Fruit and Vegetables: Harvesting, Handling and Storage, 2 Volume Set [3 ed.] 9781118654040, 1118654048

Table of contents :
Title Page......Page 5
Cover......Page 1
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
About the Author......Page 13
Preface......Page 15
Acknowledgements......Page 17
Nutrients......Page 19
Nitrogen......Page 20
Phosphorus......Page 21
Calcium......Page 22
Organic production......Page 24
Light......Page 25
Temperature......Page 26
Water relations......Page 27
Production system......Page 28
Preharvest infection......Page 29
Ethylene......Page 31
Other chemicals......Page 32
Skin colour......Page 33
Size......Page 34
Computation......Page 35
Firmness......Page 36
Sugars......Page 37
Dry matter......Page 38
Firmness......Page 39
Specific gravity......Page 40
Photoelectric......Page 41
Acoustic and vibration tests......Page 42
Near-infrared reflectance......Page 44
Radiation......Page 45
Physiological......Page 46
Crop damage......Page 47
Impact bruising......Page 48
Hand harvesting of fruits......Page 49
Mechanically harvesting of fruit......Page 50
Field transport......Page 53
Chapter 4 Precooling......Page 55
Heat removal......Page 56
Forced-air cooling......Page 57
Hydrocooling......Page 59
Vacuum cooling......Page 61
Chapter 5 Packaging......Page 63
Second-hand containers......Page 64
Woven baskets......Page 65
Wooden field boxes......Page 66
Plastic field boxes......Page 67
Fibreboard boxes......Page 68
Package recycling......Page 70
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 71
Film types......Page 72
Gas flushing......Page 74
Modelling......Page 75
Perforation......Page 76
Absorbents......Page 77
Adjustable diffusion leaks......Page 79
Minerals......Page 81
Antioxidants......Page 82
Semperfresh......Page 83
1-MCP......Page 84
Curing......Page 85
Vapour heat treatment......Page 86
Degreening......Page 87
Store management and organisation......Page 88
Pits......Page 90
Clamps......Page 91
Barns......Page 92
Evaporative coolers......Page 93
Refrigerated storage......Page 94
Humidity control......Page 95
Solar-driven refrigerated stores......Page 96
History......Page 97
Dynamic controlled atmosphere......Page 98
Controlled atmosphere storage on aroma and flavour......Page 100
Oxygen effects......Page 101
Carbon dioxide effects......Page 102
Ozone......Page 103
Ethylene......Page 104
Reaction......Page 105
Ozone scrubbers......Page 106
Hypobaric storage......Page 107
Pests......Page 109
Diseases......Page 110
Legislation......Page 111
Mode of infection......Page 112
Environment......Page 113
Ionising radiation......Page 114
Oxygen......Page 115
Microbial antagonists......Page 116
Yeasts......Page 117
Ultraviolet light......Page 118
Irradiation......Page 119
Nitrous oxide......Page 120
Coatings......Page 121
Fungicidal chemicals......Page 122
Dipping......Page 123
Fumigation......Page 124
Chemical pads......Page 125
Chapter 9 Safety......Page 126
Edible mushrooms......Page 127
Escherichia coli......Page 128
Botulism......Page 129
Oxygen and carbon dioxide......Page 130
Packhouse safety......Page 131
Marketing......Page 133
Direct marketing......Page 134
Retail markets......Page 135
Cooperative marketing associations......Page 136
Market analysis......Page 137
Branding......Page 138
International trade......Page 139
Break bulk......Page 140
Reefer containers......Page 141
Controlled atmosphere containers......Page 142
Gas generation......Page 143
Quarantine......Page 146
International transport by airfreight......Page 150
Temperature monitoring......Page 152
Chapter 11 Fruit ripening......Page 153
Colour......Page 154
Texture......Page 155
Carbohydrates......Page 156
Acids......Page 157
Flavour and aroma......Page 158
Controlled atmosphere storage on ripening......Page 159
Design of ripening rooms......Page 160
Ethylene on ripening......Page 161
Abiyuch......Page 163
Açcaí......Page 164
Harvesting......Page 165
African fan palm......Page 166
Amazon tree grape......Page 167
Apples......Page 168
Harvest maturity......Page 170
Prestorage treatments......Page 171
1-MCP......Page 172
Fruit coatings......Page 174
Simple stores......Page 175
Storage and controlled atmosphere storage conditions......Page 176
Diseases......Page 190
Physiological disorders......Page 191
Harvesting......Page 192
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 193
Arbutus......Page 194
Prestorage treatments......Page 195
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 196
Assyrian plum......Page 197
Arazá......Page 198
Harvesting......Page 199
Bakuri......Page 200
Banana......Page 201
Morphology and anatomy......Page 203
Chemistry and nutritional value......Page 205
Harvest maturity......Page 210
Harvest operations......Page 211
Case studies......Page 213
Packing......Page 214
Storage......Page 216
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 221
Postharvest physiology......Page 223
Postharvest diseases......Page 225
Disease control methods......Page 228
Physiological disorders......Page 231
Case studies......Page 233
International transport......Page 235
Case studies......Page 237
Ripening technology......Page 238
Ethylene application......Page 239
Ripening conditions......Page 241
Ethylene......Page 242
Propylene......Page 244
Banana passionfruit......Page 245
Baobab......Page 246
Bayberry......Page 247
Diseases......Page 248
Biriba......Page 249
Bitter melon......Page 250
Storage......Page 251
Blackcurrant......Page 252
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 253
Black sapote......Page 254
Preharvest treatments......Page 255
Storage......Page 256
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 257
Storage......Page 258
Carambola......Page 259
Postharvest physiology......Page 260
Pests......Page 261
Harvesting and handling......Page 262
Harvesting......Page 263
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 264
Harvesting and handling......Page 265
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 266
Diseases......Page 267
Diseases......Page 268
Chinese white pear......Page 269
Citrus hybrids......Page 270
Degreening......Page 271
Cloudberries......Page 272
Harvesting......Page 273
Storage......Page 274
Harvesting......Page 275
Damsons......Page 276
Harvesting......Page 277
Respiration rate......Page 278
Physiological disorders......Page 279
Harvesting......Page 280
Pests......Page 281
Durian......Page 282
Storage......Page 283
Easy peeling citrus fruits......Page 284
Emblic......Page 285
Diseases......Page 286
Fig......Page 287
Postharvest physiology......Page 288
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 289
Garden huckleberry......Page 290
Giant granadilla......Page 291
Gooseberry......Page 292
Postharvest physiology......Page 293
Green gages......Page 294
Grapes......Page 295
Preharvest factors......Page 297
Harvest maturity......Page 298
Harvesting and packing......Page 299
Precooling......Page 300
Storage......Page 301
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 302
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 303
Diseases......Page 304
Disease control......Page 306
Biological control......Page 308
Postharvest disorders......Page 309
Transport......Page 310
Grapefruit......Page 311
Postharvest physiology......Page 312
Storage......Page 313
Diseases......Page 314
Harvesting......Page 315
Postharvest physiology......Page 316
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 317
Hawthorne......Page 318
Ilama......Page 319
Storage......Page 320
Jackfruit......Page 321
Harvesting......Page 322
Jamun......Page 323
Jamaican sorrel......Page 324
Prestorage treatments......Page 325
Jostaberry......Page 326
Ripening......Page 327
Preharvest treatments......Page 328
1-MCP......Page 329
Ethylene absorbents......Page 330
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 331
Kinnow......Page 332
Diseases......Page 333
Langsat, lanzon, duku......Page 334
Harvesting......Page 335
Degreening......Page 336
Diseases......Page 337
Harvesting......Page 338
Storage......Page 339
Diseases......Page 340
Litchi......Page 341
Precooling......Page 342
Prestorage treatment......Page 343
Postharvest physiology......Page 344
Storage......Page 345
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 346
Physiological disorders......Page 347
Longan......Page 348
Prestorage treatments......Page 349
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 350
Preharvest treatment......Page 351
Loofah......Page 352
Prestorage treatment......Page 353
Lovi lovi......Page 354
Malay apple......Page 355
Harvesting......Page 356
Degreening......Page 357
Chemical content......Page 358
Sugars......Page 359
Acids......Page 360
Aroma volatiles......Page 361
Harvesting......Page 362
Chilling injury......Page 364
Storage......Page 365
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 366
Diseases......Page 367
Hot water treatment for anthracnose control......Page 368
Hot water treatment on quality and damage......Page 369
Physiological disorders......Page 370
Prestorage treatments......Page 371
Transport......Page 372
Medlar......Page 373
Harvesting......Page 374
Storage......Page 376
Monstera......Page 377
Mulberry......Page 378
Storage......Page 379
Nance......Page 380
Harvesting......Page 381
Storage......Page 382
Noni......Page 383
Harvesting and grading......Page 384
Orange......Page 385
Harvesting......Page 386
Waxing and washing......Page 387
Storage......Page 388
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 389
Diseases......Page 390
Otahiete apple......Page 392
Palmyra palm......Page 393
Virus......Page 394
1-MCP......Page 396
Postharvest physiology......Page 397
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 398
Ripening......Page 399
Diseases......Page 400
Papayuela......Page 401
Postharvest physiology......Page 402
Peaches......Page 403
Prestorage treatments......Page 404
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 405
Disease......Page 406
Harvest maturity......Page 407
1-MCP......Page 408
Storage and controlled atmosphere storage......Page 409
Diseases......Page 412
Pejibaye......Page 413
Ripening......Page 414
Grading......Page 415
1-MCP......Page 416
Ripening......Page 417
1-MCP......Page 418
Pineapple......Page 419
Preharvest ethylene treatment......Page 420
Postharvest physiology......Page 421
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 422
Diseases......Page 423
Pitanga......Page 424
Plum......Page 425
Storage......Page 426
Prestorage treatments......Page 428
Storage......Page 429
Harvesting......Page 430
Postharvest physiology......Page 431
Harvesting......Page 432
Quince......Page 433
Storage......Page 434
Harvesting......Page 435
Storage......Page 436
Harvesting......Page 437
Rhubarb......Page 438
Diseases......Page 439
Salak......Page 440
Santol......Page 441
Storage......Page 442
Postharvest treatment......Page 443
Storage......Page 444
Sapote......Page 445
Ripening......Page 446
Seville orange......Page 447
Shea butter tree......Page 448
Sloe......Page 449
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 450
Postharvest physiology......Page 451
Strawberry......Page 452
Prestorage treatments......Page 453
Storage......Page 454
Hypobaric storage......Page 455
Sugar cane......Page 456
Sweet granadilla......Page 457
Harvesting......Page 458
Storage......Page 459
Diseases......Page 460
Harvesting......Page 461
Wax apple......Page 462
White sapote......Page 463
Harvesting......Page 464
Zapotes chupa chupa......Page 465
References......Page 466
Index......Page 561
Supplemental Images......Page 571
Title Page......Page 589
Copyright......Page 590
Contents......Page 591
Chapter 1 Introduction......Page 597
Extra class......Page 599
HACCP......Page 600
Chapter 2 Health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetables......Page 601
Phytochemicals in fruit and vegetables......Page 602
Pigmentation......Page 603
Toxicity......Page 604
Terpenoids......Page 605
Phenols......Page 606
Betaine......Page 609
Water relations during growth......Page 610
Storage......Page 611
Storage temperature......Page 612
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 613
Ripening......Page 614
1-MCP......Page 615
Apples......Page 617
Broccoli......Page 618
Citrus......Page 619
Pineapple......Page 620
Mango......Page 621
Spinach......Page 622
Watermelon......Page 623
Ackee......Page 624
African breadfruit......Page 625
African yam bean......Page 626
Añus......Page 627
Arracacha......Page 628
Transport......Page 629
Arrowroot......Page 630
Asian spinach......Page 631
Harvesting and handling......Page 633
Postharvest physiology......Page 634
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 635
Diseases......Page 636
Storage......Page 637
Avocado......Page 638
Harvesting......Page 639
Prestorage treatments......Page 641
Storage......Page 642
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 645
Dynamic controlled atmosphere storage......Page 646
Diseases......Page 647
Harvesting......Page 648
Beetroot......Page 649
Storage......Page 650
Bitter gourd......Page 651
Storage......Page 653
Bottle gourd......Page 654
Harvesting......Page 655
Chemical treatments......Page 656
Storage......Page 657
Diseases......Page 658
Harvesting......Page 659
Broad bean......Page 660
Harvesting and handling......Page 661
Storage......Page 662
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 663
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 664
Harvesting and handling......Page 665
Storage......Page 666
Disease......Page 667
Burdock......Page 668
Harvesting and handling......Page 669
Storage......Page 670
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 671
Diseases......Page 672
Capsicums......Page 673
Postharvest physiology......Page 674
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 675
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 676
Hypobaric storage......Page 677
Carrots......Page 678
Curing......Page 679
Postharvest physiology......Page 680
Diseases......Page 681
Cassava......Page 682
Physiological deterioration......Page 684
Harvesting and handling......Page 685
Storage structures......Page 686
Diseases......Page 687
Postharvest physiology......Page 688
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 689
Hypobaric storage......Page 690
Postharvest physiology......Page 691
Harvesting and handling......Page 692
Storage......Page 693
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 694
Chard......Page 695
Chayote......Page 696
Storage......Page 697
Chestnut......Page 698
Curing......Page 699
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 700
Chicory......Page 701
Postharvest physiology......Page 702
Harvesting and handling......Page 703
Chinese cabbage......Page 704
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 705
Chinese potato......Page 706
Chinese water chestnut......Page 707
Chinese yam......Page 708
Chufa......Page 709
Cinnamon yam......Page 710
Harvesting and handling......Page 711
Colic root......Page 712
Storage......Page 713
Crape ginger......Page 714
Harvesting and handling......Page 715
Storage......Page 716
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 717
Daikon......Page 718
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 719
Drumstick tree......Page 720
East Indian arrowroot......Page 721
Endive......Page 722
Ensete......Page 723
False yam......Page 724
Five-leaf yam......Page 725
Garlic......Page 726
Harvesting and handling......Page 727
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 728
Ginger......Page 729
Irradiation......Page 730
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 731
Diseases......Page 732
Globe artichoke......Page 733
Storage......Page 734
Goa potato......Page 735
Greater yam......Page 736
Simple storage......Page 737
Harvesting......Page 738
Storage......Page 739
Hoi......Page 740
Harvesting......Page 741
Indian arrowroot......Page 742
Intoxicating yam......Page 743
Jerusalem artichoke......Page 744
Storage......Page 745
Kale......Page 746
Curing......Page 747
Harvesting......Page 748
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 749
Leeks......Page 750
Storage......Page 751
Lesser yam......Page 752
Sprouting......Page 753
Harvesting......Page 754
Pre-cooling......Page 755
Postharvest physiology......Page 756
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 757
Diseases......Page 758
Storage......Page 759
Lotus root......Page 760
Maca......Page 762
Mauka......Page 763
Ripening......Page 764
Oca......Page 765
Okra......Page 766
Storage......Page 767
Diseases......Page 768
Harvesting......Page 769
Curing and drying......Page 770
Sprout suppression......Page 771
Storage structures......Page 772
Postharvest physiology......Page 773
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 774
Diseases......Page 775
Pacific yam......Page 776
Parsnip......Page 777
Harvesting......Page 778
Physiological disorder......Page 779
Pea......Page 780
Harvesting......Page 781
Storage......Page 782
Harvesting and handling......Page 783
Plantains......Page 784
Harvesting......Page 785
Storage......Page 786
Ripening......Page 787
Diseases......Page 788
Potato......Page 789
Chemical content......Page 791
Preharvest factors......Page 795
Harvesting methods......Page 797
Postharvest changes......Page 798
Dormancy and sprouting......Page 805
Curing......Page 812
Storage temperature......Page 813
Gas levels in stores......Page 814
Storage structures......Page 815
Storage recommendations......Page 816
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 817
Reconditioning......Page 818
Processing......Page 819
Conditioning......Page 825
Potato yam......Page 838
Pumpkin, winter squash......Page 839
Storage......Page 840
Queensland arrowroot......Page 841
Radish......Page 842
Pre-cooling......Page 843
Storage......Page 844
Rocket......Page 845
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 846
Salsify......Page 847
Harvesting and handling......Page 848
Storage......Page 849
Soronda kanda......Page 850
Postharvest physiology......Page 851
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 852
Harvesting and handling......Page 853
Squash, marrow......Page 854
Harvesting......Page 855
Hypobaric storage......Page 856
Botany......Page 857
Preharvest factors......Page 858
Storage......Page 859
Harvesting......Page 860
Storage......Page 861
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 862
Chemistry......Page 863
Harvesting......Page 864
Curing......Page 865
Storage......Page 866
Sweetpotato leaves......Page 867
Postharvest physiology......Page 868
Harvesting......Page 869
Tannia......Page 870
Storage......Page 871
Taro......Page 872
Harvesting......Page 873
Storage......Page 874
Transport......Page 875
Tomatoes......Page 876
Harvesting......Page 877
Quality......Page 878
Respiration rate......Page 879
Intermittent warming......Page 880
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 881
Carbon monoxide......Page 882
Ripening......Page 883
Tomatillo......Page 884
Topee tambo......Page 885
Storage......Page 886
Turnip rooted parsley......Page 887
Water chestnut......Page 888
Harvesting and handling......Page 889
Water spinach......Page 890
White yam......Page 891
Curing......Page 892
Storage......Page 893
Sprouting......Page 895
Diseases......Page 897
Storage......Page 899
Compositae......Page 900
Yam......Page 901
Harvesting......Page 902
Minor yam species......Page 903
Yam bean......Page 904
Storage......Page 905
Sprouting......Page 906
Yellow yam......Page 907
Sprouting......Page 908
Nematodes......Page 909
Zedoary......Page 910
Basil......Page 912
Borage......Page 913
Chinese chives......Page 914
Storage......Page 915
Transport......Page 916
Hyssop......Page 917
Harvesting and handling......Page 918
Mint......Page 919
Harvesting......Page 920
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 921
Summer savoury......Page 922
Turmeric......Page 923
Winter savoury......Page 924
Beefsteak fungus......Page 925
Crimini mushroom......Page 926
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 927
Jew's ear......Page 928
Preharvest factors......Page 929
Pre-cooling......Page 930
Postharvest physiology......Page 931
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 932
Nameko......Page 933
Modified atmosphere packaging......Page 934
Saffrom milkcap......Page 935
Controlled atmosphere storage......Page 936
Summer white button mushroom......Page 937
Truffles......Page 938
Velvet shank......Page 939
Wood mushroom......Page 940
Abbreviations and glossary......Page 941
References......Page 949
Index......Page 1019
Supplemental Images......Page 1027
EULA......Page 1035

Citation preview

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Fruit and Vegetables

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To Elara, Maya, Ciaran, Caitlin and Cameron to whom I owe much more than they will ever know

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Fruit and Vegetables Harvesting, Handling and Storage Third Edition Volume 1

Introduction and Fruit

A.K. Thompson

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© 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd This third edition first published 2015 Edition history: Iowa State Press (1e, 1996); Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2e, 2003) Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thompson, A. K. (A. Keith) Fruit and vegetables : harvesting, handling and storage / A.K. Thompson. – Third edition. volumes cm Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: Introduction and fruit ISBN 978-1-118-65404-0 (cloth) 1. Fruit–Postharvest technology. 2. Vegetables–Postharvest technology. I. Title. SB360.T45 2014 634′ .0441 – dc23 2014013794

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover image: © iStockphoto/raddanovic Set in 10/12pt Minion by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India 1 2015

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Contents About the Author Preface

xi xiii

Acknowledgements

xv

1.

Preharvest factors on postharvest life Nutrients Soil acidity Organic production Light Day length Temperature Water relations Production system Harvest maturity Preharvest infection Growth regulation

1 1 6 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 11 13

2.

Assessment of crop maturity Field methods Postharvest methods

15 15 19

3.

Harvesting and handling methods Crop damage Harvesting Field transport

29 29 31 35

4.

Precooling Heat removal Precooling methods

37 38 39

5.

Packaging Types of packaging Package recycling Modified atmosphere packaging

45 46 52 53

6.

Postharvest treatments Minerals Astringency removal Antioxidants

63 63 64 64

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Sprout suppressants Fruit coatings 1-MCP Salicylic acid Curing Hot water treatment Vapour heat treatment Degreening

65 65 66 67 67 68 68 69

7.

Storage Store management and organisation Store design and method Refrigerated storage Controlled atmosphere stores Hypobaric storage

70 70 72 76 79 89

8.

Diseases and pests Pests Diseases Legislation Mode of infection Non-chemical methods of disease control

91 91 92 93 94 96

9.

Safety Micotoxins Bacterial toxins Safety in controlled atmosphere stores Toxicity of packaging material Packhouse safety

108 109 110 112 113 113

10.

Marketing and transport Marketing Marketing systems Market analysis Branding National transport International trade Cold chain Transport by sea Quarantine International transport by airfreight Temperature monitoring

115 115 116 119 120 121 121 122 122 128 132 134

11.

Fruit ripening Changes during fruit ripening Controlled atmosphere storage on ripening Design of ripening rooms Ethylene on ripening

135 136 141 142 143

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12.

Specific recommendations for fruit Abiu Abiyuch Açaí Acerola Achachairú African fan palm African pear Amelanchier Amazon tree grape Anthora Apples Apricot Arbutus Asian pears Assyrian plum Atemoya Arazá Babaco Bael Bakuri Bakupari Banana Banana passionfruit Baobab Bayberry Bilimbi Biriba Bitter melon Blackberry Blackcurrant Black sapote Blueberry, bilberry Camu-camu Canistel Capulin Carambola Carissa Cashew apples Cherimoyas Cherry Chinese jujube Chinese squash Chinese white pear Citron Citrus hybrids Clementines Cloudberries

vii

145 145 145 146 147 148 148 149 149 149 150 150 174 176 177 179 180 180 181 182 182 183 183 227 228 229 231 231 232 233 234 236 237 240 241 241 241 244 244 245 247 250 251 251 252 252 253 254

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Cocona Cranberries Custard apple Dabai Damsons Dates Dewberries Dragon fruit Durian Easy peeling citrus fruits Elderberry Emblic Feijoas Fig French sorrel Garden huckleberry Genips Giant granadilla Ginseng Gooseberry Governor’s plum Green gages Grapes Grapefruit Guava Gulupa Hawthorne Hog plum Huckleberry Ilama Indian jujube Jackfruit Jamun Jamaican honeysuckle Jamaican sorrel Japanese plum Jostaberry Kiwano Kiwifruit Kinnow Kumquats Langsat, lanzon, duku Lemons Lime berry Limes Limequats Litchi Loganberries

255 255 257 258 258 259 262 262 264 266 267 267 269 269 272 272 273 273 274 274 276 276 277 293 297 300 300 301 301 301 302 303 305 306 306 307 308 309 310 314 316 316 317 320 320 323 323 330

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Longan Longkong Loofah Loquat Lovi lovi Lucuma Malay apple Mamey Mandarin Mango Mangosteen Medlar Melon Monstera Mora Mountain damson Mulberry Mume Nance Naranjilla Nectarines Noni ¯ Ohelo berry Olives Orange Otahiete apple Palmyra palm Paniala Papaya Papayuela Passionfruit Peaches Pear Pejibaye Pepino Persimmon Physalis Pineapple Pitanga Plum Pomegranate Pond apple Prickly pear Pomelo Quince Rambutan Raspberry Redcurrant, whitecurrant

ix

330 333 334 335 336 337 337 338 339 340 353 355 356 359 360 360 360 361 362 363 363 365 366 366 367 374 375 376 376 383 384 385 389 395 396 397 400 401 406 407 410 412 412 414 415 416 417 419

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Red huckleberry Red whortleberry Rhubarb Rose apple Rowal Salak Sansapote Santol Sapodillas Sapote Sapote mamey Satsuma Seville orange Shea butter tree Sloe Soncoya Sour cherry Soursop Spanish plum Star apple Strawberry Strawberry guava Sudachi Sugar cane Sweet calabash Sweet granadilla Sweet passionfruit Sweetsop Tangerines Tayberries Watermelon Wax apple West Indian gooseberry White sapote Wild cucumber Worcester berries Yard-long bean Zapotes chupa chupa

420 420 420 422 422 422 423 423 425 427 428 429 429 430 431 432 432 433 433 434 434 438 438 438 439 439 440 440 442 443 443 444 445 445 446 446 446 447

References

448

Index

543

About the Author

Anthony Keith Thompson is Professor of Horticulture at Hamelmalo Agricultural College in Keren, Eritrea. Previously he had been Professor

of Postharvest Technology, Cranfield University, the United Kingdom; Team Leader, EU project at the Windward Islands Banana Development and Exporting Company; Principal Scientific Officer, Tropical Products Institute, London; Team Leader and Expert for the UN Food and Agriculture Organization in the Sudan and Korea; Advisor to the Colombian Government in postharvest technology of fruit and vegetables; Research Fellow in Crop Science, University of the West Indies, Trinidad; and Research Assistant, University of Leeds, the United Kingdom. Moreover, he is a consultant and advisor in many countries for many international, government and private organizations.

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Preface The awareness of the importance of plants in the human diet has developed into detailed scientific study. The role of plants in medicine seems to have always been known and even today searches are being constantly made to find chemicals in plants that can be used to prevent or cure disease in modern medicine. A vast range of plant species have been eaten throughout the history of mankind. Presumably, initially human beings started using plants and their products from gathering them in the wild and eventually finding ways of cultivating them. This is the history of the development of agriculture. Even now people are still collecting plants for food from the wild in tandem with the development of breeding new cultivars of these crops and improved ways of cultivating them. Keller and Tukuitonga (2007) stated that ‘Low fruit and vegetable intake was identified as an important risk factor for chronic diseases in the WHO World Health Report 2002. Overall, it is estimated that up to 2.7 million lives could potentially be saved each year if fruit and vegetable consumption was sufficiently increased.’ The nutritional properties of vegetables and fruit have been known for centuries. In the 18th century a French pharmacist Antoine-Augustin Parmentier demonstrated, for several years by his own diet, that all the nutrients required to sustain a healthy life were found in potatoes (Block 2008). The quality of the plant material in terms of nutrition and the maintenance of that quality and reducing their physical losses from harvest to reaching the consumer have been the subject of a vast number of research projects. Changes that can occur may be due to infections by microorganisms or by the physiological processes that continue in vegetables and fruit since they are still living organisms with life processes that are severed from their sources of renewal and sustenance. The technology involved in getting fresh produce from the field to the consumer is enormously complicated because many of the crops are highly perishable and variable. This variability militates against simple solutions. The fresh produce trade would prefer not to be involved with this variation and complexity. They would prefer to be able to look up their particular crop on a chart, which will say it should be harvested,

packaged and stored in a certain way. Information in this form is readily available but will rarely give the best results in terms of preserving the quality of the crop. The objective of this book is the same as the two previous editions, which is to provide a range of postharvest options from which the produce technologist can select. Additionally it puts into context our current state of knowledge on postharvest science and technology and thus identifies areas where research is needed. In order to provide a context for understanding the differences in research results and interpreting them some background information has been supplied on each fruit or vegetable. Also some taxonomy is included because of the difficulties in knowing exactly which crop the researchers have referred to. This may well help in determining the differences in results. The information in this book and the way that it is presented is therefore largely what is perceived to be required by the industry. Also there is increasing pressure for universities to provide graduates who are more relevant to the needs of industry, and most students of postharvest science and technology will eventually work in the industry or in some way be associated with it; so the book will also serve their needs. The parts on tropical root crops have relied heavily on two of the publications of Daisy Kay. From 1970 Daisy and I worked together at the Tropical Products Institute in London. TPI subsequently became the Tropical Development and Research Institute. The 1973 edition of her Root Crops: Crop and Product Digest was so well received that it was decided in the Institute to produce a second edition. Because Daisy had died and because of research and overseas consultancy work no one suitably qualified in the Institute had sufficient time to revise Daisy’s work and so Graham Gooding was employed and with the co-operation of members of the Institute produced the excellent second edition in 1987. C.W. Wardlaw and his associates working in Trinidad at what eventually became the University of the West Indies is also a major source of information. Wardlaw was the Head of the Botany Department at Manchester University in 1960 and 1961 when I worked there

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as a lowly gardener in their Botanic Gardens. I subsequently was responsible for sorting out Wardlaw’s notes and data and those of his predecessor S.C. Harland in Trinidad when the library at the University was relocated in 1969 while I was working there as a Research Fellow. Another major source is the work of Dr J.M. Lutz and Dr R.E. Hardenburg published in the United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 66, which I was pleased to see has been revised and is constantly updated on the Internet by some of the most experienced postharvest technologists. The work of this book is based on a selective review of the literature and my experiences since I was first formally involved in postharvest technology in 1967. Since that time postharvest technology has taken me all over the world doing short consultancies and long-term assignments, of up to 3 years, meeting particular challenges in research, training and development of the fruit and vegetable industry. Although much of my time has been spent as an academic and

government or United Nations adviser, I have always worked closely with the horticultural industry. The information in this book and the way that it is presented is therefore largely in a form that I perceive to be required by the industry. In this third edition I have brought the information up-to-date and widened its scope by including some fruit and vegetables that were not included in the first two editions. Comments have been made on the lack of information and discussion on the benefits of consumption of fruit and vegetables and levels of various nutrients they may contain and how these may change postharvest. So some nutritional data has been included and I am indebted to the USDA nutrient database for much of this information. Also I have included more details on taxonomy since it has been pointed out that there is often confusion as to which crop is being referred to. I have also included a little on the origin and history of the crops for which I have relied to a considerable degree on the excellent publications of Julia Morton and J.W. Purseglove.

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Acknowledgements To Mr Allen Hilton, Dr Wei Yuqing, Dr Dick Sharples, Professor Don Tindall, Dr Sulafa Musa, Dr Bob Booth, Dr Andy Medlicott, Dr Robin Tillet, Dr James Ssemwanga, Mr David Bishop, Mr Devon Zagory, Mr Tim Bach, Silsoe Research Institute, FAO Rome, WIBDECO St. Lucia and Positive Ventilation

Limited for use of photographs and other illustrative material. To Dr Graham Seymour and Dr John Stow for comments and help on the earlier editions. Selections from USDA nutrient data base, which is freely available, have been widely used and gratefully acknowledged.

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1

Preharvest factors on postharvest life

The quality of a crop at harvest can have a major effect on its postharvest life. There are numerous factors involved and these factors frequently interact giving complex interrelationships. In tree crops, fruit produced on the same tree and harvested at the same time may behave differently during marketing or when stored. The issues that influence produce quality include obvious things, such as harvest maturity and cultivar or variety, but also the climate and soil in which it was grown, chemicals which have been applied to the crop, and its water status. Many of these factors can also interact with time such as when fertilizers or irrigation is applied or the weather conditions near to the time of harvest. An equation was proposed (David Johnson 1994, personal communication) to predict the probability of low temperature breakdown in apples in storage where variance accounted for 56%. This equation was based on preharvest factors such as temperature, rainfall and nutrient level in the leaves and fruit of the trees as follows: 8.2 + 4.5 Tmax [ J] − 2.9 Tmax [A − S] + 0.11 rain [A + S] − 16.4 leaf N − 3.9 fruit P where: Tmax [J]

= mean daily maximum temperature in June

Tmax [A − S] = difference in mean daily maximum temperature in August and September rain[A + S] = total rainfall in August and September leaf N = level of nitrogen in the leaves fruit P = level of phosphorous in the fruit.

Nutrients The soil type and its fertility affect the chemical composition of a crop. Excess or deficiency of certain elements from the crop can affect its quality and its postharvest life. Many storage disorders of apples are associated with an imbalance of chemicals within the fruit at harvest (Table 1). The relation between the mineral composition of fruits and their quality and behaviour during storage is not always predictable (Table 2) but in some cases the mineral content of fruits can be used to predict storage quality. For good storage quality of Cox’s Orange Pippin apples it was found that they required the following composition (on a dry matter basis): 50–70% N, 11% minimum P, 130–160% K, 5% Mg and 5% Ca for storage until December at 3.5 ∘ C or 4.5% Ca with minimum storage in 2% O2 and 80 –

–