Geography Of Bangladesh [1 ed.] 9780367018238

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
About the Book and Author
Title
Copyright
Dedication
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Contents
List of Tables
List of Maps
I INTRODUCTION
II PHYSICAL FEATURES
III HYDROGRAPHY
IV CLIMATE
V SOILS
VI VEGETATION, FORESTS AND FAUNA
VII HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
VIII THE PEOPLE
IX LAND UTILISATION
X AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
XI ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
XII FISHERIES
XIII CROPPING-PATTERN UNITS
XIV TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
XV MINERALS, FUEL, POWER AND INDUSTRIES
XVI TRADE
XVII POPULATION
XVIII SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
XIX ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK
XX DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

Also of Interest

Bangladesh: The Test Case for Development, Just Faaland and John Richard Parkinson Principles of Social Structure: Southeast Asia, D. E. Brown The Process of Priority Formulation: U.S. Foreign Policy in the IndoPakistani War of 1971, Dan Haendel Southeast Asia and China: The End of Containment, Edwin W. Martin Agriculture in the Third World: A Spatial Analysis, W. B. Morgan

About the Book and Author Geography of Bangladesh Haroun Er Rashid In its struggle for independence, Bangladesh became the focal point of world attention in the early 1970s. It emerged victorious, but its development was hindered by the after-effects of the warthe destruction of much of its infrastructure, problems of governmental change, and the enormous difficulties faced by government and aid officials in assembling a data base for long-range planning. Professor Rashid's book-the first major comprehensive geographic inventory of Bangladesh-provides the key elements for such a base. Emphasizing the rural and agricultural characteristics of the country, it also covers in depth its physiography, hydrography, climate, soils, land utilization, migration and settlement patterns, transportation infrastructure, and human and natural resources. Haroun Er Rashid holds advanced degrees from Cambridge University and Williams College. He was professor of geography at the University of Dacca, Bangladesh, and for ten years was an economist with the civil service ofPakistan. He joined the World Bank in 1969. He is currently a senior economist with the Food and Agriculture Organization in Rome.

GEOGRAPHY OF

BANGLADESH Haroun Er Rashid

~ ~ ~~o~1!~n~~:up LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 1977 by Westview Press, Inc. Published 2018 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright C University Press Limited, 1977.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN 13: 978-0-367-01823-8 (hbk) Library of Congress Catalog Nwnber: 78-19679

TO MY PARENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks are first due to Messrs Zillur Rahman, Abdul Haleem Khan and Tarafdar Rabiul Islam. A decade ago they were my colleagues in the Planning Department and our association has continued since then. Due to my absence abroad it would not have been possible to prepate the text and maps without their help. To Zillur Rahnan I owe much information, help with typing and cartography. Abdul Haleem Khan and Tarafdar Rabi ul Islam helped in collecting and collating data. All of them were untiring in their helpfulness and I owe them a lot. Amongst many friends who helped in this effort I must mention three others to whom I am especially indebted. Dr. A. K. M. Ghulam Rabbani helped readily and often in collecting the necessary statistics. Dr. M. Alamgir help~ in obtaining some of the data on economics. Mr Mahbubudd' n Chowdhury was most helpful with information and statistics about the forest resources. To all of them my sincere thanks. Thanks are due to Mr. Habibur Rahman of the University Press Limited for persevering with the publication of the book despite many difficulties. The printing of the book is largely due to his painstaking work. I would like to acknowledge by debt to Mr. Anisur Rashid Khan for the cartography. Thanks are also due to Khan Suwanee of Bangkok and Hilary Lamplough of Rome for typing parts of the manuscript despite their heavy schedule of work.

CONTENTS Lilt of Tables, xi Lilt of Maps, xv INTRODUCTION, 1 PHYSICAL FEATURES, 7 HYDROGRAPHY, SS CUMATE, 90

I U III IV V SOJLS, 116 VI VEGETATION, li'ORESTS AND FAUNA, 129

VII HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, 160 VIII THE PEOPLE, 183 IX LAND UTILISATION, 201 X AGRICULTUIUL PRODUCTS, 224 XI ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, 350 XII FISHERIES, 364 XIII CROPPJNG-PATCERN UNITS, 319 XIV TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS, 421 XV MINERALS, FUEL, POWER AND INDUSTRIES, 441 XVI TRADE, 468 XVII POPULATION, 496 XVIII SETCLEMENT PA.Tl'ERNS, 516 XIX ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK, 529 XX DEVELOPMENT PUNNING, 534 Bibliography, 539 Index, 561

ix

LIST OF TABLES Chapter Ill

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Average annual surface water inflow from India, SS Average monthly discharge of the Dl~Uor rivers, 65 Estimated average annual discharge of the World's major rivers, 8() Spring Tidal Range, 88 Time difference in tide, 89 Tidal ta111e, 89

Chapter lY

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures, 91 Distribution of monthly and total annual rainfall, 96 Monthly average humidity, 102 Average saluration deficit, 104 Single value climatic indices, 112

Chapter V

S.l

Nutrient status in the soil tracts, 117

Clulpter VI

6.1 6.2 6.3

Forest areas by Divisions, 133 Out-turn of forest produce, 149 Quality of some common timbers, 152

Chapter IX 9.1 Area of Baugladesh and its districts, 201 9.2 Land utili:zation in Farm atea (1960), 203 9.3 Average size of cultivator holdings (1960), 205 9.4 Intenstiy of cultivation (1960), 206 9.5 Fraimentation of holdings (1960), 212 9.6 Fertilizer recommendation, 217 9.7 Labour requirements per acre, 219 Chapter X 10.1a Hiah Yielding Varieties of Rice, 227 10.1b Acreaae and production of different crops of rice, 242 10.2 ACJeaSC end production of Amon rice, 244 10.3 Acreaae and production of Aus rice, 245 10.4 Acreage and production of Boro rice, 246

xi

10.5

10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 .10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15

10.16 10.17 10.18

10.19

10.20 10.21 10.22 10.23 10.24

10.25

10.26 10.27 10.28 10 29 10 30 10 31 10.32 10.33 10.34 10.35

10.36 10.37 10.38

10.39

10.40 10.41

Acreage and production of Wheat, 247 Acreage and production of Barley, 2.;8 Acreage and production of Maize, 251 Acreage and production of Masur, 254 Acreage and production of Moog, 256 Acreage and production of Mash, 251 Acreage and production of Arhar, 258 Acreage and production of Gram, '259 Acreage and production of Sw~t Potato, 267 Acreage and production of Potato, 268 Acreage and production of Onion, 270 Acreage and production of Gulic, 271 Acreage and production of Chili, 278 Acreage and production of Mustard, 283 Acreage and production of Linseed, 284 Acreage and production of Sesamum, 286 Acreage and production of Groundnut, 288 Acreage and production of Castor, Gujitil and other oilseeds, 289 Acreage and production of Sugarcane, 294 Area under Khejur palm, 297 Tal palm and Tal Sugar in the Southern Region, 299 Acreage and production of Tobacco, 302 Acreage and production of Tea, 306 Acreage and production of Paan, 307 Acreage and production of Jute, 314 Acreage and production of Cotton, 316 Acreage and production of Shon, 317 Acreage and production of Kapok, 319 Acrease and production of Betelnut, 327 Acreage and production of Cocoanut, 330 Acreage and production of Banana, 332 Acreage and production of Mango, 338 Acreage and production of Pineapple, 340 Acreage and production of Lichu, 341 Acreage and production of Papaya, 342 Acreage and production of Citrus fruits, 344 Acreage and production of Melon and Watermelon, 345

Chapter XI 11.1 Distribution of cattle in 1945 and 1960, 353 11.2 Ratio of NCA to cattle in 1960, 354 11.3 Production of Milk, Ghee, Butter, Beef and Mutton, 357 11.4 Production of Hides and Skins, 358 11.5 Distribution of Goats, Sheep, Horses and Pigs, 360 11.6 Number of Fowls and Ducks and production of eggs, 362 xii

Chapter XII 12.1 Number of Tanks, 365 Chapter XIV 14.1 Growth of Railways, 425 14.2 Traffic through Chalna and Chittagong ports, 434 14.3 Tonnage handled at ChalDa/Mangla Anchorage, 436 114.4 The number of Transport Vehicles, 441 14.S Postal Service Operations, 444 Chapter XV 15.1 Cottage Industries, 455 15.2 Production of Jute goods, 458 15.3 Production of Cotton textiles, < 77.96 76.00

'"d

~

~

0

72.60

70.83 73.50 73.50 78.00

73.00 78.00 78.00

71.66 74.38

73.50

77.70 74.30

77.95

78.10

Annual

76.00

63.08 74.00

73.00 76.00

Dec.

7200 76.00

75.50 74.50

76.50

74.00

Nov.

76.50

81.50 80.50 78.00

79.00

Oct.

79.50 79.50

81.00

81.00

85.00

84.50 84.50

Sept.

MONTHLY AVERAGE HUMIDITY PER CENT

Table 4.3

t~

0

C~TB

103·

and near t:he foot of the abrupt Meghalaya Plateau, at Sunamganj it is 210 inches and at Lalakhal it is 256 inches-the highest of any station in Bangladesh. (Cherapunji, barely ten miles across the border, in a straight line, to the north of Chhatak, records an astonishing average of 426 inches annually). In the rest of Bangladesh (with the exception of the northern parts of the northern region) the isohyets swing in an arc from the south-west to the north-east to the north-~est (Map IV. 3). The 70 inch isohyet passes south of Khulna town, just north of Faridpur town and almost directly over the town of Bogra. Thus Faridpur records 71 inches, Narayanganj 75 inches, Bogra 69 inches and Dinajpur 72 inches. The 60 inches isohyet passes north of Jessore and Pabna towns, and west of Naogaon town. Satkhira receives 65 inches. The 'dry pocket' stretching from south Ghoraghat to Kahaloo receives 55 inches or less: the average of 47·64 inches recorded for Khetlal is the least in Bangladesh (47 inches has also been averaged for some period at Lalpur). Between the 55 to 60 inch isohyets lies the west and south of R ~jshahi District and practically whole of Kushtia Dis~orict. Meherpur gets 54 inches, Chuadanga 59 inches, Rajshahi Town 56 inches and Mahadebpur 54 inches. In the north-west of Rajshahi District, Nithpur (Porsha) records 57 inches. The West Barind, and probably the East Barind too, can have very variable rainfall in certain years. In 1873 the West Barind recorded a mere 27·26 inches; probably the lowest ever recorded anywhere in Bangladesh. In contrast to these areas of low rainfall in the southern part of the Northern Region are those in the north. The rainfall increases north-wards from 72 inches at Nawabganj to 75 inches at Parbatipur, 79 inches at Rangpur, 85 inches at Thakurgaon, 91 inches at Kurigram, 101 inches at Atwari and 111·00 inches at Debiganj. Still further north, at Bangla Bandha, the rainfall is most likely atound 120 inches, since Jalpaiguri (in India), only a few miles away, averages 122 inches. Bhurungamari, to the north-east of Rangpur, probably records as

6.05

Cox's Bazar 5.51 Chittqong 5.06 Noakhali S.62 Comilla S.09 Narayanganj S.S4 Mymensingh 4.78 Dinajpur 4.58 Rlijshahi 4.71 Jessore 3.80 Faridpur 4.23 15.63 10.52 ll.SO

12.46 8.91

11.58

6.32 5.39

5.60

10.15 10.13 ll.OS 14.24

7.58

7.15

6.88

11.98

6.69 9.21 10.18 10.18

5.73 6.15

March April

7.02 6.38 6.26

6.39 7.07

6.40

Feb.

Jan.

Station

6.55

8.S8 S.90

8.63

6.51

5.91 7.33 6.98

6.11

5.90

May

5.05

s.-53 4.17 4.51 3.74 4.31

5.33

S.24

5.00 5.27 4.78

2.84 4.38 5.12 4.31

3.68

3.10

July

4.15

4.42

3.92

June

4.1S

5.18 3.60

S.18 3.93 4.60

5.09

5.93 4.66 5.56

6.38 5.43 S.59

5.46 6.21

5.90

5.60 4.,7

5.41

5.29

4.24 5.43

3.89 4.86 5.09 4.60 5.03

5.91

4.SS

S.41 4.44

5.11 5.24

5.15

5.41 4.79

3.64

3.39

4.41 3.52

4.64 4.03 4.10

4.91 4.47

4.91 4.20

Dec.

5.14

5.88

7.03 5.21

5.98 6.78

6.17 6.51

5.25

5.13

-----Annual ------------Nov.

4.21 4.21

Oct.

3.60

August Sept.

AVERAGE SATURATION DEFICIT (in MM of HG)

Table 4.4

i

~

1:11:1

"J'l

0

~

~

~

a 0

~

lOS

CUMATE

..

() C)

•••

IV.4

••

SATURATION DEFICIT (in mms. of Hq) SCALE

...-l·•::io~,...:.ii•oo ~~~(s

o.,_....,,.:o ?o._,...,~•::,:o:...,,...: ""~

....~,o~.:·~o-~ESH

' '-·

~~- ....

t- '"-.,._ .........'-

f ,.')

i

, ..-

."'\..... l.(''- . ..J

X.3

BORO RICE AND MAIZE

-~

.l

2'6•N $'

i

\

~-

.... ~., .\ ~

·..

f·"'~(i .(

.r

•

2500 ac,es of Bora rice

o

1000 ceres of Maize S CAL (

~

...,,. . ....,

-

. .: •

\

90 "E

....,

,,- .....- --.r. . .~

•

,....

B A Y

....

OF

BENGAL

235·

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

beds for local Boro are prepared in October and November, and the seeds are sown at the rate of 500 1bs. per acre. Within fiveweeks of sowing, the seedlings are transplanted. The fields are ploughed thrice and all aquatic weeds removed. The transplanting lasts almost a month. Three or four seedlings are planted at 6 inches intervals. Because of the low-level of most Boro lands~ aquatic weeds are common. They have to be removed by hand. Like the Mayin paddies of the Upper Burma, Boro can stand low temperatures. The average minimwn temperature in the Haor Basin in early January is 49°F Boro has to be irrigated from January to March. It is harvested in April. The yield of this group is usually better than that of theother groups as it averages 1,600 1bs. of cleaned rice per acre .. Since Boro is the only rice group that grows in winter, its. cultivation is being extended. BoRO HYV'S

JR-8 remains the favourite variety because of its high yield potential. Since Boro HYVs. are irrigated average yields are consistently over 3000 1bs. of cleaned rice per acre. Boro HYV s. are grown in most parts of the country, especially where irrigation is from tube wells and low-lift pwnps. Their low height makes them unsuitable for the deeper-flooded slower-drained areas of the Haor Basin. II

There are three special ways of rice planting, which, thougq practised in small areas, are worth mentioning. In parts of Noakhali and Chittagong Districts and Thakurgaon SubDivision, Aus is sown in drills. On the low silt Chars of the Podda and Meghna, direct sowing (Lepy) of Shail is common. In this method germinated seeds are broadcast on the wet fields which are not even ploughed. The varieties grown are very early maturing; sown in September, they are reaped in D.}cember. In contrast is the double transplantation practised in the western

236

DEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

parts of the Haor Basin and the eastern parts of the TistaDudhkumar plain. In the former, Boro, and in the latter, Shail is raised in nurseries. When five or six weeks old, they are transplan~ed in bunches on the Ails or along the edges of the Haor or Bit; another five or six weeks later, when the water has receded sufficiently, the seedlings are planted in the fields. This methods gives better yields than a single late planting. It is an interesting fact that in 336 out of 409 Thanas, the Aman group predominates. Aus leads in 34 Thanas and Boro in 10. In 22 Thanas Aman and Aus groups occupy nearly the same acreage, in 4 Thanas Aman and Boro attain approximates equality. The great importance of the Aman crop is obvious. It is the leading crop over four-fifths of the land. Several thousand varieties of rice are grown in Bangladesh. Such a large number is the result of the recognition of very minor and often insignificant variations in size, colour or even taste. Proper classification could possibly reduce the number of varieties to a few hundred. In the Piedmont plains the main Local Aus varieties are Duni, Tana, Gorbai, Sani, Biluji and Panbira (FAO No. 545), and the average yield per acre is 650 1bs. of rice.* The main Shail varieties are Dukhkalam, Dighalsaru, lndrashail (FAO No. 335) .and Daudkani (FAO No. 525). The last mentioned is a fine rice and commands a higher price than the others. The average yield is 900 1bs. HYV varieties being grown are Birrishail, Cbandina IR-8 and IR-20. Further east, in the Lower Tista-Dudhkumar Plain, the main Shail varieties are Malsira, Nailkalam, Dudhkalam, Jasoya, Kansahar, Kartikshail, lndrashail, Tolkaphul and Rupshail (FAO No. 552). The yield is 960 lbs. Jali-Aman is sown with Local Aus in the Chars of the Brahmaptura, Jamuna, Tista, Jaldhaka and Dudhkumar in the proportion of 2/3 Aman and 1/3 Aus, or is grown singly in Bils. Its main varieties are Bangaldhara Dhepa, Bheto, Kandha and Kandoshao. The yield is about 600 1bs. The main Shail varieties grown in the Barind *AU regional yields given hereafter are of rice per acre, and are obviou'ly approximates.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

237

Tract are Biraganjia, Changa, Gajalgari, Malsira, Supandari, Indrashail, Daarikashail and the high priced, fine grained Kataribhog. The last mentioned is mainly grown in Parbatipur and Gobindaganj Thanas. The yield is 900 lbs. Local Boro is grown in the Katal area of the Barind; the average yield is a good 1,200 lbs.ln the West Jamuna Plain the main Aus varietie~ are Kanchamani, Garhia, Balam, Ranjana, Samudrafena, Sarshabuti and Katakara (FAO No. 538). The yield is 600 lbs. The Shail varieties include those grown in the north and also Khuman, Lohadango, Shaita, Pakhra, Dunkamari, Saralbansi etc. The average yield is 900 1bs. Jali-Aman is grown fairly extensively in Dhunot, Sharikaanadi and Gabtoli Thanas. The main varieties are Dhcpa and Hanskol, whose average yield is 600 1bs. In the north Ganges levee, the main local Aus varieities are Kachinapaju, Shaitia, Marichbuti (FAO No. 542), Hashikalmi (FAO No. 533) and Dhalashaita (FAO No. 527). The average yield is 800 lbs. The Shail grown includes such varieties as Chenga, Dudhkalam, lndrashail, Malsira, Gopalbhog, Bansphul andJhingashail(FAONo. 537). The average yield is 800 lbs. In the Bhar area Jali-Aman known here as Baran is grown exten~ sively, the yield being 500 lbs. only. Jali-Aman and Aus are grown mixed over nearly 30 }~ of the cropped area. Mostly Mathan (wol) level fields are so cropped. HYV varieties being grown are IR-20, Chandina and China. In a large area of the north-west of the Southern Region, Local Aus and not Shail is the major type grown. Some of its varieties are Kalamanik, Baol, Kalia Pakkhiraj, Lohasail, Panbira, Atlai (FAO No. 517), Pashpai (FAO No. 546) and Kumari (FAO No. 539). The average yield varies from 1,400 1bs. in the higher area of Jhikargacha and Mehespur Thana to SOO 1bs. in the higher areas of Sailkupa Thana. The Aman group is more important than the Aus east of Jessore Town. The predominance is lesser on the hil'her lands than on the lower. Throt ghout the west of the Southern Region, the main varieties of Shail are Malbhog, Kalomegh, Kartikshail, Meg-

:238

GEOGRAPHY OP BANGLADESH

banal, Kaikatari, Ramshail, Keshail and the scented fine-grained ·Gobindbhog. The average yield varies from 1,300 1bs. in the better lands of Manirampur and Abhoynagar Thanas to 600 1bs. in Magura. Thana. HYV's being grown are Chandina, ·China, IR-20 and Biplob. Jali-Aman is grown extensively in the central and eastern parts of the Southern Region, some of the varieties being Assihni, Godamon, and Khama, Jali-aman is often called Borc-llllan or Bhasha-Naranga in this area. The average yield is around a mere 600 1bs. in the Bil area of south-west Southern Region, Boro and Rayada rice is often grown together in the proportion of five-sixth to one-sixth. Theyieldisupto 1,500 lbs. Mixed cropping, but of AusandJaliAman is also widespread along the Garai-Madhumati and in the north-east of the Southern Region. In the higher lands of the northern part and almost throughout the southern side of the Southern Region, shail is very much the chief type. In some places, such as Kalapara and Amtoli Thanas rice occupies 99% of the gross cultivated land, and it is entirely Shail. A large number of good varieties are grown. The Balam group from Barisal has a high reputation. Its chief varieties are Chingrighushi, Khiraijali, Bansphul and Sessobalam (FAO No. 536). Other chief vatieties are Agrahan, Shaitia, Patni (FAO No. 547), Tikachari (FAO No. 5!14), Dudshar (FAO No. 530), Bhashamanik (FAO No. 520) and Rajashail (FAO No. 551). In the southern-most Thanas, the transplantation is in September and harvesting in January. The yield there can be as much as 1,800 1bs. but with the steady deterioration of the land due to saline water ingress, the average now is probably 950 1bs. In the other parts, the average is 900 1bs. Aus is a minor crop in these areas. Its chief variety is Patuakhali (FAO No. 548), which is a Bhadoi Aus, being able to stand six feet of flooding. The average yield of Aus is low, estimated at 500 I bs. HYV varieties have not spread in the saline zone, but further north IR-8, IR-20 and Chandina are grown. In the Central Region, Jali-Aman is widely grown in the Podda

AGRICULTURAL PltODUCTS

239

and Dhaleshwari Doabs, the lower areas of the East Jamuna Plain and West Meghna Plain and the BilsinnorthMymensingh District. The main varieties are Bateshar, Asshini, Goda-Aman, K.hama, L.akkhibilash, ShaJpata, Baishbish (FAO No. 519), Gabura (FAO No. 531), and Maliashangor (FAO No. 541). The average yield is only 600 1bs. Shail is the main tYPe on medium level lands, its chief varieties being Chaplash, lndr.ashail, Gobindabhog, and Badshabhog (FAO No. 518). The average yield is 900 1bs. Aus is nearly as important as Shall in the Old Brahmaputra Valley because of the generally high level of the land. Its chief varieties are Pokkhiraj, Boaljuri, Kalamanik, Garfa, Kataktara (FAO No. 553) and Pukhi (FAO No. 550). The average yield is 600 lbs. which is une.q»ectedly low for an area which seems quite suited to this group. HY\r's grown are IR-8, IR-5, IR-20, Birrishail, Chandina and Biplob. In the Haor Basin Jali-Aman is grown on the edges of the Haors, for they can stand the 1lood at that level. The main varieties grown are Parisok, Badal, Goyari, Kalakura, Hiramon, Katya Bagdar (FAO No. 561), Godalaki (FAO No. 559), Dudhlaki (FAO No. 558) and Dhola-Aman (FAO No. 557). The average yield is 800 lbs. Boro is, of course, the maingrouphere, predominant in thirteen Thanas. It is divided into three classes, Shail-Bro, HYVBorolocalBoro, ofwhich the latter can grow in deeper water, and so is planted in the lower levels of the Haors. Shail-Boro varieties are Barashail, Harnarate, Tepi (FAO No. 654), Banajira (FAO No. 556) and Pushushail (FAO No. 563). The average yield is 1,100 1bs. HYV Boro grown is mainly IR-8. Local and HYV Boro is cultivated in the Baids of the Madhupur Tract. In the middle Surma Valley (east Sylhet), Shail is once again the main type of rice. Its main varieties are Torah Ali, Balam, Khai and Thakurbhog. The average yield is 1,000 1bs. Local Aus too is grown, ofwhich the main varieties are Dumahi, Chengri and Hati. A Bhadoi Aus, Murali, is also grown. The average yield is 750 1bs. HYV's grown are mainly IR-8 and IR-20.

240

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

In the Tippera Surface and the plains of the Chittagong Region, both Shail and Aus are important and double-cropping from the same field is common. Some of the Shail varieties are Indrashail, Dudshar, Betickhikon, Rajashail, Hatishail (FAO No. 534), Latishail (FAO No. 540) and Nizershail (FAO No. 544). RajashaH is the main variety in the islands of the Meghna Estuary. The average yield is 900 1bs. Main HYV Aman varieties are IR-20 and Chandina. The main varieties of local Aus grown are Chandramuni (fine-grained), phulbadam, Chiknal, Kalamuga, Lohaigiri, Harinmuda (FAO No. 532), Hashikalmi (FAO No. 533), and Dharial (FAO No. 528). Latishail, Nazershail and Dharial varieties can with fertilisation and irrigation, yield over 3,000 lbs. per acre. Mani HYV Aus being grown here are china, Chandina and Pajam. In the Jhum fi~lds of the Hill Tracts Hill Aus is grown (see Chapter VI Forests). The chief varieties are Golong, Rangi, Koborak, Boro Badoia, Gelangdo, Taki, Kamrang and Binni. The average yield is probably around 900 lbs. UI Pests, diseases and weeds often reduce the yields of rice quite seriously. Since in many places, rice is grown practically throughout the year, they can fiourish in all the seasons. Whether it is the pests or the diseases or the weeds which are the most destructive it is di.Obult to say. Th3ir destructive intensity varios from locality to locality and from season to season. It is thought that on the whole, pests and diseases are equaly destructive and weeds are worse than either. Th~re are eight pests which are m :>st troublesom 3: Stemborer (Schoenobius bipunctifer), a Chrysom3lid Beetle (Hispa armigera), a Grasshopper (Hieroglypul banian), rice swarming Caterpillar (Spodopter mauritia), Rice Bug (Leptocorsia acuta), Rioe Ear-cutting Caterpillar (heudaletia unipuncta), Rice Case Worm (Numphula depunctalit) and Rice Leaf Hopper (Nephratettix bipuntalus). Usually their outbreak covers only few acres

AGIUCULTURAL PR.ODUCTS

241

here and there, but the total damage they do is considerable. When the ears begin to ripen a number of other pests attack them. In some areas, the House Crow (Corvus s. splendens) and the Jungle Crow (Corvus m. macrorhynocos) prove very destructive. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus indicus), the common Shalik (A.cridotheres tristis) and the Talbabi (Pioceus phrlpinus) damage stored paddy. Shail and Boro rice are damaged in the field by ducks and geese, amongst which the bar-headed geese (Anser indicus) figures prominently. More destructive than birds are the field rats (Mus budava) the house rats (Mus musculus) and the Bandicoot (Nesocia nemorivaga). 'Fheir control is very difficult especially because so much of the crop is stored in Kacha houses and Dhan Golas (rice bins). Diseases of the rice planb are many and they cause considerable damage. An epidemic attack of Helminthosporium disease in 1942 is said to have contributed largely to the rice shortages which led to the Great Famine of 1943. Of the diseases which cause at leasS some damage every year, there are no less than twelve; namely Panshuk (a physiological disease), Blast (Piricularia oryzae), Brown Spot (Halminthosporiwn oryzae), Bakanae (Fuzarium sp.), Scleroital disease (Sclerotiwn oryzae), Bunt (Neovossla horrida), Narrow Brown Spot (Cercospora oryzae). Lead Smut (Entyloma oryzae), False Smut( Ustilaginioda vierns) Stacknurn disease (Trychococonis padwickii), Steam Spot Helminthosporiwn sigmoideum) and Ufra (Ditylenchus angustua). The last ofthese, Ufra; also called Dak Pora, is the most troublesome. This nematode disease can spread like wild fire. Great vigilance is needed to combat its outbreak, since the affected plants have to be at once rooted out and burnt, there being no other way to control it. As if these pests and disease were not enough, the rice plants are often severely affected by weeds. The broadcast rice fields are more affected by weeds than the transplanted ice fields. Since much of the rice acreage is under broadcast rice (Jali-aman), weeds are a major cause of reducing yields. More than seventy

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

242

Table lO·lb ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT CROPS OF RICE (1959-60 TO 1970--75")

Area in million acres Yoar

A us lAman! Boro

I Tot~l

Production in millon tons A us

I

j Aman j Boro j Total

1959-60 196()-61 1961-62

5-94 6·30 5'87

14·29 14·58 14·08

0·92 1-01 1•01

21·15 21-8'9 20·96

2·09

5-99 6·51 6·65

0·40

8·48

2·50 2·33

0·45 0•48

9·52 9·46

.1962-63

6'19 6·59

14·22

1·07

6·05

0·48

8·73

1·07

21·48 22·26'

2·20

0·51

10·46

1·05

22'80

2'66 2·50

7·29

6·64

14·60 15·11

7·26

0·57

10·34

19.60-,.-65 Average

6·32

14•52

1·04

21·88

2-44

6·76

0·50

9·70

:1965'-66

7·32

14·67

1-14

2·92

6·80

0·62

10·33

2·67

5-92

0·83

9·42

.1963-64 1964-65

6·96 8·22 7·66 8-46

14·06 14·68 14-40 14·80

1·39

23·13 22-41

1·53 2·01' 2·20

24-43 24·07 25'46

3'07 2·68 2·96

6·81 6·87 6·95

Hl

t96s_,7o Average

7·72

14·52

1'65

23·89

2'86

6·67

1'19

10·72

197.0-75 Average

7.61

13.84

2.50

23.95

2•62

6·17

2·08

10·87

196~67

1967-68 1968~69

1969-:-70

10·99 1·61 11·16 1·80 11·71

species of plants have been found to be weeds in rice fields (Alim 1'956). Among them the most important are Ghorar Ghae (Vossia cuspidata), Thora (Oryzafatua), Meoni (Cyperusjfavidus), Kochuri-pana (Eichomia crassipe) arid Shafta(Nymphea stellata). Other common weeds are Oryza minuta, 0. officina/is, Saccharum spdnteneum, Cynodon dactylon, Ammonia rotundifolia, A. octandra, A. peploides, and Bergia l'erticillata. Strangely enough Oryza coarctata and O.latifolia do not seem to be troublesome weeds. The Jiarvested paddy is stored by the farmers usually in large earthen ·pots or large baskets. In rice mills and Government

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

243

godowns, the cleaned rice is stored in jute sacks. Both the paddy and the rice are attacked during storage by the Angoumis grain moth, the rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) and the g; anary weevil (S. granarius). All of them cause considerable damage. It is estimated that, on the average, a farmer keeps 10 ~~ of his paddy for seed, stock feeding and payment of wages, and 60% for domestic consumption. The remaining 30% is his marketable surplus. The farmer's storage capacity, his short-term debts and the market prices determine how quickly this surplus will be marketed. Generally, Aman rice is marketed from Feburary to July, Aus rice in August and September and Boro rice from May to July. Something like 6 million tons of rice are kept by the land()Wning farmers for their own consumption and another million tons or more are taken by field hands as part of their wages for hanesting. Some of this is de-husked by one of three types of primitive hullers, Kahal, Dheki and Karikal. The Kahal is a wooden mortar with five-feet long pestle. The Dheki is a mortar with the pestle on a fulcrum worked by foot. The Karikal, also called Kriosi, is an introduction of the Arakanese. This implement has a large wooden cone fitted in to the coneshaped hollow of another wooden block. It is worked by moving the handles on the cone piece forward and backward, the grain thus getting hulled by the rubbing of the two pieces. This is a better implement than the other two, since the breakage ()f rice is comparatively low and the output equals that of the Dheki. Before being de-husked the paddy is often parboiled. The output of the large number of small and big machine hullers and polishers is some three million tons of cleaned rice. Not only is the paddy hulled, but it is polished to remove the red glume surrounding the grain. This process removes most of the vitamins, but satisfies the finicky taste of rice eaters. The Bengal type of rice cooking results in iosses of 15% of the calories, 10% of the Proteins, 15% of the calcium and phosphorus and 75% of the iron from the rice cooked. The grain is nearly as nutritio11s as

244

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

wheat but after such milling and cooking it is rather poor nutritionally. It may greatly benefit public health if such milling is discouraged and the cooking of rice in lesser quantities of water is popularised. The seemingly ideal conditions for rice growing and the general fertile soils should give high yields. This is not so, as has been earlier explained. At an average conversion rate of 65% the ave-

Table 10.2 AMAN

I

1965-70 average District Dacca Mymensingh * ... Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Comilla Sy1het Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali * Jessore Kushtia Total: *Estimated.

Area ('000 acres) 776 1,685 263 783 495 51 694 965 1,105 1,124 870 1,286 633 527 1,003 869 714 550 137 14,530

Production ('000 tons clean rice 350 760 80

255

297 31 318 488 578 495 513 616 308 196 490 396 292 248 60 6,771

1970-75 average Area Production ('000 ('OOOtons) acres) 702 280 1,585 752 352 140 683 U~5 554 314 3(} 53 689 266 902 409 1,083 515 1,040 438 798 398 1,290 716 604 313 855 145 865 300. 291 868 625 193. 564 424 55 128 6,179 13,849

245

AGIUCULTURAL PRODUCTS

rage per acre yield of rice is 950 1bs. in Brazil and 1,100 1bs. in Malayasia. All these countries grow the indica variety extensively, but their yields are appreciably over the average 900 1bs. for Bangladesh. The cause of the low yield are(i)insufficient manuring, (ii) use of poor quality seeds, (ii) inherent low yielding capacity of Table 10.3 AUS

1965-70 average District Dacca Mymensingh *... Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Camilla Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali* Jessore Kushtia Total : *Estimated.

Area ('000 acres) 420 1,020 272 552 246 115 437 540 270 440 432 896 242 344 91 497 127 573 375 7,844

Production ('000 tons clean rice) 165 350 60 162 105 56 155 212 114 171 173 351 93 115 38 174 36 223 237 2,890

1970.75 average Area !Production

('000 roootons)

acres) 396 983 237 503 234 106 419 463 334 444 389 906 252 295 92 482 112 624 338

138 331 74 145 123 39 144 176 143 150 140 296 82 86 37 154 32 216 111

7,616

2,627

246

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

the Jali-aman, Rayada and Bhadoi types, (iv) pests, (v) diseases-, (Yi) weeds, (vii) floods and/or droughts. In any given area, some or all these causes will tend to lower the potential yield. Table 10.'1 BORO

1965-70 average District Dacca Mymensingh* ... Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Comilia Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rang-pur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali * Jessore Kushtia Total :

---

*Estimated.

Area acres)

~·ooo

137 434 50 23 93 18 31 104 559 60 3 17 16 14 30 25 12 9 2 1,677

Production ('000 tons clean rice) 104 367 50 16 84 16 25 85 361

I 1

1970-7:5 average Area

Production

('000 ('OOOtons)

acres) 203

2

55 56 172 23 99 203 f.03 105 12 43 42 46 51 113 48 23 5

172 431 54 59 159 19 103 183 395 89 12 37 33 42 36 125 48 64 11

1,260

2,502

2,082

-.3

3 15 12 10

20 24 14

9

59l

247

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT

WHEAT Wheat (Triticum sativum) can be grown only as a winter crop. With the popularisation of wheat bread, both leavened and unleavened, wheat cultivation has increased. In 1975-76. wheat was grown on 400,000 acres, and production was estimated at 265,000 tons. The big increase from the 1965·70 average produc;. Table 10·5 WHEAT

1965·70 average District Dacca Mymensingh * ... Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Co milia Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali * Jess ore Kushtia Total: *Estimated.

Area (acres) 13,900 8,400 4,500 51,400 200 700 10,700 300 33,700 5,200 13,300 4,200 40,000 500 300 8,700. 26,500 222,500

1970-75 average

Area !Production . (torts) acres 4,300 14,680 2,200 8,265 7,424 1,500 57,549 14,000 1,140 100 3 200 559 4,500 25,798 100 550 15,600 46,203 2,100 8,416 4,300 15,206 1,800 6,873 13,000 61,944 575 200 100 210 13 2,600 13,306 33,290 8,500 75,100

302,004

!Production . tons 4,793 2,052 2,456 15,639 380 1 143 13,060 202 14,271 2,936 5,730 3,399 22,742 176 84 4

4,348 15,284 107,700

248

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

tion of 75,000 tons is due to the spread of dwarf high yielding varieties. Wheat is sown in October or November and harvested in February. The local varieties grown are Dudhia, Jamali, Gangajali, Kheri, Puisa and Nambia. On the west bank of the Jamuna and in the Tista Valley, Spelt (Var. speltim), known as Paira, is more common than the ordinary variety. The dwarf

--,

Table 10.6 BARLEY

1965-70 average

District Dacca Mymensingh * .. Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Co milia Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali * Jessore Kushtia Total: •Estimated.

Area (acres) 2400 1,900 3,600 11,400

1970-75 average

Production ---~--Area Production (tons) (acres) (tons) 769 2 784 500 1,364 456 700 2,790 1,100 10,049 2,220 10,634 2,500

17,100 3,800 5,000 700 12,500

4,700 1,100 1,500 300 3,200

16,956 2,921 5,246 829 15,534

4,481 731 1,606 262 4,594

2,000 1,900

500 500

1,466 23,790

330 510

62,300

16,600

91,573

18,749

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

249

high-yielding Mexican varieties, such as penjamo and Sonora 62, have been successfully grown with or without irrigation. In 1975-76 nearly half the area under wheat was HYVs {mainly sonalika variety). The main areas of production are {Map-x. 4)theMoribund Delta, the Ganges levees and the Tista and Jamuna plains in the Northern Region, and the south-western part of the Central Region·

BARLEY Barley (Hordeum hexastichum), is as restricted acropaswheat. It is sown in October and harvested in March. The yield per acre is slightly higher than for wheat. The average annual acreage "for this cereal is 80,000 and the production is 18,000 tons. The main areas of production {Map x. 4) are the north-central part of the Southern Region, the Mahananda-Ganges Doab, the eastern part of the the Ganges levee of the Northern Region, the ·sandy areas of the piedmont plain, the eastern part of the Jamuna plains and parts of the Dhaleswari Doab. MAIZE

Maize (Zea mays) is a minor cereal crop: only about 17,000 acres are under it, yielding about 9,000 tons of cobs. In the absence of more recent estimates, the 1944-45 survey (lshaque 1946) has to be relied upon for most of Bangladesh. Chittagong Hill Tracts District was left out of the Plot to Plot Enumeraton, but it is a maize growing area. Bhoja, Makai and Binnie are the three main varieties grown in the Jhums; they are harvested in August and September. In other parts of Bangladesh, the main maize grownig areas are in Daulatpur, Godagari, Shihganj, Nachole, Gomasatp Porsha, Dhamoirhat, Patnitola, Charghat, Baraigram, Paba, Chatmohar, Boda, Pirganj, Birganj, Bochanganj, Nawabganj, Ghoraghat and Gobindaganj Thanas (Map x. 3).

MILLETS Various millets are grown sparingly both for the grain and for fodder. Kaun or Italian Millet (Setaria italica) and Cheena

250

GEOGRAPHY OF

BANGLADESH~

X.4

WHEAT

AND BARLEY

•

1000 acres of Wheat

o

1000 oc.res of Barley SCA~E

60

ac

·~o

£!!!!]ii;iL • .sr.M;

..... '

.. :\ ~

\

I!\

\. \

""

8 A Y ,r~r

CF

BENGAL

\

~

-

.....

,J

"' ll£-.

251

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

(Panicum mil/accum) are the commonest. Kaun is grown both as a Kharif and as aRabi crop. Cheena is aRabi crop. Other millets grown are Maraa(Eleusin~ Coracana),Shama (Panicum colonum), Kod.o (Paspalum scrobiculattml), Bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum) and Jowar (Andropogen sorghum). Marua, Bajra and jowar arc Kharif crops, while Shama and Kado are Rabi crops. They are mostly grown mixed with maize or Sugarcane in small plots near the homesteeds. Kaun and Checna are cultivated as regular field

Table 10.7 :MAIZE

District Dacca Mymcnsi.rgh * Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Com ill a Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj Patuakhali Jessore Kushtia Total: •Estimated.

1965-70 average I 1970-75 average ------Production (tons) Area (acres)

I

240 210 120 830 120 1,090 50

70 30 30 200 40 440 10

40 t ,570 2,350 1,350 240 210 1to

10 680 780 420 90 40 20

140 260

50 90

8,960

3,040

60

20

.252

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

crops in the Chars and Diaras of all the larger rivers. In 1949-50, millets a.·e estimated to have been grown on 4,550 acres from which the yield was probably over 700 tons. Another crop, which may be classed with the millets is Dhemshi (Polygonia sp.)*. This small pinkish plant is grown on sandy soils along the BrahmaptraJamuna river and in north Northern Region. It has apparently been introduced recently by immigrants from the Assam Valley. PULSES, GRAMS, BEANS Al.\"1> PEAS Seeds of these four types of Leguminous plants are important as articles of food. Soup (Dal) made of pulses is almost as common in the diet of the Bangalis as rice. The following five types of pulses are those most commonly grown. PULSES MASUR (Lens

Escu/enta):

LENTILS

Masur is a low bushy annual, 14-18 inches high. It thrives best on a clay soil, the seed being usually sown broadcast in OctoberNovember. The crop isreadyforharvestinginaboutfourmonths. The average annual production is 63,000 tons on an average of 245,000 acres. The main areas of production are the northern part of the Southern Region, southern and eastern parts of the Northern Region, western part of the Central Region and some areas on both banks of the upper Meghna (Map X. 5). The pulse beetle, Calosobrac.hus chinensis, is the major pest for all types of pulses. KHESARI

(Lathyrus Sativus)

Khesari is a very popular pulse. It also thrives best on a clay soil, being sown broadcast in rice fields in October or November, and harvested in February and March. It is grown on 310,000 acres which produce 77,000 tons (560 lbs. per acre). The main areas of production are the north-eastern part of the Southern Region, the west-central part of the Eastern Region, the west, *There is some doubt whether it has been correctly identifiied.

253-

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

X. 5

MASH AND MASUR PULSES

,-'

•

::~-~ ;

;.

.'

~--~·-..

,........... j

.....

.

...- ....... ·\,. ,(

()

!000

o c r~s

o 1000 acres SC A ':.. E

of Mash of Masur

254

GEOGRAPHY OF

BA~GLADESR

south and east of the Central Region and the south-eastern and north-eastern parts of the Northern Region (Map X. 6).

MOOG (Phaseolus rediatus), GREEN GRA~f, Mc~o BEA~ Moog is another widely grown pulse. It thrives best on a medium loam soil within a PH range of 5.8 to 6.5 Under average conditions, yield of 560 1bs. of pulse per acre is Table 10.8 MASUR

1965-70 average

District Dacca Mymensingh* ... Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong

Hill Tracts

Noakhali Com ilia Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Pat uakhali * Jessore Kushtia Total: *Estimated.

: 1970-75 average

~---·----'--·---

Area I Production ; Area !Production (acres) .~ (tons) j(acres): (tons) 7,900 2,730 7,698 3,451 9,000 2,480 9,946 3,083 3,070 920 3,285 969 23,130 5,210 25,954 6,037 630 207 180 729 100 30 23 99 1,540 330 1,153 238 3,760 1,140 2,666 735 290 1()7 90 381 30,170 8,040 .?-2,543 10,261 2,390 550 1,693 375 5,280 1,860 5,424 1,831 6,650 2,330 5,464 2,054 18,580 6,190 19,562 6,575 3,260 1,120 2,243 669 8,100 1,460 5,740 1,255 3,310 860 1,500 309 2S,910 8,360 21,955 5,701 18,850 5,400 19,608 5,150

174,920

49,280

162,185

48,295

255

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

~

_I ... , \!"' "'\. ' ·"..

X.l;

, -l .

t,..., ...,\./~~; t

\ ,,.

........

KHESARI AND ARHAR PULSES •

100-0

-acrts

of Kh~so~i

•

tOOO

acrt~s

ot Arha·r

.. .

'~

'"'·'·J"J ' \

'

r---~~:l

...

,

....

B A y

OF

BENGI!.L

....

256

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

obtained. The Phaseolus rediatus form is called Hali Moog, the variety aurea is known as Sona Moog, and the variety grandis is Krishna Moog. The early crop is sown in August-September and harvested in November-December. The late crop is sown in December-January and harvested in April-May. On an average 40,000 acres are under Moog, yielding 11,000 tons of pulse. The main areas of production are a belt, east of the Meghna river, Bhola island, and a belt of land in the Mature· Delta of the Southern Region (Map x. 7). ---·---·· - -

District

----------

Dacca Mymensingh* .. Tangail* Faridpur Chiltagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Comilia Sylhct Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali* Jessore Kushtia Total:

Table 10.9 (Mungbean) 1965-70 average

MOOG

1970-75 average

Areas j Production- -Area \Production· (acres) 1 (tons) (acres) (tons) . _ 2,130 690 2,242 706 3,900 1,100 1,035 3,243 550 153 140 597 5,730 1,150 5,529 1,288 206 300 643 850 100 30 30 113 3,440 830 2,563 597 1,210 1,810 560 370 360 100 229 634 210 991 790 274 1,710 254 360 1,040 1,120 2,539 3,200 87& 91 267 130 440 766 239 560 160 475 140 220 780 2,229 8,712 3,430 16,240 996 3,990 1,710 8,120 443 1,981 3,240 790 89 412 510 110 10,692 37,512 54,460 14,200

257

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

MASH

(Phaseo/us Mu11go),

BLACK GRAM

This pulse grown best on well-drained heavy loam. It is often grown mixed with linseed, maize or brinjals. It is the chief constituent of the wafers known as Papar. The plant forms very good foder. There are two varieties of it-the common black and the white-seeded Thakuri. They are sown in August-September and

Table 10.10 MASH

1965-70 average District Dacca Mymensingh* .. Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Com ill a Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna .Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali * Jessore K.ushtia Total: otf!stimated

1970-75 average

I

Area !Production Area (tons) (acres) (acres) 13,930 20,560 11,270 17,960 1,600 180 2,550 6,410 690 1,280 4,910 8,880 5,200 17,360 530 200 60 3,610

4,900 7,450 3,770 4,160 540

5,600

650 2,330 230 4,140 1,540 3,190 1,890 5,750 160 40 20 940 1,680

1,22,380

43,440

60

Production (tons)

14,477 19,201 8,340 19,201 1,498 174 1,924 3,903 668 1,689 3,890 8,714 3,412 17,512 359 151

5,042 7,165 2,413 5,094 518 52 451 1,357 223 5,756 1,225 2,969 1,127 5,624 102 27

2,214 5,051

485 1,338

1,12.378

40,968

258

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

harvested in December-January. The average production per acre is 560 1bs. of seed. On an average 130,000 acres are planted with Mash, and the yield is around 35 to 40 thousand tons. The main areas of production are northern and the western parts of the Southern Region, southern and eastern parts of the Northern Region, and the western part of Central Region (Map X. 5). Table 10.11 ARHAR

_ District Dacca

Mymen~ingh *

Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Co milia Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali* Jessore Kushtia ·Total: •Estimated.

1965-70 avera~~ Area (acres)

Production (tons)

1970-75 average

I (acres) Area

----·---------...

60 390

Production (tons) 36 123 13

30

103 396 35 183 123 187 46 13 41 1,246 789 1,122 203 239 57

490 4,020

140 1,28u

415 2,395

ll2 652

9,040

2,880

7,593

2,307

60

120 100 180 20 20 30 980 1,050 1,080 220 180 110

20 120 20 30 30 50 10 10 10 190 330 400 80 60

44

46 69 12 4

13 395 213 412 72

76 15

259

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ARHAR (Cajanus lndicus); PIGEON PEA OR RED GRAM

Arhar is a perennial shrub, six to eight feet in height. It is sown from April to June, and the first crop from the early varieties is harvested in January-February, while the late varieties are harvested in April. It is in almost throughout the year, but usually in the rainy season the mature bushes are cut back. The average yield is 600 lbs. per acre. Usually only small patches

Table 10.12 GRAM 1965-70 average

District Dacca Mymensingh * .. Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Comilla Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj, Patuakhali * Jessore Kushtia Total: *Estimated

-----

1970-75 average

Areas (acres)

~Production

Area (acres)

3,390 3,410 2,850 20,740 150 10 570 1,340 310 23,000 2,280 2,580 2,830 12,070 850 3,400 2,000 19,310 54,150

1,120 1,280 770 6,230 40 7 170 410 100 7,620 660 830 1,060 3,900 290 1,200 700 6,410 17,040

3,828 3,857 3,080 24,368 167 9 479 821 300 24,307 2,157 2,664 2,701 11,472 669 2.361 970 20,091 50,127

155,050

49,670

154,428

(tons)

!Production I (tons) 1,257 1,442 875 5,368 47 17 121

~24

103 7,576 547 879 1,026 6,907 186 751 292 6,081 14,311 47,259

260

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

X. 7

GRAM AND MOOG PULSES

... ., ,...,,.i

,....,

i )

.......

......... ~

. '

'' I'

j

.

',":"

IOJO

a c r ~s

of Gr:lm

o

100 0

o c~es

of Mocg

......

-...:.........:;··;;,'~...;;.:·~ :

.. .~.~..

.,., .. . _.,.r·l

. f". . .;,""

•

·• ·.':.~

.~,-,_~?

.----...:.: :. :..

...•

~~- ··

..

... b .,i~ i. •• ,. . ...

:

[.·.-.·.·.·:·· .. _ .:.,: ..·. .·.·.....· ....:.... '•·\.,_ r:·:·:;.: _,_·. t:;·-~·.:.·::·.:. ~._..... ~~-· , : -~ ·...., ~-

....

..'

••••

t'

....s-.-~:1• •

t.

I

'·...

'·

,.

'·

'i

·~

l

\

\

I

(

\.

I

i

t

\

1,'

,·.,

' I

I

i

i

.... .-i \

\.-"'

a

A

'f

OF

BENGAL

261

AGlliCULTURAL PROPUCIS

.of Arhar are cultivated. It is mostly grown in the Northern Region and Kushtia District (Map X. 6).

-GRAMS OloLA (Cicer Arietinum),

CHICK PEA OR

BENGAL GRAM

This is the most widely grown gram in Bangladesh. It is also a Rabicroplikethe pulses. It is planted in October-November and harvested in February-March. The seed (gram) is generally of three qualities; brown, yellow and white. Brown gram is the most important type and comprises a good many shades, e.g., light brown, yellowish-brown, reddish etc. The cultivation of gram has decreased by over 60,000 acres since the 1940s. The main areas of production are the northern and western parts of the Southern Region and the southern and eastern parts of the Northem Region (Map X. 7). The Eastern Region grows very little, since it requires a well drained sandy loam soil. KuRTI KALAl (Dolichos Bijlorus); HoRSE GRAM

The cultural requirements of this gram are the same as for ·Chota. It is grown in small quantities as an intercrop with Chola, Moog, Brinjal and even Tobacco in the sandier areas of the Northern and the Southern region. BEANS MAKHON-SHIM

(Cavanalia Ensiformis); SwoRD BEAN

This is a robust, woody, perennial, climbing bean bearing large, coarse, rather fiat, sword-shaped pods, 10-12 inches long by about 1! inches broad. Boththepods and the beans are eaten. It is the most widely grown of all bean. It is usually, trained on bamboo trellises or over the roofs of the farmers' buts. The closely related Kalo-Shim (C. virosa) is also grown with this variety. Other very common beans are Shim (Dolichos lablab) and Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus). (Phaseolus Vulgaris), FRENCH BEAN This Bean, is grown only in the cool season, and is common

BAKIA

262

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

only ncar the larger towns. Like most Phaseolus beans, it does best on soils with a PH range of 5.8 to 6.5. GARI-KALAI

(Glycine Hispida),

SOYA BEAN

Soya Bean, so common in China and Japan, is grown in small patches in many parts of the Eastern Region, and especially in Noakhali and Chittagong Districts. The average yield is near about 1,000 lbs. per acre. The tall growing varieties could be grown for fodder, as they yield 7 to 8 tons per acre. VELVET BEAN

(Mucuna Nivea)

This bean is rather rare in most places, but is an important vegetable for the Char dwellers along the Tista river. BARBAfl

(Vigna Catiang)

This bean. along with Bakla, Dolicltos subcamosus, Dolichos lablab and Phascolus richardiana are widely cultivated in the CJ1ittagong valleys. FIELD PEA

(Pisum Arvense-)

Peas of very fair quality are grown in the market gardens. around Dacca and near Chittagong. G~nerally it is grown without much care and not even trained onto bamboo stakes or trellises. The yield is, therefore, low. It is treated as a catch-crop and inter-cropped with Kurti-Kalai or Mu~tard (e.g., in KauniaThana). The dwarf varieties are most generally grown. The European Pea (P. Sativum) is grown mainly in the market gardens. near Dacca and Chittagong. GouRPS, PUMPKINS ETC. (Cucurbitaceae)

Melons are left out of this category and described und~:r 'Fruits', since they are generally considered as fruits and not as vegetables. Gourds form a very large proportion of the vegetabt.:-i' grown, and com~ in many different varieties. The cucurbit fruit fly, Dacus cucurbitae, is the major pest for all varieties of Cucurbitaceae.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

263

CHAL KUMRA (Benincasa Cerifera), AsH PuMPKINS

The Ash Pumpkin is an annual vine, grown generally around the farmers' homestead and trained onto the roof (thus theBengali name 'roof-pumpkin'). It is especially common in parts of northern Rangpur District, Kishorganj sub-divisioin, and Comilla District. KUMRA (Cucurblta Pepo), PuMPKIN

This vegetable is easily cultivated and gives quick and heavyreturns. It is cultivated as a cash crop on the sandy Podda levee of the Southern Region and along the Old Brahmaputra and Madhumati. The Mishti-kodu (C. maxima) and Safra Kumra (C. moschata) are related species which are also widely grown on the sandier soils. CucuMER (Cucumis Sativus)

The Cucumber is a popular winter vegetable, and is widely grown. LAu (Lagenaria Vulgaris) BoTTLE GoURD

This is the most common, and about the most popular of all vegetables. The fruit varies in length from 16 to 24 inches and usually resembles a decanter. The vine is trained unto bamboo trellises or small trees such as Madar and Badi. It grows best on well-drained sandy loams, and as such bears best in thenorthern parts of the Northern and the Central Regions. There is no area of concentrated production, for in most home steads a vine or two are grown. The only area where it is grown mainly for marketing is between Tongi and Pubail, north-east of Dacca City. (Lujfa Aegyptica), SPONGE GoUlU> The Dhundul Gourd is not very common. but widely grown. A vine or two of Dhundul is common in all villages, except those in very low lying areas. The closely related Jhinga (L. acutangula) is somewhat more widely grown.

DHUNDUL

264

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

KoROLA

(Momordica charantia); BITTER GocRD

The Korola, though bitter in taste, is nevertheless a common vegetable during the rainy season. It is generally 6 to 8 inches long. A superior variety 12 to 14 inches long is grown in Munshiganj. The Kakrol (M. cochinchinesis) is a related, but not bitter, species which is grown mainly in the Central and Southern Regions. POTOL

(Trichosanthes dioica)

The Potol is a much esteemed summer vegetable. It is planted in September and October, and the ground is covered with straw and water-weeds on which the vines are allowed to trail. The harvest stretches from March to September. It grows best in central Comilla District, eastern Bogra District (main area of production) and along the Madhumati and Ichhamati rivers in .Jessore and Khulna Districts. Two other related vegetables, the Chichinga (Trichosanthes anguina) and Ban Chichinga (T. cucumerina) are also cultivated. TUBEROUS VEGETABLES

Because of their high yield, the tuberous vegetables are becoming in increasing importance. Many areas where a few years ago tuberous vegetables were regarded as poor food, they are now grown regularly as a field crop. Indications are that as the density of populations goes over 1,200 persons per sq. mile, the cultivation of tuberous vegetables assumes great importance, since only thes heavy yielding crops can cover up the deficit in rice and other food-stuffs. (This holds good except where market gardening is an important feature of the economy). KocHU (Aroidae)

Kochu, known as Dasheen in the East Indies and Taro in the Pacific Isles, is the most important of the tuber our veg,etables. There are four main varieties: 01 (Amorphophallus campanulatus), Man (Alocasia indica), Dsehi (Calocasia antiquorum), apd Pani ·(C. nymphaeifolia). The Narikel variety (Amorphophallus bulbifer)

AGiliCULTURAL PllODUCTS

265

is cultivated for its edible leaf-stalks. Theythrive in moist and well-manured soil, preferring low-lying ground, near swamps and streams, and yield edible tubers 3 to 9 months after planting depending on the variety. In most homesteads, there are a few Kochu, near about the huts, but their cultivation as a field crop is rapidly gaining ground as population pressure increases. At present, they are an important field crop in Patia, Noakhali, Chandpur, Kishorganj, Mymensingh north, Barisal, Pirojpur, Bagherhat, Khulna and Jessore sub-division. Kochu is exported from Bakerganj District to the Central Region. The production per acre vades from 3 to 5 tons. SHAK-ALU

(Pachyrhizus Angulatus)

This is another tuberous vegetable rapidly gaining in popularity. It does best in deep loamy soil; it is adapted to sandier soils than the various Kochus. It is usually planted in June-July and harvested in January-February. The production per acre is often as much as 3 tons. The main acreas of its cultivation are east Northern Region and the northern part of the Southern Region. SwEET POTATO (Ipomoea Batatas) This crop prefers a rather dry and gocd soil of a light texture. It is a common vegetable, especially in those low-Jying areas where the levees alone can grow a Rabi crop. The yield per acre is about 3 tons. The main areas of production is a tract of land on either side of the Surma and Meghna: it is largely grown on the levees of low-lying areas, where its large yield and suitability to sandy soils are much appreciated (Map X. 8).

(Solanum Tuberosum) Potato is the most important of the tuberous vegetables, but its widespread cultivation dates only from the 1930s. It is sown in October and November and harvested from January to March. The yield varies from 2! to S tons per acre. On the a\'erage, 127,000 acres are under Potato, and the yield is 380,000 tons. This means an average of three tons per acre-the best yield for

PoTATO

266

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

·"

x.e POTATO AND SWEET POTATO

.' . .

• 1000 oc reo of Potet•

..

'-·-·,

o

1000 acres of Sweet Potato SC.AL£

...-~--·11.0__..:..-.::"0!-0.:::10.:1 MIL. IS

~0

•

.

....

~-.;-· -·

• ~ -.. I

f',l

'., ' ·t;

·\..

[;. .•/~j~

.. .,

;

........,:\

..\ (J

~

,.

l·. 'i

...

.....

/'·

'..

~~

t

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;

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. ... ..

...·:

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1:,••

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i.

·,

I

i

'

\ .~

~. I

8 A Y

OF

BENGAL

261

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

any food crop that is so largely grown. The yield varies from 2t tons per acre where there is too much clay in the soil (e.g., Begumganj Thana) to 5 tons in areas where there is a friable moist loam, a gently sloping ground with good natural drainage and a moderately dry climate (e.g., Bogra Thana). The main acres of production are the eastern and northern parts of the Northern Table 10.13 SWEET POTATO

1965-70 average

--------.-----,~-;.-;;;-.-----

District Dacca Mymensingh * ... Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Comilla Sylhet Rajsbahi Rangpur Dinajpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali* Jessore Kushtia

----o-==-::;-=----

j

1970-75 average

A-;;-[Productoin! Area--~;Production ( 000 acres) ( 000 tons) /('000 acres) ('000 tons) 9 51 11 58 26 115 26 111 8 32 8 26 5 16 6 24 5 32 5 31 2 8 2 13 12 75 10 54 46 204 40 168 4 21 4 30 2 9 3 10 6 26 6 30 3 12 2 10 3 12 4 12 6 26 6 30 2 7 1 6 14 63 14 65 6 22 5 20 1 4 1 3 1 3 0·9 3

---------------------__,...- -

Total:

•Estimated.

161

738

163

811

268

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

Region (Map X. 8). The varieties grown fall into two main groups-mealy and waxy. Of the former group, the main Yarieties are Shada, with a whitish skin and flesh. The waxy ones are better eating and fetch better prices. The important varieties are Shil-bilati, an elongated tuber with reddish skin-the most popular of all varieties; Goma-bilati, round and reddish; Bi/ati, round, small; Bimtathupti, the size of marbles; Tatnai, large and whill!; Table 10.14 POTATO

• District Dacca Mymensingh* ... Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Comilla Sylhet Rajshahi Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khulna Bakerganj* Patuakhali * Jessore Kushtia Total: *Estimated.

~-

1965-70 average

1

1970-75 average

Are;-.Productionl Area

'Prod~ction

:cooo acres)irooo tons) ('000 acres) ('000 tons) 27

169

21 3 2

48

5

28

7

7 2

7 41 7

18

57

11

20 17 19 20 4 5 4 1

40 4.:1

49

39 21 3 1 8 ]

3 23 11

20 13 21 20

.252 43 6

5 42 6

16 76

48 47

0·4

I

2 7

4

2 1

37 95 49 11 18 12 1 7 5

189

641

206

784

2

76 57 10

24 14

4 4 3

269

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

Burma, which is actually an Irish variety; Eigenheimer and Ultimus, two varieties from Holland. One of the serious

drawbacks to potato cultivation is the number of serious diseasse to which it is susceptible unde•· the warm climatic conditions. The most common among them are Late Blight (Phytophthora infestations), Common Blight (Aithenaria so/ani}, Tuber Rot (Fwarium oxysporum), West Rot (Physiological breakdo'K'n), Black Spot (Rhizoctonia sp.) and mosaic diseases caused by viruses. It has been found that cold storages are absolutely essential for preserving seed potatoes from one season to another. The establishment of cold storages has led to an increase in potato cultivation in the Munshiganj area. SHIMUL-ALU

(Cassava Aipi),

SWEEY CAssAVA

This is grown in the Eastern Region. The bulbous roots are eaten cooked. The making of Cassava ftour is not known. RADISH

(Raphanus Sativus)

Radishes grow best in moist and partially shaded situations. They are grown either for home consumption in small plots near the homestead, or in the market gardens near the larger towns. Both the outer leaves and the roots are eaten as vegetables. It grows best in Sylhet, Jamalpur, Kishorganj, and Chittagong North and South Sub-Divisions. Very large radishes are grown in the Hill Tracts, but their centre is hollow and taste rather insipid. CAR.R.OT

(Daucus Carota)

Carrots grow best in deep, rich, sandy soil and are thus grown mainly in the market gardens near the larger rivers. It is not popular in the countryside, but is one of the most sought after winter vegetables in the towns. It is extensively grown in the market gardens at the eastern edge of Dacca City and north of Chittagong City. The carrots of the Kumira area are especially big.

270 BEET

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

(Beta Vulgaris)

Next to the potato, beet is considered the most nutritious of food crops, but is far from being a popular vegetable. It is grown in limited quantities in the market gardens of Dacca, Chittagong and Khulna and by gardening enthusiasts. ONION

(Allium Cepa)

Onion is widely grown, for it is an indispensable item in the culinary preparations of the Bengali. It is eaten either raw, or

Table 10:15 ONION

i

1965-70 average

/ 1970-75 average

District I~--Ar;.;-IProduction)' Area j'Pr~duction ------'---'-(a_cr_e...:.s)_ l--.:..(t_ons) ('000 acres)('OOO tans) Dacca 7,350 16,740 7,798 17,707 Mymensingh* .. 7,000 16,000 7,356 16,857 3,000 Tangail* 5,000 2,372 3,342 Faridpur 17,190 35,700 15,542 27.732 Chittagong 800 1,820 811 1.644 Hill Tracts 220 530 239 455 Noakhali 770 I ,040 780 937 Comilla 5,526 13.003 Sy1het 580 1,460 644 1.578 Rajshahi 5,050 13,100 5,927 11,036 3,840 Dinajpur 7,870 3,852 6,826 Rangpur 6,780 15,560 6,766 14,954 4,220 Bogra 9,600 4,519 6.799 Pabna 5,520 12,640 5,811 12,834 1,930 K.hu1na 5,290 1,552 4,286 Bakerganj* 2,000 2,800 1,894 2,377 Patuakhali * 500 700 451 553 Jess ore 3,680 9,370 3,481 7,891 Kushtia 1,620 3,760 2,381 4,974 Total: 81,420 180,800 77,702 155,785. •Estimated.

271

AGIUCULTUlt.AL PRODUCTS

cooked in cur..ies. Since it prefers a light soilt it is grown on a large scale on the sandier river levees. It is sown from October to December and harvested from January to March. The average yield is about 2.2 tons per acre. Production seems to be steadily increasing over the period 1957-65t and has risen from 38,500 tons in 1957-58 to an annual average of 180,800 tons in the 1965-70 period. Howevert production seems to have fallen in the next period (1970-75) as in evident from table. 10·15. The main area Table 10.16 GARLIC

1965-70 average District Dacca Mymensingh* .. Tangail* Faridpur Chittagong Hill Tracts Noakhali Comilla Rajshahi Sylhet Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Pabna Khu1na Bakerganj• Patuakhali • Jessore Kushtia Total: *Estimated.

Area !Production (tons) (acres) 3,320 2,300 6,750 4,500 1,100 800 6,940 9,380 410 730 330 190 1,000 840 6,320 4,150 2,380 1,350 430 300 2,750 1,710 4,290 2,690 1,530 980 2,110 1,500 1,530 570 2,500 2,000 550 550 2,120 1,280 1,350 940 34t000

50t470

-

1970-75 average Area \Production (acres) {tons) 2,285 3,505 4,065 5,959 724 899 6,726 8,819 543 811 210 322 884 1,069 3,080 4,368 1,266 1,782 275 420 1,943 2,634 2,719 4,284 1,039 1,261 1,627 2,238 461 830 1,871 2,015 368 342 1,227 1,885 1,128 1,779 32,441

45t222

272

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

•t'"l!

. 0

, .. ,

X.9

CHILl 1000

a::r~~

of Chtl r

1000 a ens of Grou.,dnut

s: .. _!

1.!...-:-'i.!o,.,.....eo_...,i!!'!!_if'O!:!oo.....J'go • ll.U '

-,

-; .... - . . .... , ,.

.._J'- -·. . ,.. __... ·----- -... . . . . ., ----- . (15) and Transp).anted Aman (lO)the hill· foot strip and on higher ridg~s. Other crops include Mustard (6). Jute (4), Khesari \2) and Linseed (1). Bil, fisheries are important. N. C. A. 70 percent; G. C. A. 125 percent.

CROPPmG-PATTERN UNITS

407'

HAOR BASIN 54. (E I) Tahirpur, northern Dharmapasha, northern, Sunamganj northern Chhatak, northern Gowainghat and southern Jointiapur: This is an area of heavy clays, with loams and stands near the foot of hills and along the piedmont rivers. Most of this area is deeply flooded in the monsoon and is subject to flash floods. Some high ridges are shallowly flooded over a third oft he area is covered with Ekra reeds and types. The main crops are Boro (70) and Broadcast A man (26). Some Jute (1) is grown, along with Aus (5) mixed with Broadcast Aman. The Rabi crops are Mustard {2), Chilli (1), Tobacco(-!), Sweet Potato (;t) and Potato(!-). Bamboo is scarce. Haor fisheries are much exploited. N.C. A. 65 percent; G. C. A. 107 percent. 55. (E 3) Khaliajuri, Sulla, western Dirai, Jamalganj, southern Dharmapasha, Itna (except the western strip), northern Nikli and northern Oshtagram: This is tbe heart of the Haor Basin, and in the monsoons it is like an inland sea. Soils are predominantly heavy clays. In the dry season there are extensive grasslands on the ridges and along the haor margins. The deep and rapid flooding and the .vaves formed during storm;; precludes Broadcast Aman (2) cultivation in all but sheltered areas. Boro (94) is the only crop widely cultivated and is tbe cash crop of this area. On the levees, Sweet Potato (1), various Vegetables (l), Mustard {1), Jute(!), Chilli(!), Potato(!} and Sesamum (;!-)are grown. Trees are few and Bamboo is almost absent. N. C. A. 65 persent; G. C. A. 101 percent. 56. {E 3) Southern Oshtogram, southern Nikli, northern Bajitpur, northern Nasirnagar, North-western Sarail, and western Lakhai: This is the southern rim of the Haor Basin, with a larger proportion of ridges than in unit 55. Boro (65) is still the major rice crop but a fair amount of Aus (10) and Broadcast Aman (15) are also cultivated. Jute (10) rather than Boro rice is the major

408

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

cash crop. Musta•·d (5), sweet Potato (5), various Vegetables (3), Mash (3), Potato (2), Chilli (1), Tobacco (1) and Sesamum (l) are crops grown on the levees in the Rabi season. Haor and river fisheries are e-oo (10) is abundant along fields and the homesteads skirting the hillocks. N.c. A. 70 percent G. c. A. 140 percent 81. (E 8) H1thazari, Raozan (except a strip along the Karnafuli). and northern Rangunia: Despite the high rainfall Aus (50) cultivation is not as extensive as in unit 79. It is followed by Transplanted Aman (85) and later by Boro (5) in the depressions. Chilli (4) and Vegetagles (4), for the Chittagong city, are the main cash crops. Other crops are Moog (3), Potato (1) and Sugarcane (t). N.c. A. 80 percent; G. C. A. 154 percent. 81. (B 8) Boalkhali, Raozan and Rangunia along the Karnafuli river: The distinctive crop here is Betelnut (10). Aus (30) cultivation declines due to early ftoods. It is followed by Transplanted Aman (83). Other crops include Moog (7), Chilli (4), Vegetab1es (2). Mash (1) and Banana(!). River fisheries are important. N. C, A. 85 percent; G. c. A. 140 percent. 83. (B 8) Southern Rangunia, eastern and central Potiya and Satkania: Rice cultivation pattern here is similar to that of C-P unit 82, with a moderate amount of Aus (30) followed by Transplanted

418

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

Aman (90). Betelnut (!)however decreases markedly. Along the bills there are some Tea (2) gardens and Paan (!) boros. Vegetables (5) are grown extensively around Potiya, Guava (1) around Kanchannagar and Tobacco (1) mainly in the Sangu floodplain. Other crops include Chilli (3), Potato (3), Mash (1) and Sugarcane (!). N.C. A. SO percent; G. C. A. 140 percent. 84. (E 8) Anwara and western Patiya: This small area grows little else besides rice. Aus (75) is followed by Transplanted Aman (98). Orher crops include Mash (5), Betelnut (1) and Chilli (1). River and fore shore fisheries are exploited. N.C. A. 80 percent; G. C. A. ISO percent. 85. (E 8) Banskhali and north-central Chakaria: Though on the coast this area is different from nearby coastal islands because of the high proportion of Aus (50), irrigated mainly by damming the hill streams. Sugarcane (-!) and Paan (t) are also grown along these streams. Transplanted Aman (95) is of course the major crop. The cropping-pattern includes Chilli {2), Potato (1), various Vegetables (1), Moog(!) and Tobacco (t) a fair amount of Cocoanut (t) is grown at Baharchhara on the coast. Coastal fishing by stake nets is extensive. N.c. A. SO percent; G. C. A. 152 percent. 86. (E 8) Kutubdia, western and south-western Chakaria, northeastern Cox's Bazar Matarbari island, western coast of Moishkhal and Shahpuridip in southern Teknaf: This area has little Aus (10) and Transplanted Arnan (9S) is 1he only crop in many areas. Very little vegetable (1) and fruit is grown around the homesteads. There are extensive salt beds. Sea fisheries are very important to the economy of this area. N. C. A. 70 percent; G. c. A. 110 percent. srT. (E 8/E9) Cox's Bazar, Ramu (except Garjania), south-east Moishkhali and Chakaria (except the north and west): Aus (50) cultivation has increased very rapidly in the valleys of

CROPPING-PATTERN UNITS

419

the Matamori, ldgong Chhara and Bagkhali rivers and also along the small hill streams. It is followed by Transplanted Aman (85). Main cash crops are Paan (3), Chilli (4), Tobacco (3) and Betelnut (t) in that order. Other crops include Beans and other Vegetables (3), Sugarcane (1), Potato (1) and Mash (1). Bamboo (I) is plentiful. Sea fishing is important in the Moishkhali channel. N. C. A. 80 percent; G. C. A. 153 percent. 88. (E 11) Ukhia, eastern Ramu (Garjania), Bagkhali valley in Naikhongchharia, and Nhila 2nd Baharchhara in Teknaf: This is an area of alternating hills and valleys, with most ofth-:: cultivated land in the Reju valley and the Naat river plain. The cropping-pattern is Transplanted Aman (95), Aus (15), Chilli (4), Tobacco (1), Paan (2), various Vegetables(-}), Betelnut (-!-),Mash (t) and Potato (!). Aus cultivation declines from Ukhia south wards, and Paan is of increasing importance. N.C. A. 70 percent; G. c. A. 117 percent. '89. (E 11) Jinjira island: On this coral island the cropping-pattern is Transplanted Aman (90) Onion (20) and Cocoanut (5). This C-P unit is very small, but in physical and ecological environment it is so distinct from any other part of the country that it justifiably forms a separate unit. N.C. A. 65 percent; G. C. A. 115 percent. 90. (E 11) The valleys of Kasalong, Maini, Chengi, Rinkheong, Sangu and Matamori: There are patches of cultivation in these valleys. The largest of these is the deforested Pablakhali area in Kasalong valley. Field preparation is by plough or hoe. The cropping-pattern in these valleys rice lands consists of Transplanted Aman (90), Mustard (25), Tobacco (6), Sesamum (5), Chilli (2), A us (2), Banana (1), Sugarcane (-}) and Potato (t). N.C. A. 60 percent; G. c. A. 133 percent. ·91. (E 11) South-eastern Rangamati, western Barkal and northern Chandraghona: On the lower hills south-east of the Kaptai Lake there are

420

GEOGRAPHY OP BANGLADESH

patches of cultivation, interspersed with scrub-land and higb forest. The cropping-pattern here is based on horticulture: Banana (65), Pineapple (5) and Cashewnut (5). A little hill Aus (25) is grown by jhuming (Swidden) and there are small plots of Vegetables and spices near the homesteads. Fishing in the lake is an important occupation. N.C. A. 30 percent (excluding the lake); G. c. A. 101 percent. 92. (E 11) Mountain ranges of the Hill Tracts and also low hills away from Kaptai Lake: Most of the cultivation on the steep slopes is through jhum (swidden). The main crops are hill A us (90), followed by Sesamum (15), Maize (20) and Cotton (20) in that order. Around the hiU villages some Vegetables(!), Chilli(!), Tobacco(!) and Banana (1) are grown. N.C. A. 20 percent; G. C. A. 147 percent.

CHAPTER XIV

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS The transport and communications system was badly affected during the liberation struggle of 1971. By 1974 the system was restored, and major improvements were begun. Difficulty of communications has been one of the major factors in retarding economic growth. The waterwa}s are a great asset but slow and inadequate transport has been unable to develop them fully. Roads and railways have been hampered by the deltaic nature of so much of the land. The main obstacle to the improvement of communications and transport has however been the paucity of investment. With greater investment in infrastructure neither the communications system nor the availability of transport should be a serious constraint to development.

RAILWAYS The Bangladesh Railways is a Government concern. There are 1,712 miles of railways, with trains operating over 63 routes (Map XIV. 1). There are two different gauges-broad and metre. The broad gauge, 5 feet 6 inches wide, totals 545.63 miles; the metre gauge, of 3 feet 3-3/Sth inches, totals 1166.39 miles. The broad gauge main line is from Khulna to Chilhati, branching out to Benapol, Darsana, Ratia, Goalundo Ghat, Faridpur, Bhatiapara and Ku markhali Ghats and Sirajganj. The traffic is heaviest on the lines from Khulna to Goalundo Ghat, Khulna to Sirajganj and Siraj ganj to Rajshahi. lshurdi is the focus of most of the traffic. Paksey, nearby, is the centre for the Railway's

422

GEOGllAPHY OF BANGLADESH

C.)mmercial and transportation district which covers the whole Broad Gauge System. Under Paksey, too, are the metre gauge lines from Amnura to Rohanpur, Chapai, Nawabganj and Godagari Ghat, and the narrow guage line from Rupsa East to Bagherhat. In the north Bengal there is a system of metre gauge lines controlled from Lalmonirhat. These lines run from Lalmonirhat to Burimari, to Moghalhat (and across India to a cut-off section from Bhurungamari to Sonahat), to Kurigram, to Ruhea and Biral and to Santahar, with a side line to Fulchari Ghat, where there is a ferry which connects this system to the main one, at Bahadurabad Ghat. The main metre gauge system is in the Eastern and Central Regions. It is divided between the two railway commercial districts of Dacca and Pahartali, which are also transportation districts, and in this respect controlled from Bhairab Bazar and Chittagong respectively. The Bhairab Bazar (Dacca) Sector includes the lines from Narayanganj to Jagannathganj Ghat from Jamalpur to Bahadurabad Ghat, from Tongi to Chhatak via Akhaura and Kulaura, from Kulaura to Latu, from Habiganj to Balia, from Bhairab Bazar to Mymensingh, from Gauripur to Mohanganj and from Shamganj to Jharia Jhanjail. South of Akhaura, the lines Chittagong-Akhaura, Laksham-Chandpur, Laksham-Noakhali, Feni-Belonia, Chittagong-Nazirhat and Chittagong-Doahazari, are controlled from Chittagong (Pahartali). In most areas, the railways adequately serve an area of ten miles on either side of it. It can, therefore, be surmised that an area of about 17,000 sq. miles is well connected by the railways. There are 417 stations in all, 30 of which are railway junctions. The railways have been carrying a steadily increasing amount of goocis and traffic since 1947. The amount of goods carried (net freight) rose from 366 million ton-,miles in 1947-48 to 1,062 million ton-miles in 1962-63. Thereafter the tonnage seems to have declined (Table 14.1). There are four classes of carriages, First. Second, Inter and Third. More than· one hundred diesel locom-

423

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

RAILWAYS .I

• t t •O·t 0

~wa)'s.

1(11

& oaa oauoe

Metr e

~ug o

Na r i"CCW

··=--=-

_ . .,_,.

Q~ to~- O• ·· ·--

_,.

_,,.

r

·'·

..,

11

ll

L

,1,.

Map XIV. 1

424

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

otives operate on the main routes and it is planned to gradually tum over completely from steam to diesel. The average speed of the trains remains rather low. Including the time of halting at stations, the average speed of Express Trains is 20 m.p.h. and of passenger trains, 15 m.p.h. Anvther drawback is that it is not unoommon for trains to run an hour or more late. The most punctual of all trains are the Ulka and the Green Arrow that run on the Dacca-Chittagong route. The river ferries at Jagannathganj-Sirajganj and BahadurabadF.ulchari are maintained by the Railways. So are the large bridges at Paksey, Bhairab and Mymensingh, and hundreds of ~mailer bridges and culverts. There are nine stations through which one may pass to be connected with the h:dian Railways syst(m. They are Eenapole, Bhurungrmari, Biral, Eur:mari, Chilhati, :Darsana, latu, Moghall:at ar.d Scnahat. Ey far the major part of the trdEc passing to an from India is via Darsana. Two major repair workshops are operated, at Saidpur and at Pahartali, a sub11rb of Chittagong. Saidpur, the sixth biggest town in Bangladesh, is a creation of the Railways. Formerly it was on the important Calcutta-Jalpaiguri route and was a somewhat livelier place. At present it has the major workshop for all the broad gauge lines. Pahartali has the major workshop for all the metre gauge lines. There are minor workshops at Jessore, lshurdi, Parbatipur, Lalmonirhat, Mymensingh, Dacca and Akhaura. Over 60,000 persons work for the Bangladesh Railways or are dependent on its ancillary services. Urban areas, especially in the Northern Region, are dependent upon the Railways for a good part of their income. The major crop, jute, is carried to the inland mar.ic:ets and sea-ports mainly by water transport. For urban areas and the many new industries that have grown up, the railways, however are more important.

Table 14.1

I

1,714 1,714 1,713 1,713 1,713 1,713 1,713 1,713 1,752 1'752 1,776 489 473 484

494

472 481 481 480 483 486 482

415

477 477

464 459

---------

Locomotives

19,156

21,396 20,523

1,691 1,674

1,691

18,192

2,205 2,425

2,005 2,019

854 1,787

19,303

921

72S

867 806

893

1,062

913

1,053

872

!US

709 723 817

514

572

1,816 1,882 1,917 1,936 2,003

1,922

1,611 1,657

1,615

1,373 1,479

~--

Cargo ton miles (million)

15,860 15,307 16,132 16,936 18,726

19,509

15,965 15,911 15,858 15,851 15,824

Wago11s

1,687 1,790 1,831 1,757

1,596 1,596

1,621 1,611

1,529 1,529 1,520

1,538 1,528

Coaches

Passenger miles (million)

+30.8 +25.9 +35,7 +56.1 +46.2 +20.2 +37.4 +s6.4 +69.7 +g2.9

+19.2

+11.2 +23.8 +20.2

+15.1

-4.3

Net operating income (million) (Rs).

69.9

15.0

88.8 83.6 86.7 83.0 76.3 110.4 91.0 94.4 78.2

103.9 87.7 92.3 84.5 87.2

Operating ratio.

Source a 1'raosport Planning Group, Railways Waterways and Road Transport Department, Government of Ban&Jadesb.

1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 (Estimate)

1964-65 1965-66

1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64

1959-60

JULY-JUNE

1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1951-58 1958-59

1,708 1,708 1,713 1,712 1,712

R,oute m ileage

APRIL-MARCH

Year

-

GR.OWTH OF ROUfE MILEAGE, ROLLING STOCK AND TllAFFIC OF BANGLADESH RAILWAY, 1954-55 TO 1970-71

oil~>

v.

N

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(l

~

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0

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426

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

INLAND WATER TRANSPORT It is natural that with the large network of rivers, Khals, Dons,. Bils, Baors and Haors, communications by waterways should beof great importance. When, in the rainy season, the water level rises twenty feet or more, and large stretches of rice fields are turned into shallow lakes, there seems to be practically no means of communications except by water. Indeed, that is so in all the lowlying areas, where homesteads on raised mounds are isolated by three to ten feet of water for five months at a stretch. In these areas, there is no going out of the homestead periphery except by boat, unless one wishes to wade or swim. Most ponds overflow or are flooded and there is no definite place for bathing, or for drawing water. Such areas total nearly 20,000 sq. miles. People living there have no choice but to go by water. Even in other areas, however, where roads exist, the farmers generally prefer to go by water, for the Khals and Dobas (ditches) penetrate deep into the homestead groves and extend to many places where the muddy uneven paths do not reach. Moreover it is easier to ca.·ry goods by boats than to have them bumped along by bullock-carts to the market, or even worse, carry them on one's own head. From May to November the waterways are more busy than all the other forms of communications put together. It is estimated by the Inland Water Transport Auti10rity (IWTA) that there are 5,000 miles of waterways during the rainy season, which shrink to 2,500 miles in summer. They are probably more extensive than that. Those in which boats of 4 tons or more burden can ply in the rainy season total about 4,000 miles. Small boats and dugouts, in the rainy season, can navigate another 11,000 miles. The total length of the waterways is, therefore, 15,000 miles (or possibly more), but the length that can be navigated by big country boats is not more than half that much, and the large paddle steamers can operate only on routes totalling about 2,000 miles. In summer, of course, the mileage goes down as the· smaller streams dry up and the larger ones throw up sandbanks. lt is probably not more than 3,0000 miles, in all, in March.

427

TRANSPORT AND C OMMUNICATIONS

.... WATERWAYS Rout~

----Water

'I

' '\. ........,.1\

-

, )

(

'

~-....."',.;

'-)

,..... ' ., '

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I

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OF

BENGAL

Map XIV. 2

428

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

The scenery along the larger rivers can be very picturesque indeed. Few have equalled Lovat Fraser's description of river life (Fraser 1911). After seeing the other parts of the subcontinent he was impressed that 'The huge rivers, in places two miles wide even in the dry season, have nothing in common with the bare brown plains of the Deccan, the placid luxuriance of Madras or the burning deserts of Rajputana. They have a charm that never fades. In the faint opalescence of early dawn when the great square-sailed country crafts drift past in dim and ghostly silence, they recall memories of unforgettable hours upon the Nile. The vessel seems to be steaming through the morning mists on some illimitable lake. Even in the full glare of noontide, the abiding beauty of the scene remains undiminished. The steamer traverses a fiat green land and swings past village after village screened by dense foilage. The shallow side creeks are full of quaint craft. The little shore boats dancing swiftly across the glittering waters are Jike sampans; the vessels tioating slowly down the broad bosom of the stream are like a fleet of junks. Immense unwieldy flats, laden with jute, glide slowly by. In winter there is a keen, fresh, wholesome breeze; and even to those who think they know India, the joumey is so picturesque and unfamiliar, that it i.> like a voyage into the unknown'. Many different types of boats and dugouts are used, for transporting farm p!Oduce, fishing or transporting passengers. The fishing boats have been cescribed in tne chapter on Fisheries. For trade and travel there are thirty types of boats, dugouts, and coracles most commonly used. The Gach is just a dugout, made from the trunk of a big tree. The Kunda of Comilla-Noakhali unlike •he fishing Kunda, has pent roofs of matting, but is also a dugout. The Sharanga is one of the commonest boats. It is fiatbottomed, with a pointed prow and rounded stern, and is made in two sizes, the smaller 15 feet long by 3 feet wide and the larger 50 feet long by 5 feet wide. It has a steering paddle similar to an oar :fixed at the stern. The large cargo boats have rudders tied to

Trv.NSPOllT AND COMMUNICATIONS

429

their stern. The split matting which often forms the deck of the boats is usually detachable in the middle. When planks are used· they are not nailed together, it is necessary to remove part of the deck to bail out water from the hold at least once a week. The Khawai of Sylhet, and the Patam, Tapatua and Morkush are very much like the Sharanga. The Kunda of Sunamganj and north-Sylhet Sub-Divisions, is merely a flat-bottomed canoe of very shallow draught. The lakhai Paller of Habiganj is a large boat with a distinct prow, capable of carrying a burden of ten tons or more. Most of the large boats built in Sylhet or northern Brahmanharia Sub-Division and carrying on inter-district trade &.re known as Lakhai. The Paller is common to most riverine areas: it is broad and low built for carrying merchandise. The Noakhali Paller is fairly distinctive. The Kosaa, Bhedi, Janga, Malungi and Ulakh. are all very nearly like each other in shape and size. They have bluff ends, except for the Ulakh, which has a pointed bow. The bow in all these boats is lower than the stern. They can carry from five to twenty tons, and require from three to ten oarsmen,who in pulling at the long oars, have to walk on the boats mat roofs (Chhai). How much effort is needed for this can scarcely be realised by those who effortlessly sail past these walking oarsmen in one of the paddle steam.:rs. When the stream is shallow or the current or wind is strongly against them, a few of the crew get out on to. the bank and tow the boat along by a long rope{Goon) attached to the top of the mast. Large square sails, usually white, but sometimes blue or orange-red, are readily used when there is. a favourable breeze. On the Ganges rhomboid top-sails are also· fairly common. It is indeed fortunate for the boatsmen that while the river generally flow from north to south, the wind for the majorpart ofthe year(May-November)ismainly from the south. The Panshi is another common boat with ornamental prow, and outrigged to give more power to the sails, and is u!ed for carrying passengers or jute. Jute is often laden so high that only a feN inches of the beam remain above water-level, but they do not swamp. easily. The Chhib boat is of a very neat built. The sides are raised

430

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

up to form a small cabin which occupies half the boat, and the floor is made of polished planks. The cabin is fitted with a small entrance and large windows. The Bajra (Bundgerow) is like a houseboat; its cabin occupies most of the boat and may be divided into two or three compartments. Both these boats are fairly common in the Central Region especially Tangail Sub-Division. The Bhaol, with a taparing: prow and broad-stern, and the Mota, a small tub-like vessel, are put to many uses. Most of the ferry boats are Patani broad-beamed and without a hood. The Ghashi (or Ghazi) and Goyna are graceful boats. The former is a small passenger boat, with a roof (Chhai) covering two-thirds of it, and is often fitted with tiny doors. The Goyna, mainly from Dacca District is a curved boat, also used for carrying passengers. In many places any passenger boat is called Goyna, but the name is strictly applicable only to the high curved Dacca Goynas. They are among the longest of boats. Dingis on the other hand are among the smallest. They are extensively used for ferrying and for bringing local produce to the Haats. In the Bhar area and in parts of Dacca and Comilla Districts earthenware tubes, called Chari, are used like coracles, to navigate short distances. In the Chittagong region very strong Balam boats with planks sewn together, are still made. These boats are used for fishing or for carrying heavy merchandise along the coasts or in the estuaries. Three other distinctive boats, the Murina, the Golia and the Sampan, are used in Chittagong. The Murina is used mainly for lighterage in the port. The Golia is used for cargo carrying along the coast. The Sampan, a typical Indo-Chinese boat, is also restricted to Chittagong District and the Meghna estuary; but some go to Khulna, Barisal and Noakhali for trading. It is extensively used for lighterage, ferrying and carrying passengers. Some of them go to the Sunderbans to transport the heavy Sundri logs to markets in Barisal and Faridpur Districts -and Chandpur. These boats generally use triangular sails. A few .use square ribbed sails, typical of Chinese junks. The timbers

'TllANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

431

used for boat construction are mainly Jarul, Gamar, Boilam -cbampa, Chapalish and Telsur. Mango, Koroi, Kamdeb, Uriam .and Sundri are also used for the cheaper boats. Oars are made of Jarul or Sundri, Many good Chhib and Bajra boats are made of Teak, but practically none are made of this valuable timber nowadays because of the prohibitive price. In the southern areas of the delta the wood-cutters carry logs and firewood from the Sunderbans in large open boats known as Baulia. Rafts are also used on these waterways to float merchandisedowntotheBazars. Bamboos for sale are often made into rafts and sailed down the coast to Kutibdia, Moishkhal or Teknaf, where bamboo is scarce, from the upper reaches of the Matamori river. Based on the Settlement Operation figures, the number of boats in the main riverine districts is estimated as follows: Faridpur 160,000 Dacca 150,000 Sylhet 130,000 Comilla 120,000 Barisal 110,000 Mymensingh ... 110,000 Khulna 45,000 Jessore, Pabna and Noakhali also have a large number of boats. ·surprising contrasts are found in the 'Boat-density' of the districts. Whereas in the low deltaic area of Faridpur District, the number of boats per 1,000 of the population is around 45, in the high Moribund deltain area ofKushtia District the corresponding figure is only 2. The 'Boat-density' ofDinajpur District is as low. It is obvious, therefore, that though boats are the chief means of locomotion in the more densely populated parts of Bangladesh, they are of very little importance over considerable areas, e.g., the Piedmont Alluvial Plains, the Barind Tract, the Moribund Delta .and the Madhupur Tract. In the hilly areas of the Chittagong Region there are not many boats, but since the valleys are the main lines of communications, and the streams are the easiest :routes, water traffic is of special importance.

432

GEOGRAPHY OF PANGLADBSH

According to the Inland Water Transport Authority (IWTA) there are 316,505 passenger and cargo boats which have a passengercapacity of 1,4:>3,617 persons, and a cargo capacity of 1,220,225 tons. They ptobably move as much as 750 million ton-miles of cargo annually. IWTA estimates that there are 203,072 passengercarrying boats (Dingi, Pansni, Goyna, Sampan, etc.), and 113,433 cargo-carrying boats. Their total of 316,505 is probably too low. During t be 1931 Population Census a boat census was also taken in Bengal. There were then 1,020,000 boats in the Bangladesh area. Excluding Sylbet (Census of India, 1931). During the various District Survey and Settlement Operations the number of boats in the area now in Bangladesh (excluding Hill Tracts and Sylhet} came to over 600,000. The bend has been for the number of boats to increase, along with the population. In the original Survey and Settlement of Faridpur (Jack 1916), for example, there were 87,000 boats in that district; during tb.e Revisional Settlement (Das Gupta 1954), about 30 years later the number of boats had goneup to 129,224 (tholtgh the 1931 Census recorded 214,485: boats). The core of the water transport system is made up of 172 steamers, 887 motor vessels, 6 oil tankers and 713 dumb crafts (mostly jute barges). These carry a major portion of Kutcha and Pucca jute bales to Chalna from the inland river ports, and return with much of the merchandise imported through that port. A :fleet of double--decked paddle steamers operate on the major inland routes (Map XIV. 2). Most of them, strangely enough,. have names that seem incongruous: 'Lepcha', 'Mohmand', 'Garo' etc., are names quite out of context. A bi-weekly fast steamer service, known as the Rocket Service, operates between Khulna and Narayanganj. Inland steamer services call on 97 stations on six routes. These routes are Narayanganj to Khulna via Chandpur and Barisal; Narayanganj to Goalundo Ghat via Cnandpur; Barisal to Charmugria, near Madaripur; Barisal to K.hepupara via Patuakhali; Kbulna to Charmugria (known as Beel Service); and Dacca to Manikganj. There is also a weekly service from

TRANSPORT AND Cm.L\IUNICATIONS

433

Chittagong to Barisal, via Shondip, Hatia, Rangati, Ilshaghat, Patarhat and Bhola. Since the early 1950's Motor Launch Services have become popular. There are Motor Launch Services to 106 stations, with a network of 124 routes. Dacca, Narayanganj, Khulna and Barisal are the busiest launch stations. Most of these vessels are top heavy and without adequate life saving devices. Launch sinkings are none too rare. The IWfA has classified the river communications system into seven zones, which are: A-Dacca, B-Narayanganj, C-Barisal, D-Khulna, E-Northem Zone (formerly Goalundo), F-Sylhet and G-Cbittagong. Channel marking with buojs and channel dredging is also taken care of by the IwrA. They have launched a project to d~velop the ports of Dacca, Narayanganj, Tongi, Chandpur. Barisal, Khulna, Daulatpur,Sirajganj, Jagannathganj, Goalundo, Sarishabari, Bhairab Bazar, Daudkandi, Madaripur, Charmugria, Fenchuganj and Markuli. A workshop for servicing river conservancy equipment bas been set up in Barisal. Ferries have been provided between Goalundo-Nagarbari-Aricha, Bheramara-Paksey, Narayanganj-Daudkandi and Magura-Kamarkhali. COASTAL AND INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING

lnt.:rnational shipjling is not new to Bangladesh. The Periplu~ of the Erytbraean Sea records that Bengal traded with the kingdoms of South India from at least as early as fifth century B. C. In the first millenium A. D. there was trade with many :ioutheast Asian kingdoms, notably that of the Sailendras. Snips seem to have plied as far as Arabia in the west and China in the east from quite early oays. The accounts of Ptolemy, Pliny, Fa-hien, 1-tsing, Ibn Bat uta and others mention a flourishing trade.ln the 16th century Caesar Frederic mentions Shondip as a great ship-building centre (O'Malley 1917). Cbittagong has been an important port of the Bay of Bt-ngal for at least a thousand years. Arab dhows called there at least as early as the tenth century A.D. Portuguese pirates rendered it an

434

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

unsafe barbour from the early sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century. In 1666 the Mughals captured it from the Arakanese (Sarkar 1919). Thereafter it regained its prosperity, and in 1686 the East India Company tried unsuccessfully to capture it as an alternative to a port on the Hoogly river (Roberts 1951). The rapid growth of Calcutta from the early nineteenth -century was certainly a check to the development of Chittagong. In 1947 its luck turned. At that time it had only four berths and an annual cargo handling capacity of only half a million tons (Bary 1961). After reconstruction it bas 13 permanent berths, with a continuous jetty face of 7,000 ft: 2 pontoon and 2light jetties; ·6 moorings and 2 swinging buoys. The ten mile long port is lined with oil storage tanks; a large open coal dump; cold storages, a number of warehouses; and berths with hydraulic cranes besides them. The handling capacity has increased to two and a half Table 14.2 TRAFFIC THROUGH CHALNA AND CHIITAGONG PORTS (EXPORTS AND IMPORTS)

(Thousand tons) Year

Chittagong

Chalna

1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70

2,616 2,891 2.372 2,861 3,227 3,641 4,237 4,057 3,985 3,551

845 995

1,635 1,780 1,064 1,326 1,602 1,679 2,605 2,329

--

Total

3,461 3,892 4,007 4,641 4,291 4,967 4,736 5,736 6,590 5,880

Source: Transport Planning Group, Railways, Waterways and Road Transport Department, Govt. of Bangladesh.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

435

million tons a year. The working capacity of the large railway .marshalling yard is 2,500 wagons per day. The steadily increasing tonnage of cargo handled at the port (Table 14.2) reftects the .improvements of the facilities available in it. The port installations were damaged and many ships were sunk in the Karnafuli river during the liberation war in 1971. By 1973 the port had been brought back to full operation. The growth of Cargo handling through Chalna, has been more rapid. This port was established only in Decembe1, 1950. The search for a port in the eastern part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta dates back to 1855 (Pargister 1885). In that year the Board of Revenue of Bengal suggested the establishment of a new mart on the Baleshwor or Bishkhali river for Eastern Begnal. Soundings made in 1855-56 showed both rivers unsuitable for large craft. Mr. Reily of the Board suggested Sibsha as a better river. In 1860-61 Lt. Sweeney surveyed the Ba1eshwor as far as Morrelganj and reported favourably. In 1862 the Government asked for a report on the suitability of Kachua or Morrelganj or some inter mediate site for this mart. Mr. Caspersz, then Sunderbans ·Commissioner recommended Kachua, but Mr. Reily favoured Morrelganj. It seems an attempt to avoid this wrangling was made, and in 1863 Pirojpur was recommended. Nothing came of it. By 1949 it was obvious that Chittagong alone could not handle the expanding trade and a search for a port in the same region was begun. Soundings taken by the Navy showed the Chalna-Mangla stretch of the Pussar river thirty miles south of Khulna to be the most suitable. An anchorage was started there by the end of 1950, and its scheduled target was 500,000 tons of cargo per annum. By 1956 it has passed that target (Table 14.3). Chalna Anchorage has been more ·successful than expected. It was designed to be the port for the western half of Bangladesh. It was, ho~ever, found to be a better outlet for jute than Chittagong, because of its inland waterway connection with the main jute marts. By 1954-55 it surpassed ·Cbittagong in jute exports and at present handles about 60

436

GEOORAPHY OF BANGLADESH

percent of the total jute exported. The anchorage·s main drawback at present is that the railhead is at Khulna and most of the cargo has to be transhipped by barges to and from this place. If the plans for changing the anchorage into a regular port materialises it may even ri•·al Chittagong in a comparatively short time. The conversion of the anchorage into a regular port has been delayed too long. The feasibility of a fully developed port was established as early as 1964 (Frederick R. Harris Inc. 1964). Table 14.3 TONNAGE HANDI.ED AT THE CHALNA/MONGLA ANCHORAGE*

Year 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-:>5 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1958-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66

*

Import 8,000

192,000 94,000 123,000 8~,000

7~.000

205,000 40t>,OOO 218,000 259,000 435,000 325,000 779,000 861,000 292,000 619,000

Export 69,000 210,000 335,000 313,000 391,000 507,000 501,000 505,000 577,000 627,000 480,000 679,000 725,000 800,000 706,000 872,000

Total 77,000 402,000 429,000 436,000 479,000 5ts5,000 706,000 811,000 795,000 886,000 915,000 1,004,000 1,504,000 1,661,000 998,000 1,491,000

Figures rounded to the nearest thousand.

ROADS

In 1947 there were 287 miles of metalled roads only, which is an index of the neglect shown to this part of Bengal. By 1960 road

437

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS '5C."f

XIV.3

ROADS

.·. ) ,

Metalled Ree d Unmetolled Ro od

i

I

..,·\

SCAL[

' ·,

I

1 ·)zokioanj i

j

Mculvi eJfor

,.r·-·

•

~ ..,

...... .)"-·'

i

I

......

'l ••• •

.

( ...,.·' \;? /

"·

/"

;

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~

...

j.

• 'i \i

'\

•

I

i

i

i - •. . . i\.

-,

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8 A Y ' •• ~ l

OF

BENGAL

438

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

mileage was 995, and by 1970 it was 2,397. These new roads have made an impact far out of proportion to their length and area covered. Through un-metalled feeder roads these arterial highways have brought thousands of square miles of remote countryside closer to the urban centres. They are making conditions for a revolutionary change in the economy and way of life of rural areas. Trucks, buses, auto-rickshaws and cycle-rickshaws have penetrated to areas where, till recently, bullock-carts were the only wheeled vehicle. Considerable quantities of jute, fish anri rice are already being transported over fairly long distances by trucks. In the normal course trucking is bound to increase. The heaviest trucking is b~tween Chittagong and Feni. Feni-ComillaDaudkandi, Tangail-Dacca, Pabna-Ishardi, Natore-Rajshahi and Jessore-Khulna are other comparatively busy routes. Trucking along the Dacca-Aricha, RangpJr-Saidpur, Feni-Choumohani and Cox's Bazar-Chittagong routes is also rapidly increasing. The tea estates of Sylhet have a good network of !roads (mostly single surfaced). The metalled Brahmanbaria-Sylhet road has made these four hundred miles of roads accessible to the national' network. The main highways, by Regions, are as follows: Northern Region ... From Tetulia to Nagarbari via Dinajput·, Saidpur, Rangpur and Bogra. I•rom .Nagarbari to Nawabganj via Pabna, Ishurdi, Natore and Rajshahi. Southern Region From Khulna to Barisal via Jessore, Jhenidah, Chaudangaand Faridpur. There will be a link with lshurdi via Kushtia. Central Region Dacca to Aricha; Dacca to the bank of the Meghna river opposite Daudkandi; Dacca to Haluaghat via Tangail and Mymensingh. Eac;tern Region Teknaf to Tamabil via Cox's Bazar. Chittagong, Feni, Comilla, Brahmanharia, Moulvi Bazar and Sylhet; Sylhet

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

439-

to Zakiganj; C.omilla to Chandpur; Feni to Chandpur viaChoumuhani; Chittagong to Rangamati and Chittagong to Kaptai. The road system has been linked up within the frame of five major routes: Route 1 Teknaf-Cox's Bazar-Chittagong-ComillaDaudkandi-Dacca-Aricha: (360 miles). Route 2 Comilla-Brahmanbaria-Moulvi BazarSylhet-Sunamganj: (222 miles). Nagarbari-Bcgra- Rangpur- DinajpurRoute 3 Tetulia (250 miles). Khulna-Jessore-Kushtia- lshurdi-Natore· Route 4 Rajshahi-Nawabganj: (209 miles). Route S Barisal-Faridpur-Goalundo-JhenidahChuadanga-Meherpur : (185 miles). AU the big towns and the three cities have extended their metalled roads. Most ofthese roads, whether in the urban area or outside, have a metalled top only eigot feet in width. Within urban areas the open space on either side varies from a few inches toseveral yards. On the highways there is usually an open space (shoulders) of eight feet on either side of the top. There are about 25,000 miles of m~jor and 33,000 miles of minor unmetalled roads. A few of these major unmetalled roads have regular bus services plying on them. Nearly all of these unmetalled roa.tts are dusty in the drier months and very muddy in the wetter ones. All the major roads, metalled or unmetalled, are tree-lined. The common species so used are Mango, Jak and Jam, with Banyan and Pipai at intervals. One of the finest avenLles,from Jessore to Jhenidah, is lined by large rain-trees. Some of the new roads such a~ the Feni Choumohani stretch, are being line with .Acacia richardiana; these light-foliaged trees are, however, not so preferable at; the thicker-foliaged Mango, Jak, Pipal, etc., because of the strong sunshine over the greater part of the year. A variety of vehicles use these roads. Cycle-rickshaws are the most common. They have greatly increased in numbers in the

440

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADBSH

last two decades; in the densely populated areas they are to oe found in every little market. Their range steadily increased as their numbers grew, and now in many places they ply between points ten or more miles apart. Their passenger capacity is two, but on busy days they may take on three or four persons. Though rickshaws are plentiful, buses still carry the major part of the traffic. Most of them have imported engine and chasis and a rickety body built in one of the tiny motor workshops. Their passenger capacity varies from twentyfive to fifty. Large Mercedes and Bedford buses were introduced on Dacca and Chittagong Districts routes in 1961. These better built and larger buses will inrcease as the mileage of metalled roads extends. To provide adequate bus service in and between urban areas the Road Transport Corporation was set up in 1961. Small buses (micro-buses) have become common since 1957. Bus services are most plentiful in Sylhet, Com.illa, Chittagong, Dacca, Rangpur and Jessore Districts. Taxis are available in the cities and a few of the larger towns. Outside these urban areas, taxis ply only in a few places; their two most important routes are Ishurdi-Pabna and FeniChoumohani. Pabna and Barisal are the only big towns which are not on railway routes. Pabna's railhead is lshurdi, twenty miles to the west. The growth of road tansport vehicles in the period 1960-69 is shown in Table 14.4. Due to destruction in the war of liberation it is estimated that half the buses ana trucks were rendered unuseable. By 1974 the damaged vehicles had been replaced. Other vehicles used commonly are bicycles, Ekkas (tom-toms) and bullock-carts. Bicycles are obviously ubiquitous. Ekkas are two-wheeled horse-drawn carts, common intheNorthernRegion, west of a line drawn through Hili-Talora-Pabna. Outside that area they are very rare. Bullock carts were the principal means of in colulllll (7) f.Jr 196L l.J 1969 are inc1uJeJ in •~.:>1u mn (4) in lhese year~. Source: Transport Plannina Oro up R. W. & R. T. Depattrnent, Oov~ent of Ballj}adesh.

800

9,953

10,547

1965

1966

628

477

692

3,950

4,948

1

wagons

~~th~~_!otal

I

1,720

1 672

1,869

1,558

2,257

2,084

1,902

1,183

1,055

610

10

64,629

58,968

53,323

47,952

45,938

39,383

32,227

30,002

19,481

14.218

u

_

Station ~o-rick ~;-·-~-·--·--

-~-1 __ 4 _l__s____ ---~---~-- __

Taxig

1961

i

1

1960

2

I

1

Year

---·-M~-~----~---.-1

THE NOMBBR. OF TRANSJ>OR.T VE.tDCLES ON THE ROADS IN BANGLADESH

Table 14.4

-t

Ill

~

~

n

I

l:l

~

..;

~

(I)

..,

;; ~

442

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADJ!SH.

Chittagong Districts they are rathe.· scarce. Half the total number are in Rajshahi, Rangpur and Dinajpur districts. There, one of the m.)St familiar sights, is the long lines of carts along country roads, almost hidden in clouds of dust. Buffalo-drawn carts are common only in the Barind Region. The total number of bu1Jock and buffalo carts is estimated to be about 230,000. AIRWAYS

During the Second World War a number of aerodromes were constructed. It was not till1947 that the first regular commercial airline operated. Its first flights were to Calcutta and Karachi. Gradually the network expanded. Bangladesh had been the first large aTea to have had an extensive passenger helicopter service. After operating over a year the helicopter service had to be di'icontinued due to servicing difficulties and high costs. Civil aviation under the aegis of Bangladesh Biman begun in early 1972, .vithin a few months of lib~ration, with regular inland flights linking Dacca with Jessore, lshurdi, Sylhet Cox.'s Bazar and Chittagong. There are Thai Airlines flights from Bangkok and Delhi to Dacca, Royal Nepal Airlines flights to Dacca. British· Airways link to Hongkong and London and Aeroflot has. services to Moscow. Services to foreign countries connect with Calcutta, Katamandu, Bombay, Delhi, Bangkok, Rangoon Moscow, East Berlin, London, Singapur and Dubai. The internal routes have greatly contributed to the opening up of remote areas. The Dacca-Ishurdi flight, for e.xample, takes. only one-twentieth the time taken by the railways (and the Brahmaputra ferry crossing) to cover the distance. POSTS AND TELEGRAPH SERVICES

There were 5,238 Post and Telegraph Offices in 1965. The upward trend of the Postal Services operations can be seen from· Table 14.5. Very High Frequency Wireless Stations have been installed at Chittagong, Mirsarai, Begomganj, Chandpur, Dacca, Faridpur,.

TRAOSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

X iV. 4

AiRWAYS ----

A c Rot.:e

SCAL!:

'

\

\

·~

\ I

.

\.

i.

8 A Y

...,

OF

BENGAL

4.:!69 4,600 5,040

152 132

112

278.?.

337.6 288.8

409.5 415.4

381.2

197.3 225.0 261.9 359.7 325.8 346.6 387.5

175.9

:lO

35 27 14 14 14 IS 15 17 17

26

12 17

1:!

I

424 447 439 476

335 385 375 403

306

320

2U 257 326

202

Ordinary

parcels booked

- . -- .No~ -of registered

I

155.8 148.6 160.4 163.0 191.2 204.9 208.4 192.5 1R8.9

140.0 122.4 130.5 144.4

194.1

4,758 5,121 5,393 5,636 5,814 5,572 5,198 5,272

4,569

210.0 224.6 248.8 270.4 282.3 294.5 279.1 204.6

196.5

163.1 182.2

141.0

IJJ.f, 3,876 J,IH2

4,118 4,468

IJI.S

~--~~

3,610

Number

Money orders issued

I-.------ -----------

~---;~~

_

-- ------·----·---------- . ----------------·

5,591

:',6fiJ

104

1965-66

1964-65

129

ISI 136

1961-62 1962-63 1963-64

168

178

174

181

5,223 4,970 5,146 S,364

4,J56

154 181

!

·-- -- · ···

~-~~~--~. 1.:·--~~~r~su~~\1 --~

139

Insured

4.873 4,696 5,114 5,311

1960-61

1952 53 (July-June) 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-51 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60

Year

letters booked

-No-:-ofregistered - ----

(Number in thous;utds: Value of money orders in million rupee$)

POSTAL S£kVIC£ OPI!.kt\llONS

table 14.5

~

Ill

0 .....

~ -


8!:10

~ ...,

t

'l~SPORT

AC\D CORPORA.TIO.l\5

445

Pangsha, Kushtia, Bhatiapara, Khulna, Srip~r, Kishoreganj. Habiganj, Sylhet, Myrnensingh and Jamalpur. These VHF Stations provide multi-channel telephone communications over most of the country and are of great help. Wireless telephone coummunications exist between Chittagong and Kutubdia, in Moishkhal, Ukhia, Shondip, Hatia and Ramgati, and between Khulna-Mongla and K.hulna-Barisal. A Teleprin1 er Exchange has been set up at Dacca. RADIO BROADCASTING AND TELEVISION In 1947, Dacca only had a low powerc.d Radio Transmitter. By 1949 a 7.5 kilowatt transmitter was set up. Later, stations were started at Chittagong, Sylhet, Khulna, Rangpur and Rajshahi. The installations at present d.re shown below: Dacca I Dace 1I Chittagong Rajsbah1 Rangpur Sylhet

..

100 KW medium-wave transmitter. 100 KW short-wave transmitter. 10 KW medium-wave transmitter. 10 KW m.e overwhelmingly dominant, per capita income is unlikely to reach even $150 in the next thirty or forty years. IfBanglades~1 is to reach a tolerable standard ofliving for its very large population it must be Industrialized fast. At present it has a very poor industrial base and a great deal needs to be built up before industrial activity and related services begin to change the mix of sectoral contribution to the national product. Industries are generally classed into two categories-Cottage and Factory. The distinction between the two is not very clear at times. For economic and statistical purpose industries are classed into small and large-scale on the basis of value added per enterprise.

454

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH.

COTTAGE INDUSTRIES

The definition of what constitutes a Cottage industry has var.ied according to time and the agency concerned. The 1950 Census of Cottage Industries defined it as 'an enterprise carried on in the home, and mainly by the members of the household, which manufactured goods for sale, or capable of being sold, and which employed less than20 persons in all, or if power-driven machinery was used less than 10 persons' (Census 1951). This Census enumerated 400,709 cottage industry enterprises, employing 995,518 workers (Table 15.1). The 1960 Census of Cottage Industries (Cottage Industry 1960) used a much m(jre restricted definition and enumerated only 159,418 cottage industry enterprises, employing 481, 016 persons (Table 15.1). It seems that the 1950 Census was more complete than that of 1960. The relative position of the groups possibly have not changed since 1950. A survey by the Bureau of Statistics in 1969 bears this out. The number of enterprises and the number of workers corresponds quite closely to those of 1950 (Table 15.1). The very nominal rise in Cottage Industry participation shows how the economy staggered during this period .It is estimated that in 1974 about one million persons will be engaged wholly or partly in cottage industries. The largest group, engaged in making handloom cloth and hosiery, have possibly 100,000 enterprises and 350,000 full and part-time workers. There are an estimated 250,000 handlooms in the country and at full capacity they can use 1.2 million bales of yarn annually. Value added in this industry in 1969 was estimated to be rupees 74 million, which was about 54 percent of total value added by all small and cottage industries. This industry is concentrated around Baburhat-Narsingdi, Bajitpur-Tangail, Shahzadpur Santhia, Brahmanbaria, Lalmai, Choumoh ani, Bajiptur, Rajbari and several villages in south-east Madaripur (Map XV. 2). Handloom weaving is also widespread in southern Chittagong and all over Hill Tracts district.

455

MINERALS, FUEL, POWER AND INDUSTRIES Table 15.1

COTTAGE INDUSTRIES, 1950, 1960, 1969a/ No. of enterprises

No. of Workus

Items

1950 1 1960 1 1969

1950

1

1960 1 1969

1. Yam and Textile 149,244 110,678

fabrics.

90,748 417,599 347,835 330,83S

2. Food Drink and Tobacco process· sing

3. Salt 4. Wood, Cane and

s.

bamboo work

1,448 88,863 208,441 3,260 15,000 f/

14,084 211,821 60,000 f/

73,9~3

27,536

63,440 131,970

20,796

7,224

66,920 159,113

Glass and Cera-

mics 6. Carpets, rugs, rope, bags, and

25,198

70,792

f/

55,326

28,803

nets

7. Jewellery ornaments 8. Tailoring 9.

91,391 647

22,365

&4,207

f/

and

Metalwork

10. I.Alather work 11. Miscellaneous

14,051 11,882 9,990 2,681

3,272

25,431 f/ 24,304 22,080 21,436 22,427 6,447 e/ 11,327

f/ 40,565

8,116

43,029 e/ 17,659

a/ 1969 figur.e~ are for. both Small and Cottage Industries in rural area only.

b/ &timated.

d/ Non-Metallic Mineral Manufactuting ..

c/ Pottery only. e/ f/ PC>tiibly included in miscellanous

manufacturing industry.

Leather work and tailorina or prments was enumerated

jointly. 1/

Includina boat & cart building.

456

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH u•t

FIBRE INDUSTRIES

• •'

Jute Cotton Textiles

• ..

Synthetics

0 Silk

,_

Hondloorn (Cotto• I

••

u

SCALE 10

••

•"'•

~­

,~ -

i

( c

1NIItt..U

•og •r •"-•nns

.,,,.

"'\. . .

•.i ......:, --~·

,-'

?

·~ -1

,

eKhulno

\

l

'

~·D "Si~.

·\

f

~

~

J~Pc?n ·

8 A Y

....

OF

BENGAL

Map XV. 2

....

'MINERALS, FUEL, POWEll AND INDUSTlllES

4S7

FACTOllY INDUS11UES

These range from the small workshop to the giant factory enterprises, and as such vary a great deal in size and output. The Statistical Office in their 'Censuses of Manufacturing Industries' Jimit the size of industrial establishments to those employing 20 or more workers and using power in their manufacturing process. Certain counts, however, also include under the definition 'establishments' which employ 10 or more persons with or without using power. Using this enlarged definition there were 1,944 factories in 1962-63. The value of fixed assets at the end of the year was over Rs. 1,586 million, and their gross value of productioa was over Rs. 1,954 million. Their average daily employment was 181,840 workers. At present three quarters of the labour for large industries are drawn from seven districts-Khulna, Jessore, Dacca, Sylhet, Comilla, Noakhali and Chittagong. Of this, half are from three districts -Comilla, Noakhali and Chittagong. The process of concentrated development is being accelerated in the case of these south-eastern areas; the widespread distribution of medium scale industries will do much to counter this decided trend. The biggest group oflndustries is that engaged in jute mant factures. In 1947 there was not a single jute mill within Banrladesh, though the big concentration of mills around Calcutta depended for most of their supplies from here. Within a decade jute industry grew up within Bangladesh, big enough to challenge that at Calcutta. In 1967 there were 29 jute mills, employing over 75,000 workers. One of these units, the Adamjee Jute Mills (three units) at Demra near Narayanganj is the largest in the world. These 29 Jute Mills are estimated to account for nearly 3 percent of Bangladesh's 'Gross Income'. Seven of these mills are in DaccaNarayanganj, seven in Khulna-Daulatpur, six in Chittagong, three in Ghorashal, two in Narsingdi, and one each at Hajiganj, Chandpur, Choumohani, and Sirajganj. The 29 factories have a total of 14,332 looms and 213,000 spindles. Only India

458

GEOGRAPHY OP BANGLADESR

and West Germany have more looms and spindles. The rapid expansion of the jute industry can be seen from the Table below. Table 15.'2 PRODUCTION OF JUTE GOODS

Year

Total (tons)

Hessian (tons)

Sacking (tons)

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73

9,714 44,119 53,250 103,224 142,364 148,818 1.72,075 232,645 264,674 250,354 298,161 330,932 289,112 409,360 403,700 512,600 518,500 587,500 470,300 446,310 446,308

8,971 4,866 6,475 19,059 35,028 37,203 43,097 59,417 69,698 67,800 84,540 92,700 81,121 106,367 110,000 139,900 188,800 232,800 211,200 155,100 155,098

743 35,749 43,506 78,960 103,639 106,766 120,481 161,865 184,777 169,443 203,873 226,038 193,176 279,137 263,700 334,300 285,400 291,900 190,800 210,400 210,404

Others (tons)

3,504 3,269 5,205 3,697 4,849 8,497 11,363 10,199 13,111 9,74~

12,194 h815 23,856 30,000 38,400 44,300 55,500 68,300 80,800 80,806

Raw jute con sump-· tion 100 bales.

8.94 10.45 13.85 15.70 14.70 17.44 19.42 16.99 23.28 23.65 30.0~

30.28 33.61 27.65"

N.A.

With about 25,000 workers, the cotton textiles industry is the third largest in labour employment, but second only to the jute industry in importance. There are 45 cotton textile factories

459

MII'UlRHS, FUEL, POWER AND INDUSTRIES

and ne-2rly a hundred hosiery factories, many are of very small size. The value of their products and by-products is nearly two-thirds. that of the jute factories. This is one of the few industries that existed ;n Bangladesh in 1947. In fact at that time it was not only the biggest industry in this Wing, but it was far bigger than the cotton textile industry of the Western Wing. The ready availability of cotton in that Wing was obviously one of the factors that spurred on the growth of this industry to such an extent that within J decade it had built up its industry to six times the size of that in Bangladesh. The industry in Bangladesh, had, in 1967, some 654,000 spindles and produced 40 million yards of cloth J:Jd 63 million I bs. of surplus yam. Table 15.3 PRODUCTION OF COTTON TEXTILES

- - - -Spindie"I Loom-; hours Year i hours · worked ' worked ; (million) i (million) 1

I Consump-

Total yarn tion of produced cotton ! (000 lbs.) (000 1bs.)

Total cloth produced (000 yds)

-----~~=~~~==~~~~~~~--~~~~~

1958-59 1959-61) 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-·65 1965-66 196~67

1%7-68 1%8-M 1969-70 1970-71 1972-73

2,988 N. A. N. A. 2,671 2,629 3,021 3,548 3,581 3,759 3,718 . 4,420 4,652

17.0 N. A. N. A. 15.7 14.9 15.1 15.2 12.0 14.9 16.3 20.7 20.6 1,38

53,025 59,578 69,056 66,197 65,303 77,150 84,659 90,299 96,574 93,900 111,883 135,274 104,724

42,032 49,233 47,543 53,886 54,209 63,796 63,880 73,001 74,345 77,471 95,688 105,661 81,705 81,818

57,864 62,250 69,438 67,128 55,130 48,282 48,773 40,021 55,016 52,026 60,852 59,149 52,725 58,766

---- ---- ---- ---- ---- -3,812

GEOGRAPHY OJI BANGLADBSR

Table 15.3a PRODUCTION OF COlTON TEXTILES (000 YARDS)

Year

Total

Fine

Medium

1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1972-73

51,864

20,483 17,628 23,636 17,332 14,026 9,813 8,857 4,939

35,417 39,025 45,802 49,795 41,104 38,072 37,807 32,540 41,813 36,464 47,356 43,237 36,049

62,250 69,438 67,128 55,130 48,282 48,773 40,021 55,016 52,026 60,852 59,149

52,725

58,766

5,045

1,429 2,846 4,268 3,943 N. A.

N.A.

Coarse 1,964

5,591

1 397 2,109 2,742 8,158 14,133 10,648

11,644

12,733

N.A.

The second biggest industrial group, regarding labour employment, is that of the Biri makers. Their impact on the industrial output is, however, slight, since the units are small and the total volume of output is not much more than that of a single cigarette factory. Wages paid in this industry are very low. There are nearly three hundred Biri-making enterprises employing about 27,000workers. They range in size from those employing only two workers and making about 40,000 Biris a month to one which employs 2,000 workers and makes 80 million Biris monthly (in Bogra). The main centres of production are Dacca-Narayanganj, Bogra, Chandpur, Chittagong, Sirajganj, Feni, Pabna and Knulna. The fourth biggest group is made up of Kutcha and Pucca jute bailing presses. Kutcha bales, are pressed by manuallabttur, whilst Pucca bales are pressed in large, heavy machines. 'Jl.hese jute presses employ some 22,000 workers, half of whom are

461

MINDALS, FUEL, POWEllS AND INDUSTRIES

seasonal. The majority of the Kntcha presses are in the Northern Region, where Dinajpur District has 92 and Rangpur District has. 347 of them. Of the other Kutcha presses, the main concentrations are at Sirajganj (13), Khulna-Daulatpur (12), Bera, Nakalia, Ullapara and Ishurdi (4 each). The 61 Pncca presses are at Narayanganj (15) Khulna-Daulatpur (9), Sharishabari (4),"Dacca(3), Saidpur (3), Chandpur (3), Chittagong (3), Nikli, Ashuganj, Goalondo, Gaibandha, and Alamnagar (2 each), Bausi, Sirajganj, Atrai, Naogaon, Santahar, Charmuguria, Phulhat, Gouripur, Narsingdi, Joypurhat and Bondarpara (1 each). 'Fhe fifth biggest group is of the match factories. There are 23 of them employing over 9,000 workers. 7 of these factories are in Table 15.4 PRODUCTION OF CEMENT, SAFETY MATCHES AND TYIU!S

Year

Cement (000 tons)

1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1972-73

51 61

•7 months only.

86

70 94 65 56 43 15 82 63 64

66 31

Safety Matches Tyres (000 gross boxes, (000 Nos.) 40-60 sticks) 7,253 8,596 9;171 9,622 10,013 10,548 10,696 12,280 10,372 11,064 13,191 12,964 10,233 5,914*

32

46

59 71 23 29 63 99 166 131 328 282

N.A. N.~.

462

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADBSH

Dacca, 5 in Chittagong, 2 in Khulna and 1 each in Khepupara, Bogra, Chandpur, Rajshahi, Harbang and Sylhet. Theil combined

Table 15.5 PRODUCTION OF SILK, RAYON, SELECTED FOOD AND TOBACCO crnMS

I Cigars

----~---·

Silk and

Year \Rayon

I

!Cigarettes Cheroots

cloth (000 (million) j (OOOs) sq. yds).

Sugar (tons)

----·------ --1

1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 153 1958-59 1959-60 378 391 1960-61 393 1961-62 162 1962-63 132 1963-64 91 1964-65 198 1965-66 1966-67 1,108 1967-68 5,590 1968-69 6,788 1969-70 4,970 1970-71 3,224 N.A. . 1972-73

216.1 398.7 436.1 602.4 900 1,104 1,450 2,760 3,729 4,885 5,537 9,581 13,134 14,905 16,851 17,786 13,678 6, 346

78.8 107.00 306.3 252.9 494.6 1,330.0 I ,419.2 882.8 1,069.2 1,304.4 1,491.9

N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N. A. N.A.

25,979.8 16,371.5 20,687.5 33,090.4 39,622.8 28,425.5 47,525.3 47,318.2 29,892.7 55,316.0 61,772 56,014 67,767 74,858 87,649 76,926 86,023 113 110 57 88 82 19,296

Vegetable Products (tons)

---

213 1,799 3,350 3,962 4,097 4,632 4,928 5,295 4,861 5,664 5,736 6,401

N. A.

*The Statistical office statistics from 1958 onwards arc tabulated accor·ding to the financial year.

MINERALS, FUEL, POWER AND INDUSTRIES

463

dective capacity is over 10 million gross boxes annually and their timber consumption is about 50,000 tons. The thirteen sugar mills form the sixth biggest group by -employing over 7,000 workers. These mills are at Charshindur (Dacca), Diwanganj, Kishoreganj, Kushtia, Jagatia, Darsana, Gopalpur, Rajshahi (Harian), Joypurhat, Mahimaganj, Syham.-aanj, Thakurgaon, Shetabganj and Panchagar. Their annual production is about 80,000 tons. Oil mills are very often part of rice mills, since the majority of the units are small. Often flour milling and pulse milling machinery too are added. It is not easy, therefore, to determine in which group some of these units should be placed. Based mainly on the volume of business in rice alone, about 110 mills can be ·Classed as rice mills. This group employs about 4,000 workers. It is concentrated at Chittagong, Phulhat, Dacca, Birampur, Setabganj, Phulbari, Ruhea, Hili, Chirirbandar, Saidpur, above places are in Dinajpur and Rangpur Districts. There are two large industrial units engaged in manufacturing paper and paper products. Each of them employs about 4,000 workers. They are the Paper Mill at Chandraghona and the Newsprint Factory at Khulna. The Paper Mill completed in 1953 produces nearly 100 tons of paper per day (30,000 tons per year) from Muli bamboo (Mc:locanna bambusoides). The finished paper is sent down to Chittagong by the mills own flotilla of S diesel Tugs and 16 Barges. Auxiliary plants at the mill produce about 35 tons of causticsoda, 40 tons of lime, 10 tons of alum :and 10 tons of sulphuric acid per day. A rayon mill has been -set up at the same place. The Newsprint Factory was c;ompleted in 1959. From Oewa (Excoecaria agallocha) wood it manufactures newsprint and mechanical printing paper. From about 40,000 tons of wood, its estimated annual production is 23,000 tons of newsprint and 12,000 tons of mechanical printing paper. Mills to produce hardboard and particle-board ·are expected to be put up soon, possibly in Sylhet District. Small hardboard mills have been set

464

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADBS&

up in Dacca by private enterprise. A pulp mill based upon Ekra reed will be set up at Chhatak, in Sylhet district. The manufacture of water transport equipment is quite obviously one of the important industries. It engages nearly 4,000 workers. They are mainly in K.hulna, Narayanganj and Chittagong. At Khulna there is a small shipyard and at Narayanganj thete are several dockyards. They repair inland water transport vehicles. At Barisal, Khulna, Chittagong and Naryanganj several private boatyards are making small launches. The oil mills form the next biggest group. These mills press various oilseeds (Mustard, sesamum, etc.) and sell the oil in tin canisters; There are nearly 130 such mills, employing nearly 2,000 persons. They are concentrated in Chittagong, Chandpur, Choumohani, Sylhet, Kushtia and Comilla. A good number are scattered throughout Rajshahi and Rangpur Districts. Most of them are medium-sized enterprises, with 10 to 30 workers. The Fertilizer Factory at Fenchuganj (Sylhet district) which has been operating since 1962, employs about 2,000 workers. It can produce 331 tons of Urea (46% Nitrogen) daily for an average of 305 days a year. It is based upon natural gas from the Haripur field. At Ghorasal (Dacca district), there is a large fertilizer factory manufacturing 170,000 tons of Urea per annum, from gas piped in from the Titas Gas field (Brahm~nbaria). Three factories to make Triple-Superphosphate (TSP) have been set up in Khulna and Chittagong. The two TSP factories at Chittagong have together an annual production of 1,52,000 tons and that at Khulna will make 1,20,000 tons. The only cement factory in Sylbet, at Chbatak, has an, estimated annual capacity of 160,000 tons. It employs about 1,000 workers. Much of the limestone for the cement comes from India and under agreement a certain amount of the production is reserved for export to India. Another cement factory may be put up in the same district (Sylhet)with its raw material supply from the large limestone deposit found near Takerghat. A cement

465

MINERALS, FUEL, POWEll AND INDUSTIUES

•o"• LARGE INDUSTRIES

(Other than Fibre)

,.....,....,,

·,

8 Setoboon)

D Steel

F Food procenlnt

A Fertillror

• Suoor

e

F Oincfpur

''"''·4 · · ·~

II. Cement

Chomicot•

X Automobile ouembtr

\ .......

0

Paper

r . . .-..........,J

f'"\.. .t

i

i

Mohimooonj • • Joypurhot

Kishoreoonj 8

,

Char Sindur •

....

r~_/

... -,:t, ,--.._.,·,.....~ ""' ...

,.,.,i ''·(

....

..

·~

' I

ChondroQhot>O

.o

\ \

,.;

..

-\, ,.. ! I

i

i i 1

BAY KAl( ___, __,___

.&!''-...;";.-;;~Ill\.

OF

BENGAL

II

..... Map XV. 3

1 I

-~\)

\i

GEOGRAPHY OP BANGLADESH

factory of 300,000 tons capacity, based on imported clinker, is situated at Chittagong. There are five cigarette factories in production. Two are in Chittagong, and one each at Dacca, Bogra and Harbang (50 miles south of Chittagong). Their combined employment is estimated to 1,500 workers. The 110 tea estates in Bangladesh employ nearly 90,000 workers. The great majority of them are pickers, whose job is more of ajpi.cultural than of industrial. The strictly indusrtrial labour force is that engaged in the tea factories of which almost every estate has one. This labour force is about 2,000 persons only. Manufacture of metal utensils and the manufacture of glasa and glass products, each employ about 2,000 persons. These industries are naturally concentrated in Dacca and Chittagong. Other industries of note are soap-making (with over 150 units, employing about I ,500 persons and producing 7,000 tons annually minor engineering (nearly 100 units with about 1,500 workers), steel re-rolling (20 units, employing about 1,000 persons and handling 45,000 tons), saw-milling (over 50 units employing over 500 workers), and tea blending (two units near Chittagong and one in Comilla with about 160 workers). New Industries that have a future are plywood (4 units at present turning out 600,000 tea-chests), rubber, pencil-making (present capacity 420,000 gross annuaJly), cycle assembling, plastics, vegetable ghee, paints and varnish, fish products and cold storage. Several large pharmaceutical works have been set up, among them one each by Bayer and by May & Baker. A steel mill, of 250,000 tons annual capacity, and based upon scarp, has been set up in Chittagong. It will give a boost to the metal and machinery industries. Expansion of this mill to 400,000 tons capacity is being undertaken. A large machine-tools factory is being set up at Joydebpur, near Dacca. This may herald the orientation of industrial policy away from consumer goods. The main drawbacks to the expansion of industry are the cost of fuel, the difficulty of transporting materials and the inadequate supply of loans. Rapid industrialisation is being attempted through

'MINERALS, FUEL, POWERS AND INDUSTRIES

467

-considerable government expenditure because of the insufficient response from the private sector. Had this development come fifty years earlier, when the population was half as much, industries may have rapidly become as important in the Gross National Product (GNP) as agriculture. The very large population base of the present and its high rate of increase has made the task far more -difficult and the share of the industries in the GNP is not growing .as fast as it should. The recent development has also been somewhat lopsided. It has seen the growth of a large number of tiny enterprises, most of which produce far less than their optimum, and .the establishment of some fifty large units which account for nearly half the value added from industries. Medium scale industries ideally suited to the small towns of Bangladesh, are comparatively few. The mushrooming of small scale industries has been mostly in the three main industrial centres ofChittagong-Dacca, Narayanganj and Khulna-Daulatpur. Half the large units are also there. As a result, there is the inevitable concentration: two-thirds of the industrial capacity is limited to these three places. Small Industrial Estates have been set up at Feni, Comilla, Barisal, Jessore, Pabna Rajshahi and Dinajpar. An industrial estate has been set up at Shoorupkati exclusively for coir. and copra products. For developing the silk industry, a reeling and weaving factory and a printing centre have been set up at Rajshahi. Seven Common Facility Centres to provide mateirals and guidance to the handloom industry have been set up at Choumobani. Shovarampur, Bhairab, Tangail, Barisal, Kumarkhali and Shabzadpur. Model and pilot units have been set up at Chandpur for agricultural implements, at Cox's Bazar for cigars, and at Kuliarchar for producing cheese. In time there will be at least one such estate in each town. This could help to distribute industries fairly evenly .and cut down on the disadvantages of excessive concentration. A definite advantage of such decentralisation will be the growth of towns whose occupations are balanced between industrial, -commercial and service jobs. Moreover, this state of semi-industrialisation will have greater meaning for the people when all -districts share in industrial employment.

CHAPTEll XVI

TRADE INTERNAL TRADE Internal trade is more important to Bangladesh than e,:ternal trade, though it is commonly supposed to be other wise. More than twelve million tons of cargo is handled annually on inland routes, for a total of close to two thousand million ton-miles. The economy of the villages is very dependent upon the big village markets, known as Hat, which are held once or more a week depending upon the importance of the place. These Hats are centres of internal trade. The surplus rice, chilli, pulses, betelnut, cocoanut and such other food crops, as well as jute, mesta, Shon, Kapok, tobacco and other cashcrops are collected here. The food crops generally change hands between the people of nearby villages whereas the cash crops are bought by the Beparis, Farias and other middlemen traders who arrange to transport the goods to the larger trade centres. In areas where food crops are surplus, not only for certain farmers or certain villages, but for the region as a whole, they enter into the wholesale trade with the larger trade centres. For example Hats around Jhalkati (Barisal District) send their surplus betelenut to Jhalkati,. from where it is sent to towns in the north where this commodity is scarce. The village economy is, therefore, mainly dependent upon the primary markets, though the measure of their prosperity is usually the extent of their trade with secondary markets (which are usually urban centres). The average area served by a primary village market, the Hat, is about twentyfive

TRA.DB

469

This excludes the area of overlapped by neigh· oouring Hats : whereas an average Hat serves an area within five miles radius, the area solely dependent upon it is within a radius of two to three miles. These Hats are usually on the bank of rivers, for the farmers prefer to bring in their produce by boats, which is the most economical way for them. The secondart markets are more dependent upon the railways while the biggest have both river and rail communications. Only a few of them, -such as Tangail, Feni and Comilla, have sizeable treade traffic along the roads. By far the major portion of the internal trade is c.:arried on between the primary and secondary centres. Most of the cash crops, however, find their way to the two tertiary markets, the seaports of Chittagong and Chalna. These two centres of external trade receive and distribute considerable quantities of goods received from outside, some of which find its way back to the Hats, through the secondary markets. There are more than two thousand· Hats. Since none of them are permanent markets, most of them affect internal trade only slightly. It is the secondary markets that regulate internal trade. The biggest of them is Narayanganj, which is now a twin-city with Dacca. Situated at the confluence of the Buriganga and the Sitalakhya (Lakka) rivers, and close to the contluence of the Padma and the Meghna, it is the hub of the internal trade network. As the wholesale market for the large city of Dacca and as the main inland market for the two seaports, Narayanganj, is by far the largest trade centre. Its main trade is in jute, the golden fibre, which is both a boon and a bane for Bangladesh. Other centres of the jute trade are. Sirajganj, Bogra, Joypurhat, Rangpur, Gai-· bandha, Kurigram, Naogaon, Atrai, Santahar, Saidpur, Alamnagar, Bonarpara and Phulhat in the Northern Region; Char· muguria, Faridpur, Goalando, Doulatpur and Rajapur in the southern Region; Narsingdi, Sarishabari, Mymensingh, Kishoreganj, Southern Bnairab, Tangail, Bausi, ~ikli, Gouripur, Kerani· ganj and Dacca in the Central Region; Chandpur, Ashuganj, Choumohani and Madhobpur in the Eastern Region. Jute moves

~quare-miles.

470

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

towards Chalna from the Northern, Southern and most of the Central Regions and towards Chittagong from the Eastern and part of the Central Region. The main Lines of this movement are the railway from Nilphamari to K.hulna, the railway from Narayanganj to Chittagong, and the waterways from Naryanganj, to Chalna. Most of the other products of export and the imported goods also move alony these three routes. The main feeder Jines to the Nilphamari-Khulna trade route are the railway lines from Ruhea to Parbatipur, Benarpara to Parbatipur and to Santahar, Chapai-Nawabganj to Ishurdi, Sirajganj to Ishurdi, Pabna to lshurdi and Faridpur, Bhatiaparaghat and Goalundo to C.huadanga. The main waterway feeders to this. route are along the Atrai and Bhairab rivers. The main feeder Jines to the Narayanganj-Chittagong route are the railway lines. from Sarishabari to Bhairab and from Sylhet to Akhaura; the waterways from Sunamganj to Bhairab and Ashuganj, the Karnafuli river; and the roads from Daudkandi to Comilla. Lakshmipur to Feni, Rangamati to Chittagong and Cox's Bazar· to Chittagong. The main feeder lines to the Narayanganj-Chalnawaterways are the railway lines from Sarishabari to Narayanganj, Bhairab to Narayanganj, Bagherhat to Rupsa East; the waterways from Bhairab and Ashuganj to Narayanganj, from Manikganj to Narayanganj from Charmuguria to Barisal, from Patuak.hali to Barisal, from Satkhira to Khulna, and from Bhatiaparaghat to Pirojpur and to Khulna; and the roads from Mymensingh to Dacca via Tangail and from Aricha to Dacca. Several trade routes serve two of the main routes and interconnect their movements; such are the rail and water routes from Sunam-· ganj to Sylhet, Bonarpara to Jamalpur, Sirajganj to Sarishabari~ Laksham to Narayanfanj via Chandpur, and the water routes. from Chandpur to Goalundo and Chittagong to Barisal via Shondip, Hatia, Ramyati and Bhola. The network delineated above is the main frame of internal trade routes, the details of which would be too exhaustive for this work. The important fact about internal trade is that it i~

471

TRADE

more important to the village econ Pulses. Karimganj Jute, Rice, Chilli, Mustard. Bhairab Bazar Jute, Rice, Onion and Garlic, Groundnut, Potato. Fish. Kuliarchar Sylhet District Rice, Bamboo, Shingles. Sylhet Sunamganj Rice, Linseed, Fish. Fenchuganj Rice, Fish, Bamboo.

415· Babuaanj Rice. Jaintiapur Mustard, Pineapple, Cane. Enayatganj Jute, Rice. Sachna Jute, Rice. Ajmirganj Jute, Rice, Sweet, Potato, fish. Jute, Rice. Balaganj Rice. Moulvi Bazar Habiganj Rice, Jute, Betelout. Rice, Fish. Baniachang Srimangal Tea, Pineapple. Comma District Akhaura Jute, Pineapple. Ashuganj Jute. Brahmanbaria Jute, Pulses, Rice, Handloom Textiles~ Camilla Textiles, Rice. Jafarganj Jute, Rice. Elliotganj Jute, Cattle, Sweet, Potato. Chandpur Jute, Chilli~ Fish, Pulses. Hajigang Jute, Rice, Chilli, Pulses. Laksham-Daulat· Jute, Poultry, Rice, Chilli, Sugarcane. pur Noak!hali District Betelnut, Chilli. Raipur Lakkhipur BeteJnut, Chilli, Pulses. Begumganj Rice, OiJseeds. Jute, Rice, Handloom Textiles, Chilli., Choumohani Linseed. Sonapur Rice, Chilli, Pulses. Rice, Chilli, Pulses, Mustard, Pann. Feni Rice. Chhagalnaiya Rice, Chilli; Hatia Ch.ittagong District Rice, Jute, Timber, Pulses, H!des and Chittagong ·skins, Cattle. Rice, PuJses. Shondip

-476 Mirsarai Dhoom Hathazari Patiya .Dohazari Satkania Cox's Bazar Moishkhal (Gorakghata) Hill Tracts District Rangamati Ramgarh Mahalchari Bandarban Lama Alikadam

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLAJ>BSil

Rice. Rice. Rice Salt, Rice. Bamboo, Tobacco, Vege.tables . Rice. Fish. Pann, F!sh (dried). Rice, Bamboo, Cotton. Rice, Cotton, Sesamum. Rice, Cotton, Sesamum. Rice, Bamboo, Se;amum. Rice, Cotton. Rice, Bamboo, Cotton.

EXTERNAL TRADE The pattern of external trade changed very considerably after the war of liberation. Trade with Pakistan* used to be the most important feature of the trading pattern till early 1971 (Table 16.2) During the war this trade decreased to great extent. but completely stoped Hberation Since. Pakistan used to take 60 percent of the exports and supply 30 percent of the imports (1965-1970 average) very considerable adjustments have to be made in our external trade. The principal exports to Pakistan were tea, jute goods and paper (Table 16.8). With a closed market and a large demand the tea trade used to be very lucrative. With the closure of this protected market the tea industry is being forced to reappraise its future set up (Chapter XVII). The other goods formerly sold in Pakistan are now being sold in the international market, at somewhat lower profit. The principal imports from Pakistan were raw cotton, ~otton yarn, cotton goods, and rice (Table 16.10) Part of these imports is being met through imports substitution industries and part through trade

477

TRADE

with India and other nearby Asian countries. Though drastic, theadjustment of the trading pattern seems to be proceeding quicker than anticipated. This is partly due to the barter agreements with the Socialist countries and partly through 'devaluation• in December, 1971. Further selective devaluation may be necessary

Ta•le 16.2 PAST SEABORNE TRADE WITH PAKISTAN (IN MILLION llUPEES)

Year (July-June) 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57

1951-SS

1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71

Imports from West Pakistan 139.2 235.1 271.8 253.9 218.5 386.8 305.0 333.9

531.9

701.7 685.1 563.4 817.1 855.1 865.1 895.2 874.5 1,208.6 1,324.8 1,233.2 1,385.3 1,666.9 1,377.6

E.tports from Bangladesh 19.1 49.6 61.8 65.9 148.6 149.6 196.6

236.1

242.8 269.1 284.3

352.9

363.5 402.0 424.9 511.2 537.1 651.8 738.9 784.9 871.3 923.4 803.8

Excess of Imports overe.\ports; 120.1 185.5 185.5 188.0 69.9 237.2 108.4 97.2 289.1 432.6 400.8 210.5 453.6 453.1 440.2

384.0 337.4

556.8 606.5

448.3 514.0 743.5 573.8

·478

GEOGRAPHY OP BANGLADESH

to make the Bangladesh jute industry competitive with the Indian Jute industry. The new Trading pattern will emerge only in the mid-1970's .after Bangladesh has tried out various barter agreements and, possibly, various selective exchange rates. The past pattern can be seen from Tables 16.7, 16.8, 16.9 and 16.10. The major .trading partners used to be Pakistan, United Kingdom, U.S.A., Japan and West Germany. In the new pattern the major partner -are likely to be the same, with the deletion of Pakistan, and the addition of India and the U. S. S. R. Prior to 1947 Calcutta was the main outlet for this area~ with ·Cbittagong serving a small area in eastern Bengal and southern Assam. From 1947 to 1965 Chittagong has the main outlet, while 'Chalna used to handle mainly jute. There was still some trade through Calcutta. The growth of trade through Chalna however, had choked off the jute trade through Calcutta as early as 1955. No trade to or through Calcutta was carried out during the period 1965-70. In 1971 trade through Calcutta was resumed from liberated territory and in 1972 it became the principal outlet for a while, till Chittagong and Chalna harbour could be cleared of mines and wrecks. Since the inception of the Chalna barbour in 1951 it has handled over 50% of the exports but only 10% of the imports. This imbalance has to be corrected to enable industries in southern and northern Bengal to grow faster. The first step in this direction would be regular port facilities at Chalna and road and rail link with Khulna. EXPORTS

Some of the items of export are analysed below, even though .average values and quantities cannot be assessed till at least 3 _years of trading are completed. JUTE

For over a century jute has been the principal article of export, .and it is likely to remain so in the foreseeable future. There has,

479 however, been a change within the jute trade itself: tilll954 only -raw jute was exported, but since then manufacturedjute has had

-aa increasingly important share of the Trade (Table 16.3). India ·ceased to be an exporter of raw jute since 1949-50. Whereas Table 16;3 EXPOR.TS OP RAW &: MANUFAC'I'URBD Jtfi'E

Year 1947-48 1948-49 1949-.50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59

1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72

Raw Jute (000 bales) !Manufactured Jute

(000 tons)

746 1,777 1,723 5,204 3,203 3,771 3,755 3,907 4,326 3,957 3,936 4,219 4,096 2,618 3,686 794.4 597.9 772.5 608.4 662.8 578.7 621.4 402.1 482.5

20

85

81 103 137 197 203 216 219

250

219 316 347

422 452 496 387

480

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH.

Bangladesh is likely to keep its overwhelming share of the raw jute trade, there will be increasing competition between jutemanufactures of India and Bangladesh. Chalna is the major port, accounting for two-thirds of jutee~ort. Table 16.4 also clearly shows how the growth of Chalna chocked the trade through Calcutta. Jute is exported to more than fifty countries, with the major part of the exports going to the United Kingdom, Belgium, West Germany, France, U. S. A. Italy, Japan and India. Jute is the main foreign exchange earner for Bangladesh. The course of future development is predicated on her being able to maintain, if not enlarge, earnings from overseas sale of raw and manufactured jute.

Table 16.4 ROUTE•WIDE EXPORT OF RAW JUTE (IN

Year

1947-48 1948-49 1949-SO 1950-51 19S1-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-b2

To India byl

Overseas

land routes Via Calcutta

5,309 3,904 1,659 2,552 1,674 1,520 1,320 1,229 1,357 603 637 175 622 371 392

721 177 1,854 71 4 7 1

000 BALES)

ChittaI Viagong

746 1,056 1,546 1,981 1,999 2,214 2,073 1,903 1,881 1,457 1,062 1,623 1,446 1,005 1,227

1 Via

Chalna

375 1,140 1,562 1,696 2,007 i,445

2,500

2,334 2,596 2,650 1;613 2,459

TRADE

481

Despite its great importance, there is little control over its marketing and pricing. A survey of the marketing of jute by the Bureau of Economic Research of the Dacca University (Marketing 1961) has revealed several very significant features of the jute trade. The jute marketed in the primary markets is bought from the farmers by small traders known as Bepari or Faria. They buy by mere eye estimation of the qualities, which means that the elaborate system of grading adopted in the later stages has no meaning here. The prices paid by the Beparis and Farias and the quantities bought or sold by them is lar{!ely determined by personal opportunities and inconveniences rather than by demand and supply. Middlemen known as Aratdar or Dalal, negotiate between Beparis and Farias and the Balers. There are two types of balers, the Kutcha and the Pucca. The Kutcha balers bale jute by manual pressure into bales of 320 1bs. each. There are 1,303 Kutcha baling presses. These balers sell to the Pucca balers, who also get a part of their needs directly from the Aratdars and Dalals. The Pucca bale is pressed by mechanical means and weights 400 1bs. The Pucca balers, of whom there were 59 in early 1964, send the jute to shippers or very often ship it themselves. The Kutcha assortment grades of the Bangladesh Jute Association is compared with the Pucca assortment grades of the London Jute Association in Table LXXXIII. The main grades of Kutcha jute are Top, Middle, Bottom, B. Bottom, C. Bottom, X. Bottom and Habijabi. These are further classed as Jat, District or Northern according to the area in which the fibre was grown (Hussain 1957). In the primary markets, unfortunately for the farmers, the grade specifications change from year to year and season to season. Coupled with the fact that primary markets and growers have little storage facility, this means that the growers very often sell at less than they should. The calculated price spread. excluding commissions, shipping costs, taxes, etc., comes to: 72.17% to grower, 5.23% to Beparis and Farias, 9.00% to Kutcha balers and 13.60% to Pucca balers (Hussain 1957). The balers together account for over a fifth of

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

the price; their share is generally felt to be excessive. Decrease since 1947 in speculative intermediaries, experienced traders, and of buyers at higher levels is said to be the cause of considerable price fluctuations (Hussain 1957). The foreign buyers deliberately withhold buying till the supply at the secondary markets reaches a glut and prices come down sharply. Often the effect of this is to discourage the farmers from sowing sufficient jute the next season. This in turn leads to scarcity and higher Table 16·5 GRADES OF .JUTE

Bangladesh Jute Association Grading

Jute Association Grading I London

White Jat Top Jat Middle and District Top District Middle and Northern Top Jat Bottom and Northern Middle District Bottom Jat X Bottom and Northern Bottom Etc.

Dundee First Dundee Lighting Dundee Hearts Mill First Mill Lighting Mill Hearts Exports Hearts

'Tossa

Jat Top Jat Middle Jat Bottom Jat X Bottom District Top Northern Top District Middle District Bottom and Northern Middle Northern Bottom Etc.

Dacca Tossa 2/3 Dacca Tossa 4 Dacca Tossa 5 Dacca Tossa 6 Crack Tossa 2/3 Dundee Tossa 2/3 Crack Tossa 4 Dundee Tossa 4 Outport Tossa 2/3 Outport Tossa 4

483 prices which means excessive sowings and low prices the following season. This see-sawing of supply and prices has become almost a regular feature of the jute trade. The main effect of this is that in the seasons of low prices the farmers suffer a net loss. It is considered worth-while cultivating jute only if its price is twice that of paddy (unhusked rice), i.e. one maund of jute must sell at the price of two maunds of paddy. The extra labour .and expenses incurred in its cultivation is the cause of this farmer's axiom. In almost every alternate year the farmers get barely the same price as that of paddy, and this is considered to be a net loss. However, jute growing and trading remains a very strong economic force. Jute is facing stiff competition from several substitute fibres both natural and synthetic, and packing materials. The fluctuations in the supply and price of raw and manufactured jute have encouraged the growth of this competition. Kenaf, Urena-lobata, Phormium hemp, Flax, Roselle and Sisal fibres are being used in several countries for purposes for which jute was previously used. Paper bags are being increasingly used for packing and they have made considerable in road into the potential market for jute. With the increase in international trade since the Second World War the demand for packing materials has risen so much that though the use of paper bags has greatly increased, the use of jute bags has not fallen. The degree of competition which jute has experienced from other materials has differed in each of its major markets. In this major market for bags and sacks jute is facing increasing competition from woven polythere-tape bags. In the market for carpet-backing jute has begun to lose the market for primary carpet backing to polypropylene. Bulk handling of wheat, flour and other materials especially in U.S.A. and Canada, has cut out a potentially large market for jute. Possibly the most treatening development is the increase in jute production in other countries. India increased her own production from 1,658,00 bales in 1947-48 to 4,221,000 bales in 1956-57. Jute and kenaf production outside Bangladesh and India (i.e. :n

484

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

Taiwan, China, Brazil, Zaire, Thailand, Burma etc.) has risen very fast in the last few years, and Thailand kenaf competes successfully against lower quality jute. Recent studies indicate that though jute will lose ground to synthetics there is still scope for expansion of sales if prices are stabilized. Rabbani and Ahmed (1968) estimates an increase of world demand to nearly 4.7 million tons (26.3 million bales) as against the world consumption of 3.5 million tons (19.6 million bales) in 1966. Areas of main increase in demand are likely to be the Socialist countries and the low income countries of Asia and Africa. TEA

Despite fears to the contrary tea exports have been encouraging. Pakistan has been buying from Ceylon, and Bangladesh tea has moved into the resultant gap in international supply. It can keep its place provided the industry is rationalized. It is estimated that annually US $ 20 million worth of tea can be exported. HIDES SKINS AND LEATHER

These items can be the third largest export, bringing in an estimated US $10 million annually in foreign exchange. Goat skins from Bangladesh fetch a premium and are used for luxury leather items. With proper processing, combined with active, intelligent marketing, the export value of these items could be doubled within a few years. TEA

Table 16.6 EXPORTS, 1956-73 (million 1b)

To Foreign Countries

1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61

24.8 7.5 11.7 17.7

.s

TRADE

485 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73

To Pakistan

1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1872-73

12.1 4.2 5.5 6.41 1.45

41.13 41.50*

(April-Feb.)

28.0 34.7 39.5 32.8 34.4 41.3 41.3 46.2 49.6 50.58 58.39 58.64 52.44 67.81 58.18

FISH Fish and prawn have been the third largest export between 1947-and 1965 and is likely to regain this place for the next five years (upto 1977). Exports to India will be ranging up to 20,000 tons. There is an excellant prospect for prawn fisheries. Some dried fish, shark fins, shark liver oil etc. can be exported. Annual

486

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

exports may reach a value of US siO million. With proper development of ?rawn fisheries and export markets the value of fisheries exports could be doubled. PAPER, PASTEBOARD ETC.

Bangladesh produces paper, pasteboard, and newsprint in excess of its demand. Annually 30,000 tons of these products nsed to be shipped to Pakistan. Most of this quantity has to be sold abroad, possibly at a selectively favourable exchange rate. Estimated annual foreign exchange earnings could be US S 6 million. POTJLTR.Y AND EGGS

Calcutta is a big market for poultry and eggs from Bangladesh. In fact production has to b~ raised if exports are not to have any deterrant effect on local supplies. Till 1957 more than one fourth of the total egg supply used to b~ sold in Calcutta; Exports of poultry birds to India have ranged upto one and a half million birds (1954). Hong Kong and Singapore have imported eggs for som~ years. With a constant supply for exports of eggs and poultry could be w.:>rth over U3 S l million a year. With a rising supply and b~tter mubting in south-east Asia exports could reach US S 3 million. RAw CorroN

Though very little cotton is grown it is readily exportable be:ause of specially uses of this very short stable type, known as Comilla Cotton in international trade. Over 2,000 tons, valued at over US S 1 million could be exported annually. SPICES Fairly large quantities of chili, T •.um~ric and Ginger used to be e'tfH>rted to Pakistan. Tile surpl11s has now to be exported else· where. C~ylon has b:>ught chili and Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Arg::ntina have bought Turm~ric in some years. India used to

TRADE

487

be a big market for ginger up to September 1949. With proper quality control and an export drive spice exports could reach US s 1 million annually. 01HER EXPOR'IS

Betelnut, Cocoanut and Paan used to be exported in smaU quantities to India before 1954, when devaluation of the Indian· rupee put an end to most of the smaller exports. This market can be opened up again. Minor fibres such as Shon (Suun-hemp) and silk-cotton (Kapok) have had an overseas market and exports could beraised. Tobacco exports to Burma was important before 1947. At present both manufacture and unmanufactured tobacco can beexported to India and south-east Asia. Beeswax from the Sundarbans has been exported to various European countries. Both b:eswax and honey from the Sundarbans could b~ profitably exparted with b:tter refining and · packing. Other minor exports have been groundnuts, sesamum, linseed,_ timber, catechu (Khoir), vegetable oil, fish glue, silk, soap,_ medicines, sugar and fresh fruits. Exports of all these items, and also of leather goods, cotton textiles and cashewnut could be developed within a few years. In the slightly longer term petrochemical products could develop into a major export, provided the industry is set up early. IMPORT

In the first half of the 1970's major items of import are likely to be foodgrains, raw cotton, cotton yarn, petroleum products machinery, metals and ores, vegetable oil, coal and coke, medicines and vehicles. This was in fact the composition of imports in the 1960•s (Table 16.9) The relative importance of these items in the future is dependent upon the success of the agricultural program and the mix of the industrial products. If rice production grows

488

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

rapidly foodgrain imports will be reduced, enabling larger resources to be put into industrialization. If capital goods industries are built up then imports of metals, ores and machineries should increase faster than imports of consumer goods. The total quantity of imports will be determined by the value of the exports and the net amount of foreign credits. Foreign credit ranges from supplies credit at above international short-term lending rates to foreign aid at very low interest and outright grant. Foreign credit is likely to be largely in the form of bilateral and multilateral aid with very low interest rates. These credits often increase the national product but not the export capabilhy, leading to increasing repayment difficulties. In the long run therefore the value of the imports should approximate the value of the exports. It is estimated that annual exports will vary from US s 550 million annually. Focdgrain imports may average US S 100 million. Another US S 250 million are required for consumer goods and raw materials for industries (as existing in 1973). The remainder could be us(d to build up the in.dustrial base, esrecially in petro-chemicals and machine tools. PATIERN OF TRADE

During the period when Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan (1947-71) she was exploited through the classic means of mercantile operations. In every year, execpt 1963-64 and 1964-65, she had a surplus in her trade with foreign countries (Table 16.11). The hard-currency thus earned was diverted to businessmen and traders in Karachi at an artificially low exchange price. This enabled them to set up consumer industries, which supplied Bangladesh at prices far above international market price. This was the same sort of exploitation which enabled Britain to generate surplus capital in the early days of her imperial expansion. It is too early to predict the trading pattern that will emerge in the near future. Trade, mostly in barter-form, has increased with U.S.S.R. and East European countries. Trade with India was

Raw Jute

829.2 706.0 854.0 655.0 729.0 848.0 849.5 792.9 682.7 845.3 863.1 897.8 758.9 730.7 262.4 501.1 966.86

Years (July-June)

1955-56 1956-51 1957-SS 1958•59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72

284.3

292.3 565.3 626.3 605.5 655.9 768.3 627.3 1353.08

105.5 91.0 73.2 140.6 227.0 314.0 311.9 306.0

Jute Manufactures 21.9 22.9 14.0 28.5 40.4 28.6 26.6 26.3 22.9 20.0 27.8 3.8 2.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 131.36

Hides and Skins

N.A.

22.6 21:5 13.9 20.3 26.4 38.3 50;9 77.7 63.8 46.0 2.2 11.1 11.8 14.9 15.5 20.0

Fish 30.5 19.3 13.1 12.0 22.2 29.2 34.0 40.0 51.1 54.4 31.6 128.3 101.5 138.2 116.8 102.6 78.92

31.6 43.7 14.9 23.5 34.6 1.1 21.2 6.4 2.1 10.0 11.0 .8

657.38

-

-

Others

Tea

EXPORTS TO FOR.EIGN COUNI1UES (OTHER THAN WEST PAKISTAN) IN MILLION RUPEES

'table 16.7

Total

1,041.3 909;4 988.1 881.0 1,019.6 1,259.2 1,294.1 1,249.3 1,106.8 1,267.9 1,501.0 1,668.1 1,479.6 1,539.9 1,163.3 1,251.1 2,596.15

I

r

olio-

~

;

1955-56 1956-51 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71

--------

Year (June-July)

86.8 60.2 87.7 83.0 118.9 109.4 116.3 152.8 164.1 185.4 243.5 291.2 228.9 257.1 243.3 274.4

-------------

Tea

64.8 65.6 80.3 89.0 90.3 100.0 104.9 137.5 135.8 154.7 158.3 159.2 121.2

53.2 68.0 60.2

Jute Manufactures 53.2 31.7 30.7 28.6 42.9 39.0 63.3 59.3 58.0 85.9 78.9 77.5 91.3 109.6 109.5 91.1

Paper & Pasteboard 15.1 11.3 13.6 20.1 ·25.1 26.3 30.9 24.9 28.5 26.2 39.6 29.5 31.7 42.7 44.8 40.3

Matches

21.4

28.1

8.0 12.0 13.3 19.8 25.2 15.3 11.4 17.6 22.1 22.6 23.2 24.7 27.6 29.6

------

Leather

EXPOllTS TO (WEST) PAKISTAN (IN MILLION llUPEES)

Table 16.8

7.8 59.6 63.6 68.0 15.2 93.2 102.6 19.5 137.7 179.3 129.1 180.1 250.6 274.0 338.5 255.8

Other 236.7 242.8 269.1 284.3 352.9 363.5 414.2 424.9 511.2 610.2 651.8 738.8 784.8 871.3 923.4 804.2

Total

!

e

~

0...,

~

~

0

8

'IllAJ)E

491

resumed in 1971 after several y.-:ars of complete cessation. Proximity and some complementarity dictates that India will emerge as the single biggest trading partner. However, the European Economic Community is likely to remain the main trading area for some time to come. Among the persistent trends in the pattern may be noted the differences between the two ports of Chittagong and Chalna, the nature of good~ exported and imported and the surplus of exports over imports (Table 16.12), Chittagong is the main importing port (Table 16.13). Some 90% of the imports come through it. Of the rest, 7% comes through Chalna and 3% overland from India or by air from w~st Pakistan. Chalna proved to be a great success as an export port and within 6 years of its inception it had caught up with Chittagong. At present about 51% of the exports go through Chalna and 44% through Chittagong, whilst 5% goes to India via land routes, or to West Pakistan by air. There is b~ing sup;>lied with im:_Jorted g:>ods mainly from Chittagong; since the cost of tramportation is high this leads to industries ming im:nrtd m 1terials (lib c:.tton yarn) crowding at Chittagong or near D1cca. It is possible that Chalna will grow as an importing port once th~ jetties being built at Khulna are complete.

Jute is likely to rem1in th~ m1in article of export for a long time to come. The change towards grel\ter manufactured jute exports is, how~ver, recent and signifbant. The growth of manu· factur~d exports like paper and m:~.tches likewise emphao;ises the trend. Whereas expo,.ts in the period 1947-52 were almost completely of raw, unm:~.nufactured goods, about 30% of the exports of the p~riod 1957-62 were of manufacturej goods such as gunny bags, matches a11d new.iprint. Fibres and other raw materials form lily far the bulk of the exports to foreign countries, and these go mainly to the major industrial countries (U.K., West Germany, Japan, U.S.A. Belgium etc.). The imports from the foreil!n c.,untries are m1inly from these very industrialised countries, on whom there is much dependence for manufactured goojs.

65.5 87.3 l10.4 l10.1 183.3 143.8 170.4 221.3 231.8 511.2 278.7 391.1 351.5 429.9 381.4 189.5

1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71

26.4 44.7 69.9 61.1 95.3 136.1 187.7 124.2 237.4 341.6 238.6 299.2 203.1 350.6 159.4 122.9

-

I

Vegeta-~Coal

·-

---

-

--

I

58.1

113.1 44.5 61.8 93.4 73.8 100.4 93.5 14.4 7.8 50.6 108.3

40.6 70.7 50.2 65.2

35.8

79.1 63.4 125.7 81.8 39.7 99.2 56.1 84.8 93.7

3.9 4.3 5.1 5.3 34.7 46.6

3.5 17.5 29.7 42.3 23.3 30.2 32.3 35.4 32.4 49.1 29.8 34.2 37.8 48.0 27.2 22.7

5.9 7.2 13.4 17.8 28.2 30.1 48.9 51.4 125.0 49.0 91.9 1.2 57.4 84.0 84.9 78.2

14.9 18.8 14.1 16.6 22.5 28.5 22.4 22.2 29.4 33.9 18.5 17.8 21.3 32.0 32.2 30.8

41.7 30.6 5.8 3.8 11.2 17.5 17.8 13.0 14.1 19.9 81.3 15.3 14.3 1l.l 14.1 17.5

& !Vehicles Drugs aTcxMetals Mineral & ores Oils ble Oils Coke &_mcdi- tiles , cmes

(a) Relates to textile, yarns, fabrics and made up articles.

Machinery

Year

IMPORTS FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES (IN MILLmN RUPEES)

Table 16.9

154.7 512.6 437.0 231.6 198.6 468.5 313.3 320.9 591.8 1008.8 633.4 674.5 528.5 829.5 978.5 911.6

!I Other 357.0 793.7 735.6 553.8 655.2 1014.4 973.1 929.3 1418.7 1701.8 1328.1 1566.6 1327.5 1850.0 1813.1 1575.2

-------

Total

m

~ ~ ~

Gl

g

~~

..,0

~

1955-56 1956-51 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-bS 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71

Year

32.1 74.2 95.6 73.7 100.0 144.6 162.2 140.7 151.0 183.7 183.4 224.3 194.8 217.2 242.3 221.1

I

108.9 105.8 175.0 107.8 44.7 140.4 146.2 109.9 94.6 78.1 102.0 56.9 56.8 61.2 86.3 71.4

Cotton Cotton Fabrics . Yarn

I 19.0 38.6 65.1 41.6 60.1 86.2 81.3 68.8 82.6 81.3 136.4 118.2 121.0 157.8 166.1 133.1

Raw Cotton 9.1 1.6 69.0 130.6 42.2 56.3 2.4 118.5 99.8 13.8 147.6 139.8 89.5 97.8 275.3 227.5

Rice 16.8 53.2 42.6 48.4 21.1 31.0 12.7 7.9 9.9 11.6 18.3 15.1 19.3 7.0 3.7 10.9

Edible Oils 3.8 5.0 4.9 5.9 7.4 8.9 11.0 86 5.1 2.8 4.9 7.0 5.1 4.6 4.1 3.3

20.0 40.5 30.9 42.1 43.7 30.1 61.2 66.2 71.2 89.5 103.7 121.5 100.7 123.6 144.3 151.7

12.8 17.4 99 4.5 1.8 0.3 2.8 4.9 0.3 5.7 2.3 14.2 0.2 31.5 45.6 4.7

129.4 216.1 232.6 255.5 268.4 338.4 375.3 304.5 380.9 408.0 510.0 627.8 t-51.8 684.6 699.2 553.9

Boots Tobacco Wheat Other Shoes &Flour

(IMPORTS FROM (WEST) PAKISTAN (IN MILLION RUPEES))

Table 16.10

333.9 531.9 701.7 685.1 563.4 817.1 855.1 830.0 895.4 874.5 1208.6 1324.8 1239.2 1385.3 1666.9 1377.6

Total

~

'--1

~

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

The imports are, as can be expected, mainly manufactured goods and fuel, with a large share taken up by foodstuffs (mostly rice and Table 16.11 VALUE OF TOTAL

Year (July-June)

1947-48** 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72

FOREIG~

I

TRADE

!Excess of Ex-Exports (in Imports (in jports over 1mthousand Tk) \ thousand Tk)*1ports (in thou1 isand (Takas)* 247,235 40,468 206,767 629,081 282,303 147,222 628,881 384,838 244,043 1,211,070 452,932 758,138 1,086,626 763,453 323,173 642,470 366,352 276,118 645,068 293,760 351,306 731,569 320,217 411,352 1,041,291 360,686 680,605 909,370 818,537 90,833 988,058 735,624 252,434 880,954 553,797 327,157 1,079,584 655,275 424,309 1,259,979 1,014,386 345,593 1,300,560 872,842 427,718 1,249,264 1,018,692 230,572 1,224,140 1,488,521 -264,381 1,268,128 1,701,823 -433,695 1,514,218 1,328,062 186,156 157.5 156.7 +0.8 148,4 132.8 + 15.6 154.3 194.5 -30.2 167.0 181.3 -14.3 125.1 157.5 -32.4 260.0 266.44 +34.56

* Including trade with Pakistan upto Rupees and thereafter in Takas. ** 15th Aug. to 30th June.

1970. Upto 1971 values are in

495

'BADE

mustard oil). It is the classic pattern of trade of an underdeveloped country: raw materials are exported and manufactured goods are imported. Table 16.12 FOREIGN TllADE BY PORTS AND LAND RoUTES (IN THOUSAND RUPEES)

Imports

Exports Chittagong Chalna

To or through India by land

Chittagong

Chalna

From or throush India by

land

40,468

1947-48* 247,235 1948-49

289,503

139,578

282,303

1949-50

343,641

285,300

268,483

11,6365

347,913

104,019

1950-51

399,591

65,015

746,404

1951-52

518,870

215,852

351,852

579,136

1952-53

338,658

163,157

140,660

279,888

21,678

64,786

1953-54

321,246

212,861

110,959

231,283

34,110

']}3,267

1954-55 1955-56

335,189

270,120

126,260

258,778

37,761

23,678

423,906

417,837

199,548

287,023

41,911

31,748

1956-57

381,141

406,896

121,332

723,134

55,095

40,308

1957-58

364,428

545,256

78,374

646,521

53,508

35,594

1958-59

394,111

447.336

39,507

464,802

56,716

32,279

1959-60

426,340

518,598

74,646

501,544

115,554

38,178

1960-61

432,561

728,898

97,726

678,670

276,032

59,684

1961-62

401,946

790,745

107,869

699,204

119,175

54,463

1962-63

388,937

731,118

129,156

841,662

126,095

50,935

1963-64

378,997

750,509

94,634

1,275,311

126,122

47,088

1964-65

337,488

779,084

151,123

1,477,467

147,050

58,555

*15th Aug. to 30th June.

184,317

CHAPTER XVII

POPULATION GROWTH

The population of Bangladesh increased enormously over the last two and half decades. In the decade 1951-61 population increased by 12 million, and in the thirteen years thereafter it increased by 22 million (Table 17.1). This population explosion began in the 1930s. From 1872 to 1931 the increase as less than Table 17.1 POPULATION GR.OWI'H

I

Census Year Population(in millions) 1872 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1974

22.0 24.0 26.1 28.9 31.6 33.3 35.6 42.0 42.1 55.2* 77.2

Increase over decade I previous (million) 2.0 2.1 2.8 2.7 1.7 2.3 6.4 0.1 12.0

22.0

• Increase over 13 years. 1974 census figllre adjusted for 8 percent undernunneration.

497

POPULATION

one percent per annum. The 1951 census recorded an apparent fall in growth. The 1943-44 famine took a toll of at least 2 million persons within Bangladesh, and in 1947-48 there was considerable emigration of the Hindu community to India. Moreover the 1951 census probably underenumerated by 5 to 10 percent. The actual population growth-in the 1941-51 period is therefore masked by these factors. The 1961 census recorded 50.8 million persons. The under estimation was about 8 percent and so the figure was adjusted upto 55.2 million. Ten years later a census was not possible because of the war of liberation. The population census undertaken in 1974 recorded 71.48 million persons. Under numeration was again of the order of 8 percent. The adjusted 1974 population would therefore be about 77.2 million. In terms of population Bangladesh ranks eighth in the world, after China, India, USSR, U. S. A., Indonesia, Japan and Brazil. The growth of population is expected to continue 20 to 30 years at least. Forecasts of the future population, under different assumptions are given in Table 17.2. Even with optimistic assumptions the population seems likely to grow 150 million by the year 2000. Table 17.1 POPULATION PR.OJECfiON

Year (Jan. 1st) 1980 1985

Constant I Assuming Declining Fertility and Cons- Fertility and Declining ItantAssuming Mortality (Million) Mortality(Million) 106.53 127.91

99.64 118.10

POPULATION DENSITY Average population density is about 1400 persons per square mile (about 540 persons per sq. Km.). Since only 9 percent of the population is urbanized this is an indicator of the degree. of rural overcrowding. Table 17.3 shows the population density by districts, with and without major water bodies and forests.

4~8

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

DENSITY OF POPULATION

1974 Census

!EXCLUDING RIVERS AND FORESTS) Persons per squ ar e m•le

G

Less tnan 30 0 300-~00

- ~ 900 - 1300

-1300-~000 -Over 2 000

8 A Y zo 0

Of'

BENGAL

SCALE:

to ZO

•O

60

10

100

.oo

-·~ ·''

120 ll'lt.OIIIET£1115

Map XVI. 1

499

:POPULATION

Table 17.3 AREA, POPULATION AND DENSITY BY DISTRICTS

Districts

Population (1974)

Dinajpur 25,10,512 Rangpur 54,46,916 Bogra 22,31,003 Rajshahi 42,68,417 Pabna 28,14,645 Kushtia 18,83,635 Jess ore 33,26,778 Khulna 35,57,460 Patuakhali 14,98,987 Bakerganj 39,28,414 faridpur 40,59,511 Dacca 76,11,807 Tangail 20,77,924 Mymensingh75,66,825 Sylhet 47,59,281 58,19,176 Comilia Noakhali 32,34,061 Chittagong 43,15,460 Hill Tracts 5,08,199

TCltal Area sq. mile 2609 3701 1501 3653 1906 1371 2584

4630

1675 2792 2694 2880 1309 5064 4783 2592 2033 2786 5089

Population Density per sq. mile 985 1472 1486 1168 1477 1404 1287 768 I:S95 1407 1521 2643 1587 1494

995

2245 1591 1549 100

(1974)

Area Populaexcluding tion Water Density bodies & per sq. Forests. mile 2570 1000 3499 1557 1465 1523 3600 1186 1731 1626 1306 1442 2537 1311 1740 2045 1370 1093 2150 1827 2448 1658 2565 2968 1200 1732 4846 1562 4420 1077 2446 2380 1534 2108 2138 2019 1750 290

Pressure on net cultivated area varies from about 1000 persons per sq. mile in Kushtia and Dinajpur to nearly 3000 persons per sq. mile in Comilla and Noakhali, to as high as 4500 persons per sq. mile in Chittagong district. In the period 1951-74 population has been growing fastest in the Northern Region and slowest in the Eastern Region. This was to be expected since the Eastern Region had reached very high rural densities by the 1950s. A belt of high population density is noticeable from Nilphamari

soo

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

in the north to Kutubdia Island. It coincides with the belt of fertile land along the Jamuna-Podda-Meghna axis. The high density core areas are in Sirajganj, Munshiganj, Chandpur and Noakhali Sadar Sub-divisions. Highest rural densities, of over 3000 persons per sq. mile, are reached in Dohar, Keraniganj, Munshiganj and Tongibari Thanas, just south of Dacca Metropolitan area. Equally high rural densities are seen in the Faridganj, Raipur, Ramganj and Begumganj thanas in the south-east. In contrast large areas in the Northern Region, in the Haor Basin and in the Hill Tracts have rural densities below 1000 persons per sq. mile. In the centre of the Haor Basin (Khaliajuri, Jamalganj and Sulla thanas) population density is below 1600 persons per sq. mile. In sharp contrast to all other areas of the country the Hill Tracts has only 100 persons per sq. mile.

AGE STRUCTURE One of the most characteristic feature of the population is the predominance of youth. Nearly half the population is below 15 years of age. Childern up to the age of 9 form 37 percent of the population (Table 17.4). Table 17.4 AGE STRUCTURE (IN PERCENTAGE)

Age Group

1951

1961

0-9 10 and over

29.5

37.0

70.5

63.0

1974

MALE-FEMALE RATIO

Another notable feature is the imbalance in the male-female ratio. For every 1000 males there are 930 females. In the youngest group (0-4 years) there are more girls than boys, but the ratio progressively moves the other way with increasing age. Over

POPULATION

SOl

two-thirds of the total difference in numbers in the age above 35 years. It is most likely that female mortality is high in the child-bearing ages (15-40). COMMUNITIES

There are four major religious communities in the country. Over 80 percent of the people are Muslims and 17 percent are Hindus. Muslims form the majority in every district except the Hill Tracts. Hindus are a sizeable minority in many areas and especially Kbulna and Dinajpur districts. Bhuddhists are important in the South-east (Chittagong and Hill Tract5), but they fonn less than one percent of the population. Christians are even less in number, but tileirs is the fastest growing religious community. Since 1972 there has been a noticeable increase in Christian Missions and growing conversions among the Scheduled Caste Hindus.

URBANIZATION An outstanding feature of urbanization in less developed countries is the dominance of the primate city, which has a population several times larger than that of the next biggest city. This feature is beginning to manifest itself in Bangladesh. Metropolitan Dacca has over two million people, more than twice as many as in Chittagong and four times as many as in Khulna. Urban population has increased rather rapidly in the recent past, but without the necessary growth in housing or services. Jn the inter-censal period 1961-74 total urban population increased from 2.6 million to 6.3 million; Since under-enumeration in urban areas in the 1974 census is estimated to be 16 percent, total urban population is probably well over 7 million. However, with only 9 percent of the population urbanized Bangladesh remains one of the most rural areas in the world. Within this period (1961-74) urbanization proceeded faster in the Central Region (Dacca area) and the Southern Region (Khulna area). Urbanization definitely lagged in the Northern Region, where urban

502

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

population did not even double itself in this period. Moreover Rajshahi was overtaken by Mymensingh and became the fifth largest urban area in the country. Many new urban localities have grown up in the intercensal period, as can be seen from Table 17.5 below. Table 17.5 POPULATOIN iN URBAN AREAS

Urban Area Panchagarh Pirganj Thakurgaon Munshidhar 5. Dinajpur 6. Parbatipur

I. 2. 3. 4.

7. Nilpharnari

8.

Total Population 1961

--1974

37,711 27,188

13,643 15,133 15,519 6,628 61,866 10,604

9,757 60,628 40,634 22,001 8,703 17,738

18,955 90,132 72,829 23,047 30,129 27,401

7,039

9. 10. 11. 12.

Saidpur Rangpur Lalrnonirhat Kurigrarn Gaibandha

13. 14. 15. 16.

Santahar Sherpur Bogra Jaipurhat

8,292 4,812 33,784

12,587 7,233 47,154 15,687

17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Naogaon Nawabgaoj Rajshahi City Sardah Natore

20,276 29,725 56,885

34,395 46,059 1,32,909 12,250 21,053

13,317

503

POPULATION

Urban Area 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Ullapara Shahzadpur Sirajganj Paksey lshurdi Pabna

Total Population 1961

47,152 11,566 40,792

28. Bahirchar

Bheramara Ami a Poradaha Jagati Kushtia Kalisankarpur Kumarkhali Meherpur Alamdanga 38. Darshana 39. Chuadanga

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Jhenidah Kotchandpur Moheshpur Magura Narail Jessore

Satkhira Khulna 48. Bagerhat 49. Mongla 46. 47.

50. Barguna

51.

Patuakhali

24,952 5,353 8,147 5,494 7,665 11,625

1974 9,871 24,345 74,457 23,766 19,826 62,254

--12,542 8,494 1,467 2,458 1,177 36,199 11,144 10,544 15,936 9,942 10,169 36,381

·-

46,366

34,020 15,411 7,132 20,240 21,023 82,817

20,169 1,27,970 16,398 3,847

40,507 4,37,304 27,912 14,590

12,325

10,245 27,167

9,055 8,737 4,153 6,999

504

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

Urban Area 52. Bhola 53. Barisal 54. Jhalakati 55. Pirojpur 56. 57. 58. 59.

Gopalganj Madaripur Faridpur Rajbari

60. Manikganj 61. Dacca City 62. Narayanganj City 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70

Tongi Uttarkhan Dakshin Khan Demra Dacca Metropolitan** Munsiganj Narshingdi Savar

Total Population 1961 8,406 69,936 10,709 15,754

12,774 98,127 21,272 22,218

8,856 25,328 16,044

13,861 32,488 46,232 24,020

11,676 5,21,034 1,62,054

26,649 16,79,572 2,70,680

28,33~

67,420 10,189 12,259 13,230

8,604

14,752

71. Joydebpur 72. Kaliganj 73. Ghorashai 74. Gopalpur 23,688

77. Jamalpur 78. Sherpur 79. Gouripur

37,988 24,924 7,028 8,658

81.

Gaffargaon

15,225

16,951 18,505 20,68,353 27,546 39,140

15,255

15. Tangail 76. Mirzapur

80. Muktagacha

1974

15,218 34,321 39,066 51,863 17,918 60,261 35,578 10,020 11,908 3,513

50S

POPULATION

Urban Area

Total Population

1961

82. 83. 84. 85. 86.

Mymensingh City Bhairab Bajitpur Kishoreganj Netrokona

53,256 31,749 12,097 24,031 17,008

87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93.

Sunamganj Chhatak Sylhet Moulvi Bazar Srimongal Kulaura Hobiganj

9,843 577 37,740

94. Brahmanbaria

44,784 54,504 4,908

95. Comilla 96. Moinamoti 97. Laksham 98. Chandpur 99. Hajiganj 100. Noakhali 101. Chowmuhani 102. Feni

103. Chittagong City 104. Patiya lOS. Cox's Bazar 106. 107. 108. 109.

Bandarban Rangamati Kaptai Chandraghona BANGLADESH

1974 1,82,153 43,702 14,272 35.605 26,460 14,516 13,248 59,546 11,032 8,135 9,160 16,281

6,522

4,040

12,097

62,407 86,446 10,071 24,063 51,668 12,119 32,490 21,460 15,428

34,837 19,874 4,545 9,817 3,64,205 8,427

8,89,760

s,ooo•••

15,720

13,381 20,473

6,416 11,967 4,421 26,34,370

8,252

9,578

62,73,603

• Census fiaures have not been adjusted for undeJ enumeration. •• Dacca Metropolitan area includes Dac:ca city, Nar&YaJllaoj city. Tongi, Uttar Khan, Dakshin Khan and Demra Urban Areas.

••• Estimated.

506

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

URBAN GROW1H AND DECAY

Urban growth was slow throughout the period 1872-1947. The largest town, Dacca, had nearly a million persons in the middle of the sixteenth century, but had gone down to about 300,000 persons when Bishop Herber visited it in the 1820s (Taifoor 1956). It further decayed as Calcutta grew and in 1872 had a population of only 69,000. Growth was slow ti111905 when it was made the capital of the newly formed province of East Bengal and Assam, which lasted only seven years. Growth was then steady till1947 when immigration from India nearly doubled the population. In 1951 Dacca City had a population of 338,762. Influx of people because of its growing importance as a commercial centre was high throughout the next decade. In 1961 the population was 556,712; an increase of 64 percent over the previous Census. Ten miles from the centre of Dacca City is the centre of Narayanganj City; till the 1950s these two urban areas were separated by a big stretch ofpure1y rural area. In the 1951 Census, since both areas showed strong tendencies of growing towards each other, Dacca and Narayanganj were together treated as 'Greater Dacca City' which had a population of 404,301 (Narayanganj 68,373). Though the recognition of such a conurbation was a bit premature in 1951, the expectation was nearly fulfilled by 1961, by which time a broken chain of factories, shops and residences had linked Postagola in the south-east of Dacca to Narayanganj. The population of Narayanganj grew very fast in that decade and was 162,054 in 1961; a rise of 123 percent. The Dacca-Narayanganj conurbation had a population of 718,766 in 1961, and by 1974 it had more than two million inhabitants. Since the 1974 census under-enumeration in urban areas is estimated to be 16 percent the population of this metropolitan area may have been about 2.4 million. In the 1961-74 inter-censal period,though two small towns, Debhatta and Nalchiti dropped out of the urban class, many new towns have been added (Table 17.5). Some of the more notable growths have been in small industrial towns, such as Chowrnohani and Paksey. Some small

POPULATION

507

industrial localities have been shown as urban in the 1974 census, since they have urban characteristics. Patiya in Chittagong District has also been included in Table 17.5.

LITERACY Universal literacy made little headway in the period 1961-74, the percentage of literates in the population aged 5 years and above increased only from 19.9 to 22.2. Most of the gain was due to an increase of the female literacy rate from 9.6 to 13.7 percent. Of the four Regions the Northern gained least in literacy in the 1961-74 period. Apart from the Hill Tracts the major area of low literacy is a belt from Thakurgaon, through Nilphamari and Kurigram to Jamalpur and Mymensingh North. Relatively high literacy also seems to be in a belt, from Barisal to Bagherhat. It is notable that in this high literacy area and also in a similar pocket in Chittagong South Sub-division female literacy rate is about 27 percent. Urban areas generally have a literacy rate of 40 percent. OCCUPATION

According to the 1974 census the total civilian labour force (C.L.F.) in the country was 25.2 million persons, which was 35 percent of the total population. Whereas male participation rate is 50.6 percent, that for females is only 18.7 percent. In the Hill Tracts does the female participation rises to 46.7 percent but that area is exceptional. In the 1961-74 period the total civilian labour force increased by 7.7 million persons. The agricultural Labour Force formed 55 percent of the C.L.F., and only 19.5 percent of the total population. The high proportion of children and the low female participation rate puts a sever~ burden on these who find employment. In the non-agricultural labour force shopkeepers and industrial workers (skilled and semi-skilled) each form a quarter of the total. Unskilled labourers such as coolies and earth-cutters ate a sixth. Administrative workers and fishermen are a tenth each, of the total.

508

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

DACCA

The origin of Dacca is obscure. In old records it is never mentioned with the port of Bengal a: one or the other name occurs in the list of important places in Bengal (Taifoor 1956). This is considered by many historians to be strong evidence in favour of Bengala and Dacca being one and the same place. There are dated antiquities only from the middle of the fifteenth century (Taifoor 1956). In 1908 it was chosen ~s the capital of the Subah ofBengaJa by Ishm Khan, who named it Jahangirnagar after the reigning Emperor Jehangir. In 1704 Murshid Quli Khan removed the capital to Murshidabad. The city did not decline as rapidly ac; it is supposed to have. for, though it had a population nearing a million in the middle of the seventeenth century, it had at least a quarter as much a century and a half later. The big blow to its prosperity was the deliberate choking of the Muslim trade by Briti~h commercial interests, which led to rapid decline in the first half of the nineteenth century. The fifteenth century mosques and mausoleums are scattered a11 over the present city. The old core of the city, which dates back to the early seventeenth century, is the Islampur and Chauk areas. The long road along the river Buriganga from Lalbagh to Postgola (and possibly even Paglarpur) seems to be as old. It is along this road that the Greeks, Portuguese, Dutch, French and Englsih established their •Factories' or trading centres. The Armenian traders concentrated in the quarter now known as Armanitola. The French and Portuguese have left their names in Farashganj and Firinghibazar respectively. In the seventeenth century the old residential area of Nawabpur was formed. From the late eighteenth century to 1905, the Europeans had most of their residences along the river-front. In 1905 a new town was planned at Ramna, to the north of the town. By chance it happened to be on the other side of the railway line, which accentuated the difference between the two sections of the city. Ramna was wen planned, with many avenues lined with different species of trees, and a large central green, part of which was the race course.

POPULATION

509

In 1921 the University of Dacca was founded in Ramna with several fine buildings and a large attractive campus. After, 1947 the Rarnna area, or New Town grew very fast. A big market (New Market) and a big residential area (Azimpur) shifted the population centre of Ramna to the wt:st. From 1955, the Dhanmondi residential area, the Muhammadpur colony and the Tejgaon Industrial Estate have grown up to the west and north of Rarnna. The old city between the railway line and the river, could not expand very much in area, but it became increasingly congested. Two small industrial areas developed, one to the west at Hazaribagh and the other to the east at Postgola. Postgola is nearly linked to Narayanganj, four miles to the south-east. This city of the conurbation lies at the confluence of the Buriganga and Lakkhya rivers. On the east bank of Lakkhya is its suburb of Madanganj. To the north of old Narayanganj an industrial area had developed at Demra on the Lakkhya river. Though it is only five miles from Demra to Dacca, it is doubtful if this area will be built upon as it is very low lying. To the north of Dacca, Tongi has an industrial estate and will soon become a part of the conurbation. Five satellite towns have been laid out, at Mirpur in the north-west, Faydabad in the north, and Badda, Banani and Bhola in the north-east. Others are being planned. The commercial and wholesaling areas of both Dacca and Narayanganj are along their river fronts. In the city of Dacca, Nawabpur is the main retailing area, while the fashionable shopping centres are in the Baitul Mukarrarn-Stadiurn area, along the B. B. Avenue and in the New Market. The University and the Administrative area are in the southern part of the new town. The industrial areas are scattered in five places: Demra, Postgola, Hazaribagh, Tejgaon and Tongi. An industrial area at Mirpur is be~nning to grow up. The location of Dacca is favourable to its growth. Most of the city is on the southern-most spur of the Madhupur Tract, and is, therefore, on relatively firm high ground. The city is, at the same time, at the head of the delta. It, therefore, has easy

510

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

access to the nort.k by railways and roads and to the south by the numerous rivers. By fortunate chance it is situated almost at the centre of Bangladesh, which is an advantage, considering the paucity of communications to the remoter areas. KHUL:SA

Khulna grew rapidly in the 1950's and 1960's. In 1901 it had a population of only 10,426. By 1951 it had grown to 42,225. In the next ten years the opening ot Chalna port and the growth of Daulatpur Industrial area spured a 92% growth, to a population of 127,970 in 1961. In the next decade it grew even faster, and in 1974 its population was 437,304. (Due to under-enumeration actual population was probably over half a million). Khulna hardly has any history. Till 1882 it was a small village in Jessore District. In that year it was made the head-quarters of the new Khulna Dist1 ict, and quickly grew into a small town. Till the 1950s the large newsprint factory, several jute mills and a big power station were built in the Goalpara-Daulatpur-K.halishpur area to the north, also on the Bhairab river. The city is now 9 miles long from north to ~outh, and 2 miles from east to west. It.> location on the Bhairab river gives it easy access to the deltaic regions. The railway and road going north connect it with the Moribund Delta areas and north Bengal. The Chalna-Mongla anchorage, twenty miles to the south, makes Khulna in reality a sea-port. Khulna riverside is a break-of-journey point for much of the imports and exports through Chalna. CHITTAGONG

E:hittagong, strangely, has not had a rapid rise in population though commercially it is more important than Dacca, and industrially it is bidding fair to beat it. In 1901 the municipality had only 22,140 persons; the environs, mostly on the rural-urban fringe are estimated to have had a population of 84,708. By 1951 the city proper had grown greatly as the population within municipal limits was 145,777. The environs, with 148,269 persons, had a much smaller rate of growth. The total for metropolitan Chittagong

511

fPOPULATON

INTER NAL MIGR ATION PATT ERNS

:~1

Permanent -~ Se~sona•

, .....,,

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Map XVII. 2

512

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADFSH

increased only 24% from 294,046 in 1951 to 364,205 in 1961. Since the mainland of Chittagong is as densely populated as that of Dacca and the city's commerce and industry had grown greatly, the 24% growth in the decade 1951-61 is less than expected. In the next decade population had however, doubled to 856,000 in the metropolitan area (Adjusting for undet-enumeration the population would be about one million). The core of Chittagong city is Anderkilla (innerfort), which is also the oldest part of it. To the north of it are several residential areas. To the south and west are the commercial zone and the harbour, which stretches for twelve miles along the Karnafuli river. The new industrial areas of Kalurghat, Sholashahar and Foujdarhat are to the south-east north-east and north-west of· the city respectively. The oil refinery, gr~in silos, fertilizer factory and steel mill are all in the Patenga Peninsular, which has become the most valuable industrial land in Bangladesh. The land on the southern side of the river Karnafuli is beginning to be used for industrial and commercial purposes (e.g. the fish harbour). The new (established in 1966) University ofChittagong is in the northeast, beyond the Sholoshahar industrial area and the Cantonment •. Chittagong, therefore, now encompasses nearly 100 sq. miles. MIGRATION INTERNAL

Within Bangladesh there is a considerable migration both seasonal and permanent. There is both rural-rural and ruralurban migration, and the latter is gathering increasing mo• mentum. The population of almost every urban area is increasing. The increase is not wholly due to the movement of people from the sorrounding area. In all the big urban areas, and especially in the three cities, a large part of the migrants are from districts other than in which the urban area is situated. There is a big flow into Dacca from Comilla, Noakhali, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Bakerganj Districts. Into Chittagong the flow is mainly froms Noakhali, Comilla and Dacca Districts.

POPULATION

513

and into Khulna it is mainly from Bakerganj, Jessore, Faridpur and Noakhali districts. The people of Noakhali district show the greatest propensity to migrate. Till the 1920s Noakhali District was surplus in food-stuffs and the growth of Chars at Ramgati and Hatia Islands attracted immigrants from Barisal~ Comilla and Dacca Districts. The farmers of this district were praised in serveral Settlement Reports as being the hardest working and as getting the most out of their land. In this same decade (1920s) there was the beginning of an awakening among the Muslims, coupled with a drive for more litearcy. In the 1930s this district became the most literate in Bangladesh and at the same time deficit in food, as the rise in population was very great. The trickle of emigration, which had begun in 1920s, swelled to a large stream. Ramgarh Sub-Division in the Hill Tracts District, Hill Tippera (now Tripura State in India) and the Meghna Chars were the first refuge for these migrants. In the 1940s there was emigration to all part of Bengal and Assam and some even further afield. Since 1950 Noakhali people have migrated mainly to Dacca, Chittagong and Khulna cities, with large numbers also going to Dinajpur, Kushtia, Sylhet and the Hill Tracts. Comilla and Dacca are two other districts from which there is. considerable emigration to other districts. Dhakaias (as they are called in Bengali) usually emigrate as petty shopkeepers and it inerant salesman. For several centuries they have been emigrating. to the different towns of Bangladesh to do. business, and for a long period they controlled the cloth trade in Bengal, outside Calcutta. Since 1947, because of the pull of Dacca, emigration from that district had dwindled. At the same time emigration from Comilla district has grown greatly. Like Noakhali, this district became overpopulated (i.e. its food production was less than the demand) in the 1930s. Till 1947 there was some emigration to the middle Brahmaputra Valley. Since then emigrants have mainly. gone to the Haor Basin, and Dacca and Chittagong. The 1low toDacca is particularly heavy. Unlike Sylhet. to the north, and

"514

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADIMI

Noakhali and Chittagong to the south, this district sends few emigrants and seamen overseas. The main flows of internal emigration are: (i) from Noakhali district to Je~sore, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Dinajpur, southern Sylbet and Hill Tracts districts, and Dacca, Chittagong and Khulna cities; (ii} from Chittagong district to Hill Tracts district; (iii) from Comilla district to Sylhet, Mymensingh, Jessore and Rajshahi districts, and Dacca, Chittagong and Khulna cities; (iv) from Mymensingh dist.dct to northern Sylhet, northern Rangpur and Dinajpur district and Dacca city; (v) from Dacca district to Sylhet, Bakerganj, Mymensingh, Rajshahi and Rangpur districts; (vi) from Faridpur district to Barisal, Jessore, Kushtia, Pabna and Rajshah district and Khulna and Dacca cities (vii) from Bakerganj district to the Char areas of Noakhali, Patuakhali and Khulna and Dacca cities. The move from the crowded south-east to all the less populated areas and the cities is obviously the most marked feature. EXTERNAL

For many centuries more people immigrated into Bangladesh than emigrated out. Till the nineteenth century large tracts of land were thinly populated and there was an abundance of foodstuffs. From the third quarter of the nineteenth century till the 1930s there was some emigration from Tangail and Jamalpur to the middle Brahmaputra Valley. At the same time there was a flow from Chittagong district to Burma(Arakan Coast, Mandalay, Moulmein and the land around Rangoon). At first this was mainly a ~easonal migration but soon many settled among the local Muslims. Some moved into Thailand (Chieng Mai). Emigration to Calcutta was heavy before 1947. From Pabna Kushtia, Fairdpur and Jessore districts large numbers settled there. Many from Noakhali worked at the Khidirpur docks. People of Bangladesh origin have made their mark in many fields in India. Till the 1950s there were hardly a thousand Bengalis in the

POPULATION

515

United Kingdom. Some time around 1952 began an increasing flow from Sylhet district. Within ten years about 60,000 Bengalis emigrated to the U. K. and settled mainly in London and the Midlands. In 1962 the Immigration Act, prompted by the rapidly increasing flow and the social problems created by it, was passed in the U.K. This reduced emigration to some extent. In 1976 it is estimated that there are 1,00,000 Bengalis mostly in London, Bradford, Coventry, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds and Glasgow. They are acquiring landed property, and it is estimated that more than 250 restaurants and several hundred boarding houses are owned by them. About £ 30 million is remitted home annually. More than four-fifths of these emigrants are from Sylhet District; mainly from Jagannathpur, Bishwanath, Balaganj, Sylhet and Gopalganj Thanas. A rough estimate has it that people of Bengali origin in Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Bahrein and other Arab countries, number about 20,000. There are also small groups of Bengali origin in Malaysia, Singapore, Jamaica, Trinidad, the ·Guianas and USA, number of doctors and scientists from Bangladesh have settled in Canada, USA, Australia and the U.K.

CHAPTER XVlll

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS URBAN SEITLEMEI\,- PATTERNS Almost all urban areas have strong village characteristics and many of them grade into villages quite imperceptibly. Only Dacca and Chittagong have big sections of purely urban built-up arc-as. Even large towns (e.g., Comilla, Mymensingh) have a rural· atmosphere, with a profusion of trees a scattering of cultivated fields within the town, and market days, when large numbers come from the surrounding villages to do their weekly selling and shopping. One of the marked features of these (as opposed to

western towns) is the near absence of internal functional differentiation. Most shopkeepers live above or behind their shops. Most of the lower paid Government servants also live in quarters whose· frontage on the road is often occupied by offices or shops. Only the section with the Government officers residences, Club, Rest House and office buildings is clearly defined in most administrative· centres. Almost all the houses in these sections are Pakka and with gardens and lawns. The remainder of the town has a scattering of Pakka houses amidst closely packed Kutcha houses. In fact nearly three-fourths of the house in most towns are Kutcha. In the western parts of southern and northern Regions and in Sylhet the proportion of Pakka houses in urban areas is over one-third. In Faridpur, Noakhali and Hill Tracts districts, it is barely one-tenth. The Kutcha house-types are naturally very nearly the same as those found in the villages of the surrounding area.

SETTLEMENT PATIERNS

517

URBAN HOUSE PATI'ERNS

AU houses are classed according to two categorie~-Kutcha and Pakka. Katcha construction implies impermanence: bamboo, thatch, reeds and even timber are the materials used in them. Brick or stone, and sometimes the sturdier timber construction, ·especially if with a strong plinth, are Pakka. An outstanding feature of urban areas in Bangladesh, and indeed of the whole .of south and south-east Asia, is their strong village characteristics: paved streets and Pakka houses are mixed in an intricate pattern with fields and Kutcha houses. The Pakka urban houses can be divided into two distinct groups: those of the old towns and those of the new. The typical house of the old towns (usually 1900-1940petiod)is a middle-classHinduresidence, as it was the Hindus who dominated town life till1947. These houses are usually two-stroried in Dacca and Chittagong, but one-storied in most of the towns. They have a narrow balcony in front, often with grille-work balustrades. very small windows and a courtyard at the back, for the ladies. These ill-lit houses are further plagued by insanitary conditions, since sanitation is poorly developed in all but the newest urban locales. Most of the ·houses built since the 1930s and especially those built after 1947 pay greater attention to lighting and sanitation, though they are still inadequate. The houses of more recent construction also have verandas and balconies, but these are usually wider than those in older houses, and instead of iron grille-work balustrade, have brick-work in various patterns. The courtyard at the back is often dispensed with. The social pattern dictates that the kitchen and the latrine be at a little distance from the living quarters. As social ideas change and Western house patterns gain approval, the kitchen and bath-room are being built as an integral part of the main house. The courtyard, as a necessity, is disappearing. So too are the gardens unfortunately, because of the high land prices. Formerly it used to be a sign of social status and education, to cultivate roses, jasmine, queen-of-the night, lilies and other flowers. A few sickly potted plants are all that one sees in most

518

GEOGllAPHY OF BANGLADFSH

of the new, crowded modern constructions. Multi-storied ftats are being built in most of the 'Housing Schemes'; the absence of trees and gardens makes them dreary. The older official building (Rest Houses, Post Offices, Courts, Officers' residences) have thick walls and high ceilings, but the newer ones often go to the other extreme. Unlike in many Muslim countries, and Malaya in particular, Islamic architectural features are almost completely ignored, though their use can result in a distinctive and appealing architecture. The Curzon Hall in Dacca is recognised as the fbest building in that city, and is one of the few to use Saracenic features. Another pleasant structure with Persian and Saracenic features is the Rangpur District Council building. Some of the most un-aesthetic buildings are to be seen in the 'ultra-modern'" structures of the new residential areas of Dacca and Chittagong. The result of efforts to combine the features of the old style with the angular 'modern' designs often are buildings uneconomical to the builder and uncomfortable to the resident. Detailed statistics are not available, but from what there is,. an idea of the housing problem can be gauged. In the larger urban areas there are on the average two rooms per family (excluding kitchen and bathroom) and three persons per room. Nearly a seventh of the people live in congested households, i.e., with five or more persons per room. The average size of living rooms is about 100 square feet in Pakka houses, and about 80 square feet in Kutcha houses. In the poorest quarter and in the newly-spring industrial slum'> (especially Daulatpur) the miserable shacks measure barely six by six feet. The squalor of such areas is near indescribable.

RURAL SEmEMENT PATTERNS* The ftooding of almost all fi!lds in the rainy season forces settlements to be sited higher ground or to raise the land artificially for the homesteads. In the low basins, river-ftood-plains and

* Vil!age lines have been drawn in

such a manner that the area of a village contains a number of homesteads which may be together in same pattern or scattered.

519

SE11LEMENT PATTERNS

RURAL SETTLEMENT PATTERNS L

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520

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGUDESH

most ofthe Delta the levees (existing and abandoned) form most of the 'high' ground availbale. Linear settlements on levees and swales are very common Figure 1). It is the dominant type in the Immature Delta, the lower parts of the Mature and Active Deltas, the Mahananda. Tista, Jamuna, Ganges and Meghna flood-plains, the BharBasin and theHaor Basin. Linear settlements are also found along the base of the hills of south Sylhet and the Chittagong Region because of the spring line, where water is available close to the surface; where small streams form from springs along the Jaldi and Sitakund Ranges there are linear settlements of up to five miles length. In areas with considerable middle and high level fields many of the homesteads are scattered (Map XVIII.l). The linear tendency is still there, but there are single or clusters of homesteads away from them. About half the homesteads form ill·defined linear patterns, a third form clusters and the rest stand apart singly. This settlement pattern (scattered) is common in the Mature and Active Deltas, the Old Brahmaputra flood-plains, the Piedmont plains, east and south Sylhet, the Tippera Surface and parts of the Chittagong Region lowlands. In the Tippera Surface it reaches its highest develoiment, where the countryside is thickly dotted with small clusters of hcmesteads. Pressure of population has forced scattered homesteads even in low areas ·such as the Padda-Dhaleashwari Doab, the Bhar Basin and the Haor Basin. In these places the homesteads are built upon ten to nfteen feet high artificial mounds and when the water level rises they are in effect small islands. In the Moribund Delta the tendency towards nucleation is strong. The settlement pattern can still be called scattered, but here the clusters of homesteads are common, and often big. The isolated homestead is uncommon. Streams naturally force much of the settlements to be linear. In the west-central Barind and the Madhupur Tract the tendency to scattering is strong, because of the juxtaposition of uncultivated hillocks and strips of cultivated fields. In the eastern part of the Barind the semi-nucleated patterns of big clusters of homesteads is common.

521 Tho fully nucleated settlement pattern is found in the Haor Basin and the Hill Tracts District. The Jh11mia Moghs, Chaks, and Tipras live mostly near the streams, whereas theMrus, some of the Tipras, K11mis, Lushais and other small tribes live on the ridges. The settlement pattern of both groups is nucleated. The former group has much larger villages than the latter. There is often no definite pattern. The jungle paths converge at the village, but there is no definite path-system within it. The space between the houses is usually free of undergrowth and paths criss-cross them. The remoter tribes often have stockades around their villages and only a single path leading to it. One of the earliest studies of the homestead pattern in Bangladesh was made by J. C. Jack (1916) in Faridpur District. Though these examples are frm only a ~mall part of Bangladesh, they bring out the essential differenences: the more substantial nature of the bigger Ia nd owners' homestead, the arrangement of the huts around a courtyard, tho subtle differences between Muslim and Hindu homesteads, and the extremely small size of the poorer cultivator's huts. In tho Barind Tract and in the homesteads of the well-to-do all over the country, small gates are used for entrance into tho courtyard around which the houses (huts) are arranged. This arrangement takes infinite forms, but usually tho parlour is the first hut in the bigger homsesteads. The sleeping quarter (bedroom) is the most substantial of the lot. In big homesteads, where as many as ten families may be living together• there may be as many bedroom-huts. AB a rule there is only one kitchen in a homestead; more than that is rare. The richer farmers often have a small mosque or temple within their homestead, and usually placed besides the main tank (pond). Big clusters of homesteads are common in the higher better drained areas (e.g. Tippera Surface); in thfm the houses are so close and the P. D. so high (30-SO persons per acre) that they resemb1e the urban-rural fringes of tho bigger towns.

* Tho large joint-family system is DOt UDCOIDIDOD aiDODI the Hindus.

522 RURAL HOUSE TYPES

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

Only the main types of rural houses may be considered here: details of construction and distribution can hardly be considered within the scope of this work. The plinth of almost all rural Kutcha houses is of mud: the height varies from barely six inches in the higher areas (parts of the Barind and Madhupur Tracts) to four feet in some low-lying parts of the Delta. There are several common materials for walling and roofing these houses (or, mote properly, huts). Different combinations of them make the main types. The most common material for making the walls is bamboo. Wherever available, Muli (Melocanna bambusoides) bamboo is preferred but over most of the country Talla (Bambusa tulda) is the most common bamboo used. Of bamboo walled house the commonest are those with walls of thinly spliced bamboo, plaited into square or diamond pattern. The gabled roof is thatched with Chhon grass (Imperata arundinacca) in northern Central and Eastern Regions; with Ulu (Saccharum cylindricum), Khari (S. fuscum) and Bena (Adropogon muricatus) grasses over most of Northern and Central Regions and the north of Southern Region; with Golpata (Nipa fruiticans) leaves in the south of the Southern Region and the southern coastal tract of Chittagong District; with Tal (Borassns ftabellijer) leaves over much of the Madhupur and Barind Tracts; and with rice straw, by the poorest, all over the country. Most of such houses are oblong (type BThO in Map XVIII.2), and measure 16 to 24 feet long by 10 to 15 feet broad. This space may be divided into two or three rooms with plaited bamboo partitions. Such houses are predominant in the Eastern and Southern Regions except in the Chittagong region, the Haor Basin and the Moribund Delta. Slightly different in shape but often made with the same materials is the square thatched houses (type BThS). Where as in the BThO type the longer side is at least one and a half times as long as the shorter, in the BThS type the sides are almost of equal length or the longer side is less than one and a half times the length of the shorter. Another

SETTLEMENT PAlTERNS

~- ,'

,..

523

,_,':,:,

~

.. l

~ ..

RURAL HOUSE PATTERNS

u .... ::

''I

\

7-. . . ........ . . _) Mtho

I

Mtho

Mtno

~~B>hG

~

J-1

'

'.'

'.

Mt ~s,P

•("

......

Mthst

t' ·,,

MtO

Btho

8 A y

OF

BENG11L

..,., Map XVIII. 2

524

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

essential difference is that the gables of the BThO type are usually pitched at angles v2. .:ing from 30 to 45 degrees, whereas that of the BThS type areat angles from 45 to 60 degrees. This latter type is found scattered all over the country, but is commonest in south-east Northern Region. These houses are usually 12 go 15 feet square. Another bamboo-walled type (BThC) common in the Northern Region (Especially the south-west) is built on yardhigh plinths and has a curved roof. This bowed roof with steep gables is common over most of the Western Region (West Bengal). It is favoured for small temples. Very often fairly thick (l!H) splits of bamboo are pleated for the walls of this type and dubbed with a thick layer of mud. A small verandah in front, with wooden supports is common. Another special type (BThD) is common in the islands and coast of the Chittagong region south of Sitakund. It has been described ac; double-toofed. Actually the main bouse is high and ha'> a roof seperate from the verandah and small rooms around it. The main unit is one to four feet higher than the verandah around it. They usually have a small attic and are known as one and half storeys. A few such houses have even three levels with three roofs: the highest is for a big attic. Mud-walled houses of this type are very common in the Chittagong region. The walls, of one to two feet thickness, are of sundried mud. Two types can be distinguished. The shorter bas walls of about ten feet height, and the taller is of twice the height. The taller variety is common in Satkania Thana. These mud-walled houses (MThD) may have thatching like that of type BTbD, or have tile (type MID) or corrugated iron (type MID) roofs. Of bamboowalled houses, those with corrugated iron or kerosine-tin-sheet roofs (BIO BIS; BSO BSS) are fairly common in all well-to-do localities. These roofs are made of sheets of corrugated galvanised iron riveted into a wooden frame. When new, they shine brightly, but very soon they rust and become an ugly brown. Some of the most un-aesthetic views in Bangladesh are across the jumble of rusted roof-tops of residences and warehouses .in the bigger business centres (e.g., Narayanganj, Puranbazar

SETI'LEMENT PATTERNS

525

of Chandpur, Firinghibazar of Chittagong etc.). The advantages of such roofs are that they are fireproof and last quite long. Of mud-walled houses the commonest is the oblong type with thatched roof (MThO). It is common in the eastern parts of Comilla and Noakhali Districts, the northern part of Chittagong District, the southern bills of Sylbet District and much ofSouthern, Central and Northern Regions. Near Comilla and around Jessore and Chapai-Nawabganj towns such houses w~h tiled roofs (MTO) are common. The square types (MThS, MTS, MIS) are also not uncommon. Corrugated-iron-roofs (type MJO) are common in the Central Region while type MIS, with roofing of ftattened kerosine-tin sheets is common from Bogra to Khulna. The walls of these mud-walled types are made from sundried blocb of clay. After the walls are made, there is further shrinkage and gaps appear between the blocks. These are filled with more clay. In parts of the Madhupur Tract, because of the .lateritic quality of the soil, the walls become so hard that it is not easy to break them even with picks. In the western part of the Southern Region and throughout the Northern Region, the commonest type of mud-walled house (MThC), has curved roof of thatch, low walls and small verandahs in front. Over much of the Barind, however, the walls are high and the roof ridge straight (MThO), and in the north-eastern South Bengal there are two special types. In Kushtia District, and especially in the tract between Poradha and Darsana, the prevalent type is mud-walled and with steep gables, topped by an ornamental ridge (Type MThSP). The gables are pitched at 60 degrees and reach twice the height of the walls. Small verandahs are common. The houses look as if they are wearing peaked caps. Just south-west of the area in which the above type is prevalent is the area of tall mudwalled houses (MThST). The .walls are up to JS feet high and the gables are smaller than in the MThSP type. Often bamboo fencing forms one of the outer walls. This tyPe is characteristic of the tract of the Moribund Delta between Darsana and Jessore.

526

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

Along the larger rivers, where the channels shift very often, the poorer people preferto invest as little as possible in housing. Very often their houses have walls of jute sticks with mud dubbed on, and thatching of rice straw (JTh); in the Haor Basin, and in the riverine areas the poorest often use reeds for walling (RTh). In the Haor Basin, Ilcra (Erianthus ravaneae) is the main reed used; in the other areas Hogla (Typha elephantina), Mukta ne (Clinogyne dichotoma), Mura (Juncellus inundates) and other tall reeds are used. Timber houses are not uncommon in certain parts of the country e.g. Madhupur Tract, Chittagong Region, where there are forests nearby. Except in the southern Chittagong District, these timber houses are invariably double-storied (type TID). The front is often carved and painted. In the southern Chittagong District the houses of the Rakhaing Moghs are also of timber, but on stilts and usually one-storied (type TihS). The town dwelling Moghs, if prosperous have double-storied houses with carved balconies and lintels. Some of the rich landed gentry have houses of this pattern, often of Burmese teak, in the countryside (e.g. Pelrua Barabakia). Sylhet District has a distinctive half-timber type of houses (OHT) that is common to many parts of Assam. The floor and sometimes part of the lower walls, are usually of brick construction. The walls are of lkra reeds or bamboo matting plastered over with cement or mud on both sides and painted white; these are held up by a frame of timber, painted black. The roof is usually of C. I. sheets, and sometimes of straw. This type is common to the eastern parts of Sylhet District. The tribes of the Hill Tracts build their houses of bamboo. The standard pattern is a hut on stilts, with an open platform (verandah) on one side (BThSt). For climbing up, there is a notched log (also used in type TThST). Whole bamboo pieces are :usually used for the ftoor and walls, and split bamboo matting for the roof, along with thatching of Kurujpata (Licuala peltata) or

SETfLEMENT PATTERNS

527

Ramgua (Pinanga gracilis). The most substantial of such houses are built by the Mrus. The Lushai, Panko and Bom used to have houses with wooden floors and, sometimes log walls. Though this traditional type is dying out, there are still a few houses of this type (LIT). The types described above are essentially those of the dwelling (parlour, dwelling, bedrooms) houses. Kitchens, cow-sheds. poultry-coops etc. are built seperate and usually of poorer material. Kitchens are rarely roofed with anything but thatch and have usually a quarter to one-eighth the floor space of the dwelling houses. Seven by seven feet is a common size. Cow-sheds are built very poorly almost all over Bangladesh, and especially in the Eastern Region. In the north-western part of the Central Region the cow-sheds are thatched well and stand higher than the ramshackle huts common in other areas. Only in the Moribund Delta do the cow-sheds have a distinctive design. They are long and low, with a slightly curved roof. In this area, the poultry coops are also specialised, being round huts on stills, made almost entirely of bamboo. In other areas poultry coops are low sheds. Shops, godowns (warehouses), tea stalls, etc. have somewhat different forms from those described. Large numbers of Kutcba mosques and temples are of the types described, with with slight differences. Pukka mosques are not uncommon in rural areas. They have domes and minarets (usually short) characteristic of their type. The mosques in Sylhet District often have brightly painted designs. Hindu temples, when Pukka, have high steeples and look somewhat like churches, except that the 'steeple' itself is the complete temple. Budhist Kyangs are of type TID. Only about 2% of the rural houses are Pukka. Among them are the large houses of former big Zamindars (landlords). Of these there are nearly a hundred prominent ones such as the Tajpur Palace, Natore Rajbari, the large mansions at Gouripur, Karatia, Nagarpur, Narail, etc. These huge buildings, often surrounded by

528

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADFSI[I

gardens with a liberal scattering of marble statues, are rapidly decaying: their coloured glass windows, stucco ceilings, mosaic floors, grand staircases, all look completely out of place in theirvery rural surroundings.

CHAPTilll XIX

ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK The economy of a country is the result of the interrelationship between its physical and human resources. These aspects of the economy which relate directly to economic geography, such as agriculture, trade. industries and transport, have already been dealt with. In this chapter the framework within which the entire economy operates will be considered, for a better appreciation of the inter-relationship between geography and economics. For understanding and analysing what takes place in the economy it is necessary to know the concept of national product accounting as used in Bangladesh. The term GNP is now almost a household word but some definitions are necessary before proceeding further. National accounts are usually expressed in periods of twelve months, corresponding either to the calendar year or the financial year. In Bangladesh the financial year from July to June is usually used. National account statistics for GDP. GNP etc. are therefore usually compiled for various financial years. The gross output of an economy is the total flow of goods and services which are produced. If we deduct from the gross output all intermediate goods and services, domestically produced as well as imported, which are used up in the production proc~s. we arrive at the Gross Domestic Product (GOP). To obtain the Gross National Product (GNP) the income transferred to the country by Bangalis abroad has to be added and the income transferred to other countries has to be deducted. Both GOP and GNP include an estimated amount for depreciation of capital goods 'consumed' in the process of production. If this amount

530

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

for depreciation is deducted in each case we arrive at the Net Domestic Product (NDP) and the Net National Product (NNP). Since the estimation of depreciation requires rather precise statistics national accounts for Bangladesh are usually presented in terms of GDP and GNP. These out puts can be measured either at factor cost or at market prices. Factor cost means the value added by some economic activity. When all the gross income received by the various factors of production are added we obtain the GDP at factor costs; GDP of market prices equals GOP at factor costs plus indirect taxes net of subsidies. The National Accounts of Bangladesh are usually presented as GOP at factor costs. The table 19.1 shows the National product for two years in the 1960's and an estimate for 1972-73 soon after the war of liberation. The figures for 1964-65 and 1968-69 are estimates by Alamgir and Berlage (1971) and in rupees, whereas the estimate for 1972-73 (Rashid 1972) is in takas. Due to inflation the GDP figures had gone up quite considerably in this period. To eliminate distortions due to inflation estimates are often presented in tenns of constant costs of a base year. However, it should be noted, the figures in Table XfX.I are in current factor costs. The planning Commission(l973)estimated the GDPof 1972-73 atTk. 4 million. but the full sectoral break-down is not availble. It is quite evident from the statistics given above that the total size of the GOP is strikingly small. For a population of a bout 74 million in 1972-73 it meant per capita GDP of Tk. 534 only. For purposes of comparison between differentc ountries national accounts are usually converted at official exchange rates. This is often rather unsatisfactory because official exchange rates may not reflect the value that would be established in a free currency market. Moreover exchange rates equate at best the prices of internationally traded goods and services only, and usually do not reflect the relationship between goods and services not entering international trade. If the GOP of 1972-73 is converted into U.S. dollars at the exchange rate prevailing then it comes to about

531

!ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK

Table 19.1 GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (MILLION RUPEES/CURRENT FACTOR cOsTS)

1. Agriculture

2. Mining 3. Manufacturing (a) Large scale (b) Small Scale 4. Construction 5. Utilities -6. Transportation and communication 7. 'Frade 8. Banking & Insurance 9. Ownership of Dwellings 10. Public administration and Defense. 11. Services Gross Domestic product

I

1964-65

1972-73

! 1968-691 (Millin

Takas)

15,708 5 2,133 1,353 780 1,633 104

25,950

1,207

1,767 3,189 234 1,461

1,400 3,300 250 1,650

643 911 19,810

1,094 1,230 28,658

2,250 1,500 39,950

11,141 10 1,283

677

b06 994 128 1,295 2,134

104

2,650

800 200

·5472 million U.S. dollars. If internatona1 transfers are netted out 1he resultant GNP is only half a million dollars more than the GDP. To convert this from factor cost to market prices we have to add indirect taxes but deduct subsidies. In 1972-73 the. GNP at market prices may therefore have been Tk. 40950 (USS5609 million). According to the World Bank Atlas for 1972 Bangladesh had the 11th largest GNP in south and east asia, with an amount comparable to Taiwan and Israel. Taiwan however has one fifth and Israel one twentyfifth the population of Bangladesh. Per capita product is therefore very low, and this is what really matters. Poor countries may have large GDP or GNP but only because of a large population. At the risk of being facile one .might say economic development means the raising of per capita

532

GEOGRAPHY OF BANGLADESH

product. With a GNP per capita of less than US S 100 the peopleof Bangladesh are at the bottom of the rung. Within south and east asia only Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim have comparably low per capita GNP. From the sectoral proportions in table XIX.I, it is evident that agriculture contributes three-fifths of the total output. This is typical of an under-developed country. An usual concomittant of such economic poverty is the low contribution of manufacturing t-:> national product and the low share of services. In this case manufacturing contributes hardly 7 percent and services account for only 4 percent. In Taiwan, for example, manufacturing contributes 25 percent of the GNP. Economic development in the modern sense means a rapid rise in output from the manufacturing sector and an even sharper rise in the services sector. which is highly variable with economic growth. The basis for economic growth in the first few years may however be in the agriculture sector and this seems to be true for Bangladesh. Economic growth is possible only through investment and to sustain it, investments have to be channelled into building up the capital stock in the country. The resources for this investment comes from domestic savings or from borrowing abroad. Though occasionally large amounts can be borrowed abroad, there cannot be sustained growth unless domestic resources are properly mobilized. Domestic savings means that part of the national output which is not consumed. Since per capita productivity is very low in Bangladesh nearly all the output is consumed. In the 1960's repeated floods and typhoons destroyed much of the additions to farm equipment, livestock and housing. The only significant saving was made through Government taxation and therefore most of the investment was made by Government. agencies. In the period 1964-69 domestic savings averaged about 10 percent of GNP and net capital inflow (borrowings mines investment repayment) averaged over 3 percent of GNP (Alamgir and Berlage 1971). We now come to the very difficult question of the capital-output

'£CONOMTC FRAMEWORK

533

ratios. When capital investments are made, such as in manufactur· ing capacity, these investments may have to be spread out over a 'few years. The output from this investment does not usually begin in the first year of investment but after the lag of a year or more. Investments are made in all sectors of the economy, at different periods in the year, and the res\lltant output varies according to a multiplicity of factors. It is therefore very difficult to measure how much impact the investment of one year will have on the -output of that year or the next year. However, by aggregating investment and output over a series of years, economists come up with hotly debated capital output ratios. The matter is ~omplicated by the issue of what constitutes capital investment -since much of the savings may refer to current inputs. In fact savings estimates for Bangladesh normally include investment in current inputs of fertilizer in the agriculture sector. The estimates of capital-output ratio for Bangladesh have varied from 2 to 5, but generally ranged between 3 and 4. Dividing the savings of 13 percent of GNP by a capital output ratio of 4 we arrive at the growth rate of 3.25. If current expenditures are excluded and the damage to capital stock by floods and typhoons are properly accounted for then the average economic growth rate for Bangladesh in the 1960's is close to 2 percent of GNP per year. With a population growth rate of over 3 percent per year this meant an actual lowering of per capita GNP in that decade. Such a high rate of population growth is therefore intolerable in the present context of Bangladesh. The devastation caused by the typhoon of November, 1970 and the war of liberation in 1971 shattered the economy. Despite the vast amount of international aid (more than half of which are loans) the economy was hard hit by the drought conditions of 1972 and the floods of 1973. In a poor economy heavy dependence on agriculture actually means heavy dependence on weather conditions. A good monsoon, with rainfall properly spaced, can increase GOP by ten percent and a bad monsoon can do t.ae reverse. Control of the water resourcl!s is essential for reducing such damaging fluctuations.

CHAPTER XX

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING Planning for economic development has become a discipline by itself. It started as the brainchild of the economists but with growing environmental problems, geographers are being increasingly consulted. Economic development after all deals with the modification of human and physical resources, which are the concern of the geographer. Sophisticated economic planning requires input-output tables to show production and consumption dependence. The geographer is concerned with similar interrelationships, but on a much larger scale, and involving natural phenomena, social environment and economic factors. Much of this cannot be quantified but it can be evaluated subjectively. There is nothing inherently wrong in subjective judgements, since development planning itself is a political decision. Geographers need not involve themselves in the politics of the decisionmaking process, but they can present the pros and cons to the decision-makers. The poor economic performance of the developing countries is a major reason for the poor quality of life of the majority of their citizens. There are various indices to show what bas been called the quality of life: mortality rate, life expentancy, general health~ food consumption, nutrition, per capita income etc. By any set of evaluation the quality of life is indeed very poor for the vast majority in Bangladesh. Infant mortality rate and the crude death rate are three times higher than in most developed countries. Life expectancy at birth is 50 years as against 70 and above in most developed countries. There is one doctor for every 10,000 person~

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

535

and one hospital bed for every 6,500 persons.Figures for developed countries are one-tenth of these. Calorie intakeisfour-fifthsofthe estimated requirement of 2,300 calories per day (United Nations. 1957) and there are severe deficiencies in protein and vitamin intake. Despite the many disadvanatges of the concept of per capita income it does very often reflect the average level of the quality of life. With a per capita annual income of about 350 Taka US S50) the people of Bangladesh are among the very poorest in the world. The task of planning for the economic development of Bangladesh is very formidable. It is a small country with an exceedingly high population and very few natural resources. The one great resource is the human population itself. Instead of it being a burden it can be converted into a vast resource. In the absence of empty lands and large mineral deposits there is indeed no other way to further development. Till recently education was considered· a non-developmental expenditure, but gradually it is being realised that education improves the general level of human effectiveness. Not the type of education that aims at the mass production of arts graduates but education that is oriented to science and technical training. There is still considerable scope for agricultural improvement but even the realisation of that will involve a considerable amount of technical training. Agricultural development cannot go on in isolation and anyway, with the growth in population, there will be increasing members who cannot be absorbed in the agriculture sector .In a country with a great variety of resources, such as China, there can be virtually self-contained economic development. In countries like Bangladesh there is no alternative to international trade. It is a precarious mode of development, but one that has to be accepted. The exchange of goods need not be further than the adjacent Indian states, for eastern India contains most of the physical resources necessary for an industrialized state. The pace of development will however depend on that of West Bengal State in India. If Bangladesh and adjacent parts of India do not industrialize at a similar pace the growth of manufacturing and related services will perforce slow

536

GEOGltA.PHY OF BANGLADESH

down. The other alternative is to industrialize on the basis of growth in south-east Asia. These hypothetical alternatives will become real only when the agriculture sector begins to produce at the higher levels it is capable of; through the application of fertilizers, water control and labour. We can visualise the economic growth of Bangladesh into a developed country when its agriculture sector is producing at levels three to four times higher than at present, when it importc; raw and semi-processed goods and exports fully procsessed and manufactured goot's and when its further economic growth is dependent on a large pool of technically t;ained and scientifically -oriented workers. Before reaching that stage the agricultural sector has to be radically transformed. Given its resource endowment Bangladesh cannot hope for economic development without agricultural development. Bangladesh is fortunate in having a large extent of new alluvial soils, whereas large areas of the tropics have leached podzols, which deteriorate as soon as the vegetation is removed. The potential for increasing agricultural production is indeed impressive, if the population can be properly mobilized. In the long run agriculture alone cannot provide a -satisfactory level of living. Even though improved agriculture will mean some industrial development, per capita income cannot more than treble with the development of agriculture and agricultural achievement in itself (raising per capita income from about US S50 to US $150), but Bangladesh will still remain one of the poorest of countries. The development planners are often so involved with the nuts and bolts' of preparing projects and progress that they lose sight of the end-product. If the economy of Bangladesh is not to stagnate at the end of the agriculture-development period then there has to be a massive progress of education and training simultaneously with agricultural development. The narrowly prescribed limits of a traditional agricultural society have to be broken before any significant development can take place. Orientation of education towards scientific disciplines l;lnd wide-

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

537

spread training with mechanical instruments and appliances can re&dically change the manner in which problems are faced and solved. The alternative to stagnation is radical scientific orientation. Jt may be difficult today to visualize Bangladesh keeping pace with industrial development, but in the long run there seems to be no acceptable alternative. Industrialization does not necessarily mean the production of basic chemicals and metals. It can mean fabrication or the production of parts, in all cases relying on items tl1at are labor-intensive. Jmprovement of communications and salesmanship are important ingredients in an economy based on the skills of its labour force. The immediate orientation of the economy must perf01ce be based on geographical realities. It is only later, when considerable use has been made of the given ·environment, that Bangladesh will be ready to radically alter the potential of its human and physical geography. A !>killed and innovative labour force may be a thing of the future but the direction taken today will to a large extentdetermi ne 1he destination tomorrow.

BmLIOGRAPH¥ Chapter I Bagchi,K. Chattorjeo, S. P. Cressey, G. B. Dobby, E. H. G. East, J., and 0. H. IC. Spate, (Editors) Hunter, W. w. Mukbedee, R. IC. O'Malley, L. S. S. Rashid, H.

Rawson, R. R. Rennell, James Spate, 0. H. K. and A. T. A. Learmonlh Spencer, J. E., and w. L. Thomas

Stamp,L.D.

Chapter II Asbfaque, S. M.

The Gaoacs Delta; Calcutta, 1944. BeoaaJ in Maps; Calcutta, 1949. Asia's Lands and Peoples; McGraw-Bin Book Co., New York, 3rd ed., 1963. Monsoon Asia; University of London Press. London, 1961. The Changins Map of Asia; London Methuen, 4th ed.,1961. A Statistical Account of Bengal (8 Vols); London, 1875-77. Tho Changing Face of Bengal; Calcutta, 1918. Benpl, Bihar and Orissa, Sikkim, Calcutta, 1917. East Pakistan, A Systematic Regional, Geography and its development planning aspects (2nd edtion); Lahore, 1967. The Monsoon Lands of Asia ; Hutchinsoa, London, 1963. Momoirs of a Map of Hindoostan; 2nd ed., London, 1792. India and Pakistan, A General and Regional Geopaphy, 3rd ed., Methuen & Co., London, 1967. Asia, East by South; John WHey Sons, Inc. New York, 1971. Asia, A R.ogional and Economic Geogra· pby ; 3rd cd., Methuen & Co., London, 1966. Geomorphology of Southern Cbittago01. post-graduate thesis; Dept. of Geography, Unh·ersity of Dacca, 1963.

540 Bazlee, Lutfun Nahar

Buchanan-Hamilton, F. Clark, Jr., S. P. Eicher, D. L. Fawcus, L. R. Ferguson. J. Gansser, A. Gordon, R. B. Gupta,J. N. Hayden, H. H. and E. H. Pa'ICoe Hirst, F. C. Hunter, W. w. Johnson, B. L. C.

Krishnan, M.S. Krishnan, M. S. and N. K. Aiyengllr La Touche, T.H.D.

Matthews, W. S.

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542 Chapter IV Blanford, H.F.

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Ahmed K.J. Ali, S.M. and S.D. Ripley

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548 Ghosh, J.M. Ghurye, G.S. Goetz, H. Haq, M.A. Haq, M.E. Hirst, F.E. Hunter, W.W.

.. ..

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..

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...

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552 Hutton, J.H. Khan, F.K. Lewin, T.H. Loeffler, L.G.

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Chapter IX ADC

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"

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'SS6 Todd, D.K.

USDA

Chapter X Alam, M.Z.

Alam,Z.

Alam,A.

..

Asaduzzaman, M. Biswas, J.K. Chaudhuri, S.D. and M.A. Ali Chowdhury, A.R. Chowdhury, N.C. Cobley, L.S. De,M.N. De, P.K. and L.N. Mandai

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Chapter XII

Ahmad, N.

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561

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562 .Hussain, M.T.

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Chapter XVII

Ahmad, B. Ahmad, N. Alamgir, M.

Akramuzzaman, Malik

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564

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Chapter XVI//

Ahmad, N. Atiqullah, M. and F.K. Khan Brauns, Claus-Dieter Elahi, K.M. Farooque, M. Khan, F.K. and N. Islam Khan, F.K. and S.I. Chaudhuri Patel, A.M.

Chapter XIX Alamgir, M. and L. Berlage

" Chenery, H.B. and P.G. Clark Planning Department Khan, A.R. and H.T. Imam

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Leontief, W. Mellor, J.W. Rahman, M.A.

Ruggles, R. and N.D. Ruggles Szczepanik, E.F.

Alamgir, M.

Alamgir, M.

Chllpter XX

Abdullah, A.A.

Ahmed, Iftikhar

Alamgir, M.

Buchanan, K. Coale, A.J. and E.M. Hoover

565 'The Structure of Development', Scientific American, 1963. The Economics of Agricultural Develop. ment. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1966. The Private Sector of East Pakistan : An analysis of lagged development ; United Bank Research Monograph, No. 3, Karachi. 1970, National Income accounts and Income. Analysis ; 2nd. Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1956. Targets and Financing of Agricultural Dcveloment', Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Economics and Satistics, Vol. 18, No. 1, FAO, Rome. 1969 'Foreign Capital Inflow, Saving and Economic Growth-A Case Study of Bangladesh', The Bangladesh Economic Review, Vol. II, No. 2, April, 1974. 'Some Analysis of Distribution of Income, Consumption, Saving and Poverty in Bangladesh', The Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. Ill, No. 2, April, 1975. 'The Success story that wasn't Develop. ment Policy II : The Pakistan Experience', The Bangladesh Economic Review, Vol.l, No.3, July, 1973. Unemployment and underemployment in Pakistan and Bangladesh, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, 1972. 'Some Theoretical Issues in Manpower and Educational Planning', The Bangladesh Economic Review, Vol. I, No. 2, April, 1973. 'Profiles of the Third World', Pacific Viewpoint, Vol. 5, 1964. Population Growth and Economic Development in· Low Income Countries, Princeton University Press, 1958.

566

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Myrdal, G.

..

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Agriculture in Economic Development, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964. Economic development in the tropics, London,1968. Education and Development strategy in South and South-East Asia, East-West Center Press, Honolulu, 1965. Land and Water Resources Sector Study Bangladesh, (9 vols), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington, D.C, 1972. 'The Role of Agriculture in Economic, Development, American Economic Review, Vol. II, No. 4., 1961. Nutrition Manual for East Pakistan, Co-Operative Book Society, Dacca, 1965. Developing the under-Developed countries, The Macmillan Press, 1971. The Dynamics of Rural Society, Akadcmie Verlag, Berlin, 1947. 'The Seed-Fertilizer Technology and Surplus Labour in Bangladesh Agriculture', The Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. III, No.4, Oct. 1975. Economic Theory and Under-developed Regions, London, 1957. Asian Drama ; Pantheon, New York, 1968 . Population and Food in East Pakistan, Harvard University Centre for Population Studies, 1970. 'Some Aspects of Bangladesh Agriculture: Review of performance and Evaluation of Policies' ; The Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. III, No. 3, July, 1975. 'Poverty, inequality, and Development Strategy in the third world', paper presented of the First congress of Third World Economists, Algiers, 2-7 February, 1976.

INDEX Adina Mosque, 171 Agar (Agor) trees, 147 Agriculture, jute, 310-14, cotton, 315-17, me!ta, 318. onion, 270 (table), 274 (map) garlic, 271 (table) 273, 274 (map), chili. 272 (map), rice, 224-46, see also crops, kapok, 318, wheat, 247-49, 250 (map), barley, 249, 250 (map), palipata, 323, maize, 249, 251 (map), lac, 322, millets, 249, pulses, 252, 253 (map), 254 (table), 255 (map), 256-59 (table), 260 (map), beans, 261, vegetables, 264-76, potato, 265, 266 (map), 268 (table), paan, 306-10, spices, 276, betelnut, 323-28, cocoanut, 328-30, condiments and herbs, 280, citrus fruits, 343-46, oil seeds, 281, 282 (map), 284 (table), 289 (table), 286 (table), 287 (map), linseed (tishi), 285, seasamum, 285, melons, 346, custard apple, 343, groundnut, 286, 288 (tatle), banana, 331-34, sugarcane, 290-97, mango, 334-38, tobacco, 299-303, jak, 338-39, pineapple, 339-41, tea, 303-6, lichu (litchi),341-43 papaya, 343 Agricultural Development, 219-23, 379-80, 532, 535-36 Agriculture Development Corporation, 208, 210 Agricultural Implements, 214-16 cattle as, 3j6 Ahmed, Dr. Nazir, 365, 370-72 Ahmed, K.J., 145, 146, 218, 364

Ahmed, R., 218, 484 Ain-i-Akbari, 173 Airways, 442, 443 (map) Akbar, Emperor, 172, 173 Akhaura, location, 69 Alam, Z., 281 Alamgir, Mohiuddin, 530, 532 Alawal.174 Alexander (The Great), 160 Allen, B.C., 448 Ali, Chowdhury Rabmat, 181 Aman (Amon), see also croppingpattern units, causes of damage, 98, cycle of crop, 213-14, 228 (map), High Yielding Varieties (HYV), 230 Amazon, river, 63, 80 Aquatic weeds, 366 Arabs, 190, 433 Arakan king, 167, Arakan Yomas, 95, 98, 101, coast 101 Architecture, 163 Aria! Khan, river, 77-8 sources of khals in Barisal, 78 Armenians, 508 Aryans, 184 Ascoli, 180 Asian Bison (Magnificient Gaur), 154 Atmospheric Pressure, 110 Atrai, river. 18, 21, 23, 56 60-61, sacred river, 61, valley, 18, floodplain, 20, 125, 60, thana, 20, soil along, 125, channel, 56, 60 Aus (rice crop), cause of damage to, 98, 233 (map).

568 type, 231 High Yielding Varieties (HYV), 232 Babar (Babur), Zahiruddin Muhammad, 172 Backerg.lDj, area, 201, land, utilization in, 203 she of holdings in, 205 Baleshwor, river, 435 Balisera, range, 35, Bamboos, 147 types of, 148, out-turn of 150 (table), absence of, 142 Bakkhali, river, 51 valley, 51 Bangali, river, 58, 59, 62-63 .Bangladesh, agriculture in, 223, typhoons in, 109·10, deaths due to snake bites in, 158, game reserves in, 159, historical tackground, 160-82, 162 (map), deriviation of name, 164, liberation of, 182,origin of people, 186-91,languages ir,, 194-200, land and land utilisation in, 291-23, mineral resources, 447, administrative divisions, 3, regions, 3-4, reference material for research, in, 4-6 IBRD, Maps of, 5,g eological basis, 7-9, physiographic divisions, 11, 13, 12 (map), climate, 90, rainfall, 95, main rainy period in, 98, economy, 529-33 Bankim Chandra, 179 Banteng (bon-goru), 154 BansistcUl, 181 Bangladesh Rice Research Insti:ute (BRRI), 226 Banana, 332 (table), 333-34 Banerjee, J.N., 164, 367 Barisal, Source of khals, 78, cattle markets in, 357, population, 504, number of tanks in, 365, important trade centres in, 473

INDEX

Barind Tract, 11, 15-19, 207, 211 cropping-pattern in, 386 Baruas, The, 188 Barry, M.A., 434 Bedkeshi, 40 Bengal, independence of, 182, Turks in, 174, 186 Bengal Basin, 9-11, 10 (map) Bengali books in Roman, 171, basin, 9, 10 (map). census reports, 4, culture, 192, dress, 192, delta, 3, 11, district gazetteers, 4, food, 193, Austric origin in, 180, influence of Islam, 1, 161, 168-74, influence of culture, 161, history, 160-82, 162 (map), 180, modem geographical study of, 4, physiographic regions, 11. ports of, 161 staple diet, 1, Greek and Chinese traders in, 161, division of the country before 13th century A.D., 168, 162 (map), powerful kingdoms of, 161,under Muslim control,169, propersons land. 175-80, British power in, 176, British plunder in, 176-77 geographical study .>f, 180, partition of, 181, Berlage, L., 530, 532 Betel leaf (Paan), 306-10, 307 (table), 309 (map), exports, 486 Betelnuts, 171 t}pes of palm, 323, 324 (map), system of counting, 325, areas of production, )26, 327 (table) Beveridge, 180 Bhanug2ch, range, 35 Bhairab, river, 72-76, hazar, 69 Bhar Basin, 20, 23 soils in, 125 Bhola, 44-45' typhoons in, 110, river, 73, 76, population, 504 Bils, 83-85, 367, 39

569 water transports in, 426 Biri Factories, 460 Birds, 156-57 Blommenstein, Dr. W.J. Van, 209 Boats, types of, 428-31, for trade and travel, 428, the Panshi, 429, the Chhib, 429-30, the Bajra, 430, the Balam, 430, timber used for making, 431, number in riverine districts, 431-32 Boal (fish), 365 Boars, 84

Buriganga, river, 161 Cachar, 1 Calcutta, growth of, 180, 433 Campos J.J.A., 172,175 Caroe, 0.,174 Cary, M., 161 Cashewnut (Cashew apple), 192 Catla (fish), 364 Cattle, annual fairs, 356, total number, 350, fodder for, 351, 356, production of milk and butter, 357, (table), a'J agricultural implement, 351, horses, 359-60, breeds of, 352. distribution of, 353-54 (table), 355 (map), disea~es of, 353-54, markets for, 356-58, goats, 358-59, sheep, 359, pigs, 359, production of hides and skins, 358 (table), production of beef and mutton, 357 (table) Cement, 448, 461 (table), 464-66 Censuses, 4, 496 (table), 497, 498 (map),

fisheries in, 367, wa~er transports In, 426 Bogra. cattle markets in, 358, size of hoi· dings in, 205, area, 201, land utilization in, 203, area, 499, population, 499, number of tanks in, 365, important trade centres in, 471, population in towns of district, 502 Boro, 232, 234 (mal)), HYV, 235 Boulenger, G. A., 371 Bose, Subhas Chandra, 181 501-8 Bowrey, T., 175 Chakma, The, 187, 189, 191-93 Chalas (chaler), 30, 31, Brammer, Dr. H., 380 Brabmanbaria, 69 Chalna Port, 435-36 traffic (exports and imports), 434 population, 505 Brahmaputra, (table), tonnage handled at, 436 river, 24, 63-66, ftoodplain, 24, 27, (table) 401, course, 24, 28, di~charge, 65 Chanda, R. P., 184, 186 (table) floods, 65, 66, old Brahma- Cbandpur, population, 505, land, 72, towu. putra, 66, 404 Brown, 163, 171, 173 71, discharge of Meghna at, 79, Buchanan, F., 17, 60, 180 canal, 72, esturine discharge of Buddhism, Lower Me&hna at, 79 Buddha preached, 161, Asoka Chandraghona, paper and rayon factory, 148, preached, 161, spread and inftuence bamboos used in, 148, populaof, 164-68, disappears in Banglation, 505 desh, 168 Buddhists, 193, 501 Chaudhuri, S. S., 189 Chaudhuri, Roy (Ray), H.C., 160, Buffaloes, 352 breeds of, 352 161, 163, 167, 168 Chars, 22, 26, 27, 36, 44-5, 126, 63 Bullock-carts, 440, 442

S10 Chatterjee, S.P., 183. 194, 195 Cherrapunji, 99 Chhota Nagpur Palteau, 183, 186, 191,447 Chital Deer, 145, 145-46, 155 Chittagong, physical features, 45, 48, Arab Muslims in, 168. area, 201 499, rivers of, 81-82, Bils in, 86, soils in hill regions, 128, cropping-patterns in, 416, forests of, 133-37, timbers of, 146, 149 (table), port, 433, traffic (exports and imports), 434 (table), land utilization, 203, size of holdings in, 205, growth, 512, region, SO (map), cattle markets in, 357, population, 499, 505, 510, fowls and ducks in, 362, number of tanks in, 365, as centre of industry, 467, important trade centres in, 475-76 Chowdhury, M.R., 142 Cigaretle, 462 (table) factories, 466 Cigars, 462 (table), 467 Climate, 90 climatic sub-zones, 110-15, 114 (map), climatic indices, 112 (table) Clive, Robert, 177 Coastal Embankment Scheme. 211 Coastal shipping, 433 Cocoanut, 328, 330 (table), 331 (map), exports 486 Coedes, G., 164 Coffee, 142 Colebrooke, 180 Com ilia, size of holdings in, 205, cattle markets in, 357, forest produce of, 149-50 (table), area, 201, 499, land utilization in, 203, number of tanks in, 365, fowls and ducks in, 362, important trade centres in, 475, population in towns of district, 499, 505, croppingpatterns in, 414

INDEX.

Congo, river, 63. 80 Cotton, 315.17, 316 (table) exports, 486 Cottage Industries, 454, 455 (table). centres of, 454, labour in, 454.. 456 (map), 467 Cotton textile, factories, 456 (map), 458-59, 45960 (tablt:) Cox's Bazar. temperatures in, 93, rains in, 95, 101, forests in, 139-40, forest produtt of, 149-50 (table) Crocodile, 157 Crops (see also Agriculture), rotation of, 212-14, fertilizer use, 216-18, croJ;ping-patterns, 379, cropping-pattern units, 378, 384 (map), net cutivated area, 392 (map), gross cultivated area, 409 (maP) Cunningham, A, 180 Cycle Rickshaws, 439-40 Cyclones, see Typhoons Dacca (Dhaka), 173 area, 201 (table), 499, size of cultivators holdings in, 205, forests in, 141-42, forest produce of, 149 (table), cattle markets in, 356, fowls and ducks in, 362, number of tanks in, 365, as centre of . industry, 467, imPortant trade centres in, 473, hailstorms in, 98, made capital by Islam Khan, 173, 508, great city, 175, the city, 50810, population, 504, named Jahangirnagar, 508, population of Dacca district, 499 Dakatia, river, 70-71 Daudkandi, 71 Daulat Quazi, 174 Day, Francis, 373 De, K. C., 373, 375 Deltas, mature and immature, 40-45,

INDEX active, 43, 211, cropping-patterns in, 395-400 Development Planning, 534-37 Dharla, river, 58-59 Dheki, The, 243 Dholeshori, (Dhaleswari), river, 67, a channel of Surma,Meghna,68 Diaras, 22, 26, 27, 36, W7 Diara Survey, 45, Diodorus, 160 Dinajpur, soils in, 125, number of tanks in, 365, fowls and ducks in, 362, cattle markets in, 357, population, 499, important trade, centres in, 471, population in urban areas of the district, 502, area, 499 Districts, areas in, W1 (table), land utilization in farm areas in, 203,average size of cultivators holdings in, W5, intensity of cultivation in, W6 Doioi, Valley, 35, Dore, R.P., 222, Drewes, W.U., 5 Dudhkumar, river, 58-59 Dugong, 155 Dutt, R.L., 177 Earth Rec;ources Satellite tERTS), 5, 451 East India Company, 176, 177,433 capture Chittagong port, 433, silk factories of, 321 Economy, Bangladesh, 529 econom;c development, 534-37 economic growth, 536,gross. national product,531-33,gross domestic product, 529-31, 531 (table) Elephants, 154 Emigration, internal, 512-14, 511 (map), external, 514-15 Erosion, of rivers, 87,

571 Europeans, 175 External trade, 476-78, 489 (table) Exports, fish and prawns, 485, paper and pasteboard, 486, hides and skins, 484, jute, 478-84, (table), 480, (table), 489 (table), Others, 487, poultry and eggs, 486, cotton, 486, spices, 486 tea, 484, 484-85 (table), 489 (table) Factory Ir.dustries, 457 Farakha Barrage, 209 Faridpur, fowls and ducks in, 362, khat, 77, cattle markets in, 356, number of tanks in, 365, area, 201 (table), land utilization in, 203, Important trade centres in, 473, size of cultivators holdings in, W5, population, 499 Fauna, 150-51, 154-59 birds, 156-57, elephants, 154 deer, 155 monkeys, 150-51, reptiles, 157 tiger, 151 Fawcus, L.R., 40, 41, 42, 145, 373 Feni, river, 38, 45, Little Feni river, 70-1, Feni river valley, 48, Arakan kings ruled upto, 174 Fergusson, J., 24, 180 Firozabad, centre of Muslim power in Bengal~ 170 Fish and Fisheries, annual catch of fish, 364, nets and traps for fish;ng, 370, classification of fisheries, 364, dried fish, 375, frys, 366-68, fishing centres, 374 (map), 369, Iivel' fishing, 369, esturine fishery, 370, kheo fishing 368, fish exports, 376-77 Floods, 87 Foreign Trade, 488-95, 494 (table),_ 495 (table) Forests, 132-50

572

INDEX

Haor Basin, 31, 33 soils in, 127, irrigation in, 209, cropping-pattern in, 407 Hatia, 44-5 Hats, village economy dependent on, 468, estimated number of. 469, location of, 469 Game reserves, 158-59 Haq, M.A., 178 Ganges, river, diaras and chars, 23, distributa- Hayden, 24 ries, 40, 41, discharge, 65 (table), Hides and Skins, 358, exports, 484 floods, 40, floodplain, 22, 23, 43, Hill Tracts, area, 201, size of holding in. 205, ·Ganges Kobadak project, 74, 209, land utilization in, 203, district, 218 Ganges Active Floodplain, 49, mountainr anges of, 53, num394 origin, 11, 72-73 ber of tanks in, 365, populdtion, Gangaridai, 160 499, important trade centres in, leading nation of t::e sub-conti476, population in the towns of, nent, 160 505, area, 499 Ganguly, D.C., 164, 166 Hi/sa (Fish), 368-69, Garo, Hill, 28, 187 salting of, 376 cropping-pattern in, 406 Himelayas, The, 9, 95, 98 Gewa, 144, 145, 147 Himalayan Piedmout Plains. 15-16 Ghaghat, river, 58, 62 Hinduism, 168 Ghori, Mohammad, 168-69 rise during Sena kings, 168, patroGhurey, G.S., 184 nage of British, 179, caste system, Goalundo, 72, 76-77 184, Hindu community, SOl, emiGoetz, H., 167 gration of Hindus, 497 Golpata, 145, 147, as roofing material,147, produce in Sunderbans, 150 Hirst, F.C., 24, 180 Hiuen Tsang, 161, 163, 164, Gopala, king of PundJ:a, 165 visits Bengal, 164 Gorai, river, 40, 74-75 Hodge~. Capt., 45 Grant, J.P., (Lient, Govemm), 178 Hoogly, river, 40, Grierson, G., 196, 197, 199 port on, 433 Grist, D.H., 225 Honey, Guba, B.S., 184, 186 collection of, 148, produce of, 150, ·Gumani, river, 60 export, 487 Gumti, river, 38, 70-72 Humidity, 102, (chart) 106-7, 113-115 Gupta, kingdom of the, 161, 164 Hussain, M.T., 481, 482 Gupta, J.N., 17, 60 Hutchinson, R.H.S., 82, 189, 359 Gupta, D1s, 432 Humayun, Emperor, 172 Hunter, W.W., 4, 40, 171, 179, 448 Haimantik, 212-14 Hutton, J. H., 183 Hamilton, W., 17, 180 Haors, 82 fisheries in, 367, water transports lbn-Batuta, (lbne-Batuta), 170 Imports, 487-88 in, 426 damage by typhoones, 145, dC>structive agents, 145-46, out-tum of produc.::, 146: 149-50 (table) Frederick, R. Harris Inc., 426 Fraser,428 Fried Krupp, 448

INDEX Indo-gangetic, valley, 11 Indian Hemp (Ganja), 303 Indian National Army (INA), 181 Indigo Inquiry Commission, 178 Indus, river, 11 origin, 11 Industries, classification of, 453, t>otta.ge industries 454, labour in, 454451, jute, 451·59, centres, 454-451, 456, (map) tea, 466, cement, 464, large industries, 465 (map), cigarette, 466, metal utensils, 466, soap, 466, rubber, 466, minor engint.ering, 466, Plastics and pencil making, 466, machine tools and steel, 466, industrial estates, 467

Industrialization and Industrial Development, 466-77, 535-31 Inland Water Transport, 426 mileage of waterways, 426, water route, 427 (map), shipyards, 464, boat yards, 464 Inland Water Transport Authority, 426, 432-33

Inter-tropical Zone, 110, Internal Trade, cargo handled in 468, hats as centres of, 468, routes of, 469-71, main centres, 471 (table). International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (mRD}, 5 Irrawaddy, river, 80 Irrigation, 207-11 for winter crops, 207 Islam, 116, 217 Ishaque, A.S.M., 365, 379 Jaflong, foothills, 35 Jamalpur,29 Jamuna river, 17, 18 21, 24 floodplain, 27, 43,401, floods 65,66 Jehangir, Emperor, 175 508 Jessore,

573 land utilization in, 203, siZ¢ of holdings in, 205, number of tanks in, 365, cattle markets in, 358, population, 499, fowls and ducks in, 362, important •rade centres in, 472, population in urban areas. of district, 503 area, 201, 499 Jhum (cultivation), 188 Jhum control, 149 (table) Jinjira, islets and reefs, 52, croppingpattern in, 419 Johnson, B.L.C., 11, 37 Jack, J.L., 592 Jones, William, 180 Jute industry, 451-59 production in, 458 (table) Adamjee Jute Mills, 451, 456 (map) jute bailing presses, 460 Jute, causes of damage, 98 cultivation, 310-15, 310 (map), 314 (table) new varieties, 312, zones of cultivation, 311, kutcha presses, 481, centres of trade, 469-70, export or,. 478-80, 479 (table), 480 (table), mark.;ting and pricing of, 481-83, grades of, 481, 482 (table), substitutes of, 483 Kangsba, river, 66-67 Kaptai, dam, 210, lake, 51 Karatoa, river, 16, 17, 56, 59-60 faults, 17 Karnafuli (Kamopbuli), river, 46, 81, 210, ships sunk in, 435, tributaries, 49-50, valley, 188, 49, multipurpose project, 210,452 Kasalong, river, 49-50 Kha/s (channels) 56 water transport in, 426 Khan, 177, 178, Khan, M. A. S., 448 Khan, Islam, 173, 508, Khan, Murshid Quli, 173, 508

.574

INDEX

holdings, 211-12, labour requireKhan, Aliverdi, 173 ments, 218-19, acreage under rice, Khan, Isa. 173 225 Khan, Shaista, 173 Languages, 194-200 Kharif (Bhadoi), 212-13 Leopard, The, 151 Khasis, 186-87 Khilji, Ikhtiaruddin Bakhtiar, 59, 69, Limestones, 29, 448 Literacy, Kbiyar, 16, 19 percentage of, 507, rate of female Kbulna, literacy, 507 tree trunks buried in, 41, towu, 73 area, 201 (table), land utilization Little Jamuna, rher, 19 floodplain, 19, valley, 19, soils in, in, 203 population, 510, size of 125 cultivators holding in, 205, number of tanks in, 365, area, 499, cattle Liquors, of hill tribes, 192 market in, 358, fowls and du(;ks Location of Bangladesh, 2 (map) in, 362, as centre of industry, 467, Loeffler, L. G., 189. 200 population, 499, important trade centres in, 472, population in the Maasland, M., 55 Madhumati, river, 74-78 urban areas of district, 503 Madhupur, Kobadak (Kapotaksha), jungle, 24, 141-42 tract, 24, 28river, 73, 161 project, 74, 209, 29, 30-31, soils in, 127, 187, 207, 218, forest station, 144 211, cropping-patterns in, 403 Kulik, river, 16 national park at, 155 Kutubdia, Machine Tools, 466 island, 47 channel, 47 Mahananda, river, 21, 22, 61-62, 72 Kushtia, area, 201 (table), size of cultiva- Mahasthan, 163 exca 1 at ions at, 163 tors holding in, 205, land utilization in, 203, town, 73 number of Majumder, R. C., 164, 165, 167, 184 tanks in, 365, important trade Mangla, 435, river, 75, anchorage, 75 centres in, 472 Manipuri, 189, 191 Kurigram, 59, 63 Manu, river, 35 crops in, 385-86 Maijdi, 38 Manrique, Sebastian, 175 La Plata, river, 63, 80 Mannan, 377 La touche, T.H.D., 24, 26 Labour, Industrial, 454, 457, 460 Maps, S, (see also Bangladesh) Marine Fishery, 372, 373 463,466 Matamori (Matamuhuri), Labour for cultivation, 218-19 river, 46, 82, 49 delta, 46, 47, Lakes, 82-3 khal, 46, valley, 188, 49 Lakkha, river, 31, 66, 67 Mauryas, kingdom of, 161 Land and Land Utilization, district wise area, 201 (table), Mcintire, W.G., 9, 11, 32, 36, 37, 39, 41, 64 utilization in farm area, 203 (table), classifications, 202, 207-8, Meghna, river, 26, 67 70 Lower, 78-80, largest river, 70, tables, 201, 203, 206, 212, 217, flood-plain, 36, 45, floods, 38, 4S, 219, fragmentation of plots and

515 silt, 46, discharge, 65 (table), Mustard, 214, 281, 282 (maPJ, 283 69 (table) ·Meghalaya, Plateau, 27, 29, 32, Mymensingh, 33, 187, piedmont depression, 33, area, 201 (table), fowls and ducks foothills, 33 in, 362. cattle marke!s in, 356, .M'Huan, 170 population, 499, number of tanks Mekong, river, 80 in, 365, important trade centres in, Migration, 474, population in the urban areas internal, .511 (map), 512 external, of the district, 505, area, 499 514-15 Naaf, Minority communities, 510 river, 52, 82 Mineral Resources, 447 Narayanganj, Minerals, centre of industrial trade, 469 coal, 447, limestones, 448,r bown centre of industry, 467, urban coal, 448, liquids, 448, peat, 448area and population, 504 49, rock salt, 449 Natural Gas, 449-51 Mississippi, river, 63, 80 Nawab Abdul Latif, 181 Mizo, 289 Newspapers, 446 Mizogram, 53 Newspr:nt Factory, 463 Mogh (tribe), 188, women, 191 Niger, river, 80 Mongoloids, 183, 186-89 Nilphamari, Monsoons, rainfall in, 383 crops in, 383 meaning of, 98, timing of, 98 population, 502 'breaking of', 99 Noakhali, Morinaga, T., 225 area, 201 (table), 499 cropping. Morgan, J.P., 9, 11, 32, 36, 37, 39, patterns in, 414 canal, 70, town, 41, 64 79, Arab Muslims in, 168 crossdam Moishkhal, at, 79,catllc markets in, 357, numchannel, 46, 47, 49, range, 49, ber of tanks in, 365 fowls and island, 49 ducks in, 362, population, 499, Moribund Delta, 38 important trade centres in, 475, soils in, 126, fisheries in, 367 ipopulation in the urban areas of Mosque§, 171 the district, 505 immigrants in, Mosbakbali, Basin, 28 513-14 Mountain Ranges, 53-54 Nor'-Westers, cropping-pattern in, 420 as ~urce~ of rain, 95, types of, 95, Mountford, G., 159 main penod of, 98, break in, 99 Mrus, 189, women, 191, 192 Nutrition Surveys, 366 Mugbal Empire, 172-73, Mugbals, 174 ,433 Orinoco, river, 80 capture Chittagong port, 433 Oyster Fishery, 373 Mukti Babini, 182 O'Malley L.S.S., 4, 154, 115, 433 Mursbidabad, 508 Pabna, Muslims, Arab traders, 168 area, 201, 499, land utilization in, Muslim League, 181 203, size of holding in, 205, cattle off~hoots,

576 markets in, 358, number of tanks in, 365, fowls and ducks in, 362, cropping-pattern in, 393-94, important trade centres in, 472, population, 499 Pakistan, creation of, 179, 181-82, sea trade with, 477, export of tea to, 485, imports from, 493 Pakshi (Paksey), 64 bridge, 72, population, S03, Palas, kingdom of the, 161, 166 Pala art of Bengal, 164, 166-67 Paper, expor•s, 486 Paper mills, 463 Parbatipur, soils in, 382, population, 502 cropping-patterns in, 382 Pargiter, F.E., 143, 43S Pascoe, E.H., 11, 24 Patuakhali area, 201, size of holdings in, 205, trade centres in, 473 Pearls, 373, 375 Per capita income, 453, S3S Permanent settlement, 178, 179 Phayre, A.P., 167 Physiography, 12, (map) Pilgrim, G.E., 11 Pineapple, 339-40, 337 (map), 340 (table) Pirojpur, 435 Planning Commission, 530 Playfair, A. 187, 192 Plywood Factory, 466 Podda (Padma), river, 22, 70, 76-77, floodplains, 43, c10pping-patttm in, 400 Polashi (Piassey), 176, battle of, 179 Population, census, 497, 498 (map), growth, 95-96 (table), project'on, 497, density of, 497-500, 498 (map), by districts, 499 (table), pressure

INDEX. on cultivated area, 499, age structure of, S00-1, 500 (table), male-female ratio, 500, communities, SOl, in urban areas, 501-7, 502-S (table), occupaUons, 507-8, district-wise, 499-500, 499 (Lable), in urban areas, 502 (table), Postal services, 444, (table), Post and Telegraphs, 442 Portuguese, 171-72, 191, trade by, 174, pirates, 433, Poultry. estimated number, 360, breeds of,. 361, Rhode Island Reds, 361, diseases of, 361, production of eggs, 362 (table), number of fowls and ducks, 362 (table), exports, 486 Power and fuel, gas, 449-51, 450 (map), electricity, 452-53, deposits of gas, 451 Prasad, I., 172 Prawns, 370, 373, 315· 76 exports, 485 Progress, 449 Putvadesa, 160 Puranabhaba, 61-62 Purulia, 1, Pussur, river, 75, port on, 435 Rabbani, A. K. M.G., 484 Rabi, 212-13, Radio Broadcasting Stations, 445,. Rahman, A., 372 Railways, 421-25 broad guage routes, 421, metreguage routes, 422, area covered by, 422, 423 (map), stations, 422,. goods carried by, 422, 425 (table),. workshops, 424 Rainfall, sources of, 95, distribution of, 96-7 (chart), mean annual, 100 (map), in climatic sub-zones,. 113, liS

j;