matters framework (DFE, 2004) is currently under review. The framework adopted within early childcare and education focused on five particular elements of supporting children’s rights and participation, namely: be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution and achieve economic well-being. The five elements are practised in today’s early years sector, but how are these addressed and what do they all mean (DfES, 2004: 6–7)? • Be healthy: enjoy good physical and mental health and have a healthy lifestyle. • Stay safe: be protected from harm and neglect. • Enjoy and achieve: get the most out of life and develop the skills for adulthood. • Make a positive contribution: be involved with the community and society and don’t engage in anti-social or offending behaviour. • Achieve economic wellbeing: don’t be prevented by economic disadvantage from achieving full potential in life.

In fulfilling the needs of children within early years settings, and taking into account the five elements of the Every Child Matters document, there are many areas of practice to be considered. From diet to environment, activities



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and opportunities, and embracing participation within the community, early years settings can support children with the life chances they are entitled to.

Supporting children’s wellbeing Early years settings are able to offer children healthy food, snacks and a balanced diet to help them achieve a healthy lifestyle. In creating opportunities for children to take part in a range of physical activities, this also supports their physical development. Within recent years, the development of outdoor play has increased children’s opportunities for experiencing not only a further environment for their activities, but increased possibilities to develop a wide range of skills (Garrick, 2009; see also Chapter 1 in this volume). As well as the physical aspects of children’s health, mental health can also be addressed in a multitude of ways. Through providing a stimulating and inviting environment, children are more likely to feel safe and to take part and communicate with others, as well as developing the confidence to take risks in their play and learning. Further, this will help children to be able to make their own decisions and, through interacting with others, to develop their social skills. Over the years, early years settings have become more secure environments for young children to be in. Tighter security and more rigorous controls over entry to settings have been introduced in an attempt to protect children. Health and safety regulations are constantly updated and checked to ensure that settings are safe for children and to minimize risk of harm. These protective measures are legal requirements to ensure that children’s right to be protected is being upheld. Once the setting is organized as a safe space, ready to provide children with both indoor and outdoor experiences, the specific activities that are offered need to be considered. Linking to the Early Years Foundation Stage is evidently an important element of the setting’s requirements. Children have the right to play and experience varied learning opportunities within a setting. All children have their individual preferences, and they have the right to express these; yet it is also important to offer a broad range of opportunities for them to develop and learn lifelong skills. Modelling positive attitudes and behaviour are vital parts of the professional role of early years practitioners. Developing links throughout the setting and into the wider community are important for children to experience themselves as members of the community. Helping children to develop sustainable and valuable relationships and friendships will enable them to

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Good Practice in the Early Years experience a positive time during their early years as well as acquiring the skills that will support them through to adulthood. All children have the right to experience a safe and enjoyable childhood, and their social and economic status should not hinder their experiences within early years settings. It is important that all children are valued in their own right and provided with the same opportunities as other children. It is known that children from less fortunate backgrounds do not achieve the same educational successes as those from wealthier families. Whilst there are many factors to consider here, as well as recognizing children as individuals they should all be exposed to worthy and valuable experiences so that they can develop at their own speed. Children from impoverished backgrounds often require extra support to develop their skills, compared to those children who may have been exposed to a wider range of opportunities outside of the setting and within the family environment. Providing children with everyday life experiences, as well as exciting and challenging situations, can help them to broaden their knowledge of the world and their position within it.

Listening to children For children, it is not only a given right that they are able to express their views and opinions, make decisions about their lives and make their own choices; doing so may have further positive effects on their lives. Through having their voices heard, children can experience a greater sense of wellbeing, self-confidence and self-esteem (Kellock, 2011). From allowing children to have their own opinions accepted (and acted upon) come potential changes in children’s self-belief. Being valued and heard is empowering to children as much as it is to adults. For some children, it may be their first experience of this; as a practitioner, helping children to find their voice is critical. The necessity to be able to ‘read’ children’s language is essential and can take many forms. Whether children are demonstrating body language or babbling, practitioners need to be able to understand and continue their communication with them. Providing children with the means of communicating how they feel is an essential aspect of the practitioner’s role, and different ways in which to ‘read’ children’s communication are explored later in the chapter.



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Activity How do you ensure that children’s rights are being protected through the implementation of the Every Child Matters framework? • Can you demonstrate how each of the five elements is practiced in your setting? • Make links between the five elements and how they link to the Early Years Foundation Stage. • What do you do as a practitioner to encourage children’s rights within your setting?

Different views of children’s rights Different views of childhood internationally leave the interpretation of children’s rights and participation open to conflicting values and practice. Many developments have taken place in the UK since the Labour Government took control in 1997, and the integration of services has aimed to provide a more rounded service for children and families. Access to a range of facilities and the provision of free childcare for three-to-four-year-olds has meant a larger number of children in the early years system. However, the Early Years Foundation Stage (DCFS, 2007), also currently under review, has meant that practitioners have been overwhelmed with a structured programme that focuses on learning with an abundant lack of acknowledgement towards helping children participate (Moss, 2007). The foundations of citizenship begin in early childhood, and in some European countries, especially Nordic countries, the notion of supporting children within early childhood to become active and responsible citizens is held in high regard. Children are not seen as ‘not yet adults’ but as existing members of their own community, with valuable knowledge of their own experiences (Moss, 2007). In Nordic countries, the way in which practitioners carry out their roles is very different to that practised in the UK. Practitioners are provided with a framework of goals and values, but the most important aspect is to encourage children to participate and develop at their own pace with the support required (Moss, 2007). There are no targets or specific legislation to which practitioners are required to adhere; they are trusted to fulfil their obligations in the way they see fit. Within early years practice in the UK, children are considered to be unique beings (DCSF, 2007). As such, their individuality is celebrated and

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Good Practice in the Early Years their identities can be established. It is important not to lose sight of the unique child within society when we also consider them to be members of the community, getting along with others. Children’s unique experiences offer valuable insights into the world from a child’s perspective. These different viewpoints to those of adults can be shared to help us understand their experiences.

Children as citizens It can be said that children today, to an extent, are deemed to be active citizens within our society as they make meaning from their own experiences through learning and play (Jans, 2004). The juxtaposition of children as requiring support and care and as being individuals with their own rights is also recognized as being complex in Jans’s research. But what does citizenship look like for children? At the moment we place an adult perspective on this concept, but does that make sense for children? In understanding children as human beings, the concept of accepting them for who they are and not who they may become is useful to reflect upon. Children are children in their own right, beings rather than ‘becomings’; do we need to look forward to the future before its time? It is considered here that we cannot ignore the future, but we must allow the present to exist for children. There are complexities in recognizing that some children’s futures have already been influenced, in that we know that children living in poverty are less likely to succeed in life that their wealthier peers, as we have seen. Uprichard (2008) contemplates the same dilemma and problematizes this further, stating that children are in fact both being and ‘becoming’. We cannot ignore that children are being in the present, when they are with us, yet children have a past, a present and a future (2008: 306) all of which have significance for how we work with them. In considering children in both ways, Uprichard states that this can in fact increase children’s agency, helping them towards constructing their own worlds (2008: 311). In recognizing children as citizens and beings therefore, we value their input on matters that concern them. Within an early years context, this may include, for example, children sharing ideas about how they would like their playground to be designed. Engaging in a practical task that is relevant and important to them provides children with the ability to make decisions and begin to negotiate with others. It is important that practitioners act upon such judgements by children, otherwise their experiences become redundant and tokenistic.



Children’s Rights and Participation

In being active citizens, children are able to develop the skills that enable them to work with others. Through delivering their own perspectives on issues that concern them, they are collaboratively opened up to opportunities of experiencing alternate ways of thinking and sharing ideas. Notions of social justice may be explored with young children through creative and engaging means, and this will be explored later in the chapter.

Childhood as socially constructed Through examining the policy and legislation since the point when children first began to have rights, a vast change in the way children are viewed in society can be seen. As indicated earlier, children’s rights since the introduction of education for all during Victorian times have changed significantly. Prior to the development of education, children were seen as ‘miniature’ adults, who worked and carried out the same tasks as adults. The way we see children has changed over a relatively short period of history. Childhood itself is a construct of how adults build the experiences that children are exposed to; it does not refer to our understanding of the biological difference between adults and children but to how their lives are lived differently. Currently, we expect that children are healthy and receive education; that they are protected, able to play and be children. It can be understood that children are still dependent on adults but that they are entering an adult world, an world which we shape their experiences to enter. Whilst official legislation and laws protect children in these ways, we are confronted with diverse messages from the media and indeed from the retail industry. Children are exposed to many adult ways of life, through television and film and the clothes that can be bought for them. Dressing children as adults seems to be a regression of over a century. These conflicting ways in which we live in our society are equally diverse within different cultural contexts. In addition, despite the numerous strategies and protective measures for children in today’s society, a large proportion of children in the UK are still living in poverty. UNICEF (2007) produced a report on children’s wellbeing in the rich countries of the world. The report demonstrated that the UK had the lowest levels of well-being within the comparison, with measurable factors including as material well-being, health and safety, education, peer and family relationships, behaviours and risks and young people’s own subjective sense of wellbeing.

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Reflection point • What can practitioners do to support children living in poverty to help them achieve their potential and experience the rights they are entitled to? • What kind of influence can practitioners have on children’s experiences of childhood?

Promoting children’s rights and participation Working in an early years environment is evidently challenging and rewarding. Each day is extremely busy with many demands thrust upon practitioners; while getting through routines and dealing with inevitable unexpected events taking place regularly, time to talk to children can be limited. The importance of making time to talk and play with children is fundamental in terms of being able to get to know children and how you can understand what they want and what they are communicating to you. This will help to develop your awareness of how children can take more of an active role in, for example, the planning of activities within the setting. The pressures of working in early years is not to be underestimated. Meeting the demands of the Early Years Foundation Stage is one example of the pressures that practitioners are under. It is essential that practitioners make time away from the paperwork aspect of the role to reflect upon their experiences with young children and how they are addressing children’s rights and participation (see Chapter 3 in this volume). In developing a supportive and encouraging environment for the children in settings, their individual needs need to be considered carefully. Whilst early years settings have strict guidance on the ratio of children to staff, at times practitioners find themselves responsible for large groups of children. This can make it difficult for practitioners and key workers to spend quality time with individual children. On the other hand, with very few children in a setting, it can also be challenging to develop wider learning and social experiences. Whilst this chapter seeks to inspire practitioners to encourage young children’s participation, this is an approach that requires various methods to take in to account individual children’s needs and desires. Indeed, as indicated in the next section on defining participation, not participating is a child’s



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desire that needs to be respected. Further, practitioners should be aware of children’s experiences around participation. For some children, having their ideas and opinions listened to and valued may well be a novel experience. A common misconception of participation is illustrated by Bae (2010) in a study based in the Norwegian context. Bae found that less-qualified staff working with young children may not fully understand the concept of participation, and feel that very young children (in particular babies) are not able to communicate with adults. Children are considered to be members of the community with a right to their own voice (Bae, 2010: 208). Without understanding the language of young children, difficulties occur in forming appropriate relationships and opportunities for children to be heard are lost. However, in Norway, a third of practitioners hold a degree, and two thirds are assistants with lesser qualifications. Practice in Norway allows practitioners to work closely with the children without the constraints of a specified curriculum or, moreover, guidelines on how to encourage children to develop as citizens. Without reams of paperwork and specifications to address, greater freedom is experienced by the trusted practitioner (Moss, 2007). Considering paperwork, therefore, one of the practices today is that of documenting children’s interactions, desires and ideas. There are many strategies for documenting, yet this can also be seen as a potential barrier to children’s participation. When using, for example, sticky notes and written records, many young children are excluded from the process because they are unable to read yet. Photographs can be a more visual way in which children can engage with a practitioner’s records. In this way, a more collaborative development can take place, with children more actively involved in the process. Further tactics to engage children are explored later in this chapter.

Activity • How can you make your documentation accessible to children so that they can be more included in the planning processes in your setting? • What methods could you use to make processes more transparent? • Reflect upon a day in your setting, specifically considering when children have had the opportunity to have their voices heard and make their own decisions. Could practice have been changed to enhance children’s chances here? (See also Chapter 3, Reflective Practice).

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What is participation? Understanding of the term participation varies considerably. The most common interpretation is that it simply means to take part. Practitioners envisage that, if children are taking part in activities, they are demonstrating participation in their setting by the fact that they are engaged. It can be thought that, if children are joining in, this shows their participation through their actions. However, participation is much more complex than merely taking part; it is about providing children with the opportunity to make their own choices, which may even mean not taking part. Children should be within an environment that enables them to have their voices heard and in which they feel confident to express their opinions and ideas, as well as hearing those of others. The benefits of children being able to participate are extensive. Not only is it exercising their right to have their voices heard and have a say in what goes on, but it opens up further opportunities for children and adults. By this is meant that shared knowledge may be developed between adults and children. We were all children once, but our memories of childhood are often clouded by our adult thinking and by perspectives that have evolved since that time in our lives. The experts on childhood are children (Christensen and Prout, 2002), and it important that we make time and space for children to share their experiences and ideas with us without being judged. The practice of participation is widely recognized internationally. Familiar early years pedagogical approaches encompass participation in their programmes. For example, in Reggio Emilia, an Italian community approach, respect and responsibility are encouraged. Children are able to work collaboratively with the practitioners to develop their own individual curricula. Adults and children work together in a way in which the practitioner supports the child through exploration and by being able to understand the child’s many ways of communicating. Malaguzzi, the founder of the Reggio Emilia approach, developed the famous Hundred Languages of Children to acknowledge the numerous ways in which children communicate. High Scope, developed in the United States of America during the 1960s, again recognizes the importance of providing children with the opportunity to make their own decisions. Through selecting their own resources, children are supported by adults in their learning through scaffolding techniques (Vygotsky, 1978). The interests of children are addressed and their choices allow them to construct their own knowledge of the world. Children are engaged in processes of planning their chosen activity, carrying out their activity and reviewing it (a sequence known as Plan–Act–Review).



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In Australian early years practice, sustained shared thinking has been developed. It is considered that children who experience sustained shared thinking are more likely to succeed in their education and future lives. Again, the concept of working together is the key to sustained shared thinking. Adults and children have discussions, solve problems and evaluate together. Adults are encouraged to listen to the children, demonstrate a genuine interest in their ideas. Children’s contributions are held in high regard and practitioners possess skills with which to support children’s thinking through questioning and sharing their own perspectives with them. In all of these approaches, it is apparent that children are respected for their ideas and values. The adults working alongside the children are trained specifically to help children develop through providing the opportunities for them to explore their environment, discuss issues that arise and by making reflection part of the whole process. Children’s involvement in such pedagogical practice is liberating, and, through being valued for their current thoughts and actions, they can experience their rights and develop in a supportive manner. In a recent government-funded study of children’s experiences of the Early Years Foundation Stage (Garrick et al., 2010), evidence was gathered to discover how children perceived their experiences in a range of early years settings. It was found that some children considered themselves capable of, and enjoying being involved in, the planning of their own activities. Settings that enabled children to design their own spaces, rather than being presented with practitioners’ selected areas and activities, meant that greater choice, and thus autonomy, was experienced by the children. On the other hand, further findings in the research suggest that many children felt that they were not participating in such activities as much as they would like. The links between practitioners acting upon children’s interests to inform planning were not readily evident to the children; this may be due to the practitioners’ written documentation that is not accessible to many young children. Practitioners in early years settings are required to provide an environment that enables children to experience their rights, and this includes being able to make decisions and choices. It may be that, in designing a setting, practitioners have the best interests of the children at heart and consider that they have created an engaging and varied environment for the children. However, does this allow room for children to actively make decisions and act freely when the choices available are limited to those selected by practitioners?

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Reflection point • How can practitioners make more explicit links for children to acknowledge their voices being heard?

Activity: • Consider how the space and environment are organized in your setting. What could be developed to enhance children’s participation? • If you were to carry out a project to find out what the children in your setting thought about their experiences, how would you go about this?

Encouraging children’s participation Garrick et al. (2010) used creative research methods in their study to find out how children experienced the Early Years Foundation Stage. The importance of children involved in research is imperative in finding their voice and understanding the experiences from their perspectives. It is, therefore, equally important to use research tools and techniques that are suitable and appropriate for the age of the children involved. Using a model based on the Mosaic Approach (Clarke and Moss, 2001) incorporating participatory rural appraisal techniques (O’Kane, 2000), activities were created to actively engage children. There are many creative and exciting ways in which children can indicate their feelings and opinions without relying on verbal/oral language. As indicated previously in this chapter, practitioners are required to find the language of the child in order to help them communicate, and to offer a multitude of means for them to do so is in order. In this way, children are provided with broad experiences and the prospect of communicating. Some suggested techniques are as follows: • Map making: children can make maps of the setting and spaces they enjoy using, and they can design new areas of space of their own choice. Possible resources include drawing equipment such as chalk, paint, crayons etc. • Photographic tours of the setting: children can take photographs of various parts of the setting to demonstrate, for example, where they enjoy playing, where they find it boring, where they like to be with their friends. • Photo-storytelling: children can make short stories to be captured through freeze-frame photographs to act out stories and themes that are important to them. These can be made into books.



Children’s Rights and Participation

• Storytelling: children can create stories based around improvization. These can be audio-recorded. • Facial expression charts: children can draw faces to demonstrate how they feel in different situations. Practitioners and children can suggest the situations or scenarios and the children can draw whatever they feel is appropriate. • Feeling dictionaries: children can act out different feelings to be photographed and made into a visual book to demonstrate different feelings. These can be referred to in helping children understand their feelings and those of others, possibly developing empathic skills. • Art: children can freely create art using a range of media, such as painting, photography, drama, music, dance and collage, to convey messages about how they feel about different situations or to demonstrate their understanding of various concepts. • Persona dolls: children can use the dolls to act out different situations (including social justice scenarios). • Non-verbal games: in Twister style games (Garrick et al., 2010), pictures can be placed on the Twister mat and children move around the mat to select the pictures that are meaningful to them: for example, in these pictures of various parts of the setting, which do you prefer? • Likes and don’t likes voting: similar to the Twister-style games, children can select objects or pictures and separate them into likes or dislikes, or what they would or wouldn’t like to do. (Remember, though, that this restrict children’s freedoms when only a few options are presented.) • Gesture, babbling, mirroring: with younger children, actions such as talking, pointing, mirroring and gesturing can all help them develop communication skills and show you what they want. • Sign language and Makaton: children can develop sign language skills to demonstrate what they want or need, before oral language develops.

Case study: Genuine choices? A group of six three-year-olds are sitting on cushions around their practitioner. He asks them what activity they would like to do and offers them a choice of going outside or playing inside with jigsaws. Three of the children decide to stay inside and play with the jigsaws, whilst the others want to go outside. The practitioner decides that they can all stay in and play with the jigsaws. • Are the children participating here? • What choices are really being offered to the children – are they able to make a decision about what they would like to do? • How much freedom is the practitioner offering?

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Activity • Plan a range of activities that you can carry out at your setting which would encourage children to share their opinions about the layout and range of resources available. • How can you make this process more participative?

Reflection point • How do you access children’s voices? What are young children saying to you non-verbally? • What are they communicating to you?

How do we give space to children? Are children aware of their rights? Children certainly seem to be aware of some of their rights. In terms of rights to participate and to have their voices heard, however, children – especially young children – are not always conscious of this. This is greatly influenced by their environment and the adults they are in contact with. This chapter has explored many ways in which practitioners can develop a more participatory environment. However, whilst this chapter has discussed working closely with children, it is equally important to give the children some space. It is a child’s right to express their desires, and practitioners will want to hear such information from the children, but we cannot over-impose. Children will want to have time to explore and play alone, or with a group of friends, without direct input from adults. Judgement is required on the part of the practitioner to allow children to engage in their chosen activities without constant intervention, questioning and challenge; without this judgement, enjoyment may certainly be lost!

Activity An interesting further perspective on children’s participation is brought to our attention by Bae (2010). Bae describes how (in Norway) a practitioner offers children a range of activities to take part in for a given length of time and the children are asked to raise their hand to choose what they would like to do (2010: 210). Occasionally a child’s first choice may become full, and so children are sent to their second or third choice. Further, children become separated from their friends through choosing different activities.



Children’s Rights and Participation

• How does this setting encourage participation? • What problems can you identify with this practice? • Can you suggest any alternatives to this practice?

Conclusion The essence of this chapter is that as early years practitioners we are confronted with a wealth of information about children’s rights and how we should encourage participation by young children. In the midst of political change, it is essential that we do not lose sight of key issues surrounding the protection of children and how we can provide them with the best opportunities to enjoy their childhood. Following regulations and guidelines is crucial in adhering to the numerous acts of legislation in order to protect the children in our care. Working cooperatively with colleagues and gaining support from one another is important, not only for the benefit of the child, but also for that of the practitioner. Helping and facilitating young children to be advocates of their own opinions can be a joyous and creative part of the role of a practitioner in the early years. As we have seen in this chapter, finding the child’s voice and enabling them to communicate endorses their right to participate; can promote children’s wellbeing through enhanced self-confidence; and provides practitioners with a greater understanding of the child.

References Bae, B. (2010), ‘Realizing children’s right to participation in early childhood settings: some critical issues in a Norwegian context’, Early Years, 30(3), 205–18. Children Act (1989), Department of Health (1989–91) The Children Act 1989 London: HMSO. Children Act (2004), Department of Health (1989–91) The Children Act 1989 London: HMSO. Christensen, P. and Prout, A. (2002), ‘Working with ethical symmetry in social research with children’, Childhood, 9(4), 477–97. Clarke and Moss (2001), ‘Listening to Young Children: The Mosaic Approach’, National Children’s Bureau. Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2007), Early Years Foundation Stage. Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2011), Sustained Shared Thinking. Available online at http://www.education.gov.uk/schools/toolsandinitiatives/nationalstrategies (accessed 6 October 2011). Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2004), Every Child Matters: Change for Children, DfES/1081/2004, Nottingham: DfES Publications.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Department of Health (2006), Protection of Children Act. Available online at http://www.legislation. gov.uk/ukpga/1999/14/contents (accessed 6 October 2011). Garrick, R. (2009), Playing Outdoors in the Early Years (2nd edn), London: Continuum. Garrick, R., Bath, C., Dunn, K., Maconochie, H., Willis, B. and Wolstenholme, C. (2010), Children’s Experiences of the Early Years Foundation Stage, DFE-RB071 Research Brief, London: Dept of Education. Hill, M. and Tisdall, K. (1997), Children and Society, New York: Addison Wesley Longman. House of Commons Health Committee (2003), Lord Laming’s Report: The Victoria Climbié Inquiry Report. Available online at http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmselect/ cmhealth/570/570.pdf (accessed 6 October 2011). Jans, M. (2004), ‘Children as citizens: Towards a contemporary notion of child participation’, Childhood, 11(1), 27–44. Kellock, A. (2011), ‘Through the lens: New Zealand primary school children on well-being’, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(1), 41–55. Lansdown, G. (1994), ‘Children’s rights’. In B. Mayall ed. Children’s Childhoods: Observed and Experienced, London: The Falmer Press; 33–44. Moss, P (2007), ‘Bringing politics into the nursery: early childhood education as a democratic practice’, European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 15(1), 5–20. National Archives (2011), ‘Victorian Children in Trouble with the Law’. Available online at http:// www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/lesson25.htm (accessed 6 October 2011). O’Kane, Initials (2000), ‘Shared sustained thinking’. Available online at http://www.earlychildhood australia.org.au/pdf/shared_thinking.pdf (accessed 6 October 2011). This material comes from Professor Iram Siraj-Blatchford’s presentation on Quality Interactions in the Early Years (PDF) at the TACTYC Annual Conference, ‘Birth to Eight Matters! Seeking Seamlessness – Continuity? Integration? Creativity?’ 5 November 2005, Cardiff. UNCRC (1992), United Nations (1989) United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, 20 Nov 1989, Geneva: United Nations. UNICEF (2007), Child Poverty in Perspective: An Overview of Child Well-being in Rich Countries. Innocenti Report Card 7, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. Florence: UNICEF. Uprichard, E. (2008), ‘Children as Beings and Becomings: children, childhood and temporality’, Children and Society, 22(4), 303–13.

3 Reflective Practice Anne Kellock and Jonathan Wainwright

Chapter Outline Introduction 65 Understanding reflective practice 66 Taking responsibility 69 The importance of reflection 70 Reflection and self-awareness 71 Theories and models of reflection 75 Practicalities of reflection 84 Limitations of reflection 87 Conclusion 87

Introduction An extraordinary feature of being human is our potential capacity for selfawareness – to be aware of our thoughts, feelings and ourselves. An extension of this is the imagination to conceive of possibilities, or alternative ways in which things might be. (Stevens, 2002: 153-4).

The concept of reflecting upon our experiences has been around for a very long time. In mulling over issues that occur in life, we can develop our selfawareness and the ability to consider how our actions have had an impact and whether we wish to do anything about this. In contemplating our actions and how we feel about them, it is possible to develop our practice to best suit the needs of children and families. The art of self-reflection can be inherent, yet, in the face of the expectation to be a reflective practitioner, how do we go about this and for what purpose? We recognize that informal reflective practice occurs daily, often between colleagues or individuals. Reflecting in this way can occur in a relaxed



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Good Practice in the Early Years de-briefing style, perhaps over a cup of coffee at the end of a working day. This can also be a carried out in a more formal manner, such as during supervision or appraisal processes. Discussions around what happened during the day are often explored and shared, as well as considering how to plan future sessions and activities. Yet, as an early years practitioner, there are many other important aspects of the role that may be reflected upon. It can be thought that only certain specific incidents are pinpointed, yet it is much more than our daily practice that we reflect upon; for example, our environment, our relationships and children’s views also need to be considered. Within this chapter, an understanding of what reflective practice represents and means is explored for a wide range of different professional job roles, including social work, teaching and childcare. Through the use of case studies and vignettes, models of reflection are delivered alongside a framework for understanding the purposes of reflection and how we might go about it and what support is available. Reflective practice is at the forefront of current thinking around effectiveness in early years care and education, so emphasis is given to the importance of reflective practice in the present agenda. It is often thought that our experiences lead towards our understanding of and learning about given situations. However, as Dewey (1933: 78) states: ‘We do not learn from experience, we learn from reflecting on experience’. The value of learning from our experiences can be found from critically exploring aspects of practice to ensure that quality provision and good practice is delivered to the children in our care. This chapter covers the following: • Understanding reflective practice • Taking responsibility • Theories and models of reflection • Practicalities of reflection • Limitations of reflection.

Understanding reflective practice Reflection, in this context, is the process by which early years practitioners ask the questions and seek the answers necessary to improve and maintain high standards in care and education. These questions can be about policy, their own work practices, setting work practices, the link between theory and practice or the best way of setting and achieving goals for change. In the simplest form, reflective practice is asking the questions, ‘Am I doing a good job?’ and ‘How can I do a better job?’



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Woods (1998) describes reflective practice as ‘the hallmark of a genuine professional’. She mentions several aspects of reflective practice: • Theoretical understanding of childhood and child development • The ability to interlink theory and observations • Drawing ‘valid and reasoned interpretations and assessments’ from observations • Using these assessments to inform planning and practice with children.

Woods goes on to state: It is this which will enable us to make more appropriate or relevant provision or to enrich or amend the experiences we offer in order to foster each child’s all round development, learning, health and well-being. (Woods, 1998: 27)

Put simply, reflective practice is about reviewing and analysing the work we do with children in terms of how best to contribute to their experience and development, and using our skills and our understanding and knowledge of theory to underpin this process. It is important that the process does not stop there. Having achieved a better understanding of the value of the experience we are offering children from this reflective process, it is vitally important to use this understanding to inform planning for continued good practice and potential change. Reflective practice is a dynamic process by which quality in early years practice is continually being sought and achieved. In many job roles, we do much of our day-to-day work as a matter of routine and as an automatic process. For example, preparing resources for children in a care or educational setting, and organizing a social event for parents and carers, are activities that some of you may do on a regular basis. It is not possible to deeply analyse the motivations and outcomes for every single part of the job role. However, it is important to reflect on work practices and roles at times in order to ensure they are relevant and appropriate in terms of achieving high standards of provision. The skills of a reflective practitioner are not necessarily difficult to develop, yet getting into the habit of using those skills may take time.

Activity Think of an aspect of your role or the work in placement or your setting, for example, a work practice or routine daily activity, the way in which the setting is laid out, the resources and how they are used, the priorities of staff and management. Having chosen an aspect, consider it in terms of the following questions:

ð

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Activity (Continued) • How far does it contribute to good standards of provision? • To what extent are the needs of the children and families best met in this way? • How could it be done differently? • How could changes to this aspect enhance the children’s experience? • To what extent is it in line with current thinking on best practice in this area? • How could I contribute in a more skilful way to this area of practice? Discuss your reflections with a colleague or supervisor and ask for their views.

There is a difference between reflection and reflective practice. We can reflect all we like, but thinking alone about how things might have been does not necessarily bring about change. Moon (1999) says that the practice element of reflection involves the development of ‘a set of abilities and skills, to indicate the taking of a critical stance, an orientation to problem solving or state of mind’ (1999: 63). Imagine you are watching a film in which you are the leading actor. Not only will you have the experience of acting in the film, but you will also be acting as a director or film critic, thinking perhaps that you have just seen something that was done very well, or that you think could perhaps have been even better. In taking a critical stance, in this instance, we simply mean looking at events from another perspective. This links to some of the theories and models explored further on in this chapter and emphasizes the importance of understanding our experiences through others’ eyes. Brookfield (1995) suggests that, in reflecting on educational practice as a teacher, we might take look at four different approaches: • Our own view (autobiography) • That of our students • That of our fellow professionals • The view from the theory presented in educational literature.

In our world of early years, we might take this to mean that we look at our own stories, the views that children and parents might have of our practice, the views that our colleagues and professional from other agencies might have of the way we do things, and what we learn from our reading and our other



Reflective Practice

studies. This will help us to think not only about developing our own learning, but also about the impact that we have on other people.

Taking responsibility Reflective practice, according to Bolton (2010), is about taking responsibility for our own ‘actions and values and our share of responsibilities for the political, social and cultural situations within which we live and work’ (2010: 11). The implication of this is that those who are prepared to take that responsibility will be reflective practitioners; after all, taking responsibility for our own actions is part of the growing-up process and something that we want to support children in doing too. It seems particularly important, then, that those of us whose work has a direct impact on other people should carefully think about and continually improve the way in which we do things. It is no surprise that much of the research and writing about reflective practice comes from a health perspective because of the obvious implications of poor practice in this context. However, in the other traditional profession, the law, much work has also been done on reflective practice (e.g. Jasper, 2003; Johns and Graham, 1996). It seems, then, that reflective practice is an essential part of defining the nature of a profession – so not only does it help our own way of working, it is also a way of helping to define early years practice as a profession in its own right. So we see that reflective practice is for those who take responsibility for actions and those who strive to be professionals. It is highly significant, though, to be aware that reflective practice is not just something that takes place at a local level. After the Victoria Climbié case, Parton (2004: 1), reflecting on the tragedy and the subsequent House of Commons debate and press coverage of the Laming Report, said that … It was as if the frontline professionals, and the key organisations and agencies who have responsibility for children and families were quite incapable of learning the lessons and, crucially, putting these into practice in such a way that such horrendous tragedies could be avoided …

… effectively commenting that the lack of reflective practice was one of the key causes of Victoria’s death. In cases of the death of a child in which abuse or neglect is thought to be a factor, Local Safeguarding Children Boards are obliged to undertake reviews

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Good Practice in the Early Years known as serious case reviews. The process of these reviews is reflective in nature; they set out to … [e]stablish whether there are lessons to be learned from the case about the way in which local professionals and organisations work together to safeguard and promote the welfare of children and to identify clearly what those lessons are, how they will be acted upon, and what is expected to change as a result. (DfE, 2010: 3)

One of the most significant recent reviews was into the death of Baby P, Peter Connelly (DfE, 2010). This review highlights a number of instances where the lack of reflective practice contributed to the events. For instance, the GP involved could not recall why he sent Peter to a different hospital, making the tracing of events more difficult (p23). And: … neither the social workers nor their managers, nor the child protection advisor, from their own accounts, at any time seriously thought that [Peter] was being harmed or was at risk of harm. They thought of the case from the beginning as a routine, low risk case, requiring family support, and never changed their minds. Key incidents were treated as a series of unrelated, unfortunate events and assessments were never re-evaluated (DfE, 2010: 51)

Perhaps it is sad that we only hear about the lack of reflective practice when things go tragically wrong. The fact that these events are relatively rare – despite what we might read in the media –suggests that the majority of professionals do reflect on their practice on a regular basis.

Activity Talk to colleagues from both your own and other professional backgrounds about the role that reflection plays in their practice. You might also think about lessons learned in the wider society where things have changed as a result of reflection on practice.

The importance of reflection So, why do early years practitioners believe that reflective practice is so important? Albeit a fashionable concept in the current climate, the roots of reflective practice derive from ancient times as a practice of asking questions, contemplation and, therefore, learning. This notion of reflective practice allows us to ask ourselves and others questions about what we do and how we may learn from the answers.



Reflective Practice

Without reflecting, there is little room for professional development. Professional development is a key aspect of working in the early years, as in other professions. Learning about our practice is essential if we want to develop. As professionals, we are required to learn from experiences, develop skills and increase our knowledge. As well as recognizing what we do well, which is an extremely important aspect of reflective practice, we need to recognize where we can improve our practice and stop making the same mistakes twice. We reflect upon our professional conduct as we care about those we work with. If we realize that through reflection that we can improve our practice and professionalism, the benefits can be numerous. From a practical perspective, reflecting on our ways of working can make us more efficient and thus save time. Indeed, having more time as professionals is a phenomenon desired by many. On a personal level, reflecting allows us to develop our own abilities and practice that helps us to enhance the quality of our work with children, families and colleagues. The importance of the role of an early years practitioner in providing a safe and welcoming environment for children and families is not to be underestimated, and the quality of provision is of utmost importance. Our actions and behaviours can have a significant impact on children and through effective reflective practice, we can understand where we get things right and where we want to improve.

Reflection and self-awareness This notion of reflecting to develop professionally to deliver a consistent quality of practice is mirrored in the fact that we are modelling positive learning about ourselves. In understanding ourselves and our actions, this in turn helps us to understand those around us. Goleman (1998) discusses the importance of emotional intelligence through five domains, namely: 1 Knowing your emotions 2 Managing your own emotions 3 Motivating yourself 4 Recognizing and understanding other people’s emotions 5 Managing relationships, i.e., managing the emotions of others.

As early years practitioners, this concept of emotional intelligence is extremely valid and important to daily practice. In the domain of early childhood, being able to recognize and manage emotions in oneself is important in helping us to be a balanced and consistent individual. In managing a heavy workload, maintaining motivation and drive can be challenging, yet the ability to reflect

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Good Practice in the Early Years on how we manage ourselves and our workload is imperative. Indeed, if consideration is paid to monitoring our own and others’ emotions, a more harmonious and supportive environment may become evident. The idea of an emotional competence framework is helpful in exploring further our emotional intelligence (see Table 3.1). Table 3.1  An emotional competence framework (adapted from Goleman, 1998) Knowing your

Emotional awareness: recognizing your emotions when they occur, and

emotions

understanding what happens as a result Accurate self-assessment: knowing your own strengths and limits Self-confidence: Having a strong sense of your own value and capabilities

Managing your

Self-control: Keeping control of any disruptive emotions and impulses

own emotions

Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal performance – getting things done with the correct degree of quality Adaptability: Being flexible in dealing with changing situations Innovation: Being comfortable with new or different ideas, approaches and knowing how to use new information

Motivating

Achievement drive: Striving to improve or meet a high standard of quality

yourself

Commitment: Making sure that you believe in the objectives and goals of the setting Initiative: Being ready to act on opportunities Optimism: Keeping going despite obstacles and setbacks

Recognizing

Understanding others: Being aware of the feelings and perspectives of other people

and

and taking an active interest in their concerns

understanding

Developing others: Looking out for where others need to develop their practice and

other people’s emotions

supporting them with the strengths they already have Service orientation: Understanding and acting on the needs of the children, families and colleagues that you work with Leveraging diversity: Making sure that you understand different cultures and using these differences to make things better for everyone Political awareness: Being aware of the emotions and relationships within the setting – seeing how things happen outside of the formal procedures

Managing

Influence: Using appropriate tactics and techniques to bring about change

relationships

Communication: Making sure that you communicate properly and thoughtfully by listening actively and being clear in the signals you send out Conflict management: Supporting colleagues and clients through negotiating and resolving disagreements Leadership: Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change Building bonds: Nurturing relationships with colleagues, families and children Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others toward shared goals Team capabilities: Supporting the team to work together to deliver the provision of the setting



Reflective Practice

Often, in the course of a busy working day, it is possible to feel stressed and agitated with those around us due to the high demands of the working environment. For example, has someone phoned a parent to check that their child can be collected? An activity requires setting up and support made available for the children; a incident takes place needing first-aid and so ratios need to be checked for outdoor provision; an argument takes place between children; a staff member is upset because a colleague has cancelled an important meeting with no notice. The point here is that, as early years practitioners, we recognize how busy a day can be, but if we develop an approach to working with others that involves consideration towards our own and others’ feelings, issues can be communicated clearly and effectively without the added tensions that negative emotions can bring. Indeed, we refer back to considering what the world looks like when you wear someone else’s shoes.

Activity Considerations as to how we can reflect upon our emotional intelligence are addressed further on in this chapter. However, at this stage, take a few minutes to think about the range of emotions that you experience in a typical working day. Think through the emotional competence framework – how well do you do against the competencies? If you are not sure, then it might be worth discussing your range of abilities with a colleague or friend. How might you work on any gaps that you identify?

Within the introduction, we began to explore the concept of developing our self-awareness through reflective practice. If we are able to understand ourselves and our own actions, we are more able to understand others (Bolton, 2010: 33). In the field of working with young children and their families, with colleagues, and having relationships with multi-professional agencies, being able to understand yourself could never be more important. The demands of working with such a wide range of people as well as delivering daily practice cannot be underestimated, and so taking time to reflect upon such experiences is vital. Interestingly, Bolton has observed that practitioners have evolved to reflect more on the children and others than they do on themselves (2010: 97). Whilst reflecting upon others is evidently important, our own practice and actions should come first. As well as the evident benefits attached to our own practice and provision, reflective practice is also important to link in to policy and current thinking about early years practice in line with government expectations and desired

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Good Practice in the Early Years outcomes for children and families. In the Effective Leadership in Early Years Services (ELEYS) Report (Siraj-Blatchford and Manni, 2007), emphasis is given to the importance of reflective practice in developing communities of learners (2007: 18) who work together for a shared vision, to develop the quality of provision for children and families. The report was designed specifically for addressing key issues around current practice in the early years sector and bears significance to the importance of reflection. A comment made by the manager of Blue Skies Local Authority Day Care (214) highlighted the role feedback could play in promoting more reflective practice. She explained: ‘I am always surprised at the insight observers’ comments and feedback offer. I think a lot of what we do is intuitive and for better or worse, access to an outside view can be very useful in promoting improved practice or verbalising existing good practice.’ This was echoed by the head teacher of the Giving Tree Nursery School who explained that one of her main aims in delivering feedback about the practices observed was to ensure that her staff become more reflective in their practice, and able to recognise both their strengths and limitations. This seemed to be taken a step further by the manager of the Wind in the Willows Private Day Nursery. Here, staff were given non-contact time as an opportunity to observe their colleagues ‘at work’ with young children as a means of: ‘facilitating discussion, increasing reflective practice and assessing how well plans have been realised in practice’. (Siraj-Blatchford and Manni, 2007: 19)

Existing practice has influenced the way we work, and traces of reflective practice can be seen within early childhood for many years. Reflective practice is in-built in certain approaches to working with children. For example, within the Reggio Emilia approach, adult and child as co-researchers (Edwards et al., 1998) is considered to be good practice as practitioners are working alongside children to understand their current thinking, and this informs appropriate planning that is relevant for the children involved. In addition to this, again within the Reggio Emilia approach, part of the practitioner’s regular practice is to reflect with colleagues, sharing the documentation of collaborative discussions with children and their families (Edwards et al., 1998). Further examples of collaborative and reflective practice can be found in other approaches – for example, those of Montessori and Steiner. Indeed, with the development of the Early Years Foundation Stage (DCSF, 2007), working closely with children around their interests is recommended as good practice. For example, the role of the practitioner is to reflect upon children’s play through careful observation to develop



Reflective Practice

appropriate planning and activities for children as a result. This has been discussed further in this volume, in Chapter 1. Developing an ethos of reflective practice is strongly recommended within the EYFS to strive to achieve quality provision for the children and families within settings. The stated advantages of such practice can enable practitioners to develop a deeper understanding of the children in their care, as well as forging positive relationships with families and other agencies; and continuing their own professional development (DCSF, 2007).

Theories and models of reflection We have discussed some ideas about reflective practice; it is time now to consider some of the theories and models behind the idea. Without structure to our reflections, we may end up missing the deep learning we can gain from our experiences. Structuring our reflections helps us to identify where we need to learn more about how we deal with complex and challenging situations, how we analyse communication and relationships with colleagues and how we make decisions (Bolton, 2010). Writing things down helps us to make these things concrete, and though it might feel awkward at the time, people who we have worked with say that they look back on their writing and can trace how their learning has developed. Hiemstra (2001) suggests that writing one’s reflections down becomes a ‘a tool to aid learners in terms of personal growth, synthesis, and/or reflection on new information that is acquired … this can result in useful guides or mirrors for subsequent professional action and ethical decision making’ (2001: 19). The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (2006) suggests that, when you write, there are a number of ground rules: • Always write about yourself and your practice, although your writing may involve narrative about other people as well • Write in the first person • Write honestly • Write as if you were writing for yourself, not for someone else.

They go on to suggest that ‘if the reflections are going to be of value to you as learning tools, they need to be honest reflections of you and your work. This may run contrary to the way in which you write professionally in all other contexts (for example, writing in the first person may not feel “professional” to you) but it is essential that you do so here’ (2006: 2).

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Good Practice in the Early Years Writing things down while they are fresh in your mind also means that your recollection of events is more accurate – think back to the GP in the Baby P case mentioned earlier. One of the main writers about reflection was Donald Schon. He described practice as messy and difficult and said that what we do and what happens as a result don’t always make sense. We are sure that there are many examples where you have worked with others and they have reacted or behaved in a way you would not have imagined. Schon (1987) suggests three ways in which we understand things. He called these knowing in action, reflection in action and reflection on action. Knowing in action is spontaneous and quite unconscious. We know how to do things without having to think about them – for instance, once we have learned to do something, it becomes automatic. We instinctively know how to change a nappy or how to comfort a child who is upset, and this knowledge gets us through our working day. Occasionally, though, something might happen which produces an unfamiliar event, or a problem comes up where our usual approach doesn’t work. We can ignore this, because we’ve solved it anyway, or we can learn from it through reflection. Reflection in action is where we can change what we are doing so that it has an instant impact; for instance, you have planned an activity for children but notice that whilst they are in the role play areas they start a discussion about the nature of families. You decide that this is a useful conversation and, rather than pursue your original plan, you decide to abandon your idea and allow the discussion to continue. Through careful observation, you have changed your approach. It is the noticing and deciding to change that characterizes reflection in action. Much of our reflections take place after the event – usually when things go wrong. We seem to be better at dwelling on mistakes rather than on successes – which is a pity, because we can learn from both. It is reflection on action that underpins much of our learning and thinking about practice, because we have more time for this, and it will increase our capacity for reflection in action which is arguably more useful. An example of basic reflective practice comes from midwifery, in which midwives are encouraged to complete a basic log for their personal development portfolio. The log focuses around ‘encounters or issues’ in their work (see Table 3.2).



Reflective Practice

Table 3.2  Basic reflective practice tool, an example from midwifery © Crown copyright 2006 Date

Patient or problem

01/01/2001

Issue/what

Ideas for

Action plan/

happened?

learning/

what are you

what have you

going to do

learned?

about it? I must make

Mrs Smith needs to

Mrs Smith was

I need to find ways

use an asthma inhaler

unable to use

of reinforcing how

sure that I check

inhaler device

to use her inhaler.

patients’ inhaler

despite showing

I learned that I

technique on

her once already.

can’t just rely on

every clinic visit

Patient does not

showing a patient

whether I do it

remember what

once and expect

myself or get

was shown to her

them to remember

another member

forever; continual

of the practice to

reinforcement

do it.

and education is

I will make sure

necessary

that a prompt put up on the computer screen

Another example could be that you are asked to supervise a placement student who has just carried out an activity with a small group of children. First of all, you describe the session: I was asked to talk to the student about her morning’s work. The student had carried out some activities a group of children. I used the University’s checklist to help. You might then think about how you felt: I felt quite apprehensive at first, but thinking about it afterwards I really enjoyed this session. The student seemed keen to learn during the sessions with the children but did not ask many questions about my feedback. You then think about what you might have done differently: I think I talked too much and didn’t give the student enough time to tell me what she thought or how she felt she had got on during the morning. I think possibly if I had done that, she would have asked more. The checklist from the university was good, but we only got through the first three statements and then I started talking about other things and we ran out of time. I think I need to be more focused next time, and not get sidetracked by the things that interest me. And finally, what you learned from your experience: Though I enjoyed the opportunity to work with the student, I think I now need to work on my own listening skills – I should have given her more time to talk and to share her own learning with me. (adapted from Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists, 2006))

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Good Practice in the Early Years The important thing about reflective practice is that, when we think about things, we need to remember our thinking and to be conscious of the process we are going through. This is not to say that all reflections need to be undertaken with a great deal of seriousness – sometimes we have our best ideas in the strangest of places – but we may learn more through following a structure such as the one above. There are a number of ways to approach structured reflection, for example, we might ask ourselves a number of simple questions such as: What happened … So what … Now what? (Rolfe et al., 2001)

Other writers offer more sophisticated approaches; for example, Roth (1989) offers a summary of reflective practice: • Questioning what, why, and how we do things and asking what, why, and how others do things • Seeking alternatives • Keeping an open mind • Comparing and contrasting • Seeking the framework, theoretical basis, and/or underlying rationale • Viewing from various perspectives • Asking ‘what if … ?’ • Asking for others’ ideas and viewpoints • Using prescriptive models only when adapted to the situation • Considering consequences • Hypothesizing • Synthesizing and testing • Seeking, identifying, and resolving problems.

Whilst there are several ways in which reflection can be undertaken, what is felt to be important is that the style is suitable for the individual and makes sense. As individuals, we all have preferred ways of working, as indeed we have preferred ways of learning. You will, for instance, doubtless have come across the idea of VAK (visual, auditory and kinaesthetic) theories of learning when working with children. Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle is perhaps the most frequently used model of learning from our experiences, in which he suggests we learn by having an experience, thinking about it, drawing conclusions from the experience and then by planning the next steps. This will by now seem a fairly obvious approach to reflection. Honey and Mumford (1986) suggested names for people who prefer to learn from each section of the cycle. These are:



Reflective Practice

Activists: who learn best from having an experience and particularly when they are: Involved in new experiences, problems and opportunities Thrown in at the deep end with a difficult task Chairing meetings, leading discussions. Reflectors: who like to stand back and look at a situation from different perspectives. They learn best from: Observing people at work Having the opportunity to review what has happened and think about what they have learned Doing tasks without tight deadlines. Theorists: who think problems through in a step-by-step way. They tend to be perfectionists who like to fit things into a rational scheme. They learn best when: They are put in complex situations where they have to use their skills and knowledge They are in structured situations with a clear purpose They are offered interesting ideas or concepts even though they are not immediately relevant They have the chance to question and probe ideas behind things. Pragmatists: who are keen to try things out. They want concepts that can be immediately applied to their job. They learn best when: There is an obvious link between the topic and the job They have the chance to try out techniques with feedback, e.g. role-playing They are shown techniques with obvious advantages, e.g. saving time They are shown a model they can copy, e.g. from a respected colleague or manager.

Activity Think about an experience from which you have learned something important. Can you identify which is your preferred learning style as a result?

Though Kolb’s model is helpful in thinking about experiences, it has faced a number of criticisms. One of these is that it treats learning in a mechanical way (Quay, 2003). We are aware not only that learning takes place through the experience that we feel in ourselves, but that the experience inevitably takes

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Good Practice in the Early Years place within a particular setting. That setting also has an influence on the way we think about things. Other reflective models take the idea of influence into far greater consideration. Gibbs (1988) presents the process of reflection as a cycle that we can work through. Description What happened?

Action plan If it arose again what would you do?

Feelings What were you thinking and feeling?

Conclusion What else could you have done?

Evaluation What was good and bad about the experience?

Analysis What sense can you make of the situation? Fig 3.1  The Reflective Cycle Source: Gibbs (1988).

So a reflective account written in your learning journal might look like this:

Description – what happened? January – It was home time and there were lots of parents collecting their children when I overheard a parent complaining quite loudly to another that she was unhappy because her son never brought any writing home from pre-school. She complained that he couldn’t even write his name and that he would be starting in the nursery at the local school in September. The parent she was talking to noticed me tidying up the water tray and I heard her say ‘Why don’t you tell her?’, and she gestured in my direction. The parent who had been complaining came over to me and said ‘I’ve just been saying that I don’t think you make him sit down and write enough, all this playing outside is a waste of time. I want him to be able to write his name like his sister could do at his age, and I want you to make him do it.’



Reflective Practice

I tried to explain that not all children are ready to write their names at the same time and that the activities provided in our pre-school allowed children to develop at their own rate. However, she interrupted me saying that she never saw any worksheets being used either, and how were children meant to be ready for school if all they did was play. By this time her son had become restless and was tugging at her sleeve – so she told him ‘alright, we’re going, but remember, tomorrow I want you to write your name for me’.

Feelings – what I was thinking and feeling I was really frustrated because I knew that I wanted to explain more about the difference between the fine motor skill development of boys and girls – that girls are physically ready to write before boys, and that the range of activities we provide encourage the children to develop the gross and fine motor skills that develop essential pre-writing skills. I know I said a bit of this but there was so much more if I’d had the time to tell her. I wanted to say I know he isn’t writing his name yet but he does so much when he is here. All the other parents were listening and looking over at us and I got really flustered and really I just wanted her to take her son and leave.

Evaluation – What was good and bad about the situation? The situation was bad in that the parent felt cross – I felt frustrated because I thought I was letting down the parent’s view of the quality of the setting and that I did not resolve the situation to her satisfaction. I felt that my relationships with the parents were breaking down. I was disappointed that I had not been listened to. I began to doubt my own confidence and wondered if he should have been able to write his own name.

Analysis – what sense can I make of the situation? I know this parent only wanted the best for her child and she was probably thinking that he needed to write his name and complete worksheets so he wouldn’t be behind when he got to school. After she had gone I started to think that, if she felt like this, perhaps other parents did too. I decided to talk to my manager about maybe doing a display or an open evening that explained the importance of play so that all parents understood why we provided the resources and activities that we did. I also decided to do some reading around the subject and found that Rich (see Rich 2002) said that ‘It’s commonly acknowledged that girls are generally physically and mentally ready to write earlier than boys. So too much pressure to start writing too

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Good Practice in the Early Years early risks turning boys, especially, off writing or being in an educational setting. It can consequently turn them off learning altogether’ (2002: 13). This helped me to think that I was correct in my views and started to reassure me and re-develop my confidence.

Conclusion – what else could I have done? I should have asked her to come back when it was less busy so I could talk to her for longer. I should have explained that, although he doesn’t write his name, he does masses of mark making which will develop into writing recognizable letters with the right activities and encouragement. I could have asked her to come to one of the pre-school sessions as a parent helper so that I could explain what learning was taking place in the activities provided. I could have followed the EYFS (DCSF, 2007) guidance which says that: ‘Allow children to see adults reading and writing and encourage children to experiment with writing for themselves through making marks, personal writing symbols and conventional script’ (2007: 42); and that ‘Regular information should be provided for parents about activities undertaken by the children; for example, through wall displays, photographs and examples of children’s work’ (2007: 6).

Action plan – what I’d do if it happened again I’d get the child’s record of achievement file and show her all the evidence we have collected, including photographs of his work in the construction area which is one of his strengths. He has built fantastic structures and has drawn some wonderful maps. We’ve also got photographs and observations showing his work outside where he has been counting and tallying, and then I’d explain the importance of mathematical graphics and how that is mark making too. I’d also suggest that he would learn from watching her writing at home too. Gibbs’s (1998) model then helps us to explore a situation in depth. It also shows how external knowledge is used to help us. In this case, this has come through reading – which is always so important in helping us to understand situations and ideas. Alternatively, the practitioner could have discussed the process with a colleague. Johns (2000) advocates the idea of practitioners working through experiences with the support of a colleague or supervisor. Though he talks about patients as the subject of your actions, this could equally well be applied to children and families. He advises practitioners to ‘look in on the situation’,



Reflective Practice

which would include focusing on yourself and paying attention to your thoughts and emotions. He then advises you to ‘look out of the situation’ and write a description of the situation around your thoughts and feelings, what you were trying to achieve, why you responded in the way you did, how others were feeling, and asks you to question whether you acted in the most ethical way. In a similar way to Gibbs, he poses a number of key questions to work through while reflecting on an event:

Description Write a description of the experience, then discuss the questions with a colleague.

What happened? • What were you trying to achieve? • Why did you behave in the way you did? • What are the consequences of your actions – For the child and family? For yourself? For the people you work with? • How did the child feel about it? • How do you know how the child felt about it? • How did you feel about this experience when it was happening? • What internal factors were influencing you?

Ethics • How did your actions match you beliefs? • What factors made you behave differently from usual?

Learning • Have you come across a similar situation before? • Could you have dealt better with the situation? • What other choices did you have? • What would be the consequences of these other choices? • How do you NOW feel about this experience? • Have you taken effective action to support yourself and others as a result of this experience? • How has this experience changed your practice?

An example from health visiting is given by Oxford Brookes University (2009): You are a qualified health visitor. You have knowledge, skills and a lot of experience under your belt. You’re going to visit a family with a child who is obese. On past experience, you plan to propose a diet, a food diary and a

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Good Practice in the Early Years schedule of visits. You visit, talk to mum, and agree your plan. One week later … second visit. Nothing’s happened. No change. Very disappointing … frustrating You look back at what you did and wonder what you could have done differently and why the mother didn’t take your advice. You have a chat with colleagues. Have they experienced this? What would they have done? Any ideas? One colleague said she used some approaches used in family therapy. Interesting … but you want more than just her word for it. Coincidentally, you saw a programme on TV which left you thinking about the complex nature of eating habits in a family context, and the difficulty of change. You go and read some studies that used systems theory. You decide to arrange a case conference with social services. You set up a family meeting with all members. The sister confesses she sneaks the obese brother crunchies and chips. Aaahhh you think … Looking back, you realise that your earlier intervention had limited value – you were coming at it from a direction that didn’t see all aspects of the situation. You still need to help the family to make changes, but you have different strategies to try …

You can see how this example follows Johns’s framework, going from description through to learning and ultimately change.

Activity Pick an incident that has changed your practice. Reflect on that incident using either both the Gibbs and Johns models and try to write down what happened and your analysis of the event. • How does this process contribute to your understanding of the situation?

We can see that structure adds an element of rigour to the way in which we reflect. It is that rigour that allows us to make changes to our practice, knowing that we have thought about issues and concerns in a thorough way. The models we show you here offer an opportunity to frame your reflections and to create a standard way in which they might take place.

Practicalities of reflection Following previous discussions around the importance of reflective practice, here the practicalities are considered. There are several ways in which to reflect; we have shown you some specific theoretical frameworks but these might not be right for you, so here we look at some more creative techniques. Whilst we deliver a range of theories and techniques, what is important to consider is that the way in which we reflect is suitable for our



Reflective Practice

own purposes and does not become a mundane experience that is seen to be a chore. In addition to the several and more formal theoretical approaches to reflective practice that have been described in this chapter, further creative options are available to consider in what may be most appropriate for you. A plethora of creative methods are potentially engaging and worthwhile approaches for reflecting upon our experiences. For example, in a recent study examining wellbeing in adults, the experiential sampling method was applied (Kellock et al., 2011). Within this approach, participants are engaged in taking photographs to capture the main activity taking place at various intervals throughout the day over a period of one week. In addition to taking the photographs, participants are encouraged to reflect upon how they are feeling from a range of perspectives. This approach allows not only immediate responses to situations, but also, at a later date, further reflections on the images and words allow a deeper understanding of the moments captured. As well as photography being a valuable visual method of capturing experience to reflect upon, other creative tools can be applied, such as drawing, painting, writing poetry, and keeping a journal. These more creative ways of developing reflective practice may be more appealing than some of the more formal approaches. In spending time and giving thoughtful consideration to such creative means of expression, new meanings and understandings may become apparent. Garvey and Lancaster (2010: 30) develop a range of reflective tools, including free writing, that allow the reflective practitioner to explore their own way of understanding situations and experiences. Partnering a reflective friend is a further, less formal approach that can work in a reciprocal manner (2010: 31).

Activity Select a creative method of reflection from the suggestions above and decide on something to reflect on; for example, relationships with colleagues or families, the environment in which you work, a particular incident that has occurred.

Getting support to become a reflective practitioner The process of theorizing your reflections is very difficult – it is time consuming, but mostly it can be hard to motivate yourself – especially if you decide to write them down. It is not necessarily something that we need to do on our own, nor is it always a relaxing process. It also requires you to be open with

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Good Practice in the Early Years others and to reading, so that you ensure that your reflections are challenging your thinking, rather than just taking yourself round in circles. According to Grimmet et al. (as cited in Moran and Dallat, 1995), an external perspective is an important factor in developing reflective skills and one which ‘significantly enriches the reflective process’ (1995: 22). The implication is, then, that you should set aside time to reflect and basically practice writing and thinking about your experiences, and then plan time when you can talk with a friend or colleague. We might also think about getting the children in our care to reflect – though we tend to do this naturally as part of our practice in helping children to learn. When we engage children in reflection, we encourage them to go beyond merely reporting what they’ve done. We also help them become aware of what they learned in the process, what was interesting, how they feel about it, and what they can do to build on or extend the experience. (Epstein, 1993: 2)

In order to achieve better standards in their own work and influence change in a wider context, early years workers need to get support for themselves. Discussion with experienced others is invaluable in terms of forming ideas about good practice and how to achieve high standards by developing these ideas within the job role. Discussion with a colleague, supervisor, tutor or friend who acts as a mentor can help the process of linking theory and practice, analyse the value of new ideas and concepts and develop a problemsolving approach to areas of work that require change. A mentor or supporter does not have to be involved with you on a formal basis, but there are a number of basic requirements to the role: • Expertise and experience in the work role • Ability to think objectively and analytically • Confidentiality • Being open to new ideas and concepts, and be able to discuss these • Being involved in own self-development • Being committed to raising standards and achieving good practice • Being accessible.

Possibly the best situation is if you have a colleague with whom you can share ideas on a mutual basis, providing each other with mentoring support. Supervisors can sometimes offer managerial support for your self-development activities and provide access to staff development. Supervisors can also help to implement agreed changes to work practices. In some job roles,



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there are appraisal systems which, properly used, focus on individual staff targets and staff development needs in order to meet those targets. Other support can be gained from tutors, professional bodies and forums, other agency professionals and parents.

Limitations of reflection In this chapter we have outlined the importance of reflective practice. Clearly reflective practice can aid our own development as early years professionals through its ability to facilitate our own self-awareness, to help us understand new knowledge about practice and to enrich our awareness of some of the problems encountered when working with children and families. We hope, however, that we have not underestimated the difficulties of the process. In reflecting on your practice, you need to understand the method taken, whether it follows a structure or is more creative. Without understanding the techniques, you might repeat your mistakes; however, there is a balance between just using the methods and actually learning from them. We have already said that the process is time consuming, but you also need to be aware that questioning your own practice can be risky because it may well lead to sensitivity because your practice is founded in your own values and feelings. It can hurt when these are challenged (Peters, 1991; Rose, 1992). March (1991) argues that, by just thinking about our own experiences, we may restrict our creativity and become too introspective. It is important to think that reflective practice should ensure that what we do makes a difference to the children and families we work with.

Conclusion In this chapter we have attempted to explain what reflective practice is – the idea that, in order to improve our work and to sustain its professionalism, we have to examine our practice carefully in the light of theory, others and the context in which we operate. We have identified that taking responsibility for your own actions is part of your development as a professional within the early years sector. Reflective practice is not just something that needs to happen at an individual level; the potentially catastrophic consequences of not learning from previous experiences have been seen. Part of developing your ability to reflect involves the development of emotional intelligence, i.e. self-awareness and management and understanding and developing empathy with others. We have offered a number of

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Good Practice in the Early Years structures through which you might choose to exercise your practice, and suggested also that there are a number of more creative ways through which reflection might take place. We recognize that reflecting on your practice can be difficult, not only because of the time involved, but also because of the sensitivities it may evoke, but getting support from a colleague or your team can help you in developing your skills as a reflective practitioner. Becoming a reflective practitioner is a gradual process of learning different skills and absorbing new ways of approaching early years work. It can feel like an uphill struggle at times, especially if there is resistance to change around you or a lack of resources to achieve your goals. However, being a reflective practitioner can be highly rewarding, as, through reflection, analysis, comparison of theory and practice and review and outcomes, you learn more about the process of achieving good standards in early years care and education. Reflective practice is stimulating and demanding, but we see it as an essential component of good practice.

References Bolton, G. (2010), Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development, London: Sage. Brookfield, S. D. (1995), Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2007), The Early Years Foundation Stage: Crown Copyright Department for Education (DfE) (2010), Haringey local Safeguarding Children Board. Serious case review: ‘Child A’, London: DfE. Dewey, J. (1933), How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process, Boston: D. C. Heath. Edwards, C. E., Gandini, L. and Forman, G. (1998), The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach – advanced reflections, London: JAI Press. Epstein, A. S. (1993), Training For Quality: Improving Early Childhood Programs Through Systematic In Service Training, Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope. Garvey, D. and Lancaster, A. (2010), Leadership for Quality in Early Years and Playwork, London: NCB. Gibbs, G. (1988), Learning by Doing: A Guide To Teaching and Learning Methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford: Oxford Polytechnic. Goleman, D. (1998), Working with Emotional Intelligence, Place?: Bloomsbury. Hiemstra, R. (2001), ‘Uses and benefits of journal writing’, in L. M. English and M. A. Gillen (eds), Promoting Journal Writing In Adult Education, (New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 90, pp. 19–26). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1986), Using Your Learning Styles, Maidenhead: Peter Honey Publications. Jasper, M. (2003), Foundations in Nursing and Health Care – Beginning Reflective Practice, Place?: Cengage Learning.



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Johns, C. (1995), ‘Framing learning through reflection within Carper’s fundamental ways of knowing in nursing’, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22, 226–34. —(2000), Becoming a Reflective Practitioner: a Reflective and Holistic Approach to Clinical Nursing, Practice Development and Clinical Supervision, Oxford: Blackwell Science. Johns, C. and Graham, J. (1996), ‘Using a reflective model of nursing and guided reflection’, Nursing Standard, 11(2), 34–8. Kellock, A., Lawthom, R., Sixsmith, J., Duggan K., Mountian, I., Haworth, J. T., Kagan, C., Brown, D. P., Griffiths, J. E., Hawkins, J., Worley, C., Purcell, C. and Siddiquee, A. (2011), ‘Using technology and the experience sampling method to understand real life’, in S. N. Hesse-Biber ed. The Handbook of Emergent Technology in Social Research, Maidenhead: Oxford University Press. Kolb, D. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. March, J. G. (1991), ‘Exploration and exploitation in organisational learning’, Organization Science, 2, 71–87. Moon, J. (1999), Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: Theory and Practice London: Kogan Page. Moran, A. and Dallat, J. (1995), ‘Promoting reflective practice in initial teacher training’, International Journal of Educational Management, 9(5), 20–6. Oxford Brookes University (2009), A Health Visitor at Work. Available online at http://www.brookes. ac.uk/services/upgrade/a-z/reflective_healthvisitor.html (accessed 21 October 2011). Parton, N. (2004), ‘From Maria Colwell to Victoria Climbié: reflections on a generation of public inquiries into child abuse’, Child Abuse Review, 13(2), 80–94. Peters, J. (1991), ‘Strategies for reflective practice’, in Professional Development For Educators of Adults. New Directions For Adult and Continuing Education, 51, R. Brockett ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Quay, J. (2003), ‘Experience and participation: relating theories of learning’, The Journal of Experiential Learning, 26(2), 105–12. Rich, D. (2002), More Than Words: Children Developing Communication, Language and Literacy, London: The British Association for Early Childhood Education. Robins, A. and Callan, S. (eds) (2010), Managing Early Years Settings, London: Sage. Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D. and Jasper, M. (2001), Critical Reflection in Nursing and the Helping Professions: a User’s Guide, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Rose, A. (1992), ‘Framing our experience: research notes on reflective practice’, Adult Learning, 3(4), 5. Roth, R. A. (1989). ‘Preparing the reflective practitioner: transforming the apprentice through the dialectic’, Journal of Teacher Education, 40(2), 31–5. Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (2006), CPD Toolkit. Available online from http:// www.rcslt.org/ (accessed 10 October 2011). Schon, D. A. (1987), Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design of Teaching and Learning in the Professions, San Francisco: Jossey‑Bass. Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Manni, L. (2007), Effective Leadership in the Early Years Sector: The ELEYS study. London: Institute of Education.

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4 Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years Penny Borkett

Chapter Outline Introduction 91 Inclusion and equality 93 What is discrimination? 94 Discrimination in practice 95 Working with children from a range of cultures 96 Supporting children with special educational needs 102 Gender issues in early years settings 109 Conclusion 113

Introduction This chapter explores equal opportunity for all children, whatever their backgrounds, and the practitioner’s role in ensuring inclusion. Equal opportunities policies and anti-discriminatory practice are central to working in early years settings because it is vital that children and families have access to a standard of care and education which ensures that they are supported and valued. Equal opportunities policies are not aimed at treating every child and family in the same way, but are about ensuring that they all receive support that is tailored to both their individual and specific needs. For example, a family who has just moved from another setting in the same country is going to need a different kind of support to a family moving from another country where a different language is spoken and where education is more focused around literacy and numeracy skills rather than through play. The family of a child who has cerebral palsy and is not yet able to walk will need a different



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Good Practice in the Early Years kind of support to a family of a child who is being raised solely by a parent with multiple sclerosis. Equality of opportunity is based on the belief that all children and families are valued and supported in terms of their gender, race, culture, faith, sexual orientation, family background and ability. If this is not achieved in the early years of a child’s life it can be detrimental to them, inhibiting them from achieving their full potential as they progress. Children need to learn to celebrate difference and to see it as positive rather than negative. In order to ensure equality of opportunity, the early years practitioner needs to develop ways of working which avoid any child and family being discriminated against. It is also about challenging views in society with the children in your care to ensure that they develop a balanced view of the world around them. It is very important at the outset of the chapter to explore issues of discrimination and consider ways in which discriminatory practices can impact early years settings. An overarching theme relates to poverty and the notion that those children living in the poorest areas of the country have a tendency to do less well in education and are more likely to have a disability. The chapter will focus on three main dimensions of equal opportunity: cultural identity, disability and gender. There will be consideration of some of the national legislative documents that relate to these areas and the necessity for practitioners to ensure that local policies reflect these. There will also be suggestions of ways in which practice can be developed in order to ensure inclusion for all children. When considering cultural diversity it will be important to dissect meanings related to culture, faith and identity, to recognize some of the complexities relating to these issues and to focus on the need to work closely with both parents and local communities to ensure community cohesion. When focusing on disability there will be some discussion around the different models of disability and the need to recognize the differences in these and the ways that society views people with disability. The needs of parents will be considered in terms of their need to be supported and encouraged and the role of the multi-agency team will also be discussed in relation to disability. In terms of gender, there will be discussion of how children construct and view their own identity and gender, particularly focusing on the need to dispel stereotypes of gender which are perpetuated within society. This chapter covers the following: • Inclusion and equality • What is discrimination?



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• Working with children from a range of cultural backgrounds • Supporting children with special educational needs • Gender issues in early years settings.

Inclusion and equality It is important when trying to address issues of equality and discrimination to recognize that this is not an easy task, and that contentious issues need to be addressed and discussed in a sensitive and positive way. However, early years practitioners have an obligation to ensure that their practices are inclusive to all. Inclusion does not mean ensuring that certain groups of children are included, but that all children are integrated in the setting. This will mean reflecting on current practice and being prepared to instigate changes to meet the needs of all children. Booth and Ainscow (2004) suggest that, to ensure true inclusion for all children, settings should: • reflect on current practices and policies in order that settings are responsive to the changing needs of families and children; • ensure that all families and children are treated and valued equally depending on their circumstances; • recognize that inclusion in early education is an aspect of inclusion in society.

In order for practitioners to achieve good practice in this area they need to have a sound knowledge of some of the issues relating to equality of opportunity. They also need to be able to challenge assumptions commonly made about certain groups of people in society who are often the subjects of discrimination. Children come from families who are living in a wide environmental context, so they will be influenced by both people and practices from society. This may include the extended family, faith leaders, work colleagues, other organizations who have links with the families such as health and education professionals. All of these will have an impact on how families form their views of society as a whole. Added to this, families also form ideas about society from what they see presented through the media. For example, a small group of people expressed negative views when the BBC chose to employ a presenter with a disability on a children’s TV programme. As early years practitioners it is important that these views are challenged with both children and their families to achieve an inclusive environment for all children.

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What is discrimination? The need to recognize discrimination and to ensure that it does not pervade our society is rooted in history. In the 1950s, people from Asia and the Caribbean started to arrive in this county to live and work, often inhabiting the poorest areas. This influx has continued over time, and it is common for groups of people originating from non-white British cultures to live in areas of greater poverty, have high unemployment rates and be more likely to experience racism and discrimination than white British people (Craig, 2008). Despite a plethora of acts such as the Race Relations Amendment Act (2000) and the Equality Act (2010) which seek to bring together issues in relation to age, disability, race, religion or belief, sex, sexual orientation and gender, discrimination still can pervade our society. Discrimination is when a person or group of people is treated differently or unfairly because of any of the above, or for any other reason is seen as different or inferior. In early years settings, it is vital that discrimination is recognized and challenged and that support is offered to children and families who may be experiencing discrimination in other areas of their lives. Early years settings should focus on offering an environment where all feel safe and valued, as well as developing an ethos that all are welcome. This in turn will support the development of the next generation of adults in accepting and valuing all people in society.

Prejudices and stereotypes Discrimination is based on prejudice, and is often built up when people make assumptions and generalizations of particular groups of society. These are often built on stereotypes that are fixed, commonly-held ideas of a person or group of people based around an observed behaviour or appearance. So, for instance, a commonly-held view that all Asian families own a corner shop or run an Indian restaurant is a stereotype. Society often reinforces these ideas, which means that over time a negative image of certain individuals or groups of people builds up and this can lead to the labelling of groups of people. Discrimination occurs when unequal or negative behaviour arises from those stereotypes. Kay (2004) suggests that the following groups of people may be subject to discrimination: • cultural and ethnic minorities • people with disabilities • women and girls



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• gays and lesbians • older people • travellers.

Children learn at a very early age that certain groups in society are considered more important than others, and this can be confirmed by images shown in the media and in books. The nuclear family (Mum, Dad and children) is still largely portrayed in advertisements and may suggest that families made up, for instance, of same-gender parents are seen as less favourable. A child who moves schools and comes home from school at the end of her first week saying ‘I have made a friend but she is black’ is already picking up negative views of another culture. If these views are confirmed by her parents, she may continue to build on this negative viewpoint, but if her parents encourage that friendship then the viewpoint may be dispelled. When considering gender-stereotypical, play Paley (1984) suggests that a boy who dresses up in a princess dress could be laughed at, yet if a girl did the same there would be no issues. Children respond to these messages and will begin to construct their own views of identity and of what they believe is right or wrong, and these, as we have noted earlier, can also be affected by their family. A father who would not allow his child who was a boy to be given a buggy, even if this was his favourite activity at pre-school, because it was ‘not something that boys do’ is reinforcing the view that only mothers push children in a buggy. If these types of oppressive views and notions are evident in the child’s environment, then the child may have more of a tendency to adopt them and to form negative opinions of specific groups in society.

Discrimination in practice At times it is hard to identify discrimination or prove that it is taking place. This is because discrimination is sometimes overt (direct) and sometimes it is covert (indirect). An example of overt discrimination would be an attack on a person because of their race or culture. Indirect discrimination would be, for instance, when a disabled person in a wheelchair could not enter a building as its doors were not wide enough for the wheelchair to go through. Covert discrimination is more difficult to recognize. Discrimination often involves making assumptions about groups of people, but at other times it is about lack of knowledge and the inability to find out what is needed to ensure that all groups of people are valued.

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Reflection point Some early years settings work very hard to ensure that their ethos is one of inclusion for all groups of society, while others find this more challenging, particularly if the setting is in an area where the population is predominantly white British. All settings need to ensure that they include the principle that we live in a multicultural society in which difference should be embraced and celebrated. • Think about a time when you may have felt discriminated against, and how this felt for you. • Try to establish the views of your colleagues about discrimination. Discuss with them strategies used by the setting to ensure that positive attitudes and values are demonstrated to all children and families in the setting. • Think about your own views and prejudices and the impact of these on the way that you behave and relate to children and families. You may want to speak to a mentor about this.

Working with children from a range of cultures One of the principles of the Early Years Foundation Stage focuses on The Unique Child, and states that ‘the diversity of individuals and communities should be valued and respected and … no child or families should be discriminated against’. Whilst we continue to focus on particular groups of children, it is important to consider that in early years settings all children and families should be enabled to take part in all activities (DCSF, 2008). The Race Relations Act (1976) states that it is illegal to discriminate against any person on the grounds of their race. The Early Years Foundation Stage, which was born out of the Every Child Matters framework (2005), sets out the responsibility for early years practitioners to instil positive attitudes to diversity and difference in all children. The aim is to enable full inclusion for all whilst also encouraging children to value and celebrate difference as they grow and move through society (DFES, 2008). The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF, 1989) is a group of guidelines set out by governments worldwide in order to give all children the same rights wherever they live in the world. Article 22 discusses the need to ensure that the children from refugee or asylum-seeking families have the same rights as any other children. Articles 28 and 30 discuss the need for all



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children to receive an education which also values and respects the cultures and faiths which are followed by child’s family. Living in a multicultural, multi-faith country is an exciting opportunity for young children to learn about difference and tolerance, yet too often early years practitioners see diversity to be something which is bewildering and scary.

Reflection point Students in a recent seminar session focusing on issues of cultural diversity talked about their sense of unease at discussing diversity issues with parents stating ‘we don’t want to get it wrong – so sometimes it is easier not to ask’. • Why do you think they hold this view? • What steps could be taken to help them be more confident about dealing with diversity issues?

The more that can be learned about identity, faith and culture by young children, the more they will grow up with an open and balanced view of people in society. However, there needs to be some consideration of what identity, culture and faith really mean. It is easy to become confused about such concepts, but the more that we can unpick these notions the easier it will be for practitioners to explain their meaning to children and families in their settings, thus helping to dispel issues which may be born out of ignorance.

Developing identity Identity is a term that Robinson and Diaz (2009) suggest relates to the social categories of a person; e.g., race, class, gender and ethnicity. In contrast to this, Fearon (1999) views identity as being about characteristics, attributes or expected behaviours. So, considering both of these views, we might describe the identity of a child as being ‘a white, British child who is happy and has a good sense of fun’. As children start to discover things about themselves they may pick up on the similarities and differences between themselves and other children. Eventually, through their experiences and interactions with others, they begin to develop ideas about their own identity. The settings or contexts that the child enters will be experienced as communities of which they are part, and the child will share the particular culture(s) of those communities. A community where all children are valued for who and what they are is far more likely to help children to see themselves

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Good Practice in the Early Years positively than a community where one particular view of a child is represented. As the child begins to form a positive view of their own identity their self-esteem will develop and they will begin to feel ‘happy in their own skin’. To ensure that settings represent all communities it is important for children to see diverse images in resources, posters, books and puzzles which show children from a variety of backgrounds, cultures, religions and abilities.

Defining culture Baldock (2010) views culture as being about the habits and traditions that bind a particular group of people together. Smidt (2006) suggests that culture could also relate to the customs of countries, their artefacts, values, music and food, and the clothes that are worn there. However, Vianna and Stetsenko (2006) suggest that culture is a ‘living, continuous flow of practices which are enacted by each generation of people’ (2006: 90). This view acknowledges that culture is dynamic and changes across time and generations. An example of this can be seen in the celebration of Christmas. Many years ago, when it was more common for people to go to church, this festivity was about the birth of Jesus; however, now a visitor coming to the UK in December may be forgiven for thinking that Christmas is more about Santa Claus. Smidt’s explanation of culture relates to cultural tools which are developed by people over time – these are often used to help define a culture. Smidt goes onto suggest that through their explorations of the world children learn to interact, contribute to, adapt and change their views on their own ever-changing culture. It is important, when discussing different cultures with children or showing images or other representations of different cultures, that these should acknowledge cultural development and not show a static or extinct version of cultural practices. For example, many multi-cultural approaches make assumptions that all Asian women will wear traditional dress such as shalwar kameez or saris and this may not always be the case.

Issues of faith When discussing the word faith it is usually linked with a belief in an intangible power in whom people can have complete trust. Myers (1997) views faith as being a dynamic relationship with a person who is central and has value and power in their life. For a Christian family this would be God or Jesus Christ, and for a Muslim family it would be Allah. It may be thought that children in the early years are too young to be encouraged to think about issues relating to faith; however, the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS)



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states the need to value diversity and to encourage children to celebrate the similarities and differences in faith groups. On a recent trip to Ghana, the author saw Christianity being taught to the youngest of children, and whilst it is important that children are not ‘brainwashed’ into following one particular route of faith it is equally important for children to learn that different faiths are part of the multicultural world in which we live. If, as was suggested earlier, children form their identity through membership of certain groups or communities, then a families’ regular visit to a place of worship will be important to the child and their self-identity.

The role of practitioners in promoting diversity It is vital to ensure that all early years settings policies, procedures and practices stress the importance of cultural diversity and ensure that racial equality is promoted. At times it can be too easy to assume that a Westernized view of childcare should prevail. When this happens we are putting out the message that the practices and traditions of other cultures are not welcomed and not considered to be important. There are differences between the expectations of childcare, depending on the culture you are from. In many Indian and African cultures it is believed that children should learn to read and write early on. Brooker (2002) discusses the views of Bangladeshi families who share the idea that the curriculum, for their young children, should include activities relating to the alphabet and counting, as well as taking part in religious knowledge. This may relate to the reason why the DFES found that black and minority ethnic families experience ‘significant barriers in childcare’ due to cost and appropriateness to the culture (Sure Start, 2004). The report went onto suggest that such families were not made to feel welcome, and that language was a barrier to inclusion in many settings. Many settings which experience the challenge of more than one language being spoken try to alleviate this issue by employing bilingual staff, which can help children and parents to feel less alienated and more welcomed into the setting. These bilingual workers will also be able to challenge assumptions and stereotypes which may emerge from others in the setting. However a bilingual worker suggested in a recent seminar session that other staff often relate to families who are supported by the bilingual worker as being ‘her families’. It is vital that all staff ensure that they get to know all children and families in their settings, rather than relying on one particular worker for one particular group of people.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Bilingual children may also struggle if the prevailing language spoken in the setting is different from that of their home language. Recent research demonstrates that, whilst learning a new language, it is vital that the home language is used alongside the predominant language in the setting (Macrory, 2006). Some families worry that if the child learns English they will lose their home language, while others want their children to learn English and to not use their home language whilst in the setting. Early years practitioners have a key role in maintaining the home language as well as developing skills in English in a fun and vibrant way. It is well documented that bilingual children will often have a higher cognitive ability and that, once fluent in two or more languages, the child will move between these languages frequently (Macrory, 2006). Ang (2010) suggests that, while issues of cultural diversity are embedded into a large volume of early years policy documents, including the EYFS, there is no real advice given to early years practitioners about how they can incorporate activities which link to culture into their settings (DFES, 2008). However, early years practitioners must plan activities that are accessible to all children and reflect the culture and the faith systems within the community in order to support diversity and inclusion. This may be done through visits to religious buildings near the setting, tasting the food from a range of cultures, using some of the cultural tools in settings, for instance, in the home corner, and ensuring that different cultures are represented in terms of pans, cutlery and other play materials. Having books and posters that represent different cultures and abilities is very important. Makaton is a very inclusive tool that gives visual clues to words which can help children who are bilingual. Makaton is a form of sign language that can be used with all children, which gives a visual clue to the user and is always used alongside spoken language. The child will often start to learn the sign first and will then begin to link the sign with the spoken word. Another form of support is using simple symbols which also give a clue to the written word. A child may go on to learn the symbols after they have mastered the use of the signs and words. Other forms of symbols that are used in a similar way are known as Rebus, or the Picture Exchange Communication System (also known as PECS), which can be used for children who are primarily on the autistic spectrum. The use of Makaton or Rebus symbols can bring activities alive for children who may be experiencing print for the first time. Labelling equipment boxes with the photo, symbol and name of whatever is in the box will ensure that the child is able to choose independently the activity they wish irrespective of what language or print the child is used to seeing. Using



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the child’s photograph on a coat hook can help the child to identify where to hang their coat and bag, and is more relevant than the picture of an animal used in some settings, which does not relate to the child. Learning songs from a range of cultures which can be interspersed into singing time will be important for all children – it is good for children who speak English as their first language to recognize that some children use different languages. Ensuring that stories which are read represent all cultures and abilities, which will support all children’s understanding of diversity. Whilst the author was in Ghana, a student read the story of Old Macdonald’s Farm to the children, and at first was surprised that many of the children did not seem interested – it was because there are no similar sorts of farms in Africa and the animals represented in the book were not ones that the children knew. The use of natural ingredients in play can help a child to discover concepts relating to textures, weight, soft and hard, and can encourage a child to imagine and discover things relating to their interests. Pens, crayons and mark-making activities on pieces of large paper enable children to lie on the floor and to have fun with shape and colour, with no particular end product in their mind. Some faiths, for example Islam, do not permit the depiction of living creatures, so for some children, toys such as teddy bears, animals, dolls and other representations of ‘real life’ are not allowed. Hoot, Szecsi and Moosa (2003) discovered that, in some Muslim homes, pictures of people, photographs, some soft toys and animals would not be allowed. Similarly, for some Christian parents, Halloween is seen as something which should not be celebrated in early years settings due to its focus on witchcraft and evil.

Reflection point Think about how people from a range of cultures are represented through society, media and other cultural images. Are all ethnic groups represented equally in the media? Think about how children develop their own ideas of identity – if they mainly see positive images of white families portrayed through magazines, TV and books, how will they feel about their own culture?

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Case study: Involving parents in children’s play In a multicultural community, a Sure Start Children’s Centre held a weekly stay-and-play session for children under three and their parents. Each week, toys and activities such as paint and cornflour paste were set out for the children, but they did not seem to be able to play with these toys and activities and instead preferred to run around play-fighting or using the toys for other purposes. The parents would also sit around the edge of the room chatting and not engaging with their children’s activities. The team who prepared the weekly sessions were beginning to get quite despondent until they made memory boxes with the parents and suddenly they were involving their children with this activity and working together to make the boxes. The staff team decided to completely change their planning around these sessions. What kind of activities do you think they could plan in the future both to engage the children and to encourage their parents to play alongside them?

Supporting children with special educational needs In the past 20 years there have been increased levels of legal support introduced for people with disabilities through the Disability Discrimination Act (1995, updated 2005) that has now been combined with the Equality Act (2010). This sets out the need for society to make ‘reasonable adjustment’ for all people with disabilities. However, there is no description as to what reasonable adjustment is, so settings are then left to deduce for themselves whether the changes being made to ensure inclusion are appropriate or not. The Disability Discrimination Act (1994) also sanctioned that people with disabilities, including children, should not be discriminated against in terms of employment and access to services. It also required that schools and colleges should make provision for children and young people with disabilities. Previous Education Acts have introduced and extended the view that children with disabilities should be included in mainstream education, partly as a result of the Warnock report in 1978 in which philosopher Mary Warnock pointed out that, for children with disabilities, there was a need to change the emphasis from being taught in special schools to being taught in mainstream schools. The Special Educational Needs (SEN) Code of Practice (2001) and Article 23 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) state the need



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for children to have access to education and to be able to live a full life. The SEN Code of Practice placed a greater emphasis on the need for very young children with disabilities to receive support both before they start nursery, through early intervention programmes such as Portage, and then when they move into a mainstream early years setting. The SEN Code of Practice defines a child with a special need as either having a significantly greater difficulty than the majority of children of the same age; or having a disability which may inhibit them from making use of mainstream educational facilities. The EYFS (2008) sets out the need for practitioners to ensure that all children have an equal right to be listened to and valued in the setting and goes on to state that the support children receive as they learn should be personalized to meet their individual needs and to extend their talents. The SEN Code of Practice also set out to ensure that in every setting there is a Special Educational Needs Coordinator who will ensure that the needs of all children with disabilities in their setting are met. They will work closely with all agencies involved and ensure that the planning and activities on offer meet the needs of all children. The Code of Practice then went on to recommend that settings should take a graduated approach when considering the needs of children. The graduated approach ensures a multi-agency method of working with families who have a child with disabilities, which would require any professionals working with a family to work collaboratively to meet the needs of the child. The introduction of the Early Support Pack ensures that this approach is taken up. Through this pack the parents write about the difficulties that their child has and how this came about, and they take ownership of the pack. They choose a key worker who is already involved with the family and who will arrange the multi-agency meetings and ensure that all notes are kept up to date. These professionals may be Portage workers, speech and language therapists, educational psychologists, physiotherapists or occupational therapists. The team of professionals will vary depending on the individual needs of the child. In terms of the SEN Code of Practice, these children would be on Early Years Action Plus, which means that they have already been diagnosed with a learning disability and the setting that they attend will have an Individual Education Plan (IEP) set up for the child. This IEP should have been written in collaboration with all professionals and the child’s parents, and will identify four or five next steps for the child’s learning and development. Kay (2004) suggests that children with disabilities may have one or more of the following difficulties:

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Good Practice in the Early Years • Physical impairment: these children may have conditions such as cerebral palsy whereby they experience difficulties with their movement and their fine motor (small movements with fingers) or gross motor (larger movement such as crawling and walking) skills. • Sensory impairment: this may relate to a child with a hearing or visual impairment, or both. • Learning difficulties: this is when a child’s cognitive (thinking) skills are less well developed. • Communication disorder: such as a child who may be on the autistic continuum. • Speech and language difficulties: a child whose speech is developing at a slower rate than children of a similar age. • Children with medical needs: for instance a child with spina bifida or cystic fibrosis, who may need regular daily physiotherapy as part of their package of support.

However, there are still some children who attend early years settings who have not yet been identified as having a special need. These may be children on the autistic spectrum for whom the diagnosis may take a little longer, or children who do not have a specific need but are not progressing in the same way that their peers are. Children such as this will be considered as being on Early Years Action, whereby other professionals are being alerted of their needs and differentiated activities (activities which are changed slightly in order for the child with special educational needs to be better able to join in with them) are supporting them in the setting. Professionals may also be talking to parents to investigate whether they have any particular worries about their child’s needs. Again, an IEP should be prepared, but this may depend on whether the parent has accepted that there is an issue with their child. Another requirement of the SEN Code of Practice is the need to work closely with parents. The EYFS (2005) establishes the view that parents are a child’s first educator. In terms of working with children with disabilities, the parents often have to take on other roles such as that of therapist and diary keeper, as they are often involved in daily exercises and play activities which may enhance the skills of the child (Bridle and Mann, 2000). Wolfendale (2000) states the need for parents to be involved at every level of support for their child, suggesting that parents occupy a central place in service delivery. However, this can be a challenge if the parents are finding it hard to accept that their child has a difficulty of some kind. Even when there has been a diagnosis of a special need, some parents can find the identification very difficult to take in, and it can be months and sometimes years before they accept their child’s needs.



Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years

Models of disability Models of disability are ways of thinking about how the child or adult with a disability is seen in society. The oldest model of disability is the medical model. This focuses on the need to ‘label’ the disability and to try to treat it. This model is very much a deficit model, which means that there is more of a focus on what the child or adult cannot do rather than what they can. It locates the disability in some form of problem for the individual. The term ‘Down’s syndrome child’ is very much a sign of this model, whereby the disability is stated as the first and most significant aspect of the child. A better way of describing this would be ‘a child with Down’s syndrome’, which acknowledges the child first and then the disability. Another feature of the medical model is the assumption that children with disabilities should be taught in special schools, and that there are significant limits to what they can achieve. This model prevailed for a long time and meant that, prior to the 1970s, many children with disabilities received little educational support and were not expected to participate fully in society. The second model of disability is the social model, which is concerned with how society ‘disables’ the adult or child through inaccessible buildings, bureaucracies and education systems, stereotyping the needs of the person with the disability, or by assuming that the carer of the person will speak for them. This model locates the problem in societies response to disabled people, and suggests that it is an inflexible and prejudiced society that creates a disabling environment for some of its members. This is a more positive model because it does suggest that a child with disabilities should attend a mainstream setting that has adapted its facilities to the needs of the child. It also focuses more on the skills that the child has and the need for social change to better meet the needs of the child. The third model is the affirmative model, which suggests that a disability is part of the fundamental identity of the person. This model suggests that a person with disabilities is completely responsible for their own life and needs, and has a voice to be able to make decisions relating to their own lives.

The role of the practitioner in supporting children with special educational needs When working with all children, it is important to focus on the holistic needs of the child. This means that practitioners have a requirement to view all aspects of the child’s life as being significant and having influence on the way the child grows and develops. So the practitioner needs to be aware of the

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Good Practice in the Early Years child’s family and social environment and other relevant factors, as well as any disability. The emergence of SureStart programmes in 2001 sought to support children with disabilities in order that they may have greater access to mainstream early years provision. In the early days of SureStart, children received much greater access to speech therapy and other services such as Portage, in which professionals work in the home with very young children with disabilities, seeking to further the child’s development through playbased activities. However, funding for some of these services has decreased over the years, although working with children with special needs is still one of SureStart’s key activities. So how can early years settings ensure that they meet the needs of all children? All children need to have access to practitioners who have a clear knowledge of child development. This knowledge will enable the practitioner to observe the child’s developmental progress in all areas and, in partnership with parents and other professionals, to set new targets for the child’s IEP in order to extend learning and development. Some of the strategies highlighted in the previous section of this chapter, such as Makaton signs and symbols, are paramount to ensuring inclusion. Some parents may be concerned that, if their child is learning to sign, then they may not readily learn language, but it is emphasized that language must be used alongside the sign. This will ensure that the child receives a verbal clue to the word. Practitioners should be careful when working with children with a hearing impairment, as Makaton is not a visual-only language similar to British Sign Language (BSL). Children born with a hearing impairment usually have support from the local authority, with a teacher who works specifically with them, so consult with the teacher first before making the assumption that Makaton would be useful. Obviously a child with severe physical impairments may struggle to make the signs, so again you would need to consider this first. Children with disabilities sometimes learn kinaesthetically (with all of their senses) and so relate better to sensory activities. Rather than giving the child a brush to paint with, let them explore the paint with their fingers. The use of cornflour, sand, water and bubbles is often a more engaging way into their learning. Games and activities that focus around a particular TV programme that the child may enjoy are sometimes a way into their learning. Lotto games, in which the child matches two characters from ‘In the night garden’, may be far more relevant to the child than random pictures which may have no interest to the child.



Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years

If the child has difficulty with speech it is good to encourage turn taking activities where the child can start to understand that communication is reciprocal e.g. rolling a ball to the child and calling their name when you roll it will be an enjoyable activity. Music is an activity which many children enjoy so at circle time produce a singing box where toys which relate to a song can be chosen by all children to indicate which song they would like to choose. As the child begins to learn what the toys represent you could then add photographs of the toy and when they recognize these, Makaton signs can be introduced. All of this will help to differentiate the learning for children with each stage encouraging new skills. If a child is not keen to look at books, you could try making a book using photographs that are familiar to the children, so one about their family or, again, featuring TV characters which they relate to, can help them to engage with books in a more specific and related way. The EYFS states the need for activities to be child-initiated (chosen by the child alone), and this is absolutely vital for all children; however, sometimes children with a special need may have more difficulty choosing their activities. In this circumstance, a visual timetable may be introduced whereby practitioners suggest which activities the child may like to use during the session through pictures or symbols attached to a piece of Velcro. The child then removes the item from the Velcro when they have carried out the activity. This approach was used to good effect with a child who loved bubbles. At the painting area, the child would paint bubbles, and draw them in the markmaking area. Any book which had circles or bubbles in it was favoured, but encouragement to participate in other activities produced tears and tantrums. The timetable ensured that the bubble activities were interspersed with other activities to give the child access to a wider variety of learning.

Dealing with behavioural issues An area for concern for some practitioners when working with children is that they can sometimes display difficult or unacceptable behaviours. Children with disabilities and special educational needs may have more frustrations or difficulties to deal with, which may affect their behaviour. There can be many reasons for this. For example, the child may not be able to make their needs known through verbal communication and thus become frustrated and annoyed that no-one can understand. The child may have delays in social development and not know how to approach another child effectively, possibly resorting to inappropriate interaction. For example, one child would constantly tug at the author’s hair as a way of getting attention.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Children with cognitive delays may find engaging with the activities in the setting difficult and may distract or disrupt others as a result. Some children’s behaviour is a part of their disability. For example, a child with an autistic spectrum disorder would scream hysterically when put in a group to play or work. Part of her disability was an inability to manage group situations. Whilst difficult behaviours need to be addressed, it is important that this is done sensitively. It is more appropriate for all practitioners to praise the positive behaviour of children rather than to constantly focus on unwanted behaviour. It is important that the staff team discusses which behaviours are acceptable or not in the setting, so that the children get consistent messages about behaviour. The setting’s behaviour policy should acknowledge that negative behaviour is often a way of communicating, and should include strategies that will be used with all children to ensure that children who are non-verbal can still make their needs known. In some cases, such as the child with autism, it is important to understand the child’s needs and ensure that they are not placed in situations they cannot manage. Some of the strategies already suggested will help with this. It is vital that there is consistency in the way that staff relate to behaviour, as some children may test practitioners’ limits time and time again.

Reflection point • What is your own personal experience of children or adults with special needs, and how has this shaped your views? • How well do you feel that the setting in which you are includes children with special needs? • How are children with SEN included in all of the activities in the setting? If they were not able to join in with some of the activities how was this dealt with? • Who does the planning in your setting for children with SEN, and how are all staff involved with this? • What strategies are used to integrate children with special needs socially?

Case study: Meeting every child’s needs A child in your setting who has a speech and language difficulty really struggles at story time, because she has a tendency to fidget on the carpet and to disrupt the other children who are trying to listen to the story. The staff team have decided that, rather than expecting the child to listen to



Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years

a long story, they should take a small group of children who also struggle to make a smaller group, and listen to another story in another area of the setting. • How could the staff ensure that those children who seem to prefer picture books with less writing could be encouraged to engage in story time more fully? • What kinds of books may be more appropriate to these children’s needs?

Gender issues in early years settings Issues of gender are significant in the early years in terms of identity formation and equality. Since educational practices changed a few decades ago to reduce inequalities for girls, the challenge that has emerged is to ensure that boys achieve at the same level. Recent research carried out by Ofsted (2007) suggested that ‘staff in settings should help boys to achieve more rapidly by providing opportunities for learning that engage them’ (2007: 2). The report goes on to suggest that boys’ natural excitement and zest for life and their keen exploratory drive can be misinterpreted by some as being ‘naughty behaviour’. This may result in boys being described as having challenging behaviour, or their behaviour described as inappropriate. If a young boy grows up subject to these views they may be internalized by the child and gradually become part of his identity.

Case study: Gender, play and media influences When discussing with a student group recently the needs of a particular group of boys who liked to mimic ‘Ben 10’ (a TV series that the student felt was ‘too old for these young children to be watching’), she described how the children enjoyed making guns and weapons out of Lego and other linking materials. However, these materials would be then used in a negative way that upset some of the other children. After some discussion with her colleagues about this issue, it was decided that a ‘Ben 10’ den would be constructed in the setting for children to take the guns into and play in there. This was done, and the play of the children changed – they still focused on ‘Ben 10’ and still made the weapons, but rather than them being used for ‘play-fighting’, the game in the den changed to one focused more around ‘superhero play’ in which children take on the roles of superheroes depicted on TV and play within these roles. This demonstrates an issue for all early years workers – that children’s definition of gender is partly constructed from what they see in the world around them and through TV and books, as suggested earlier.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Discussions around whether gender is nature (part of the child’s DNA) or nurture (something that is formed as a result of how society has constructed views around gender) have been ongoing for many years. Social stereotypes of gender differences tend to suggest that boys are ‘big and strong’ and thus interested in building and constructing. Alternatively, girls may be viewed as being caring, passive and calm, and interested in activities that may relate to the home and caring for other people. Activities set out in early years settings may confirm this view, as girls often dominate the home corner while areas of brick play are dominated by boys. Gender becomes an issue before a child is even born, with gendered clothing available for newborns and parents being able to choose to know their child’s gender before birth. Recently it was reported that, in Sweden, a family made a decision when their baby was born to keep the child’s gender a secret. The family, who named their child Pop, felt that whilst the child was unaware of its gender it would not take on gender views confirmed or denied by society. However, a Canadian newspaper quoted the psychologist Susan Pinker as disagreeing with this approach. She stressed that “Child-rearing should not be about providing an opportunity to prove an ideological point, but about responding to each child’s needs as an individual” (Parafianowicz, 2009). Whilst discussing this issue with students, they felt that gender is an integral part of a child’s identity, so to deny it was wrong and even possibly abusive. However, whilst the part that gender plays in a child’s identity is acknowledged, gender inequalities are often rooted in early socialization about gender expectations. As children grow and become involved in play, issues around gender continue to permeate a child’s life. As we read earlier in the chapter, if gender stereotypes are confirmed by family and society, the child is more likely to take them on board. Concerns about gender identity are not in themselves equal. Best (1983) suggests that there are much wider options for girls in terms of their play, and that no one would criticise a girl for dressing up in a ‘Bob the Builder outfit’, whereas a boy dressing up as a princess on a regular basis may be laughed at by his friends and discouraged by family members. Despite policies such as those in the Equality Act (2010), which seek to ensure that boys and girls, men and women are treated equitably, boys and girls still have to deal with gender stereotypes in all areas of life. The stereotypes that pervade our society are heavily based on what are seen as ‘typical male and female roles’. If children’s play is limited to these gender-specific roles, existing stereotypes will be confirmed, and this in turn may suggest



Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years

to children that certain areas of ‘expertise, experience and behaviour are out of bounds to them’ (Kay, 2004: 65). The influences that support stereotypes can be subtle and may be based on adult approval for gender-stereotyped behaviour from boys and girls.

The role of practitioners in promoting gender equalities Practitioners need to reflect on gender issues and discuss these with colleagues, in order to review their own values and views relating to this subject. The fact that the majority of childcare workers in early years practice are women does not help to dispel the image that female is the nurturing and caring gender. In order to challenge gender stereotypes, it is necessary to review the ways that resources and equipment are presented to young children, to ensure that all children are able to play with all activities. For instance, the home corner could be changed to various other uses such as a fire station, travel agency, hospital or a shop, or any other scenario that follows children’s interests. Mark-making activities which are sometimes under-used by boys can become an integral part of these areas. Dressing-up clothes can also be part of these areas. The construction area could focus around building a house and girls could be involved with the design, building and furnishing. It is also important to give some thought as to how the outside area is set up. Boys may like to run around with a ball and engage in more physical play. However, activities such as painting and mark-making can be taken outside and used on a bigger scale which may encourage the children to engage in these activities more than if they are laid out on small tables inside the setting. The author took part in a weaving activity on one of the fences surrounding a nursery, and all the children loved weaving large strips of material through the fence posts and were elated by the end product. Sometimes it just needs a small change in an activity to make it more accessible for all children. There has been a tendency in recent years to replicate the inside area of early years settings in the outside space. However, as the outdoor environment is normally larger than inside, very active children may need the sense of space and the opportunity to run around and explore the outside world. To fill it with similar activities to those provided inside may discourage the children from using the outside space differently As in the other areas discussed in this chapter, working with parents is vitally important. It has been suggested that parents can have a major influence on how children view gender stereotypes (Kay, 2004). Fathers can

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Good Practice in the Early Years often have a more rigid view on the appropriateness of their child’s behaviour. This was apparent when a father approached me and asked me not to ‘let his child continually dress up in the girl’s dresses when he came into preschool every morning’. This boy had a girl friend who attended the setting, and she liked to dress up in pretty clothes; and so therefore did the boy. I explained to the father that, although the child did dress up, this was as part of engaging with a wide range of activities. Some ideas which may better promote non-gender-stereotypical play are as follows. • Make home corner areas into less gender-stereotypical areas. • Ensure that there are other areas in the setting for role-play. • Ensure that all areas are suitable for both genders in terms of materials and resources. • Involve the children in making changes to the environment, both indoors and outdoors, and follow their interests in doing this. • Challenge stereotypical remarks that may be made by children or adults. • Discuss in the staff team how stereotypes can be challenged in a positive manner. • Ensure that the setting has many images of both women and men doing different types of work, including childcare and nurturing roles. • Check that materials and resources do not promote gender stereotypes – e.g. books should refer to firefighters and not firemen.

It is also important that, in our discussions with young children, we do not exacerbate gender stereotypes. For example, don’t say to a child ‘be a big boy’, as this could be construed as saying ‘don’t show emotion’, when in fact it is important that all children show their emotions and are supported by adults who will show them affection. The term ‘be a good girl’ may suggest that you want the child to do as they are told, when in fact we want to encourage children to think and make decisions for themselves. Children will absorb gender stereotypes from the environments they are in, including home and the wider world. However, many children now live in homes where there are fewer gender stereotypes, and it is important to make sure that all children feel that their home environment is valued. Challenging stereotypes should not confuse children or make them feel that some lifestyles are wrong. However, children should be helped to understand that their interests and future lives do not have to be restricted by gender stereotypes or outdated social restrictions.



Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years

Reflection point Language is an import tool that can be used for conveying subtle meanings to young children. The language we choose to use can ensure either that gender stereotypes are reinforced or that they are denied. If we always refer to a child’s carer as ‘Mum’, we are reinforcing the view that it is only females who care for children. Sometimes it is hard to unpick some of the assumptions made about gender through language, so it is vital that young children do not grow up believing that all nurses are women or that all firefighters and postal workers are men. This is not an easy task when we see Fireman Sam and Postman Pat in the media. Early years workers need to be constantly questioning these gender stereotypes through their own use of language with young children and the use of gender-neutral materials. • Look around to see how well your setting provides a positive view of gender. How does the staff team ensure that all children receive positive images of both genders? • How do staff ensure that gender stereotypes are challenged in the setting? Try and have a sensitive discussion with your colleagues about the need to avoid gender stereotypes with young children.

Conclusion Much of inclusion is making sure that all children’s identities and rights are supported equally. Ensuring inclusion involves practitioners helping children to have a voice through words, signs, symbols, photographs and drawings to meet the needs of the individual child. Nutbrown (2006) points out that in order for a child to feel a member of their own community they must be acknowledged as citizens both at home and in the early years setting. The more that can be done in the early years to support all children, the more this will be reflected in the wider society, as these children grow and seek to continue exerting their rights. At the start of this chapter, discrimination was discussed in relation to working with very young children and their families, especially relating it to certain groups of society. We then considered the needs of children who may be growing up in a different culture from their own and thought about culture as being an evolving continuum which never remains static. The chapter then discussed how early years settings should be inclusive of children with disabilities, focusing particularly on the need to work closely with parents and with all professionals in a multi-agency team. Finally the chapter looked

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Good Practice in the Early Years at some of the issues relating to gender stereotypes and how these should be challenged with young children to enable them to grow up with a balanced view of gender.

References Ang, L. (2010), ‘Critical perspectives on cultural diversity in early childhood: building an inclusive curriculum and provision’, Early Years, an International Journal of Research and Development, 30(1), 41–52. Baldock, P. (2010), Understanding Cultural Diversity in the Early Years, London: Sage. Best, R. (1983), We’ve All Got Scars; What Girls And Boys Learn In Elementary Schools, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Booth, T. and Ainscow, M. (2004), Index for Inclusion – Developing Learning, Participation and Play in Early Years and Childcare, Bristol: CSIE. Bridle, L. and Mann, G. (2000), Mixed Feelings: A Parental Perspective on Early Intervention, National Conference of Early Childhood Intervention, Australia. Brooker, L. (2002), Starting School – Young Children Learning Cultures, Buckingham: Open University Press. Craig, G. (2008), ‘“The elephant on the sofa”: Sure Start and black and minority ethnic populations’, in A. Anning and M. Ball, Improving Services for Young Children – From Sure Start to Children’s Centres, London: Sage. DCSF (2008), The Early Years Foundation Stage, London: DCSF. DFES (2001), Special Educational Needs Code of Practice, Nottingham: DFES Publications. Fearon, J. (1999), What is identity? Stanford: Stanford University. Hoot, J. L., Szecsi, T. and Moosa, S. (2003), ‘What teachers of young children should know about Islam’, Early Childhood Education Journal, 31(2), 85–9. Judd, T. (2009), ‘Disabled presenter ”scares” children’, The Independent, 24 February 2009. Available online at

http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/disabled-presenter-8216scares-

children8217-1630325.html (accessed 11 October 2011). Kay, J. (2004), Good Practice in the Early Years (2nd edn), London: Continuum. Macrory, G. (2006), ‘Bilingual language development: what do early years practitioners need to know?’, Early Years, an International Journal of Research and Development, 27(2), 159–69. Myers, B. K. (1997), Young Children and Spirituality, New York: Routledge. Nutbrown, C. and Clough, P. (2006), Inclusion in the Early Years, London: Sage. Paley, V. G. (1984), Boys and Girls: Superheroes in the Doll Corner, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Parafianowicz, L. (2009), ‘Swedish parents keep 2-year-old’s gender secret’. Available online at http:// www.thelocal.se/20232/20090623 (accessed 11 October 2011). Primary National Strategy (2007), ‘Confident, capable and creative: supporting boys’ achievements – guidance for practitioners in the Early Years Foundation Stage’, London: DCSF. Robinson, K. H. and Diaz, C. J. (2006), Diversity and Difference in Early Childhood Education – Issues for Theory and Practice, Maidenhead: Open University Press.



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Smidt, S. (2006), The Developing Child in the 21st Century – A Global Perspective on Child Development, London: Routledge. Vianna, E. and Stetsenko, A. (2006), ‘Embracing history through transforming it: contrasting Piagetian versus Vygotskyan (activity) theories of learning and development to expand constructivism within a dialectical view of history’, Theory and Psychology, 16(1), 81–108. Wolfendale, S. ed. ( 2000), Meeting Special Needs in the Early Years, London: David Fulton.

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5 Growing and Developing Karen Hardy

Chapter Outline Introduction 116 The importance of first-hand experiences 118 Developing personally, socially and emotionally 119 Developing language and communication skills 126 Developing physically 131 Developing cognitively 133 Planning experiences within a child’s Zone of Proximal Development 138 Engaging in sustained shared thinking 139 The role of ‘loose parts’ in enabling creative and imaginative development 141 Allowing sufficient time 141 Addressing factors that may be affecting children’s capacity to grow and develop 145 Conclusion 147

Introduction Babies and children grow and develop in amazing ways. Each child makes progress through a unique learning journey in response to their experiences in their world, interacting with the environment and the people in it. A key part of an early years practitioner’s role is supporting young children along their journeys. This involves providing a nurturing environment in which children feel safe and secure and can form positive relationships with adults and children. Children need to feel a sense of belonging in order to develop self-esteem and the confidence to explore new ideas, as well as the physical environment in which they learn and master skills through playful experiences. In order to provide an environment in which children can thrive, it is essential to take a holistic view of how children grow and develop. This means



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taking account of the range of influences that affect a child’s ability to grow and develop and achieve their full potential. It also involves understanding and respecting the diverse ways in which children do this. Although most children progress through broad developmental stages, often these stages overlap and do not always occur in sequence. The home, nursery and community environment all impact on children’s development. Some children experience delay in aspects of their development. For others, cognitive or physical impairments affect their growth and development. However, it is essential to understand that all children are growing and developing their minds and bodies in their own unique ways. Early years practitioners must recognize the ways in which they can support the development of all children and be responsive to each child’s individual needs. This chapter focuses on personal, social and emotional development, developing language and communication skills, cognitive development and physical development, as these are key elements of growing and developing. While these are discussed in separate sections, all aspects of children’s growth and development are interlinked. For example, cognitive development is needed in order to understand feelings, to develop speaking skills, control muscles and coordination and indeed to keep the body functioning. Social and communication skills go hand in hand, as both are needed for social interaction. The development of physical skills may have an impact on how a child joins in with chasing games with friends. A child’s level of cognitive development may affect the way in which he or she participates in collaborative pretend play with others. Those who work with young children must take account of ways in which different aspects of development interact and impact on each other. In this way, a holistic view of the child can be taken, and support in the form of caring, respectful relationships and stimulating environments will promote each area of learning and development. This chapter covers the following: • The importance of first-hand experiences • Developing personally, socially and emotionally • Developing language and communication skills • Developing physically • Developing cognitively • Planning experiences within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) • Sustained shared thinking • Enabling creative and imaginative development • Allowing sufficient time • Addressing factors that affect growth and development.

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The importance of first-hand experiences It is essential for early years practitioners to provide a range of first-hand learning experiences that enable children to make sense of the world, rather than just showing or telling them about the way things work. Children are naturally inquisitive and will want to investigate things for themselves. They need to experience the satisfaction of finding solutions to problems. Children need to explore in their own way if they are to develop a real understanding of the world. As Elinor Goldshmied explains: We can never truly know what it is to bite into a ripe juicy peach until we have actually taken a bite for ourselves. Similarly what do the concepts cool and smooth, prickly and rough actually mean unless we have caressed a pebble, picked up a pine cone or fingered the bark of a gnarled tree? (Quoted in Hughes, 2006: 3)

Children need to feel, see, hear, smell, taste and manipulate things in order to really understand the characteristics of things in their lives. They must have opportunities to develop independence rather than relying on adults to do things for them, as this will nurture their enthusiasm for discovery and enable them to develop the confidence to try things out and think creatively. This highlights the need for practitioners to think carefully about how developmentally appropriate the experiences and resources provided are, by taking account of each child’s age, size, experience of using resources, their stage of development and their understanding and ability to manage any risks posed by activities. It would be unrealistic as well as irresponsible to expect a four-year-old who had never used a sharp knife to use one to chop an apple without support from an adult. However, a three-year-old with good fine motor control who is used to doing this at home may have developed the ability to do this safely and independently. Children need opportunities to practise these skills in order to develop them. Simply watching an adult will not enable them to develop their competence.



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Developing personally, socially and emotionally Aspects of personal, social and emotional development are closely linked together. Appreciation of others’ views and feelings often enables us to get along with them and learn from each other. Before we can understand how others feel, we need to understand our own feelings. Children need to develop a sense of identity and have good self-esteem in order to grow and develop healthily. Woodhead (2008) explains that a child’s identity includes both who they are as an individual person and who they are as a shared social person.

A positive sense of self Children begin to develop a sense of self through the responses of the people in their lives. Babies gain information from those closest to them, often their mother, who may mirror their facial expressions and the sounds they make. Toddlers can often recognize themselves in a mirror and might be able to point out their nose, eyes, mouth and so on. We can help children to recognize that they are different to others by pointing to our own nose, eyes, etc. How adults respond to their actions in either a positive or negative way provides the child with evaluative information before they develop the ability to judge their feelings, behaviour and achievements for themselves. The way that we respond to children has a great impact on their self-esteem. Levels of self-esteem vary in different situations. A child who knows from their family’s responses that they are valued is likely to have high self-esteem at home, whereas if they feel unsure of themselves in nursery or hear negative comments about themselves, they may have lower self-esteem, and vice versa. We can support children to develop a positive sense of self by offering positive feedback. If we offer specific feedback rather than simply praise, this will help the child to develop their ability to self-evaluate and judge the worth of their own achievements. You might, for example, say ‘I like the way you looked for a larger block to put at the bottom of your tower so that it wouldn’t keep falling down. I can see you really thought carefully about how to solve the problem’, rather than just ‘good girl’ or ‘well done’. The child will then be able to reflect on why her action was successful and see herself as a thinker and a problem solver, which will contribute to her developing a positive self-image. She is also more likely to remember how she solved the problem so that she can draw on this in a similar situation.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Practitioners can also use specific feedback to help children to learn about their emotions. You might say, ‘You enjoyed making the play-dough, didn’t you? It made you feel happy.’ This will also enable children to match their emotions with language and begin to express their feelings to others.

Developing independence Offering specific praise when appropriate supports children to develop a sense of pride in their achievements. The right encouragement from adults will support children to persist in developing skills that may at first be challenging. It is important to encourage children to ‘have a go’ themselves, rather than doing too much for them, otherwise they will learn to be overreliant on adults for help rather than developing self-help skills. This may include encouraging children to blow their own noses when they have a cold, or pulling up their own pants after going to the toilet. Children should be encouraged to take care of their own personal hygiene as part of their personal development, although, clearly, practitioners must be aware of what children still need support with in order to ensure that they are healthy. In order for children to develop independence, the resources they need must be accessible. Sinks and soap at an appropriate height will enable children to wash their hands, their own paint pots and so on. Children will be able to gain control over their development if they can make choices about what to play with and how to behave in different situations. When practitioners talk to children about the choices they have made, this supports them to evaluate for themselves whether they are the best choices, and think about the alternatives available. In terms of choosing appropriate resources, these must be within children’s reach, and they need to know where they are. Clear plastic drawers or labels with pictures, visual or tactile symbols and words help children to locate items that they need to use.

Reflection point • In your placement or workplace, how are resources organized so that children can access them independently? • Do children ask for things that they should be able to reach for themselves? If so, why is this? What might you do to help them to develop their independence?



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The role of the key person An important approach to supporting young children’s emotional development is providing a ‘key person’ in nursery for each child. This is set out as a statutory requirement in the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) document (DCSF, 2008) for children up to age five. The Practice Guidance explains: A key person has special responsibilities for working with a small number of children, giving them reassurance to feel safe and cared for and building relationships with their parents. (DCSF, 2008: Principles into Practice card 2.4)

Although each practitioner in a setting is responsible for the children who attend, having a key person designated to support a child’s emotional development means that one special person can really get to know the child’s preferences, dislikes, needs, their family and anything significant that may be happening to them in their life that they need support with. A key person will normally support a child to settle during their transition to nursery or a different room, for example when moving from a baby room to the toddler room. Having a key person who a child can trust will enable the child to feel secure and safe to explore. From a secure base, a child can develop the confidence to try new things, learn to be strong and develop independence and resilience to set-backs, as they know that someone who cares for them will be there to help them when needed. It is essential for children to feel a sense of belonging and security in a setting for them to have emotional wellbeing and in order to grow and develop.

The importance of secure attachments In the 1950s, John Bowlby researched the need for babies to have a key figure in their lives to whom they felt emotionally attached. This person is known as a ‘primary carer’ and is often the baby’s mother, although it can be the father or another family member or caregiver. A baby can form secondary attachments, for example to a key person, if their first attachment is secure. Bowlby’s son, Richard, continued his work into the effects of secure attachments. He asserts that structures in babies’ brains are shaped by emotional experiences, such as those generated within attachment relationships (Bowlby, 2007). This has particular significance for babies and young children who feel anxious, for example, if they are starting a new setting with unfamiliar people and surroundings, perhaps leaving a parent for the first time. Children of all

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Good Practice in the Early Years ages are able to manage moderate levels of stress, but the danger is when these levels become too high. Stress leads to the production of the hormone cortisol (sometimes known as the ‘fight or flight’ feeling when we experience fear). There are serious concerns about babies and toddlers whose cortisol levels are raised for long periods of time, as their brains may adapt to continuous high levels, which affects their ability to control their emotions and their behaviour. It is therefore important for practitioners to ensure that clear strategies are in place to support children during times when they may feel anxious, in order to promote healthy emotional development as well as being pertinent to brain development.

Developing a feeling of security in unfamiliar surroundings Discussion with parents is an important part of settling children into a new setting. Parents can share information on how the child likes to be comforted, what makes them happy, things that are likely to upset them and issues that might have an impact on their wellbeing or behaviour. Information about what the child enjoys at home and their daily routine of eating, sleeping and so on is important so that the key person and other practitioners can understand and support the child’s needs. There may be cultural issues that practitioners need to be aware of to support the child in an unfamiliar environment. The language spoken at home may not be English, which may add to the unfamiliarity of the setting. It is often useful to play recordings of the home language in the setting, particularly recorded by the family, so that the child can recognize the sounds and feel comforted. Providing food that the child is used to eating as part of everyday snack and meal menus will make the setting seem less strange and will also demonstrate appreciation and respect for different cultures. This also affords the opportunity for all children in the setting to learn about and celebrate diversity, which is an important aspect of social development.

A positive view of difference A key element in a child’s sense of identity is their family. This includes the family’s heritage as well as the members who make up the family, for example, if a child has one parent or same-sex parents. Anti-discriminatory practice within the setting can help to ensure that all families are valued, irrespective of the backgrounds of the children who actually attend the setting. This is discussed further in Chapter 4. Particular care must also be taken to ensure



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that children who are disabled develop a positive sense of self, and they are valued for who they are and what they can do rather than the focus being on limitations.

Case study: Developing a positive self-image Tyler is five years old. Attached to his reception class is a garden area that he loves to run around in with his classmates. He has two legs that end at the knee, which means that he moves around in a different way to his friends, as they bend their knees when they run. He has adapted the way he moves his legs and can join in easily with chasing around. His friends can run faster than Tyler, but he has developed stronger arms than they have as he uses his arms more than they do to climb trees and climbing frames, so he can climb very fast. When he first started in this class, practitioners were very cautious about what they would allow Tyler to do outside, as they were worried about him getting hurt. They wanted to discourage him from too much physical play, as they didn’t want him to feel different as he doesn’t run in the same way as the other children. However, Tyler’s mum and Connor, his key person from the nursery he had moved from, talked to the staff about the need for him to engage in physical play, because he enjoyed it so much and it enabled him to continue to strengthen his bones and muscles. Tyler’s mum and Connor assured the staff that physical play was a key part of Tyler’s life at home and nursery, and he was able to decide what he could do safely and enjoyed challenging himself. Tyler was able to show the staff just what he was capable of and they realized that they needed to appreciate and respect Tyler’s competence. • What factors are likely to have had an impact on Tyler’s development of a positive self-image? • How might Tyler’s sense of self have been affected if the staff in the reception class had restricted his activities outside? What impact do you think this might have on other children’s attitudes?

Children’s attitudes towards difference, whether positive or negative, are learned from examples that they witness in adults or other children. Positive images of disability, different family structures and cultures should be a key part of the setting environment. This includes resources that reflect diversity, including books, dolls, posters and artefacts. Such items will enable children to learn about themselves as well as others and develop an awareness of others’ viewpoints.

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Developing socially Even very young children take an interest in what others do. When children observe interactions between family members and people at nursery, school and in the wider community, they learn about being social and how people communicate with one another. Encouraging children to become involved in these interactions is highly supportive of their social development. Babies generally learn to take turns in a conversation when adults imitate their babbling and pause for their response. Babies and toddlers may begin to play alongside each other and may respond to each other’s reactions. They can often begin to recognize when someone is upset when they cry or by reading facial expressions, and often respond by offering comfort. As children develop, they begin to understand when they need to take turns and listen to others in a small group. Most children develop the ability to play cooperatively and then collaborate on projects with other children. Practitioners can support children to develop social skills and make friends by providing opportunities for them to sit and chat together in comfortable, ‘intimate’ spaces and by thinking about how activities are set up so that several children can take part and interact with one another. Practitioners might demonstrate their own interest in what each child is doing, encouraging children to take an interest in each other and modelling the language needed to engage with one another.

Developing positive behaviour Practitioners need to set good examples for children to learn from, taking care to use good manners and demonstrate respect by listening carefully to each other as well as to the children. They also need to be realistic about the behaviour that they expect from children and be mindful of their stage of development as well as physical, cultural and environmental factors that have an impact on behaviour.

Reflection point Think of a time when your behaviour towards someone else was negative and you wish you had acted differently. • What factors influenced your decisions and actions? • What emotions did you experience that led you to behave in this way?



Growing and Developing

Negative behaviour is often caused when children: • are frustrated • are hungry • are tired • are stressed • are bored • feel unwell • have been set too difficult a challenge • are unsure of what is expected of them • feel a sense of injustice • have low self-esteem • have negative role models.

The way in which the environment is planned and organized needs careful consideration if it is to support children to behave positively and have positive experiences in the setting. A stimulating environment will enable children to become engaged in their experiences and be motivated to learn and develop. Children also need sufficient rest throughout the day, so quiet spaces and activities should be available as part of the everyday routine in response to their physical needs. Children need regular opportunities to eat healthy snacks to feed their growing bodies and minds, and fatigue through lack of energy will influence their emotional wellbeing.

Supportive strategies It is essential for practitioners to understand the underlying cause of unwanted behaviour in order to support children’s personal, social and emotional needs. If behaviour needs to be challenged, it is important to consider the child’s understanding and communication level when firmly explaining why the behaviour is wrong – for example, that someone was hurt or why the action is unfair. This enables the child to develop skills in self-regulating their behaviour rather than behaving in a certain way just because the adult wants them to. Make it clear that it is the behaviour and not the child that is disapproved of. A hurt or wronged child must be supported before supporting the child whose behaviour needs to be addressed. It is also important to show empathy for the child’s feelings and acknowledge that it may be difficult for them to control their emotions. Try to put the feelings into words, as this helps if the child does not yet have the language to do this for him or herself. Frustration or anger may have been caused by being unable to express their needs. Provide an alternative for the behaviour by saying what you want the child to do rather than want you do not want, as

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Good Practice in the Early Years this will help them to make decisions in the future. If possible, ask the child to put things right – for example by helping to mend a toy that they broke or getting a tissue for the child who is crying after being bitten. Depending on the child’s age or level of understanding, distraction may be the best option, but with some toddlers and young children it is useful to involve them in solving the problem. For example, practitioners could help them to think of ways to make more space so that more children can play in the sand without getting squashed if this was the cause of the behaviour in question. Model the language needed to ask for more space or to borrow a toy without snatching. This will enable them to develop skills in negotiating with each other and enable them to manage their own behaviour and strengthen their social skills.

Developing language and communication skills Verbal speech Children need to hear and understand words before they can use them in speech. Most children comprehend more language than they can use to express their thoughts and ideas. Harris (2004) explains that children typically go through stages when learning their first words. These stages are: • identifying a word from a sentence • remembering what it sounds like in order to recognize it again • linking the word with an object or action • repeating the sound of the word • saying the word in the relevant context.

It is important for children to experience language-rich environments. In order for children to identify words and link them to everyday events or objects, adults need to talk to children about what they are doing, naming objects, actions and feelings. When children begin to talk, they need a responsive, listening ear to encourage them to continue. It helps to repeat what they have said in order to reinforce the language and provide constructive feedback. If they mispronounce a word or choose the wrong ending to a verb, rather than pointing out the error – which would be very discouraging – it is useful to repeat back to them how the word or sentence should be spoken as an acknowledgement and to clarify their meaning.



Growing and Developing Examples of resources that encourage children to talk during play include:

• phones • microphones • a stage or theatre area • puppets • a big cardboard box made into a TV that children can sit inside and ‘report the news’ • video or audio recording equipment that the children can control – for example, to make a documentary about the setting.

Non-verbal language Children with impairments relating to language, those with learning difficulties and those experiencing developmental delay will require specific support. Gestures, facial expressions and pictures help children to understand language. Whilst this is often particularly helpful for children with additional needs, all children will benefit from strategies that aid understanding of language. All children can develop skills in communication. Children who are deaf often learn the language of signing, for example British Sign Language (BSL). Children with learning difficulties might learn Makaton, which involves signing key words to convey meaning, rather than whole sentences. If other children in the nursery are also taught sign language they will be able to communicate with children who use this as their first language. This has an impact on personal and social development and promotes an inclusive environment in which all children can participate. Children with severe impairments that affect their speech can also develop other methods of communication.

Case study: Listening to non-verbal children Felix is seven years old. He loves his dad’s home-made cooking, so he brings some to school every day in containers. He prefers soft cooked food to sandwiches as he finds it much easier to chew and his muscle control and movement is impaired. Samia, the teaching assistant in Felix’s class, helps him to eat the food he brings from home. Today he has brought fish pie and carrots for lunch. He decides the order in which he will eat the different food, just like other children, even though Samia puts the food in his mouth. Felix finds it difficult to coordinate his muscles to point with his finger at which food he would like to take a mouthful of, so Samia asks him verbally as well as holding out some carrots with a fork just to Felix’s right, then holding a spoon with

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Case study (Continued) pie to his left. She waits for Felix to think about what she is asking. Felix gradually moves his head to look at the carrots and then looks at Samia. Samia understands what he is telling her using his head movements and eye contact, so she responds with carrots. • Why it is important to enable Felix to communicate his decisions? • If Samia fed Felix without listening to his views, what impact might this have on his experiences of lunchtime? • How do you think Samia has developed her ability to communicate with Felix?

Children who do not use verbal language have the same right to be listened to as all other children. Being able to communicate has a great impact on social interaction with others, and is necessary to express feelings, preferences and ideas in order to develop personally and emotionally and gain independence and control. Some children with specific needs may need additional support and time to practise and use their communication skills. It is essential for practitioners to find out what works best for each child and how they prefer to communicate.

English as an additional language Children who are learning English as an additional language (EAL) may well develop an advanced understanding of language. Smidt (2008) suggests that this is because they are learning about language itself. Children with EAL should therefore not be considered to be at a disadvantage. They should be encouraged to use their home language as well as English. Their home language is part of their identity and must be valued. Children with EAL benefit from adults providing a commentary on their activities. There may be a longer delay in children using expressive speech in English, but often children soon catch up with those for whom English is their first language, and may overtake their development due to the enrichment of becoming fluent in more than one language.

Time to practise and play with words Children developing verbal language need opportunities to play with sounds and rhymes so that they can practise using them. This includes children who use signs or symbols to sing rhymes. In addition, they need to develop their memories so that they can remember words. They need opportunities to chatter as well as listening to each other. Young children sometimes need extra



Growing and Developing

time to speak. It may take a while to ‘get a sentence out’. Instead of finishing the sentence for the child, allow the child to gather their thoughts and frame what they want to say. Good listening involves eye contact and encouraging facial expressions so that the child knows that a genuine interest is being taken in what they have to say.

Rhymes, singing and stories Most children enjoy a good sing-along to their favourite nursery rhymes. This helps them to learn about words and ideas in a playful way, especially if they are encouraged to make up alternative verses. Popular rhymes can be recorded in a booklet and shared with parents so that they can join in the songs at home. Parents can often provide ideas for nursery rhymes and songs that they know, particularly those in their home language. These can be introduced into the nursery in order to enrich the experience of all the children in the setting. Reading stories with children from an early age promotes a love of books that supports later reading skills. Following the words with your finger as you say them enables children to understand that the print has meaning so that they can begin to link letters to the sound of words. Encourage children to hold the book and to turn the page when it is time, as this gives them ownership of the reading time with you and they can take a more active role until they are ready to read for themselves. Also, encourage them to talk about the pictures and how they link to the story. Babies should also experience using books. They should handle books and, with the support of an adult, become used to turning pages. You can encourage babies and toddlers to join in the story – for example, by asking them to make relevant animal noises when reading a book about a farm. Stories need not always be told from a book. Children benefit from hearing stories without pages, as this helps them to think abstractly. Children can be encouraged to talk by making up their own stories, perhaps taking inspiration from a prop box with dolls, natural materials, fabrics and artefacts from home.

Developing listening skills It is also important to encourage children to develop listening skills. This includes listening to each other as well as developing the ability to tune into sounds and distinguish between them. This develops their ability to differentiate between different spoken sounds. Many children enjoy being encouraged to listen for different sounds outside, somewhere quiet. Practitioners can

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Good Practice in the Early Years encourage children to listen for different bird sounds, the swishing of trees, a distant car or aeroplane, a dog barking and so on. A useful game that children can play in a group is to listen carefully to a small range of percussion instruments. An adult or child leading the game then hides them behind a screen and chooses one to play without the children seeing which one it is. They then have to guess the instrument after listening to it. This game is also useful in supporting children to develop their memory, which is essential for remembering the words they hear, this being one of the stages that Harris (2004) describes.

Reflection point What games and other experiences can you think of that will support children to develop listening and memory skills?

Mark-making Children communicate in many different ways that are non-verbal. One such way is through pictures. Drawing and painting can be a powerful way for children to express themselves. Young children should be encouraged to do this in their own way, rather than being instructed to draw something specific. Representing their feelings and ideas through drawing strengthens their understanding of literacy and later writing skills. Anning (2003) researched young children’s representations through drawings and found that, when practitioners gave instructions on what to draw, this dampened children’s enthusiasm for drawing. What a waste it would be if a child chose not to access painting and drawing activities because they wanted to make their own picture rather than one that the adult wanted! Children should be encouraged to engage in mark-making from being very young. Babies are often fascinated by the marks they make in food they have spilled on their high-chair tray. Practitioners should make provision for all children to explore how they can make marks with fingers, hands, feet and so on, as well as various tools, such as combs, brushes, stamps and cutlery. They benefit from using a wide range of different media, such as mud, flour-andwater gloop, paint, sand and sugar. They can experiment with chalks, crayons, pens, food colouring, piping bags filled with icing or paint. As children begin to engage in pretend play, mark-making materials can be added to the home corner and role-play areas, such as notepads for shopping lists, invoices for garages, letters and envelopes in a post office. Children need to make marks that have meaning to themselves and that they can relate to everyday life.



Growing and Developing

Developing physically Young children need to explore the environment physically, discovering what they can do with their bodies and how they fit into the world. Movement is important for healthy bodies as well as minds. Physical exercise makes the brain feel energized and ready to learn. It forces the lungs to take in more oxygen and encourages blood to pump through the body, carrying energy and nutrients to each organ.

Eating for healthy growth and development The types of food that children eat impact on how they grow and develop. Breastfeeding should be encouraged as this provides essential nutrients in the right quantities to meet babies’ needs. Children who are breastfed are less likely to become obese. According to the Pre-school Learning Alliance (2010) over two-thirds of two- to five- year-olds are overweight or obese. This is an issue that can be addressed from an early age by encouraging young children to make healthy choices so that they develop positive attitudes to taking care of themselves as well as healthy hearts, lungs and other vital organs. Talking to children about healthy food and their preferences enables them to reflect on the choices they make. Reading stories such as Eric Carle’s ‘The Very Hungry Caterpillar’ (Carle, 1994) can prompt an interesting discussion. This can be brought to life with the use of puppets or a story sack. Children can develop an understanding of healthy eating by being involved in planning menus and making choices from healthy snacks and meals at home and nursery. Many children are more motivated to eat healthy food if they have had fun preparing it. This could be, for example: • a fruit salad • chopping vegetables for stir-fry dishes, goulash or soup • making dough for chapathis • making their own sandwiches for a picnic • mixing raita as a dip for vegetable sticks • making a fresh fruit and yoghurt smoothie.

Outings to the local grocers or market to choose food can increase their understanding and enthusiasm. A small vegetable patch in the nursery garden is an effective way to encourage healthy eating, and children will feel immense satisfaction from seeing their food grow and reaping the rewards of their efforts. Healthy eating and child obesity are discussed further in Chapter 6.

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Strengthening muscles and bones Nutritious food is important for healthy muscles and bones. Exercise is essential, as children need to use muscles in order to develop them, and physical impact on limbs created by running, jumping and skipping promotes bone density. Boisterous interaction, including rough-and-tumble play, enables children to develop control over their limbs. When children enjoy being physically active, this can start a pattern that continues as they grow older and develops a positive attitude towards exercise, and as White (2008: 69) expresses, promotes ‘active lives as runner beans rather than couch potatoes!’ Children need to develop control over their limbs and strengthen their muscles in order to develop the smaller muscles, such as those in their fingers. They need to have developed their arm muscles before it is realistic to expect them to grip a pencil and control it sufficiently to make the small marks that lead to writing skills.

Developing coordination and balance Growth and development of the body is inseparable from developing minds. When children are physically active, sensory pathways and nerve connections are strengthened so that the brain can coordinate movement. Through movement, children develop a sense of where their limbs are and where their bodies ‘finish’. Nerves in the muscles and skin connected to the brain are strengthened and developed through experiences such as: • jumping • hanging from a bar • stretching • throwing • lifting and carrying • pulling and pushing.

Balance and coordination are achieved through the development of vestibular organs inside the ear. For these organs to develop, children need the experiences of: • spinning • twisting • swinging • rolling • bouncing • rocking.



Growing and Developing

Children need to move around their world in order to develop their perception of it and how they fit into it. Physical movement enables children to develop spatial awareness and coordinate their bodies. They need to understand and explore physical sensory experiences in order to develop an understanding of internal feelings, or emotions. Practitioners must consider how all children can have such opportunities, even if their movement is restricted by impairments or a temporary lack of mobility such as a broken leg.

Case study: Developing physical activities for children with disabilities Laila is six years old. She loves the sensation of spinning, and giggles and smiles when Alvin, her childminder, takes her to the park and spins around with her on the roundabout. She also enjoys being pushed very fast across bumpy ground in her wheelchair. The strong tyres on her chair mean that she can go over rough, uncut grass. Alvin makes sure that Laila is well secured in her chair. Laila’s physiotherapist has worked with Laila’s parents and with Alvin to discover activities that she can safely enjoy and respond to physically, even though she has experienced significant delay in the development of her movement and coordination. Laila’s favourite game at the moment is to be wrapped snugly in a blanket and for her mum or Alvin to pull the end while she lays on the floor, so that as the blanket slowly unravels she roly-polys and spins around and around. Laila has good neck control, and this game encourages her to strengthen her neck muscles by lifting her head as she comes to face the ground with each roll. • What other activities can you think of that Laila might enjoy to enable her to experience movement? • How would you enlist the support of other professionals to enhance opportunities for children with specific needs in your work setting?

Developing cognitively Children make sense of the world by experiencing it first-hand. They need stimulation to develop connections in the brain, and time to process and explore information that they receive through their senses so that new connections will grow and be strengthened. Brain development begins before we are born, but compared with other mammals the human brain is relatively immature at birth. This means that the brain can continue to develop in response to stimulating environments beyond the limited environment inside the womb (Mareschal et al., 2004). Outside of the womb there is great

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Good Practice in the Early Years potential for the brain to be exposed to varied sensory experiences, such as temperature, smell, sight, touch, sounds and space to move and stretch. Until recent years the main school of thought in relation to brain development was that children develop according to a ‘genetic blueprint’. In other words, a person’s level of intelligence was considered to be ‘fixed’ or determined by the genes that they had inherited from their parents, and, as the brain matures, pre-programmed skills and cognitive abilities develop according to the blueprint. More recently the concept of epigenesis, which means that development occurs through interaction between the genes and the environment, has become a more favoured explanation for brain development. In light of research on brain development, Oates and Grayson (2004) assert that human beings develop the ability to perform many challenging tasks, and therefore it is unrealistic to think that our genes alone could contain enough information to equip us with this potential when we are born. They use the example of learning a language with all its complexities, from understanding and making sense of what others are saying, to developing the creative ability to construct endless possibilities of sentence structures. It is through our interaction with the environment, listening to the words of others, playing with and practising making sounds or symbols to form words, experiencing the world, exploring concepts and feelings, learning the labels for objects and experiences we encounter and even making new labels for them, that we develop the cognitive ability to communicate creatively with others. The possibilities for creating poems, stories and describing how we feel could not be purely pre-programmed in a genetic blueprint. Jensen (2006) offers a useful illustration by comparing brain development to building a house. A blueprint might define the house but it would not actually build it. During the construction period, the design of the house may be adapted in response to new ideas or to solve building-related problems. One of the builders or material suppliers may offer advice in light of their previous building experience. The owner of the house might change their mind about having a particular feature. Although plans were made in the blueprint for how the building materials are likely to be constructed, there could be variations in the outcome and the house could even be modified after the main building work has been completed. Similarly, while our genes provide a plan of how the ‘building blocks’ of the brain are constructed, the way the brain develops varies according to ideas and experiences that we are exposed to and the choices we make.



Growing and Developing

The ‘building blocks’ of the brain are mainly neurons (nerve cells) that receive and pass on information to other cells. They form synapses (connections) with other cells in order to send and receive electrochemical impulses between one another and to muscles and organs. There are billions of synapses in place at birth, which enable the baby to breathe, eat and respond to their environment. New synapses are formed in response to experiences, and thus the brain grows and develops. The more these synapses are used, the stronger they become. Although the genetic blueprint provides a basic pattern for development, each person’s brain is organized uniquely according to their individual experiences. Organization begins before birth and continues throughout life, although during the first six years of life this happens rapidly. Synaptic connections begin to increase at a fast pace once the baby is born, and they develop more synapses than they will need. This means that connections that are not needed can be ‘pruned’ or die off if they are used less, while those that are used regularly are strengthened. A child’s brain grows so rapidly that, by the age of two, it is around 80 per cent of its adult weight, largely due to the growth of synaptic connections (Lenroot and Giedd, 2010). The experiences that young children have are very important, as they will have a great impact on cognitive development and the way the brain is organized. Practitioners can support children’s growth and development by ensuring that they have opportunities to repeat experiences in order to strengthen neural networks as well as enabling them to explore the world in new ways through novel experiences so that new connections can be made.

Using treasure baskets to support babies’ brain development An example of providing stimulation for babies is through the use of treasure baskets. These are collections of objects with a common theme, placed in a basket at which a baby can sit and reach for objects of interest to manipulate and explore. Babies often explore objects with their mouths, as the mouth is a very sensitive part of the body. This means that great care must be taken to ensure that the contents of the treasure basket are safe – for example, clean and too large for the baby to swallow and choke on. The basket should be strong enough for the baby to grasp the rim without it falling onto them. Hughes (2006: 3) describes sensory objects in a thoughtfully prepared treasure basket as ‘food for the brain’. When preparing a treasure basket, think of how a baby might explore using all five senses – sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. If the

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Good Practice in the Early Years baby is unable to use all five, for example due to visual impairment, consider how they can access the materials using the senses that they do have. Examples of treasure basket contents include: • shiny metal objects such as spoons, an egg whisk, bells, a large belt buckle, keys, a steel egg cup • wooden items, for instance a mixing spoon, a clothes peg, a spatula, Russian dolls, a honey dipper • Fabrics such as a silk scarf, velvet, voile, lace, fur, ribbons, hessian, felt • Round, spherical and cylindrical objects, for example tins of different sizes, jam jar lids, a rolling pin, a beaker, a tennis ball, cotton reels.

You can probably think of hundreds of combinations of different ideas for treasure baskets. They need not be expensive, and you could find these objects at home and around the nursery. Hughes (2006) provides a range of examples of themed treasure baskets from which you will gain further ideas to develop such resources.

Reflection point • Using the example of shiny metal objects, what sensory experiences could a baby explore? What other items could you add to the collection to enhance the experience? • Make a list of the items that you might select for a treasure basket that would enable babies to explore bristly objects. What sensory experiences would this provide? • How might a collection of round and cylindrical objects be explored? What connections might a baby make between spherical and cylindrical objects? How might they investigate the differences?

Case study: the treasure basket Zofia is nine months old. Her key person, Emilia, has prepared a treasure basket with a range of fabrics, including the ones suggested above. She puts the treasure basket next to Zofia so that she can reach the items. Zofia explores some of the items and Emilia observes to find out which ones interest her the most. Zofia puts a square of thick velvet over her head and takes it off again. She repeats the action and then holds it over her eyes. Perhaps she is exploring how to block out light. She puts the piece in her mouth. How soft it must feel. The hessian feels much rougher. She reaches in to discover a small lace tablecloth. She puts it over her face. She can see through it, unlike the velvet material. The basket is sturdy enough for Zofia to hold the rim and pull herself close when she needs to see what is



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further towards the bottom of the basket. This means that she can access the items independently rather than relying on the adult to pass her things. Caleb is 14 months old and is beginning to walk. He takes an interest in the basket. He is able to steady himself by holding the side of the basket while he stands to peer inside. He takes out a thin mesh scarf, holds it up high with a corner in each hand, pauses and then lets go of it. Zofia’s eyes light up as the scarf floats gently towards her, and giggles as it lands in her lap. She picks up a corner and holds it as high as she can from her sitting position, then lets it go. The scarf falls quickly into her lap and she repeats the action. Emilia notices that Zofia’s expression of delight has changed to disappointment and puzzlement. Zofia tries to throw the scarf as far as she can. It falls to the floor next to her. Zofia looks around as if losing interest due to frustration. Emilia wonders whether Zofia is trying to make it float, like Caleb did. Emilia takes the scarf and holds it out above Zofia’s head before releasing it. Zofia laughs as it gently lands over her. Emilia repeats this from a greater height and the material drifts slightly and floats with a gentle breeze from an open window. Zofia’s wide eyes follow the scarf in wonderment. Caleb has been watching and he takes out a large cotton handkerchief. Perhaps he remembers exploring similar materials before and predicts that this will also be quite ‘floaty’ if held out high and as flat as possible before letting go. Zofia watches as it floats, although falling much faster to the ground. Emilia and Caleb use different materials and try to make them float,while Zofia watches with fascination. • What connections was Zofia making when playing with the treasure basket? How might this have supported her development? • How might Caleb’s encounter with the materials strengthen connections that he has made previously? How has the experience developed his thinking? • How has adult involvement in the activity influenced the way the babies accessed it and their learning and development?

Hughes (2006) suggests that treasure baskets are primarily a non-social activity. This is because the baby needs time to explore the objects in the way that they choose, and there is no right or wrong way in which to do this. This enables babies to become independent learners. Once an adult becomes involved, the child’s learning is led by the adult. However, in this situation Emilia responded to Zofia’s frustration and wanted to seize the opportunity to extend her thinking so that she could explore the concept of floating further. Following on from the treasure basket activity, Emilia may have decided to introduce play with bubble blowing, or use ostrich or marabou feathers with Zofia, to support her thinking. These would be useful resources outside on

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Good Practice in the Early Years a breezy day. Light feathers may be more manageable for Zofia as she could make them float all by herself and thus take more control over exploring this idea. She could make further connections and strengthen existing ones relating to how things float and are blown around. This would also encourage Zofia to stretch and throw, developing important muscle control.

Planning experiences within a child’s Zone of Proximal Development Practitioners must be aware of children’s competence in different aspects of growing and developing in order to provide appropriate opportunities for them to master their skills. Vygotsky (1978) theorized that children need to practise using skills just beyond their current abilities. This means that they need to engage in experiences that are challenging but not so difficult that they will become frustrated at continuous attempts that are unsuccessful. When children are only able to engage in activities that are too easy, or just repeat what they can already do, they will become bored and lose motivation. According to Vygotsky, children using only the skills and abilities that they have already mastered are working within their Zone of Actual Development. However, an experience that enables a child to master a skill with some level of persistence will lead to satisfaction and pride at their own achievement. Vygotsky calls this the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). He placed great emphasis on a child’s interaction and collaboration with others as part of the learning process as children are able to learn from and use the support of more able peers as well as adults. Bruner (1996) further developed this idea, explaining that we can provide ‘scaffolding’ or support to enable a child’s development. In Zofia’s case study, the actions of Caleb and Emilia provided opportunities for her thinking to be extended. Without this interaction, the experience may have been beyond Zofia’s ZPD as she was unable to make the material float on her own. Emilia could use her new knowledge of Zofia’s developing understanding of the concept of floating if she were to provide experiences with feathers and other ‘floaty’ materials that Zofia could manipulate. Thus, in addition to her interaction with Zofia, the provision of appropriate resources is important in ensuring that children are within their ZPD.



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Planning to enable children to take their next steps in development Each child’s next steps in their learning are unique to them and they will make unique journeys in their development. Some childcare books detail ‘developmental milestones’ that traditionally most children have been expected to meet when they reach particular ages. Although they can give an indication of how some children might develop, these milestones should be used only with caution, as every child is unique. The Early Years Foundation Stage (DCSF, 2008) offers suggestions on possible steps that children might take towards different areas of development. In this guidance document, the ages that children typically develop different skills and abilities are overlapped, thus acknowledging that ages and stages vary between each child. The document provides a useful starting point with ideas on how practitioners can support children to take their next steps when they achieve particular stages of growth and development. Although the ages in the EYFS overlap, practitioners must recognize that this part of the document is designed as a guide and children may still achieve particular steps in different ways and at different points beyond the range suggested.

Engaging in sustained shared thinking Sylva et al. (2004) conducted an extensive piece of research published as the Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE) project, which included the exploration of effective practice and key aspects of high-quality early years provision. A significant finding from this study was that practitioners in settings that enable children’s development most effectively ensure that children can develop thinking skills in a range of contexts. The EPPE project emphasizes the importance of providing opportunities for children to engage in ‘sustained shared thinking’. This takes place … … when two or more individuals ‘work together’ in an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate an activity, extend a narrative etc. Both parties must contribute to the thinking and it must develop and extend the understanding. (Sylva et al., 2004: 6.)

This type of interaction ‘scaffolds’ children’s thinking, as it provides support and stimulation that enables the child to make connections and thus develop a deeper understanding of concepts being explored. Dowling (2005) suggests that sustained shared thinking takes place when children are:

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Good Practice in the Early Years • Planning, predicting, thinking ahead, speculating • Investigating, exploring, gathering and using information • Solving problems, working things out, finding solutions • Reasoning, using logic, explaining, making connections • Creating, innovating, imagining new situations, fantasizing • Reflecting, recalling, sorting out feelings.

Reflection point What opportunities are available for children in your placement or workplace that enable them to engage in these ways of thinking? How could these opportunities be developed and extended?

Sustained shared thinking to develop cognitive skills When a child recalls previous thinking and learning to puzzle through a problem or create new ideas, this strengthens the relevant synapses in the brain and forges new connections, promoting continuous cognitive development. Genuine, open-ended questions, particularly when the one asking does not know the answer, can provide ‘scaffolding’ for children’s thinking. It is important to avoid the mundane questioning that is often used to check children’s knowledge. Asking a child who is playing with a car what colour it is will not extend thinking or encourage the child to use their imagination. This could have the opposite effect, particularly if the child is engaged in imaginative play in which they are pretending that the car can fly, for example, or even that it is not a car but a space shuttle. A question that is irrelevant to the child at that moment may be distracting and squash the child’s creative thinking. It would be much more stimulating to ask where it is flying to and why, perhaps even how or what it might find when it gets there. This will also open up opportunities to understand what the child is interested in and how they think creatively. Sustained shared thinking can take place between a child and an adult as well as between a child and their friends. Practitioners should consider how the environment provokes children’s thinking and stimulates their imagination. This can be achieved through the thoughtful selection of resources, particularly open-ended materials where the possibilities for using them are numerous, with no right or wrong ways to use them. This promotes divergent thinking, where many new options can be explored, thus encouraging children to be creative with ideas and develop their imaginations.



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The role of ‘loose parts’ in enabling creative and imaginative development Children need opportunities to experiment, be inventive and interact with their surroundings. Simon Nicholson (1971) argues that an environment that includes various aspects that are changeable, or ‘loose parts’ as he terms them, is essential for the development of creativity. He explains that ‘Children love to interact with variables … materials, smells … magnetism … gravity … fluids … sounds … chemical interactions … animals … plant … concepts …’ He theorizes that, ‘In any environment, both the degree of inventiveness and creativity, and the possibility of discovery, are directly proportional to the number and kind of variables in it’ (1971: 30). This idea fits well with the concept of epigenesis, in which (as we have seen) cognitive development occurs through interaction between the genes and the environment. An environment where elements are not ‘fixed’ or over-designed by adults is one in which children can manipulate ideas more freely. The way that adults plan children’s spaces has an impact upon children’s freedom to grow and develop as individual thinkers, which puts adults in a powerful position. Practitioners need to reflect carefully on how they enable children to shape and interact with their environments in order to avoid stifling their creative thinking skills. Balanced but flexible routines are needed that are responsive to children’s ideas and development needs.

Allowing sufficient time Growth and development cannot be a rushed process. Children need time to explore new ways of thinking and make discoveries and connections in their learning. It is important to recognize the skills that children are developing and make provision for them to practise and master them. Bruce (2004) asserts that a key aspect of quality provision for children is for them to be allowed to ‘wallow’ in play. This means being immersed in experiences for as long as is needed in order for children to mull over and test out their ideas. Often parents and practitioners feel under pressure to ‘hot-house’ children by hurrying their learning along so as to keep up with other children of the same age and achieve (or even exceed) anticipated milestones in their development (such as toilet training and writing) in a culture of competitiveness. Crain (2003: 11) cautions against pushing children to learn at a pace that is

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Good Practice in the Early Years too fast for them, explaining that they are ‘“wise” about what they need and what they are ready and not ready to do’. Every child is unique and will grow and develop at their own pace. Claxton (1997: 1) notes a Polish saying: ‘Sleep faster, we need the pillows’, demonstrating with irony that some things cannot be rushed. In the same way, thinking requires time, particularly when an experience or problem to solve is new to us. The brain needs time to process information and come to an understanding or find a solution by accessing the relevant connections.

Reflection point Think of a time when someone made you hurry with something that you wanted to do well. • List the feelings that you experienced because of being rushed. • How did these feelings impact on what you were doing? • What would have been different if you had been given as much time as you needed?

Case study: Time to play Milo is three years old. He enjoys making dens and places to hide, especially in the garden where there is more room and he can find things such as sticks to build with. He often spends hours with his neighbour Kareem, who is five years old, adding new bits to the dens they have made in each other’s gardens. They pretend to be hunters or sometimes soldiers or sometimes they play at having a party with ‘food’ they have made from leaves and mud, mixed with twigs. Each time they play they add something new to their spaces, such as a new cover to patch up a hole, or a flag. They have a particular favourite den, which is constructed mainly from an old mop handle and a sweeping brush leant against a big tree and secured with string. Various bits of old sheet enclose the space. Once, when it rained, the den began to leak badly as the water soaked through the sheets. The boys realized that they needed something waterproof, so Milo fetched his umbrella and Kareem brought an old shower curtain that his mum gave him to keep the floor clean when he wanted to get his paints out. He knew it would keep the den dry as it kept the floor dry if he spilled his water pot for painting. The den looks quite different now to when they first constructed it a few months ago, as they have added and changed it so many times. They added a porch last week, a bit like the one at the front of Milo’s house. • In what ways are the children growing and developing through these opportunities?



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• In what way are they making connections? • What features of the environment enable them to extend their ideas? The boys draw on their previous experiences to help them solve problems, and the availability of open-ended materials means they use their imaginations to play creatively. They have spent a long time developing their ideas. They have been able to return to the dens and continue building and modifying them at their own pace with no pressure to rush. • What impact might a lack of time have on their development of ideas and motivation?

Case study: The value of routine? Milo attends a preschool for five sessions each week. The preschool sessions are two-and-a-half hours long. A typical afternoon routine starts at 1 p.m. When children arrive to the session after lunch, they are expected to sit on the carpet in a group and listen to a story and answer the register. This normally takes around 20 minutes. Then they can go and choose something to play with in the classroom until 1.50 p.m., when they have to tidy up and then get into small groups with their key person and take part in an adult-led activity at 2 p.m. At 2.30 p.m. the children wash their hands and all sit together for an afternoon snack. This takes around 20 minutes. Then the children are sent to wash their hands and put their coats on ready to go out to play together. By the time all of the children are ready with outdoor clothing on, it is usually 3 p.m. The children play outside for about 20 minutes and then have to tidy up and go back inside the nursery for 5 minutes of singing before home time. • What problems might arise from this routine? • What impact will this have on children’s development?

Case study: Limitations on time to play Milo’s dad has talked to Milo’s key person, Heather, about his interest in making dens. Heather would like to extend his interest and enable his learning and development. She has been concerned that Milo gets bored easily. He does not seem to get involved in activities in nursery and can be a little disruptive. She has been worried about his concentration skills and hopes that by providing resources that will interest Milo he will be able to engage in an enjoyable play experience. She is excited about the different possibilities and aspects of his learning that this activity could support.

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Case study (Continued) She ensures that a range of den-making materials are available for the children to use during afternoon outdoor play. At outdoor play time, Heather calls Milo over to the materials, where she has started to make a construction. Milo’s face lights up and he runs over to Heather to join in. After 15 minutes of building with Heather and two other children, the den is really taking shape. She is really happy to see Milo enjoying himself and negotiating with the other children. One of the sticks that a sheet is draped over keeps falling in as it is too short to reach across the roof. Milo suggests to another child that they fasten two together to make a longer one. He remembers that he and Kareem once solved a problem like this. Suddenly, another practitioner calls, ‘Five minutes until tidy-up time’. Heather sees the look of frustration in Milo’s face. The den is barely finished and it is almost time to stop. She realizes why he does not often become involved. What is the point, when he doesn’t have time to finish anything? The stop–start approach to organizing the day just isn’t supporting children’s growth and development. • What skills has Milo developed so far? • How would you support Milo’s development? • What changes could be made to the routine to enable children to ‘wallow’ in ideas and develop their thinking?

Reflection point Reflect on the provision made in your workplace or placement. • What opportunities are there for children to become absorbed in their thinking for as long as they need? • How could these opportunities be extended?

As well as providing opportunities for children to return to activities and practise their skills, they also need stimulation from new experiences. Human beings of all ages are naturally curious, but they will become bored by monotony and they will lose the motivation to explore. An environment with elements of novelty is therefore essential. However, children also need to know what to expect from their surroundings, and a setting where the resources or items of furniture are moved around or changed too often will leave them feeling frustrated at not being able to access what they need to continue their play and ideas. Children are also likely to feel insecure in a setting with too much unpredictability and little stability. A feeling of security



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in which children have a sense of belonging is necessary for children to have the confidence to explore and develop, which relates back to the importance of emotional development.

Addressing factors that may be affecting children’s capacity to grow and develop For some children, interventional support is required to enable them to continue growing and developing. Factors such as long-term or serious illness, or inadequate access to healthy food due to family poverty, may have an impact on a child’s development and ability to thrive and reach their full potential. Changes in a child’s behaviour, such as becoming withdrawn or aggressive, may be caused by stress due to difficulties at home. It is important for practitioners, particularly key persons, to get to know each child well, and cultivate good lines of communication with parents or carers and other family members. This enables practitioners to be aware of and understand any changes that they may notice in a child’s behaviour that indicate the need for additional support. Practitioners also need to keep track of each child’s development and record their learning journeys, as this will highlight where children are not developing as well as anticipated in particular areas. Every child’s progress in all aspects of growing and developing should be shared with parents or carers. A two-way flow of information between home and early years settings will provide a more holistic view of the child as a person and how they are growing and developing. Parents can provide valuable advice and information for practitioners working with their child. What a child can do at home may be different to what they can do in the early years setting. They may use more language, for example, at home where their surroundings are different. They may display more competence in climbing at nursery if different opportunities for physical movement are offered. Sharing information between home and the early years setting therefore facilitates a more informed, holistic view of the child. Professionals who specialize in supporting children’s growth and development in specific ways, such as speech and language therapists, physiotherapists and inclusion teachers, can help practitioners and parents to work with children who are at risk of not achieving their full potential, in order to

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Good Practice in the Early Years build on the skills a child has already developed and enable them to make progress. They might share specific strategies and programmes to use with the child, which can be helpful. Practitioners have a duty to enlist support from other professionals if help is needed that is beyond their own skills and roles. They should be vigilant to identify when a child needs additional help, but at the same time they should avoid jumping to conclusions just because a child is not at the same developmental level as other children of a similar age. Often children simply catch up when they are ready. A child whose family has difficult issues to deal with may need support – for example from a social worker, health visitor or counsellor. However, positive and supportive relationships between home and the early years setting may help families to deal with some difficulties. Nevertheless, practitioners should be aware of the roles of professionals both within and beyond the immediate setting, and of who they can contact to provide appropriate support. They should be aware of where to direct parents for support. At the time of writing, revisions are being made to the EYFS curriculum document (DCSF 2008). Proposals for revision include further emphasis on supporting families, as this is a key aspect of effective early years practice. The well-being of the family and the support networks that families can access, have a deep impact on a child’s growth and development. It seems likely that early years settings will need to provide families with a written summary of their child’s development at some point between the ages of two and three years, in order to promote the early identification of additional support requirements and to facilitate communication with other agencies about a child’s progress (DfE 2011). Practitioners should be aware of the five Every Child Matters Outcomes (DfES, 2004): • Be healthy • Stay safe • Enjoy and achieve • Make a positive contribution • Achieve economic wellbeing.

The outcomes provide a useful framework against which to consider a child’s growth and development needs holistically. If there are concerns that a child is not achieving one or more of the outcomes, and the setting is unable to provide the support needed, a Common Assessment Framework (CAF) document may be completed with the child’s parent or carer as a mechanism for identifying sources of support to address areas of concern.



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Reflection point What agencies and professionals do you know in connection with your workplace setting or placement, from where specialist support can be gained?

Conclusion All aspects of children’s growth and development are closely entwined. Each child has a right to grow and develop to their full potential. We need to take a holistic view of the child and understand how each aspect impacts on other elements of growth and development. Emotional wellbeing is essential for children to thrive and feel confident to explore and interact with the environment and the people in it in. They need to encounter the enriching experiences to stimulate and exercise their minds and bodies. Practitioners need to tune in to what children are saying and promote opportunities for them to engage in playful, first-hand experiences that enable them to make connections so that the mind and body can grow and develop. In this way, caring adults who are sensitive and responsive to children’s interests and needs can support children in reaching their full potential.

References Anning, A. (2003), ‘Pathways to the Graphicacy Club: the cross-road of home and preschool’, Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 3(1), 5–35. Bowlby, R. (2007), ‘Babies and toddlers in non-parental daycare can avoid stress and anxiety if they develop a lasting secondary bond with one carer who is consistently accessible to them’, Attachment and Human Development, 9(4): 307–19. Bruce, T. (2004) Developing Learning in Early Childhood. London: Sage. Bruner, J. S. (1996), In Search of Pedagogy. Volume II: The Selected Works of Jerome S. Bruner, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carle, E. (1994) The Very Hungry Caterpillar. London: Puffin. Claxton, G. (1997) Hare Brain, Tortoise Mind: Why intelligence increases when you think less. London: Fourth Estate. Crain, W. (2003), Reclaiming Childhood: Letting Children Be Children in Our Achievement-Oriented Society, New York: Henry Holt. Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2008), The Early Years Foundation Stage, Nottingham: DCSF Publications. Department for Education (DfE) (2011) Supporting Families in the Foundation Years. [Online]

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Good Practice in the Early Years Last accessed 20 August 2011 at URL: http://www.parliament.uk/deposits/depositedpapers/2011/ DEP2011-1250.pdf Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2004), Every Child Matters: Change for Children, London: HMSO. Dowling, M. (2005), Supporting Young Children’s Sustained Shared Thinking: an Exploration. Training materials, London: British Association for Early Childhood Education. Harris, M. (2004) First Words. In: Oates, J. and Grayson, A. (eds) Cognitive and Language Development in Children. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Hughes, A. M. (2006), Developing Play for the Under 3s, London: David Fulton Publishers. Jensen, E. (2006), Enriching the Brain, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lenroot, R. K. and Giedd, J. N. (2010), ‘The structural development of the human brain as measured longitudinally with magnetic resonance imaging’, in: Coch, D., Fischer, K. W. and Dawson, G. (eds), Human Behaviour, Learning and the Developing Brain: Typical Development, New York: Guildford Press. Mareschal, D., Johnson, M. H. and Grayson, A. (2004), ‘Brain and cognitive development’, in: Oates, J. and Grayson, A. (eds), Cognitive and Language Development in Children, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Nicholson, S. (1971), ‘How NOT to cheat children: The theory of loose parts’, Landscape Architecture Quarterly, 62(1): 30–4. Oates, J. and Grayson, A. (2004) Perspectives on cognitive and language development. In: Oates, J. and Grayson, A. (eds) Cognitive and Language Development in Children. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Pre-school Learning Alliance (2010), Early Years Nutrition. Available online at http://www.pre-school. org.uk/what-we-do/nutrition (accessed 12 October 2011). Smidt, S. (2008), Supporting Multilingual Learners in the Early Years, London: Routledge. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2004), The Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE) Project: Findings from Pre-school to the end of Key Stage 1. Available online at http://eppe.ioe.ac.uk/eppe/eppepdfs/TP10%20Research%20Brief.pdf (accessed 12 October 2011). Vygotsky, L. S. (1978), Mind in Society, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. White, J. (2009), Playing and Learning Outdoors, London: Routledge. Woodhead, M. (2008) Constructing and Reconstructing Identity. In: Brooker, L. and Woodhead, M. (eds) Developing Positive Identities. Milton Keynes: The Open University.

6 Promoting Young Children’s Health Sarah Procter

Chapter Outline Introduction 149 What is health? 150 Influences on health 152 Health inequalities 158 Models and approaches to promoting children’s health 161 Children’s physical health and wellbeing 163 Emotional health and wellbeing 166 Promoting health in young children 170 Conclusion 178

Introduction In this chapter the many and varying factors which impact on children’s health and well being and the role of the early years practitioner in supporting children to achieving positive health and well being are explored. Different aspects, definitions and concepts of health are discussed in order to reflect on the variety of ways in which young children’s health needs can be addressed and supported by families, settings, health professionals and communities. Evidence of the social and economic causes of health inequalities will be presented, and the resultant impact of this inequality on children’s health both in childhood and then throughout their adult lives will be explored. Some recent government policy directives and new programmes of work which



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Good Practice in the Early Years have arisen to address concerns about young children’s health and well being in the 21st century will be presented for reflection. Early years practitioners have a crucial role to play in supporting young children to grow and develop healthily. Health promotion theory and practice will be considered and some features of good practice in a range of early years settings across the UK today will be outlined for consideration. This chapter covers the following: • what is health? • influences on health • health inequalities • models and approaches to promoting children’s health • children’s physical health and wellbeing • emotional health and wellbeing • promoting children’s health

What is health? Health is a notoriously difficult concept to define. More than half a century ago the World Health Organisation (WHO,1948) defined health as being ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity’. This view of health as a positive and holistic concept was initially well received in that different aspects of health were considered rather than seeing health as just the absence of disease. Subsequently, this view of health as being an ‘optimum state’ has been criticised as being too idealistic, unrealistic and unachievable for the majority of people (Seedhouse1986). Since 1948 definitions of health have been continuously reviewed with concepts of spiritual, societal and environmental health being subsequently included. In 1986 the WHO revised their definition of health and described health as: ‘The extent to which an individual or group is able on the one hand to realise aspirations and satisfy needs; and on the other hand, to change or cope with the environment.’ (WHO,1986).

This later definition of health encompassed a broader, more holistic approach which acknowledged that children need to be healthy in order to achieve their potential throughout their lives. This definition of health emphasised the importance of the development of personal and social resources which allow children to cope with the many changes and challenges they face through their life course. Later in this chapter the role of early years practitioner’s in



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supporting children to develop those personal and social resources and developing resilient behaviours to support emotional well being will be discussed. Many factors including age, gender, health (and ill health) experiences, and economic, social and cultural background influence views of what health is and how it can be achieved and maintained. Research has identified that children have their own perspectives on health and on being healthy. Children’s views of health are heavily influenced by their parents’ views and beliefs. Young children are also bombarded with messages from the media. Some health messages contained within the media may be accurate but others can be open to a variety of interpretations and may lead to confusion and lack of clear understanding. ‘children ‘know’ that eating vegetables, drinking lots of water, exercising regularly, and not smoking are good for their health, they ‘know’ that size, weight, fatness and beauty are indicators of ‘health’ and they ‘know’ that being healthy leads to other positive outcomes like increased wealth, a better job, more friends and so on.. (Burrows and Wright 2004:194)

Children across the world will have very different views of health which are dependent on their life experiences. A child who has spent some time in hospital having treatment for an illness might suggest that being at home and able to see their friend’s means they are healthy. A child growing up in a war zone, who sees death and destruction on a daily basis, will have a different view of health to a child who does not experience this threat to their everyday security. The United Nations Convention for the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) (UN,1989) outlines the entitlements that all children have. Many of the articles within the convention support the child’s right to access conditions which will support the achievement of positive health outcomes. Health entitlements in a child’s early years are the foundations to achieving good health throughout their lives. These entitlements include aspects of some of the UNCRC such as access to medical and health care (e.g. Article 24) and access to security, love and affection (e.g. Articles 9 and 19) As an early years practitioner it is important for you to be able to recognise and understand that individuals have many different views and beliefs about health and to realise that all aspects of health; physical, social, emotional, mental, environmental and spiritual are interconnected (holistic). This knowledge and understanding will enable you to offer the right support, information and advice to both children, their parents and carers and will contribute to achieving positive health outcomes for all children in your care.

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Reflection point Think for a minute about your own definition of health. How do you describe being healthy? • Being able to go to work? • Having energy and vitality? • Feeling positive about yourself? • Having good connections with family and friends? • Having no aches or pains? Which of these points you agree with? Can you identify others? How are your views the same or different to those you work with? Can you identify what particular factors have contributed to any differences of opinion?

Activity Draw an outline of a child and then add all the attributes which contribute to your view of a healthy child. For example you could add a smiling, happy face indicating that you believe a positive outlook and disposition is a contributory factor to identifying a healthy child? • Consider all aspects of a child’s health and well being including, physical, emotional, spiritual, mental, social and environmental factors. • Discuss your ‘picture’ of a healthy child with others in your setting. Do they agree with your views? • Do they have different perspectives can you reflect on the causes of these differences? • Consider ways of asking the children in your setting what being healthy means to them?

Influences on health There are many factors which influence children’s health and well being. Diagram 1 shows some of those influences. Some influences may be positive and support children’s health whilst other influences may have a negative impact. A child who grows up in a happy, loving family, in a supportive community with child centred health and educational services will hopefully be healthier than a child who does not.

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Age, sex and hereditary factors Fig. 6.1  Determinants and Influences on health DAHLGREN, G AND WHITEHEAD, M. (1991) Policies and Strategies to Promote Social Equity in Health (Institute of Futures Studies Stockholm)

Activity Consider and reflect on Diagram 1 note down in what ways the various levels outlined may impact on a child’s health and well being. For example living and working conditions may affect a child in situations where children are forced to work in unsafe conditions. • Age, sex and hereditary factors • Individual lifestyle factors • Social and community Influences • Living and working conditions • General social and economic, cultural and environmental conditions.

In 2003 the publication of the Green Paper Every Child Matters marked a change of government direction in relation to health policy. As a direct result of the inquiry by Lord Laming into Victoria Climbié’s death, five outcomes for children were proposed (be healthy; stay safe; enjoy and achieve; make a positive contribution; and achieve economic well being) as the basis upon which all services directed at children should now be established and evaluated. The Every Child Matters agenda was responsible for driving forward joint planning across all Government departments ensuring a more co-ordinated response in relation to addressing the five outcomes outlined above.

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Good Practice in the Early Years This significant policy development resulted in changes at both national and local levels including the appointment of national Children’s Commissioners, the appointment of Directors of Children’s Services; lead Council members for children in each Local Authority area and the establishment of local safeguarding boards to manage the co-ordination of services for children. Ensuring that better child health outcomes were achieved for all children was securely on everyone’s agenda. Health was no longer seen as the sole responsibility of the health services. There was a strong desire to ensure that collaborative, multiprofessional and integrated approaches to supporting young children’s health were achieved by everyone working together towards the same goals. Sure Start Children’s Centres have been established since 1997 and are a good example of this integrated approach. They are seen to be the first point of call (a one stop shop) for parents and carers of young children under 5 years wanting to access a range of support and advice services. There is recognition that supporting families and their children to meet health, educational and social needs at the earliest possible opportunity is beneficial for all involved. Ofsted (2008) have reported that Sure Start Children’s Centres have been successful in promoting the five Every Child Matters outcomes and that parents have been satisfied with the quality and impact on their children of the childcare services offered. However, not all reports evaluating Sure Start Children’s Centres have been positive. In particular their have been criticism that those in the greatest need are still not accessing the services available. It has also been suggested that there have been difficulties in relation to making all agencies work together effectively. The challenges of leading in a multiprofessional context and the short term nature of the funding have all been highlighted as potential barriers to effectiveness.

Activity Find out where the SureStart Children’s centres are in your local area. Arrange to visit one and find out what services they offer to improve the health and well being of young children.

Reflection point Consider what indicators there might be of social and economic disadvantage in your settings local area and note them down. Think of ways in which you might be able to address this issue. For example, you may be able to bring posters and leaflets from your local SureStart Children’s Centre and display them in your setting to direct or signpost services for your families.



Promoting Young Children’s Health

In order to establish if these health and other policies are working a range of targets have been set by government to measure their success. These targets are known as Public Service Agreements (PSA’s) which different Government Departments are responsible for working together to address. Many of the PSA targets initially set have had to be reviewed with deadlines for achieving the targets lengthened. Some health related PSA targets are presented in Table 1. Table 6.1  Examples of health related PSA targets and their associated Performance Indicators PSA Target

Associated Performance Indicator

PSA 12:

Prevalence of breast feeding at 6 to 8 weeks

Improve the health and well being

Levels of childhood obesity (measured in Reception and year 6)

of children and young people PSA 13:

Emergency hospital admissions caused by unintentional and

Improve child safety

deliberate injuries to children and young people reduced

PSA 18:

Reduce health inequalities by 10% by 2010 as measured by

Promote better health

infant mortality and life expectancy at birth

and well being for all Source: AUDIT COMMISSION (February 2010) Giving Children a Healthy Start; Health Report p19

Reflection Note down the names of the different services which might be responsible for working to meet these PSA health targets? e.g SureStart Children’s Centres, GP’s etc • What challenges do you think are faced by these services in relation to achieving these targets?

Many different professionals from a range of services, such as teachers, now recognise that they have a role in supporting children to achieve positive health outcomes. Those who work in the National Health Service also play a major role in promoting children’s health and well being, preventing ill health and treating children who do become ill. The National Health Service responded to the Every Child Matters agenda by identifying 11 standards in The National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services (2004) which would lead to improved child health outcomes. The medical model approach to health seeks to identify illness and disease and to find treatments and medicines to cure those illnesses. This approach is still very much in evidence within the NHS and of course, for many of us, we arrange an appointment with our GP to investigate and treat illness. The National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services – Standards for Children’s Health.

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Good Practice in the Early Years However, there has been a growing trend within the NHS to look beyond the patient and the illness to see the whole person and seek to prevent illness and promote good health. When people do become ill there is a growing emphasis on involving people in decision making processes about their treatments. There has also been recognition that children and young people may need different types of health services from the adult population and the provision of child centred treatment services would be more likely to lead to increased well being even amongst children who are ill. This holistic approach to health and well being recognises the value of adopting a social model of health as well.

Case Study – The Evalina Children’s Hospital The Evalina Children’s Hospital in London is a good example of how health services have changed to better meet all the needs of children and their families. This new hospital opened in 2005 has been designed for and by children and their families. Architects worked closely with children to find out what they would like their hospital to be like and tried to make sure that it would not look like a hospital at all by promoting themes of colour, light and fun. A Children’s Board has been established and views on menus, furniture and decoration have been built into the new hospital. There are bright red rocket lifts; lively artwork, many play areas and vibrant colours which give the hospital a positive and energetic atmosphere. Symbols from the natural world are used to mark different floors and wards. This reduces the need for lots of different signs and directions which can usually make hospitals difficult to find your way about especially if you do not speak English, making a visit to hospital a more pleasant experience for all.

Standard 1: Promoting Health and Well-being, Identifying Needs and Intervening Early The health and well-being of all children and young people is promoted and delivered through a co-ordinated programme of action, including prevention and early intervention wherever possible, to ensure long term gain, led by the NHS in partnership with local authorities.



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Standard 2: Supporting Parenting Parents or carers are enabled to receive the information, services and support which will help them to care for their children and equip them with the skills they need to ensure that their children have optimum life chances and are healthy and safe.

Standard 3: Child, Young Person and Family-Centred Services Children and young people and families receive high quality services which are coordinated around their individual and family needs and take account of their views.

Standard 4: Growing Up into Adulthood All young people have access to age-appropriate services which are responsive to their specific needs as they grow into adulthood.

Standard 5: Safeguarding and Promoting the Welfare of Children and Young People All agencies work to prevent children suffering harm and to promote their welfare, provide them with the services they require to address their identified needs and safeguard children who are being or who are likely to be harmed.

Standard 6: Children and Young People who are Ill All children and young people who are ill, or thought to be ill, or injured will have timely access to appropriate advice and to effective services which address their health, social, educational and emotional needs throughout the period of their illness.

Standard 7: Children and Young People in Hospital Children and young people receive high quality, evidence-based hospital care, developed through clinical governance and delivered in appropriate settings.

Standard 8: Disabled Children and Young People and Those with Complex Health Needs Children and young people who are disabled or who have complex health needs receive co-ordinated, high quality child and family-centred services which are based on assessed needs, which promote social inclusion and, where possible, which enable them and their families to live ordinary lives.

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Standard 9: The Mental Health and Psychological Well-being of Children and Young People All children and young people, from birth to their eighteenth birthday, who have mental health problems and disorders have access to timely, integrated, high quality multidisciplinary mental health services to ensure effective assessment, treatment and support, for them, and their families.

Standard 10: Medicines for Children and Young People Children, young people, their parents or carers, and health care professionals in all settings make decisions about medicines based on sound information about risk and benefit. They have access to safe and effective medicines that are prescribed on the basis of the best available evidence.

Standard 11: Maternity Services Women have easy access to supportive, high quality maternity services, designed around their individual needs and those of their babies.

Health inequalities Since the 1970’s there has been growing concern about the obvious differences in health status between different groups of people living in the UK; a Government Working Group was established to investigate the existence of health inequalities resulting in the publication in 1980 of the Black Report (Black, D. et al 1980) This report included evidence that clearly identified the link between lower social and economic classes and almost all causes of illness and premature death. The Black Report also identified that there were variations in health chances between men and women, those living in different parts of the country, as well as in relation to minority ethnic groups. Indeed on -going research into the issue of health inequalities continued to reveal a growing trend of health inequalities within the UK. The presence of health inequalities is due to persistent problems caused by inadequate housing, long term unemployment, poor nutrition, poverty and the combined stress of living with these factors. The recognition that there are many structural, personal, social and cultural barriers which may prevent individuals from accessing services which could support



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health, form an important first step in ensuring that services for the most vulnerable are designed carefully to ensure maximum uptake. This is especially important in relation to pregnant women accessing antenatal care and then taking their babies and young children to immunisation and other child health check appointments. The Acheson Report in 1998 re-iterated many of the findings of the Black Report and the newly elected Labour Government followed this up with an Action Report ( DOH, 1999) which laid out plans for how health inequalities would be addressed over the government’s term. It included initiatives aimed at reducing poverty, and improving educational attainment and employment. Unfortunately many reports still identify that the social and economic health divide experienced by many in the UK is, as yet, an unresolved issue.

Poverty in the UK Many find it difficult to accept that poverty is experienced by children in the United Kingdom. Latest statistics suggest however that there are still about 2.6 million children living in poverty in the UK (about 21% of all UK children according to the Child Poverty Action Group). The term relative poverty is given to the type of poverty experienced by children in the UK. Relative poverty relates to individuals and groups in society who experience a significantly poorer lifestyle and lack of economic and social opportunity compared to the norm for the society they live in. Both Spencer (2000) and Bradshaw (2003) have highlighted that child poverty in the UK is most likely to be experienced by certain families including those where there are lone parents, where there are younger parents, where a child experiences a disability and where there are more than 4 children in the family. Absolute poverty is the term given to those who live in countries in the developing world where there is little or no access to the most basic resources such as food, water, shelter and safety. We are all aware that absolute poverty threatens children’s lives. In these countries mortality (rates of death) and morbidity (rates of disease) are very high and children in these countries are especially vulnerable. At the G8 Summit in Edinburgh in 2005 pressure was put on the leaders of the World’s richest nations to ‘make poverty history’ not just by pouring in emergency aid but by ensuring other measures are in place.

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Reflection Go to www.actionaid.org.uk and reflect on some of the ways in which absolute poverty has been addressed by this charity in different parts of the developing world. • How realistic and achievable are targets for reducing global poverty? • What might be the implications of such actions?

Absolute poverty such as experienced by children in the developing world is not experienced by children in the UK and yet we are aware that many children do live in relative poverty with absolute consequences of a childs health. In 1999 the Labour Government pledged to halve child poverty by 2010-11 and eradicate it by 2020. A strategy was adopted to prevent poor children becoming poor adults and many policy initiatives, as discussed previously, were implemented. Initiatives such as Neighbourhood Nurseries and support offered through Sure Start Children’s Centres to help parents into work are examples of this strategy. Frank Field MP has recently concluded in his report The Foundation Years (2010) that closing the poverty gap in the early years of a child’s life is still the most effective approach to tackling enduring poverty experienced by some families in the UK. Measures such as re-focussing Sure Start Children’s Centres to support the most disadvantaged children in our communities; providing a graduate led childcare workforce for all disadvantaged 2 year olds; raising public awareness of the importance of the early years; and equipping parents with the skills, knowledge and attitudes most likely to result in improved outcomes for their child, aimed at achieving this goal. However, despite considerable investment in these and other measures to reduce poverty in the UK, child poverty persists and the ambitious targets for reducing it have not been met as yet.

Case study – Supporting families to achieve good health Amanda was 20 years old when she found out she was pregnant although the pregnancy was unintentional Amanda and her partner Jon were pleased and began to prepare for their baby’s arrival. At a routine ante-natal appointment the couple were told that there were indications that their child would be born with Down’s Syndrome. Freya was born slightly prematurely and needed to be in the Special Care



Promoting Young Children’s Health

Baby Unit for some weeks following Amanda’s discharge from Hospital. Eventually Freya came home and Jon and Amanda coped well supported by their Health Visitor. The local Children’s Centre provided extra support including a Portage worker who routinely visited Freya and her parents at home. When Freya began nursery Amanda looked for work but as she was unable to find work that was flexible enough to allow her to have time off to take Freya to hospital appointments. Amanda found herself becoming tearful and depressed as she was often on her own with Freya for long periods of time as Jon did overtime to earn enough money for the family.

Activity Think about and note down the implications of this situation on Amanda, Jon and Freya’s health and well being both now and in the long term. Can you identify things which might support Amanda, Jon and Freya to achieve more positive health and well being?

Models and approaches to promoting children’s health There are a number of different approaches to promoting children’s health and well being. These approaches are supported by a range of different theoretical perspectives which can help guide practitioners to match the approach to the specific situation. Naidoo and Wills (2000) suggest five different approaches to promoting health including medical, behaviour change, educational, empowerment and social change approaches. The medical approach uses scientific methods to identify health issues and concerns at the population level and then seeks to address them at three levels named primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary prevention is the term used when we can intervene to prevent illness from happening. Immunisation programmes are a good example of primary prevention methods. Secondary prevention is the term used when illness can be identified and treated more successfully at an early stage. Different checks, known as screening, are used during early pregnancy and may identify medical conditions which could have a negative impact on the healthy

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Good Practice in the Early Years development of the baby. Sometimes it is even possible to treat the baby before she is delivered. Screening for some conditions may be given to all children e.g. hearing and sight tests. These are known as universal checks. Other screening tests may only be applied to those considered to be in a higher risk category. For example, in cases where a parent has an existing condition the child may also be screened to detect if they are likely to develop the condition. Tertiary prevention is the term given to managing an illness or disability in order to prevent deterioration or additional non- associated problems from occurring. For example a child who is diagnosed with Downs Syndrome may have additional tests undertaken on their hearts as 40% of children with Downs Syndrome also experience coronary heart disease (CHD) (Hall and Elliman 2006) Whilst medical approaches to health improvement may offer some solutions it is clear that they are only part of the answer. The health education approach would seek to inform individuals about risks posed by certain activities and behaviours to their health. However, there is substantial evidence that knowledge of lifestyle risks does not necessarily result in individuals taking action to prevent ill health. Behaviour change approaches encourage individuals to adopt healthy behaviours such as eating healthily. However, we are aware that it can be very difficult for individuals to make a decision to change their behaviour. This is due to the complex network of individual, social and environmental factors which exist. Health education campaigns targeted at individuals, which provide knowledge and information to encourage behavioural change are unlikely to work, and success is seen to be more likely in situations where additional support is offered using empowerment approaches. These approaches can include supporting the individual to develop an understanding of why they engage with particular behaviours, as well as supporting the development of practical skills and confidence to make different lifestyle choices. This approach needs to be complemented by the social change approach where Government policies and procedures are implemented to ensure that healthier choices are easier choices.



Promoting Young Children’s Health

Children’s physical health and wellbeing In this section some aspects of children’s physical health and well being and ways in which children’s physical health can be promoted are discussed. Less than a hundred years ago infectious diseases such as diphtheria, whooping cough, tuberculosis, measles and polio threatened children’s lives, thankfully these diseases have been largely wiped out in the UK due to the introduction of immunisation programmes. However, new threats to children’s physical health have emerged. In particular obesity is described as being at ‘epidemic’ levels and this issue along with other issues, such as passive smoking, skin cancer from sun exposure, dental disease, and all can have detrimental effects on a child’s physical health. One simple explanation of the cause of raising levels of obesity is that we are consuming more food and participating in physical activity less. Over the last fifty years there have been dramatic social changes which have seen both individual and family lives change. Children are now much likelier to be driven to nursery and school rather than walk, play computer games and watch television rather than play energetically outdoors. Hall and Elliman (2003) suggest that it is difficult to assess if energy intake has significantly changed although they suggest that eating habits have altered. This is particularly noticeable in relation to ‘grazing’ on snacks containing high levels of sugar and fat. Increasing levels of obesity in children have resulted in an increase in the number of young children being diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes (Type 2 diabetes is linked to lifestyle behaviours and is often termed ‘late onset’ diabetes as it is generally more prevalent in adults in their middle age. This is to be differentiated from Type 1 diabetes which children may have due to genetic factors). This in turn can lead to the child developing other physical health conditions in adulthood including CHD, hyperlidaemia, various cancers, stroke, gall bladder disease as well as orthopaedic conditions. Healthy Weight, Healthy Lives: A Cross Government Strategy for England (DH 2008) aimed to reverse the trend in rising levels of obesity and support individuals to maintain a healthy weight. The Strategy aimed at reducing obesity to 2000 levels by 2020, but early indications based on statistics from the National Child Measurement Programme (NCMP) for 2007/8 and from

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Good Practice in the Early Years the Health Survey for England (Craig and Mindell 2006) indicated that only a very small initial decrease in the trend has been observed. Tackling obesity in young children as well as across the population as a whole requires action on a number of fronts. This strategy advocates the following approaches:• Helping people make healthier choices • Creating environments which promote healthier lifestyles • Providing effective services which identify, advise, refer and treat those at risk • Strengthening delivery of services to make sure they are effective

Healthy dietary habits are established in early infancy and there is evidence to suggest breastfeeding in the early months of a baby’s life is a positive factor. Breastfeeding has also been shown to have a number of health benefits for both the child and the mother. In particular breastfeeding can give the newborn child some protection from common infectious diseases as the mother’s immunity is passed to baby through the process of breastfeeding. There is also evidence that breastfeeding reduces the risk of the child gaining excess weight in later life alongside the emotional benefits offered through strong attachments being formed during this intimate child/mother time. Midwives, Health Visitors and breast feeding peer support workers operate in different localities providing support, information and advice to new mothers on how to successfully establish and maintain breastfeeding. Other initiatives have been introduced to support the reduction in childhood obesity levels. One example is the £75 million social marketing campaigns Change4Life.This campaign has three key messages which are ‘eat well, move more and live longer’. The campaign is associated with bright, lively health information (posters, leaflets and fun activities for children) these have been promoted in health clinics and supermarkets as well as through the mass media, especially the internet. These messages seek to inform parents and children of the risks of unhealthy diets and promote the importance of increasing physical activity, reducing portion sizes as well as the amounts of sweet, sugary and high fat snacks which are included in young children’s diets. Alongside this the ‘Five a day’ campaign aims to encourage including increased proportions of fruit and vegetables in young children’s diets to help support and maintain physical health. Whilst it is important that parents and children have access to clear and accurate information about what constitutes a good diet this is unlikely to result in the desired changes to individual lifestyle choices unless other changes are made. Greater success is likely if Governments work with food



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producers and retailers to see if changes can be made to both how food is produced and how it is marketed. Young children in particular are the targets of many advertising campaigns for sweet, sugary, drinks and snacks and so reducing the number of adverts on television especially during children’s television programmes could support a reduction in the demand from children for these types of food.

Reflection point Think about and then note down all the ways in which the Government could support young children to eat more healthily? Children in daycare need to have access to healthy meals and snacks too.Consider and note down the types of food you serve to children in your setting for snacks and main meals. Do you consider them to be healthy? Are they nutritionally adequate? What support does your setting receive when developing its menus? The Caroline Walker Trust has recently published the second edition of ‘Eating well for under 5’s in child care’ which sets out new evidence of the importance of eating well for under 5’s and provides a detailed and updated rationale for nutrient based standards for those working in full and sessional day care settings sector. (see http://www.cwt.org.uk/publications.html#under5)

Accidental injury Unintentional injuries previously termed accidental injuries can also have a negative impact on a child’s physical health. Unintentional injuries should not be seen as random unpreventable incidents as many health promoting actions can be put in place to keep children safe from the numerous types of unintentional injuries they can be exposed to. These include road traffic incidents, drowning, poisoning, glass injuries, dog attacks and fires to name a few. The results of these incidents range from minor injuries being treated at home to those which require hospital admission and which may lead to longer term disability or even death. There are a variety of causes and types of unintentional injury amongst children which reflect the child’s stage of development, their changing perception of danger and the degree of exposure to different hazards at different stages in their lives. Much research has been undertaken to understand parents’ views of certain types of risks of unintentional injury and its prevention. (Roberts et all 1993, Roberts 2000, Hapgood 2000). Conclusions from this and other research reinforces the need for

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Good Practice in the Early Years action on a number of fronts. In particular government policies and legislation which aim to promote child safety, for example reducing speed limits in some areas to 20 miles per hour, have reduced the number of fatal road traffic incidents involving children significantly.

Activity A Think about and note down all the ways you support young children to keep safe in your setting and in their communities?

Emotional health and wellbeing There has been overwhelming evidence from a number of studies, including UNICEF (2007) that despite the UK being a relatively affluent country, children and young people have poorer emotional health and well being than those in comparable countries. In fact from this study of 21 countries, it was shown that the UK is the least happy place for children to be brought up (Jackson et al, 2008). The Institute of Psychiatry (Green et al, 2005) has reported a huge increase in emotional problems and conduct disorders being diagnosed since 1997. This trend is worrying as poor emotional well being in childhood can be connected to the likelihood of not only developing mental illness in later life but also in terms of an increasing involvement in crime and other types of anti-social behaviour. Margo and Sodha (2007) have analysed data from the Youth Cohort Studies to investigate the links between emotional well being and issues such as social mobility, positive mental health in later life and success in employment, all characteristics which impact on a person’s ability to maintain positive overall health. This research highlights the relative importance of the establishment of positive emotional well being in childhood over factors such as educational achievement. The report acknowledges that services such as Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) and educational programmes such as SEAD (DCSF 2008) are proving beneficial; however, it suggests that more could be done especially in relation to developing children’s resilience. The concept of resilience and the role of the practitioner in supporting the development of a child’s resilience will be explored later. A number of risk factors have been identified which may affect a child’s healthy emotional development. Whilst these risk factors may occur



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individually it is more likely that they exist together. In cases where they do co-exist the impact has been identified as being significantly increased. (Rutter, 1979 as cited in NCH,2007) The table below identifies the different types of risk factors which exist in the individual child, the family and in the community and which could impact on a child’s emotional well being. Table 6.2  Risk Factors which can impact on a child’s emotional well being. DfEE 2001. Risk factors in the child

Risk factors in the family

Risk factors in the community

Specific learning difficulties

Overt parental conflict

Socio-economic disadvantage

Communication difficulties

Family breakdown

Homelessness

Specific developmental delay

Inconsistent boundaries and

Disaster

unclear discipline Genetic influence

Hostile and rejecting

Discrimination

relationships Difficult temperament

Failure to adapt to the child’s

Other significant life events

changing needs Physical illness especially if

Abuse: physical, sexual,

chronic/neurological

emotional

Academic failure

Parental mental illness including alcoholism, personality disorder

Low selfesteem

Parental criminality, death and loss

However, these risk factors can be mitigated by promoting positive emotional well being in children. Emotional well being has been defined by the Health Education (HEA) (1998) as: ‘the emotional and spiritual resilience which enables us to enjoy life and to survive pain, disappointment and sadness. It is a positive sense of well being and an underlying belief in our own and others’ worth’ (as cited NCH,2007:2)

Goleman (1995) identified the key emotional intelligence competencies of empathy, self awareness, managing feelings, motivation and social skill. Supporting young children to develop these competencies is recognised as positive in reducing the occurrence and negative consequences of emotional and behavioural issues as they progress through their school years and into adulthood.

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Good Practice in the Early Years ‘When the environment is impoverished,neglectful or abusive this often results in a child who doesn’t develop empathy, learn how to regulate their emotions or develop social skills, and this can lead to an increased risk of mental health problems, relationship difficulties,antisocial behaviour and aggression’ (Allen,2011:15)

Resilience is described as the process of being able to adapt well to stress, adversity, trauma or tragedy and is a key aspect in relation to promoting and establishing positive emotional well being. The possession of resilient behaviours and competencies enables a person to deal with the adversities of everyday life whilst maintaining appropriate levels of physical and psychological functioning. Resilient behaviours and competencies can be developed through the early years in a number of ways. Research has identified that warm supportive parents, parental harmony, support offered from an extended family, friendship networks and membership of faith, religious and other community groups are all important in supporting the development of resilience (Margo and Sodha,2007). Whist there may also be aspects of resilient behaviour which are to do with individual personality traits, Margo and Sodha’s (2007) research has also identified that other important personal attributes such as a strong internal locus of control, application and positive self esteem are key protective features. It is developing these protective features which are likely to be of most interest to practitioners and policy makers alike. The importance of positive emotional well being has been identified by Baden, Gregg and Macmillan (2006) in being more significant than the possession of hard skills such as numeracy and literacy, in relation to having a greater earning potential in later life. The results of this and other research indicate the importance of supporting young children to develop these attributes in order to support them achieve positive outcomes throughout their life.

Definitions and Reflections Application is described as a child’s ability to concentrate and dedicate themselves to a certain task or course of action. Locus of control is the belief that a child may have in relation to positively achieving or affecting a desired change in their lives. Individuals may have a strong internal locus of control (they can make decisions and set the direction for change) or alternatively they may have a strong external locus of



Promoting Young Children’s Health

control in this instance they may believe that others are responsible for the direction of their lives. When young children have experience of successfully initiating positive changes they will be able to develop self efficacy. That is they will have a more positive attitude in relation to trying to make new changes in their lives. Self esteem is described as a positive sense of yourself in relation to your community of feeling confident and good about yourself. As a practitioner can you identify three recent activities you have engaged in which have supported a child in relation to application, locus of control and the development of self esteem?

Mental ill health in children can be hard to define and range from what can be viewed as non-specific to the highly categorized. The definition of what is categorized as mental ill health is usually not only dependent on the professional background of the individual who has raised the issue but also on the persistence, severity and impact of the behaviour for example symptoms such as tummy ache may be a characteristic of an emotional issue but only if the practitioner noted that they were happening regularly and they were interfering with a child’s ability to participate in normal routines within the setting. A survey of 8000 children’s mental health carried out by the Office for National Statistics (Green et al, 2005) identified that more adolescents experienced mental health issues than younger children. However, in the age group 5- 10 years, boys experienced higher rates of conduct disorders than girls. A study undertaken as part of the Copenhagen Child Cohort reported rates in diagnosable mental health disorders of between 16-18% in children aged 18 months. (Skovgaard et al, 2007). The results from this research suggests that there is significant value in early years practitioners and others who work with young children understanding how they have a role in promoting and protecting young children’s emotional well being. This role needs to include ensuring if there are concerns about a young child’s emotional and mental health that the necessary arrangements should be made to involve specialist services such as Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS).

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Promoting health in young children The NHS and other organisations employ various staff whose main focus is on supporting parents to achieve a healthy pregnancy, to deliver the baby safely and to help the parents establish feeding, sleep and other care routines which can promote excellent health outcomes as the child progresses through their first five years of life. There is an expectation that G.Ps; Midwives; Health Visitors and other specialists including Obstetricians and Physiotherapists will work together to implement all aspects of the Healthy Child Programme (HCP, 2010). The HCP offers all families the opportunity to access screening tests, immunisations, developmental reviews and information and guidance to support parenting and healthy choices. These services are viewed as ones that will enable families to achieve their optimum health and well being. The main aims of the HCP are to;• Support the formation of strong parent –child attachments and positive parenting which will lead to better social and emotional well being among children • Provide care which will keep children healthy and safe • Promote healthy eating,increased physical activity so as to contribute to a decrease in obesity levels • Take action to prevent serious and communicable diseases • Increase the rates of initiation and continuation of breastfeeding • Take action which will promote readiness for school and improved learning • Implement a range of screening procedures in order to recognise, detect and address any risk factors such as developmental delays. • Take action to identify and address children and their families who are at risk of social exclusion

(DoH, 2010:8) The intention of the HCP is that qualified and regularly updated health and other staff will use evidence based approaches to achieve the best health outcomes possible for all children.

The Role of the Midwife Midwives are most usually qualified nurses who then undertake an intensive period of specialist training in order to fulfil their role. They may work in maternity hospital’s where they monitor the mother and child’s progress through pregnancy as well as offering support and care during the child’s birth. Midwives also work in the community where they visit the



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mother at home in order to undertake routine visits to monitor progress as well as offering antenatal appointments and Parent education classes at Sure Start Children’s Centres. In some situations the mother may choose to have a home delivery and this will be attended by the Community Midwife. Midwives monitor both the health and social needs of the family and child and will work in close partnership with Health Visitor’s, GP’s, Social Workers and Sure Start Children’s Centre workers. They ensure that parents are aware of and fully understand all the screening tests which are available. The Midwife may maintain contact with the baby for up to 28 days following the child’s birth by this point in the child’s life the responsibility for the child’s health and social needs will be handed over to the Health Visitor.

The Role of the Health Visitor The health visiting workforce is central to the delivery of the Healthy Child Programme as they have specialist public health nursing expertise which is seen to be key to identifying and addressing the needs of families and their children. Facing the Future (DH 2007b) identified the following as core elements of the Health Visitors role. • Public Health Nursing • Being pro-active in promoting health and preventing illness • Safeguarding children • Readiness to provide a health protection service (e.g. when epidemics threaten communities) The report also acknowledged that Health Visitors need to be able to know the communities they work in and the health issues these communities face. They work in a number of different settings including the family’s home providing a universal service, this means that, all families are eligible for support of a Health Visitor regardless of circumstances. In some situations there may also be specialist Health Visitor’s including those who support the needs of families who are homeless or where a child is in hospital perhaps following a premature birth.

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Case study – Family Nurse Partnership Programme (FNPP) The aim of this Programme is to support first time mothers under the age of 19 years of age to achieve the best start to their children’s lives by preventing health and parenting problems that can lead to antisocial behaviour. This is achieved by addressing three main risk factors:• Addressing certain lifestyle behaviours which may have negative impacts on the child during pregnancy including drinking, smoking and illegal drug use. • Preventing child abuse and neglect • Supporting the mother in relation to developing an authoritative yet warm parenting style as well as encouraging the mother to return to education and /or employment. The FNP is delivered by qualified nurses who may also be midwives / Health Visitors to young first time mothers where risk has been identified from between the 16th and 28th week of pregnancy. The FNP started in the UK in 2007 with 55 sites now in operation in England over 6000 families have benefitted so far. The FNP is a licensed American Programme (this means there are certain conditions which must be applied such as the recruitment of qualified nurses etc.) A longitudinal cost benefit analysis study of the FNP in Elmira, USA, demonstrated that the approach had paid for itself by the time the child was 4 years of age. This was achieved by, reducing the number unplanned pregnancies the mother subsequently experienced, supporting the mother to return to education, training or employment. This was seen to reduce dependence on welfare benefits. The study also showed that savings exceeded the cost of the Programme by 4:1 by the time the child reached age 15. Whilst these financial savings are important in order to attract policy makers’ investment, there have also been positive benefits as reported by the ‘Graduates’ of the Programme. These included high levels of warmth and lower levels of harsh discipline exhibited towards their children. Participants also reported a 50% increase in their perceptions of their capacity to take control of their lives. This is often referred to as mastery or self efficacy and is an important concept in some models of health promotion. (Utting, 2007)

The role of the early years practitioner Central to the early years practitioner’s role is the requirement to implement the Early Years Foundation Stage Framework. Both the work and college based training and educational experiences that the early



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years practitioner encounters should ensure that they have opportunities to become equipped to know and understand how to improve outcomes for all children in their care. This includes how to ensure that babies, toddlers and young children are healthy. This will require the early years practitioner to work to promote positive health, to prevent ill health from occurring where possible and to protect children from factors which would hinder a healthy development. The EYFS seeks to support practitioners to provide every child they support achieve the best start in life. The four themes of the EYFS are:• A Unique Child • Positive Relationships • Enabling Environments • Learning and development.

Each of these themes is then subdivided into sixteen commitments, four under each theme. Commitment 1.4 Health and Well Being maintains that ‘children’s health is an integral part of their emotional, mental, social, environmental and spiritual well being and can be supported by attention to these aspects’ The Practice Guidance also outlines various ways in which EYP’s can support young children’s health and well being.

Reflection point Explore and note down all the EYFS Commitments in detail and establish in what ways they have connections to achieving positive health and well being outcomes for children in your setting? For example commitment 3.1. Observation, Assessment and Planning suggests that EYP’s have a role in observing children in order to determine, understand and consider their current interests, development and learning. The EYP who is able to do this will be able to notice when a child is failing to thrive and ensure that additional, specialist support is put in place if required.

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Case study – Early Identification of children’s health needs. Peter is 2 years old and has started nursery about three weeks ago. As he lives in an inner city area he is eligible to be part of the ‘ two year old offer’; this comprises of 12.5 hours of free nursery education per week (39 weeks a year) for children from the most disadvantaged backgrounds. As part of this offer the nursery also has to demonstrate how they are working to support parents. His key worker has undertaken his base line entry assessment. As a result of this process it is clear that Peter has some form of Language and Communication delay this is also affecting his behaviour in the setting as he finds it difficult to relate to practitioners and other children, for example, Peter has under developed turn taking skills and social interaction and often becomes frustrated and angry in the setting. The key worker has had training in basic speech and language development and the setting was an early ECAT (Every Child a Talker) pilot site. The key workers’ understanding of how detrimental delayed language and communication can be to a child’s overall health and well being and their future development enables her to take prompt action. An initial discussion with the parent has taken place enabling the practitioner to gain a better understanding of how Peter’s language and communication was within the home. Mum said that she sometimes found his behaviour difficult and he often had tantrums. Mum gave permission for the key worker to contact the Health Visitor to inquire if they had any previous or current concerns regarding Peter’s development. Following this, the first action was to determine the cause of Peter’s language delay, either clinical or other factors. The ECAT lead who was also the setting SENCO was able to undertake a language assessment and it was determined that no clinical factors were involved. The key worker and the ECAT Lead put together a 6 week programme of activities to be delivered in the setting and in the home with the parent and child together. As parents are their child’s first and most enduring educator it was critically important that the parent was empowered to understand their child’s developmental needs and enabled to respond appropriately in the future and continue to develop an enabling language rich environment in the home.



Promoting Young Children’s Health

Reflection points • What frameworks are in place in your setting to support and co-ordinate the early identification of need? • What frameworks exist to support integrated working and the Team around the Child approach (TAC)?

A key element of the Welfare standards is the safeguarding and promotion of children’s welfare and requires childcare providers to: • Promote good health and well being, • Prevent illness and minimise risk and harm. • Have policies and procedures in place to manage and support children’s behaviour taking into account a child’s age and stage of development. • Ensure that there are policies in place to check the suitability of all adults who look after unsupervised access to the children in the setting. • Ensure that adults are able demonstrate that they have suitable qualifications, training, skills and knowledge. • Have in place staffing arrangements which ensure that children’s needs are met including their safety needs. • Ensure that there are systems established to record that children’s individual needs are being met. • Ensure that records, policies and procedures are in place for the safe and efficient management of the setting and to meet the needs of children.

The welfare requirements are set out in full on pages 22-40 of the Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage ( DFES 2008)

Activity Consider which policies you have in your setting which aim to promote and protect children’s health and well being and prevent children from experiencing ill health. Some examples of relevant policies in settings may be: – use of Mobile phones in the workplace, Packed lunch policy, Safeguarding policy Behaviour Management, Key Worker Policy etc. (ii) Choose and read one of these policies and consider how the policy supports children to be healthy?

The EYFS has been recently reviewed and early findings comment on how the framework has supported early years settings and the practitioners who work within them to make considerable progress in relation to improving the quality of provision. Ofsted have reported an increase of 12% in settings judged

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Good Practice in the Early Years good and outstanding. (Tickell 2011 p9). Key themes within the Early Years sector are workforce development and the increasing professionalisation of the role of the early years practitioner. Recognising the value of whole setting approaches to the promotion of health and well being in children requires that practitioners have a broad repertoire of skills and knowledge.

Reflection point Which key elements of the findings from the Tickell Review (Tickell,C. 2011) will contribute to improved outcomes to the health and well being of children?

The two Case studies below provide different examples of ways in which two settings have worked to improve health and well being for children in their care.

Case study: The Healthy Foundation Scheme Jenny works as the deputy Manager of Poppypots Nursery in Rotherham. She has a personal interest in health and was concerned to hear from a parent about the recent national media reports about the poor health experienced by children in Rotherham. Jenny contacted her early years consultant about her concerns who put her in touch with a public health specialist who advised her about the Healthy Foundation Scheme (HFS) Jenny attended a meeting where she was told that the HFS was an extension of The National Healthy Schools Programme which was established in response to the White Paper Choosing Health (2004). The HFS is a quality assurance scheme and is delivered throughout Rotherham by the NHS working in partnership with the Local Authority. Jenny and another colleague took part in some training workshops and received some support materials around the themes of the 7 Healthy Foundations Standards including: Personal, social and emotional development; healthy eating and oral health; physical development and play; emotional health and well being; whole setting approach; ethos; safe and healthy environments. Jenny and her team worked to complete a portfolio of evidence which demonstrates how they met the standards. Following a successful assessment visit Poppypots Nursery received its quality assurance mark which then enabled parents to see that the setting actively promoted health and well being.



Promoting Young Children’s Health

Jenny was delighted with the results and the contribution she feels the setting makes to developing lifelong positive attitudes to healthy living in children in the setting. Staff also reported that they found the process useful especially believing they now understood more clearly how introducing free flow play, for example, supported children’s well being.

Case study: Meeting children’s health needs Two children, Ellie and Bill were due to start nursery in September. As they had been previously diagnosed with epilepsy, key practitioners had to be trained in Epilepsy awareness in order to support these children’s health needs. As the SENCO for the setting, Sally took responsibility for organising the training for those staff that were due to be involved. After gaining consent from the parents, Sally contacted the community nursing team who were happy to sign post her to the specialist epilepsy nurse, Rachel who was happy to help. Sally liaised with Rachel about the details of the training organising a venue and a time for the training. Then she arranged, with the room leaders from the different rooms where the children were based, to organise times when staff could be more easily released to attend the training. It was necessary to train the practitioners from the different rooms at different time because of the variation in nature of the different types of seizures that the children had. During the training session staff had an opportunity to go through the children’s personal care plan which Rachel. The Personal Care Plan, written with the full involvement of Bill and Ellie’s parents, outlined how best to deal with any seizures when they happen. It advised staff who to call, how to administer medication and it what circumstances the setting needed to call for an ambulance. Once the staff were confident that they could support Ellie and Bill within the setting, they worked with the children and their parents to slowly support them with their transition to nursery. Staff continued to liaise with the children’s parents and Rachel to monitor all aspects of the children’s development to ensure that their ongoing care and development needs were being met within the nursery.

In the two case studies we see how EYP staff in different settings work proactively and flexibly to address young children’s health and well being needs. Sally and Jenny demonstrate a range of skills, knowledge and a value base which was established during their initial child care training. As reflective practitioners they have both continue to identify ways in which individual children’s health needs can be met through a whole setting approach. They

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Good Practice in the Early Years have undertaken a range of further professional development activities which have enhanced their knowledge and skills and enable them to meet a range of health issues as they are identified. Their approach has been supported by settings which value close and constructive relationships with parents and carers and have systems in place to work with a range of other professionals. In some Sure Start Children’s Centres early years practitioners have strategies to address the wider determinants of poor health and wellbeing by signposting families to a range of other provision. Innovative projects such as home safety equipment loan schemes, campaigns to improve local facilities, food co-ops selling fresh fruit and vegetables alongside benefits and debt management advice aim to support health improvement in the child and the whole family.

Conclusions This chapter has explored the determinants of young children’s health and wellbeing and the policy and practice initiatives which are in place to support better health for all children. Knowledge of what constitutes health and wellbeing and understanding of some of the influences on this, and the complex ways in which these interrelate, are key factors in ensuring effective support is in place for children and families. The holistic nature of children’s health needs has to be acknowledged, as do some of the barriers to achieving improvements to individual’s health. There are opportunites for early years practitioners to work with others in order that their specific knowledge and understanding of young children’s health needs can be shared in order to influence both practice and policy in the setting and beyond.

References ALLEN, G. (2011) Early Intervention: The Next Steps. An Independent Report to Her Majesty’s Government. London: Cabinet Office AUDIT COMMISSION (February 2010) Giving Children a Healthy Start; Health Report. London. Audit Commission Publications BLACK, D., MORRIS, J., SMITH, C. and TOWNSEND, P. (1980) Inequalities in Health: Report of a Research Working Group, London: Department of Health and Social Security BRADSHAW, J. (2003) Poor Children, Children and Society, 17: 162-172 BURROWS, L. and WRIGHT, J. (2004) ‘The Good Life: New Zealand children’s perspectives on health and self ’ Sport, Education and Society, 9: 2, 193-205 CHILD POVERTY ACTION GROUP REPORT http://www.cpag.org.uk/info/briefings_policy/ CPAG_response_childpovertystrategy_0211.pdf(last accessed 31/5/11



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CRAIG, R. and MINDELL, J (eds) Obesity and other risk factors in children-Health Survey England. London. Office of National Statistics and the Health Information Centre DAHLGREN, G. and WHITEHEAD, M. (1991) Policies and Strategies to Promote Social Equity in Health (Institute of Futures Studies Stockholm) DEPARTMENT OF CHILDREN SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES (2008) Social and Emotional aspects of development, guidance for practitioners working in the Early Years Foundation Stage Nottingham; DCSF publications DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION AND SKILLS (2008) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage Nottingham, DfES Publications DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH (1999) Reducing Health Inequalities: An Action Report. London. DH Publications. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH (2004) The National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services. London. DH publications. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH (2009) The Healthy Child Programme – Pregnancy and the First Five Years of life. London. DH publications. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND DEPARTMENT FOR CHILDREN, SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES (2008) Healthy Weight, Healthy Lives A cross government strategy for England. London DH publications DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (2011) Promoting Children’s Mental Health Within Early Years And School Settings. DfE (0121/2001) Nottingham: DfEE publications. DEPRATMENT FOR EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT (2001) Promoting Child Mental health within early years and School Settings. Nottingham. DfEE Publications FIELD, F. (2010) the Foundation Years: Preventing Poor Children from becoming Poor Adults. The Report of the Independent Review on Poverty and Life Chances. London: HM Government GREEN, H., McGINTY, A., MELTZER,H., FORD, T,. and GOODMAN,R. (2005) The Mental health of Children and young People in Greta Britain, London: Palgrave McMillan GOLEMAN, D. (1995) Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. New York: Bantam Books, HALL, D. and ELLIMAN, D (2006) Health for all Children (revised 4th edition) Oxford: Oxford University Press HAPGOOD, R. KENDRICK, D. and MARSH, P. (2000) How well do socio-demographic characteristics explain variation in childhood safety practices? Journal of Public Health Medicine 22 (3): 207-311 HEALTH EDUCATION AUTHORITY (1998) Community Action for Mental Health. London: HEA JACKSON, C. HILL, K. and LAVIS, P. (ed.) (2008) Child and Adolescent Mental Health today: A handbook. Brighton. Pavillion MARGO, J. and SODHA, S. (2007) Get Happy – Children, young people’s emotional well being. NCH NAIDOO, J. WILLS, J. (2000) Foundations for Health Promotion. Edinburgh. Baillere Tindall NCH (2007) Literature Review: The Emotional Harm and Well Being of Children. London. NCH. OFSTED (2008) How well are they doing? The impact of children’s centres and extended schools. London. Ofsted ROBERTS, H. SMITH, S. J. and BRYCE, C. (1993) Prevention is better...? Sociology of Health and Illness, 15: 447-63

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Good Practice in the Early Years ROBERTS, H. (2000) What works in Reducing inequalities in Child Health? London: Barnado’s SEEDHOUSE (1986) Health : The foundations for achievement. Chichester Wiley. SAVE THE CHILDREN (JANUARY 2010) Measuring Severe Child Poverty in the UK. Policy Briefing

http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/en/docs/Measuring_child_poverty_in_the_UK.pdf

last accessed 29/10/11. Save the Children. SPENCER, N. (2000) Poverty and Child Health (2nd Edition) Oxfordshire: Radcliffe Medical Press SKOVGAARD, A. M et al (2007) The Prevalence of Problems in Children 1 1/2 years of age. The Copenhagen Child Cohort 2000. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48 : 1 62-70 TANNAHILL, A. ( 1985b) What is Health Promotion? Health Education Journal, 44 167-8 TICKELL,C (2011) The Early Years: Foundations for Life, Health and Learning. An Independent Report on the EYFS to Her Majesty’s Government. TUDOR HART, J. (1971) The Inverse Care Law The Lancet, 29: 405-12 UNDERDOWN, A. (2007) Young Children’s Health and Well Being. Maidenhead. Open University Press UNITED NATIONS (1989) The United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child. New York. United Nations (http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Rights_overview.pdf (last accessed 10/6/11) UNICEF (2007) An overview of child well being in rich countries: a comprehensive assessment of the lives and well being of children and adolescents in the economically advanced nations, Innocent Research Centre, Report Card 7, UNICEF UTTING, D. MONTEIRO, H. and GHATE, D. (2007) Interventions for children at risk of developing antisocial personality disorder, London: Policy Research Bureau WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO) (1948) The Constitution of the World Health Organsiation. WHO. Chronicle 1 WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (1986) The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. Ottawa. WHO

7 Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues Rosemary Furey

Chapter Outline Introduction 181 Contested aspects of child protection 182 Definitions of abuse 187 The impact of abuse on children’s development 190 Responding to child abuse 195 Processes following a referral to children’s social care services 198 Legal and statutory guidance 206 Why do some parents harm their children? 208 Conclusion 211

Introduction Child protection is a core activity for practitioners and refers to practices that aim to keep children safe from child abuse and maltreatment. The term safeguarding refers to being alert to the wider context of children’s lives and ensuring that children grow up in circumstances that will maximize their life chances. Safeguarding requires a focus on all children’s safety and wellbeing, while child protection may be seen as a component of safeguarding and is about ensuring a specific child is protected from suffering maltreatment. In practice many professionals use the term safeguarding to mean child protection, but it is important to be aware of the distinction. (For the statutory definition, refer to DCSF, 2010: 1.20, 34) Child protection is a facet of good practice as well as a statutory responsibility for practitioners in the early years. This duty is set out in section 11 of



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Good Practice in the Early Years the Children Act, 2004, which requires Local Authorities to make arrangements to safeguard children and promote their welfare. In addition, education providers have to comply with similar requirements under Section 175 of the Education Act, 2002. Early year providers also have a duty to comply with the welfare requirements of the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS). The Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage (DCSF, 2008) stipulates that early years providers must take steps to safeguard and promote the welfare of children, and must follow the guidance in the government document, ‘What to do if you’re worried a child is being abused’ (DFES, 2006). This guidance lays out detailed steps to follow in the event of a child protection concern. The EYFS states that practitioners should ‘have up to date knowledge and understanding of safeguarding issues and be able to respond appropriately to signs of maltreatment’ (DCSF, 2008: 22). Taken together, this indicates a very clear duty for providers of services and practitioners who work with children to safeguard children and protect them from abuse. Practitioners in early years settings need to be clear what their responsibilities are in terms of protecting children from abuse and neglect, but they also need to understand the limits of their role. This chapter discusses the role of early years practitioners in child protection processes, and also the roles of other key professionals. This chapter covers the following: • Contested aspects of child protection • Definitions of child abuse • The impact of child abuse on children’s development • Responding to child abuse • Processes following a child protection referral • Legislation and statutory guidance • Why do some parents harm their children?

Contested aspects of child protection The process of protecting children is not straightforward because, despite the clarity of the statutory requirements, protecting children is often perceived as complex and challenging, involving emotional and ethical dilemmas (Parton, 2006). One of the reasons for this is the uncertainty about involvement in child protection, an uncertainty which exists on several levels.



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Family privacy One of the main contested areas of child protection is the concept of the privacy of the family and its right to exist without undue interference from the state. Currently Article 8 of the Human Rights Act (1988) upholds the right to a private family life. However, this right is qualified and may need to be balanced against a child’s right not to be maltreated, under Article 3 of the Act. The law continues to reflect society’s deeply held view that the family is a private space and that parents should be free to bring up children as they think best. The expectation has been that the family should look after its children and provide for their needs and the state should not interfere. At the same time, society has long held a view that its vulnerable members should be protected. The issue therefore is whether harm suffered by a child is sufficient to warrant compulsory intervention in family life. This dilemma is rooted in the historical development of welfare legislation. With the development of ideas of individual rights from the eighteenth century, society has gradually moved towards accepting that individuals within the family should not be entirely exempt from the standards that apply in public spaces. The development of individual rights was given impetus in the nineteenth century, which saw rapid industrialization and work moving outside of the home. The traditional ordering of society based on land and title, and the moral authority of the church, had less relevance for a workforce not tied to the land and which moved into growing towns and was both less supported by and less accountable to these traditional forms of authority. The exploitation of workers gave rise to demands for legislation to provide some degree of protection from long hours, low pay and dangerous conditions, including the protection of child workers. The conditions that children lived and worked in and the treatment they received had begun to attract attention. Concern with the conditions of child workers led to laws protecting children in the workforce (for example, the 1833 Factory Act prohibited the employment of children under nine years of age, and the 1878 Factory Act prohibited employment of children under 10). Organizations concerned with the treatment of children within the family also began to emerge, as philanthropic organizations turned to the conditions of children in the home as well as in factories and mills. The NSPCC, originating at this time, became a major influential charity. However, the contemporary concern was about responding to abuse rather than trying to prevent it. The privacy of the family was still a line that could not be crossed except where abuse was serious enough to result in criminal

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Good Practice in the Early Years prosecution. The first major challenge to the idea of family privacy was the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act of 1889. Further legislation was implemented, including the Children Act (1908) which gained widespread approval and acceptance of the notion that the duty of the state lay in intervening to protect children where the lack of care on the part of a parent resulted in harm to the child. The debate about when and how to intervene in families is still a contested point. Consequently, social workers face condemnation when an intervention turns out to have been unnecessary; and similar condemnation where intervention fails to protect a child. This relates to society’s ongoing ambivalence about the notion of intervention in the private sphere of the family. Intervention must therefore be sensitive to the family’s strengths as well as areas of difficulty, and any intervention must be in proportion to the level of need. One of the complex issues at stake, then, is how actual or potential harm to the child is defined and understood.

Determining what is abusive Defining what counts as child abuse is itself an area of tension and conflict, so that reaching professional agreement on what is meant by abuse can itself be contentious. To illustrate this point, consider the age at which you would feel confident about leaving a child alone, unsupervised, in the family home. The age of the child is a factor in the judgement, but so too is for how long the child is left alone. It may also be important to consider whether the child can summon help if needed. What if the child is looking after a younger sibling? How often does this happen, and does it include overnight care? What are the reasons for the child/children being left alone, and what kind of harm might the child/ children come to? This shows that it is often not just the bald fact of whether the child is left alone that helps to decide if the child is exposed to risk of harm, but that knowing the context helps in reaching a judgement about the risk of harm.

Reflection point Consider which of these statements indicate risk of harm to the child, and try to identify what type of harm could result. Do you need more information to form a view of the level of risk? • Child aged six fasting for religious observances.



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• Child of five years is severely punished for spilling a drink • 18-month-old infant is left sleeping in their cot while mother goes to the shop for milk, taking 20 minutes • Child of three is smacked for running into the road, and this leaves bruising on the legs • Child aged 12 months is left in the buggy for several hours a day and not interacted with • Child of three years is slapped hard enough to leave a mark, for swearing • Child aged five is denied meals as the parents report that the child is greedy • Chid of four years is aggressive in play with other children and has tantrums if staff intervene. The child steals other children’s things • Child of four years constantly talks about sexual matters in a detailed and explicit way • Child of five years is beaten for stealing and then lying about it • Child of five is expected to do homework for several hours after school • Parent explains that, within their culture, children are hit if they are disobedient to adults to teach respect for adults and to ensure that they learn right from wrong. • Child of two years is made to face the wall at dinner for throwing food • Child is made to stand to attention when parent enters the room: parent explains that this is common in their culture • Child of three years has bruising on the face which is explained as being due to falling over and landing on a toy • Child of four is taken to nursery by a 10-year-old sister • A baby sleeps in his parents’ bed • A female child is given few toys or new clothes, while her brother is indulged.

A range of influences are involved in deciding whether a child is at risk of abuse. These may involve the practitioner fearing to make a mistake, such as: • fear of how the parents will react • fear of damaging relationships with the family • anxiety for the child and fear of leaving the child exposed to risk • fear of lacking experience or knowledge on which to base a judgement • worry about loss of control over what happens • anxiety about not understanding different cultures • worry about being seen as incompetent • fear of overreacting, or fear that other agencies will overreact • worry about making things worse for the child and family.

These are understandable anxieties and common to most practitioners who have concerns for a child’s safety. However, it is important to recognize that,

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Good Practice in the Early Years where a concern arises there will be an experienced member of staff in the setting with whom such concerns can be discussed and who can provide advice about whether any further action is needed.

Cultural issues As you may have realized from the examples in the reflection above, practitioners need to be sensitive and knowledgeable about cultures different from their own. Culture refers to the values and belief systems held by an individual that are shared by a community. It is important to be aware of one’s limitations when working across cultures. Assumption based on race can be just as corrosive in its effect as blatant racism … racism can affect the way people conduct themselves in other ways. Fear of being accused of racism can stop people acting when otherwise they would. Assumptions that people of the same colour, but from different backgrounds, behave in similar ways can distort judgments. (Laming, 2003: 1.63)

Sensitivity to cultural mores is an important aspect of practice. With this in mind, the welfare of the child and the need to act within the law have to be definitive guides when judging potential risk of harm. Although cultural traditions are an important aspect of identity, it is important that practitioners understand that most traditions do not sanction harming children: it is therefore good practice to seek expert advice if you are unsure about a behaviour that you feel may be harmful to a child. There is some evidence to suggest that one of the consequences of an exclusive focus on ‘culture’ in work with black children and families, is [that] it leaves black and ethnic minority children in potentially dangerous situations, because the assessment has failed to address a child’s fundamental care and protection needs. (Ratna Dutt, director, Race Equality Unit, in Laming, 2003: 16.345)

Similarly, poor standards of care for children who live in deprived neighbourhoods should not be overlooked because of claims that a lesser standard is somehow acceptable (Brandon et al., 2008). Reviews of practice where children have died or been seriously injured have revealed professional stereotyping, both of working-class cultures and of black families. Victoria Climbié, who died from physical abuse and neglect in 2000, was assumed to stand to attention in the presence of her aunt because of cultural expectations, rather than as being indicative of her extreme fear of her aunt (Laming, 2003). It is also important to acknowledge that practitioners



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will draw on their personal experiences when making judgements of whether a child is at risk of harm. This may be beneficial in some cases because of the insight that personal experience may contribute, but care should be taken, as not every childhood is alike. For example, one child’s experience of family violence may have little in common with another’s. It is therefore important that early years practitioners have sufficient knowledge and skill to identify aspects of a child’s presentation that are suggestive of abuse. It is equally important that early years practitioners have access to professional support and advice when deciding whether behaviour may be indicative of abuse.

Definitions of abuse ‘Child abuse’ and ‘neglect’ are terms used to describe the maltreatment of children caused by a failure of care. The term child abuse is taken here to include neglect. It is worth pointing out that most parents do not abuse their children. Of the 11 million children in the UK, in 2010 there were 35,700 children who were recorded as having been at risk of abuse. Although this is a lot of children, as a part of the total child population it represents a small fraction. Most children are cared for safely and well by their parents and enjoy safe and loving homes. However, for some children this is not the case. Trying to decide whether you should be worried about a child can be stressful and provoke anxiety. A range of issues could arouse concern, and these tend to be grouped into types of harm. Working Together to Safeguard Children (DCSF, 2010) groups them into four main categories, and these are: • physical injury • neglect • emotional abuse • sexual abuse.

In addition, the Children and Adoption Act (2002) states that it is harmful to children to witness violence to others. This recognizes that situations such as witnessing, which includes seeing and hearing, domestic abuse can be a source of harm for children. Government guidance in Working Together to Safeguard Children provides a formal definition of abuse, which is the standard of harm that constitutes significant harm in English law. In essence, where the harm to the child is so serious as to cause impaired health and development, and is brought about by a failure in parenting, then this constitutes child abuse and requires a child protection response.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Working Together gives the following definitions of abuse (DCSF, 2010: 1.33-1.36; 38–9): Physical abuse is the inflicting of physical harm on a child. The law is clear that this is abuse and parents can be prosecuted for physically assaulting their child. However, although there was some amendment in 2004, English law continues to allow parents to physically chastise their child. In cases where this is so severe that it amounts to assault, this falls outside of the law. Chastisement that leaves a visible mark would be classed as an assault. Neglect is the persistent failure to meet the child’s physical and psychological needs such as to cause impaired health and development. It includes failure to provide adequate care and supervision, or abandonment of the child, and can be described as a breakdown in the care-taking relationship. Emotional abuse is sustained emotional mistreatment of a child which causes severe and persistent effects on their emotional development. It can include expectations beyond the child’s capacities as well as over-protection of the child so as to limit their normal social, emotional and educational development. Some level of emotional abuse is involved in all types of maltreatment of a child, though it may occur alone. Sexual abuse is where an adult forces or entices a child to become involved in sexual activities whether or not the child is aware of what is happening. It can include contact and non-contact activities such as involving children in the production of pornographic materials.

Signs of abuse The underlying factor common to all these forms of abuse is the breakdown in the care-giving relationship. When considering possible signs of abuse in the children in your care, the quality of the relationship between the child and the parent is the most significant factor that should alert you to the possibility of harm. Signs of physical injury can include the following: Suspicious bruising: bruising that shows the shape of the object that cased the injury. For example, line bruising can be indicative of a slap mark by the hand, whereas small circular bruises (finger-tip bruising) may be the result of the child being gripped. Bruising to the cheeks may indicate a baby being grabbed by the face. Any bruising on a baby who is not mobile should be



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treated as suspicious. The severity of the bruise may not be as important as a pattern of regular bruising occurring at different times. The location of bruises is important. Most pre-school children will have some bruises but these are likely to be on bony parts of the body rather than on the soft areas, as falls and bumps tend to mark shins, elbows and knees. Black eyes almost always should be a cause of concern, especially where the explanation does not seem adequate. Explanations for injuries: when the explanation does not seem to match or account for the injury, this should alert you to suspect abuse. In addition, you should be concerned where there is no explanation for injuries, or where the explanation changes. Concern should also be aroused where there is a delay in seeking treatment. Signs of neglect can include the following: Physical development may be delayed, or there are signs of poor development such as the child being underweight or showing poor growth. The child may be thin and appear uncared-for. Hygiene may be poor, or there may be frequent untreated instances of nappy rash or head lice; clothes may be smelly and the child unwashed. The child may present as tired and under-stimulated, and lack concentration. The child may be often hungry or tired and there may be a lack of interest shown by the child’s carers in aspects of the child’s care. There may be a lack of certainty about who will collect the child from the setting and possibly multiple temporary caretakers. Signs of emotional abuse can include the following: The child may fail to grow and have poor levels of development. There may be soiling or poor levels of bladder control; poor sleeping or eating patterns. Hiding or running away, isolation and not seeking contact with adults or other children are other signs of concern. The child may have a lifeless wan appearance, and present as sad. On the other hand, some children who are being emotionally abused may be aggressive and attention-seeking. Signs of sexual abuse can include the following: There may be soreness or redness or bruises around the genital area and possibly discharge or bleeding. The child may be involved in sexualized play and language and behaviour, including sexual behaviour towards other children and adults. Other behavioural signs are regressive behaviour, where the child’s behaviour reverts to earlier patterns from a previous age or stage

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Good Practice in the Early Years of development. The child may show aggression, anger and hostility, or may be over-sensitive. Other indicators: Children sometimes will tell you what is happening, such as disclosing sexual abuse or that they have been physically harmed. They may inadvertently reveal harm in conversation – for example, they may tell you about watching pornographic images or of being left alone, or of adult behaviour that causes concern, such as drug use or domestic abuse.

The impact of abuse on children’s development In this section, the impact of abuse on children’s development will be discussed. This is important for a number of reasons. The nature of the abuse, the severity of abuse and its duration as well as the child’s relationship with the abuser, are all important factors in how the abuse affects the child. These factors are important to the decision-making process that professionals undertake when considering how to intervene in situations where the level of care provided for the child is less than optimal. For example, a single incident of neglect may not be viewed as a serious problem requiring intervention, yet the outcomes for children who experience on-going and persistent neglect can be fatal, or may cause severe developmental delay. It is therefore important that all practitioners who work with children have an understanding of the impact of abuse on children’s development. Some of the consequences of abuse are difficult to isolate to a particular kind of abusive experience, because many children will experience more than one form of abuse. Thus, children identified as having suffered from physical abuse may also have suffered from neglect or emotional abuse. It is a common research finding that children who have suffered from abuse are more at risk of depression and poor self-esteem (Hanks and Stratton, 2007; Gibbons et al., 1995; Reder and Lucey, 1995; Reder et al., 2003). Beckett (2007) refers to a study by Gibbons et al. (1995) which examined the impact of child abuse by comparing factors present in children who had been abused with children who had not. The findings indicated that, where neglect and physical injury co-existed, they were significantly linked with poor behaviours at school and raised levels of depression. Similar outcomes in terms of depression were noted in children



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who had suffered actual violence or had been at risk of such violence, leading Beckett to conclude that it was the atmosphere of violence that was psychologically harmful.

Outcomes of physical abuse Physical abuse is by definition a type of harm, so that the obvious consequence is physical injury. Sometimes this is severe, life-threatening or fatal. When a child dies or comes to serious harm, there is a requirement that the Local Authority undertakes a review of the involvement of all agencies that were involved with the child and their family. This is produced as a report which makes recommendations for future practice, to enable professionals and agencies to learn from mistakes in order to more effectively protect children in the future. This report is called a Serious Case Review. Every year a summary of these reviews is published. The report relating to 2003–5 noted that over two-thirds of the children were aged less than five years old and almost half were less than a year old. Of the cases examined in this study, two thirds of the children had died. The highest risk of maltreatment related deaths and serious injury are in the first five years of life. Physical assault was the major cause of death for this age group. (DCSF, 2009: 2)

This highlights that the physical consequences of abuse range from quite serious physical injury to serious injury and death. In terms of psychological consequences, behaviour problems such as aggression are more likely. Beckett (2007) suggests that physical abuse ‘should be regarded as one of the indicators of an abusive parent–child relationship, but that it is the abusive relationship itself that mainly causes long-term psychological harm’ (Beckett, 2007: 100–1).

Outcomes of neglect The consequences of neglect frequently include overall developmental delay. In infancy, a high degree of infant passivity has been noted, and this has implications for cognitive and social development (Hanks and Stratton, 2007). Passivity is where the infant shows no curiosity or interest in interacting with people or their surroundings. Alternatively, Hanks and Stratton also note that infants may be very active, but totally unfocused when older. Children who have suffered neglect may also have poor speech and learning abilities and may have stunted growth. Infants and children who have been neglected are

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Good Practice in the Early Years likely to have very poor relationships with their parents. This will be evident in the quality of the child’s attachment to their carer. Attachment describes the quality of the child’s sense of trust and security, and comes from having their physical and emotional needs met by their main carers. This enables the child to develop as a confident learner and as socially competent. Attachmentassociated problems include negative self-image, poor self-esteem, poor skills in forming friendships and relationships, and impaired social and emotional development (Howe, 2005; Corby, 2006). (For further discussion on attachment, see Chapter 5.) Studies referred to by Corby (2006) suggest that, by the age of six, neglected children are of significant concern and are very low achievers in school. Neglected children are more likely to be withdrawn and socially isolated. They are likely to have more childhood illnesses and as infants may present at health settings with recurrent infections. The consequences include longterm developmental delay, though this depends on the severity of neglect, the age at onset and the duration. Neurological research indicates that children who are severely neglected do not receive the necessary stimulation to promote brain development and that brain images of severely neglected children show an irreversible lack of neurological development. Clearly the consequences of neglect are potentially serious and longterm.

Outcomes of emotional abuse The impact of emotional abuse is difficult to isolate, as this type of abuse is present in all other types of maltreatment. Tanner and Turney (2005) go so far as to suggest that ‘it is the emotional component present in all cases of abuse that causes the most serious damage to children’, rather than the actual physical harm or neglec. Emotional abuse has consequences for the child’s social and intellectual functioning, and children who have been emotionally abused are more likely to experience anxiety, and less likely to persist with problem-solving (Egeland et al., 1988). Research indicates that emotionally abused children ‘were passive and cognitively delayed before they reached year one’ (Wilson and James, 2007: 107).

Outcomes of sexual abuse The impact of sexual abuse is dependent on a number of factors. The most important include: • the nature of the abuse



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• the relationship between the child and the abuser, with reference to the degree of trust which could have been expected within that type of relationship • whether the abuser is a member of the child’s household or family environment • the duration of the abuse • whether anyone else in the family is aware and how they respond • the age of the child.

These factors are importantly related to a child’s chances and level of recovery from the abuse. Much of our knowledge of the impact of sexual abuse is from adults who did not feel able to disclose what was happening to them as children but indicate that the effects have been enduring. The breach of trust is an important facet of sexual abuse, and the distorted family and sexual relationships are significant consequences of sexual abuse. It can be difficult to separate the impact of sexual abuse from the impact of the family functioning. Studies have linked depression and anxiety to sexual abuse (Corby, 2006). However, many of the reported studies point out that, as other forms of abuse were often present, such as emotional abuse and neglect, or physical abuse, it is difficult to be definitive when linking outcomes with sexual abuse. Most studies none the less agree that depression, low self-esteem, anxiety, unclear sexual boundaries and difficulty in forming satisfying relationships are commonly found among children who have been sexually abused. However, some studies suggest that pre-school children who have been sexually abused may be very self-confident (Gomes-Schwartz et al., 1990). This may be associated with being singled out as ‘important’ in the family and given status by the abuser as a means of encouraging on-going compliance. A very young child may not know they are being abused. This makes identification and intervention particularly complex when responding to sexual abuse in young children. Gomes-Schwartz et al. (1990) also reported cognitive and developmental delays among sexually abused pre-school children, though again they point out that these problems may have existed prior to the abuse. However, as many studies testify to a range of psychological difficulties present in children who have been sexually abused, it can be said that there is at least a correlation between sexual abuse and impaired social and emotional functioning, and that for some children these effects will be severe and enduring. Factors associated with more longterm adverse consequences include the type of abuse, the relationship with the abuser, and whether the child is protected from further abuse including the reaction of the non-abusing parent.

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Online sexual exploitation of young children Other forms of sexual abuse relevant to young children include activities that are harmful to children whether or not the child is aware of the abuse – for example, the distribution and viewing of sexually exploitative images of children. The sexual exploitation of children in this way promotes a climate in which children are deemed to be available for adult sexual gratification. Children may be filmed or photographed, as in the case involving children in a private nursery who were filmed by a member of staff using a mobile phone, so breaching the trust of the children and their parents. Children may be involved in sexual activities that they are too young to comprehend. By such means, the child is inappropriately sexualized, which may result in a distortion of the child’s sense of self. For older children, feelings of shame and guilt are commonly associated with child sexual abuse, and it is unlikely that this would be less common where images are widely distributed. Online child exploitation is a serious harm to children which the police initiative, Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP), was set up to address. CEOP’s stated aims are to: Identify, locate and protect children and young people from sexual exploitation and online abuse and to protect children from sexual offenders, in particular those who use the internet and other new technologies in the sexual exploitation of children. (CEOP, 2011)

Between 2006 and 2010, CEOP successfully prosecuted 1131 offenders and safeguarded 624 children. In October 2010 the government announced that CEOP would be merged with a new National Crime Agency from 2013, which resulted in the resignation of its chief executive in protest that protecting children would lose focus within the wider remit of the new agency.

The role of the practitioner in identifying abuse Child abuse can and does affect the lives of thousands of children in the UK. While child maltreatment takes many forms, a common factor in recognizing which children are potentially at risk of maltreatment is the ability of practitioners who work with children to become attuned to their needs. Practitioners who know the children in their care are more likely to be alert to any changes in a child, and be able to respond to these. Skilled practitioners will have an on-going relationship with the child and their parents, so that as far as possible the practitioner has some idea of what daily life is like for



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the child. In addition, for practitioners working with children in the early years, knowledge of the nature of the child’s relationship with their parents is critical. A study by the Department of Health in 1995 (DoH, 1995) emphasized that an atmosphere of high criticism and low warmth was associated with poor outcomes and highly associated with child abuse. This highlights that abuse manifests itself in problematic parent–child relationships.

Responding to child abuse The essential issue is that practitioners working with children have the knowledge and skill to recognize when to be concerned that a child may be at risk of significant harm. This requires that the practitioner knows what signs to be alert to and what to do when there is a suspicion that a child may be at risk. Factors that may indicate harm have been discussed above, but it is worth re-stating that the signs of neglect should not be given a lower priority than other forms of abuse, and that the cumulative impact of neglect can be serious and enduring. Having said that, there is often a degree of urgency associated with physical abuse, as the harm is immediate in its effect. Once a practitioner suspects a child may be at risk, the next step may depend on what has raised the suspicion. If the concern is of possible physical abuse, this may have arisen because the child has unusual injuries, has an unexplained mark, has a mark or injury which does not quite seem to match the explanation offered or the explanation changes, or the child makes a direct allegation about the cause of the injury. In these circumstances, the practitioner may ask the child what happened. This is the kind of question that should be asked in any situation where a young child presents with an injury, and is appropriate to the situation. If the child is willing to discuss what happened, it is good practice to listen carefully to the child and, where appropriate, provide reassurance that you want to help the child. It is not appropriate to interrogate the child. A record should be made of any marks and any conversations with the child about the situation. A thorny issue is whether to discuss such concerns with parents. Such a discussion may allay concerns. On the other hand, it may neither allay concerns nor reduce anxiety that the child may have been abused. At worse it may expose the child to greater risk of harm. It is therefore best practice and in accordance with guidance (DFES, 2006; DCSF, 2010) to discuss concerns with an appropriate person within the setting. This is the designated child protection person, who will be a senior member of staff who has had advanced training in child protection. The designated person

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Good Practice in the Early Years may be the manager in some private settings. The designated person will need to provide advice and to agree with the practitioner how to address the concern. A decision will be made about whether to refer the concern to the local Children’s Social Care Services (social services). This referral is a formal request for services for the child, based on the suspicion that the child may have been abused. Guidance on this is laid out in ‘What to do if you’re worried a child is being abused’ (DoH, 2006). Essentially, where there is a suspicious injury, there should always be consultation with Children’s Social Care Services. This does not have to constitute a referral, but advice can be sought if there is uncertainty. DCSF (2010) advises that, where a child is referred to children’s social care, the parents must be informed, unless to do so would place the child at greater risk. Social Care Services can provide advice on this. In most cases, the expectation would be that the referring agency would inform the parents of the referral. A referral is usually by telephone if it is urgent, but must be followed up in writing within 48 hours. The need for all practitioners working with children to be alert to indications of possible child abuse was reinforced by the Laming Report (2003). This was an inquiry commissioned by the government into the death of an eight-year-old child, Victoria Climbié, and which made a series of recommendations to improve the protection of children. One of the key messages was that the protection of children depends on the skill of frontline practitioners (such as early years practitioners) in recognizing and responding to signs that suggest the possibility that a child may be at risk of abuse. This message was reinforced 2009 in a report by Lord Laming following the death of Peter Connelly (Baby P) from abuse at the age of 20 months.

Case study: Recognising indicators of child abuse Alice is two years old. Her parents, James and Nicky, are not in work. Nicky has just found out that she is pregnant. She says that she is pleased but worried about money, as she had been planning to take up a job in the local supermarket. Alice is a very withdrawn little girl. She is underweight, pale and lacks energy. She does not seem to approach her mum very confidently when her mum picks her up after nursery. Alice was born at full term but with low birth weight. She has a tendency to respiratory problems and has had several hospital admissions. Alice’s speech is delayed and she seems to have difficulties with simple tasks.



Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues

The nursery staff express concerns about Alice’s poor attendance, as they believe her speech and general development would benefit from more frequent attendance. Nicky and James are very hostile to this suggestion, which they see as a criticism of their care, and say they may look for a better nursery. Alice does not attend for several days. On her return a fading bruise is noticed on her buttocks and on the top of her legs. • Do you think Alice has suffered or is likely to suffer significant harm? Give reasons and identify what category of harm you think is most likely. • What should the practitioner do? • Do you think this case should be referred to Children’s Social Care Services? • What kind of discussion should the nursery have with the parents?

There is a risk of significant harm in the above case study, and hopefully the practitioner who noticed the bruising will have identified this. Physical abuse is the most likely category. The practitioner should discuss what has been seen with the designated person. As the child may be unable to give any explanation, there is concern about how the marks were caused. Asking the parents may not be productive, given their previously hostile response to raising concerns and the threat not to return Alice to the nursery. The designated person should feel sufficiently concerned to refer this to Children’s Social Care Services. If advice were sought, the advice would be to refer. The setting is likely to be asked to inform the parents of the referral. This is a difficult discussion and one that the designated person will lead on. There is always a risk that the relationship with the parents will be adversely affected; however, the purpose of such relationships must primarily be to benefit the child and family, and this has to be in the context of an honest and professional relationship which prioritizes the child’s safety and wellbeing. None the less, it is appropriate for the setting to recognize that this is a stressful role and support in dealing with professional anxiety constitutes good practice. It is important to explore personal feelings about child abuse and ensure that support is provided in working through the feelings that such incidents provoke.

The practitioner’s role after referral Practitioners are likely to have an on-going role with the child and family, following a referral to social care services. Parents may feel very insecure following a referral to social care services at this stage.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Practitioners need to offer a non-judgemental but honest and supportive approach. Every situation is different, and it should be borne in mind that most families can be supported to provide good enough care even where abuse has occurred. However, where it is suspected that abuse may have occurred, it is the practitioner’s duty to pass on such concerns. It is not the practitioner’s responsibility to enquire or decide if abuse has occurred. That is the role of the social worker, whereas the responsibility of the practitioner is to refer a suspicion that a child may have been abused.

Summary • Where there are reasonable grounds to suspect a child may be at risk of harm, a concerned practitioner should record the factors that have led to the concern and discuss them with the designated person in the setting. • A decision about the need to refer the concern to Children’s Social Care Services should be taken, and this should be recorded, including if appropriate the reasons why a decision was taken not to refer to Children’s Social Care Services. • Where there is a suspicious injury or allegation of abuse, the expectation is that this would result in a referral. • Parents should be informed of such a referral unless to do so would place the child at risk of harm.

Processes following a referral to children’s social care services The next stages of child protection procedures depend on whether the assessments resulting from the referral indicate the child is at risk of significant harm. In situations where this is the case, the following key steps would apply: • An initial assessment of the child and family • The initial assessment would lead to a strategy meeting • The strategy meeting may conclude that there is a need to carry out further enquiries to decide if the child is at risk and to safeguard the child • Enquiries are made under the Children Act (1898) section 47 • A Core Assessment of the child and family should take place • A Child Protection Case Conference is convened • The Child Protection Case Conference decides if a Child Protection Plan or a Child In Need Plan is to be put in place • The Core Assessment continues • The child’s plan is reviewed at least every 6 months.



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Each of these steps will be discussed here in turn. The process is laid out in statutory guidance, which means that it must be followed. The guidance document The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and Their Families stipulates what factors should be assessed and lays out strict time scales (DoH, 2000).

Initial assessment Once a referral has been received, social care services need to decide whether the referral is appropriate. The referrer must be informed within one day of referral what action will be taken. Where the referral is accepted, an initial assessment is required. This is an assessment undertaken by a social worker to determine the child’s current situation, including whether the child appears to be at risk of harm. This cannot be decided without some assessment taking place. Current guidance is that the initial assessment should take no longer than 10 days, but this may be briefer where there is a clear child protection issue (DCSF, 2010; DFES, 2006). However, there has been criticism of this blanket timescale, as some children may require more time to be able to tell the social worker their concerns and for children with communication difficulties the 10-day timescales may not be realistic. It has been suggested that pre-existing assessments undertaken by multi-agency teams already working with the child, such as a Common Assessment, should be able to replace the need for an initial assessment (Munro, 2011). This is an interesting development that clearly has merit. However, the current situation remains that the Initial Assessment should be undertaken by a social worker following a case being accepted by Children’s Social Care Services, although any existing assessment would inform the social worker’s assessment. During this assessment, depending on the child’s circumstances, the social worker contacts other agencies working with the child for information and sees the child and the parents. The Initial Assessment may conclude that there is no need for any further social care work involvement, or may conclude that the child has complex needs, though there are no child protection issues. In the latter case, a more detailed assessment may be undertaken by a social worker. This assessment is called a Core Assessment. DoH (2000) allows 35 working days for this to be completed. Similarly to the above, Munro (2011) suggests that the timescales should be flexible depending on the details of the case. Against that is the need for decisions to be made to avoid lack of clear planning for children.

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Strategy meeting In cases where the social worker carrying out the Initial Assessment concludes that there are child protection concerns, then there should be a strategy meeting (DCSF, 2010). The purpose of the strategy meeting is to make a formal decision to undertake enquiries to determine if there are reasonable grounds to suspect the child is at risk of harm, and what, if any, action needs to be taken to protect the child, as well as any other child who may also be affected. Only a social worker, the police, or the NSPCC may undertake these enquiries, and are allowed to do so under section 47 of the Children Act (1989). Other practitioners should therefore not themselves start to make such enquiries. The role of an early years practitioner is to provide information to a social worker who is making child protecting enquiries. This means that information that would help a social worker, but which the practitioner believes to have been given to them in confidence, should usually be provided to help determine whether the child is at risk. If there is doubt, advice should be sought. For further information on this point see DFES, 2006: 5. Because social care services and the police are able to make these enquiries, they are the key agencies involved at this stage. Both agencies have a duty to protect the child from further harm. In addition, as there may have been a crime committed, the police will agree with the social worker how any police enquiries into a possible crime will be addressed. Other involved agencies will be invited to the strategy meeting to assist in planning the child protection investigation. The strategy meeting is therefore charged with making a decision whether to start section 47 enquiries and then to plan the child protection investigation. Early years practitioners should be invited to this meeting. Because of the urgency involved, it is usual for a strategy meeting to take place at short notice, which means that in practice some agencies are not able to attend. However, because of their lead role in child protection, the police and social care services must liaise at this stage, even if only by telephone. The strategy meeting also results in the social worker moving from initial to core assessment, that will take place alongside the child protection enquiries. The core assessment is discussed below, but first there follows an explanation of how child protection enquiries are undertaken.



Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues

Child protection enquiries: Section 47 Children Act (1989) The enquiries are typically undertaken by social care services, who will contact other agencies which may be involved with the child and the child’s family. These agencies may include early years services, schools, and health services such as the GP, health visitor and midwife, if appropriate, and any other services that have had contact with the child or family. Adult agencies may include the probation service, police and, if appropriate, substance misuse services, mental health workers or services providing support to the family. If there are other children in the family, the social worker undertaking section 47 enquiries would need to make similar enquiries about the other children. The purpose of these enquiries is to obtain sufficient information about the child and the family’s situation to establish whether there needs to be any action taken to protect the child. The Children Act (1989) therefore provide other agencies with a duty to help social workers who are making such enquiries. This is usually achieved by disclosing as much information as is useful to provide the social worker with a sound basis on which to make a decision about level of risk to the child or other children in the household. The kind of information that may be useful from an early years practitioner could include information about the child’s appearance, such as cleanliness, clothing, whether nappies appear to be changed regularly, and level of hygiene. Other factors are the child’s attendance level at the setting and the reliability of the parents in meeting the child’s needs, such as providing food and material goods, and collecting the child on time. Information on the level of interest shown in the child by the parents and the degree of pleasure taken in the child can be drawn from observations of their relationship. Early years practitioners are likely to be able to comment on the child’s behaviour and emotional development, the child’s interaction and responsiveness to others, including staff and other children, and any injuries or concerns previously noted. Any other information about the child and family that may assist the social worker in building a picture of the child’s care should be passed on. These aspects are important indicators of how the child is positioned and viewed within the family, and of the extent to which the parents are capable of meeting the child’s needs. This will help the social worker to understand the positive factors in the child’s current situation as well as identifying any factors that would indicate the extent to which child’s needs are not being met. Taken together, these will help to assess how far the child’s parents are

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Good Practice in the Early Years capable of meeting the child’s needs and the degree to which the child is at risk of ongoing harm. As part of the section 47 enquiries, the social worker may need to arrange a full medical assessment of the child. This will usually be carried out be a paediatrician, an expert in children’s health. It is not appropriate for this assessment to be undertaken by the GP as GPs are not specialists in children’s health. Where the child has sustained physical harm, the assessment will often include a skeletal survey to identify any previous broken bones or fractures. In cases of neglect, a developmental assessment is particularly important, and where there is sexual abuse concerns a genital examination may be needed. Parental consent is needed in all cases of medical intervention. If this is withheld, the court will be asked for an order allowing the medical examination to take place. This medical assessment should not be seen as determinative but it does, however, provide very significant information about the child’s health. It may potentially provide an opinion about the cause of any injuries, including the extent to which any explanation offered is plausible, or whether the injury is more likely to have not been accidental. Only a paediatrician can offer expert medical advice on this matter, and the medical examination is therefore an important part of the section 47 enquiries.

Core assessment The point at which the different stages of the core assessment start is flexible and depends on the degree of urgency. This in turn depends on the nature of the information that emerges from the initial assessment and the child protection enquiries. Once a decision is taken to begin child protection enquiries, the social worker also moves into a core assessment (DoH, 2000). The core assessment will build on the information obtained so far. The core assessment is meant to be an in-depth assessment focusing on all aspects of the child’s care. Guidance on undertaking this assessment is laid down by DoH (2000) and includes a careful assessment of: • the child’s needs • the capacity of the parents to meet these needs • the influence of factors such as family history and the family’s social environment.

The social worker is the lead professional undertaking the assessment, but again will need the assistance of other agencies. The timescale for the completion of a core assessment is a maximum of 35 working days (DoH, 2000).



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There will now be parallel processes taking place (the core assessment alongside child protection enquiries). The core assessment may be ongoing, whereas the enquiries under section 47 of the Children Act need to more quickly determine if action is needed to protect the child. It is therefore expected that within 15 days of the strategy meeting a multi-agency meeting will be held. This is so that all agencies involved can discuss the situation, reach a shared view about whether the child is at continuing risk, and draw up a plan to ensure the child’s safety. The meeting is called a child protection conference. It is the responsibility of the social worker to decide if a child protection conference is appropriate.

Child protection conference The social worker and their manager will decide if a child protection conference is appropriate, and will contact the Local Safeguarding Services, who will arrange and chair the conference. The conference will come to a decision based on the information provided by all agencies, usually in written form, about whether the child is at risk of harm. The parents and child are invited to attend the meeting. The responsibility of the conference is to decide if there is continuing risk of significant harm.

Decisions following a child protection conference. There are three possible decisions which may ensue from a child protection conference. They are: • Decision 1: The child is at risk of continuing harm and requires a child protection plan in order to keep the child safe. Social Care Services are the lead agency responsible for ensuring that the plan is effective in keeping the child safe. Or: • Decision 2: The child is not at risk of harm but has some needs that are not being met, so it is decided to hold a ‘child in need’ meeting. Or: • Decision 3: The child has no or few needs, so it is decided to signpost the family to other sources of support, or no further action is needed.

Following Decision 1 The child may be at continuing risk and need a child protection plan to manage the risk. This would usually involve the child remaining in the family home. However, if it was concluded that the child could not be kept safe in the family home, it may be necessary to apply to the court for an order enabling the Local Authority Social Care Services to accommodate the child in foster care, pending further work with the family to determine longer term plans

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Good Practice in the Early Years for the child. If the family agree to the child being in the care of the Local Authority, it may not be necessary to apply to the court for an order. A child may not be taken into the care of the Local Authority without either the informed agreement of someone who has responsibility for the child (usually the parent) or a court order. Social care services do not themselves have the authority to take a child into care unless one of these two conditions exists.

Following Decision 2 Where the child protection conference or the social worker’s assessment concludes that the child is not at continuing risk of harm, but that there are complex issues that the child and family need support with in order to ensure the child’s health and development are not affected, then a meeting of all agencies working with the child may be held to identify these needs and plan how to meet them. In this situation, the child is deemed to be a ‘child in need’, which is defined under section 17 of the Children Act (1989) as being where the child would not achieve or maintain health and development without the provision of services by the Local Authority. A child who has disabilities comes under the terms of the Act as being a child in need. A child in need plan should be led by a social worker. The expectation in Working Together to Safeguard Children (DCFS, 2010) is that, where a child protection enquiry does not result in identifying significant harm, but identifies complex areas of need, it is incumbent on the Local Authority Social Care Services to plan how such needs will be met. This requirement had always existed within the 1989 Act. However, factors such as the need for social workers to be seen to be protecting children and not making mistakes has meant that resources have been mainly targeted at children at risk of abuse. This had the unintended effect that many children were identified as having complex needs, but because the level of need fell short of preventing significant harm, no services were offered. A major report commissioned by the government’s Child Protection: Messages From Research report (DoH, 1995) concluded that, where child protection enquiries resulted in a decision that the child was not at risk of harm but none the less had complex unmet needs, services under Section 17 of the 1989 Act should be provided. This became known as the ‘refocusing debate’ and was influential in highlighting the need to support families following child protection investigations which concluded no risk of significant harm, but where the child fell into the definition of a child in need. It is important to note that the family can refuse services offered under section 17 of the Act.



Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues

Following Decision 3 The family may be given advice about services they may benefit from. Social Care Services would cease to have any involvement with the family. In situations where a conference believes there is risk of harm, the conference must decide on what kind of harm is most likely. Figure 7.1 provides a breakdown of the 44,400 children who were the subject of a child protection plan in March 2010, in terms of category to harm. Neglect is the largest category of harm. 25,000

20,000

18,300

15,000 12,300 10,000 6300 5,000

4000 2500

0

Neglect

Physical abuse

Sexual abuse

Emotional abuse

Multiple categories

Fig. 7.1  Number of children who were the subject of a child protection plan in March 2010, by initial category of harm Source: Needs a source.

Summary of the child protection process Table 7.1 summarizes the child protection process. Where a child protection plan is needed, the practitioners who have most contact with the child and family constitute a core group of practitioners who meet on a regular basis to ensure that the plan is effective in keeping the child safe. If the level of risk increases, the social worker would need to take immediate steps to safeguard the child and would need to re-convene the conference at the earliest opportunity. The conference should meet every six months to review whether the plan is still needed, as there may have been sufficient improvement in the child’s situation to conclude that a child protection plan is no longer needed. A ‘child in need’ plan may still be appropriate.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Table 7.1  Summary of the child protection process Child protection process Practitioner suspects child

Duty to safeguard child

Referral to Social Care Services

Social care services receive a

Decide referral merits social

Social care services inform referrer

referral

services response

of decision

Social worker allocated to

Social worker contacts other

Decision that child abuse is

complete initial assessment

agencies

suspected

Social worker convenes strategy

Social worker liaises with the

Decide section 47 enquiries are

meeting

police and other agencies

appropriate

maltreatment

including early years Social care services commence

Social worker carries out

Complete section 47 enquiries.

section 47 enquires and core

enquiries by contacting other

Discuss with manager and decide

assessment

agencies for information to

child protection conference is

decide if action needed to

needed

protect the child Convene child protection

Sharing of information.

Child protection conference

conference

Parents and child invited to

decision: child at continuing risk of

attend

significant harm

All agencies have a part in

Regular core group meetings

Child protection plan

keeping the child safe but there are core agencies that have direct regular contact with the child who need to meet regularly to review progress of the plan in keeping the child safe Review child protection conference

Decision: Child still at risk

Amend the child protection plan

or

Child no longer needs a child

Child no longer at risk

protection plan

Legal and statutory guidance The frameworks that exist to guide responses to child maltreatment can seem confusing and may involve following a number of parallel processes. Despite attempts to simplify the process, there remains a level of complexity that many practitioners find unhelpful. The Munro Review (DoE, 2011) identifies current procedures as needlessly complicated and suggests that some of the processes be amalgamated. The existing structure can be summarized under the following headings: • The law (legislative framework) • Statutory guidance.



Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues

The law The Children Act (1989) sets out the law relating to responding to child abuse. Section 47 of the Act provides that social care services are responsible for making enquiries about whether action is needed to protect a child. Section 47 (9) (10) (11) places a duty on services run by the local authority’s departments of education, housing and health to help social care services when they are making such enquiries. The police have a separate duty to investigate criminal offences, including child abuse. There are a number of orders that a social worker can apply for to the court, and these range from orders allowing the child to be removed from the care of the parents to orders that allow a child to live with a family member, or simply to be assessed.

Statutory guidance The main guidance provisions are Working Together to Safeguard Children (DCSF, 2010) and the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH, 2000). These are not instruments of law but they must be followed unless there are exceptional reasons. Working Together lays out procedures for action to safeguard children where there is a child protection concern. The Assessment Framework does not provide procedures but sets out a framework that can be adapted for individual children. It is a framework for how to assess children in need of support. In cases where the need includes need of protection, the Assessment Framework should be read alongside the Working Together guidelines so that the correct child protection procedures are followed at the same time as assessing the child’s overall situation. Working Together makes extensive reference to the Assessment Framework.

Future directions? A number of commentators have suggested that Working Together and the Assessment Framework should be merged into one document and that there should be more room for flexible timescales as well as a more flexible interpretation of how to record and assess the child’s overall situation. In view of the growing weight of such criticism, some change is likely.

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Why do some parents harm their children? Child abuse arouses strong emotions and this depends on a number of things. Personal histories, professional experiences, media influences and personal values and ideology about the family and the rights of parents and children are all important factors. How children are positioned in society and the extent to which they are viewed as entitled to individual rights vis-à-vis their parents exert an influence on individual responses to child abuse as well as how society responds to abuse. Reaction to strangers who kill children is different to public reaction to parents who kill their children. Children who kill other children challenges notions of what it is to be a child and what kind of special status and protection children are deemed deserving of. Without sometimes taking a step back and reflecting on these issues, the danger is that understanding abuse can come to resemble a search for whom to blame. While that may serve a short-term goal, it could be argued that in the long run it may achieve little on a societal level. There are a range of theories put forward to explain child abuse in the family. These can be summed up as: • Explanations that focus on individual psychological reasons • Explanations that focus on how society is organized, so that some individuals are subjected to societal stresses which makes child-rearing disproportionately stressful • Explanations that are ecological.

Psychological explanations These explanations focus on the psychological characteristics of the parents. The main psychological theories used to explain abuse are attachment theory, social learning theory, systems theory and psychopathology.

Attachment theory Attachment theory was formulated by John Bowlby, and has been adapted and developed by Mary Ainsworth and John Rutter. The theory is concerned with the development of significant relationships in early childhood that have a lasting impact on the child’s perception of relationships and sense of self. It is the caregiving relationships that are the focus of study. The quality of these early relationships is seen as fundamental for the healthy emotional development of the infant, and the effects persist throughout life. The nature of these early relationships is typified by the quality of the child’s



Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues

attachment to the main carers and these can be observed to fall into either a secure or an insecure attachment. A secure attachment is where the infant’s physical and emotional needs are consistently met within a loving relationship. This supports the development of trust, and the confidence to explore the immediate environment. In contrast, a child whose attachment needs are not met fails to develop trust and lacks the confidence to explore the environment. This has a negative effect on psychological development. Where a parent has not bonded with their child, they are less likely to meet the child’s attachment needs. In this situation, abuse is more likely. Criticism of this theory to explain abuse include that the theory fails to take account of the social environment, it does not explain sexual abuse, and it tends to focus on the mother–child dyad and so is at risk of blaming mothers. In addition, alternative attachment figures and later rewarding relationships can compensate for poor early attachment and loss. However, Crittenden and Ainsworth (1989) suggest that when factors such as a socially stressful environment exist, combined with assessment of the attachment relationship, the likelihood of potential maltreatment can be identified and early intervention may be preventative of abuse.

Social learning theory This theory was developed by Bandura (1971) and Smith and Rachman (1984) and is a behavioural approach to learning theory. It posits that children learn behaviour by modelling themselves on behaviours they observe, and that this includes the use of violence and punishment as parenting strategies. It suggests that parents under stress resort to harsh discipline or may have incorporated the idea that harsh treatment is appropriate as a way of ensuring discipline. In addition, the theory points to the acceptance of violence in society, particularly within the home, as reinforcing beliefs about societal tolerance of violence within intimate relationships. This theory is similar to feminist theory that locates responsibility for violence within the power relationships that exist in families, where traditionally the male is dominant and where society accepts the use of violence as a means of maintaining control in relationships.

Systems theory This views the family as systems, so that it is made up of its individual but interdependent members. It is like a car with all of the separate parts but each one is dependent on the other for the car to function. Where there is a stress, the whole family has to adapt to meet this challenge. When adaptation does

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Good Practice in the Early Years not take place, the system breaks down. The family needs to be supported to enable it to function. Child abuse is a symptom of dysfunction or breakdown. Family therapy is therefore used to support the family to function. Criticisms are that it does not adequately explain most sexual abuse within the family, does not adequately address individual responsibility for sexual abuse, and fails to address the impact of social inequality.

Psychopathology This refers to the influence of mental illness, personality disorders and learning difficulties which may affect the individual’s ability to function as a parent and may be episodic, in that a parent with a mental illness may have episodes of very good parenting as well as periods of severe illness that has an impact upon the parent’s ability to provide basic care and may result in a direct risk to the child.

Social structures and sociological explanations These propose that society has a responsibility to all its members but does not protect all members equally. Lack of social equality leads to many families leading impoverished lives – for example, affordable housing, employment opportunities, income, access to leisure, child care and high quality education are not fairly distributed. Deficits in these areas cause social-environmental stress and increase the chance of social exclusion. Families who have poor support networks face highly stressful contexts, while lacking the resources to help them to cope with these challenges. Jack (2005) notes that there is a relationship between incidents of child abuse and social class, though this is less apparent for child sexual abuse. Jack highlights the fact that child abuse is more prevalent where there is a greater inequality gap. Political and social arrangements can contribute to child abuse by maintaining or not challenging contexts that make child abuse more likely. This theory has traditionally been associated with social care work values of seeking social justice to improve the life chances of individuals, families and communities. It contrasts with psychological approaches that locate the need for change within the individual with an approach that locates the need for change in social arrangements and social institutions.

Ecological explanations This advocates that abuse is rarely due to any one factor but is the interaction of multiple factors, and the individual’s response to these, that may combine to result in abuse. This provides a flexible response to child abuse. It acknowledges



Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues

the contribution of individual psychological functioning, and can tolerate the incorporation of, for example, attachment theory to explain individual psychological functioning. However, it is the interaction of these factors with the wider social environment that causes a breakdown in parenting. An ecological approach also takes account of the contribution of the child: some children are more or less demanding, and it may be that the needs of a particular child interact with some of the factors mentioned above to increase the climate of risk within the family. The key point is that the theory is an interactional model, so that any single factor cannot be isolated as being predictive of child maltreatment. Ecological models are widely used in government guidance on undertaking child protection assessments and underpin Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families.

Reflection point Consider which of the above theories can be used to explain child abuse in this situation and make notes of your answer. Say which theory do you find most convincing and you’re your reasons.

Conclusion This chapter has looked at what child maltreatment is and how it can be recognized and responded to. It also outlines the role of early years practitioners in identifying when a child might be a risk of abuse and responding appropriately. The discussion covers some of the uncertainties and dilemmas practitioners may face in possible child protection situations. Reaching agreement about what counts as abuse sufficient to justify state intervention is sometimes difficult to achieve. This can be anxiety provoking for all involved and it is important that advice should be sought. Practitioners’ concerns about their relationships with children and families and their anxieties about child protection procedures need to be acknowledge and responded to by senior staff. All practitioners working with children should be aware of the signs that a child may be at risk. The child protection process is dependent on front-line workers noticing signs of abuse and responding appropriately. This means being aware of the processes and procedures in place to provide a framework for responding to suspicions of abuse. It is the responsibility of the practitioner to be aware of these processes and to know what to do if concerned about a particular child. Practitioners with ongoing contact with the child and family will need to adopt a supportive role for the child and family, and will

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Good Practice in the Early Years need to know how to access support within their organization to help work through the emotional impact of working with abuse.

Endnote At the time of writing, the government has published its response to the Munro review (DoE, 2011) which states that initial and core assessments will be replaced with a single assessment. This will require revision of the government guidance referred to above: Working Together (DCSF, 2010) and the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH, 2000). It is expected that this will be fully implemented by July 2012, with interim guidance being published by December 2011. The effect of these changes will be that there will be a single assessment process, and fixed timescales will be removed. This is generally to be welcomed, as it recognizes the place of professional expertise and judgement. However, there will be an accompanying emphasis on the timelines of assessment and intervention that Local Authorityies will be expected to demonstrate.

References Bandura, A. (1971), Social Learning Theory, New York: General Learning Press. Beckett, C. (2007), Child Protection: an introduction (2nd edn), London: Sage. Brandon, M., Bailey, S., Belderson, P., Gardner, R., Sidebotham, P., Dodsworth, J., Warren, C. and Black, J. (2008), Understanding Serious Case Reviews and their Impact: A biennial analysis of serious case Reviews 2005–07, London: DCSF. CEOP (no date), Child Online and Exploitation Centre. Available online at http://www.ceop.police. uk/ (accessed 17 October 2011). Children Act 1989 (1989), HMSO, London Corby, B. (2006), Child abuse: towards a knowledge base (3rd edn), Maidenhead: Open University Press. Crittenden, P. M. (1988), ‘Family and dyadic patterns of functioning in maltreating families’, in K. Browne, C. Davies and P. Stratton (eds), Early prediction and prevention of child abuse, New York: Wiley. Crittenden, P. and Ainsworth, M. (1989), ‘Child Maltreatment and attachment theory’, in Corby B.: Child abuse: towards a knowledge base (3rd edn), Maidenhead: Open University Press. DCSF (2008), Early Years Foundation Stage. Department of Children Schools and Families. Available online

at

http://www.education.gov.uk/childrenandyoungpeople/earlylearningandchildcare/

delivery/education/a0068102/early-years-foundation-stage-eyfs (accessed 17 October 2011). —(2010), Working Together to Safeguard Children. A guide to inter-agency working together to safeguard and promote the well-being of children and young people. Department for Children,



Child Protection and Safeguarding Issues Schools

and

Families.

Available

online

at

https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/

eOrderingDownload/00305-2010DOM-EN.pdf (accessed17 October 2011). DfE (2010), ‘Children in need …’, Department for Education Statistical Release, National Statistics OSR28/2010. Available online at http://www.education.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/STR/d000970/ osr28-2010.pdf (accessed 17 October 2011). DFES (2006), What to do if you’re worried a child is being abused, Department for Education and Skills. Available online at https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/6840-DfESIFChildAbuse.pdf (accessed 17 October 2011). DoE (2011), ‘The Munro Review of Child Protection: Final Report – A child-centred system’, Department of Education. Available online at https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/Cm%208062.pdf (accessed 17 October 2011). DoH (1995), Child Protection: Messages from Research, Department of Health, London: HMSO. —(2000), Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and Their Families, Department of Health, London: The Stationery Office. Dutt, Ratna (director, Race Equality Unit) (2003), in Lord Laming, The Victoria Climbié Inquiry, London: The Stationery Office. Egeland, B., Jacobvitz, D. and Sroufe, L. A. (1988), ‘Breaking the cycle of abuse’, Child Development, 59(4), 1080–8. Gibbons, J., Gallagher, B., Bell, C. and Gordon, D. (1995), Development after physical abuse in early childhood, London: HMSO. Gomes-Schwartz, B., Horowitz, M. and Cardarelli, A. P. ( 1990), Child sexual abuse; the initial effects, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hanks H. and Stratton, P. M. (2007), ‘Common forms and consequences of child abuse’, in K. Wilson and A. James (eds), The Child Protection Handbook (3rd edn), Edinburgh: Bailliere Tindall. Howe, D. (2005), Child Abuse and Neglect: Attachment, Development and Intervention, London: Palgrave Macmillan. Jack, G. (2000), ‘Ecological influences on parenting and child development’, British Journal of Social Work, 20, 703–20. Laming, Lord H. (2003), The Victoria Climbié Inquiry, London: The Stationery Office. Parton, N. (2006), Safeguarding Childhood: Early Intervention and Surveillance in a Late Modern Society, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Reder, P., Duncan, S. and Gray, M. (1993), Beyond Blame: Child Abuse Tragedies Revisited, London: Routledge. Reder, P. and Lucey, C. (eds) (1995), Assessment of Parenting: Psychiatric and Psychological Contributions, London: Routledge. Smith, J. and Rachman, S. (1984) Non-accidental injury to children – A controlled evaluation of a behaviour management programme – ‘Behaviour, Research and Therapy’, 22(4) pp 349–46 in Munro, E. (2007) ‘Child Protection’, London: Sage. Tanner, K. and Tunney, D. (2003), ‘What do we know about child neglect? A critical review of the literature and its application to social work practice’, Child and Family Social Work, 8, 25–34. Wilson, K. and James, A. (2007), The Child Protection Handbook (3rd edn), Edinburgh: Bailliere Tindall.

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8 Working with Parents and Families Damien Fitzgerald

Chapter Outline Introduction 214 The development of partnership with parents 215 Models of partnership 222 Strategies for working with families 225 Working with fathers 230 The move to partnership working 235 Conclusion 239

Introduction Parental partnerships are about reciprocal relationships: the influence that the family has on the setting and the influence of the setting on the family. They are also about relationships with the wider community. Parents are central partners in their child’s education, and practitioners need to work effectively with them (DCSF, 2008). Working in partnership with parents within early years settings requires a consistent, supportive and respectful approach. To achieve effective parental partnerships requires a range of skills and qualities, a commitment to sharing of information and shared goals in terms of outcome. This chapter explores partnership working and shows that, even though achieving partnerships can be demanding, there are significant benefits to be gained from this way of working. A range of approaches are identified to assist early years practitioners to work collaboratively with parents, including issues specific to fathers. Alongside this it is important to acknowledge that barriers



Working with Parents and Families

to partnership can occur. Approaches for practitioners to work collaboratively with parents are suggested. This chapter covers the following: • The development of partnership with parents • Models of partnership • Strategies for working with families • Working with fathers • The move to partnership working.

The development of partnership with parents From the early twentieth century Margaret McMillan was a pioneer in the development of early education. She was among the first to state that parental involvement, which predominantly focused on the mother but did recognize the role of fathers, was important (Steedman, 1990). During the period 1920–30 the involvement of practitioners with families was rooted in the ‘compensatory model’. This emphasized the importance of practitioner involvement in children’s education, as the home environment or parenting was seen as having deficits in areas that were important for child development. This was demonstrated in 1931 by the Hadow report. It noted the benefits of teachers talking to parents about health and hygiene, but this was based on the premiss that families were seen as lacking knowledge to deal proficiently with these issues themselves. Smidt (2002) describes the role that was often attributed to parents over the next decades: good parents helped children by supporting what happened in nursery or school; bad parents held children back by not supporting settings. Many past intervention programmes emphasized the role of schools and teachers in educating these parents about the impact it was having on their children. These approaches involved no element of partnership. In Britain it was not until 1967 that the first clear recognition of the contribution of parents to their child’s learning emerged in the Plowden report: One of the essentials for educational advance is a closer partnership between the two parties (i.e. schools and parents) to every child’s education. (Plowden Report, 1967: 37)

The report recognized the importance of partnership, based on equal representation. However, additional stimulation and education was still often

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Good Practice in the Early Years deemed as necessary to compensate for the poverty and social disadvantage experienced by children in deprived areas. This emphasizes the role of practitioners in supporting the development of children by providing a suitable early education environment, but it is not conducive to establishing effective and respectful partnerships. During the past 15 years there have been many initiatives in early years education, such as nursery vouchers, expansion of childcare places through the National Childcare Strategy, Surestart, Children’s Centres and the creation of a statutory foundation stage. Many of these have led to parents being seen as consumers of early years education and care. Even though this approach avoids labelling families as having deficits, it does not necessarily recognize the importance of reciprocal relationships, a vital element for partnership working (Shields, 2009). Instead, this approach configures early years provision as something parents consume. The development of close partnerships, with shared aims, can help to prevent the emergence of this concept.

Establishing parental partnerships To establish partnerships with families, connections need to be made, information exchanged and links developed in a way that values and respects the contributions of the children, their family and the setting. To realize the benefits of shared working, parents and practitioners need to have a shared sense of what is meant by the term partnership. A common understanding is vital and it cannot be assumed that all stakeholders share the same view. Keyes (2002) highlights this by presenting two perspectives on the relationship between home and school. One sees an effective separation of roles and functions between home and school, but with each having a mutual respect for the other. The other perspective positions early years settings as part of an extended family, with a clear link between the home and setting.

What are the benefits of family partnership working? Draper and Duffy (2006) raise two questions in relation to parental partnership: why aim for increased levels of partnership working; and what are the challenges? The knowledge that each party brings to the partnership has unique elements. Families know about their child, the home situation, their extended family, important people, culture, history, health, adversities and issues related to the individual child. Practitioners know about the needs of children in the setting, child development, learning, and peer relationships.



Working with Parents and Families

Case study: Effective communication An important aspect of partnership working is effective communication. Read each of the accounts about children starting at a setting and think how each approach to communication can help or hinder partnership working.

Jane Jane’s parents arrive at nursery on her first day not quite sure what to expect. Some of their questions were answered at the introductory session but they still feel unsure, and Jane is nervous. During the first session some of the practitioners explain parts of the routine and make reference to what parents need to do. There is a brief opportunity to talk at the end of the session before they all leave, and a comment is made about Jane ‘being fine tomorrow on her own’. From this it is clear that the nursery presume Jane’s parents will no longer need to stay.

Tariq Tariq is looking forward to going to nursery because he will see Sarah and Tom, two of the practitioners that he met during a home visit. His parents also found the information pack from nursery useful, as the family have been able to talk about different aspects of nursery. During the first session, Tariq’s parents are encouraged to play alongside him. His key worker suggests that, during the first week, it is good to have someone around, as this will help Tariq to settle and will help to build links between nursery and home. After a few days when Tariq is playing happily with a new friend in the craft area Tom suggests they leave him for about 20 minutes, joining a parents’ group in the school community room.

In Tariiq’s situation there are many opportunities for the exchange of information. This is likely to lead to a smoother transition and to practitioners and parents having a shared understanding of how the home and setting contribute to each child’s development, which acknowledges different perspectives. Early acknowledgement of these different, but unique, perspectives will help to empower parents by showing that the different contributions are important in supporting the development of children and practitioners. Effective partnerships contribute to parents having a more positive attitude towards the setting. It can also lead to parents having increased levels of selfconfidence, a wider understanding of the aims of the setting, the curriculum and awareness of the opportunities of the home as a learning environment (NIACE, 2009). SureStart highlights the importance of establishing continuity

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Good Practice in the Early Years between home and the setting to develop relationships and empower parents (NESS, 2005). This greater level of involvement can also produce benefits for practitioners by enhancing understanding of the family culture, lead to deeper respect for the family (a central requirement for partnership development) and to increased satisfaction with the quality of their practice. Research has shown that partnership working is correlated with increased achievement for children, better attendance, an improved attitude to learning and less behaviour problems. Parents with higher levels of involvement also devote more time to assisting children at home, and this is likely to be beneficial in terms of development and learning (Sylva et al., 2004). The benefits of creating positive relationships to be built on during the early years of education cannot be overemphasized. The earlier that partnership with each family can be established, the longer it is likely to be sustained and the more significant the gain (Eldridge, 2001).

The role of practitioners in developing effective partnership A number of qualities have been cited as contributing to the establishment and maintenance of effective partnerships. McWilliam et al. (1998) summarize important qualities as family orientation, positiveness, sensitivity, responsiveness and friendliness. They state that services based on these qualities lead to open communication and partnership working. Positiveness, sensitivity, responsiveness and friendliness can all be demonstrated through effective communication and form a central element of establishing and maintaining effective partnerships. Trust is also a vital element of partnership working. Adams and Christenson (2000: 480) define trust as: Confidence that another person will act in a way to benefit or sustain the relationship, or the implicit or explicit goals of the relationship, to achieve positive outcome for students.

This is important, as it recognizes the range of interfaces necessary for the development of a trusting partnership: • the need to sustain a strong connection between the partners • the need to address the ongoing needs of children • the need for continued effort to sustain it.

Within parent–practitioner partnerships, issues of power arise, with power often implicitly resting with practitioners. This is because, as the service

Parent on the premises Use a room for their

Attend school, e.g.

Regularly help, but

Take a regular role in

Lead activities, e.g.

own purpose

parent conference

with mundane tasks

supervising activities

working with a small group, gardening Parents as

Parents as

partners

clients Attend school, e.g.

Help with activities at

Help with school

Reinforce learning

fun day

home, e.g. making

trips

started by

resources

Parent off the premises Fig. 8.1  Partnership continuum Source: Adapted from Edwards and Knight (1997: 71).

practitioners



220

Good Practice in the Early Years provider, they offer the services that families want access to and interactions generally take place within the early years setting: practitioner territory. Moves towards partnership can involve blurring of traditional roles between practitioners and parents (Edwards and Knight, 1997). There can be many benefits from this, but it can be a potential source of conflict as practitioners, much the same as parents, may question their abilities. The changes associated with moving towards a position where parents are seen as partners, rather than clients, is shown in Figure 8.1. Figure 8.1 provides a tool to evaluate how parents are positioned in the partnership continuum. There is a link between effective communication and the quality of provision. Support for this also comes from recent findings from the Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) project, which emphasizes the importance of home learning and the proactive stance that practitioners can take to support this (Sylva et al., 2004). It is important to remember that the majority of learning is likely to go on when parents are in their family context. To help equalize the power base between practitioners and parents, Whalley (2007) argues that creating an environment in which parents are encouraged to question, challenge and make choices suitable to their needs is vital. The benefits of this approach can be an increased willingness amongst parents to share understanding of their children’s learning at home, which recognizes the role of parents as their child’s primary educator (DCSF, 2008). An additional factor in determining the success of partnership is the qualities and enthusiasm brought to the process by practitioners. Practitioners who display warmth, openness, sensitivity, flexibility, reliability and accessibility to parents have a positive impact on family–practitioner partnerships (Keyes, 2002). Seemingly minor gestures, such as being prepared to listen attentively, showing genuine interest in a situation and being prepared to respond to a particular need, can have the significant benefits in building relationships (CWDC, 2011). When asked, parents identify a number of factors that promote positive partnerships. These include being able to access practitioners to discuss concerns, receiving feedback on their child’s performance (a requirement of the foundation stage curriculum), a positive attitude towards them as parents, and willingness to deal with questions, concerns or complaints.



Working with Parents and Families

Communication Reflection point • Why is effective communication between practitioners and parents important? • As a practitioner, what skills do you need to develop to achieve positive communication? • What approaches can you implement to achieve positive ongoing interactions with parents?

Effective communication between practitioners and families is essential to developing partnerships (Epstein, 2009). Varied provision such as foundation units, children’s centres, private and voluntary nurseries and multi-agency family teams has further highlighted the need for effective communication between practitioners and parents (Fitzgerald and Kay, 2008). However, irrespective of the range of services and provision, the aim remains unchanged: the need to ensure two-way communication, where all parties are respected and can contribute. The need to maintain positive communication is also important for children, as they can associate negative interactions with their behaviour, especially if there is poor communication between the home and setting (Whalley, 2007). For example, if there is disagreement between a parent and practitioner and this remains unresolved, a child may believe that this has occurred because they have behaved poorly or done something wrong. To maximize family partnership opportunities, communication needs to: • be two-directional (with opportunities for each party to respond appropriately) • take place formally and informally • offer feedback to families about their child’s progress • find out the families’ opinions about the setting or specific issue • involve them in decision-making processes.

To meet these expectations, it can be useful to plan in advance how contacts will be made with each individual family. An example of this is provided in Figure 8.2, which outlines a planned programme for formal and informal communication. This may represent a fundamental change, but Malaguzzi (1998: 69–70) argues that practitioners: Must leave behind an isolated silent mode of working that leaves no traces. Instead they must discover ways to communicate and document the children’s

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Good Practice in the Early Years evolving experiences. They must prepare a steady flow of quality information targeted to parents but appreciated also by children and teachers.

Communicating with parents Timing Autumn

At the setting

Away from the setting

Parent meeting to discuss all aspects

Telephone call to family to provide an

of learning and development (for new

opportunity to raise any questions and

children, focus will be on how they are

exchange information.

settling). Discuss approach to shared learning. Spring

Parent meeting to discuss all aspects

Informal contacts (e.g. an informal note

of learning and development and

to parents; coffee and discussion with a

opportunities for shared learning.

group of parents and key worker to share information; newsletter.

Summer

Informal meeting in the setting to discuss

Written report to provide a summary of

progress and review work.

progress that has been made during the year.

Transition planning for children moving to

Home visit prior to starting for new families.

a new setting. Visits to setting for new families .

Fig 8.2  Communicating with parents

Models of partnership A number of different models have been used to describe the form that partnerships can take. Epstein and Saunders (2002) describe a continuum of partnership models. Although it is unlikely that practice in a particular setting will exactly reflect one model, the models can provide a potential starting point for practitioners to reflect how current practice and procedures view families and, based on this, consider what developments can be made to enhance partnership with families. • Protective model This operates along the lines of a business, and requires parents to delegate responsibility for education to the setting as the aims of home and the setting and the roles of practitioners and parents are different. • School-to-home transmission model This model recognizes the importance of the family but only places an emphasis on one-directional communication – from the setting to the home – and assumes a level of parental agreement with decisions taken by the setting. In this model there is likely to be little sharing of ideas between the setting and community. • Curriculum enrichment model This model recognizes the benefits of collaborative learning between practitioners,



Working with Parents and Families

parents and children and integrates knowledge from families and the community into the curriculum and learning. There is a focus on the curriculum as this is seem as an important vehicle for impacting on learning. • Partnership model This model is built on long-term commitment, mutual respect and widespread involvement of families and practitioners at different levels, such as joint planning and shared decision-making. It reflects the fact the children are embedded in and influenced by the home, the setting and the community.

Activity Think about each of these models, and for each record how you see them positioning: • parents • practitioners. For example, the protective model positions parents as taking little responsibility for their child’s learning, and practitioners as the primary and most important educators of children. Finally, think about each model and the experience of interaction and communication between their home and setting that this is likely to give to children.

An outline of how these approaches may impact on parents, practitioners and children is shown in Figure 8.3.

Reflection point Compare Figure 8.3 with your responses to the previous activity. Although use of models such as these may have limitations, they do raise awareness of the need to see partnership from three perspectives: the practices and provision of the setting; the way this positions parents; and what children experience.

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Model of

The role of parents

The role of practitioners

The experience of children

Assume little responsibility in education.

See themselves as the primary educators of

Will see little interaction between home and the

Involvement is very limited, e.g. collecting children

children.

setting. May experience difficulties with setting

partnership Protective

and begin to dislike coming.

and attending special events. School to

Parents agree with decisions made by the setting

Involve the family in some aspects of education,

Will see some communication between home and

home

and respond to information or requests from the

e.g. asking parents to read to their child.

parents.

setting.

Rarely ask the opinion of parents.

Some aspects of learning will be continued at home.

Curriculum

Will be encouraged to take an active role in the

Include experiences form parents and the

Experiences from home and the community will

enrichment

setting and contribute where possible. Parents will

community in the curriculum, e.g. invite speakers,

be part of learning. Will see parents taking a role

be involved in various aspects of the curriculum.

organize visits to parts of the community and

in learning at home and in the setting.

encourage children to talk about events important to them. Partnership

Take a full role in the setting and contribute

Utilize all opportunities for communication with

Coordinated learning between the home and

to decisions about learning and development.

and involving parents. Work cooperatively with

the setting. Evidence of family in the setting,

Parents feel involved and respected, and see

parents to ensure that learning experiences of

e.g. family book, parents helping. Will see

themselves as central to the learning process.

children are influenced by home.

positive communication between parents and practitioners, which is likely to enhance feelings of security.

Fig 8.3  Approaches to working together



Working with Parents and Families

It is important to understand that each family will be able to commit to different levels of involvement. If the level of involvement from some families is perceived as low, this can be frustrating, but respecting this and offering support is far more likely to ensure that families remain involved, and over time they may be able to offer increased levels of involvement. Epstein (2009) also identifies six descriptors of parental involvement: parenting; communicating; volunteering; learning at home; decision-making and collaborating. At the parenting level, settings provide information to families and the setting listens to information from the home to learn about the needs of the child. The volunteering style recognizes and utilizes the support family members, and the community can offer to enhance the curriculum. The learning at home approach is based around curriculum enhancement, but aims to provide guidance to parents about strategies for extending children’s understanding and awareness of the curriculum. The highest level of parental involvement, collaborating with the community, is about both utilizing and contributing to provision and service provision within the community. This can have benefits in terms of assisting families to access community services and in establishing links between the community and early years settings.

Strategies for working with families A number of approaches can be used to achieve positive and productive working partnerships with families. This section details a range of approaches that can be useful. It is not intended that all these be implemented or used. However, they offer practitioners the opportunity to reflect on current practice, decide where enhancements are required and then select or adapt them to meet individual situations and circumstances.

Transitions into early years settings Transition into an early years environment can be very challenging for families. Children are likely to find transitions easier and more enjoyable when they feel that attachment to their parents (who are likely to have been the primary care providers up to this point) is not threatened (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Prior to starting at the setting, information gathered at past meetings (e.g. home visits) will provide a valuable insight about strategies and comforting routines for supporting the child. Part of the practitioner’s role prior to and during transition is to provide reassurance to parents that their child will cope with the change, and to

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Good Practice in the Early Years promote family participation in the transition plan. This can be offered by stressing the cognitive competencies of the child and by referring to the new opportunities the setting will provide to complement the learning experiences at home. Through regular contact the key worker and family will become familiar with each other and a trusting relationship is likely to form. This is important, as the higher the level of agreement about the child between the practitioner and parent the more optimistic the parent is likely to be about the transition (Griebel and Niesel, 2002). To develop trust with parents, working practices that promote trust need to be in place. This includes use of documentation that avoids stereotyping language, support for parents who have English as an additional language, and information about inclusion of children with special educational needs. Transition periods should last as long as required. Parents should not feel rushed into leaving their child. Dalli (2002) summarizes a number of strategies that can support the transitions process, including: • Providing families with printed and oral information about the setting, routines and settling-in procedure prior to the child starting • Having a specific practitioner to communicate with about transition • Respecting and responding to input from parents about how to support their child during transition • For practitioners to proactively approach children during transition periods to support them and assist in the ‘fitting-in’ process • To be aware of strategies to ease anxieties that parents may be feeling and use these to offer support.

Parent and practitioner meetings Meetings with parents to discuss the progress that their child is making provide valuable opportunities for two-way communication. Due to time constrains, they are often rushed and can consist of practitioners passing on information. There is little room for discussion or debate, making the communication one-directional and less effective. To ensure that parental meetings are based on two-directional communication, practitioners can use documentation, photographic evidence, anecdotal notes and examples of children’s work to make the process more interactive. Parents can be asked to contribute some of the evidence. This will encourage an exchange of views and ideas and give practitioners a different perspective, one that only parents can offer. Many of these suggestions do not necessarily need to involve additional time. The key is to reflect on current practice and identify how this can be developed.



Working with Parents and Families

Learning portfolios The statutory framework emphasizes the importance of documentation in providing parents with access to a part of their child’s life that is often not fully visible. As well as gaining an understanding of what their child has done, it can also be useful in helping parents to understand and see the purpose of maintaining records. One method of doing this is to construct a learning portfolio for children that is started on entry to the setting and moves with them. This type of record is usually seen as the domain of the setting; however, to increase partnership working, families can be encouraged to make contributions to the ongoing portfolio. Evidence can take a variety of forms, such as photographs, notes from observations, examples of the child’s work or contributions from family members or practitioners about notable events. By encouraging the involvement of families in collecting documentation they become an integral part of the process and can contribute to the discussion and debate about the development of their child, rather than documentation being used as a one-way communication method for informing or educating parents. This approach also fits well with the requirements of statutory framework for the foundation stage (DCSF, 2008).

Information sessions/workshops A key element in the establishment of partnerships is the sharing of information. Planned sessions with families can be a useful forum to allow shared learning to take place. To ensure success, careful thought needs to be given to the format of sessions to maximize parental participation. Edwards and Warin (1999) suggest that a reason for poor uptake at workshops is an overemphasis on parents being told how to work in a teacher-directed style. To address this, the challenge for practitioners is to create sessions that are based around equal participation and problem-solving with the aim not of doing more, but of doing it better (Adams and Christenson, 2000). Workshops offer opportunities to provide information to parents about any aspect of learning or development. The choice of topic should be informed by the needs and requests of parents.

Activity Your task is to design a set of 3–5 workshops for parents. • How would you decide on a topic? • What would you include in each of the sessions? • How would you deliver the sessions?

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Good Practice in the Early Years Daniels (1996) describes an approach which begins with asking parents to think about their development as readers and writers. Open questions are often given by the facilitator to support the process: • What was your favourite book as a child? • Can you remember a time when you really soared as a reader? • What was the role of writing in your family? • What was the best piece of writing you ever did?

This can lead into practical demonstrations, backed up by written information, of current approaches to learning and teaching. This type of approach can be useful in supporting parents to develop knowledge of the curriculum and the types of approaches that can support their children, but in a way that is empowering, respectful of their role and that values their experiences. A final important point: when working with parents, it is important not to assume that all parents will have the same level of literacy skills. To ensure each person is comfortable, choices about the role they take should be left to them. For example, some people may prefer not to write or represent their ideas in pictures. The session facilitator should make it clear, through their facilitation activities and verbally, that this is down to individual choice. Dahlberg et al. (1999) offer guidance about delivering sessions for parents. The session should: • be about families and practitioners working together in a reflective relationship • provide contextual information to parents that enables them to link effective support strategies to activities in the home environment, e.g. opportunities for communication during shopping trips • aim to recognize, promote and support the role of parents in the home environment.

Family events Family events are often centred on fun days, concerts or other similar ideas. This approach can also be used to promote partnership with families in ways that support learning and development in a wider context. Rosenkoetter (2001) describes a community approach to partnership – Bedtime Story Nights. Once a month, parents and children gather for a 30-minute story or rhyme session. This is followed by a snack, before going home to bed. Each month a different location (e.g. a park, a library or a nursing home), story reader (e.g. a teacher, a story teller or a police officer) and theme (e.g. a national event, or fancy dress to match the story) can be used. Attempts can also be made to involve the community. As well as providing an event for families to attend together, it gives opportunities for parents to observe



Working with Parents and Families

techniques they may choose to use at home. For example, letting the children lead, asking appropriate questions about the story, using props and animation. The timing, in the early evening, can help those parents who cannot attend daytime events because of other commitments.

Setting website and email It is generally expected that organizations will have a website. This can be a valuable tool to communicate with parents and other family members. A website does not need to be over-elaborate. A clean and organized structure is most appropriate. A website is also a useful way of communicating news and events to families on a regular basis. This can be through scrolling news items, a secure area that families have a password to enter, or alternatively through regular emails using a secure system. Overall, an informative, clear and simple website design that is up to date is far more beneficial than a complex but out-of-date site.

Setting information sheets For parents, many aspects of the organization may be confusing. For example, the different arrangement of rooms in the setting, especially if there are reasons why their child may not have moved to a particular room by what is deemed as the correct age. To support parents, short handouts that detail the organization and routine of the room, explain stages of development and link it to learning can be useful and reassuring. These will also provide parents with ideas and suggestions that they may find useful to support interactions and play with their child at home.

Home learning Children learn a great deal at home, which is primarily achieved because of the support from their family. This needs to be acknowledged. When children move into an educational setting the importance of input from home remains. Practitioners and parents need to work together to help children develop the necessary skills to benefit from the different experiences available to them, to help them explore and express their feelings and learn about their place in the group. An effective partnership with the family is vital in allowing practitioners access to the unseen pictures that make up the child’s life. A frequent comment heard from parents is that they want to support their child at home but do not always feel confident in doing this and feel additional guidance is needed (Epstein, 2009). To offer support to parents, practitioners can provide resources focused on the requirements of parents.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Storysacks (which consist of a large cloth bag, a picture book to stimulate language, soft toys to represent some of the characters and props linked to the story) have become a popular resource for settings to make available to families to borrow. The aim of the sacks is to provide opportunities for families to engage in discussion around a story and to stimulate use of a wide range of resources. Although this has the basis for supporting home learning, a repeated comment from parents is that they are told of the need to read to their children but not why it is important or the types of strategies that they can use. Settings can respond to this by producing information guides that can explain to parents the approach taken to learning, which will also link well with information sessions that may be offered and encourages all members of the family to engage in learning (NIACE, 2009).

Key worker system A key worker system is useful in supporting a child’s adjustment to the setting. Additionally, parents can find having a consistent practitioner to communicate with useful and supportive. With the expansion of early years provision, the skills of practitioners are often varied and comprehensive (Rolfe et al., 2003). Therefore the operation of a key worker system can offer benefits to parents and children and utilize and develop the skills practitioners have. With appropriate support and training, key workers can facilitate support and the exchange of information by meeting informally with their link families on a regular basis. Throughout the time a child attends the setting they become the key point of contact and support.

Working with fathers Traditionally the majority of childcare within families was usually undertaken by women, but since the 1980s there has been a shift in parental, societal expectations, and in the policy agenda to encourage increased participation of fathers in parenting and educational settings, especially for young children. Prior to this, much of the debate was centred on how fathers could provide financially for the family and act as good role models for their children. Little attention was given to the caring role of fathers within families.

The role of fathers in families Fathers now undertake more than a quarter of the childcare in families, and the vast majority of mothers see fathers as providing as good a level of care



Working with Parents and Families

as they do (Fatherhood Institute, 2007). At a general level this has led to a perceived view of greater father involvement. Even though the amount of time fathers are spending with children has risen, the increase has only been gradual and can often be linked to specific tasks, such as shopping and putting children to bed, or an increased role at weekends, but this may be linked to employment issues (EHRC, 2003). It is suggested that fathers fall into one of four groups, with most fathers being in the two middle groups (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2002): • Enforcer: involved in day-to-day care and act as a role model for setting clear rules • Entertainer: often entertaining while partner carries out household roles • Useful: entertains children but also takes a share in household tasks and childcare • Fully involved: parental roles virtually interchangeable.

For children, father involvement can lead to greater levels of wellbeing and empathy and adults assist them to form more social and empathetic relationships (Fatherhood Institute, 2007). The point is often made that, for some children, this may not be the case. Jaffee et al. (2003) explain that the more time fathers who engage in high levels of antisocial behaviour spend with their children, the greater the likelihood of the child having behaviour problems. Although father presence can be hard to quantify, this argument could equally be applied to mothers. The key point when working with parents is that the assumption should be, unless there is reason to the contrary, that both mothers and fathers are equally able to provide care and support for their children. Although it is not possible for practitioners to influence all aspects of father and child interactions, supporting fathers as parents is both necessary and important. It can also be argued that this is particularly important in early years, as fathers are more likely to be involved in parenting younger children and the earlier involvement is established the more likely it is to continue throughout the childhood years (Flouri and Buchanan, 2003). Younger men in particular are expressing a preference to participate more fully in family life (EHRC, 2009), which reinforces the importance of establishing effective and supportive partnerships in educare settings.

Barriers to father involvement Although there have been examples of successful programmes to promote the involvement of fathers, many practitioners have found that, even after sustained effort, numbers have remained low. A number of barriers have been identified that can either prevent or hinder father involvement.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Turbiville et al. (2000) found that discussion of parental involvement was often gender-neutral, but this was still often perceived as meaning the mother, which can leave the father feeling rebuffed. An example of a simple action is when a child is ill: the first person contacted is usually the mother (EHRC, 2009). This type of approach can have a devaluing affect. Other barriers to involvement include longer working hours, inflexible work patterns, job insecurity, low income and social exclusion. Historically there has been a focus on the role of the mother in child development theories (e.g. Freud’s interactional theory and Bowlby’s attachment theory). Even though revisions have been made to many development theories, the overriding maternal focus continues to be advanced (Music, 2011). Nurturing and teaching, which are significant parts of the routine and roles in early years settings, have traditionally been seen as women’s work. This can be as damaging for women as it can be for men in terms of status, opportunities and income, and needs to be tackled (Equality and Human Rights Commission, 2003). One of the challenges facing fathers is the need to balance economic and other commitments with their parenting role. Recent changes to paternity leave entitlement in the UK have provided fathers with limited paid paternity leave and the option to take additional paternity leave depending on how leave is shared between partners (HM Government, 2011). Although this is an improvement, in comparison to other countries it is relatively poor. For example, Sweden promoted a range of policies to both support and promote the role of fathers. These included ‘daddy month’ (part of the paternity leave package), promotion and support for father involvement and increased automatic levels of custody rights from birth, with the aim of supporting and nurturing the role of fathers (Ekberg et al., 2005).

Promoting the involvement of fathers Many of the principles that work for promoting the involvement of mothers can be applied to fathers but may need to be focused in a different manner. One of the reasons cited as deterring fathers’ involvement is the implicit culture surrounding early years settings, which often assumes that mothers are the key link with the setting. The gender imbalance of practitioners, which is usually heavily biased towards or even totally female, can be seen as a barrier to father involvement by practitioners. However, all practitioners, regardless of gender, need to negotiate their role with children, parents and colleagues, so the idea that more male practitioners are necessary to increase father involvement could be too simplistic (Roberts-Holmes and Brownhill,



Working with Parents and Families

2010). More positively, an increased level of father involvement is potentially a goal attainable by all early years settings, irrespective of the gender mix of staff. Informal involvement of fathers can present significant opportunities to develop partnership working. Fathers often take on the role of bringing and collecting children from the early years setting, which can provide perfect opportunities for including fathers in decision-making processes and be the basis of ‘hooking’ fathers into activities. To maximize these informal opportunities, practitioners need to develop confidence in approaching fathers, commenting on what the father’s child has been involved in and laying the basis for them to offer feedback. Additionally, this can be useful in laying the basis for a trusting relationship (EHRC, 2009). The timing of events or workshops needs consideration. If a specific event is being organized, it is likely to attract more fathers if it is scheduled for the evening or at the weekend, due to their working patterns. For practitioners, this can place additional demands on their time, but if the event is to succeed working practices need to be explored to allow for flexibility, especially as such events are likely to occur fairly infrequently. This flexibility in recognizing the other demands on fathers is another method of showing that the setting is responding to the needs of parents and will help to contribute to developing successful partnerships (Frieman and Berkeley, 2002). Groups or workshops for fathers can be useful for supporting them in their role as parents, especially for first-time fathers who may feel they lack experience. Groups aimed at fathers are more likely to be successful if they are given an educational rather than a feeling aim (Frieman and Berkeley, 2002). For example, sessions aimed at developing play skills or helping children to gain an understanding of the world, rather than helping children develop friendships, are better attended. In many respects, this represents a move away from the ‘caring and sharing’ approach to an educational focus, and also has the potential to utilize the multidisciplinary nature of many workplace teams in early years settings (Fitzgerald and Kay, 2008). The initial hurdle to overcome is to encourage fathers to the first session, especially as many may have anxieties about exposing perceived inadequacy in their parenting role. An important part of parenting, though, is learning, and often the most successful learning comes from making mistakes. Practitioners need to capture the ethos of this in their communication with fathers by stressing the collaborative and supportive nature of groups and the opportunities to learn together. It should be stressed to fathers, perhaps through informal conversations, that children learn to respect a father who makes mistakes and corrects them, and this is likely to be a valuable source of modelling for the child to

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Good Practice in the Early Years learn from (Frieman and Berkeley, 2002). Allowing fathers to choose how they become involved in ways that allow them to respond in a way that is not threatening to their own gender role is likely to be more successful, although not all fathers will automatically want to participate in what are seen as traditional male activities. This could involve asking fathers to: • read to one or two children • act as a helper on a trip or visit • work with a small group of children on an outdoor activity • support children with using audio, video or computer equipment • organize a sports game (for children or other fathers).

When asked, fathers identified their preferred types of participation: doing things together with their children; activities involving both parents learning about future issues; child development sessions involving both parents and sporting events (Turbiville et al., 2000). Highest levels of father participation have been seen in events that involve family participation. This suggests that separate sessions for fathers may not be successful simply because they want to do with things with their partner. An approach where it is clearly evident that fathers are welcome and encouraged, alongside the other parent, may be the most appropriate and successful approach. In communication with parents Frieman and Berkeley (2002) state the importance of having a father (as well as mother) view in newsletters and correspondence with the child’s home. An approach to this would be to include a column written by both male and female staff members. Alternatively, contributions could be requested from parents in the setting, about issues in general, child development or other relevant topics. Making efforts to ensure that contributions are balanced in terms of mothers’ and fathers’ input will also communicate the message that fathers’ views are important and valued. Efforts also need to be made to ensure that written communication reaches all parents, including non-resident parents who still maintain contact with their children. For families who have recently separated, this is particularly important, as it can involve parents adapting to changes in their parenting role. In addition, children generally continue to see the non-resident parent as part of the family group – a situation the educational setting needs to support. In these circumstances, electronic forms of communication could provide a suitable means of exchanging information, particularly to support the parent in the early stages of the transition and help fathers maintain a sense of involvement in their child’s education and care (Chaboudy et al., 2001).



Working with Parents and Families

Reflection point Think about any experiences you have had of fathers with their children. This may be from work experience/placements, employment or family members who are fathers. If you have the opportunity, it would be helpful to discuss these questions with fathers. • Have they engaged with the setting their children attend? • If they have, what is it that has encouraged them to do so? • If not, why not? • Are the suggestions in this section supported by what you have seen in practice from discussion with fathers?

It is also important to remember that the quality of involvement is the key, not the quantity. Much of the benefit that practitioners can bring may not be visible because it is carried out away from the setting. This is particularly relevant with fathers, as the level of interaction they have with their child may be much greater than their involvement in the setting would suggest. The most effective support for fathers is likely to come from a mutual partnership between the father and the practitioner, where each has empathy and understanding towards the other and responds supportively. A challenge for practitioners is to ensure that each father views themself as an involved carer rather than a failed provider.

The move to partnership working Working in close partnership with parents can present challenges; however, from the discussion, it is apparent that there are clear gains to be had from this approach to practice for parents and children as well as for practitioners. Rather than practitioners seeing any challenges that may arise as significant problems, such challenges usually present opportunities for personal development, which leads to enhanced practice. This section discusses approaches that can be used to maintain positive partnerships and respond to challenges. In addition, it is vital that practice is inclusive and delivered in an non-discriminatory way. The examples of valuing cultural diversity and creating a positive environment for gay and lesbian parents are used to illustrate strategies that promote effective practice.

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Overcoming barriers Although practitioners can take many steps to maintain effective partnerships, it is likely that there will be occasions when barriers either exist or develop. An awareness of the type of issues that can lead to actual or perceived barriers between practitioners and families can help either to avoid or to overcome problems. Neuman (2002) suggests that common barriers can occur for cultural, attitudinal, language and logistical reasons. People can feel excluded for different reasons which could be related to ethnicity, residence status (e.g. refugee families), families headed by gay parents, families where children have disabilities, and employment status (Gray, 2009). This section does not aim to discuss every potential barrier. However, the aim is to provide an overview to assist readers gain an understanding of common issues that can lead to difficulties and from this gain a greater awareness of how to respond to ensure they are overcome.

Creating positive attitudes For many parents, early years practitioners may be the first group of people associated with education that they have had contact with. It is likely that some children may take longer to integrate into the setting, engage actively in the opportunities available and interact with the other children and adults. For parents, this can present challenges, as they may blame themselves for any difficulties. The longer the difficulty persists the more anxious the family is likely to become. Situations can also arise in which there are differences between practitioners and parents. Greenman (2001) acknowledges that individual differences will occur, but it is vital for parents to feel they have power in the situation. If parents feel empowered, this is likely to lead to better outcomes children and enhance the development of positive attitudes.

Resolving conflict Inevitably, conflicts can occur in any setting. This could be because a parent is concerned about a routine, an aspect of practice or the way a situation has been brought to their attention or dealt with. From the practitioner’s perspective, they may be concerned about an issue concerning the child or family. Realistically, it is unlikely that conflict can be avoided totally. However the approach taken to resolve conflict can contribute to a positive outcome, and should include the following steps: • Think about the choice of words – maintain positive communication, allow parents to



Working with Parents and Families

express their opinion and be sensitive to the fact that discussing problems with a child can be difficult for a parent. • Listen attentively, showing respect for the parent’s point of view – parents can often provide an insight that may help to explain certain behaviour. • Show understanding for the parent’s perspective and aim to find common ground – this is far more likely to lead to a positive outcome. • State clearly what the problem is and provide your ideas for resolving it. Parents will be reassured to hear strategies for addressing a difficulty and/or resolving the situation. This needs to occur alongside giving the parent an opportunity to offer their views. • Finally, when it is likely that a shared solution has been identified, thank the parent for sharing their concerns and working with you to help resolve the situation.

Valuing diversity: creating an inclusive setting Staff in some early years settings reflect the diversity of their communities, while staff from other settings may represent one or two cultural groups from diverse communities. When people hear the term ethnicity, it is often assumed that it relates to a person’s skin colour and the place where they were born. Ethnicity encompasses characteristics, including family origin, appearance, language, family structure, religion, food, music, literature and gender roles. With such a range of characteristics it is likely that there will be similarities among people from the same ethnic group but there will also be many differences. This reminds us of the need to recognize difference and not treat all families with the same ethnicity as a homogenous group (Platt, 2009). It is also important to remember that each of us belongs to an ethnic group, although there are significant differences in the size of each group. The need to value ethnicity and see the benefits of diversity is vital; Thompson (2001: 76) describes the long-lasting effects that racism can have on families: Racism is a powerful force in society. It subjects one portion of society – black and ethnic minority groups – to oppression, degradation and discrimination on the grounds that they are deemed to be inferior, by virtue of biology and/or culture …

To promote involvement of all parents, the organization and curriculum of the setting need to send a strong message. The Curriculum Guidance for England states the importance of reflecting children’s homes and communities (DCSF, 2008). A trusting relationship needs to be built with parents of all cultures and practitioners need to learn about customs and traditions. One way for practitioners to do this is to attend the cultural awareness events that are organized by different ethnic or religious communities. Events such as these can provide insights into how culture and race can impact on bringing up children in society.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Practitioners need to be aware of their personal beliefs and practices, to help avoid actions that could lead to unintentional racism. Settings management teams need to ensure that policies and practices acknowledge, value and celebrate difference. Practitioners need access to appropriate support, information and training to ensure their practice is non-discriminatory. Greenman (2001: 59) summarizes this well by recognizing the demands it places on practitioners but also the benefits of empowering all parents: Full parent partnerships that recognise and respect the common bonds and the ways that families and children are different build a community of caring and learning.

To put this in context, a setting may approach a parent whom they do not know well and ask if they would come and talk to the children about an aspect of their culture. Although well-meaning, this attaches a particular identity to the parent and assumes that they are familiar with the particular cultural practice. It can also suggest that coverage of ethnic and cultural issues should take place at specific times only and is not threaded through the curriculum. This type of interaction runs the risk of reinforcing the idea of ethnicity as something that is detached and different to the heritage of the local community rather than being part of it.

Gay and lesbian parents Parents usually feel anxious when their child first starts to attend a setting, but after talking with practitioners and seeing their child settle this usually begins to recede quickly. For gay and lesbian parents, anxiety and stress may continue because of concerns over disclosing their sexuality to the setting and the impact that this may have on the child. Many gay and lesbian parents may have experienced some form of prejudice because of their sexual orientation. In addition, practitioners may express implicit or explicit concerns about the impact on children of living with gay or lesbian parents. Concern may relate to the children’s gender formation, sense of identity or later sexual orientation. Research evidence has explored each of these areas and has consistently found such concerns to be unfounded. The important factors in determining outcomes for children are based on the ability of parents to offer a loving, supportive and stimulating home environment, rather than on the sexual orientation of parents (Clarke et al., 2010). The points below raise a number of strategies to promote the inclusion of gay and lesbian parents: • Be aware of the kinds of language used in the setting. Try to use terms that are inclusive



Working with Parents and Families

when communicating with large groups of children, such as parent or parents rather than mummy and daddy. • Review documentation completed by parents. Do forms include terms that are specific to heterosexual parents, (e.g. mother and father)? Consider using more inclusive terms, such as parent or guardian. Repeat these terms to gain details of a second parent if present. • Are the experiences of all families reflected in the setting? For example, do all photographs show a mother and father? If so, how can changes be made to reflect and celebrate the diversity of all families in the community? • Make it clear through everyday interactions that all parents are able to get involved. • Does informal communication make assumptions – or example, referring to one parent as father and using a different term for the other? • Have the team considered how questions that could arise from children will be dealt with? Will they take account of the levels of understanding of the children? Will they provide an affirming and supportive response? • Are there opportunities for the team to discuss their feelings about children being raised by gay or lesbian parents? This is important, as it will impact on individual practice and interactions with families.

Conclusion There are clearly many challenges in establishing effective partnerships with parents. However, there are clear benefits of partnership working for families, practitioners and children. A focus on enhancing partnerships also provides opportunities for the development of practice. To establish and maintain effective partnerships will require time and effort. This may be in terms of acquiring skills, developing practice and exploring new ways of working as a team. A key driver for establishing partnership is that it will help to ensure that children are more likely to reach their potential and that the expectations of parents are realistic. To develop effective partnerships, the starting point needs to be linked to the current position of parents and then to move forward in an enabling manner. To achieve this, it is vital to establish trust, show respect, provide encouragement and maintain two-way communication. There are challenges in this approach, but a collaborative approach will benefit children both today and far into the future.

References Adams, K. S. and Christenson, S. L. (2000), ‘Trust and family–school relationship. examination of parent–teacher differences in elementary and secondary grades’, Journal of School Psychology, 38(5), 477–97.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Walters, E. and Wall, S. (1978), Patterns of Attachment, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Chaboudy, R., Jameson, R. and Huber, P. (2001), ‘Connecting families and schools through technology’, Book Report, 20(2), 52–7. Clarke, V., Ellis, S. J., Peel, E. and Riggs, D. W. (2010), Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer psychologies: An introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CWDC (2008), Parents and Families: Providing intense support for families with multiple and complex needs, Learner Resource Pack, Children’s Workforce Development Council. Available online at http://www.cwdcouncil.org.uk/assets/0001/2243/Intense_support_for_families_with_multiple_and_ complex_needs_FINAL.pdf (accessed 18 October 2011). Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999), Beyond Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care: Postmodern Perspectives, London: Falmer Press. Dalli, C. (2002), ‘From home to childcare: challenges for mothers, teachers and children’, in H. Fabian and A. Dunlop (eds), Transitions in the Early Years: Debating Continuity and Progression for Young Children in Early Education, London: Routledge Falmer; 38–51. Daniels, H. (1996), ‘The best practice project: building’, Educational Leadership, 53(7), 38–43. DCSF (2008), Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage, Department for Children, Schools and Families, Nottingham: DCSF. DfE (2010), The impact of Sure Start local progrmames on five year olds and their families, Department for Education, London: DfE. Draper, L. and Duffy, B. (2006), ‘Working with parents’, in G. Pugh (ed.), Contemporary Issues in the Early Years, London: Sage Publications. Edwards, A. and Knight, P. (1997), ‘Parents and professionals’, in B. Cosin and M. Hales (eds), Families, Education and Social Differences, London: Routledge. Edwards, A. and Warin, J. (1999), ‘Parental involvement in raising the achievement of primary school pupils: why bother?’, Oxford Review of Education, 25(3), 325–41. EHRC (2009), Working better – fathers, family and work: Contemporary perspectives, Equality and Human Rights Commission Research Summary 41, London: EHRC. Available online at http:// www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/research/41_wb_fathers_family_and_work.pdf (accessed 18 October 2011). Eldridge, D. (2001), ‘Parental involvement: it’s worth the effort’, Young Children, 56(4), 65–9. Ekberg, J., Eriksson, R. and Friebel, G. (2005), ‘Parental Leave – A Policy Evaluation of the Swedish “Daddy-Month” Reform’, Discussion Paper 1617, Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). Epstein, J. (2009), School, Family and Community Partnerships: Your handbook for action, Newbuury Park, CA: Corwin. Epstein, J. L. and Saunders, M. G. (2002), ‘Family, school and community partnerships’, in M. H. Bornstein (ed.), Handbook of Parenting. Volume 5: Practical Issues in Parenting (2nd edn), London: Lawrence Erlbaum. Equality and Human Rights Commission (2003), ‘Working better – fathers, family and work: Contemporary perspectives’, London: EHRC. Available online at http://www.equalityhumanrights. com/uploaded_files/research/41_wb_fathers_family_and_work.pdf (accessed 25 October 2011).



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EOC (2003), Men and Women: who looks after the children? Report on three joint seminars, Equal Opportunities Commission, London: EOC. Fatherhood Institute (2007), ‘The Difference a Dad Makes’. Available online at http://www.fatherhoodinstitute.org/uploads/publications/338.pdf (accessed 18 October 2011). Fitzgerald, D. and Kay, J. (2008), Working Together in Children’s Services, London: Routledge. Flouri, E. and Buchanan, A. (2003), ‘What predicts fathers’ involvement with their children? A prospective study of intact families’, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 81–99. Frieman, B. B. and Berkeley, T. R. (2002), ‘Encouraging fathers to participate in the school experiences of young children: the teacher’s role’, Early Childhood Education Journal, 29(3), 209–13. Gray, B. (2009), ‘Befriending excluded families in Tower Hamlets: the emotional labour of family support workers in cases of child protection and family support’, British Journal of Social Work, 39, 990–1007. Greenman, J. (2001), ‘Empowering parents’, Childcare Information Exchange, 138, pp. 56–9. Griebel, W. and Niesel, R. (2002), ‘Co-constructing transition into kindergarten and school by children, parents and teachers’, in H. Fabian and A. Dunlop (eds), Transitions in the Early Years: Debating Continuity and Progression for Young Children in Early Education, London: Routledge Falmer; pp. 64–75. Hadow report (1931), The Primary School, Board of Education, London: HMSO. HM Government (2011), Additional Paid Paternity Leave and Pay. Directgov. Available online at http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Parents/Moneyandworkentitlements/WorkAndFamilies/Paternity rightsintheworkplace/DG_190788 (accessed 18 October 2011). Jaffee, S. R., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A. and Taylor, A. (2003), ‘Life with (or without) father: the benefits of living with two biological parents depends on the father’s antisocial behaviour’, Child Development, 74(1), 109–26. Keyes, C. (2002), ‘A way of thinking about parent/teacher partnership for teachers, Journal of Early Years Education, 10(3), 177–91. McWilliam, R. A., Tocci, L. and Harbin, G. L. (1998), ‘Family-centered services: service providers’ discourse and behaviour’, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 18(4), 206–22. Malaguzzi, L. (1998), ‘History, ideas and basic philosophy: an interview with Lella Gandini’, in C. Edwards, L. Gandini and G. Forman (eds), The Hundred Languages of Children (2nd edn), London: Ablex Publishing Corporation; 49–98. Music, G. (2011), Nurturing Natures: Attachment and Children’s Emotional, Sociocultural and Brian Development, Brighton and Hove: Psychology Press. NESS Research Team (2005), ‘Early impacts of Sure Start local programmes on children and families’. Report 13. London: Department for Education and Skills. Neuman, M. (2002), ‘The wider context: an international overview of transition issues’, in H. Fabian and A. Dunlop (eds), Transitions in the Early Years: Debating Continuity and Progression for Young Children in Early Education, London: Routledge/Falmer; 8–22. NIACE (2009), ‘The Learning Family: A NIACE briefing note’, Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education. Available online at http://shop.niace.org.uk/media/catalog/product/L/e/ Learning-Family-briefing.pdf (accessed 18 October 2011).

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Good Practice in the Early Years Platt, L. (2009), ‘Ethnicity and family. Relationships within and between ethnic groups: An analysis using the Labour Force Survey’, London: Equality and Human Rights Commission. Press, F. and Hayes, A. (2000), ‘Thematic review of early childhood education and care policy’, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Available online at http://www.oecd. org/dataoecd/48/53/2476185.pdf (accessed 18 October 2011). Plowden Report (1967), ‘Report of the Central Advisory Council for Education, Children and their Primary Schools’, London: HMSO. Roberts-Holmes, G. and Brownhill, S. (2010), ‘Where are the men? A critical discussion of male absence in the early years’, in L. Miller and C. Cable (eds), Professionalization, Leadership and Management in the Early Years, London: Sage Publications. Rolfe, H., Metcalfe, H., Anderson, T. and Meadows, P. (2003), Recruitment and Retention of Childcare, Early Years and Play Workers: Research Study, National Institute of Economic and Social Research and Department for Education and Skills, London: HMSO. Rosenkoetter, S. E. (2001), ‘Come for a bedtime story’, Young Children, 56(3), 86–7. Shields, P. (2009), ‘School doesn’t feel as much of a partnership: parents’ perceptions of their children’s transition from nursery school to reception class’, Early Years, 29(3), 237–48. Smidt, S. (2002), A guide to Early Years Practice (2nd edn), London: Routledge Falmer. Steedman, C. (1990), Childhood, Culture and Class in Britain: Margaret McMillan 1860–1931, London: Virago. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E. C., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2004), ‘The effective provision of pre-school education (EPPE) project. Technical Paper 12 – The final report: effective pre-school education’. London: DfES/Institute of Education, University of London. Thompson, N. (2001), Anti-Discriminatory Practice (3rd edn), Basingstoke: Palgrave. Turbiville, V. P., Umbarger, G. T. and Guthrie, A. (2000), ‘Father’s involvement in programs for young children’, Young Children, 55(4), 74–9. Whalley, M. (2007), Involving Parents in their Children’s Learning (2nd edn), London: Paul Chapman.

9 Multi-Agency Working Jonathan Wainwright

Chapter Outline Introduction 243 What is multi-agency working? 244 Agencies involved in the early years 244 Why is multi-agency working so important? 254 Issues with multi-agency working 256 Models of multi-agency working 258 Opportunities for multi-agency working 261 Implications for practitioners 268 Conclusion 269

Introduction This chapter describes the different agencies that you might encounter in your work with children and their individual purposes and professional backgrounds. It explores the importance of agencies working together and some of the history behind the concept of multi-agency work. Although the concept of agencies working together has been around for some time, there are still some problematic issues in achieving effective multi-agency work. This chapter explores some of the difficulties experienced when agencies are expected to work together and some of the possible reasons behind these. The chapter also looks at some of the successful interventions made to encourage agencies to work together for the benefit of the child and family, and explores good practice in multi-agency working. This chapter covers the following: • What is multi-agency working? • Agencies involved in the early years • Why is multi-agency working so important?



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Good Practice in the Early Years • Issues with multi-agency working • Models of multi-agency working • Opportunities for multi-agency working • Implications for practitioners.

What is multi-agency working? First of all, let’s explore the language used in thinking about different agencies working together. Doubtless you will have heard a number of terms used to describe the collaborations of various organizations who all seek to do their best for the welfare of children and their families. Expressions using one of the words ‘inter’ or ‘multi’, combined with one of the words ‘agency’, ‘disciplinary’ or ‘professional’, seem to be the most common at the moment. However, these terms can refer to many things, such as the structures (i.e. how they are organized) of the way in which agencies (or professionals) work together, the approaches they take (i.e. the way they go about trying to work with the families in their care) or the reasons behind why they are working together. There may be technical distinctions between these terms, but in this chapter the term ‘multi-agency working’ will be used for the sake of consistency. Using this term implies that there is some sort of planning involved in the work of the multi-agency team.

Reflection point What terminology to describe agencies and/or professionals from different disciplines working together have you come across? Do different terms have any particular significance?

Agencies involved in the early years In this context, an agency is effectively a service that acts for the government, such as the National Health Service or Children’s Social Services. Some agencies work at national level, but most are structured at local authority level within national policy, legislation and guidelines. Health services have their own structure that does not always fit easily with local authority boundaries. Other agencies are voluntary sector organizations such as the NSPCC and Action for Children. These are not local or national government agencies but work within the same policy and legislative framework and usually receive some of their funding from local or national government. Similarly, private



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sector organizations such as day nursery chains work within the same boundaries but are profit-making businesses. Professionals and practitioners work within agencies. There are not always clear-cut boundaries as to where a particular professional will work. For example, social workers in early years mainly work for Children’s Social Care Services, but can also work for voluntary sector organizations such as the two mentioned above, or in Children’s Centres. Early years practitioners may work in the private sector in day nurseries, or in schools or Children’s Centres. In the early years the most common professionals and practitioners include health visitors, GPs, social workers, education psychologists, children’s mental health professionals, speech and language therapists, physiotherapists, paediatricians, early years practitioners, teachers, learning mentors, school support staff and family support workers. These agencies tend to fall into five distinct groups: • Health services • Education • Children’s social care services • Voluntary sector organizations • Private sector services.

It is particularly interesting that, at national and local levels, current legislation separates health, which comes under the Department of Health, from education and children’s social care, both of which come under the Department for Education. This is reflected at local level where both education and children’s social care services are within Children’s Service Authorities in each local authority, whereas health services are within separate Health Authorities. This split is a significant issue for effective multi-agency working between these three major agencies.

Reflection point Do you think that the 2010 change from a Department for Children, Schools and Families back to a Department for Education is significant in thinking about policy concerning early years provision? If so, in what ways?

French (in Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2007: 51) suggests that, in the 1960s, ‘Health provided services for children from 0–5, education from 5–16 and social services to adulthood’. In the 1980s social services provided ‘day care and support for children in need’ and ‘Health provision included hospital and emergency [services]. Community paediatric services, such as breast feeding

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Good Practice in the Early Years advice, were delivered through family doctors (Siraj- Blatchford et al., 2007: 53). With the plethora of recent changes, it is more difficult to be specific about the current remit of each agency. However, each agency has a remit to work with children and families.

Health The current remit for the Department of Health is to provide: • Better health and well-being for all: helping people stay healthy and well; empowering people to live independently; and tackling health inequalities. • Better care for all: the best possible health and social care that offers safe and effective care, when and where people need it; and empowering people in their choices. • Better value for all: delivering affordable, efficient and sustainable services; contributing to the wider economy and the nation.

In health, provision for the child and the family is likely to include a huge variety of services, such as: • Child Health Promotion Programmes • Maternity visits • Health visiting • Parenting support service • Antenatal services • Well baby clinics/cafes • Immunization sessions • Smoking cessation, for both women who are pregnant and other members of the family • Healthy eating in pregnancy • Weaning and family cooking • Programmes to increase physical activity • Baby massage • Specialist medical sessions for conditions such as asthma and dermatology, and paediatric out-patients • Reducing health inequalities • Reducing adult smoking rates • Halting the rise in obesity among children • Reducing the under-18 conception rate.

These are interesting activities because they are all clearly related to physical and mental wellbeing. This seems to be a relatively tangible set of programmes and goals.



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Reflection point Which of these activities have you come across in your experience? What impact might they have on the child and the child’s family?

Case study: Anita – a health intervention in the early years Anita is an active three-year-old who was born with a bowel abnormality. The surgery she had led to the formation of a colostomy – an opening on the surface of the abdomen whereby a portion of the colon is pulled through and attached to the skin surface. Termed a stoma (opening), this allows waste products from the bowel to leave the body and drain into a ‘stoma bag’. Anita’s family were confident in her care and had established links with their local health visitor, the community children’s nursing team and a specialist stoma therapist nurse who worked from the local district general hospital. When she started at the Peter Pan Nursery her parents outlined Anita’s previous health problems and the special consideration needed for her ‘toileting’, or, more specifically, emptying the stoma bag as required. The school had been in contact with the family during the term prior to Anita’s entry and arrangements were made for the parents to attend a short consultation with the headteacher. A subsequent appointment was then arranged after school hours for the CCN (Community Children’s Nursing Team), mother and class teacher to discuss Anita’s care needs in more detail. At the meeting, the CCN outlined a proposed healthcare plan, advising that the CCN would provide a programme of training for staff. The discussion included the need for Anita’s privacy and appropriate changing and handwashing facilities. A training session was organized for three members of the teaching staff and two support workers, and a healthcare plan was drawn up in consultation with Anita’s mother. The plan confirmed that staff should be able to: • be aware of Anita’s condition; • recognize potential problems for a child with a stoma bag; • be aware and able to empty the stoma bag confidently; • ask questions and practically voice their concerns. Upon completion of the training programme, relevant staff were issued with a training protocol and a statement of training was signed and dated by the CCN, which confirmed that staff had received instruction on colostomy care, specifically based upon Anita’s needs. A number of policy documents were been considered/consulted in relation to Anita’s care in nursery. These include: infection control, clinical safety/emergencies, consent to treatment, safeguarding children and confidentiality. Anita is now fully integrated into all activities within the nursery day. (This case is taken from Carlin, 2005: 100–3.)

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Good Practice in the Early Years Though the primary intervention is one to do with Anita’s health, other professionals are involved, in this case from education (the headteacher and the class teacher). Health services are effectively providing the training to allow Anita’s wellbeing to be supported by a different agency. But this intervention led to changes in the school’s policy. We shall learn more about this later.

Education In education, the DfE is either not as clear in its objectives, or far more overriding in its aims stating simply that it is ‘responsible for education and children’s services’. At the time of writing (May 2011), the DfE business plan suggests that the Department will ‘reform early years education and Sure Start so that all children and families receive the support they need, particularly the most vulnerable’. The recently published Tickell report has already suggested some changes to the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS), so this reformation is underway. In the same way as we looked at health interventions in the early years, we need to look at the role of early years education. This is perhaps most easily seen by examining the role of the early years teacher. Currently, we might see their role as delivering the foundation stage of education, so this means that they will have to design and deliver work schemes and lessons which will support children in achieving early learning goals. The early years teacher’s job description (Box, 2009: 1) suggests that: Early years teachers develop the social and communication skills of the children as well providing a safe and secure environment in which the child can learn. They build and maintain relationships with parents/guardians to further support pupils as well as operate within multi-agency networks to ensure the correct support is available. Early years teachers record observations and summarize the children’s achievements. They focus on optimum child development and preparation for a successful transition to primary school education.

And it defines typical activities to be: • motivating and stimulating the children’s learning abilities; • providing pastoral care and support to children; • providing them with a secure environment to learn; • devising and producing visual aids and teaching resources; • organizing learning materials and resources, and making imaginative use of resources; • assisting with the development of children’s personal/social and language abilities;



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• supporting the development of children’s basic skills, including physical coordination, speech and communication; • encouraging children’s mathematical and creative development through stories, songs, games, drawing and imaginative play; • developing children’s curiosity and knowledge; • working with others to plan and coordinate work; • sharing knowledge gained with other practitioners and parents; • observing, assessing and recording each child’s progress; • ensuring the health and safety of children and staff is maintained during all activities, both inside and outside the nursery/school; • carrying out home visits prior to a child starting nursery/school; • visiting providers of pre-school care, such as day nurseries.

Reflection point Which of these activities have you come across in your experience. What impact might they have on the child and the child’s family?

Garrick and Morgan (2008: 1–2) suggests that teachers working in Children’s Centres will not only … have the ability to provide good quality educational experiences for children, they will also need to be able to articulate and disseminate effective practice to a wide range of audiences. The early years teacher role is essentially a leadership role, with a focus on pedagogical leadership. The role of the leader is about generating constructive change through direction-setting and influence. The Children’s Centre teacher role relates to both adult and children’s learning.

A particular claim made here is that the teacher is seen to be in a leadership role – particularly in a Children’s Centre setting; this is not a claim made by other agencies.

Case study: Leon – an education intervention in the early years Leon is three years and six months old. He was referred to the Psychology Service by his health visitor just after his second birthday due to concerns about his inability to communicate with the people around him and obsessional behaviours with mobile phones and keys. His parents have found it very difficult to cope with his behaviour. An educational psychologist referred him to the Early Years Support Team and he has had an Early

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Case study (Continued) Years Support Teacher since just before his third birthday. He now attends his local pre-school for three mornings each week. With help and advice from the Educational Psychologist and the Early Years Support Link Teacher, the pre-school was fully informed of Leon’s difficulties before he arrived. Additional funding was sought for Leon through recommendation from the Early Years Support Link Teacher. The pre-school was able to employ an extra member of staff for six hours a week to cover the time Leon is attending pre-school. This person is responsible for helping Leon adjust to the setting and work on the targets on his IEP (Individual Education Plan). His Early Years Support Link Teacher has written his IEP in discussion with parents, but now he is attending nursery provision she will write new targets in collaboration with the setting as well. The Early Years Support Link Teacher will help the setting to implement the IEP. She has taken photos for the setting of key times and activities during the day in order to set up a visual timetable for Leon. All staff have been alerted to Leon’s difficulties and are aware of his IEP. At his Early Years Action Plus review the setting, parents and support services agreed that Leon’s needs may need to be clarified through a Statutory Assessment. (From Leicester City Council, 2006: 1.)

Again, we see an example of good practice – but not one that the teacher was able to implement on her own.

Social care Issues with Social Care Services are even more complex, to the point where some writers suggest that social work has been in a crisis for the last 30 years. Social work in Britain today has lost direction … Many have talked about social work being in crisis for over thirty years now. … Government proposals to push social work closer to health and education have resulted in increasing anxiety over the profession’s role and identity. Despite protection of the title legislation, it is feared that the ingredients that make social work unique could be lost amid the blurring of professional boundaries. (Asquith et al., 2005: 3)

The Children Act (2004), which we will meet again later, required that each Local Authority should appoint a Children’s Services director. The implication of this was that a division developed between Adult and Children’s Social Services. Inevitably this meant that Children’s Social Services became linked with education and adult services became linked to health.



Multi-Agency Working According to the British Association for Social Workers (BASW, 2011): Social work is a profession that is centred around people working to protect vulnerable people, enhance relationships and help families to stay together where possible and enable people to live fulfilled lives as independently as possible.

People working in social work may be based in Local Authorities, visiting families in their homes, voluntary or charitable organizations, private organizations, schools, hospitals or other settings. The role of social care services in the early years may include: • working with children in care (also known as looked-after children – children who are in local authority care) • providing support to families to keep them living together • assisting families where children are avoiding school or truanting • managing adoption or fostering processes. • However, this would not necessarily exclude adult social care services professionals who may be working with parents who: • have mental health problems • have learning disabilities • have offended, supervising them in the community or helping with resettlement • have HIV or Aids • are supporting vulnerable older people to live independently.

Reflection point Which of these activities have you come across in your experience? What impact might they have on the child and the child’s family?

Case study: Kate – social care Kate is a single mother aged 17 with a son, Josh, aged four. She was referred to a local Family Intervention Project (FIP) by the local Housing Association because she was at risk of eviction. This was tied into other concerns such as mental health and substance misuse linked to poor health and unmanaged hepatitis C. Josh was on the ‘At Risk’ register. The social worker worked with the GP and a community drugs worker in order to motivate Kate to begin a methadone programme. Once Kate was stabilized, a mental health assessment took place and a diagnosis of a psychotic illness was made. The FIP key worker coordinated with the GP, drugs worker, community psychiatric nurse and psychiatrist. Medication enabled Kate’s behaviour

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to become more rational and she attended a specialist detox unit. Following successful detox, Kate is no longer using any drugs or alcohol. She also worked with the Social worker on: • parenting support – enabling the removal of Josh from the ‘At Risk’ register • whole-family support – enabling her parents to care for Josh while she attended detox • support to manage her finances, address debt and claim disability living allowance. (Based on a case from Local Government Improvement and Development, 2010.)

In order to support Kate and Josh, the social worker also had to engage with a number of other agencies in order to help alleviate the issues preventing Josh’s appropriate development.

Voluntary groups The role of voluntary groups in the early years has always been important but is becoming increasingly so under the current government. Children’s Minister Tim Loughton said: The government is committed to supporting voluntary and community sector [VCS] organizations to have a much greater involvement in the running of public services … The voluntary sector plays, and will continue to play, a significant role in reforming services for children, young people and families. (DfE, 2011: 2)

Of course, we have to consider what a voluntary organization is. It is not necessarily one that is run by volunteers; rather it is, according to the Charities Commission, an independent organization which is set up to contribute to the community, or a section of the community. Voluntary organizations are not allowed to make a profit for private distribution; however, they may need to generate income in order to pay staff and to resource their work. In your work in the sector, you are likely to have come across a wide variety of different voluntary organizations such as the NSPCC or Action for Children. The variety of services provided is very broad and may include such things as: • therapeutic work with children, young people and families, particularly in relation to child sexual abuse;



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• specialist support and services for children and young people with disabilities or health problems; • services for children abused through prostitution and for children who abuse other children.

It is interesting that some of these services were originally offered by health and social care. We also see that some schools are now moving out of state control into the hands of charitable providers. This adds another dimension of complexity into our thinking.

Case study: A voluntary group John and his partner, Jenny, who has learning difficulties, have a threeyear-old boy, Damien. After experiencing a very difficult upbringing himself, John found it difficult to understand how to bring up his own child, and at one point Damien was placed on the child protection ‘At Risk’ register. When Damien was about two, there was an incident that made John realize that he needed to change his situation. ‘So, I moved house, was honest with the police and my partner’s father, who was very supportive.’ John got help from Homestart, a family support charity, who worked with the council to get a home for his family. The Homestart worker arranged for the couple to take part in the local Children’s Centre’s parenting courses and they agreed because they felt they needed the extra support. “Our son went to the crèche which was a real bonus or we probably wouldn’t have been able to do it,” he added. On the course they picked up lots of parenting skills to do with safety and understanding your child. John said that they now have ‘a much happier household than the one I grew up in. Damien is enjoying school and I really want him to have a good education, the best in life, and not go down the same path as me.’ (From Hertfordshire Children’s Centres, 2010.)

These cases demonstrate that each of the agencies has had a specific role to play and a specific contribution to make to children’s development and wellbeing, yet, even in the examples given, we start to see that the different agencies need to work together in order to deliver effective services to the early years.

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Reflection point Consider which agencies and voluntary groups you’ve come across in your experience of working in early year’s settings. • How would you describe their different priorities? • Do you see any differences in the way in which they work?

Why is multi-agency working so important? In the case studies, we have already seen that, where early childhood is concerned, it is difficult to see how individual agencies can really work alone to meet the needs of children – particularly those who are vulnerable; so we start to see that the idea of different agencies working together becoming obvious. The Green Paper, Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003) refers to the need to integrate ‘professionals through multi-disciplinary teams responsible for identifying children at risk, and working with the child and family to ensure services are tailored to their needs’ (2003: 51). It also suggests that ‘Over time, professionals and nonprofessionals might increasingly work together in different types of teams’. As practitioners we recognize that the early years of a child’s life are periods of personal and social transition that render children vulnerable to social exclusion (Baldwin et al., 1997). As such, the idea of providing ‘holistic’ support for them and their families is essential, both in terms of social justice and in terms of helping children to read the five outcomes of the Every Child Matters initiative. Gasper (2010) suggests a number of significant reasons why working together is so essential. He suggests it is a more efficient way of working because individuals are more likely to be listened to, families’ needs can be more easily identified, resources can be more focused and less likely to be duplicated and the actions of each agency could be complementary. He also suggests that working together is more effective because bureaucracy is reduced and things can happen more quickly.

Reflection point What examples can you think of in your setting(s) in which agencies come together to deliver services for children and families?



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Where does the concept of multi-agency working come from? There is a popular belief that the idea of multi-agency working stemmed from such cases as the death of Victoria Climbié in 2000, which occurred as a result of a lack of coordinated working between a variety of agencies, including the police, social services, the NHS and the NSPCC. All these organizations had been aware that she showed signs of abuse, yet she still died. This was not, however, the first incidence of systemic failure. After a number of reports highlighting the failure of agencies working together to prevent the deaths of Jasmine Beckford (1985), Kimberley Carlile (1987) and Tyra Henry (1987), the original Children Act was made law in 1989 and was seen by the then Lord Chancellor (Lord Mackay of Clashfern) as ‘the most comprehensive and far-reaching reform of child law which has come before Parliament in living memory’(NSPCC, 2010: 2). This act served two purposes: to try to ensure that the responsibility for looking after children stayed with the parents; but also to introduce stronger duties on responsible agencies to investigate abuse, and to allow a greater interpretation of what is meant for a child to be at risk so that intervention could come sooner. The tragic death of Victoria Climbié did, however, form a trigger which led to the development of the Every Child Matters programme and the Children Act (2004), which have had such an influence on education and childcare over the last few years. The concept of agencies working together to protect children has been around considerably longer. When the author was at primary school in the (late) 1960s, there were visits from the school doctors and dentists. Speech therapy was available for those who the teachers felt needed it,and ‘problem children’ were referred to social services. However, this example only serves to reinforce Gasper’s (2010) position that, until relatively recently, the emphasis of the work was on specialists doing what they thought was right for the child. We might even argue that the idea of joined-up working has been around since the formation of the welfare state; however, it is only really since 1997 that Government guidance has … exhorted traditionally separate agencies to work together in order to counter social exclusion and to develop public services that are organized to meet the needs of citizens, rather than the convenience of providers. (Warmington et al., 2005: 6)

For an interesting and accessible article on the welfare state, see Field (2011).

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Reflection point We know that there are connections between crime, low achievement in school, poverty, neglect, housing, abuse, social marginalization, and health. We know that a holistic approach to treat problems is the only sensible approach, so why is it still a problem after all these years of knowing?

Issues with multi-agency working So why do children still slip through the net? Surely we believe that each agency wants the best for its clients. The professionals that work in these agencies have been trained to have the interests of the children and families in their care at the heart of what they do. Let us have a look at an instance involving what is potentially a child protection issue. This comes from Buchanan’s (2005) work on drugs and safeguarding. Michelle was six months pregnant and dependent upon street heroin. The probation service, social services, the education authority and the health service each had specialist workers with a remit to specialize in substance misuse. However, each had different perspectives, philosophies and language to understand and describe the drug problem. Michelle was variously referred to as an addict, a user, a patient, a client and a service user.

Reflection point What do these various words mean to you? Do you think they convey different meanings?

The medical approach to drug addiction is to try to stabilize the habit with a substitute drug such as methadone, in order to minimize withdrawal problems. In Michelle’s case, … some agencies saw methadone as a dangerous drug only to be prescribed as a last resort on a four-week reducing programme; others believed methadone maintenance should be freely available and some felt that ‘addicts should be left to hit rock bottom’ before any help should be given.



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Reflection point We are not drugs experts, but just notice the different views here on the different approaches.

After the baby was born, a case conference was held. Two different views emerged. [I]t was suggested by one of medical staff that: a) Michelle should immediately be placed on a four-week methadone reduction programme to become drug free, b) the baby should be placed on the at risk register and c) arrangements should be made to systematically monitor Michelle’s child care capabilities. Other agencies thought that this strategy was setting Michelle up to fail and suggested that the baby should be kept in hospital for an extra three days to monitor possible withdrawal symptoms and not to make any immediate demands to reduce Michelle’s current levels of substitute prescribing. They did not feel that there was sufficient concern to justify putting the baby on the at risk register. (Buchanan, 2005: 12–13)

Reflection point Again, just look at the different perspectives: do you allow Michelle to look after her child while she is still taking prescribed drugs, or do you put the child on an ‘at risk’ register while forcing Michelle to withdraw from her habit?

This case is taken out of the context of Buchanan’s work because Michelle was helped enormously by a multi-agency team. However, it does illustrate that different agencies have different approaches to looking at concerns for children, and Buchanan suggests a number of different attitudes, values and roles for each separate agency which will be explored in more depth. The drug workers had sympathy for the parents they worked with and felt that other professionals tended to be judgmental through their use of certain language to describe Michelle and the attitudes they took towards the interventions proposed. They did not see that drug use would automatically result in bad parenting, and they saw their main role as helping to get the adult off illegal drugs – and the problems involved with getting her onto prescription drugs so that her habit could be stabilized and ultimately reduced. The focus of their efforts was on Michelle herself.

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Good Practice in the Early Years The social workers’ perspective was that it was inevitable that Michelle’s drug abuse would have a negative impact on her unborn child; however, despite their primary concern for child protection, they saw Michelle and her baby (the family) as the focus of their work. They had an additional role of deciding whether or not the child should be put on the At Risk register. The majority of health workers felt that, because she was a drug user, Michelle would be a poor role model for her baby. They felt that it would be best if the baby could be taken away from a drug-using parent. Their focus was on the baby and reducing its contact with drug use.

Reflection point In this case, who was right? Or are all perspectives equally valid and if so why? • How do you think the ways in which the different professions work reflects their training and the nature of the organization to which they belong?

Models of multi-agency working In Buchanan’s case study, we see that different agencies can have different views about what risks are acceptable to take. They have different focuses of attention: the child, the adult or the family; and they use different language to describe Michelle. On top of this, we can easily imagine that professionals in each agency will have had different training, they will be paid differently, they will be expected to work different hours, they will be supervised and managed differently, and they will work in different locations.

Reflection point What other differences between the agencies can you think of?

Atkinson’s (2002) research has suggested some of the ways in which various professionals are seen by those from different professions. Early years professionals are described as ‘creative butterflies’. To me, this portrays an image of brightness, fun and enthusiasm, but of not doing any one thing for any length of time. Health professionals are seen as ‘rigid and hierarchical’. This is very understandable: if I was being treated for a health condition, I think I would want a systematic approach where health



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professionals knew what they were doing, did it consistently and it was clear who was in charge. Social workers were seen as democratic, wanting the best for everyone; the problem with this is that, in order to please everyone, decisions can be very difficult to make. Teachers were seen as ‘mechanistic’, perhaps because they were following a curriculum and adhering strictly to policies. They were also seen as ‘status conscious’, perhaps in order to maintain discipline in a classroom. The voluntary sector, in the context of volunteers, were seen as ‘not turning up on time’.

Reflection point These views are perhaps stereotypical, but, from your experience, is there any truth in them?

Understanding some of the difficulties Clearly, then, there are differences between the different agencies that need to be taken into consideration when they are asked to work together in multiagency teams. It might help to try to characterize these into different types so that we can understand the issues more fully. We might suggest three different classifications of difference: the way in which the different agencies think about issues; the way in which their agencies are structured and managed; and the way in which they deliver services. Anning et al. (2006) offer some useful thoughts on this which suggest that these factors will have an influence on both individual professionals and the teams in which they are working.

The structure and management of agencies We might see these as Human Resource issues. Anning et al. suggest that issues arising from structure and management are about how professionals from different agencies cope with systems and change (2006: 94). Close and Wainwright (2010) suggest that this could be seen in levels of formality and lines of accountability, or as being about the relationships between roles. In other words, problems may arise because of how the team is managed. Some examples to consider might be: • If you are working in a multi-agency team, is your boss the leader of that team, or is it your usual line manager? • Do you think that the distribution of work is fair amongst the members of the team you are working in?

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Good Practice in the Early Years • Are you all based in the same building? • Are you full- or part-time in the team? • Can you still work in the way you want to or are used to? • Do some people in a team get more money and longer holidays for doing the same job? • Will different people get different levels of support or supervision? • Will different people be working different hours? • Will everyone get the same training and development opportunities? • Will working in a multi-agency team mean missing out on promotion?

The way in which agencies think about issues Ideological problems – the way in which agencies think about issues – which Anning et al. describe as sharing and redistributing knowledge/skills and beliefs (2006: 97), could be seen as being about the meaning and significance of work and the way in which they are communicated to others. The case of Michelle, referred to earlier in the chapter, has a number of examples of this. Some questions for us to consider are: • What is your status; do you see yourself as being senior to others in the team? • How much impact can you have on the decisions of the team? • How do different people dominate the group? • Will there be a collision between the various views of the professions that derive from the way you have been trained and the history of that profession? • Are the group’s members prepared to learn from those different views? • Is each group member’s professional knowledge up to date? • Does everyone understand the language being used?

The way in which agencies deliver services Anning et al. refer to these as procedural problems. While ideological problems are concerned with how agencies think about things, procedural problems are about the actual delivery of a service to a child or family. In a multi-agency team, it would make sense to have a single set of data about a particular family or child, yet different agencies have been used to using their own databases and record-keeping systems. Similarly, it would make sense that the information held about a particular child or family should be shared across the involved agencies; however, this brings about a worry that ‘confidential’ information, particularly when thinking about child protection issues, might be shared inappropriately. Another issue highlighted is the actual deployment of specialists, such as social workers, and generalists such as parents supporting other parents in parenting classes. In a multi-agency team, you may start to see generalists



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taking on more of a specialist role – and feeling challenged by this expectation – and specialists being asked to undertake more generalist activities. The questions that we might want to consider here are likely to be things like: • Are there disagreements about the treatment or intervention that could be made? • Can we create a common database? • Where should we use a specialist, or would a generalist be right for the job? • What confidential information can/should we share? • Why should you stop doing what you’ve always done because another agency does it differently? • If you spend too much time in a multi-agency team, will it stop you being a true professional?

Opportunities for multi-agency working It may be easy to get stuck into thinking that multi-agency working is beset by difficulties. In some contexts this is true, but there follow three major examples in which multi-agency working is starting to have a real impact.

Sure Start Children’s Centres In 1997, Sure Start was established through the ‘recognition that deprivation was blighting the lives of too many children and families in disadvantaged areas’ (DCSF, 2008: 5). Building on earlier neighbourhood nurseries, early excellence centres, nursery and primary schools and other childcare providers in the private and voluntary sectors, Children’s Centres were set up with the intention that they would be ‘at the heart of the Government’s drive to provide accessible, integrated early childhood services for all parents-to-be and families with young children’ (DCSF, 2008: 3). The first 350 centres were generally purpose-built service hubs targeted at the most deprived areas of the country, though the aim was that, by 2010, every community would have access to a local Centre. The intention was that each Centre would provide a core offer to the community. The core offer had four main themes: children and family health services; childcare and learning; parenting – including access to specialist services for families, such as managing money or speech therapy; and help to find work or training opportunities. The intention was that Children’s Centres would be a one-stop shop

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Good Practice in the Early Years where families could access all the help they needed from all the different agencies involved in a single location. There are a number of case studies showing the effectiveness of Children’s Centres. Two are presented below to illustrate the sort of things that might happen.

Case study: Children’s Centres 1 John was struggling to cope with his newborn son, Caleb, and was concerned that Caleb might be at risk. When I walked into the Compass Children’s Centre for the first time I was at the end of my tether. My wife Natalie had just had our son Caleb, but she couldn’t look after him because she had kidney failure. I was looking after Natalie, Caleb and our two older children, Courtney, 11, and Bradley, 9. That was tough, but made worse by the fact that Caleb barely slept. I was awake all day and night, which made me exhausted and only made my mental health problems worse. I started worrying about the kids’ safety and knew I needed help. At the Compass Children’s Centre, I met senior community family worker Karen Smith. She was really friendly and arranged to come and see us at home later that day to arrange some support. She brought a midwife and a health visitor, and together they arranged some immediate care for Caleb, once a week for the next few months. Knowing he was being looked after helped me to relax and I managed to rest. Karen got Caleb into a playgroup at the Centre called ‘Rising Threes’. He was clingy at first, but he came around once he’d made some friends. I’m so grateful to the team at the Children’s Centre because they gave us a lifeline when we needed it. (From CWDC, 2010c.)

In this case we see the involvement of a community worker, a midwife and a health visitor.

Case study: Children’s Centres 2 The second case comes from another Children’s Centre (Together for Children, 2010) where a need was identified to integrate disabled children into the early years provision. Previously, families had had to travel long distance to access all the required services – particularly as these services were located in different places. As a result of the identification of this need, the Children’s Centre decided to change its approach. The Centre now has two specialist staff members, but the emphasis has been on



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ensuring that the whole team has the skills to look after children with special and complex needs. The Centre manager said: ‘Part of the change was about developing a culture change within the organization. There was a “fear factor” present among the existing staff, but with training, support and mentoring everyone can acquire the required skills and confidence.’ There are now four dedicated SEN places available in the Centre, with six children with complex needs currently attending. These places are fully mainstreamed within the setting – all children play and learn together, whatever their ability. Day-to-day inclusive practice includes the use of sign language by all staff, timetables and routines are displayed using words and pictures, and the Makaton system of symbols and pictures is used to help children to communicate with each other. Parents are really noticing the difference that the Centre is making. ‘My child is now talking and interacting with others, and playing when we get home,’ said one mum. Support and training in the care of disabled children is also given to local child minders to give them the confidence to cater for additional needs – and to give parents a wider choice of childcare options. The Centre works in partnership with other agencies to deliver a whole range of services for disabled children, so instead of a child being taken to the hospital for physiotherapy or speech and language therapy, it can be delivered at the Centre. One local physiotherapist has now started holding all of her sessions for children at the Centre, rather than at the hospital. The Centre also joins up support for parents of disabled children. This includes a drop-in group run by a voluntary organization that supports local families of disabled children and young people, the Parents Partnership Service, and the Parent Carers Council.

In this case, we see the involvement of the Centre staff, parents, speech and language therapists and physiotherapists, as well as child minders and voluntary organizations (Together for Children, 2010: 77).

Reflection point Either visit or look up details of your local Children’s Centre. • What services do they offer, and how might these services involve multiagency working?

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The Common Assessment Framework The second area where multi-agency working is starting to have a real impact has come through the Common Assessment Framework (CAF). This again evolved from the Every Child Matters initiative, and was introduced in 2004. The assessment was designed to offer a consistent approach to identify and respond to the additional needs of children who it was felt were not meeting the five outcomes of Every Child Matters. By having a common referral process – i.e. one which is shared between all agencies – it was hoped that the number of individual assessments would be reduced and that there would be only one set of information about the child. It was designed so that it could be completed by any practitioner in any setting and developed a common language in order to improve the quality of information passed between the different agencies involved. The guiding principles behind the CAF (DCFS, 2004) were that it should: • be centred upon the child and all of their potential needs, rather than just those which could be met by the setting where the form was completed; • be geared towards delivery of practical and appropriate solutions to a child’s unmet needs, whether the agency that completed it could deliver the solutions, or whether another agency needed to be involved; • reduce the bureaucracy of different assessments and data gathering by different services, using common models and information; • involve children and young people and families at all stages.

The comprehensive information collected through the CAF is likely to focus on such things as children’s: • general health; • physical development; • speech, language and communication development; • emotional and social development; • behavioural development; • self-esteem, self-image and social presentation; • family and social relationships; • self-care skills and independence; • learning, including understanding, reasoning and problem-solving, progress and achievement in learning, participation in learning, educational aspirations; • basic parental care, including safety and protection; • emotional warmth and family stability; • parental guidance, behaviour boundaries and stimulation at home; • family history, including functioning and wellbeing; • wider family;



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• housing and financial considerations; • social and community factors.

Outcomes from the CAF are usually that: practitioners’ concerns will have been resolved and that no further action will be necessary; actions that can be carried out by the setting have been identified; or actions needed from other agencies have been identified. Again, two case studies follow of how the CAF might work:

Case study: Common Assessment Framework 1 Emma was a single mother at 19 and was living with her disabled mother and four others in a house in which there were lots of arguments and very little support. By the time her daughter, Aimee was four, Emma realized that she wasn’t communicating as well as other children of her age. Aimee and her mother were both overweight and had mobility problems. The family worker at the local Children’s Centre completed a CAF with Aimee and Emma. As a result of this, the family worker got the family involved with the baby group at the Centre, where Aimee and Emma learned to play together. Aimee was also referred to a speech and language therapist where her development was identified as being delayed by about 18 months. Weekly sessions allowed her to develop her confidence and selfesteem. She was also referred to a health visitor and a paediatrician who have helped her to become more mobile and to lose weight. Aimee and Emma are now much closer, happier and healthier as a result of the CAF. (From CWDC, 2010b.)

Case study: Common Assessment Framework 2 Another case, this time from Newcastle Children’s Services, concerns Billy, a 14-month-old child who is the third child of his mother Susan and a fourth child for his father Jimmy. Susan has a learning disability and her previous two children were removed from her care due to neglect as she was a lone parent and was unable to provide basic care. Social services had previously been involved with the family because of an allegation that Jimmy had been sexually abusing his children. Until these allegations were withdrawn, Billy spent the first eight months of his life with Jimmy’s sister. After this, Billy was placed in the care of his parents with Jimmy as the main carer – because Susan was unable to parent independently. A CAF was completed by the health visitor to ensure the appropriate intervention should any concerns arise. As a result of this, regular meetings between the health visitor, the Community Learning Disabilities Team

ð

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Case study (Continued) (CLDT) and a family support worker from a local Sure Start Children’s Centre have taken place. The CLDT provided one-to-one support for Susan to discuss her personal feelings and difficulties. The family support worker provided practical support around any parenting issues and followed up advice given in the CAF review meetings by the health visitor around establishing a night-time routine and healthy diet. (From Newcastle Children’s Trust, 2010: 55.)

Reflection point Talk to practitioners about the use of the CAF and ask if they think it has encouraged and improved multi-agency working? • Have a look at various Local Authority websites for their CAF toolkit. You might want to work through any examples they give.

Early Years Professional Status (EYPS) The third area where change is working is through the introduction of Early Years Professional Status. Whereas previous training has been in a single profession, the Early Years Professional (EYP) is now trained as someone who does not have an allegiance to health or education; but has the child and family as the focus of their work. This approach crosses the potential professional divide, though it might be argued that a generalist role has possible weaknesses too. However, the 39 standards required of an EYP pay a great deal of attention to working with other agencies. For example: • S 23. Identify and support children whose progress, development or wellbeing is affected by changes or difficulties in their personal circumstances and know when to refer them to colleagues for specialist support. • S 32. Provide formal and informal opportunities through which information about children’s wellbeing, development and learning can be shared between the setting and families and parents/carers. • S 36. Contribute to the work of a multi-professional team and, where appropriate, coordinate and implement agreed programmes and interventions on a day-to-day basis. (CWDC, 2010a)



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As an example of the work of an EYP from Lisa, an Essex EYP, the case below shows what the role might look like in a children’s centre. At the Children’s Centre, I work within a multi-professional team and liaise with local Heads in order to promote the Children’s Centre services to local families, I support staff in local pre-schools in order to raise the quality of EYFS provision, and having completed Elklan Speech and Language training, I work with Health colleagues to support early language intervention for pre-school children where there are concerns. However, above all, I work with families and children. Some of the sessions I also deliver are Technotots – fun and games with ICT for children; Time2Talk – a parent and baby communication course; and Parent and Toddler Forest Sessions – outdoor play in a woodland setting. In addition to my work at the Children’s Centre, I have established a Forest School programme running in Brentwood with groups of Reception children. I am now carrying out some Equality and Inclusion tutoring for Early Years Practitioners and I am mentoring prospective EYPs and carrying out setting visits as an EYP Assessor. (Essex County Council, 2010)

This demonstrates a number of things: the supporting of staff in pre-school to deliver EYFS would previously have been seen as within the remit of education; early language intervention would previously have come under health; working with families and children might previously have been seen as part of a Social Services offering. Yet the EYP integrates all of these aspects into a new profession. Another example features the work of Hilary, an Early Years Practitioner with a Traveller Education Support Service, who worked with Mary, a traveller, to help her to access the services she needed for her daughter, Danielle. These included services to identify and support additional speech and language development needs and a diagnosis that Danielle is ‘high functioning’ on the autistic spectrum. Without the outreach work, it is likely that the early identification of Danielle’s unique learning needs would not have been addressed so thoroughly by the services available in her locality, and Danielle would have started her educational journey without the level of confidence she has. Through the relationship developed within the outreach work, Mary has been able to find new opportunities to share her experiences confidently both as a mother and as a Traveller within the local community. She has contributed to a film about the work of the local Sure Start programme, and joined Hilary to deliver an awareness raising session about Traveller culture to other parents using the nursery that Danielle attended. (Save the Children Fund, 2007: 17)

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Good Practice in the Early Years In this case, Hilary is carrying out work that would previously been carried out by Social Services and education – again demonstrating the new profession which crosses the previously held boundaries of the different professions.

Reflection point Talk to someone who has obtained EYP status, and ask how they view their professional heritage. • How do they think their work contributes to multi-agency working?

Implications for practitioners As someone working in the early years sector, you will doubtless come across others from a wide variety of agencies. These examples have shown where multi-agency working is having a clear, positive impact on the lives of children and their families. What we now need to turn to is what good practice might look like when working in multi-agency teams. Atkinson et al. (2002) offer us a number of key suggestions: Most of these ideas revolve around taking time and communicating. Other texts will point out the detail, however the things that you might need to think about are: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Understanding other agencies: Do you know the role and remit of the other agencies with which you work? Understanding individuals’ roles: Have you spent time with other individuals from other agencies to try and understand their perspectives? Communication skills How good are your communication skills? Do you know what is meant by effective communications? Listening skills How well do you listen? Negotiating and compromising skills Do you know where you stand in any potential debate? What negotiating skills do you have at your disposal? Flexibility What are your underlying values and how far are you willing to sacrifice them for the goals of the setting? Willingness to work together How do you demonstrate your willingness to work with others? Social and interpersonal skills



Multi-Agency Working • • • • • • •

How well do you get on with others? Having vision Are you clear about what you want to achieve in your setting? Relationship building How good are you at making friends and building relationships? Networking How do you find out what’s happening in your sector, and from whom?

Conclusion In this chapter we have explored a number of ideas around how agencies might work together and some of the concerns involved. We have looked at health, education, social care and voluntary groups and considered, through case studies, how each of these agencies might be involved in work with children in the early years. We have considered the particular strengths that the different agencies bring with them and recognized that they may have differing priorities when it comes to working with children and families. We have also seen that, more often than not, it is essential that agencies work together as the consequences of them not doing so in the past have been reduced effectiveness of services to children and families at best, and disastrous at worst. We have, though, explored some of the reasons why multi-agency working can be difficult because of the way that agencies are structured and managed, because people trained in different professions think differently about children and families and their needs, and because the ways in which services are delivered may be hard to reconcile. We have looked at some successful examples of where agencies have worked well together, particularly in Children’s Centres and through the implementation of the Common Assessment Framework. We have also seen how the new role of the Early Years Practitioner can help in thinking across professional boundaries. Atkinson et al.’s (2002) suggestions as to how we might develop our skills and abilities to support our work with different agencies have been included here for discussion. This chapter should help your thinking around how we can continue to develop good practice in working with people from other agencies in order to meet the interests of the child in the context of the family … after all, that’s what we are here to do.

References Anning, A., Cottrell, D., Frost, N., Green, J. and Robinson, M. (2006), Developing multiprofessional teamwork for integrated children’s services, Maidenhead: Open University Press.

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Good Practice in the Early Years Asquith, S., Clark, C. and Waterhouse, L. (2005), The role of the social worker in the 21st Century, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh. Atkinson, M., Wilkin, A., Stott, A., Doherty, P. and Kinder, K. (2002), Multi-agency working: a detailed study, Slough: NFER. Baldwin, D., Coles, B. and Mitchell, W. (1997), ‘The formation of an underclass or disparate processes of social exclusion? Evidence from two groupings of “vulnerable” youth’, in R. MacDonald ed. Youth, the underclass and social exclusion, London: Routledge. BASW (2011), ‘What is social work?’. Available online at http://www.basw.co.uk/social-workcareers/#whatissocialwork (accessed 19 October 2011). Box, C. (2009), ‘Early years teacher job description’. Available online at http://www.prospects.ac.uk/ early_years_teacher_job_description.htm (accessed 19 October 2011). Buchanan, J. (2005), ‘Problem drug use and safeguarding children: a multi-agency approach’, in B. Corby, Effective Practice in Health and Social Care: A Partnership Approach, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Carlin, J. (2005), Including me: Managing complex health needs in schools and early years settings. London: Council for Disabled Children; pp 10–12. Close, P. and Wainwright, J. (2010), ‘Who’s in charge? Leadership and culture in extended service contexts’, School Leadership & Management, 30(5), 435–50. CWDC (2010a) On the right track. Guidance to the Standards for the award of Early Years Professional Status, London: CWDC. —(2010b), ‘I’ve learned how to be a better mum’. Children’s Workforce Development Council. Available online at https://sharestreet.cwdcouncil.org.uk/CaseStudyDocument.aspx?ID=528 (accessed 19 October 2011). —(2010c), ‘Safeguarding children’. Children’s Workforce Development Council. Available online at https://sharestreet.cwdcouncil.org.uk/CaseStudyDocument.aspx?ID=531 (accessed 19 October 2011). DCSF (2004), The Children Act (2004). London: The Stationery Office. —(2008) The Sure Start Journey, A summary of evidence, London: DCSF DfE (2011), The Munro Review. Department for Education. Available online at http://www.education. gov.uk/munroreview/downloads/vcs.pdf (accessed 19 October 2011). DFES (2003), Every Child Matters. Department for Education and Skills, London: The Stationery Office. Essex County Council (2010), ‘Early years and childcare careers’. Available online at http://www. essex-eyjobs.co.uk/Training/Level-5--Early-Years-Professional-Status/Practitioners/What-otherhelpful-information-do-I-need-with-regards-to-EYPS/ (accessed 19 October 2011). Field. F. (2011), ‘The welfare state – never ending reform’. Available online at http://www.bbc.co.uk/ history/british/modern/field_01.shtml (accessed 19 April 2010). Garrick, R. and Morgan, A. (2008), ‘The role of the Children’s Centre teacher in developing early years settings in the private, voluntary and independent (PVI) sector’. Paper presented at the British Education Research Association, 3rd–6th September 2008. Gasper, M. (2010), Multiagency working in the early years: Challenges and opportunities, London: Sage. Hertfordshire Children’s Centres (2010), ‘How a Hertfordshire children’s centre has helped John to turn



Multi-Agency Working his life around and become a ‘fantastic dad’. Available online at http://www.hertschildrenscentres. org.uk/document/casestudy/john.pdf (accessed 19 October 2011).

Jones, C., Ferguson, I., Lavalette M. and Penketh, L. (2005), ‘Social work and social justice: a manifesto for a new engaged practice’, University of Edinburgh. Available online at http://www.scotland.gov. uk/Publications/2005/12/1394855/48578 (accessed 19 October 2011). Leicestershire County Council (2006), ‘Leon’. Available online at http://www.leicester.gov.uk/ EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7752 (accessed 19 October 2011). Local Government Improvement and Development (2010), ‘Rochdale – family intervention case study’. Available online at http://www.idea.gov.uk/idk/core/page.do?pageId=23053549 (accessed 19 October 2011). Newcastle Children’s Services (2010), The Children and Young People’s Workforce Strategy 2010–2013. The Evidence Base, Newcastle: Newcastle Children’s Trust. NSPCC (2010), An introduction to child protection legislation in the UK. London: NSPCC Save the Children (2007), EarlyYears Outreach Practice: Supporting early year’s practitioners working with Gypsy, Roma and Traveller families, London: Save the Children Fund. Siraj-Blatchfod, I., Clarke, C. and Needham, M. (eds) (2007), The team around the child: Multi-agency working in the early years, Stoke-on Trent: Trentham Books. Together for Children (2010), TFC Child Poverty Toolkit, Runcorn: TFC. Warmington, P., Daniels, H., Edwards, A., Brown, S., Leadbetter, J., Martin, D. and Middleton, D. (2004), ‘Interagency collaboration: a review of the literature’. The Learning In and For Interagency Working Project. Bath: University of Bath.

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Conclusions Janet Kay

Good practice in the early years is not a single issue or set of skills. It relates to a wide range of philosophical issues and ways of working with young children. As early years practitioners, your knowledge, skills and abilities and your understanding of current issues in early years are all crucial to the process of developing good practice. Understanding relevant theories and being able to apply these effectively is another important attribute. But perhaps the single most important contribution to achieving good practice in the early years is the attitude of practitioners. Willingness to question practice, to take responsibility for your own actions and to apply knowledge and develop skills are key elements of becoming a reflective practitioner (see Chapter 3). The history of early years practice shows that this has never been static. Changes in philosophy, approaches to care and education, and structures of service delivery are all part of this history. Debates about quality are ongoing and continue to occupy theorists, policymakers and practitioners. International perspectives offer us alternative models and notions of quality, and, while older theories continue to inform practice, new research and theory development shapes practice in the future. But how do we know good practice is being achieved? The most obvious measure is your setting’s latest Ofsted report. But these inspections are only one type of measure of quality and they are based on minimum standards. Relying on a single measure of quality may miss some important features of good practice and make us complacent. Measuring quality needs multiple tools, and needs to be ongoing. Feedback from parents and children, measures against local standards, internal reflection and staff appraisal are all ways of assessing quality in a setting.

Conclusions Quality can be looked at in different ways and from different perspectives, all of which have value. Katz (1992) suggests that we can look from the top down and assess structural issues, such as staff–child ratios and standards of staff, resources and environment. Or, we can look at quality from the bottom-up perspective, which focuses on the experience of the child (see Heaslip, 1994). Both perspectives have value, but we are possibly less far ahead in achieving a good view from the bottom-up perspective than from the top-down, despite recent initiatives to improve listening to children. Some questions that might help develop this perspective are: • Does the child have genuine choices in the setting over activities, toys and play? • Can the child make mistakes and learn from them without a sense of failure? • Are rules sensible, democratic and at a minimum? • Is a sense of ownership of the setting fostered, so each child feels not only a sense of ‘belonging’, but that he or she is a central member of the group? • Is the child’s unique sense of self acknowledged, fostered and respected within his or her own wider culture and personal characteristics? • Is adult involvement with children sensitive, knowledgeable, based on observations and appropriate to the child’s needs? • Are adults able to allow the children to have control in terms of activities, rules and decision-making? • Are children given the opportunity to take risks and extend the boundaries of their achievements? • Is genuine and constructive praise given? • Are parents viewed as partners and experts on their own children?

These questions are useful in trying to take a different view of a setting and to re-focus on the experience of the child, which can sometimes feel a little lost in the plethora of curriculum and other requirements.

Activity • Read the questions above and ask yourself how they would be answered in your setting or placement. • Reflect on the answers and consider what good practice issues may need addressing. • What other questions would be useful to ask to understand more about the quality of the child’s experiences?

Perhaps the most significant aspect of the child’s experience is to feel valued and engaged in the setting and the community within it. This sense of being valued is at the heart of inclusion for all children, and should be experienced

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Good Practice in the Early Years by all children, if good practice is evident. As Dan, age five, said when passing the nursery he had left for reception class six months earlier: ‘I wonder how on earth they are managing without me?’ He clearly carried a strong sense of his own value from his experiences at the nursery. The chapters in this book divide good practice into different topics, but you have probably recognized the links between these topics based on common underpinning values. Early years practitioners develop their values through studying, relating theory to practice, reflecting on their own and others’ practice and discussing and debating work practices with managers and colleagues. It is important to develop your own understandings of good practice and to recognize this as a dynamic and contested concept. Legislation, guidelines and codes of practice provide an important framework for developing practice, but these can also be challenged in terms of different perspectives on what works for young children. Keeping up-to-date through the media and considering the discussions, debates and arguments presented by others are crucial to your development. But it is important to read and think critically, examining what is meant and considering your own views on topics. Finally, good practice requires good support, so find your own support systems among colleagues, managers and mentors or tutors, who will help you achieve personal development goals and practice improvements. Good luck!

References Heaslip, P. (1994), ‘Making play work in the classroom’, in J. Moyle, The Excellence of Play, Buckingham: Open University Press. Katz, L. G. (1992). ‘Multiple perspectives on the quality of early childhood programmes’, European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 1(2), 5–10.

Index abuse of children see child abuse; emotional abuse; physical abuse; sexual abuse accidental injury 165–6 accommodation, concept of 19 Acheson Report (1998) 159 ‘activist’ learning style 79 Adams, K. S. 218 adults, educational role of 28–32 advertising 165 affirmative model of disability 105 aggression in children 36, 145, 191 Ainscow, M. 93 Ainsworth, Mary 208–9 Allen, G. 168 Ang, L. 100 Anning, A. 130, 259 anxiety for children 121–2, 193 for families 236 appraisal systems for early years practitioners 86–7 Arnold, C. 29 art, creation of 61 Asquith, S. 250 assimilation 19 Atkinson, M. 268–9 attachment theory 121, 192, 208–11, 225, 232 attunement to children’s needs 147, 194 Australia 59 autistic spectrum disorders 100, 104, 108 Bae, B. 57 balance, children’s development of 132

Baldock, P. 98 Bandura, A. 209 Beckett, C. 190–1 Bedtime Story Nights 228 behaviour issues 107–8, 124–5, 162 behavioural approach to learning theory 209 Berkeley, T. R. 234 Best, R. 110 bilingual children 100 bilingual staff 99 Black Report (1980) 158–9 Bolton, G. 69, 73 books, use of 129 Booth, T. 93 Bowlby, John 9, 121, 208, 232 Bowlby, Richard 121 boys, distinctiveness of 109–10, 169 Bradshaw, J. 159 brain development 121–2, 132–42, 192 breastfeeding 131, 164 British Associatiion for Social Workers 251 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) 93 Brooker, L. 20, 99 Brookfield, S. D. 68 Bruce, T. 21, 27, 141 bruising 188–9 Bruner, J. S. 138 Buchanan, J. 256–8 Burrows, L. 151 Cambridge Primary Review 41 Carle, Eric 131 Change4Life campaign 164



276 Index Charities Commission 252 Chesworth, L. 31 child abuse 183–98, 208–12, 255 definitions of 187–8 explanations for 208–11 identification of 194–5 impact on children’s development 190–5 prevention of 209 responding to 195–8 signs of 188–90 Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) 166, 169 child-centred health treatment 156 Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre 194 ‘child in need’ assessment framework 207, 211–12 ‘child in need’ meetings and plans 203–5 child-initiated activities 107 child labour 183 Child Poverty Action Group 159 child protection 5, 12, 48–51, 55, 63, 173, 181–7, 195–206, 211–12 contested aspects of 182–7 designated persons for 195–8 initial assessment for 199, 212 legal and statutory guidance on 206–7 ‘Section 47’ enquiries 200–3, 207 TT strategy meetings for 200 summary of process 206 child protection conferences 203–4 child protection plans 203, 205 childminders 39 Children Act (1908) 184 Children Act (1989) 47–8, 200–1, 204, 207, 255 Children Act (2004) 8, 20, 49, 181–2, 250, 255 Children and Adoption Act (2002) 187 Children’ Commissioner 154 children’s centres 154, 160, 171, 178, 261–2, 269 teachers working in 249 Children’s Commissioner 49 children’s rights 45–58, 62–3, 96, 151 different views of 53–4 in practice 50–2 promotion of 56–8 ‘Children’s Services Director’ role 154, 250

Christenson, S. L. 218 Christmas 98 circle time 107 citizenship 53–5 Climbié, Victoria 49, 69, 153, 186, 196, 255 Close, P. 258–9 co-construction by children and adults 30, 41 cognitive development 117, 133–8, 141 common assessment framework (CAS) 146, 264–5, 269 communication skills 127 conduct disorders 166 conflict resolution 236–7 Connelly, Peter (‘Baby P’) 70, 196 ‘continuous provision’ 40 coordination of children’s bodies 133 Copenhagen Child Cohort 169 Corby, B. 192 ‘core assessments’ of complex child-care needs 199–203, 212 cortisol levels 122 Crain, W. 141–2 creative thinking 84–5, 88, 141 credit model of health and illness 38 crime 166 Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) 48–50 Crittenden, P. 209 cultural diversity 92, 99–100, 186, 235–8 culture, definition of 98 curriculum 14, 20, 28–9, 99 definition of 21 curriculum enrichment model 222–3 Curriculum Guidance for England 237 Dahlberg, G. 228 Dahlgren, G. 153 Dalli, C. 226 Daniels, H. 228 Davis, K. 30 ‘deep-level learning’ 31 deficit model of health and illness 28 Department for Education 248 Department of Health 246 depression in children 190–1, 193 developmental stages for children 117, 139 Dewey, J. 66 diabetes, Type 1 and Type 2 163 Diaz, C. J. 97

Index dietary habits 164 disability 92, 102–4, 108, 122–3, 204 models of 105 discrimination 92–6, 102 definition of 94 overt and covert 95 divergent thinking 140 diversity attitudes to 96–7 promotion of 99–101 valuing of 98–9, 122–3, 237–8 see also cultural diversity documentation of children’s learning 57, 59, 227 Dowling, M. 139–40 Down’s syndrome 105, 162 Draper, L. 216 drawing of pictures 130 drug addiction 256 Duffy, B. 216 Dutt, Ratna 186 Early Years Action Plus 103–4 Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) 20–1, 51, 53, 56, 74–5, 96–100, 103–4, 107, 121, 139, 172–3, 175, 182, 248 early years practitioners essential qualities of 29 role of 172–3, 245, 269, 274 support for 86 early years professional status (EYPS) 20, 266–8 early years teachers, job description for 248–9 ecological explanations of child abuse 210–11 Edgington, M. 29 Edmiston, B. 33 education services 248–9 Edwards, A. 227 Effective Leadership in Early Years Services (ELEYS) report (2007) 74 Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) project 30, 139, 220 Elliman, D. 163 Else, P. 22–3 emotional abuse 188–9 outcomes of 192

signs of 189 emotional competence 72 emotional development 112, 120–2, 125, 128, 133, 147, 166–7 emotional intelligence 71, 87, 167 emotional wellbeing 147, 166–9 definition of 167 empathy 125, 235 empowerment approaches to health promotion 162 English as an additional language (EAL) 128, 226 environments for learning 39–41, 59, 127 see also home environments epigenesis 134, 141 Epstein, A. S. 86 Epstein, J. 222, 225 equal opportunities policies 91–2 equality 93 ethical dilemmas 4, 182 ethnicity 237–8 Evalina Children’s Hospital 156 events involving families 228–9 Every Child Matters agenda 20, 49–50, 96, 153–5, 254–5, 264 outcomes from 146 evidence-based approaches 170 exercise, need for 131–2 experiential sampling 85 facial expression charts 61 Factory Acts (1833 and 1878) 183 faith issues 98–101 faith schools 4 families barriers separating from early years practitioners 236 influences on 93 privacy for 183–4 relationships within 122 strategies for working with 225–30 support for 198, 204, 210, 211 systems theory applied to 209–10 Family Nurse Partnership Programme (FNPP) 170 fathers attitudes of 111–12 working with 230–5 Fearon, J. 97

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278 Index feedback to children 119–20 feeling dictionaries 61 feminist theory 209 Field, Frank 160 first-hand learning experiences 118 Fisher, J. 26 ‘Five-a-day’ campaign 164 Forest Schools 36 foster care 49, 203 free-flow play 21, 26–7, 30, 41 free writing 85 Freud, Sigmund 232 Frieman, B. B. 234 Froebel, Friedrich 17–18 G8 Summit (Edinburgh, 2005) 159 games, non-verbal 61 Garrick, R. 34, 59–60, 249 Garvey, D. 85 Gasper, M. 254–5 gay parents 238–9 gender issues 92, 109–12 genetic inheritance 134–5 Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1924) 47 Gevers Deynoot-Schaub, W. J. 36 Gibbons, J. 190 Gibbs, G. 80–3 girls, distinctiveness of 110, 169 Giving Tree Nursery School 74 ‘golden time’ 27 Goldschmied, Elinor 118 Goleman, D. 71–2, 167 Gomes-Schwartz, B. 193 good practice 6–12 good practice in early years provision 6–12, 272–4 checklist of issues 10–11 development of 8–9 limitations on 11–12 promotion of 9–11 ‘grazing’ on snacks 163 Greenman, J. 236, 238 Grieshaber, S. 28 Hadow Report (1931) 215 Hall, D. 163 Halloween 101 Hanks, H. 191

health children’s views of 151 definition of 150–1 influences on 152–7 see also physical health of children Health Education Authority 167 health inequalities 158–60 health promotion 161–4, 170–8 health and safety regulations 51 health services 246–8 Health Survey for England 163–4 health visitors 171 Healthy Child Programme 170–1 healthy eating 131–2, 162, 164 heart disease 162 Hiemstra, R. 75 High-Scope approach to early learning 40, 58 Hill, M. 47 holistic approach to children’s needs 105, 116–17, 145, 147, 156, 178, 254 home environments 112, 215, 217 home learning 220, 226, 229–30 Honey, P. 78 Hoot, J. L. 101 ‘hot-housing’ of children 141 Hughes, A. M. 135–7 Hughes, B. 22–3, 26 Human Rights Act (1988) 183 identity development of 97–8 and gender 110 sense of 119, 122–3 ideological problems for agencies 260 inclusion 93, 96, 113, 127 independence, development of 120–1 individual education plans 103–4, 106 information sessions with parents 227–8 information sheets and guides for early years settings 229–30 injuries explanations for 189, 196, 198, 202 unintentional 165–6 Institute of Psychiatry 166 interactions between children and adults 30 Isaacs, Susan 18 Islam 101

Index Jack, G. 210 Jaffee, S. R. 231 James, A. 192 Jans, M. 54 Jensen, E. 134 Johns, C. 82–4 juvenile justice system 47 Katz, L. G. 273 Kay, J. 94–5, 103–4, 111 ‘key person’ role 28, 121, 145, 230 Keyes, C. 216 kinaesthetic learning 106 ‘knowing in action’ 76 Kolb, D. 78–9 Laevers, F. 31 Laming Report (2003) 49, 69, 153, 186, 196 Lancaster, A. 85 language, non-verbal 127, 130 language development 126–9 language issues 99–100, 122 lead council members for children 154 ‘learning by doing’ 17 ‘learning cycle’ model 78 learning objectives 31 learning opportunities 51 learning outcomes 20–1 learning portfolios 227 lesbian parents 238–9 lifelong learning 35 lifestyle choices 162–4 listening to children 33–4, 52, 129–30 Little Sunbeams Nursery 177 local authority care 204 local safeguarding children boards 69–70, 154 ‘loose parts’ of an environment 141 Loughton, Tim 252 McArdle, F. 28 Mackay, Lord 255 MacMillan, Margaret 18, 215 MacMillan, Rachel 18 MacNaughton, G. 35–6 McWilliam, R. A. 218 Makaton 100, 106–7, 127 Malaguzzi, Loris 58, 221–2

Manning-Morton, J. 38 map-making 60 March, J. G. 87 Margo, J. 166, 168 mark-making 130 medical examination of children 202 medical model of illness and disability 105, 155, 256 mental illness in children 51, 166, 169 in parents 210 mentoring 86 midwifery 76–7, 170–1 Moon, J. 68 Moosa, S. 101 morbidity rates 159 Morgan, A. 249 mortality rates 159 Moyles, J. 27 multi-agency working 103, 243–69 definition of 244 importance of 254–5 issues with 256–8 models of 258–61 opportunities for 261–8 multiculturalism 96–9 Mumford, A. 78 Munro Review (2011) 199, 206, 212 muscle strengthening 132 Myers, B. K. 98 National Child Measurement Programme 163–4 National Crime Agency 194 National Health Service (NHS) 155, 156, 170, 255 National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services 155 National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) 183, 200, 244, 252, 255 neglect of children 6, 188–92, 195 outcomes of 191–2, 195 signs of 189, 195 neighbourhood nurseries 160, 261 Neuman, M. 236 neurological research 16, 192 Nicholson, Simon 141

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280 Index Nordic countries 53 see also Norway and Sweden Norway 57 Nutbrown, C. 113 obesity 163–4 observation observation of children 18–19, 29–30, 74–5 Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) 109, 154, 175–6, 272 outdoor play 18, 36, 51, 111 paediatric services 202, 245–6 Paley, V. G. 95 Papatheodorou, T. 36, 39 parents children’s relationships with 191–2, 195, 209 communication with 122, 195, 221–2, 226–7 involvement of 104, 215, 218, 225, 232–4 reasons for harming their children 208–11 rights of 5 seen as consumers 216 support for 38–9, 215, 228 working with 111–12, 214–29, 235–9 participation by children 47, 53, 56–63 encouragement of 60–1, 63 partnership working 214–29, 235–9 passivity in children 191–2 patermity leave 232 Penn Green Centre 29–31, 39 persona dolls 61 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich 16–17 Peters, S. 30 photographs, use of photographs, use of 57, 60, 85, 100–1, 107 physical abuse 188, 195 outcomes of 191 physical development of children 131–3 physical health of children 51, 163–6 Piaget, Jean 18–19 Picture Exchange Communication System 100 Pinker, Susan 110 Plan–Act–Review sequence 58

play in children’s learning 11, 13–41 contexts for 38–40 historical perspective on 14–19 at Key Stage 1 27 planning for 31–2, 41 time for 35–6 types of 23–8 Plowden Report (1967) 215–16 police action 200, 207 policies for early years settings 5–7, 11–12 see also equal opportunities policies Poppypots Nursery 176–7 Portage 106 positive attitudes 236 positive behaviour 124–5 possible lines of direction (PLODs) 31–2 poverty 92, 159–60 absolute and relative 159–60 ‘pragmatist’ learning style 79 pregnancy 159, 161–2, 170 prejudice 94 Pre-school Learning Alliance 131 prevention of illness 173 primary, secondary and tertiary 161–2 primary carers 121 principles 4–7 conflict between 9 of good practice 6–7 procedural problems for agencies 260 professional development 71 professionalism 69 Protection of Children Act (1999) 48–50 protective model of partnership 222 psychological explanations of child abuse 208–10 psychological harm from child abuse 191, 193 psychopathology 210 public service agreements (PSAs) 155 purposeful play 29–30, 41 quality of early years provision, measurement of 272–3 Race Relations Act (1976) 96 racism 186, 237–8 Rebus symbols 100 referral to Social Care Services 196–206 processes following from 198–206

Index reflection 68, 70–87 by children 86 importance of 70–1 in action and on action 76 limitations of 87 practicalities of 84–7 and self-awareness 71–5 theories and models of 75–84 reflective practice 3, 6, 65–75, 78, 85–8, 177, 272 as distinct from reflection 68 support for 85–7 ‘reflector’ learning style 79 ‘refocusing debate’ 204 Reggio Emilia 58, 74 resilience, concept of 166, 168 responsibility, taking of 69 rest, children’s need for 125 rhymes 129 right to life 3–4 rights see children’s rights; parents: rights of Riksen-Walraven, M. 36 risk factors for children’s emotional development 166–7 Robinson, K. H. 97 Rolfe, G. 78 Rosenkoetter, S. E. 228 Roth, R. A. 78 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 15–16 Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists 75 Rutter, John 208 safeguarding of children 181–2 safety of children, promotion of 166 Saunders, M. G. 222 Save the Children 47 ‘scaffolding’ 138–40 Schon, Donald 76 school starting dates 11 school-to-home transmission model 222 screening programmes 161–2 secure and insecure attachment 209 security, feelings of 122, 144–5 self-awareness 65, 71–5, 119–23, 194 self-esteem 98 self-regulation of behaviour 125 separated families 234

serious case reviews 69–70, 191 sexual abuse 188–93, 202, 209–10 outcomes of 192–3 signs of 189–90, 202 sexual exploitation 194 sexual orientation of parents 238 shared care 38 sign language 61, 100, 106, 127 Siraj-Blatchford, I. 30 skills development of 51, 117–18, 126–7 practise of 138 smacking of children 8 Smidt, S. 19, 98, 128, 215 Social Care Services and social workers 196–207, 245, 250–1, 259 social construction of childhood 55 social development 124 Social and Emotional Aspects of Develop-ment (SEAD) programme 166 social exclusion 210, 254 social interaction as a way of learning 19 social justice 55, 210, 254 social learning theory 209 social model of illness and disability 105 social structures 210 socialization 110 Sodha, S. 166, 168 space for children 62 special educational needs 102–8, 226 coordinators 103 code of practice 102–4 support for children with 105–7 special schools 105 Spencer, N. 159 standards for children’s health 156–8 stereotypes 94–5, 99, 105, 111–12, 186, 226 Stetsenko, A. 98 Stevens, R. 65 storysacks 230 storytelling 129 storytelling 60–1, 228–9 Stratton, P. M. 191 stress for children 121–2, 145 for parents and families 209–10 social-environmental 210 structured play 27, 30

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282 Index Study of Pedagogical Effectiveness in Early Learning (SPEEL) project 27 supervisors of practitioners 86 supportive strategies 125–6 Sure Start programme 106, 154, 160, 170–1, 178, 217–18, 261 sustained shared thinking 59 ‘sustained shared thinking’ 59, 139–40 Sweden 232 Sylva, K. 139 synapses 135, 140 systems theory applied to families 209–10 Szecsi, T. 101 Tanner, K. 192 target-setting 155, 160 Taylor, T. 33 ‘theorist’ learning style 79 Thompson, N. 237 Thompson, P. 31 Thorp, M. 38 Tickell Report 19, 248 timetabling 107 Tisdall, K. 47 transitions into early years settings 225–6 traveller children 9 ‘treasure baskets’ 135–7 trust definition of 218 promotion of 226 Turbiville, V. P. 232 Turney, D. 192 turn-taking 124 uniqueness of each individual child 53–4, 96, 142 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 166 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) 47–8 96–7, 102–3, 151

universal health checks 162 Uprichard, E. 54 VAK theories of learning 78 values 3–6, 87, 274 Vianna, E. 98 violence, attitudes to 209 voluntary organizations 252–3, 259 voting on likes and dislikes 61 vulnerability of children 46–8 intrinsic and structural 46–7 Vygotsky, L. S. 19, 138 Wainwright, J. 259 Warin, J. 227 Warmington, P. 255 Warnock Report (1978) 102 websites for early years settings 229 wellbeing of children 16, 49–52, 55 see also emotional wellbeing Whalley, M. 39, 220 White, J. 132 Whitehead, M. 153 Williams, G. 35–6 Wilson, K. 192 Wind in the Willows Private Day Nursery 74 Wolfendale, S. 104 Wood, E. 30, 35 Woods, M. 67 words, practise and play with 128–9 Working Together to Safeguard Children 187–8, 204, 207, 212 workshop sessions with parents 227–8, 233 World Health Organization (WHO) 150 Wright, J. 151 writing 75–6 see also free writing zone of proximal development (ZPD) 19, 39, 138