From Stone Age to Iron Age: A Study from Sogn, western Norway 9780860547808, 9781407349077

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
List of Figures
List of Tables
Contents
Preface
Introduction
1. Research history
2. Background, sources and data
3. Towards basic interpretations: Primary subsistence evidence
4. Towards conclusions: Late Bronze Age land-use and diachronic developments
5. Cultural relationships on the periphery
6. History, trends, models and dynamics: Sogn in an expanded perspective
7. Concluding remarks
References

Citation preview

From Stone Age to Iron Age A Study from Sogn, western Norway

Christopher Prescott

BAR Int ernat ional Series 603 1995

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 603 From Stone Age to Iron Age © Christopher Prescott and the Publisher 1995 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547808 paperback ISBN 9781407349077 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547808 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1995. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

L IST OF F IGURES

L IST OF TABLES

F ig .

1 . Map o ft h e i n ve s t iga t ion a r ea i nI nne rS ogn .

T ab le

F ig .

2 .

T he p r e indu s t r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fv ege ta t ion t y p e s i n

T ab le 2 L ive s tock i nÄ rda l i n1 8 17 - 1 939 .

Ä rda l .

T ab le

F ig .

3 .

D i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s f o und i nc onnec t ion w i th t h eN y se t -

T ab le 4 F l in td agge r sf ound f r om t h e o u te rS ogne f jo rd r e g ion

1 D i s t r ibu t ion o fl a nd t y pe si nÄ rda l . 3 B ronze s a nd mou ld s f r om f ound i nS ogn a nd V a ld re s .

S t egg je p ro jec t . F ig . 4 . F ig .

5 .

t oF agerne s . T ab le 5 S umma ry o fa l t h e s i te s s u r veyed i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e

D i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s a r ound R i ska l sva tn . D i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s f o und i nt h e B e rda len a nd F o s sda len

N y se t -S tegg je p ro jec t .

v a l ley s .

T ab le 6 S i t e4 7 , U ru t lek rä i . I d en t if i ed b one f r agm en t s .

F ig .

6 .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ff l in td agge r s i nS ogn a nd V a ld re s .

T ab le 7 A s ho r t s umma ry o fs i t e a t t r ibu te s .

F ig .

7 .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ronz e s a nd mou ld sf r om t h eL a te

T ab le 8 Q uan t i ta t iv e a spec t s o ft h e l a ye r s i nS k r iva rhe l le r en .

N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge i nS ogn a nd V a ld r e s .

ind s f r om t h eT y in e xcava t ion s . T ab le 9 F

A ni n te rp r e ta t iv e s ke t ch o ft h ec en t ra lp a r t so fs i te 4 7

T ab le 1 0

F ig .

8 .

U r u t le l c rä i . F ig .

9 .

R ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om L a t e N eo l i th ic , B ronze A ge a nd P r e -Roman I r on A ge c on tex t s .

D i s t r ibu t ion o fE th ic a r t e f a c t s > 4 mm a ts i t e4 7

T ab le 1

R ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om f r om c ha r coa l p i t s .

U r u t le l c rä i .

T ab le 1 2

R e la t ive a nd p e r iod ica l o rde r ing o fs i te s a nd l a ye r s .

F ig . 1 0 .

Map o ft h e U ru t le l c rä i -K a lvebe i t e t -V ika s to len a r ea .

T ab le 1 3

F ig . 1 .

C ha r coa l p i t s5 0a & 5 1/ 1 -2 U ru t lek rä i .

F ig . 1 2 .

F ea tu r e so ns i te 1 07 K a lvebe i t e t .

T ab le 1 4

S ome s p ec ie s r e po r ted i nÄ rda l .

F ig . 1 3 .

F ea tu r e so ns i te 1 03 B e rda len .

T ab le 1 5

L oca l iza t ion o fL a te N eo l i th ic , B ronze A ge a nd e a r ly

F ig . 1 4 .

D i s t r ibu t ion so ff i nd s a nd c ha r coa l o n s i te 1 03 B e rda len .

F ig . 1 5 .

F ea tu r e s o n s i t e 1 30 B e rda len .

F ig . 1 6 .

F ind d i s t r ibu t ion s o n s i t e 1 30 B e rda len .

F ig . 1 7 .

C h rono log ica lc ha r t .

F ig . 1 8 .

R i ska l sva tn , N y se t -S t egg je . D i s t r ibu t ion o f Me so l i th ic a nd

P r e -Roman p e r iod s i te si nt h eV ikada len b a s in i nr e la t ion t oo l de ra nd y ounge rs i te s a nd b od ie s o fw a te r . T ab le 1 6

a nd b od ie s o fw a t e r . T ab le 1 7

a nd e a r ly P r e -Roman p e r iod s i t e s . T ab le 1 8

p a s tu r e s a nd r i ve r s / lak e s i nB e rda len .

N y se t -S t egg je . G raph ic e xp r e s s ion o fd i s tance b e tween

T ab le 1 9

S k r iva rhe l le r en , s pec ie s d e te rm ined mamma l s .

s i t et y pe s .

T ab le 2 0

S k r iva r he l le r en , s p ec ie s d e te rm ined b i rd s .

S k r iva rhe l le r en . P e r cen tage s o fb one f r agmen t sf r om

T ab le 2 1

S k r iva rhe l le r en , s pec ie s d e te rm ined f i sh , s na i l s , s he l l f i sh a nd u r ch in s .

i d en t i f ied w i ld a nd d om e s t ica t ed m amma l s , a nd n o t F ig . 2 2 .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fL a t e N eo l i th ic , B ronz eA ge a nd e a r ly P r e -Roman s i te s i nr e la t ion t os i t e s f r om o t he rp e r iod s ,

r e cen th ou se s i te s .

F ig . 2 1 .

L i th ics a nd s t ruc tu r e sf o und o n I r on A ge t o p o s t -Re f o rma t ion h ou se s i te s i nV ikada len a nd B e rda len .

R i ska l sva tn , N y se t -S t egg je . D i s t r ibu t ion o fL a t eN eo l i th ic t oe a r ly P r e -Roman p e r iod s i te s c ompa r ed t oI r on A ge t o

F ig . 2 0 .

L oca t ion o fs i t e s i nt h eV ikada len b a s in d a ted t ot h e Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic 1i nr e la t ion t oy ounge rs i te s

N eo l i th ic 1s i t e sc ompa r ed t oL a t e N eo l i th ic ,B ronz e A ge F ig . 1 9 .

S pec ie s d e te rm ina t ion o fc ha r coa l s amp le s s ubm i t ted t o r a d ioca rbon d a t ing .

d e t e rm ined a r t iodac ty le s .

T ab le 2 2

S k r iva rhe l le ren . R e la t iv e m ea tv a lue o fi d en t if i ed

T ab le 2 3

a r t ioda c ty le s .

S k r iva r he l le r en , g roup l e ve lo fi d en t if ica t ion . S k r ivahe l le r en , r e la t iv ei mpo r tance o ft h e l a rge m amma l s .

F ig . 2 3 .

S i t e4 7 U ru t lek r ä i a nd s u r round ing L a te B ronze A ge s i te s .

T ab le 2 4

F ig . 2 4 .

T he c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fl i t h ic f i nd sf r om t h e

T ab le 2 5

B u t che rv a lue sf o rs ome s pec ie s . S k r iva rhe l le r en , r e la t iv ei mpo r tan to f mamma l s a nd r e la t ive i mpo r tance o fw i ld a nd d ome s t ica ted s pe c ie s ,

L a te N eo l i th ic t ot h eE a r ly B ronz eA ge . F ig . 2 5 .

T he n umbe ro ff i nd sp r . p e r iod d i v ided b y p e r iod l e ng th .

F ig . 2 6 .

T h ec h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te si nt h e R i ska l sva tn

T ab le 2 6

b a sed o nb u t che rv a lue s .

b a s in i nV ikada len a nd B e rda l sva tn i nB e rda len .

T ab le 2 7

S i te s p e rc h rono log ica lp e r iod .

F ig . 2 7 .

T he q uan t i t ie s o fs ed imen t sf r om t h e l a ye r s i n

T ab le 2 8

C h rono log ica l v a r ia t ion i ns i te t y pe s .

S k r iva rhe l le r en .

T ab le 2 9

C h rono log ica l v a r ia t ion i ns ome a r t ef a c t sc a t ego r ie s .

F ig . 2 8 .

T he n umbe ro ff l ake s > 4 mm f r om t h e l a ye r si n

T ab le 3 0

A s s ignm en to fs e x r e la t ion sh ip sf o ra r te f a c t sf o und i n

S k r iva rhe l le r en . F ig . 2 9 .

Ä rda l .

T he n umbe ro f mamma l b one f r agmen t s f r om t h e l a ye r s

T ab le 3 1

i nS k r iva rhe l le ren . F ig . 3 0 .

S i t e c a tego r ie s b a sed o nt h eN y se t -S tegg je m a te r ia l .

D ia ch ron i ca l mode l o ft h ed eve lopmen to fl a nd -u se i nt h e Ä rda l m oun ta in sf r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t ot h eL a te B ronze A ge .

5

A s s ignm en to fg ende r .

C on t en t s L i s to ff i gu re s

5

L i s t o ft a b le s

5

l and -use a nd d iachron ic d eve lopmen t s

P reface

9

T heo re t ica l a nd me thodo log ica lp rob lem s

4 .T oward sc onc lus ions : L a te B ronze Age

I n t roduc t ion

1

i nc ompa r ison s o fp a s to ra l s i te s

1 .R e search h i s tory

1 3

N yse t -S tegg je :

T h i s p ro jec t

1 3

L ow -a lp ine l a nd -use i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge

Norweg ian b ackg round

1 5

Ad i ach ron ica l e va lua t ion o fd eve lopmen t s i n

A spec t s o f moun ta in r e sea rch

2 2

Ä rda lb a sed o n t h e s i te ma te r ia l

A rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch i nÄ rda l

2 2

N yse t -S tegg je : C ompa r i son o fa r tefac t

P rob lem s a nd g oa ls f o rt h is s t udy

2 3

a nd s i te q uan t i t ie s

2 .B ackground ,s ource sa nd d a ta

1 09 1 09 10 12 12

2 5

N yse t -S tegg je : S ome q ua l i ta t ive a spec t s

12

T he s t udy a r ea i n ar eg iona l p e r spec t ive

2 5

D iach ron ica l d eve lopmen t s i nS l c r iva rhe l le ren

13

Ä rda l

2 6

An i n teg ra ted d i achon ica l a na ly s is .

A r chaeo log ica l f i nd s i nt h e r eg ion

2 8

P a t te rn s o fi n ten s if ica t ion

T he N y se t -S tegg je p ro jec t : A lp ine i n ves t iga t ions

2 9

An e co -d iach ron ica l mode l o fl a nd -use i nt h e

S l c r iva rhe l le ren i n Moada len : t h e s ub -a lp ine z one

3 0

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd L a te B ronze A ge

S ou rce c r i t ic ism , s i tes a nd c ompa r i son s

3 8

T he o rgan iza t ion o fp roduc t ion

T he s i te s

4 3

Ny se t -S tegg je

4 3

T he S k r iva rhe l le ren s i te

6 2

E xcava t ions a nd f i nd s a tT y in a nd S l e t teru s t

6 5

C h rono logy

a nd d iv is ion o ft a sk s 5 . Cu l tura lr e la t ionsh ip so nt he p er iphery

13 14 1 2 1 1 27

T he p rob lem o fc u l tu re

1 27

C u l tu ra l r e la t ion sh ip s i nt h ep er iphe ry z one

1 28

6 .H i s tory ,t r ends , mode l sa nd d ynam ic s :

6 6

3 .T oward sb as ic i n terpre tat ion s :

S ogn i na ne xpanded p er spec t iv e

1 32

P r imary s ub s i s tence e v idence

7 3

As equence o fd eve lopmen t s

1 32

T he p a s to ra l p a radox

7 4

P roduc t ion a nd e conomy

1 33

Ny se t -S tegg je : S ub s i s tence e v idence f r om i nd iv idua l s i te s

C en t re a nd p er iphe ry . 7 4

D i scu ss ion o ft h e i n t ra -s i te r e la ted s ub s i s tence e v idence

7 6

O the rr e sou rce s

7 6

N yse t -S t egg je : Ar e v iew o fp a lyno log ica l d a ta

8 4

Ny se t -S tegg je : S pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s

8 6

S ub s i s tence a nd S l c r iva rhe l le ren

9 5

T he c omb ined s ub s is tence e v idence

P o l i t ics a nd s oc ia l i n teg ra t ion

1 35

Ac u l tu ra l -h i s to r ica l s umma ry

1 40

7 .C onc lud ing r emarks R e f erence s

1 07

7

1 42 1 43

P r e f a ce T h i s s t udy i st h ec onc lus ion o f ar e sea rch p ro jec tt h a ts t a r t -

t e d i n t h e c o l lec t ion o f d a ta . Iw ish t o t h ank t hose w ho

e dw i th ac h rono log ica l s t udy o fL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze

p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h ee xcava t ion s , a nd e spec ia l ly t ho se v o lun -

A ge ma te r ia l sf r om Nyse t -S tegg je ( P re sco t t1 986 ) ,a nd w a s

t e e r s who e xcava ted i nS k r iva rhe l le ren . Ia m a l so g ra tefu l

f o l lowed

P re sco t t

t o Anne K a r in H uf tha rnme r w ho w a s r e spon s ib le f o r s pe -

( 1 988a ,b , 1 99 1b ) . T he se i n ve s t iga t ion s p rov ided ma te r ia l

c i e s i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e b one ma ter ia l f r om S k r iva rhe l le -

f o r a r t ic les c oncern ing l ong term d eve lopmen t s , e xp lo i ta -

r en , a nd t oE l i -Ch r is t ine S o l tved t who i d en t if ied t h e p l an t

t i on s t ra teg ie sa nd s oc io -econom ic f e a tu re s( P re sco t t1 99 1a ,

r ema in s . T he E ng l ish u sage i n mo s to fa ne a r l ie rd ra f tw a s

i n p re ss ) . T he p r e sen t s t udy a t temp t s t o b r ing t h e a bove

r e v iewed b yJ a son B ockman .

b y

e xcava t ion s

i n

S k r iva rhe l le ren

Ia m v ery g ra tefu l t ot h o se w ho s pen t t ime a nd e ne rgy

i n qu i r ies t o ge the ri no rde rt oc r ea te a ni n te rp re ta t ive ma t r ix o rp rog ram .

d i scus s ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd p ra c t ica l p rob lem s i no r r e -

A l though t h e r e a r e n o p lans t o c on t inue w o rk o n t h e

v i ew ing c hap te r s f r om t h i s s t udy . S pec ia l m en t ion mu s tb e

m a ter ia l f r om Ä rda l , t h e m a te r ia l i sf a r f r om e xhau s ted .

made o f O ys te in G ebe r , C la ire G len ton , T r ine J ohn son ,

T he re i s ap o ten t ia l f o r mo re s t r ingen ta nd d e ta i led s t ud ie s

C h r is t ian K e l le ra nd A rne J ohan Nxr0y . Iw i sh t ot h ank my

o ft h e l i th ic a nd b one t e chno logy , f unc t iona l s t ud ie s o ft h e

c o l league s , R and i Hä land , S iv K r is tof f e r sen , G ro Mand t

b one a nd l i th ic t o o ls a nd i n t ra -s i te a na ly s i s . S tud ies o ft h e

a nd B e rg l jo tS o lbe rg , a tt h eD epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy i n

b one ma ter ia l c an p rov ide i n te res t ing d a ta o n s e a sona l i ty ,

B e rgen , f o r t h e i r a s s is tance a nd s uppo r t . S iv h a s p a t ien t ly

b u tche r ing p rac t ice s , c u l l ing a nd e xp lo i ta t ion p a t te rn s .

d i scussed t h eo re t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l p rob lem s i n -

T he re i sa mp le m a te r ia l f o r a na ly s is o f s oc ie ty , e conomy

v o lved i nt h is s t udy .R and ih a sw o rked w i th s ome p rob lem s

a nd i d eo logy .A ni n te re s t ing f i e ld o fi n ve s t iga t ion w ou ld b e

s im i la r t ot ho se i nt h e p re sen t s t udy , t hough i n ad i f f e ren t

t h e " pa radoxe s" b e tween ag ene ra li d eo logy a nd as pec if ic

h i s to r ica l c on tex t . S he h a s f r ee ly s ha red i d ea s , s ugge s ted

a nd c hang ing p r eh is tor ic p ra c t ice — p e rhap s p a r t icu la ry i n

r e levan t a r t ic le s a nd d i scu ssed p rob lem s a nd i d ea s i nc on -

r e ga rd t od i f f e ren tl e ve ls o fg ende ra nd g ende rr e la t ion s .

n ec t ion w i th t h i s s t udy .

Mo s t o f t h i s s t udy w a s d one d u r ing at h r ee y ea r g ran t f r om t h e No rweg ian R esea r ch C ounc i l f o r t h e H uman i t ie s

Ma r ch 1 993

( NAVF -RHF ) . Ä rda l k ommune f unded much o f t h e S k r i -

C .P .

v a rhe l le r en e xcava t ions . N ume rous p eop le h ave p a r t ic ipa -

T h i s d i sse r ta t ion w a s s ubm i t ted i np a r t ia lf u lf i l lmen to ft h e

T he p repa ra t ion o ft h i s monog raph f o rp r in t ing w a s c a r -

r e qu i remen t s f o rt h e D rp h i lo s . d eg ree a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f

r i ed o u tw i th g ene rous s uppo r tf r om t h eF acu l ty o fA r t sa nd

B e rgen , a nd d ef ended D ecembe r 1 993 . Iw i sh t ot h ank t h e

t h e D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fB e rgen .

e xam in ing c omm i tee , D r . E r icka E nge l s tad , D r . R and i N ovembe r 1 994

H ä land a nd D r . P e te r R ow ley -Conwy , f o r t h e i r t h o rough

C .P .

e va lua t ion o ft h i s s t udy , a nd t h e i rv a luab le c ommen t s .

9

I n t roduc t ion T he f o l low ing i s as t udy o ft h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze

p roa ches i np r ev ious s t ud ie s o fL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze

Age i nI nne r S ogn , w es te rn Norway . A s s uch t h e s t udy i s

Age m a ter ia l . T he p re sen t s t udy i sb a sed o n s i te ma ter ia l ,

b a sed o n ma ter ia lf r om a na r ea o nt h ep e r iphe ry o fs ou thern

b u tc onduc ted w i th in t h e i n te rp re ta t ive c on tex to f" Bronze

S cand inav ia . T he moun ta in e nv i ronmen t , i n wh ich mos to f

Age r e sea rch" . T he s t udy a t temp t s t o a na lyze a spec t s o f

t h e s i te s w e re f ound , w a s ma rg ina l t ow ha t a r chaeo log is t s

h uman b ehav iou r , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , p roduc t ion a nd

h ave c ommon ly b e l ieved t ob e o p t ima l L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

e conomy t h a t w e r e s pec if ic t o t h e p e r iod s i n f o cu s . T h is

B ronze A ge a g ra r ian e nv i ronmen t . H oweve r , t hough t h e

a pp roach s ome t imes c a l ls f o r ar eapp ra i sa l o f s ome f r e -

a r ea w a sg eog raph ica l ly ap e r iphe ry t os ou thern S cand ina -

q uen t ly u sed c oncep t s .

v i aa nd ma rg ina li nr ega rd t oa gr icu l tu re ,i tw a sn o t ma rg in -

Wi th t h e a bove g oa l s , i ti sn a tu ra l t h a t t h e s t udy s t a r t s

a li nr e ga rd t op a s to ra l a nd w i ld l if e r e sou r ces . T he s t udy

w i th ar e v iew o f t h e r e sea rch h i s to ry . T he s t udy i sp a r t ly

e xp lo r es h ow t h i sp a r t icu la ra r ea w a se xp lo i ted .I td i scu sses

w a r ran ted b yt h ep a r t icu la re nv i ronmen ti ti sc onduc ted i n .

t h e l o ca l s oc ie ty i n ad ynam ic e poch o fS cand inav ian p re -

T he n a tu ra l a nd a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s a r e t h e ref o re d i s c ussed i ns ome d e ta i l .T he s i te ma ter ia l ,a nd i n te rp re ta t ions

h i s to ry a nd ar e vo lu t iona ry e r ai n No rweg ian p reh is to ry .

b a sed o n t h a t ma te r ia l , i st h en d ea l t w i th . T he r e su l t s d e -

T he s t udy i s ar e spon se t o t wo b a s ic r e sea rch f a c to r s . F i r s t , t h e re i st h e e x ten s ive a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l f r om

s c r ibe c hang ing h uman u se o f t h e l a nd o ve r ap e r iod o f

Ä rda l .T he ma te r ia li se spec ia l ly r i ch f o rt h eL a te N eo l i th ic ,

n ea r ly 2 500 y ea r s . T he r e a sons f o rt h e d eve lopmen t s mu s t

B ronze A ge a nd I r on A ge , a nd t h e r e a r e many q ues t ions

b e g ene ra l ly u nde r s tood i n aw ide r S cand inav ian f r ame -

t h a t s t em f r om t h e ma te r ia l a nd d a ta i t se lf . S econd , t h is

w o rk . T he s t udy i st h e ref o re c onc luded w i th a n a t temp t t o

s t udy i s ar e spon se t o t h eo re t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l a p -

p lace t h e l o ca l s ca le s t udy i n ar eg iona l c on tex t .

1

1 .R e sea r ch h i s to ry T h i si n t roduc t ion o u t l ine se l emen t so ft h e r e sear ch p roce s s , a nd , i ti sh oped , a rgue st h e d i a l ec t ic n a tur eo ft h i sp roce s s . T h e r e ign ing c u l tur ed e t e rm in i s tp arad igm , a nd l a t er e co -f unc t iona l i s tm od if i ca t ion sa r er e v iew ed T h i s l e ad st o ad i scu s s ion o fw hy s imp l e e mp i r ica li n t e rpr e ta t ion a sw e l la sg enera ls y n the se sh a ve f a i l ed t oa dd r e s sp r ob l em s p rof i tab ly T h e i n t roduc t ion w i l la l so o u t l ine t h ed i s t inc t iv em e thodo log ica la pproache s a dop t ed h er e . S t ud yg oa l sa r eo u t l ined .

TH IS PROJECT

p er iphe ry r e la t ion sh ip s a nd t h en a t iona li d en t i ty o f moder n

T he p re sen t monog raph i st h er e su l to ft e ny ea r so fr e sea rch

Norway 's p l ace i nE u rope ( s ee b e low ) . I gnor ing t h e d eep ly r oo ted p rem ises f o r p r ev iou s r e -

w o rk . T h roughou t t h is t ime Norweg ian a nd i n terna t iona l a r chaeo logy h a s b een t r an sf ormed a nd d i ve r s if ied t h eo re t -

s ea rch i n to L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age q ue s t ion s , a

i c a l ly . T he a u tho r 's a t t i tude t ot h e p ro jec td e sc r ibed b e low

t e chn ica ls o lu t ion t ot h ep rob lem w a sc ho sen .T he s o lu t ions

h a s c hanged , p a r t ly i n r e spon se t o c hange s i n t h e w ide r

w e re aq ue s t ion o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s , mea su remen t s , s ed i -

a r chaeo log ica l

a u tho r 's

m en t s a nd l a ye r s , c omb ined w i th a na lys is o f s i te c on tex t s

o p in ion s h ave a l so c hanged a s t h e p ro jec t u nfo lded . T he

a nd a r tefac t mo rpho logy / typo logy . O fc ou r se , t h e d a ta t h a t

a r chaeo log ica l d a ta e vo lved t o ar i chne s s d i ff i cu l t t o

e vo lved o u t o f t h e se e f f o r t s h ad i mp l ica t ion s f o r w ide r

i mag ine a tt h e o u t se t . A d i a lec t ic p roce s s b e tween p roc -

r a ng ing a spec t s s uch a sc u l tu ra la f in i ty ,r eg iona lv a r ia t ion ,

e s s ing r e sea r che r s , s pec if ic d a ta a nd g ene ra l i t ies o f ad eve l -

e conomy , s ubs is tence a nd s i te o rgan iza t ion i nt h eL a te N e -

o p ing a r chaeo log ica l d i sc ip l ine w a s i n s t iga ted a nd m ed i -

o l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge . T he d a ta a l so h ad i mp l ica t ion s f o r

a t ed t h rough t h e p re sen t a u tho r . T h is d i a lec t ic p roces s

t h e s ho r tcom ing s i nhe ren t i n t r ad i t iona l B ronze A ge r e -

c ommun i ty

a nd

t h eo ry .

T he

p rov ides a n e xp lana to ry r e f e rence f o r t h e p ro jec t a s i t

s e a rch me thodo logy a nd r e a son ing . N a tu ra l ly , w o rk o n

s t and s t o day .

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age p rob lems a nd s i te ma ter ia l

T he r e sea rch p ro jec t b egan w i th t h e N y se t -S tegg j e i n -

h ad t ob ec on t inued , b u t aw ide rs cope w a s a dop ted . I nt h e

v e s t iga t ion s i n 1 98 1 ( B jo rgo , K r is tof f e r sen & P re sco t t

c ou r se o ft h e f o l low ing S k r ivarhe l ler en e xcava t ion s f u r the r

1 992 ) . T he i n i t ia l f i e ld s urvey h e ld t wo s u rp r ise s . F i r s t ,

p e r spec t ive s o n t h e a bove i s sue s w e re d eve loped . S k r iva r -

t h e re w e re l a rge n umbe r s o f s i te s , v i r tua l ly s pann ing t h e

h e l le ren a l so e xpanded t h eq ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive em -

w ho le p o s t -g lac ia l e poch , w he re f ew w e re e xpec ted . S ec -

p i r ica l b a se . An ew r ange o fp rob lem s c ou ld b e d ef ined i n

o nd , t h e re w e re many l i th ic s i tes c ha rac te r ized b y b i f ac ia l

a n a r chaeo log ica l ly mean ingfu l manne r .

l i t h ics a nd t h e re w e re many I r on A ge h ou se s t ruc tu re s . I n

I tw a s t hus p o ss ib le t o r eo r ien t r e sea r ch o b jec t ive s i n

r e t ro spec t i tm ay b e a dded , t h a t a s f a r a s l i th ic s i te s a r e

r e la t ion t ot h eN yse t -S tegg je ma ter ia l ,o r ig ina l ly a s semb led

c oncerned , s i gn if ican td i s tu rbance a nd mu l t i -pha sa l i ty w a s

f o rc h rono typo log ica l a na lys is , f o rt wo ma in r ea sons . T he

s u rpr i s ing ly l im i ted , e spec ia l ly c ompa red t oi n ves t iga t ions

f i r s t g ene ra l c on s ide ra t ion i st h a t mo s t s ou r ce m a te r ia l i s

o nH a rdange rv idda ( I nd re l id 1 986 ) .

mu l t i -face ted , a nd c an b e u sed t oc ons t ruc t d a ta , a nd r a ise

O r ig ina l ly , t h e l i th ic inves t iga t ion s c oncen t ra ted o n a s -

q ue s t ions , f o rr e newed i nqu i ry ( s ee Ma lme r 1 985 f o r ad i s -

p ec t s o f c h rono logy a nd t ypo logy i n L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

c us s ion o f wha th ec a l ls " a r chaeo log ica lp o s i t iv ism" i nhe r -

B ronze A ge l i th ic a s semb lage s( P re sco t t1 986 ) .T he n a r row

e n ti nt h is v i ew , a so ppo sed t ot h ei n f luen t ia lv i ews o fA .B .

r e sea r ch s cope d i scou raged a n a pp rec ia t ion o f t h e s i te s '

J ohansen i n Norway ,e . g . i n1 974 ,1978 ,1982 ,199 1 ) . A no th -

h i gh c on tex tua l q ua l i t ie s . S t i l l , d i scu s s ion o f c h rono typ -

e rr e a son w a st h a tt h es ou rce ma ter ia ls w e re n o te xc lus ive ly

o l og ica lp rob lem s h ad r oo t s i n al o ng l ived N orweg ian d e -

c o l lec ted w i th c l ea r ly d ef ined g oa ls . A l though a n e x t reme

b a te c oncern ing t h ea ge a nd p l ace o fp re s su re f l aked l i t h ics

" p rob lem -or ien ted r e sea r ch s t ra tegy" i n term i t ten t ly r u led

i nt h e B ronze A ge a nd I r on Age . T h is s o r t o f d i scus s ion

i nt h e f i e ld , s ou r ce ma ter ia ls n o td i rec t ly r e la ted t od ef ined

m igh ts e em am ino rt e chn ica l ma t te r ,b u tt h ed i sag reemen t s

p r ior i t ie s a tt h e t ime , w e r e f r equen t ly c o l lec ted . E xamp le s

s p rang f r om d eep ly r oo ted p os i t ion s i nr e ga rd t o a r chae -

o f s uch s ou rce s , o b se rva t ion s a nd d a ta a r e s i te d e l im i ta -

o l og ica l m e thod , c u l tu ra l p roce sse s , h uman n a ture , c en t re -

t i on s , d ocumen ta t ion o fs t ruc tu ra lf e a tures , i n t ra s i te d i s t r i 1 3

p rov ide a s oc io ideo log ica l c hanne l o f e xp re ss ion :

b u t ions ,e nv i ronmen ta ld a ta ,r e g iona lg eog raph ica lf e a ture s

k eep ing f l ock s a nd h e rd s .

a nd s ub s is ten t ia l f a c to r s . 5 )

A rchaeo log i s t s a nd b io log i s t s d eba ted t h e q ue s t ions t ha t

T he a u tho r ' s i n i t ia l v i ew o fs oc ie ty i nI nne r S ogn w a s

a r ose o u t o f t h e c on t inued s t udy . T h is l e ad t o an ece ssa ry

t h a t i to pe ra ted w i th in t h e g radua l ly e vo lv ing , a u tono -

e xp l ica t ion o fp redef ined a t t i tudes . T he a u tho rf ound s eve r -

mou sc onf ine so ft h a ts oc ie ty . A l though s ome " i r ra t io -

a lo f h i s p o s i t ions t oc hange i nr e sponse t op rob lems t ha t

n a l i ty" w a sp robab ly p resen t ,p eop le w e re r e ga rded a s

c ropped u pa nd n ew d a ta .S ome n o tab le c au se o ft h ec hang -

b a s ica l ly p eacefu l a nd r a t iona l —i n aw ay d i sempo -

e sw e re :

w e red , n on -h is to r ica l c ha rac te r s . L a te r , p eop le a r e

1 )

2 )

T he l i th ic s , t h e i r c h rono log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l p o s i -

s e en a sl i v ing w i th in v a r iou s ,c hang ing c onf ine s —c on -

t i on ,d id n o tr ep re sen t au n ique Norweg ian s i tua t ion a s

f i ne s t h a t a r e s t rong ly s oc ia l ly d ef ined , a nd s ub jec t t o

o r ig ina l ly b e l ieved .

h uman i n f luence . A l though l i v ing u nde r c ond i t ion s

I n i t ia l ly t h ea u tho rh e ld ap i c tu re o fL a te N eo l i th ic a nd

t h a t c an b e s ub jec ted t o g enera l i za t ion , p eop le h ave

B ronze A ge s oc ie ty i nS ogn a s ah ype r -func t iona l a nd

h ad t o s pec if i ca l ly " nego t ia te" t h e i r s oc ia l a nd e co -

i s o la ted e n t i ty . S uch a n i n terp re ta t ive p o s i t ion c l ea r ly

n om ic p o s i t ion s i n r e la t ion t o e ach o the r , a s w e l l a s

w a s ar e su l t o ft h e n eo -po s i t iv is t a spec t s o ft h e r e ign -

t h e i r p e rcep t ion o ft e chno logy a nd e nv ironmen t . T he

i n g r e sea r ch p a rad igm . T he p e r spec t ive l e d t o am is -

h i s to r ica l s i tua t ion d e scr ibed i n t h i s p ape r i sh i gh ly

t a ken r e sea rch s t ra teg ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l p o s i t ion ,

s pec if i c . I nt h is p e r spec t ive , a r chaeo logy b ecome sh i s -

t hough p rac t ica l a ta n i n i t ia l r e sea r ch s t age . We s tern

t o ry , a nd i te n ta i l s d ynam ics . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e c -

Norweg ian s oc ie ty w a s l a te rv i ewed a ss t rong ly i n f lu -

o rd i si n i t ia ted n o t o n ly b y p roces ses , b u t b y h uman

e nced , e ven d e te rm ined , b y t h e g ene ra l N or thern E u -

a c t ion s a nd r e a c t ion s .

r opean L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge d eve lopmen t s ,

3 )

4 )

e spec ia l ly i nr e la t ion t os ou thern S cand inav ia ( P resco t t

T he ma in e l emen t s i n t h is p roces s h ave b een t h e f i nd s ,

1 991a ,b ) . I ndeed , an umbe r o f d eve lopmen t s a r e n o t

t h eo ry a nd t h e a u tho r 's r e a son ing . T he r e sea rch p roce ss i s

e xp la inab le e xcep t i n ac ommon n o r thern E u ropean

t h e ref o r e n o t d i sce rned a sn a ive o b se rva t ion a nd r epo r t ing

c omp lex o f i d eo logy , i n te rac t ion a nd r eg iona l e cono -

i n ac l a ss ic p o s t iv is t s en se . No r i si t aq ue s t ion o f as t a t ic

my .

r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eory o r p reconce ived mode ls a nd

A t t h e o u t se t , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion w a s p e rce ived a s

d a ta , w he re t h e f i r s t i sa l lo t ted a s upe r -de te rm inan t , p r i -

s imp le , f am i ly b a sed a nd w i thou t h i e ra r ch iza t ion .

ma ry r o le , i n an eo -po s i t iv i s ts en se ( r ef . J ohan sen 1 978 : 15f ,

T he se i d ea s o r ig ina ted i np a r tf r om n a ive d i cho tom ies

G ibbon 1 989 :8 1f ) . A s s ugges ted a bove , t h ea u tho r 's c ogn i -

f ound i n No rweg ian r e sea rch t r ad i t ion s . T hese d i cho t -

t i ve d eve lopmen t h a s b een ad i a lec t ic p roce ss , i n i t ia ted i n

om ies a r e c on s t ruc ted t o d ea l w i th s oc ia l q ue s t ions .

r e sponse t op rob lem s o r ig ina l ly p e rce ived a s emp ir ica l .

T he mo s to bv iou se xamp le sa r ef ound i nt h ec heck l is t

Ap r ime a r ea o fe mp ir ica l ly o r ien ted i n qu i ry i nt h e p r e -

a pp roache s t o s oc ia l f o rma t ions ( e .g . 0 . J ohansen

s en t p ro jec t e vo lved t ob e a na ly s i s o f s ub s i s tence . T o t h is

1 981 :151f j ) . L a te r p o s i t ions , b a sed o n t h e p re sen t

e nd t h ee xcava t ions i nS k r iva rhe l leren ( f ig . 1 )w e re c ruc ia l

s t udy , h ave a r gued t h a t ab eg inn ing a nd u ns tab le h i e -

( P re sco t t 1 992a ,b ) . T he t h e re to r e la ted e v idence s hou ld b e

r a rchy b ecame e s tab l i shed i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic o r

b r ie f ly o u t l ined . T rad i t iona l ly , s ubs is tence d i scus s ion sc en -

B ronze A ge ( P resco t t 1 991a ) . I nt h is l a te rs t udy , s oc ia l

t e red a r ound t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o fh e rd ing a nd a g r i -

h i e ra rchy w a s i n te rp re ted a s as e conda ry , r e c ip ien t

c u l tu re c ompa red w i th v a ry ing h un t ing s t ra teg ie s . T he d a ta

b a sed d eve lopmen t i n vo lv ing Norweg ian p er iphe r ies

f r om N y se t -S tegg je w a s p r ima r i ly b id i sc ip l ina ry : a r chae -

a nd s ou thern S cand inav ian c en t res .

o log ica l a nd b o tan ica l . T he a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce m a ter ia l

A tt h eo u t se to ft h ep ro jec t ,e conomy w a sf o ra l p rac t i -

c on s i s ted o fs ome e l emen t s t h a tp rov ided f a ir ly d i rec t s ub -

c a l p urpo ses b e l ieved t ob e s ub s is tence o r ien ted . A l -

s i s tence " s ta temen t s" ( a r rowhead s a nd a s heep b one ) a s

t h ough s ome s t ock -keep ing a nd /o rc on tac t w i th p a s to -

w e l l a sc i rcum s tan t ia l e v idence ( l oca l iza t ion o fL a te N eo -

r a l is t s /a gr icu l tur is t s w e re a l lowed f o r , t h e s ub s is tence

l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s i tes i nr e la t ion t os i te s f r om o t he r

e conomy w a s c once ived t o b e b a sed o n h un t ing a nd

p er iod sw i th mo re c l ea r -cu ts ub s is tence b a se s ) .T he p o l len -

g a the r ing . L a te r t h e a u tho r h a s c onc luded t h a t t h e

b o tan ica l d a ta w a s s kewed b y m e thodo log ica l s ho r tcom -

e conomy e x tended b eyond me re s ub s is tence . A mu l t i -

i n g s . T he t h eo re t ica l f o unda t ion f o r d ea l ing w i th p a lyno -

t ude o fr e sour ce s w e re e xp lo i ted a nd av a r ie ty o fp ro -

l o g ica l d a ta w a s a l so i n capab le o ft ak ing h uman b ehav iou r

c u remen t t a c t ic s a nd s t ra teg ie s w e re e mp loyed . D e -

i n to a ccoun t .T he se p rob lems u nde rm ined t h ec r ed ib i l i ty o f

s p i te t h is , p a s to ra l ism w a s t h e s i ng le mos t d om inan t

p a lyno log ica l i n terp re ta t ions . E ven i fo ne c ou ld s o r t o u t

e conom ic s e c to r .

p rob lem so fi n terp re ta t ion ,r ep re sen ta t iv i ty a nd m e thod ,t h e

T he " beau ty" o f t h e mu l t i re sou rce , a g ro -pa s to ra l

p o l len a na ly t ica l a pp roach a tN yse t -S tegg je c ou ld a r guab ly

e conomy i st h a ti tm ee t s t h e n eed s o ft h ree s oc io -eco -

n o t p roduce s uff ic ien t ly s oph is t ica ted d a ta t o a l low d i s -

n om ic s e c to r s . P rov is ions f o rt h e e xpan s ive t r end s c an

c u ss ion s t op rog re ss b eyond as imp le q ue s t ion l i ke : We re

b e f ound emp i r ica l ly . T he t h ree s e c to r s a r e

t h e re d ome s t ica tes i nt h e g ene ra l a r ea i nt h e B ronze A ge?

—b a s ic , l o ca l s ub s is tence n eed s ,

A l though l a nd -exp lo i ta t ion i sp e rhap s t h e s i ng le mo s t i m -

—p roduc t s f o r e conom ic e xchange o n a l l g eog raph ic

p o r tan t v a r iab le i n c u l tu ra l ly d i rec ted p a lyno logy , t h e

a nd s oc ia l l e ve ls ,

m e thod s e ldom p rov ided mo re t h an a " po ss ib le p r e sence o r a b sence" o fc u l tu ra l i nd ica to r s i nt h e v ege ta t ion i nt h e

—a nd s i gn if ican t e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd m ed ia t h a t 1 4

o f i nqu iry p u r sued i n S cand inav ia t oday s imp ly r equ ire s

T he e nd o ft h ep r e -parad igma t ic B ronze A ge r e sear ch

mo re s oph is t ica ted a pp roache s .

T he a r chaeo log ica l e qu iva len t t oK uhn 's p r e -pa rad igma t ic

s ub -a lp ine t oa l p ine e nv i ronmen t s s t ud ied h e re . T he l e ve l

T he S l c r iva rhe l le ren s i te p rov ided a n u n ique ly d e ta i led

p ha se i sa n t iqua r ian ism , u sua l ly p o r t rayed a s u ppe r c l a ss

a nd r i ch b one ma te r ia l . T he p l an ta nd a r tef ac t ma te r ia la l so

p reoccupa t ion w i th s t range o b jec t s . E lemen t s o f t h e p re -

p rov ided i n s igh t s l a ck ing i n t h e N yse t -S tegg je ma ter ia l .

p a rad igma t ic p ha se l i ved o n i n " d en s t or e h auga ld er en i

T h is e v idence , a l ong w i th t h e n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l s e t t ing s ,

n or sk a r k eo log i" ( " the g r ea ta ge o f monumen ta l mound s")

c ompe l led ar e con s ide ra t ion o fe a r l ie rh e ld p o s i t ions a bou t

( Bakka 1 993 :97 ) , a nd i ndeed l i ve so n t oday . "A rchaeo logy

c u l tu re a nd s oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen t s .

i sa nu nd isc ip l ined emp ir ica l d i sc ip l ine" ( C la rke 1 978 :x iv ) a nd am ea su re o fa n t iqua r ian ism i sp robab ly an a tu ra l i n g red ien t . I n No rway o ft h e 1 800 's , W .F .K . C hr i s t ie ( 1 778 1 849 ) w a s a n e a r ly p rom inen t s uppo r te r o f c u l tu ra l a nd

NOR WEG IAN BACKGROUND

s c ien t if i c i nqu i r ie s o f ak i nd mo re s e r ious t h an t h e c ape r -

N orweg ian B ronze A ge r e sea rch h a s b een r e cen t ly r e -

i ng s o ft h e " Pa t r is ia t" . A n e xamp le i st h e f ound ing o ft h e

v i ewed ( P r esco t ti np r es s ) . T ha tp ape rs um su p ac r i t ique o f

B e rgen Mu seum i n 1 825 ( E r te svaag 1 982 :3 13 , Hougen

N orweg ian r e sea r ch ,a nd i st h e ref o re r ep roduced e x ten s ive -

1 954 :30 j ) . I n aB ronze A ge c on tex t , C h r i s t ie i n te rp re ted

l yh e re .T he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge a r et h ep e r iod s

s t one f o rma t ion s a tA va ld sne s a se v idence o f aC e l t ic p op -

i n Norweg ian h i s to ry w hen s oc ia l a nd e conom ic d eve lop -

u l a t ion ( Ch r is t ie 1 842a :323 f ) a nd r epo r ted B ronze Age

m en t s a cce le ra te . C omp rehen s ive a na ly s is o f s oc ie ty b e -

g rave f i nd s f r om H aa land i nS o la ( 1 842c :402 f ) . H is i n te r -

c ome s e spec ia l ly r ewa rd ing f r om t h e B ronze A ge a nd o n .

p re ta t ion w a s " an t iqua r ian" , t h ough t h e i n ten t w a s i mp le -

T he B ronze A ge i sg ene ra l ly a s t rong ly o r ig ina l c u l tura l

m en ta t ion o f s c ien t if ic a r chaeo logy a s p i onee red b y C .J .

e xp re ss ion i nt h e O ld Wo r ld . S cand inav ia i sv i ewed a st h e

T hom sen ( 1 788 1865 ) . C u r iou s ly , C h r is t ie a t temp ted t oi n -

f o cu so fo ne o ft h et wo mo s td i s t inc t ive B ronze Age c u l tu r -

v e r tt h et h ree -pe r iod s y s tem ,t h a ti sp u tt h eI r on A ge b efo re

e s ( A lexande r 1 980 :222 ) , a nd t h e ref o re e spec ia l ly p res t i -

t h e B ronze A ge , b a sed o n ag rave f r om A rna ( Ch r i s t ie

g i ou s . I n c lus ion i nt h is c u l tu ra l s phe re r e ad i ly b ecomes a

1 842b :375 j ) .

ma t te ro fn a t iona l a nd a cadem ic p r e s t ige .

J . J .A .

Howeve r ,i ti ss t a r t l ing h ow l i t t le p rog res si nu nde r s tand -

Wo r saae

( 1 82 1 -85 )

r e in terp re ted ( o r r e fu ted )

C h r i s t ie 's f i nd sa l ong t h ee vo lv ing a r chaeo log ica l s c ience 's

i n g t h i s d ec is ive h i s tor ica l p er iod h a s b een made s i nce t h e

s t r ic t g u ide l ine s (Wo r saae 1 843 ) . I n r e f e rence t ot h e f i nd s

1 920 ' s . T h i sd ef i c iency i ns ub s tan t ia lp rog res si si ns p i te o f

f r om H aa land a nd t h e " Ce l t ic f o rma t ion s" , Wo r saae p o -

e mp ir ica l d i scover ies , a sw e l l a sm e thodo log ica l a nd t e ch -

l em ica l ly a sked i f No rway e ve rh ad h ad aB ronze A ge . H is

n o log ica l d eve lopmen t s a nd f i nanc ia l m eans .

a n swe rw a sn ega t ive ( a lso s e e Wo r saae 1 88 1 ) . H e a l so a dd -

T he f o l low ing t r ie s t o i d en t ify t e ne t s o f Norweg ian

e d ad ose o fm e thod ( s e r ia t ion , s t ra t ig raphy a nd r ep re sen ta -

B ronze A ge s t udy b a sed o n ar ev iew o fs ome c ha rac te r is t ic

t i v i ty ) a nd t r ied t o c o r rec t C h r is t ie 's a n t iqua r ian ism . H e

w o rk . I ti sg ene ra l ly a ccep ted t h a t i d eo log ica l , s oc ia l a nd

c onc luded b y s t a t ing h i s i n te re s t f o r N o rway 's s t range a n -

n a t iona l f a c to r s a r e p rem ise s f o r r e sea r ch , t hough t h e re i s

t i qu i t ie s a nd mo s t a nc ien t h i s to ry , ar ema rk t h a t s e rve s t o

d i sag reemen to nt h ee x ten ta nd n a tu re o ft h is i n f luence ( e .g .

s t re ss N orway 's e xc lu s ion f r om t h e E u ropean ma in s t ream .

T r igge r1 99 1 ) . Mo re g ene ra lb a ckg round f a c to r s mu s tt h e re -

I dea s o f t h e E n l igh tenmen t i nf luenced c ho ice s i ne a r ly

f o re a l so b er e v iewed .

S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy ( T r igge r1 989 :74f t ) . C hr is t ie w a s

G ene ra l p a rad igm t e rm ino logy b ecame f amous t h rough

c l ea r ly a f f ec ted b ys uch i d ea s ,a nd w a si n sp i red b yE u rope -

K uhn 's b ook : " The S t ruc tu re o f S c ien t if ic R evo lu t ions"

a n a dvance s i np r eh is to ry . T hough m is taken a bou t a spec t s

( 1 970 ) .T he t e rm ,o rc ompa rab le t e rm ino logy ( e .g .L aka to s '

o f s c ien t if i c a r chaeo logy , h e w a s p a r t o ft h e n a t iona l e l i te

r e sea r ch p rog ram ) , h a s s e ve ra l d ef in i t ion s o r i n f er red

t h a t a sp i red t ob u i ld p rof e s s iona l i n s t i tu t ion s . H e w a s i n -

m ean ing s . K uhn a s cr ibe s mo s t v a r iance s i n h i s u sage t o

t e re s ted i nd eve lopmen t s a b road , b u th e w a s a l so an a t ion -

s t y l is t ic i n con s is tenc ie s , b u ta s se r t st h a tt wo m ean ing sp e r -

a l is t . I ti sn o t s u rp r is ing t h a t h ej umped a tt h e c hance o f

m ea te h i s b ook :

i n c lud ing N o rway i nt h e e vo lu t iona ry s cheme o ft h e c i v i -

" On t h e o ne h and i ts t and s f o rt h e e n t i re c on s te l la t ion

l i zed w o r ld .

o fb e l ie f s , v a lue s , t e chn ique s a nd s o o n s ha red b y t h e

T he p o lem ic i n Wo r saae 's a r t ic le w a s as imp l if ied v e r -

m embe r s o f ag i ven c ommun i ty . O n t h e o the r i td e -

s i on o f t h e a r che typa l N o rweg ian d eba te o f t h e B ronze

n o te so ne s o r to fe l emen ti nt h a tc on s te l la t ion ,t h ec on -

A ge . B a sed o n t h e a r t ic le s r e f e r red t o a bove , i tw a s n o t

c r e te p uzz le -so lu t ion s w h ich , e mp loyed a s mode ls o r

c e r ta in t h a t Wo r saae ' s v i ew w a s t h e mo re c or rec t . A s s o

e xamp le s ,c an r ep lace e xp l ic i tr u le sa s ab a s is f o rs o lu -

o f ten i nt h e h uman i t ie s , t h e f i nd s t h em se lve s d id n o t d ec i -

t i on o ft h er ema in ing p uzz le so fn o rma l s c ience ." ( op .

s i ve ly s ubs tan t ia te o ne p o in t o fv i ew . R e sea rch i s as oc ia l

c i t . 1 81) .

p roce ss , a nd i n s igh t i n to t h e "mo t iva t ion o fv i ews" mu s t b e s ough ti nt h ep re sen tc a se . Wo r saae w a sT hom sen ' s s t u -

T he p a rad igm t e rm h a s b een d i scus sed i nr ega rd t os oc ia l

d en t , a nd t h e i n terna t iona l d eve lopmen t o f a r chaeo logy

s c ience sa nd a r chaeo logy o ns eve ra lo cca s ions ( e .g . G i l je &

f r om a n t iqua r ian ism t o s c ience w a s p ionee red b y t h em .

G r imen 1 99 1 , Me l tze r 1 979 ) . " Pa rad igm" h a s a l so b een

T hey d eve loped s y s tem s o f c l a s s if ica t ion , b eg inn ing w i th

d i scu ssed i n t h e c on tex t o f t h e p re sen t s t udy ( P resco t t i n

t h e 3 -per iod s y s tem ( Thom sen 1 836 ) . Wo r saae a dhe red t o

p r e s s ) . S ee t h e se a r t ic le s f o r amo re s ubs tan t ia l d i scus s ion .

c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion , b u t h e d i d n o t b e l ieve t h a t t h e p roce ss 1 5

t ook p l ace i nS cand inav ia i t se lf . S cand inav ia w a s ar e c ip -

I ng ene ra l ,t h ed if e rence si no p in ion so nt h eB ronze A ge

i e n t , p r ima ry e vo lu t ion t o ok p l ace e l sewhe re . K now ledge

( i n a dd i t ion t o a bove c i ted w o rk s , s e e B a ld ca 1 973 , 1 980 ,

w a s b rough t t o S cand inav ia t h rough i mm ig ran t w ave s

B jorn 1 926 ,G je s s ing 1 944 ,H agen 1 983 : 175f f ,H an sen 1 904 ,

o r u nspec if ied

Wo r saae

H o lm sen 1 9 72 :24f f , J ohan sen 1 983 :33 , 1 988 :108 , Magnu s

1 88 1 :53f ) . Af u r the r r e levan t c ons ide ra t ion w a s n a t iona l -

& Myh r e 1 9 76 :159f f ,S he te l ig 1 925b :20f f , 1 930 :6 1f f ,S k jo ls -

i n te rac t ion

( T r igge r

1 989 :79 ,

i sm . Wo r saae k new w ha t n a t iona l ism c ou ld d o f o r a r chae -

v o ld 1 977 :255f , O ve r land 1 887 :8f f , Ä go tne s 1 986 :1 16 ) , a s

o l ogy ,a nd w ha ta r chaeo logy c ou ld d of o rt h eD an i sh c au se .

e xemp l if ied i n t h e 1 9 70 ' s " dua l c u l tu re d eba te" ( Ba ld ca

A f te r l o s se s i n t h e N apo leon ic w a r s a nd l a te r c on f l ic t s

1 973 , H agen 1 983 :1 10f f , J ansen 1 972 , J o rgensen 1 989 :143 ,

a bou t S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in , n a t iona l ism w a s ap o ten t i n f lu -

P re sco t t1 988 ) , a r en o tp r ima r i ly aq ue s t ion o fd a ta o rp a ra -

e nce i nD enma rk . C onf l ic t so ve rt h eN ydam c o l lec t ion , s e t -

d i gm s . D i sag reemen t s a r e t h e r e su l t o f d i f f e ren t e mpha s is

t l ed b yt r ea ty i n1 865 ( K l ind t -Jen sen 1 975 :76 ) , d emon s t ra t -

o n t wo b a s ic e vo lu t iona ry f a c to r s w i th in a s i ng le c u l tu re -

e d t h e i mpo r tance o fa r chaeo logy i nt h e n a t iona l i s t c au se .

d e te rm in i s tf r amewo rk : C hange t h rough e x terna l i n f luence

I nt h is p i c tu re No rway , al o s tt e r r i tory a nd o nt h ep e r iphe ry

v e r sus s t ab i l i ty , i ndeed r e g re ss ion , b a sed o n i n ter na l t r ad i -

o fE u rope , w a s o fl i t t le c on sequence .

t i on . T he v a r iab le p o s i t ion s w i th in t h e c u l ture -de term in is t

C h r i s t ie 's a nd T homsen 's a r t ic le sa r es ymp toma t ic o ft h e

p a rad igm a r ec onnec ted t ot wo t ype s o fN o rweg ian n a t ion -

e vo lv ing d i scu ss ion o fN orweg ian p reh is to ry . T hom sen e x -

a l ism . F o re xamp le ,b o th B rogge ra nd S he te l ig h ave u nde r -

p re sse s a n a r chaeo log ica l p rog ram e ncompa ss ing c u l tu ra l

l y ing n o te s o f n a t iona l i sm i nt h e i r w r i t ing . E ven s o , t h e i r

e vo lu t ion , m ig ra t ion ism a nd d i f fus ion ism . Norway 's p o s i -

a ppea ls a r e p rac t ica l ly o ppo s i te . T he e s sence o fS he te l ig 's

t i on i na n i d ea o f " Eu rope" p l ayed ap a r t i nt h e p o s i t ion s

n a t iona l ism s e em s t ob e : " No rway i sp a r t o ft h e g rea tE u -

r e sea rche r sa dop ted w hen d ea l ing w i th t h er eg ion 's a r chae -

r opean c i v i l iza t ion ." B rOgge r i mp l ie s t h a t " No rway i s

o logy . I n 1 907 a nd 1 925 S he te l ig ( 1 877 1955 ) p re sen ted

u n ique" ( a l so s e e B rogge r 1 937 :17f f o r as t a temen t c on -

B ronze Age s yn the se s b a sed o n ap rog ram w i th t h e s ame

c er n ing n a t iona l i sm ) . T h i s s e em s t ob e ac ommon d i v is ion

f undamen ta l p i l la r s a s Wo r saae 's . C ha rac ter is t ic d e l ibe r -

i nN orweg ian r e sea r ch a nd p o l i t ics , a sr e f lec ted b y modern

a t ions w e re :

d eba te s o n N orweg ian EC -membe r sh ip .

" A p rob lem o fg ene ra l i n te res t i st oa sce r ta in t h e e x t e n t o fw h ich t h e c i v i l iza t ion o fe a r ly An t iqu i ty p ene -

I nt e rm so fK uhn ' s " d i sc ip l ina ry ma t r ix" a nd t h ef o u rc om -

t r a ted s u ch ad i s tan tE uropean p e r iphe ry ." a nd " . . . h a s

p onen t st h a th ec ho se t oe mpha s ize ( Kuhn 1 970 :182f f ,G i l je

N orway p a r taken i nt h ec u l tu ra la nd t e chno log ica lp ro -

&G r imen 1 99 1 :112f ff o r ad i scu ss ion ) ,t h ea bove c ou ld l e ad

g r e ss t h a tm e ta l l e ad s t o . .?" ( She te l ig 1 925 :74 , t r an s l .

t ot h e se a s se r t ion s :

b y CP ) .

S ymbo l ic g enera l i za t ion s a r e t i ed t o t ypo log ie s t h a t c hange i nt ime o rs pace .

S he te l ig 's a na lyse s h ad a n e xpanded e mp ir ica l b a se c om -

Me taphy s ica l p arad igm s c on s is t o f Norway 's p e r iph -

p a red t o , e . g . , T homsen . S he te l ig a l so h ad a r chaeo log ica l

e r a l s t a tu s , c omb ined w i th t h e t wo mechan ism s t h a t

t r a in ing a nd h e w a s Norweg ian i n a n e poch o f n a t iona l

c oncer n c hange : c on serva t ive t r ad i t ion a nd p rog res -

r egene ra t ion . No t s u rp r is ing ly , t h eref o re , h i s c onc lus ions

s i ve e x terna l i n f luence .

w e re d i f f e ren t f r om C h r is t ie ' s o r Wo r saae ' s . S he te l ig a p -

V a lue sa r ev a r iab ly c onnec ted t or e f e rences t oa r tefac t s

p ea led t o n a iv is t e mp ir ic is t j udgmen t s b a sed o n f a c t s

a nd s i te s . T h is a moun t s t ot r ad i t iona l o r n a ive e mp i r -

( 1 925 :87 ) a nd c onc luded t ha t " . . . o u rB ronze A ge i na l li t s a spec t s ,

i c i sm .

i sa ni n teg ra l

I ti ss ymbo l ic o ft h e d ep th o ft h ec u l tu ra l -evo lu t iona ry

p a r t o ft h e B ronze Age o f s ou thern S cand inav ia , a nd

p a rad igm , t h a t d i rec t r e f e rence i ss e ldom made t ot h e

t h a t a l l p ha se s i nt h e e vo lu t ion o ft h e B ronze A ge a r e

e x emp lar b as i s o fS cand inav ian a r chaeo logy . T h is b a -

p re sen t o n N o rweg ian t e r r i to ry ." ( 1925 :81) . "Ou r

s i s i sf o und i nT hom sen ' s 3 -per iod s y s tem ( 1 836 ) , i n

C oun t ry a l so h a s i t s s ha r e o f A n t iqu i ty 's f l owe r ing ,

D a rw in ' s e vo lu t ion i sm ( Da rw in 1 859 ) a nd i n Mon te l i -

c on tempo ra ry w i th E gyp t ' s A ge o fP owe r a nd Myce -

u s ' t y po log ica l s t ud ie s ( e .g . , 1 900 , 1 902 ) .

n i an G reece" ( o p .c i t . 9 9 , t r ans l . b y CP ) . T he e s sence o f t h is c u l tu re w a s b ronze a nd m e ta l lu rg ica l

B rogger ' sa l terna t i ve

t e chno logy . T hese e l emen t s d i f fused f r om t h e N ea r -Ea s tt o A lp ine E urope a nd f u r the rt o ,a mongs to t he rr eg ion s , S can -

"Wha ti sn ow i mpo r tan t ,i st oc on s t ruc tt h ei n d igenous

d i nav ia . S he te l ig e xam ined o the ra na ly t ica lc a tego r ie st h an

a nc ien t c u l tu ra l h i s to ry , b a sed o n o ur o wn h i s tory .

c u l tu re , b u t t h e d e te rm ina te q ues t ion r ema ined : H ad N o r -

Wha t c an t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l t e l l u s o f t h e

w ay p a r taken i n t h e E u ropean B ronze Age , o r h ad t h e

p eop le 's t o i lt ob u i ld a nd l i ve i nt h i sc oun t ry o fd i ve r se

c oun t ry b een d om ina ted b y S tone A ge t r ad i t ion? T he b a s ic

n a tu ra lc ond i t ion s? H ow h a so u rp a r t icu la rN orweg ian

e xp lana tory m echan i sm s i nS he te l ig 's n a r ra t ive a r e e vo lu -

c u l tu re c ome t o e x is t , a nd w ha t p r inc ipa l e l emen t s

t i on ism , d i f fu s ion i sm a nd t r ad i t ion . T he se a r e c omb ined t o

s hou ld b ee mpha s ized t ob e t te ru nde r s tand i t ?" ( BrOg -

e xp la in c u l tu ra l c hange i n a n e s sen t ia l ly c u l tu re -de te rm i -

g e r 1 925 :18 , t r an s l . b y CP ) .

n i s tw o r ld v i ew . Wi th in t h is f r amewo rk f a c to r s s uch a ss pe c if i c d eve lopmen t , s oc io -cu l tu ra l a n tagon ism s a nd e co -

S he te l ig ' sw o rk w a sp o lem ica l ly d i r ec ted a ga ins tt h o se w ho

n om ic d eve lopmen t h ad l i t t le e xp lana to ry p owe r . T he

r e jec ted t h e i d ea o f aN orweg ian B ronze Age ( 1 925 :73 ) .

h i s to r ica l n a r ra t ive r ema ined i d ea l is t .

B rogge ra nd S he te l ig p ub l i shed p reh is tor ies t h e s ame y ea r , 1 6

1 925 , a nd e ven t oday B rogge r i ss omewha t n a ive ly r ep re -

I n al a te r , u npub l ished b ook h e l o oked a t Mo rgan ' s s y s tem

s en ted a s a dvoca t ing t h e o ppo s i te o f S he te l ig . B rogge r

o f s t age s , b a sed o n s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o f p roduc t ion .

s t a ted t h a t t h e b ronzes w e re e qu iva len t t o " f o re ign a r t" ,

T hough s ympa the t ic ,h ew a sc r i t ica lt oi t sd ogma t ic n a tu re .

a nd h e i n t roduced t h e t e rm " S tone -Bronze A ge" ( op . c i t .

T h is l a te r manu scr ip tw a s mo re ma te r ia l is ta nd Ma rx is t( o r

1 04 , 1 0 ) . B u th e a l so s a id :

mo re a ccu ra te ly ; " r ev is ion is t") t h an p rev ious w o rk s . E nv i -

" I t i sn o d eg rada t ion o f t h e B ronze A ge t h a t i t s t r ue

r onmen ta l d e term in ism , r i f e i n t h e 1 925 v o lume , w a s

f o unda t ion i sf ound i n aS tone A ge c u l tu re 's s ubs is t -

p l ayed d own . H es e emed w e l lv e r sed i nC h i lde 's w o rk sa nd

e nce p a t tern . I ti sf u r the rmo re ac omp le te m isunde r -

r e f e r red a tl e ng th t oC ro ssman 's h i s to r ica l g ene ra l iza t ion s

s t and ing w hen o ne s peak s o f a bo l ish ing t h e B ronze

( C ros sman 1 969 [ 1 939 ] ) . B rOgge rp o in ted o u t t h e g row ing

A ge . I tc anno t b e a bo l ished , b u t i tc an b e t a ken f o r

c apac i ty o f h uman i ty t o c on t ro l a nd e xp lo i t t h e e nv i ron -

w ha ti ti s ." ( op . c i t . 1 07 , t r an s l . b yC P ) .

men t .H ef e l tt h a te nv ironmen ta lf a c to r s mu s tb ea l loca ted a s e conda ry r o le i n e xp lana tory mode ls . P roduc t ion t e ch -

T he e s sen t ia l p o in t i st h a t B rogge r w a s n o t p reoccup ied

n ique s( e qua ted w i th " t echno logy" ,n o t "mean so fp roduc -

w i th S he te l ig 's p rob lem . B rogge rw a s c r i t ica l t ot h e i n he r -

t i on") a nd d i s t r ibu t ion f a c to r s ( "mode o f p roduc t ion" ? )

e n td e te rm in i sm o ft h e r e ign ing c u l tu ra l -evo lu t ion ism , a nd

w e r e g i ven p r imacy . T echno log ica l p rog re s s w a s s e en a sa

c ommon m echan ica l ly r e duc t ion is t p o s i t ions t h a t e vo lved

s ou rce o f c on f l ic t ; " supe r -s t ruc tu res" a nd o ld c l a sses r e -

a r ound r aw ma te r ia l , s ub s is tence a nd c u l tu re . A l though h e

s i s ted c hange . S t i l l , p rog res s c on t inued . T he t wo f a c to r s

g ene ra l ly u sed t h e s ame s ources a nd d a ta a se ve ryone e l se ,

l i s ted w e re p robab ly m ean tt or ep resen t ap opu la r iza t ion o f

h e r e -empha s ized t h e i n terna l s t ruc tu r e o f t h e n a r ra t ive .

Ma rx 's "mean s o fp roduc t ion" a nd " re la t ion s o fp roduc -

Ma te r ia l p rev iou s ly h e ld a s ma rg ina l , b ecame s i gn if i can t .

t i on" , b u t t h is t r an s la t ion o pened f o r c r i t ic i sm , f r om n on -

H ea t temp ted t oe mpowe re conomy ,e nv i ronmen ta nd t e ch -

r e v i s ion i s t Ma rx is t s i n p a r t icu la r . S im i la r r e v is ion s t a t t i -

n o logy w i th e xp lana to ry r o les . H e ma in ta ined t h a t f unc -

t ude s w e re e xp re s sed b y K au t sky ( s ee B loch 1 987 :100 ) .

t i ona l a na lys i so ft o o ls h ad u nf o r tuna te ly b een n eg lec ted i n

S ome o fB rogge r 's h andwr i t ten manuscr ip tp age s a r e m is -

f a vou r o f c h rono typo log ica l s t ud ie s o fw eapon s a nd j ew -

s i ng , a nd h i s e xac t p o s i t ion i st h u s o b scu r ed . S t i l l , o n t h e

e l ry . I nh i s 1 925 b ook , B rogge rc r i t ic ized d ogma t ic i mp le -

l a s t p age h e p rov ided g ene ra l c ommen t s o n t h e n eed f o r

m en ta t ion o ff o re ign t y po log ie s a nd s t a ted :

s oc ia l t h eor iz ing :

"W i th t h e n a r row c h rono log ica l typo log ica l a t t i tude

" In ab ook a bou tt h eh i s to ry o f Norway 's a nc ien tc u l -

p redom inan t i nt h e r e sea rche r c ommun i ty , v ague a nd

t u re s , t h e a bove may s eem i r re levan t . B u t i ti sh igh ly

f r ank ly s pu r iou s p rob lem s h ave e n sued , a nd l e ad t oa

r e levan t . I tc once rn s f undamen ta l q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e

w a s te o fe f f o r t s ." ( op . c i t . 1 5 ) . " . . . i nt h e l ong r un i ti s

e ve r -chang ing h i s to ry f r om t h e S tone A ge t ot oday ."

mo re v i ta l t o s t udy t h e p roduc t ion p roce sse s t h em -

( t ran s l . b y C P ) .

s e lve s . P ene t ra t ing t h is p rob lem i s ap r econd i t ion f o r u nde r s tand ing w ha t r e a l ly h appened i n p reh i s to ry . " ( o p . c i t . 9 5 , t r an s l . b y CP ) .

B rogge r 's w o rk s hou ld b e r ega rded a sp a r to fa n e vo lv ing , b u tu nha tched , w o r ld v i ew o rp a rad igm . I no t he rc oun t r ie s ,

B rogge re choed G o rdon C h i 1de . B rOgge rs t res sed s t udy ing

s im i la r i d ea s f o rmed t h e b a s is f o r a cadem ic s choo ls . I n

s pec if ic Norweg ian d eve lopmen t s , a nd r e f e r red t ol ong t r a -

Norway , B rogge r ' s w o rk n eve r f o rmed as choo l o fn o rma l

d i t ion si nt h ep roduc t ive s e c to r .B u t ,a so ppo sed t oc u l tu ra l -

r e sea r ch . C u l tu ra l -evo lu t ion ism monopo l ized t h ef i e ld u n t i l

e vo lu t ion is ti d ea l ism ,B rogge ra ncho red s t ab le t r ad i t ion si n

n eo -po s i t iv is tt r end sb ecame i n f luen t ia li nt h e 1 970 s . Why?

a n u nchang ing , r i ch a nd d emand ing e nv i ronmen t . H e d i d

L ook ing b eyond a ny p rog ram ' s s c ien t if ic m er i t , f o r e xam -

n o t d i savow f o r e ign i n f luences , b u t c r i t ic ized t h e t r end t o

p l e K uhn p o in ted o u t p o l i t ica l , s oc io log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l

e qua te c hange w i th i mm ig ra t ion w ave s . I ndeed , a r chaeo l -

a spec t s t h a t c an s ea l t h e f a te o f ap rog ram . I ts hou ld b e

o gy w a sf o rh im ap o ten t ia ls ou rce o fi n s igh ti n to t h ev a r ied

p o in ted o u tt h a te vo lu t iona ry c u l tu ra l -de term in ism w a sa nd

n a tu re o f i mm ig ra t ions . T h is a t t i tude w a s n o t s o much a

i st h e d om inan t S cand inav ian t r ad i t ion , a nd h a s b een s uc -

d i savowmen to fi n va s ion s , b u to ft h em echan ica l ly a pp l ied

c e ssfu l ly p roduc t ive . Ac ha l lenge w ou ld h ave t ob e s ha rp ly

a nd u nd if f e ren t ia ted m ig ra t iona l e xp lana t ion s . I n h i s s pe -

f o rmu la ted a nd p o l i t ica l ly a dvoca ted . B rOgge r 's w o rk w a s

c if ic v i ew s o n N o rway , h e b e l ieved t h e c oun t ry t ol i e b e -

n o ta sc l ea r ly p rog ramma t ic a si tw a si n te l lec tua l ly p onde r -

y ond h i s to r ica l , l a rge s c a le m ig ra t ions , b u t t h a t i ta lways

i ng , a nd s omewha t i n con s is ten t . P e rhap s B rOgge r l a cked

h ad b een i n f luenced b y f o re ign i n nova t ion s . Ma jo r i m -

t h ep e r sona l q ua l i t ie s t ob r ing ap rog ram t of r u i t ion . B r0g -

p rovemen t s w e re f o re ign , a nd a s e xamp le s , B rogge r m en -

g ees p rog ram w a s s c ien t if i ca l ly a nd p o l i t ica l ly r ad ica l .

t i oned d ome s t ica ted p l an t s a nd a n ima l s , t h e p lough , m ea -

No rweg ian a r chaeo logy h a s n eve rb een p o l i t ica l ly e xp l ic i t ,

s u remen t s y s tem s , l aw c ode s a nd w r i t ing .

a nd c e r ta in ly n o tt r u ly r ad ica l . B rogge r 's u npub l ished man -

H e p o in ted o u t t h e n ece ss i ty o f b o th t h e g ene ra l a nd

u scr ip tw a sp repa red f o rp ub l ica t ion i nt h el a te 4 0 's a nd t h e

s pec if ic :

p o l i t ica l c l ima te w a s a tt h a tt ime r a p id ly g row ing u nfavo r -

" The a cknow ledgemen t o fa l l i mpo r tan t f a c to r s , b o th

a b le f o rr ad ica l i d ea s . H e s e emed t ol a ck C h i lde ' s f l a i r f o r

d omes t ic a nd f o re ign , i s an ece s sa ry c ond i t ion f o r

t h e p rovoca t ive a nd r ebe l l iou s , w h ich b oo s ted t h e l a t te r 's

s t udy o fa nc ien t c u l tu re , i t s t r u ly o r ig ina l c ha rac te r i n

r epu ta t ion . T o t h e e x ten tN orweg ian a r chaeo logy t ur n ed t o

t h e a dap ta t ion t o t h e n a tura l c ond i t ion s ,. . ." ( op . c i t .

a na l terna t ive t oc u l tu ra ld e term in ism ,i tw a st o ar educ t ion -

3 1 , t r an s l . b y CP ) .

a l ma te r ia l is tv i ew o fe nv ironmen ta nd f unc t ion . 1 7

E g i lB akka

a na ly t ic p rem ise s , e mp loy q uan t i ta t ive me thod s , d i scu ss

E g i l B akka 's w o rk c an b e u sed a s e xamp le o f t h e l a te r

s o c ia l a spec t s a nd e mp loy t h eo ry , r u le s a nd a na log ies f r om

c u l tu ra l -evo lu t iona ry S cand inav ian t r ad i t ion i nN orweg ian

o t he r d i sc ip l ine s . H i s a t temp t s a t a na lyz ing s o c ie ty a nd

B ronze A ge r e sea rch . B akka f r equen t ly e xh ib i ted an ega -

e conomy s t i l l r ema ined d e scr ip t ive a nd s upe rf i c ia l a dd i -

t i ve a t t i tude t o t h eo ry . H is m a in r e sponse t o p rob lem s

t i on s t oe mp ir ica l c omp i la t ion . H i s u se o fo the rd i sc ip l ines

s e emed t ob e s ou rce c r i t ic ism a nd d e ta i led ( r e )eva lua t ion

w a se c lec t ic a nd h e r ema ined ac u l tura l -evo lu t ion is t . At r a -

o f t h e d a ta . T h i s p o s i t ion h a s i t s m e r i t s , a s i tc an u p se t

d i t iona l -emp ir ic i s t f r amewo rk r ema ined t h e s ub s tance o f

" da ta -my th s" t h a t e vo lve i n a r chaeo logy . An e xamp le o f

h i s w o rk . I n as t udy f r om 1 988 , J ohan sen ( n .d . ) d i scu ssed t h e i n -

t h ea bove w a sB akka ' s " Ark t i sk o gn ord i sk ib ron sea ld eren i

t e rp re ta t ion o fB ronze A ge d epo t s f r om t h e p e r spec t ive o f

N ord skand ina v ia" ( 1 976 ) . I tw a s ae mp i r ic is t , c u l tu re -evo l u t iona ry u nde r tak ing t h a t u nderm ined s ome o ft h e s ou th -

c ompa ra t ive r e l ig ion , a n i s sue n o t a s soc ia ted w i th r i g id

e rn S cand inav ian b i a sc ommon t oB ronze A ge s t ud ie s . P a r t

p o s i t iv ism . H is t h eo ry s e c t ion ( c hap . 3 )w a s ad i scu ss ion o f

o f ac ommon N o r the rn E u ropean p o lem ic , t h e re h ave b een

d epo s i t ion t e rm ino logy , a nd h i s w ork l a cked e xp l ic i tt h eo -

many r e f e rences t oB akka 's w o rk s .

r e t ica l d i scu ss ion . T h is c ou ld m ean t h a t " know ledge" , " fac t s" a nd " sc ience" w e re u np rob lema t ic f o rJ ohan sen , a

I n ar e cen t ly p ub l i shed a r t ic le , B akka ( 1 993 ) a na lyzed t h e w e s tern N orweg ian B ronze A ge . I n i t ia l ly h e c an b e

p o s i t ion n o t r e ad i ly d ef endab le . I tc ou ld a l so m ean t h a t

r ega rded a sa na dhe ren tt ot h ec u l tu ra l -evo lu t iona ry s choo l ,

t h eo re t ica l p o s i t ion s w e re i n he ren t i nt h e w o rk , a nd t h e re

a s w e l l a sr i g id ly r e duc t ion is t i nh i s v i ew s o ft h e r e la t ion -

w a s n o n eed f o re xp l ic i te l abo ra t ion . T h i sc ou ld b ed ef end -

s h ip b e tween a dap ta t ion a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . I n c on -

e d i n i t ia l ly , a s t h e i n t roduc to ry " se lf -consc iou s f o rmu la -

t r a s tt o mo s ta r chaeo log i s t s w ho p rof e s s t or a l ly a round t h e

t i on s o f r e cen t d ecade s" ( T r igge r 1 989 :5 ) r ead i ly b ecome

" f ac t s" , B akka a c tua l ly s e emed t o .

t e d iou s . J ohan sen 's p ape r d ea ls w i th c omp l ica ted i s sue s a nd w a s p ub l ished i n ap e r iod o f t h eor e t ica l u pheava l i n

A tf i r s tg l ance B akka i st h u sc l a s s if ied , b u t s yn the s iz ing p a r t s o fh i s w o rk s t i l l p rov ide s p rob lem s . T h is i st h e c a se

a r chaeo logy . F undamen ta l t h eo re t ica l i s sue s s hou ld h ave

f o ro t he rt r ad i t iona l -po s i t iv i s t sa sw e l l . F o re xamp le ,h ed e -

b een e xp l ic i t ly c onf ron ted . I ti su naccep tab le t h a t t h eo r ie s

f i ned t h e p r e sence o fa gr icu l tu re a nd t r ade a s p r e requ is i te

a nd t e ne t s e x t rac ted f r om c ompa ra t ive r e l ig ion a r e t r ea ted

f o r aS cand inav ian t y pe B ronze A ge . T hu s h e i n t roduced

i nt h es ame manne ra sa r tef ac td e sc r ip t ion sa nd s i te r e po r t s ,

e conom ic d e te rm inan t s . A s a ne conom i s th e w a s af o rma l -

a si ft h ey w e re " sc ien t if ic t r u th" ( e .g . ,J ohansen 1 988 :207 ) .

i s t —d raw ing o n p opu la r ized a na log ie s f r om modern e co n om ics . O n t h e o the r h and h e c on t ra s ted s oc ia l o rgan iza -

N eo p o s i t i v i s tt r end s

t i on a nd e conomy i n he ren t i n d i f f e ren t a dap ta t ion s , t hu s e xh ib i t ing s ub s tan t iv i s t i n c l ina t ion s . When h e d i scussed

A r chaeo logy i sn o u n if ied d i sc ip l ine . Ma ins t ream S tone

p opu la t ion f r equenc ie s h e a s sumed as t r ic te r ( n eo )emp i r -

A ge r e sea r ch i n N o rway i s c ha rac ter ized b y m e thod s ,

i c i s t p o s i t ion , a nd w a s v i r tua l ly h o s t i le t o t h eo ry . A t t h e

s ou rces a nd g oa ls o t he rt h an t ho se t h a tt r ad i t iona l ly c ha ra c -

s ame t ime h e h ad n o q ua lm s i np re sen t ing ad i cho tom ized

t e r ize B ronze Age r e sea rch . S tone A ge a r chaeo logy h a s

v e r s ion o ft h ed i f f e rence b e tween h un te r sa nd a g r icu l tu r is t s

b een mo re r e cep t ive t o m e thodo log ica l d eve lopmen t s i n

b a sed o n g ene ra l ized e t hnog raph ic i n duc t ion .

f unc t iona l , s pa t ia la nd s oc ia la na lys is ,a nd c an mak ei mpo r t a n t c on t r ibu t ions t o B ronze Age s t udy . S eve ra l o f t h e se d eve lopmen t si nS tone A ge a r chaeo logy a r er e la ted t oN ew

S t agna t ion?

A r chaeo logy . Ma rx i s t a nd /o r n eo -po s i t iv is t i n f luence , t h a t

S ince S he te l ig 's d ays ma in s t ream r e sea r che r so ft h eB ronze

i n sp i red B ronze Age i n te rp re ta t ion i no t he rE u ropean c oun -

A ge h ave t e nded t oa dd o r mod ify d e ta i l s i nr e la t ion t ot h e

t r ie s ( e .g . , K r is t iansen 1 978 , R and sbo rg 1 974 , G i lman 1 98 1 ,

e x is t ing v e r s ion o fp r eh i s tory . I nK uhn ian t e rm s t h is c ou ld

S her ra t t 1 98 1 ) , h ad mo s t ly s upe rf ic ia l i mpac t o n B ronze

b e c on s t ruc ted a s f o l low s : R e sea rch h a s c oncen t ra ted o n

A ge r e sea rch i n Norway .

f a c t s s hown b y t h e p a rad igm t ob e p a r t icu la r ly r e vea l ing .

I n terna t iona l ly , N ew A rchaeo logy h a s n eve r f o rmu la ted

I n te res th a sb een d i rec ted t owa rd sf a c t s s hown t ob ed i rec t -

a n e xp l ic i t p rog ram , n o r s hou ld i th ave b een e xpec ted t o .

l yc ompa rab le t ot h e p a rad igm ' s p red ic t ion s . C o l lec t ion o f

G ibbon ( 1 989 :87 f ) h a s s ummed u p t h e c on ten t o f a pp l ied

n ew f a c t s h ave b een a imed a ta r t icu la t ion o ft h e p a rad igm ,

N ew A r chaeo logy a sg ove rned b y t wo p resuppo s i t ions :

w i th t h e i n ten t o f r e so lv ing s ome r e s idua l a mb igu i t ie s

1 )

( Kuhn 1 970 :23f ) . 0 . J ohansen w a s aman if e s ta t ion o ft h i s

T he p r ima ry g oa l w a s t oc on tr ibu te t og ene ra l a n th ro p o log ica l u nde r s tand ing , t h a t i s , a h is to r ic , n omo log -

K uhn ian g ene ra l iza t ion . F o r e xamp le , J ohan sen s poke o f

i c a l g oa ls .

m e ta l lku l tun n o t a s as ub sec t ion o f ac u l tu ra l t o ta l i ty o r a

2 )

P o s i t iv is t i d eo logy s e rved a s t h e p h i lo soph ica l s t an -

t e rm ino log ica lt o o l ,b u ta s ar e a l i ty . H e ma in ly r e -an swe red

d a rd .

S he te l ig 's q ue s t ion s , a dded e mp i r ica le xamp le sa nd t r ied t o

H e e l abo ra ted :

p u rge r e sea rch o f a mb igu i t ie s . T h is m igh t s e em as t range

" . . : t h e g oa l o fs c ience i st h e e s tab l ishmen to fr e gu la r

p o s tu la te a s J ohan sen w a s , a l be i t s omewha t s uper f ic ia l ly ,

l aw l ike c onnec t ions b e tween e mp i r ica l ly o b se rvab le

i n f luenced b yn eo -po s i t iv s tt r end so ft h e7 0 ' s .N ew A rchae -

p henomena ; a l l p henomena b e long t o as i ng le n a tu ra l

o l ogy , a s w e l l a s g ene ra l p opu l is t i n f luence s , p e rhap s i n -

w o r ld ; t h e n a tu ra l w o r ld i su n if o rm , l awfu l a nd c au s -

s p i red 0 . J ohansen 's a t temp t s a ti n teg ra t ing t h e re to r e la ted

a l ly i n ter re la ted , a nd t h e refo re t h e l a nguage u sed t o

i d ea s i n to h i s w o rk . E xamp les w e re h i s e f f o r t s t oe xp l ica te

d e sc r ibe i ti sc au sa l ; s c ien t if ic l aws a r e s t a temen t s o f 1 8

c on s tan t c on junc t ion b e tween c l a s se s o f e mp ir ica l ly

mode la nd d a ta n ece ss i ta te st ha tt h er e sea rche rn o to n -

o bse rvab le p henomena t h a t a pp ly t oa l l t ime s a nd a l l

l yp resen t sh i sd a ta a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s ,b u tt h a th ea l so

p lace s ;

e xp l ic i t ly s t a te s t h e mode ls t h a t g u ided h i s c o l lec t ion

;as t a temen tc an o n ly b er e ga rded a ss c ien -

t i f ic i fi ti sp o ss ib le t oa s cer ta in i t s t r u th o rf a ls i ty b y

o fd a ta ." ( 1978 :15f , t r an s l . b y CP ) .

means o f emp ir ica l o bserva t ion ." ( o p . c i t . 8 8 ) .

J ohansen ' s t h eo ry d ep ic ted av i r tua l ly s t agnan t p reh i s to r ic w o r ld a nd c ou ld n o t r ep re sen t t h e d i a lec t ic p roce s s o f k now ledge p roduc t ion i n moder n r e sea r ch . T he re s e emed

An ew a pp roach?

t ob e ac on t rad ic t ion b e tween J ohansen ' sa ppa ren tr e la t iv is t

A l though N ew A r chaeo logy p rog ram s h ave n o t b een c on -

p o s i t ion a nd h i sp o s i t iv i s tt e chn ique s . T he p rob lem i sc om -

s i s ten t ly a pp l ied t o No rweg ian B ronze A ge c on tex t s , A rne

p l ex . J ohan sen e xp re ssed b e l ief i na n o b jec t ive r e a l i ty , b u t

J ohan sen w a so f ten a s soc ia ted w i th t h ep rog ram . B a sed o n

t h e w o r ld i ss o mu l t ifa r iou s t h a t h uman s , r e ly ing o n t h e i r

s i tes e xcava ted i n t h e L z e rda l moun ta in s i n I nne r S ogn ,

o wn p resump t ion s , c an o n ly c on tend w i th a r b i t ra ry a r -

N orway , A rne J ohan sen d ea l t w i th t h e S tone A ge a nd

r angemen t s o ff r ac t ion so fr e a l i ty . H is b a s ic p o s i t ions w e re

B ronze A ge , t h ough t h e se d i s t inc t ion s w e re o fl i t t le c onse -

a k in t oG ibbon 's d e scr ip t ion o ft h e l a te n eo -po s i t iv is tp er i -

q uence f o r h im . A rne J ohan sen 's d oc to ra l t h es is c an s e rve

o d i n a r chaeo logy . A t t h i s t ime e x te rna l a nd i n te rna l c r i -

a s as t a r t ing p o in tf o r ac r i t ique o fh i s a pp roach ( 1978 ) . I n

t i que d emon s t ra ted t h e p rog ram 's i n con s is tenc ie s . T h is

h i s " con ta ined" a na ly s is o fp r eh is tory i nt h e Lx rda l moun -

l e ad t of u t i le a nd i n te rna l ly c on t rad ic t ive a t temp t st or e scue

t a in s , h un te rg roup s f r om d i f f e ren tt r ad i t ion s c ame b ack t o

n eo -po s i t iv is t p os i t ion s f r om t h e i r o wn i n con s is tenc ie s

t h e s ame a r ea , i n deed t o t h e s ame s i te s , f o r t h ou sand s o f

( G ibbon s 1 989 :82f , 8 5f ,9 1f ) . A rne J ohan sen c anno tb ed e -

y ea r s t oh un t r e indee r . G roup s f r om d i f f e ren t " t rad i t ion s"

p i c ted a s a n e a r ly a n t i -p roce ssua l i s t , a s Myh re s ugges ted

d i d n o t i n te rm ix . T he c onse rva t ive n a tu re a s s igned t h e se

( 1991 :72 ) .

p eop le w a sr ema rkab le . S i te sw e re o t herw ise c ha rac ter ized

F o rJ ohan sen ,h uman h i s to ry c on s i s ted o f men 's s t rugg le

b y l a rge a moun t s o ff l ake s o f al o ca l q ua r tz i te , i n te rp re ted

t ow res t le a n e x is tence o u t o fn a tu re —t of e ed h im se lf a nd

a s c u t t ing t o o l s . J ohansen p o s tu la ted t h a t t h e t o o l e dge s

h i sd ependen t s who l i nge ro ns i tes ( 1978 :21 ,43 ) . E co -func -

b ecame t h inne r t h rough t ime . T h is w a s i n te rp re ted a s a n

t i ona l ism w a s J ohan sen 's o n to log ica l f ounda t ion . I n t h is

i n d ica t ion o fe ve ri mp rov ing k napp ing s k i l l s .

v i ew , man max im ize s i n r e la t ion t o n a tu re ( 1978 :19 f ) .

Ar ne J ohan sen w a s c r i t ica l o fa r chaeo logy 's c u l tu re t e r -

T hough b a s ica l ly c on serva t ive , u n touched b y t h e w ide r

m ino logy ( 1 970 :95f ) . C omb ined w i th e co -func t iona l ism ,

w o r ld , men i n Lx rda l g radua l ly manage t o k nap t h inne r

t h is c ou ld b e p ro jec ted a s a n t i -cu l tu ra l -de term in i sm . I n

f l ake s . I nJ oh a n sen 's a na lys is , c u l tu re w a s a l lo t ted am ed i -

p rac t ice , h ep r ima r i ly a ppea led t oo ne o ft h e t wo c oncep t s

um -func t ion f o r h and ing d own e co log ica l a nd t e chno log i -

c u l tu ra l -evo lu t iona ry a r chaeo logy u se s t oe xp la in c u l tu ra l

c a l s ucce ss s t ra teg ie s ( op . c i t . 2 0 ) . T h i s a pp roach d oe s n o t

c hange . J ohan sen empha s ized " t rad i t ion" r a the r t h an f o r -

a l low f o r v a r ia t ion s i n t h e s oc io -econom ic m ean ing o f a

e i gn d i f fus ion . H is empha s i so nt r ad i t ion a nd e co -func t ion -

g i ven a c t iv i ty i nt wo d i f f e ren t c on tex t s ( e .g . " hun t ing" i n

a l max im iz ing s t ra teg ie s l e ad t oi mp robab ly i s o la ted l o ca l

t h e Me so l i th ic a nd " hun t ing" i nt h ee a r ly P re -Roman I r on

g roup s .

A ge ) . T hus , J ohan sen ' s a pp roach d id n o t p erm i t a r chaeo l -

T he s ame i s o la t ion c ha rac te r ized h i s r e sea rch p rac t ice ,

o gy t o i n co rpo ra te o r e ven a cknow ledge s pec if ic a nd /o r

a nd i ti si n te re s t ing t on o te h ow h i s a cadem ic a t t i tude w a s

h i s tor ica l f a c to r s a se xp lana to ry e l emen t s . S uch f a c to r s a r e

r ef lec ted i nt h eo b jec t s( p eop le )o fh i ss t udy .A rne J ohan sen

e s sen t ia l i nd eve lop ing a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e L a te N eo -

t o ok o n ly s upe rf ic ia l n o t ice o f b a s ic s t ud ie s o f e . g . l i th ic

l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge .

r e duc t ion , m o rpho logy , h i s to r ica l s equences , s pa t ia l o rga -

I n s umma ry , t h e f ounda t ion f o r J ohan sen 's w o rk s e em s

n i za t ion a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T oday h i s p rem -

t o b e am ix tu re o f n eo -po s i t iv is t m e thodo logy , N ew A r -

i s e s , me thod s a nd c onc lu s ion s t h e ref o re s e em b i za r re . T h is

c haeo logy in sp ired g ene ra l iza t ion s a nd g oa l s , a nd r ampan t

i se a s i ly s e en i nr e t ro spec t , a st h e re h ave b een f a r reach ing

r e la t iv ism . I ti sp uzz l ing t h a t h i s S tone Age /Bronze A ge

d eve lopmen t s i n r e levan t f i e ld s s i nce J ohansen ' s b ook s

r e sea rch w a s n o t mo re v i go rou s ly c ha l lenged ( s ee L a r s son

w e re p ub l i shed .I nf a c t , much w a sa va i lab le ,e ven s t anda rd ,

1 981 f o r ac on tempo raneou s c r i t ique ) .

w hen J ohan sen p ub l ished h i s w o rk ( f o rg ene ra l , c on tempo r a neous r e f e r ences s e e H e s te r &H e ize r 1 973 , s ome S can d i nav ian r e f e rence s , c on tempo raneou s w i th J ohan sen , a r e

P arad igm l o s t?

f o und i nK nu t s son 1 978 ) .

I nt h e Norweg ian A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew v o l . 3 / 1970 e d i -

I ns eve ra lv o lumes J ohan sen ( 1970 , 1 974 , 1 978 )h a sf o r -

t o r ia l ,t h e 1 960 's w e re s ummed u pa s ap er iod o fs t agna t ion

w a rded a n , a tf i r s t g lance , a n t i -po s i t iv i s t t h eo ry o ft h e r e -

a nd f a i led r e sea rch p rog ram s . S ub sequen t N ew A rchaeo l -

s e a r ch p roce ss . H e s ummed u p h i s e p is temo logy :

o gy f a i led t oi n sp i re r e newed v i gou ro rs e r ious ly c ha l lenge

"D i scove ry a nd c o l lec t ion o fd a ta a r e c l o se ly d epend -

t h ec u l tu ra l -evo lu t iona ry h egemony , t h ough e nv i ronmen ta l

e n to nt h et o ta l i ty o fp reconcep t ion s ( mode ls / theo r ie s )

d e te rm in i sm a nd f unc t iona l i sm p robab ly b ecame mo re a c -

t h a tt h e r e sea rche r , c onsc ious ly o ru nconsc ious ly , h a s .

c ep tab le t h an t h ey o therw ise w ou ld h ave b een . Me l tze ra r -

T h is i sb ecau se t h e w o r ld c on ta in s i nf in i te m ean ing

g ued i n 1 979 t h a t Ame r ican N ew A rchaeo logy r e a l ly d i d

v a r iance a nd i ti si mpo ss ib le t of i nd t h e d a ta w i thou t

n o tr ep re sen t ap a rad igma t ic r e vo lu t ion , a sw a s c ommon ly

g u idance ." "Our mode l d e term ine sw h ich d a ta w ea r e

c l a imed a tt h e t ime . Amer ican p o s t -1960 a r chaeo logy w a s

c apab le o fr e cogn iz ing ." " The o ne w ay s t ree tb e tween

p r eoccup ied w i th m e thodo log ica l i mp rovemen t s , b u t t h e 1 9

d i sc ip l ine ' s

s t ruc tu re ,

a r e f ew s p ec ia l i s t s a nd f ewe rs pec ia l is ts yn thes ize r s . T he re

r ema ined l i t t le c hanged ( Me l tze r 1 979 ) . G ibbon w a s a l so

u nde r ly ing

me taphys ic s ,

t h e

i sa l so an a t iona l i d eo logy t h a t p e rm i t s , e ven e ncourage s ,

s k ep t ica lt oN ew A rchaeo logy 's c l a im o fp a rad igma t ic r e v -

i s o la t ion .B u reauc ra t ic i d eo logy a nd p owe rs t ruc tu re si na r -

o l u t ion . H ev i ewed s u ch c l a im s a si n con s is ten tw i th l o g ica l

c haeo log ica l i n s t i tu t ions h ave p romo ted s t a tus q uo . O rga -

e mp i r ic ism ' s b a s ic t e ne t s ( G ibbon 1 989 :83 , 9 4 , 1 00 f ) . A

n i za t iona l s t ruc tu re , p o l ic ie s a nd mo t iva t ion f a c to r s t h a t

s im i la r , o rp robab ly s t ronge r , c a se c ou ld b e made f o rN o r -

s t ruc tu re t h e d i sc ip l ine i n s t i tu t iona l ly , d o n o t f u r the r p ro -

w eg ian a r chaeo logy . N ew A r chaeo logy w a s o n ly s upe rf i -

d uc t iv i ty .

c i a l ly i mp lemen ted i nN orweg ian B ronze Age r e sea rch ,b u t i ti so pen t od eba te w ha ti tc ou ld h ave o f f e red . I n te rna t iona l ly , N ew A rchaeo logy f i zz led b efo re a ny

P o s tN ew A r chaeo log y

p rof ound i mpac t w a s made o n N orweg ian B ronze A ge r e -

I nr e cen ty ea r s , i nw ha t c ou ld b e t e rmed t h e p o s t -New A r -

s e a rch . B rogge r 's p rog ram — i ft h a t e xp re s s ion i sa pp rop r i -

c haeo logy p er iod , t h e re h ave b een a t temp t s a tr e v i ta l iz ing

a t e —n eve ra t ta ined t r u ly p a rad igma t ic p ene t ra t ion . Ma rx is t

N o rweg ian a r chaeo logy , b o th w i th in p roce ssua l t r ad i t ion s

a pp roache s i n f luenced N orweg ian a r chaeo logy , b u t w e re

a nd p o s t -p roces sua l . I nt h is s i tua t ion , K uhn 's d ep ic t ion o f

n o ts y s tema t ica l ly a pp l ied t ot h e B ronze A ge . I tc ou ld a l so

b r eakdown i nn orma ls c ien t if i c a c t iv i ty may s e em f am i l ia r :

b e a r gued t h a t "Ma rx is t" i n f luenced a r chaeo logy i n corpo -

" Conf ron ted w i th a noma ly o r w i th c r is is , s c ien t is t s

r a ted p opu l is t r ad ica l ism a nd r e v is ion ism . A s p o in ted o u t

t a ke ad i f f e ren ta t t i tude t owa rd e x i s t ing p a rad igm s ,a nd

b e low , t h e re h ave b een a t temp t s a t p rov id ing a l terna t ive

t h e n a tu re o f t h e i r r e sea rch c hange s a cco rd ing ly . T he

a pp roache s . T hese r ema in t e n ta t ive a nd u ncrys ta l l ized a nd

p ro l if e ra t ion o f c ompe t ing a r t icu la t ion s , t h e w i l l ing -

i ts e em s t h a t c u l tu ra l -de term in ism , w i th s ome e co -func -

n e ss t o t r y a ny th ing , t h e e xp re s s ion o f e xp l ic i t d i s -

t i ona l mod if ica t ion , s t i l l r ep re sen t a s t rong i n f luence

c on ten t , t h e r e cou r se t op h i lo sophy a nd t od eba te o ve r

a mong N orweg ian r e sea rche r s w ho d ea l w i th t h e B ronze

f undamen ta ls , a l l t h e se a r e s ymp toms o f at r an s i t ion

A ge . T he s u cces s o f t h e c u l tu ra l -de te rm in is t p a rad igm i s

f r om

c e r ta in ly o ne o ft h e r e a son s f o rt h is s i tua t ion , t h ough t h e re

n orma l

t o e x t rao rd ina ry

r e sea rch ."

( Kuhn

1 970 :90 f ) .

a r e s i gn s o ft h e p a rad igm 's g e r ia t r ic d egenera t ion . As e c o nd r e a son i sp o ss ib ly t h a t n o p a rad igma t ic c on tende rh a s r i sen f r om a na na rch i s t ic c r is is i nt h eo ry t op rov ide ac r ed -

A t t h e momen t , t h e re h a s b een l i t t le i mpac t o n t h e B ronze

i b le a l te rna t ive .F ina l ly , ac au se i sf ound i nt h es oc io logy o f

A ge r e sea rch . E f f o r t s s o f a r h ave b een o f t e n ta t ive . Two

N orweg ian a r chaeo logy . T h i s t h i rd p o s s ib le c au se w i l l b e

e xamp le s a r e J o rgensen & O lsen a nd S chanche . J o rgen sen &O lsen ( 1 988 :73 )r ounded o f fa na na lys is o fa sbes to sp o t -

b r ief ly c on s ide red b e low .

t e ry i nN o r thern No rway , b y p o s tu la t ing i t s r o le i ns oc io c u l tu ra l r e la t ions . T hey c onc luded t h a t

Ma t er ia le xpan s ion , a cad em i cr eg r e s s ion

" the p o t te ry 's

" func t ion" w a sf ound i ni t sr o l la s as ymbo l ic t oo li ns o c ia l

O n b o th i n terna t iona l a nd n a t iona l s ca les , t h e re h ave b een

s t ra teg ie s ." S chanche ( 1 989 :67 j j )h a ss ugges ted t h a ts pa t ia l

s i gn if ican t a dvance s s i nce t h e 1 960 s i nd a ta -re la ted r e su l t s

o rgan iza t ion o f ma te r ia l f e a tu re s a t ah ouse s i te i n F inn -

a nd m e thodo logy . I n a n E u ropean p e r spec t ive t h e re h ave

ma rk c an b e r e la ted t oa n tagon ism s i na nd s t ruc tu ra l f e a -

b een t h eo re t ica l a nd i n terp re ta t ive d eve lopmen t s o fc on se -

t u re s o f s oc ie ty . T he s ymbo l ism i n he ren t i n b o th o b jec t s

q uence f o r N o rweg ian B ronze Age a r chaeo logy . S tud ie s

a nd f e a tu re s empha s ized s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s a nd i n c lu s ion .

b a sed o n ma te r ia l f r om N orway 's B ronze Age , e spec ia l ly

A f te rt h ec r i t ica l r e v iew a bove , t h ef i na l p a rag raph s o u t -

s i te ma ter ia l , c ou ld a l so h ave made av a l id c on t r ibu t ion t o

l i ne t h e a u tho r 's r e sponse t ot h e s i tua t ion . F i r s t , t h e re i sn o

t h e g ene ra l E u ropean d i scu ss ion , b o th i n t e rm s o f e mp ir i

o ne r i gh ta r chaeo logy ,b u tt h e re a r ei n app rop r ia te a r chaeo l -

a nd am e thodo logy t h a t may b e t e rmed a" s i te a pp roach" .

o g ie s . S econd , n ume rous p rob lem c omp lexes a r e h i dden

U nfo r tuna te ly , mode rn r e su l t s o fc u l tu re -de term in is tb a sed

b eh ind t h e t e rm " theo ry" , s uch a s u np roved m e thodo log -

a nd i s o la t ion i s t r e sea rch p rog ram s a r e n o t w e l l s u i ted f o r

i c a lp resc r ip t ion s ,i n te l lec tua lt oo l s ,h ypo the t ica lp o s tu la te s

t h is p urpo se . N ece s sa ry e f fo r t st op re sen tr e su l t st o aw ide r

a bou t t h e n a tu re o f t h ings a nd g ene ra l iza t ions o n v a r iou s

a ud ience h ave n o tb een made .R esu l t sa r et oo o f ten p re sen t -

l e ve ls ( c fK uhn 1 970 :182 ) . F u r the rmo re ,

e d i na n u l t ra -spec if i c manne r —" the d i s so lu t ion o fu nde r -

1 )

A long w i th t h e f l u r ry o f me thodo log ica l a nd t h eo re t -

s t and ing i n to l o ca l i n commensu rab le , a nd f r agmen ta ry

i c a l s t ud ie s t h a t h ave c ropped u p , t h e re h a s b een a

" t e l l ing s" o fo u r e xpe r ience" (Wy l ie 1 992 :52 f ) . T he t e rm

t e ndency t ob e l ieve t h a t t h eo ry o rm e thod c ou ld b e a

" t r iv ia l" c ome s t o m ind a nd g ene ra l iza t ion i sv i r tua l ly

p rob lem s o lv ing "mag ic w and" . T he re i sn o s i ng le

l a ck ing .

t h eo ry o r m e thod t h a t c an u n rave l t h e e s sence o f t h e

A tt h e s ame t ime , mode rn t e chno logy a nd g ene rou se co -

h i s to ry o f h umank ind o r t h e n a tu re o f r e sea rch . N o

n om ic s uppo r th ave c l ea red a way many p rac t ica lp rob lem s .

b l ank e t g ene ra l iza t ion c an b e t h e k ey t o t h e p a s t o r

Why , t h en , h a s p rog re s s b een s o h ampe red? O ne t h eo re t -

s t a te s ome t h ea u then t ic n a tu re o fb e ing h uman . I fa ny -

i c a l ly o r ien ted a n swe rc ou ld b et h a tt h ed om inan tp a rad igm

t h ing , t h eo re t ica l s t ud ie s i n cr ea se t h e a wa renes s o f

h a s p rov ided n o i mpe tu s f o r r enewed r e sea r ch . T h is i n -

w ha t ad i ff icu l t u nde r tak ing a r chaeo logy c an b e . I g -

t r oduc t ion h a sa r gued t h roughou tt h a tp rob lem sa r et h eo re t -

n o r ing t h eore t ica l i mp l ica t ions , o rh id ing b eh ind q ua -

i c a l i nn a tu re . H oweve r , t h ey a r e a l so f o und i nt h e d oma in

s i theo re t ica l s imp l if ica t ion s , c ompound s t h e p rob -

o fr e sea rch s oc io logy . N orway i s as ma l l c oun t ry a nd t h e re

l em s . 2 0

2 )

T her e a r e p robab ly u nde r ly ing s t ruc tu re s a nd t r a i t s

n o te xc lude t h ep rocess o fg ene ra l iza t ion , n o rt h e d ia lec t ic

c ommon t ol a rge g roup s o f h uman s . Wha t t h e se a c -

r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e g ene ra l a nd t h e s pec if ic , a nd t h e

t u a l ly a r e mu s t b e s pec if ica l ly i d en t if ied . T he re a r e

e mp ir ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l . I n mo re g ene ra l c on tex t s t h is i s

p robab ly f ew u n ive r sa l g enera l iza t ion s a bou t b eha -

a n a pp roach s uppo r ted o r p rac t iced b y s eve ra l p rom inen t ,

v i ou r t h a t a r e n o t b ana l . T hus g ene ra l iza t ion s w i l l

t h eo ry -con sc iou s r e sea rche r s ( e .g . C h i 1de 1 978 [ 1 942 ] ,

mo s t ly b e l im i ted t o c onf ined s i tua t ion s ( e .g . w i th in

T r igge r 1 978 :24f f , 1 989 :367 , Wy l ie 1 992 :52f , 6 5 f ) .

t ime space ) . S omewha tp a radox ica l ly , t h e re a r eg ene r a l ized m echan isms i nf o rce a td i f f e ren tt imes t h rough -

3 )

o u t h i s to ry . T hese c an , h oweve r , o n ly b e a pp l ied t o

S ome f ur ther m e thodo log i ca lp o in t s

s pec if i c h i s to r ica l s i tua t ions , a nd t h e i rr e levance mu s t

T he r e v iew a bove p rov ide s e xp lana t ion s f o r d ef ic ien t i n -

b e s ub s tan t ia ted . At a sk i st oi nve s t iga te t h ep a r t icu la r

t e rp re ta t ion sa nd e xp lana t ion s i nt h ef i e ld o fL a te N eo l i th ic

f o rm i ne ach c a se , a nd mod ify g ene ra l iza t ion sa cco rd -

a nd B ronze Age r e sea rch . T he p a rad igma t ic a spec t s o u t -

i n gt oo u rr e su l t s ,a nd t h en r e app ly g ene ra l iza t ion .T he

l i ned c an a l so h e lp t o u nde r s tand t h e e mp ir ica l s t a lema te

a l terna t ive b ecomes r e duc t ion ism a nd m echan ica l d e -

w i th in L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age a r chaeo logy ,d e sp i te

t e rm ina t ion , o rt r iv ia l p a r t icu la r ism . I n ad i a lec t ic a p -

e no rmous g a in s i n " b i t s a nd p i ece s" o f d a ta . T he d eve l -

p roach t o s yn thes i s ing , t h e g ene ra l a nd t h e s pec if ic ,

o pmen t o f Norweg ian B ronze Age r e sea rch h a s s imp ly

t h e n omo log ica l a nd t h e h i s to r ica l , c anno t b e v i ewed

h ampe red t h e d ef in i t ion o f a dequa te q ue s t ions a nd b a s ic

a se xc lud ing e n t i t ie s .T hey a r ec omp lemen ta ry c ompo -

i n terp re ta t ive s t ra teg ie s . T h i s p e r ta ins e ven t o " s imp le"

n en t s .A rchaeo logy a s ad i sc ip l ine c an d ef ine t h eo ry o r

e mp i r ica l q ue s t ion s . T he re i sb e low ad i scuss ion o f s ome

me thod o r d a ta a s i t s f i e ld o f i n te re s t —a nd s hou ld

m e thodo log ica li s sue s , wh ich s t em i np a r tf r om l a rge rt h eo -

w o rk w i th t h em a l l .

r e t ica li s sue s .T he se me thodo log ica lc on s ide ra t ions p rov ide

A c r i t ic ica l a spec t i n S he te l ig 's , 0 . J ohansen 's a nd

s ome o ft h ej u s t if ica t ion f o rt h e p resen tw o rk .

A .B . J oh a n sen 's a pp roa ches i st h a t t h ey a s sume L a te

Mo s tt r ad i t iona lB ronze A ge s yn the se sa r eb a sed o nc on -

N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge h i s to ry t ob e s t a t ic . I ti sn o t

s p icuou s m e ta l o b jec t s , p robab ly o r ig ina l ly d epo s i ted i n

r e a sonab le t o c l a im t h a t t h is 2 000 y ea r p er iod , f r om

d i s t inc t ive s oc ia la nd r i tua lc on tex t s .B eyond i nhe ren tq ua l -

i n i t ia t ion t ot e rm ina t ion , s hou ld b e s t a t ic . We s hou ld

i t e s , i n te rp re ta t ion o fc on tex t i sl a rge ly b a sed o n e x terna l

l o ok f o r d ynam ics e ven i nt h e c on s tan t r e con s t i tu t ion

p rem i se s . When s o much E u ropean B ronze A ge s t udy , a nd

t h a t l e ad s t ol o ng term s t ab i l i ty . I nS cand inav ian L a te

p a r t icu la r ly t h e s t ud ies r e f er r ed t o , a r e b a sed o n d a ta o fa

N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge c on tex t s , a nd w e h ave a m -

s im i la rn a tu re ,t h ec on tex tua lb a s is f o r mo s ts oc ia l a nd e co -

p l ee v idence t od educe t h e o ppo s i te .

n om ic i n te rp re ta t ion i sl im i ted ( s ee C o le s 1 982 f o r ar e v iew o f t h e E u ropean s i tua t ion ) . T he p resen t s t udy i sb a sed o n

I n ar e cen t a r t ic le , t h e a u tho r o u t l ined ar e sea rch p rog ram

a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om a c t iv i ty s i te s a nd s e t t lemen t s . A s

f o r t h e p r e sen t p ro jec t ( P re sco t t 1 991a ) . I mp l ic i t i n t h is

s uch ,t h ese s ou rce c a tegor ie sa r ed i rec t ly r e la ted t ot h es pa -

p rog ram i st h e a cknow ledgemen t o f t h e d i a lec t ic a s soc i -

t i a l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa c to r s a nd t h e p rac t ice o fe conom ic a c -

a t ion b e tween e mp ir ia nd t h eo ry .F u r the rmo re ,t h ep rog ram

t i v i t ies .

i mp l ie s t h a t t h e m e thod s a nd g oa ls o f t wo r e sea rch t r ad i -

N ume rou s s t ud ies h ave a c tua l ly d ea l tw i th s our ce ma te -

t i on s , " Bronze Age s t ud ie s" a nd " S tone Age s t ud ie s" ,

r i a l o ft h e k i nd u sed i nt h is s t udy ( e .g . I nd re l id 1 986 , M ik -

mu s t b e c omb ined . T he a r t ic le i n f e r s t h a t ah i s tor ica l ly

k e lsen 1 989 ) , b u tt h e se s t ud ie s h ave n o tt a ken i n to a ccoun t

s t ruc tu red a pp roach t o d e sc r ib ing a nd u nde r s tand ing t h e

t h e s pec if ic n a tu r e o f t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

2 000 y ea r s o ft h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age mus t b e

ma ter ia l a nd i t s c on tex t . T hus , t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

a dop ted . F rom t h is p e r spec t ive n os i ng le m echan i sm c an b e

B ronze A ge s e c t ion s i n t h e se s t ud ie s b ecame a l ien a dd i -

a f fo rded ap r ior ie xp lana to ry p r imacy . Mo r eg ene ra l m ech -

t i on s t of undamen ta l ly S tone A ge s t ud ie s . T he ma in r a t io -

a n isms ,o rc omb ina t ions o fm echan ism s , mu s tb ea pp l ied a t

n a l i ty f o ri n c lud ing t h em i nt h e " S tone A ge type s t ud ie s" ,

d i s t inc t p o in t s a nd p er iod s d ef ined t h rough t h e h i s to r ica l

a pa r tf r om u nde r ly ing e vo lu t iona ry p rem ise s , s e emed t ob e

n a r ra t ive . B u i ld ing a nd u nde r s tand ing t h e n a r ra t ive b e -

ac ommon r aw ma ter ia l ( s tone ) . T hese s t ud ies w e re a l so

c ome s mu l t i theo re t ica l , me thodo log ica la nd d isc ip l ina ry .

h ampe red b y e xcava t ion s w h ich w e re t o o h eav i ly s kewed

"A rchaeo log ica l c u l tu re" i st h e c en t ra l e xp lana to ry e l e -

b y s amp l ing . R e su l t s f r om t h e f i e ld d id n o t p roduced d a ta

m en t i n t r ad i t iona l B ronze A ge s t ud ies . T he b a s is f o r

t h a t w e re s uff ic ien t ly r ep re sen ta t ive o n ag eog raph ica l a nd

c hange i n a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re i s d i f fu s ion o f i d ea s ,

c h rono log ica l s ca le . T he s i te s a nd a r tef ac t s t o al a rge d e -

movemen t o fp eop le , a nd l o ca l e vo lu t ion . I n s tead o fw i th -

g r ee s t emmed f r om c hance f i nd s o rl ow in tens i ty a r ea su r -

d raw ing t h e se t e rm s f r om t h e t e rm ino log ica l v ocabu la ry

v eys ( e .g . M ikke l sen 1 989 :229f f , 2 92f f , O s tmo 1 988 :127f f ,

a nd e xp lana to ry r epe r to i re , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o u nde r s tand

a l so s e e I nd re l id 1 986 , J ohansen 1 969 , 1 978 ) .

t h e i rg ene ra l n a tu re a nd s pec if ic mean ing s f o r g i ven t ime s

S tudy ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s i te s d e -

i nh i s to ry . T he s ame a pp l ie s t o f a c to r s s uch a s e conomy ,

mand s c on s ide ra t ion o f n on loca l f a c to r s . T he se c r ea te a

t e chno logy , i d eo logy , n a tu r e o r s ubs is tence . None o ft h e se

s p ec if i c h i s tor ica l c on tex t f o r i n terp re t ing s oc ie ty a nd c u l -

a l one a r e a l -exp la in ing . T he i r r e la t ive i mpo r tance i n t h e

t u r e f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd o n . T hese f a c to r s a r e f o r

c ou r se o f2 000 y ea r s o fh i s to ry i sn ece s sa r i ly v a r iab le .

e xamp le t h et e chno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica lb ackg round sf o r

Aga in , t h e a pp roach o u t l ined a bove c an b e d esc r ibed a s

t h e l i th ics , ar e vo lu t iona ry e conom ic t r ansforma t ion , n ew

h i s to r ica l ly s t ruc tu red n a r ra t ion s a nd e xp lana t ions t h a t d o

s pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion o n a n i n te rmed ia te s ca le , n ew a spec t s 2 1

o fl a bou r d i v is ion s a nd E u ropean B e l l B eake r a nd B ronze

z one s . O ne mu s t t h en d ec ide w he the r t h e moun ta in s a r e

A ge d eve lopmen t s . S uch a spec t sh ave n o tb een s uff ic ien t ly

p a r t o f aw e s ter n o r e a s tern c a tego ry o r w he the r t h ey a r e

a t tended t oi np r ev ious s t ud ies .

p a r t o fa n " o the r" ( e thn ic ) c a tegory . I fs o , s hou ld t h ey b e

T he a bove c an b e s umma r ized a sd ef ic ien ti n teg ra t ion o f

a s cr ibed t o l a be l led e t hn ic g roup s , a nd /o r i n te rp re ted o n

"me ta l" B ronze A ge a nd " l i th ic" B ronze Age , a nd t h e re to

mo re g ene ra l l i ne s ( e .g . u s ing B a r th ' s [ 1 98 1 ] c ompe t i t ion

r e la ted m e thodo log ie s . A l though t h e p re sen t s t udy d ea ls

a nd s ymb ios is mode l )?

w i th s i tes l a rge ly c ha rac te r ized b y l i th ics , i td ea ls w i th

Ar e la ted q ue s t ion i st h ec a tego ry o fh i s to r ica l a nd mod -

t h em i n ac onsc iou s ly c ho sen " La te N eo l i th ic — B ronze

e rn s h ie l ing a c t iv i t ie s —" se t r ing" o r " so l ing" — u sed i n

A ge -con tex t" . F u r the rmo re , i ti sb a sed o n av a r ied s e lec -

t h is p ape ra nd e l sewhe re a sa n a na log ica l s ou rce . D o t h e se

t i on o fs i tes w i th d i f f e ren tt ype so fq ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta -

t e rm s d e scr ibe as e a sona l u se o f moun ta in p a s tu re s b y a n

t i ve s ou r ce v a lue .T h is p e rm i t s amean ingfu l s t udy o fs eve r -

a gr icu l tu ra l p opu la t ion , o r d o t h ey c a r ry c onno ta t ion s o f

a lg eog raph ica l , e nv i ronmen ta l a nd c h rono log ica l t r end s .

f a rms ( "gard en") , p rope r ty , c a sh c rop s a nd ma rke t e cono my?

Ap o in t t h a t i sr e la ted t ot h e r e su l t o f t h is s t udy , i sa c k now ledgemen t o fp a s to ra l ism a st h e e conom ic a nd s oc io -

T he s t ance s t ot h e se q ue s t ion s c an b e s uppo r ted b y e m -

i d eo log ica lb a s is f o rL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s oc ie ty

p i r ica l s ou rce s a nd d a ta , a s i nt h e p r e sen t s t udy . S t i l l , b e -

i nS ogn . T h is n o t o n ly e n ta i ls r e cogn i t ion o fd ome s t ic a n i -

y ond a p o in t i n t h e d i scu s s ion , o p in ion s r ead i ly b ecome

ma l s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , b u t a l so t h e i d en t if ica -

s uppo r ted b y s ub jec t ive p e r cep t ion sc once rn ing t h ew i lde r -

t i on o ft h e mo s t i mpo r tan t e conom ic a spec t , a nd t h e reby a

n e ss -cu l tu re , " j e l l" — " gärd" ,d i cho tomy s od eep ly r oo ted

p r ime s o c ia l f a c to r .

i nN orweg ian c u l tu re .

A SPECTS O F MOUNTA IN R ESEARCH

A RCHAEOLOG ICAL R ESEARCH I N ÄR DAL

A l though a f f ec ted b y an umbe r o f t h e f a c to r s d i scussed

B ef o re s y s tema t ic e xcava t ions s t a r ted i nÄ rda l , t h e re w e re

a bove , t h e q ues t ion o fa r cheo log ica l r e sea rch i nt h e s ou th -

af ew B ronze Age a r tef ac t f i nd s o u t o f p r ima ry c on tex t ,

er n N orweg ian moun ta ins ( "je l le t" — " hogf i e l le t" ) w i l l

made c o inc iden ta l ly b y n on -p rof e s s iona ls ( L i l lehamme r

b r ief ly b ea dd res sed s epe ra te ly .P ro jec t sa nd p ub l ica t ions i n

1 97 1 ) . S y s tema t ic e xcava t ions o f S tone A ge a nd B ronze

c onnec t ion w i th t h e l a rge H a rdangerv idda p l a teau a r e o u t -

Age s i te sw e re c a r r ied o u ti nt h ee a r ly 1 960 's i nc onnec t ion

l i ned b yI nd re l id ( 1 986 ) . H er e f e r st oa u tho r sw ho i n terp re t -

w i th h yd ro -e lec t r ic d eve lopmen to ft h eT y in -Tya r i ve rs y s -

e da l p ine f i nd sa st h er ema in so fa nn on -Norweg ian i nd ige -

t em ( Lav ik 1 962 , L ien 1 96 1 , L i l lehamme r 1 97 1 :128 , Ma r -

n ous p opu la t ion ( e .g . H ansen 1 904 , Munch 1 8 52 , N egaa rd

t e n s 1 973 , R o senqv i s t 1 962 ) . T hese e xcava t ions d emon -

1 9 1 1 ) . S im i la r v i ew s a r e f ound i nt h e modern c u l tu re d ua l -

s t ra ted t h a t t h e moun ta in s i n t h i s a r ea c on ta ined a r i ch

i sm d eba te , a s w e l l a s i no the r c onnec t ions ( e .g . J ohan sen

s e lec t ion o fs i te sf r om S tone A ge a nd B ronze A ge p er iod s .

1 973 ) . I nd re l id a l so n o ted a u tho r s w ho f e l t t h e H a rdange r -

T he l a te r Lxrda l e xcava t ion s , i n t h e moun ta in s i nn e igh -

v i dda moun ta ins w e re f i r s ts e a sona l ly " co lon ized" b yl ow -

b or ing L x rda l , h ad t h e s ame r e su l t ( J ohan sen 1 967 , 1 968 ,

l a nd f a rme r s ( e .g . B rogge r 1 925 :57f , N ico laysen 1 857 ) o r

1 970 , 1 978 ) . D esp i te t h e se d i scover ie s , i tw a s n o te xpec ted

t h a t t h e e t hn ic b ackg round o f t h e e a r ly "moun ta in p eo -

t h a t l a rge q uan t i t ies o fS tone A ge /Bronze Age s i te s w ou ld

p l es" c ou ld n o tb ed e te rm ined ( e .g .Bend ixen 1 892 , S he te l ig

t u rn u pi nt h e N yse t -S tegg je v a l leys , a st h ey a r e s i tua ted t o

1 922 : 190 ) .

t h e w e s t , i n c onf ined moun ta in p l a teau s b e tween f j o rd s .

I tw ou ld s e em t h a t h i s to r ica l a nd moder n v i ews , a tl e a s t

T h is p o s i t ion may b e s ummed u p b y o rr e la ted t ot h e i d ea

i nt h e u rbane c i rc le s , e vo lve a r ound ad i cho tomy b e tween

o f aw e s t ern f r on t ie rf o r " S tone A ge" moun ta in s e t t lemen t

t h ew i ld moun ta in sa nd t h ec u l tura ll ow land s .T h is d i cho to -

i nN orway . At e n ta t ive p o s tu la te s t a ted t h a t " S tone A ge"

my , a nd t h e i n he ren t s eg rega t ion o f t h e moun ta in z one a s

p opu la t ions w ou ld n o t b e i n te re s ted i n t h e i n te r -f jo rda l

s ome th ing a pa r t ,i sp a r t ia l ly n a tu ra l .T h is p o s tu la te i sb a sed

moun ta in s ( Gus ta f son 1 98 1 , 1 982 :64 ) . A l though o r ig ina l ly

o nt h ee x t reme c l ima te a nd t h e s pa r se v ege ta t ion c ha rac te r -

f o rmu la ted i nr ega rd t o Me so l i th ic s i t e s ( I nd re l id 1 975 :6 ) ,

i s t ic o ft h e moun ta in s . T he moun ta in s a r e t h e reby s pa r se ly

t h e i d ea s e em s t ob e a pp l ied t oy ounge r p er iod s t o o . T he

p opu la ted o n as e a sona l b a s is . T he moun ta ins a r e ar e fuge

a u tho r 's i mp ress ion i st h a t , d esp i te i n ve s t iga t ions a tT y in

f o r w i ld a n ima ls a nd a r e a l so r e ad i ly p opu la ted b y my th

a nd i nL xrda l , t h e a bundan t f i nd s a l ong t h e N yse t -S tegg je

a nd b ecome s ymbo l ic o ft h e t ough , w i ld a nd mys t ica l . A t

r i ve r s y s tems w e re m e t w i th c on s ide rab le s u rpr i se .

t h e s ame t ime t h e moun ta in s a r e a n i mpo r tan t e conom ic

I n t h e e a r ly 1 960 's E g i l B akka l e d e xcava t ion s o f t h e

z one i nr e ga rd t oh un t ing , f i sh ing , s h ie l ing , q ua r ry ing a nd

V ik ing A ge f a rm a tY t re Moa ( Bakka 1 97 1 ) . Y t re Moa i sa

t r anspo r ta t ion . T hey a r e t hus b o th f am i l ia ra nd mys t ica l .

l a te g l a c ia l d e l ta d epo s i t n ea r Ä rda l sva tn c a . 1 00 m .a .s . l .

T he n a tu re o f moun ta ins i nt h e N orweg ian p opu la t ion 's

Wh i le w o rk ing h e re , S o ren V ea nd O la J .V ee s howed B ak -

c onsc iousne s s i sn o t t h e i s sue h e re . T he p o in t i st h a t t h e

k a ar o ck s he l te r —S k r iva rhe l le ren ,i nw h ich B akka d ug a

moun ta ins a s a n " o the r" c a tego ry i sa l so f ound i nt h e a r -

t e s t p i t ( Bakka n . d . ) . S k r iva rhe l le ren i s a ma in o b jec t o f

c haeo log ica l r e sea rch h i s to ry . T h is u nde r s tand ing e xp la ins

i n qu iry i nt h e p resen t monog raph , a nd s u f f ice i tt os a y t h a t

t h e l a te d a te i nw h ich i n ves t iga t ion s w e re i n i t ia ted i nt h e se

B akka d emons t ra ted aB ronze A ge s e t t lemen tw h ich l e d t o

e nv ironmen t sa nd i te xp la ins an umbe ro fp o s i t ions a dop ted

e xcava t ions i nt h e 1 980 's ( P resco t t 1 99 1b ) .

i nt h e i n te rp re ta t ive d i scuss ion . B u t i ta l so f o r ces p r esen t

T he Y t re Moa s i te a t O vr e Ä rda l w a s p r eserved b y

d ay r e sea r che r s t oa dop t ap o s i t ion i nr e ga rd t ot h e a l p ine

c hance . T he re s e em s t oh ave b een al o s s o f ac onven ien t 2 2

F ig . 1 . Map o ft h e i n v e s t iga t ion a r ea i nI nne rS ogn . E xca va t ion si nc onnec t ion w i th t h eN y se t -S t egg j ep ro jec t( 1 98 1 1987 ) i n c lud ed s i t e sa round t h eR i ska l s v a tn l a k ei nV i kada len , s i t e sa r ound t h eB erda l sva tn l a k ea nd i nt h e r oad c our se f rom S medda l sva tn t oV i kada l en ( s ee f i g s . 3 , 4& 5 )M inor e xca va t ion s w er ea l so c onduc ted i nN add v ik b yt h eS ognejord . E xcava t ion sw er ea l so c ar r ied o u ti nt h eS k r ivar he l l er en r ock s he l t er ( 1 987 1989 ) . M inor e xca va t ion s w er ec onduc t ed a tT y in i n1 96 1 1962 . F igur eb yE .H of fH i s tor i sk m u s eum ,f rom P r e sco t t1 99 1b .

w a te r s upp ly i nt h e V ik ing P er iod ( Bakka 1 97 1 :152p . T he

t o mean t h ee xc lu s ion o f ma te r ia l is to rc u l tu re -evo lu t iona ry

s i te w a sa l so d i s tan tf r om mode rn c u l t iva t ion ,h ouse b u i ld -

e xp lana to ry f a c to r s ,a nd a vo id ing g ene ra le xp lana to ry mod -

i n g a nd i n dus t r ia l d eve lopmen t . T he f a rm s i te w a s d i scov -

e l s —i ndeed a vo id ing g ene ra l iza t ion i t se lf . O ne wou ld p e r -

e r ed b y g rave l q ua r ry ing . T he mo re c en t ra l l ow land a r ea s

h ap s e xpec t amo re i d ea l i s t empha s i s , a nd t h a t as t rong ly

a r ep loughed ,b u i l tu pa nd h os te normou sa l um inum p l an t s .

s pec if i c p rog ram w ou ld b e a dop ted . T h is p os i t ion i sn o t

H e re l i e s ac r ed ib le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e l a ck o ff i nd s a nd

h e ld b yt h ep r e sen ta u tho r .E nv i ronmen t ,s ub s is tence ,e con -

s i te s o n as c a le c ompa rab le t ot h e moun ta in f i nd s . E x ten -

omy , c u l tu re , i d eo logy , t e chno logy , i nd iv idua l a gency a nd

s i ve mode rn d e s t ruc t ion o fp reh is tor ic s i te si sd emons t ra ted

s oc ia ls t ruc tu re c an a l lb el e g i t ima te e xp lana to ry c a tegor ie s

b yn a r ra t ive sc oncern ing o b serva t ion sd u r ing c on s t ruc t ion :

o r c on tex tua l f a c to r s . T hey c an b e a ccoun ted f o r o r r e n -

O b jec t s a nd mound s w e re r epo r ted ly s e en . T hough ama -

d e red i na n e xp lana to ry f a sh ion w i thou tr equ ir ing u nf o r tu -

j o r i ty o ft h eo b serva t ion sp robab ly c oncern I r on A ge mon -

n a te l a p se s i n to u n ive r sa l is t c u l tu re -de te rm in ism , e co -de -

umen t s , t h ey i nd ica te t h a t S tone A ge a nd B ronze Age s e t -

t e rm in i sm , t e chno -de te rm in ism , f unc t iona l i sm e t c . I n f a c t

t l emen t sc ou ld o nce h ave b een f ound a ta pp ropr ia te h e igh t s

t h ea bove l i s ted f a c to r sc an b ea l lo t ted p r ima ry d e term ina te

a bove s ea l e ve l .

p o s i t ion si ne xp lana to ry s equence s , w i thou tr equ ir ing ad e t e rm in is tp o s i t ion .

T h is b r ief a ccoun t o fr e sea rch c an b e r ounded o f f w i th

T he a l te rna t ive s a va i lab le a r e

m en t ion o ft h e p ro jec t s d ea l t w i th i nt h is monog raph ( f ig . 1 )

1 ) : E xcava t ion s i n t h e N y se t -S tegg je v a l ley s ( 1 98 1 1987 ,

O ne o r ac omb ina t ion o f af ew f a c to r s , l i ke c u l tu r e ,

B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 ) a nd i nt h e S kr iva rhe l le ren r o ck s he l te r

n a tu ra l c ond i t ion s , e conomy o rt e chno logy , a r e p o s tu -

( 1 987 1989 , P re sco t t 1 99 1 ) .

l a ted t ob eg ene ra l ly o re ven u n ive r sa l ly d e te rm ina te ( a s t ance i mp l ic i ti nt r ad i t iona l e mp ir ic ism a nd n eo -po s i t i v ism , e . g . J ohan sen 1 968 , 1 978 , J ohan sen 1 986 ,

PROBLE MS AND GOALS FOR TH IS S TUDY

1 988 , S he te l ig 1 925 ) . 2 )

A n a l terna t ive p os i t ion i st h a to fd e scr ib ing o ra na lyz -

T he p rem i se s f o r t h e a pp roache s a nd g oa l s o f t h is s t udy

i n g , e . g . , e conom ic p o ten t ia l i n a n e nv ironmen t , n o t

d e r ive p a r t ly f r om t h e a bove r e sea r ch h i s to r ica l a ccoun t .

w i th av i ew t ou n ive r sa lo rb road c r os s -cu l tu ra l g ene r -

O n ag ene ra l s c a le , t h e s t udy s e ek s t o a vo id m echan ica l

a l iza t ion s ,b u ta s al e g i t ima te r e sea rch e nd i ni t se lf . A n

d e te rm in ism i n i t s n a r ra t ive a nd e xp lana t ion . I n t h e p o s t -

e xamp le i sO dne r ' s ( 1969 , 1 972 ) e va lua t ion o fp o ten -

modern c l ima te o ft oday ,t h is p o s i t ion m igh tb eu nde r s tood

t i a l p roduc t ion c apac i ty i nV a l lda len . 2 3

3 )

T he a pp roach a dop ted h e re i sh i s tor ica l ly s t ruc tu red . I t

U se t h e se d a ta t oc on s t ruc ts ub s is ten t ia la nd e conom ic

a l lows as e lec t ion o fp r ima ry e xp lana to ry f a c to r s i na

p a t te rn s i nt h e a r ea a th and .

c on tex tua l a na lys is o f e ven t s , d ynam ics a nd c ause s

U se t h e a bove d a ta t o d i ach ron ica l ly d ef ine p a t terns

( e .g . P re sco t t 1 991 , i np re s s , h e re ) .

t h rough t h e N eo l i th ic a nd u p t ot h e I r on A ge .

I n t h e p rog ram f o r d ynam ic , h i s to r ica l ly s t ruc tu red t r ea t -

T he n ex t a na ly t ic s t ep i st oc omb ine r e su l t s f r om " I ."

m en t o f L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge Ä rda l , t wo -pa r t

w i th amo re g ene ra l t h eo re t ica l a pproach a nd ,

m e thodo log ica l , a r chaeo log ica l a nd e xp lana to ry g oa ls a r e

O u t l ine c hang ing s oc ia lp a t te rns i nt h e o rgan iza t ion o f

d ef ined f o rt h is s t udy :

l a bou ra nd l a nd -use .

I . 1 )

B a sed p r ima r i ly o n s e t t lemen ta nd p roduc t ion s i te ma -

D e te rm ine t h e s oc io -econom ic s t ruc tu re i n t h e o u t -

t e r ia l t h e a u tho ra im s t o :

l i ned d eve lopmen t s .

Add res ss ome c en t ra la na ly t ica lc a tego r ie s ,s uch a se n -

C omb ine f a c to r si n ah i s to r ica l ly s t ruc tu red a ccoun to f

v i ronmen t , e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e e nv i ronmen t , a r chaeo -

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age d eve lopmen t s i nt h i s

l og ica l c u l tu re , c h rono log ica l s equence , i n te r - a nd

s ou thern S cand inav ian p e r iphe ry , a nd a t temp t t ou n -

i n t ra -s i te p a t tern s .

c ove rd ynam ics .

2 4

2 .B a ckg round , s ou r ce s a nd d a ta T h is s e c t ion i sc oncerned w i th emp i r ica l d a ta a nd t h e f i r s t

s ub -a lp ine z one . T he l ow -a lp ine z one h a s mo re o pen , b u sh

s t ep s i na na lyz ing s uch d a ta . T he e mp i r ica l f ounda t ion i s

v ege ta t ion a nd s t re tche s t oa bou t 1 000 m a . s . l . R i ska l sva tn

mo s t ly b a sed o n f i nd s a nd o bserva t ion s f r om s e t t lemen t s .

i nV ikada len i sl o ca ted i nt h e l ow -a lp ine z one . T he ( m id -

T he s ou r ce ma te r ia l c ons t i tu tes p a r t o ft h i s s t udy ' sj u s t if i -

d l e )a lp ine z one i sc ha rac te r ized b ya no pen g ra ss a nd s edge

c a t ion . T he s i te m a te r ia l i sa s semb led w i th in as ma l l a r ea

( Car ex ) v ege ta t ion . T h i s z one s t re tche s t o a pp rox ima te ly

o n t h ep e r iphe ry o fs ou the rn S cand inav ia , a nd d a ted t ot h e

1 200 m a . s . l . Much o ft h e B e rda len v a l ley l i e s i nt h e m id -

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age . T he e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i -

d l e -a lp ine z one .T he u pper -a lp ine z one d oe sn o th ave ac on -

t i on s a r e d ec ided ly n on -sou thern S cand inav ian . I ti st h us

t i nuou s v ege ta t ion c ove r , a nd i su sua l ly ar ocky l a nd scape .

r e ad i ly a ppa ren t t h a t ar a t iona le f o r t h is s t udy i sn o t o n ly

T he r oad b e tween Smedda l sva tn a nd V ikada len p a sse s

t h e f i nd s t h em se lve s . T he n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e g e -

t h rough t r ac t s o ft h e u ppe ra l p ine z one .

o g raph ica l p o s i t ion i n ai nE uropean c on tex t a l so p rov ide a n e l emen t o fj u s t if ica t ion f o rt h e s t udy .

THE S TUDY AREA I N A REGIONAL PERSPECT IVE

S ince a tl e a s tB rogge r 's d ays , N orweg ian a r chaeo log is t s h ave r e cur r ing ly u rged e ach o the r t o move f r om c h rono l o gy ,t y po logy a nd s i te d e scr ip t ions ,t os t udy a r chaeo logy a s

T he f o l low ing d i scu s ses w e s t ern N orway ' sp er iphera lp o s i t ion

h i s to ry o ra spec t s o fb e ing h uman ( e .g . B rogge r1 925 : 13 / / ) .

f rom a r e g iona lp er spec t ive . T he p er iphera lp o s i t ion i sc or -

T h is c ou ld b e r e ga rded a sa n i nv i ta t ion t os e ta s ide s t ud ie s

r obora t ed a r chaeo log ica l ly b yl owf i nd d en s i t ie so ft r ad i t iona l

o f o b jec t s a nd c h rono logy . I ti st h e i n ten t o ft h is w o rk t o

f i nd L a t e N eo l i th ic a nd B ron ze A ge a r t ef ac t a nd m onumen t

move b eyond a" ske le ta l" a r chaeo logy t owa rd s amo re h o -

c a tegor ie s . T he s e c t ion b e low d i scu s se s l o ca lf ea tur e s i nf i r -

l i s t ic h i s tory .T h i sa im i nm ind ,i ti st h ea u tho r 's e xper ience

d a la nd t h e r e la t ive ly a x ia lp o s i t ion i nc en t ra ls ou ther nN or -

t h a t q ue s t ion s c oncer n ing p reh is to r ic s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion ,

w ay . T he i mpor tance o ft h em oun ta in s , a nd s ub s i s tence a c t iv -

e conomy o ri d eo logy d emand amo re s oph i s t ica ted e mp i r -

i t e s l i k e h un t ing , f i sh ing , p a s tur ing a nd a gr icu l tur e , i n

i c a l b a se t h an q ue s t ion s c oncern ing g ene ra l c h rono logy o r

h i s tor ica l t i me s a r e c en t ra l t ot h e n ar ra t ive . T hey s e r ve t o

f e a tu re so fs ub s is tence .F o rt h ese r e a son s ,t h ef o l low ing s i te

c ha l l enge c oncep t s o fm arg ina l i ty , w h i le u pho ld ing c oncep t s

p re sen ta t ion i sf a i r ly e x ten s ive .

o fp er ipher y . A par tf rom f am i l ia r i z ing t h e r e ad er w i th t h e

A t t h i s s t age , i ti sn o t o n ly i mpo r tan t t op re sen t a r chae -

s e t t ing , t h es e c t ion i si n t end ed t od emon s tra te h ow t h em oun -

o log ica l d a ta . U nder s tand ing t h en a tu re o ft h ee nv i ronmen t

t a in s , a nd h un t ing a nd p a s tora l i sm — s o i n tegra l t ot h e a r -

a nd t h el ow techno logy e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h i se nv i ronmen ti n

c haeo log ica lm a ter ia l —h a ve s haped l i ve s a nd m ind s i nh i s -

t h eh i s to r ica le r ai si mpo r tan t .T ot h is e nd r e f e rence i s made

t o r ica l a nd m od e rn e ra s . F ina l ly , t h e v a l l ey s t h a t w er e

t o s c ien t if ic o b serva t ion s f r om t h e a r ea . T he e t hno -h is to r -

i n ves t iga t ed a r ed i scu s sed s pec if i ca l ly .

i c a l p e r spec t ive i sp e rhap s e ven mo re i mpo r tan t i nu nde r s t and ing h ow p eop le d ependen t o n a g ro -pa s to ra l p roduc -

T h is s e c t ion d ea l s w i th g ene ra l f e a tu re s o ft h e s t udy a r ea .

t i on h ave e xp lo i ted a nd e xper ienced t h e r e g ion a nd i t s

Mo re d e ta i led i n forma t ion i sf ound i nt h e a na lys is o f s i te

p o ten t ia l . T hu s , e t hno -h i s tor ica l s t ud ie s p rov ide s ou rce s o f

l o ca t ion . T he s t udy a r ea i sg eog raph ica l ly d i s tan tf r om a ny

a na log ie sf o ru nde r s tand ing p o ten t ia lp reh is to r ic u se o ft h e

S cand inav ian L a te N eo l i th ic o rB ronze A ge f i nd c oncen t ra -

moun ta in v a l ley s i nÄ rda l .

t i on o rc en t re . E nv i ronmen ta l ly Ä rda li s ma rg ina l , i nt h a ti t d oe s n o t h ave t h e a g r icu l tura l p o ten t ia l u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t s . T h i s i sd emon s t ra ted b y t h e

No t eo na l t i tud ez one s

v ery l im i ted h i s to r ica l ly c u l t iva tab le t r ac t s o fl a nd ( f ig . 2 ,

I nt h ef o l low ing , a l p ine t e rm ino logy i su sed t od escr ibe t h e

S agen 1 97 1 :29 1 ) .

g ene ra l e nv i ronmen t s ( b a sed o n G jxrevo l l 1 980 , S agen

I n d i scu ss ing t h e g ene ra l f a c to r s t h a t h ave s haped No r -

1 97 1 ) . T he l ow land z one d e scr ibe s t h e a r ea f r om t h e f j o rd

w ay ' s h i s to ry , B rogge rw ro te :

a nd u p t o af ew h und red m e te r s . T he s ub -a lp ine z one i s

" S t i l l a no the r e l emen t s hou ld b e m en t ioned a s ag en -

c ha ra c ter ized b y ap redom ina te ly b i r ch f o res t . I n t h e r e -

e r a lf a c to ri n[ t he s hap ing o f ] o u rc u l tu ra lh i s to ry . T h i s

g ion s d i scu s sed h e re , t h e modern s ub -a lp ine a l t i tude l im i t

f a c to r i s No rway 's p o s i t ion i nE u rope , i s o la ted f r om

i sa r ound 9 00 m a . s . l . S l c r iva rhe l le ren i s as i te l o ca ted i nt h e

a nd a tt h e s ame t ime p a r t o f E u rope . N orway i sf a r 2 5

f r om t h e e a s t -we s t m ig ra t ion s , a t mo s t me re ly i n

p e r spec t ive Ä rda l i sn o ta sp er iphe ra l a nd c e r ta in ly n o tr e -

i n d i rec t c on tac t w i th t h e A s ian h o rde s t h a t d i rec t ly

s ou r cefu l ly ma rg ina la si ti mmed ia te ly m igh ts e em . P e r iph -

o r i nd i rec t ly l e d t o s o many c hange s i n E u ropean

e ry i sd ef ined a s ar e la t ion i ng eog raphy a sc u l tu ra l -qua l i ty

c u l tu re . . .

a spec t s d ef ined f r om a " cen t re" . " Cen t re a nd p e r iphe ry"

B u t t h e re i sa no the r i mpo r tan t e l emen t i n Norweg ian

a r ec u l tu ra lc on s t ruc t s made i np reh i s to ry a nd i nc on tempo -

a nd Nor th -Eu ropean c u l tu ra l h i s tory t h a t mus tb e t a k -

r a ry r e sea r ch . T he t wo c anno t b e t a ken a s c ong ruen t . I n

e ni n to a ccoun t . Wh i le w ays o fl i v ing h ave b yn eces s i -

c onc lus ion , t h e " cen t re — p e r iphe ry" t e rm ino logy i sr e la -

t y o f n a tu re a lway s b een N orweg ian , a lmo s t e very

t i ve t ot h e q ue s t ions p o sed a nd t h e g eog raph ic p e r spec t ive

t r ansforma t ive i mp rovemen ti so ff o re ign o r ig in , mo re

a dop ted . " Per iphery" a nd "ma rg ina l" a r e n o t s ynonym s .

p rec ise ly f r om t h eg r ea tc u l tu ra ls ou rce t h a tw ec a l lt h e

Ä rda l h a s e normous p o ten t ia l f o r p a s tur ing a nd h un t ing .

C la ss ica l L and s ." ( BrOgge r 1 925 :29f , t r ans l . b y CP ) .

T h is i sd ea l tw i th e x ten s ive ly i nt h is s t udy .T he se i mpo r tan t r e sou rces l i f tÄ rda l o u to ft h e c a tego ry o f ma rg ina l i ty , a nd

I n mode rn t e rm s B rogge r 's g ene ra l c l a im c ou ld b e t r ans -

may s e rve t op l ace i t ,a nd s im i la r g eog raph ie s , i na n o u t -

l a ted t o : "Norway l i es o n t h e E u ropean p e r iphe ry" . I ti s

s t and ing p o s i t ion .

a l so a pp ropr ia te t o c l a im t h a t L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge w e s tern N orway h ad ap er iphery r e la t ion sh ip t oE u r opean , a nd s pec if ica l ly s ou the rn S cand inav ian L a te N eo -

ÄR DAL

l i th ic a nd B ronze Age c en t re s ( K r i s t ian sen 1 987 ) . Whe the r

T od emon s t ra te h ow n on -a rchaeo log is t sa nd l o ca l sh ave e x -

o ne l o ok s a tg eog raphy a nd n a tu ra l r e sou rce s o r f i nd s a nd

p e r ienced t h e s t udy a r ea , s ome q uo te s a r e t r an s la ted a sa n

monumen t s , N orway w a s ma rg ina l t o t h e r eg iona l r e f e r -

i n t roduc t ion . T hese q uo te s r evo lve a round moun ta in s ,

e nce a r ea s f o r t h e N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age p e r iod s :

h un t ing a nd p a s to ra l ism — a l l p redom inan t f e a tu re s o fl i f e

No r the rn G e rmany , D enma rk a nd S ou thern Sweden . E ven

i nI nne r S ogn i n to modern t ime s .

s o , t h e many i mpo r ted a r t if ac t s a nd t h e c ommon r i tua l

" The c oun ty o fÄ rda l i s ap a r i sh w i th c ompa ra t ive ly

d emon s t ra ted t h rough e xp res s ion s o f ma ter ia l c u l tu ra l , r e -

l i t t le a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea s a nd l a rge e xpan se s o f moun -

v ea l t h e s t rong i n f luence f r om c en t re t od i f f e ren t l e ve ls o f

t a in . A cco rd ing t ot h ea g r icu l tu ra lc en su si n1 939 , A r-

p er iphe ry — a nd ac ommon s phe re o f i n te rac t ion b e tween

d a lh ad a na gr icu l tu re a r ea o f3 777 d eka r . O ft h is o n ly

t h em . I tmay a l so b ep o in ted o u tt h a t mos to fs ou the rn a nd

1 827 d eka rw a s c u l t iva ted .

c en t ra lN orway w a sp er iphe ra lt ot h eA rc t ic B ronze A ge o f

T he t o ta l a r ea i s9 94 .6 km 2,a nd t h e reof 1 0 1 .7 km 2

No r the rn S cand inav ia ( Ba ld ca 1 976 ) , a nd e a s ter nr e f e rence

u nde r6 00 m a . s . 1 , wh i le t h er e s t , 8 92 .4 km 2 i so ve r6 00

c u l tu r e s a s Anan ino ( Zve leb i l 1 980 ) .

ma . s . 1 . . . . T he amoun to fs t ock i n1 939 w a s 8 16 c a t t le ,

" Pe r iphe ry" i s ar e la t ive t e rm ,a nd may b eu sed i nr e f e r -

2 538 s heep a nd 3 191 g oa t s .. . . .

e nce t o r eg iona l o r l o ca l c en t re s . I n Norweg ian s e t t ing s ,

T he moun ta in s i n t h e c oun ty o f Ä rda l w e re w i thou t

R oga land , O s lof jo rd / Iv I jo sa , T rondhe im s f jo rd a nd S unn -

d oub t u t i l ized b e t te r i nt h e p a s t , e spec ia l ly f o r c a t t le

Mi re may b er e ga rded a sr eg iona lc en t re s i nt h eL a te N eo -

a nd h o r se d r ive s .T he d r ive sh ave n ow c ome t oa ne nd ,

l i th ic a nd B ronze Age . I ti sh e re o ne f i nd s a g r icu l tu ra l p o -

a nd t h eo ld c a t t le s t a t ion s mos t ly l i ei d le .S eve ra ls h ie l -

t e n t ia l , p os i t ion ing

o n r ou te s o f c ommun ica t ion a nd

i n gs a r e a bandoned , a nd i nt h e f u tu re w e mus t e xpec t

c oncen t ra t ion s o ff i nd s a nd monumen t s . Ä rda l , t h e a r ea i n

t h a t mos to ft hose t h a tr ema in w i l la l so b eg iven u pd ue

w h ich t h e p re sen t s t udy i sc a r r ied o u t i sp er iphe ra l , n o t

t oi ndu s t r ia l iza t ion i nt h e p a r ish ." ( F roy s tad 1 951 :83 ,

o n ly t ot h e S cand inav ian c en t re s ,b u ta l so i nr ega rd t o No r -

t r an s l . b y CP ) .

w eg ian c en t re s . S t i l l , Ä rda l l i es a tt h e f oo t o f t h e S ognef jo rd , 1 50 km

T he f o l low ing l o ca l s t o ry i sn o to n ly a ne xamp le o fh un t ing

f r om t h e w e s t c oa s t o f Norway . S evera l r ou te s t h a t l e ad

l o re , b u t e xemp l if ie s t h e c ro ss road p o s i t ion o ft h e moun -

o ve r mode ra te ly s ho r t moun ta in r ou tes , e nd o r b eg in i n

t a in s b e tween I nne r S ogn a nd t h e e a s tern N orweg ian v a l -

Ä rda l ( e .g . R ing s tad 1 987 :268f , S ande 1 887 :221) . T hese

l e ys .

r ou te s l e ad t ot h e e a s tern v a l ley o fV a ld res . T he v a l ley o f

"Hun t ing h a s b een i mpor tan t t op eop le i nÄ rda l a s a

V a ld r e sb eg in si nt h e moun ta in se a s to fÄ rda la nd s t re tche s

s ou rce o f i n come a nd f ood , a s w e l l a s a n e xc i t ing

d own t ot h ee a s te rn Norweg ian a g r icu l tu ra lz one . An a tu ra l

s po r t , i nt o modern t ime s . I ti sf o rt h i sr e a son t h a tf ew

r ou te o f c ommun ica t ion , f r om t h e w e s ter n -mo s t c oa s t t o

s t or ie s h ave b een s o a pp rec ia ted b y p eop le i nÄ rda l ,

t h e r i che r a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea s o f e a s tern Norway , r un s

t h an t h e o ne J ohanne s H e rmund son N unda l ( "Ve t le -

t h rough t h e s t udy a r ea . I ndeed o ne o ft h e mos t c ommon ly

K la f f en" ) t o ld a bou t ah un t ing t r ip t oT y in .

u sed r ou tes o ft r ave l , b efo re modern r oad s , p a s sed 3 0 —5 0

' E gf ann e i n r e in ie id yr egra v , d rap h an ,f l ädd eo g

m e te r s o fo ne o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan ts i tes ( Sk r iva rhe l le ren )

l ema h an s u rd . D ä e g h adde f ä t tb Ora p ä r y ggen ,

d i scu s sed i nt h is s t udy .

k om d e te i nv a ld r e so gr opa a te gh adde s t o le r e inen

Ä rda l h a s e normous p o ten t ia l f o rp a s tur ing a nd h un t ing .

h an s , d e t v ar h an s r e insgray . E g m a t te l e gg ja f rä

T h is i sd ea l tw i th e x ten s ive ly i nt h i s s t udy . T hese i mpo r tan t

m eg k j O t e t , m e in t e h an . E g b a h an t y ka o g r e i sa .

r e sou r ce s l i f tÄ rda l o u t o ft h e c a tego ry o f ma rg ina l i ty , a nd

Men h an s k r e ik o gt r uga o gk om n c erar e . D äk l appa

may s e rve t o p l ace i ta nd s im i la r g eog raph ie s i n a n o u t -

e g b Or sa m i o g s a : J a g aor d u ' k j e n o , s o s ka

s t and ing p os i t ion .

h o g am la l u c l la ( t ra l la ) e i n l a o t t ( s lä t t ) a o t d e ,

A l l o f t h e f o rego ing h av ing b een s a id , i n a Norweg ian

s o d u a ld er h a h ar t m ak e t e . D a g j ekk h an . « Du 2 6

v i l le n o v e l i k k j e h a s ko t e?» s purd e e i n g od v en .

I n modern t ime sc a t t le ,s heep a nd g oa t sh ave b een t h e mo s t

« J audd i h add e e g s ko te / um . H an s äg s o s t ygg o g

i mpor tan td ome s t ica te s . T he i n t roduc to ry q uo te ( F roy s tad )

f r e i u ta t t e !» J ohannes w a s p robab ly a f ra id t o l e t

i nd ica te s t h e s i ze o f t h e h erd s i n 1 939 . H e l land ( 1901 ,

t h i s m ean a nd u g ly man c ome c l o se r" . ( V e

1 :96 )p rov ide s s im i la rt a l l ie sf o r 1 891 ( t ab le 2 ) , t h ough t h e

1 971 :179 ) . ( " I f ound ar e indee ri n ap i t , k i l led i t ,

r e la t ive p ropo r t ion o f g oa t s t o s heep w a s h ighe r . Apa r t

s k inned a nd d e l imbed i t .A f te r Ih ad s hou lde red

f r om l i ve s tock re la ted a c t iv i t ie si nd ica ted i nt h et a b le , H e l -

my l o ad aman f r om V a ld re s c ame a nd s hou ted

l a nd a l so m en t ions p o ta toe s ,b a r ley ,h ay p roduc t ion ,c hee se

t h a t Ih ad s t o len h i s r e indee r , t h a t i tw a s h i s r e in -

a nd b u t te r p roduc t ion , g oa t h i de s , f i sh ing a nd f o res t ry .

d ee r -p i t . H ed emanded t h a t Id rop t h em ea t . It o ld

B oye sen ( 1820 :14f )m en t ions c u l t iva t ion o fs ma l l amoun t s

h im t og e tl o s t . B u th ej u s ts hou ted a nd t h rea tened

o fr y e , f r u i t , h amp a nd h op s , a s w e l l c ommon h un t ing o f

me a nd c ame c l o se r . Ip a t ted my r i f le a nd s a id :

r e indee r , s ma l l a nd l a rge p reda to r s a nd f ow l . F ow l w e re

We l l , i fy ou d on ' t g o n ow , t h en t h e o l d o ne i s

a l so t r apped , a nd i n te re s t ing ly e nough h e a l so m en t ion s

g o ing t o s i ng a s ong f o r y ou , t h e l i ke o f wh ich

" g jerpe" ( op . c i t . 2 3 ) . t h e a r r iva l o ft h ep o ta to w a s amod -

y ou 've n eve r h ea rd . H e l e f t . ' You w ou ldn ' t h ave

e rn b l e ss ing t oÄ rda l . Al im i t ing f a c to r f o r a g r icu l tu re i n

s ho t? ' ag ood f r iend a sked . ' Y e s , Iw ou ld h ave

h i s to r ica lt ime sw a sa c ce ss t oi r r iga t ion f a c i l i t ie s ( Boye sen

s ho th im . H ew a s s om ean a nd a wfu lt ol o ok a tm .

1 820 :11 , H e l land 1 90 1 , 1 :96 , V e 1 971 :315f ) . T he s pr ing

[ T ran s l . b y CP ] ) .

s o i lp r epa ra t ion a nd p l an t ing s t a r ted i nA pr i l o re a r ly May , g ra s s -cu t t ing l a te J une ,a nd t h eg ra in w a sh a rve s ted i ne a r ly t om id -Augu s t , a cco rd ing t o H e l land ( 1901 , 1 :95 ) . Bees en ( 1820 :13 f ) p lace s t h e s p r ing p l ough ing t om id -Ap r i l —

A f u r the r q uo te i lu s t ra te s a no the r p redom inan t a spec t o f

May ,w h i le g ra in w a sh a rves ted i nl a te J u ly o re a r ly A ugus t .

e conom ic l i f ea nd f o lk lo re i nÄ rda l , moun ta in s h ie l ing sa nd

L eave s ( f o rf odde r ) w e re h a rve s ted i nJ une , wh i le t h eg ra ss

p a s tur ing :

w a s c u t i n J u ly a nd a f te r t h e g ra in h a rves t . P a r t icu la r ly

" I tw a sh a rd w o rk w i th a l lt h ec a r ry ing f r om t h es h ie l -

S e im sda len ( a v a l ley o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e f j o rd ) a nd

i n g , . . B u t i tw a s n o t t h a t much e a s ie rf o r t h o se who

F ame s ( Ov re Ä rda l ) a r e men t ioned a sp roduc t ive g ra in a r -

h ad p ack -ho r se s .A so ne w ho h ad b o th s hou lde red b u r -

e a s ( Boye sen 1 820 :7 , 9 f ) . T he l a t te r w ou ld h ave mos t ly

d en s h im se lf a nd d r iven p ack -ho r se s s a id : " I w ou ld

b een u nde r w a te r w i th o n ly mode ra te ly h ighe r s ea l e ve ls .

r a the rc a r ry an orma l s h ie l ing -bu rden t h an d r ive p ack -

F ro s t d amaged g ra in w a s o t he rw i se n o t u ncommon o n

h o r ses o n p oo rp a ths . I tw a s h eavy w o rk l i f t ing 5 0 k g

many h igh a l t i tude f a rm s( op . c i t . 1 0 , 1 2 ) .T h i sw ou ld p rob -

p ack -f rames ,s ome t ime s mo re ,o nt od o la -ho r se s .B u tI

a b ly n o te f f ec tt h e v a lue o fe . g . b a r ley a sf odde r .

t h ough tt h a tt h e w o r s tp a r to fi tw a sw a tch ing h ow t h e h o r ses s u f f e red a nd h e s i ta ted t o d e scend l o ng s t ep s .

T ab le 2 .L ive s to ck i nÄ rda li n1 817 — 1 939

T hey o f ten j u s t s t ood a nd s h ive red , a nd w a i ted u n t i l I

( a ) B oye sen 1 820 : 3 2 f , b )H e l land 1 90 1 , 1 :96 ,

w ou ld c ome a nd h o ld t h e ir t a i l s wh i le t h ey c on t inued

c )F roy s tad 1 951 :83 ) .

d ownh i l l ." ( Sagen 1 971 :289 , t r an s l . b y CP ) .

1 8 17a

1 90 1b

9 3

7 5

H o r se

1 929c

1 939c

C a t t le

7 19

8 42

6 8 1

8 16

S heep

1 09 1

1 537

1 453

2 538

T opog raph ica l ly s peak ing , Ä rda l c on s i s t s o fr i ve ra nd g l a -

G oa t s

180

2 467

3 802

3 19 1

c i e r d e l ta s s u r rounded b y s t eep moun ta in s . V e ry l im i ted

P ig s

1 25

2 04

a r ea s o f a g r icu l tu ra l ly s u i ted s o i l a r e f o und h e re ( f ig . 2 ) ,

C h icken s

t hough t h e c l ima te i sa dvan tageou s ( He l land 1 90 1 , I :94 f ) . F roys tad ' s f i gu re sf o rt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fl a nd t ype s , q uo ted

5 08

D uck s

2

B ee h i ve s

1

*N or e f e rence .

a bove , a r e c o r robo ra ted b y H e l land ( 190 1 , 1 :95 ) , a nd a r e s ummed u p h e re i n t a b le 1 .N o s ho r e l ine d i sp lacemen t

F rom t h e f j o rd z one , v a l leys c u t i n to t h e s u r round ing r ock

c urve s a r e made f o r t h e S ognef jo rd , s o t h e e xac t L a te

f a ces a nd l e ad i n to t h e moun ta in s . T he 5 00 — 8 00 me te r

N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s ea l e ve li sn o tk nown . I ft h es ea

c l imb f r om t h e l ow land s t o t h e s ub -a lp ine / low -a lp ine

l e ve l w a s 5— 1 0 m e te r s h ighe r ( a pp rox ima t ion s b a sed o n

moun ta in v a l leys c an b e d rama t ica l ly s t eep a nd t r y ing f o r

i n te rpo la t ion f r om t h e F onne s c ha r t [ Ka land 1 984 ] ) t h en

b o th h uman s a nd p ack a n ima l s , a so ne o ft h e i n t roduc tory

d ra s t ica l ly l e ss t i l lab le s o i l w a s a va i lab le ( c ff i g . 2 ) .

q uo te t ot h i sc hap te rd emons t ra te s .O nce p a s tt h e se a s cen t s , t h et e r ra in b ecomes mo re e a s i ly n ego t ia ted , e i the ra ss l ack v a l ley s o r moun ta in p l a teau s .

T ab le 1 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fl a nd t y pe s i nÄ rda l

S pec if ic r e sou rce sa r ed esc r ibed i nt h e s ub s i s tence c hap -

( b a sed o n H e l land 1 90 1 , 1 :95 ) .

t e r , b u t c e r ta in g ene ra l c ommen t s w i l l b e made h e re . T he

C u l t iva ted p l o t s

1 . 0 km 2

( Hayf i e ld s ) P a s tu r e s P lo t s &P a s tu r e s

3 . 3 km 2

moun ta in v a l leys o f f e rl a rge s t re tche s o fv a r ied p a s tu re , i n p l a ce s e xceed ing ly s ump tuou s . T he f j o rd s c on ta in mo s t

4 . 3 km 2

F o r e s t O u tf ie ld s , moun ta in s , b og s e t c .

9 2 .0 km 2 8 98 ,7 km 2

S um

9 95 .0 km 2

s ea sona l o r y ea r -round ma r ine f i sh a nd mamma l s pec ie s . S a lmon r un i n t h e r i ve r s u p t o n a tu ra l t h re sho ld s . T he c oun t le ss moun ta in r i ve r s a nd l a ke s c on ta in t r ou t . T he moun ta ins a r e k nown f o r t h e i r r e indee r , a nd a l so c on ta in 2 7

t h eu sua lf ow l , mamma ls a nd f i sh s pec ie s .A long t h ef o re s t -

a r e s ome f l in t d agge r s c ha rac ter is t ica l ly f ound a l ong t h e

e d moun ta in s l ope s ,b e tween t h ef j o rd a nd moun ta in z one s ,

S ognef jo rd t ot h e w e s t a nd t h rough t h e V a ld r e s v a l ley t o

r e d d ee r a r e f ound a s w e l l . T he r ed d ee r p opu la t ion h a s

t h e e a s t ( f ig . 6 ) . Mand t l i s t s t h e p r ima r i ly L a te N eo l i th ic

p robab ly f l uc tua ted g r ea t ly t h roughou tt ime ( g ene ra lr e f e r -

b a sa l t ic s ha f tho le a xe s f ound i n S ogn ( Mand t 1 99 1 :4 1W ) .

e nce s a r e Gunne rod 1 974 , V a s shaug 1 974 , V e 1 97 1 ) .

T he re w e re 1 8s pec imen sr e cove red i nA u r land ,B a le s t rand ,

Ä rda l ' s modern p opu la t ion i sa r ound 6 000 . I np re indu s -

L e ikange r ,L u s te r , Lx rda la nd S ognda l . I na dd i t ion , a tl e a s t

t r ia l t imes t h e re w e re 6 03 p eop le i n 1 769 , 1 0 10 i n 1 8 15

o ne f r agmen ta ry s ha f tho le a xe w a s f ound i nS k r iva rhe l le -

( He l land 1 90 1 , 1 : 599 ) , 1 369 i n1 890 a nd 1 299 i n1 900 ( He l -

r en r o ck s h e l te r ( P resco t t 1 99 1 :54 j ) . T h i s t y pe i su sua l ly

l a nd 1 90 1 , 1 :83 ) . B oyesen ( 1 820 / 1952 :6 ) c i te s af i gu re o f

a s c r ibed a ne a s tern S cand inav ian a s soc ia t ion , b a sed o n t h e

3 300 p eop le i n1 8 17 ( b efo re e m ig ra t ion s t o Ame r ica s t a r t -

d i s t r ibu t ion ( Hagen 1 944 : 124f , S tenberger 1 979 : 135 , a l so

e d ) f o r t h e w ho le o f " Le irda l s P r c e s teg je ld" , w h ich a pa r t

S ege rbe rg 1 978 :160 ) , a nd i n te re s t ing ly e nough J ohn son

f r om Lx rda l a nd p a r t s o fo the rp a r ishes , i n co rpo ra ted A r-

( 1 993 :57 f )f i nd s ac oncen t ra t ion o ft h et ype i ne a s te rn S ogn .

d a l a tt h e t ime . O fh i s 3 300 , h e w r i tes t h a t 1 86 w e re f a rm -

Ma r s t rande r 's d i s t r ibu t ion map s f o r B ronze A ge p o rphy ry

e r s , 2 67 w e re " huu sm c end" ( c rof te r s ) , 2w e re o ff ic ia ls , o ne

a nd g rooved s t one a xe s d emon s t ra te s ap a t tern r e semb l ing

w a s ac ap ta in a nd o ne w a s ap r ie s t . T he r e s t o f t h e p op -

t h a to ft h ed agge r s : Al ow d en s i ty d i s t r ibu t ion o f ah andfu l

u l a t ion w e re p resumab ly d ependen t s o ft h e a bove .

s pec imen s t h rough t h e f j o rd a nd V a ldre s ( Ma r s t rande r 1 983 ) . S o lbe rg s how s t h a tL a te B ronze Age g rooved s t one a xe s a r e r e p re sen ted b y t wo s pec imens t h e S ognef jo rd —

ARCHAEOLOGICAL F INDS I N THE REGION

w e s tern V a ld re s r eg ion ( f rom B e rge i nL us te ra nd Unne se t i nA skvo l l ) ( b a sed o n S o lbe rg 1 988 :279 ) .

" . . .Norway 's B ronze A ge i s c ons tan t ly c om ing u p

Monumen t s , g rave mound s a nd c a irn s a r e g ene ra l ly d i f -

w i th s u rp r ises . T h is l ong p er iod i n o u r h i s to ry i ss o

f i cu l t t od a te a nd t h i s i ss pec if ica l ly t h e c a se f o r t h e c a irn

p oo r i nf i nd s a nd t yp ica l a n t iqu i t ie s , a nd t h e ref o re s o

monumen t s u sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t ot h eB ronze A ge . T hey a r e

w eak ly r ep re sen ted i no u r museum s ,t h a te ven ag ene r -

a l so f ew i nt h ea r ea a th and . I n ar ev iew o ft h el a rge s tg rave

a t ion a go o u r a r chaeo log i s t s —i n deed e ven r e cen t a u -

mound s i n w e s ter n Norway , R ings tad ( 1 987 : 154f ) f ound

t ho r s —d oub ted w he the rt h is c u l tu ra l e poch h ad made

n one d a tab le t ot h e B ronze A ge i nS ogn . B akka ( 1 993 : 1 1 1 )

i t se lf f e l t i no u r r eg ion a ta l l . O n t h e o the r h and , n ew

m ean tt ha tn o r th o fs ou thern Ho rda land ,d a t ing t h e mound s

f i nd s t h a t d emon s t ra te t h e c l ose c onnec t ions t os ou th -

w a s n o tp o s s ib le . Mand t d i scus ses c a i rn type g rave monu -

e rn S cand inav ia , a r e c on s tan t ly b e ing d i scove red ."

m en t s . S he r e f e r s t o S he te l ig ' s ( 1 925 :9 1 ) s ugge s t ion t h a t

( Sche te l ig 1 910 :11 , t r an s ! . b y CP ) .

t hough t h e ma jo r i ty a r e f r om t h e B ronze A ge , s ome m igh t

T he a r chaeo logy o ft h e a r ea c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo c om -

a l so b e f r om t h e E a r ly I r on Age ( Mand t 1 99 1 :427 ) . S he

p onen t s : q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive . F ew t yp ica l B ronze

a t temp t s t oq uan t ify t h ese monumen t s . D e sp i te n ume rou s

A ge o r L a te N eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s w e re k nown f r om Ä rda l

p rob lem s ,w h ich s he p o in t s o u th e r se lf , t h e re s e em st ob e a

b efo re t h e p re sen t e xcava t ion s . T hey c on s is ted o f aL a te

c oncen t ra t ion o n t h e n o r ther n s i de o ft h e S ognef jo rd f r om

B ronze Age p e r . I V b ronze s pea rhead ( mu s . c a t . n o .

S ognda lt oB a le s t rand ( op . c i t .4 28 ) . Apa r tf r om c up -ma rk s ,

B 102 19 ) a nd a nE a r ly B ronze Age WI I ) t ype V I f l in t d ag -

r o ck -ca rv ing s a r e n o t f ound i nt h e i nne r p a r t o f S ogn , b u t

g e r ( B 11279 ) . Ag rooved s t one c l ubhead ( B 102 15 ) c ou ld

a l ong t h e o u te rc oa s to ne f i nd s s eve ra l l o ca l i t ie s w i th c l a s -

d a te t o t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t h e S tone A ge , a s L i l lehamme r

s i c B ronze A ge r ock c a rv ing s ( Mand t 1 990 ) . ( See Mand t

s ugge s t s ( L i l lehamme r 1 97 1 :129 ) , b u t t h e t ype i sg ene ra l ly

1 99 1 f o r a n u pda ted r ev iew o f N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

d a ted t o av e ry l o ng s t re tch o ft ime f r om N eo l i th ic p e r iod s

f i nd s i nS ogn & F jo rdane /Sunnmo re ) . T he q ua l i ty o f t h e f i nd s i s ad i f f e ren t ma t te r ( Bakka

i n to t h e I r on Age ( S tenv ik 1 988 :292 ) . A t H i tane se t o n t h e w e s tb ank so fÄ rda l sva tne tf o u rc a i rn sa r ef ound ( Fa s te land

1 993 : 10 1 ) . F ind s a r e f ew , b u t t h ey a r e o f ten o fn o tor iou s ly

1 983 ) . I th a s b een s ugges ted t h a t t h ese m igh t b e B ronze

h i gh q ua l i ty . I n a dd i t ion t ot h e s pea rhead f r om Ä rda l , e x -

A ge monumen t s , b u ti th a s a l so b een p o in ted o u tt h a tt h e re

a mp le sa r ef ound i nt h en e ighbor ing c oun t ies . Ad epo tw i th

i s l i t t le f ounda t ion f o r t h e a s se r ted d a te ( L i l lehamme r

t wo B ronze A ge p e r . If l anged a xes a nd ab ronze b race le t

1 97 1 :132 ) . T he h e igh ta bove s e al e ve l , 1 5 —2 0 m e te r s , d oe s

w a sf ound h idden i nt h es c ree c ove red f oo to ft h e moun ta in

n o te xc lude aB ronze Age d a te . O the rw ise ,m en t ion may b e

i n G r im su rd i , V a ssbygd i , A u r land ( Fe t t 1 962 :62 / / ) . A

made o fB akka ' st e s tp i ti nS k r iva rhe l le ren , w he re a sbe s to s

B ronze A ge p e r . Ib ronze d agge rc ame f r om ag rave f i nd i n

t empe red p o t te ry w a sf ound ,m en t ioned i nt h er e sea rch h i s -

Lx rda l ( Mand t1 99 1 :6 18 ) . T he moun ta ins o fL u s te ry i e lded

t o r ica l s e c t ion c oncer n ing Ä rda l .

aL a te B ronze Age An in ino s pea rhead ( Bakka 1 976 :20 ) .

B a sed o nr e v iews t h a ti n c lude B ronze Age m e ta lf i nd si n

T he n e ighbor ing c oun ty i nV a ld res , y ang , h a s n o b ronz -

S ogn & F jo rdane ( Bakka 1 993 [ s ee S o lbe rg 1 988 :283 ] ,

e s . D is t r ibu t ion map s f o r f l in t d agge r s e xh ib i t a" t ra i l" o f

Mand t1 99 1 :398f f ,e spec ia l ly 4 02 ,a l so R ing s tad 1 987 :275.f )

d agge r s r unn ing t h rough V a ld res . I ti sp a r t icu la r ly i n te re s t -

a nd V a ld re s ( J ohan sen 1 98 1 ) i tc an b e c onc luded t h a t t h e re

i n gt on o te t h a tt h ree t ype IB d agge r sa r ef o und j u s te a s to f

w e re f ew b ronze s i nt h e w ide r d i s t r ic t o f wh ich Ä rda l i sa

t h e w a te r shed b e tween I nne r S ogn a nd V a ld re s ( Scheen

g eog raph ic c en t re ( f ig . 7 ) , t h ough a r tefac t q ua l i ty may b e

1 979 k ar tb lad 2 ) . W i th t h en ew f i nd s i n Moada len ( P re sco t t

h i gh ( t ab le 3 ) . S cheen 's ( 1 979 ) a nd Mand t ' s ( 1 99 1 :4 12 )

1 99 1b ) t h e re s e ems t ob e as ma l l c l us te ro fL a te N eo l i th ic I

r e v iew o ft h e f l in td agge r s ( t ab le 4 )s ugges t s as im i la rc on -

d agger s a r ound t h e moun ta in p a ss b e tween Ä rda l a nd

c l u s ion .

y ang .

I n t h e

n e ighbo r ing

d i s t r ic t s

t o Ä rda l

t h e re 2 8

T ab le 3 .B ronz e s a nd m ou ld sf r om O u t e rS ogn t oF age rne si n

w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o ft wo p ro jec t s : Ny se t -S tegg je ( B jo r -

V a ld r e s . B a sed o nJ ohan sen 1 98 1 a nd Mand t1 9 9 1 .

g oe ta l . 1 992 , a l so P resco t t 1 986 , P re sco t t 1 99 1a ) a nd S k r i -

P l a ce

O b jec t s

v a rhe l le ren ( P resco t t 1 988a&b , 1 99 1a&b , a l so 1 993 , i n

D a te

V a ldr e s : S vene s ,N o rd -Au rda l

1 3 s p ea rhead s ,

p r e s s ) . T he f i r s ti sd i scu ssed h e re , wh i le S k r iva rhe l le ren i s

E BA 1

d i scus sed i n al a te r c hap te r . L oca l i t ie s a nd p l ace n ame s

1s i ck le* L onunen

1f l anged a xe

LN I /BA I

J a rnnäk r e , Ä rda l

1s p ea rhead

L BA I V

D a le , L u s t e r

1s p ea rhead

L BA

1d agge r

E BA I

2f l anged a xe ,

E BA I

r e f e r red t oi nt h ed i scus s ion a r ef ound o nt h e map sf i gu re s 1 t o5 . F igu re s 1 ,3 , 4& 5s how t h e a r ea s w h ich t h e Ny se t -

S ogn** :

L x rda l V e im , A u r land

S t egg je p ro jec t i n ve s t iga ted . T he se w e r e t h e l ow -a lp ine t o h i gh -a lp ine r oad s t h a t l e ad f r om Smedda len i n Lxrda l t o N y se t i n Ä rda l , s ome c u l t iva t ion -d is tu rbed a r ea s i n t h e l ow land s o f N addv ik , t h e r e se rvo i r a nd d am s i n t h e l ow -

1b r a ce le t S k e lde s tad , S ognda l

1m ou ld

L BA I V

a l p ine t oa l p ine R i ska lsva tn ( Ny se tr i ve rs y s tem ) , a nd B e r -

K vä le , S ognda l

1f l anged a xe

E BA I

L av ik , H oyange r

1m in i . s wo rd

L BA V I

d a len a nd F os sda len b a s in s ( S tegg je r i ve r s y s tem ) . Mo s t

Mä r en , H oyange r

1s o ck e t ed a xe

L BA V /V I

H ov e , V ik

1s o ck e ted a xe

L BA WV I

I .O peda l , G u len

1s o ck e ted a xe

L BA V

h i ghe r , a l p ine a l t i tudes , a nd s i tes w e re f ound h e re a sw e l l .

N yhama r , G u len

2m ou ld s

L BA I V

I nr e la t ion t ot h et r ee l ine , s i te sw e re f ound i nt h eb i rch b e l t

D i s t inc t ion sb e tw een w ho le a nd f r agm en ta ry s p ec imen s a r en o t

a nd a bove i t . Howeve r , t h e moder nt imbe r l ine i sa n th ropo -

e xcava t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u ti nt h el owe ra l p ine a nd a l p ine z one s , c a . 9 00 — 1 050 m a . s . l . S ome s urvey ing w a s d one a t

g en ica l ly d ep re ssed ,a nd i ti sl i ke ly t ha ta tl e a s tb i rch w ou ld

d r awn . *O r ig ina l ly m o r et h an 2 0s pea rhead s ( B raa then 1 982 : 146 ,H ougen

b e mo re c ommon h e re i fn o t f o r t h e g raz ing o fs heep a nd

1 9 59 : 1 12 ) .

g oa t s , a nd t h e c o l lec t ion o ff odde r a nd t h e c u t t ing o ff i re -

* I na dd i t ion t ot h ef i nd s l i s ted i nt h e t a b le s , an umbe ro fs i t ef i nd s

w ood .

a r e m ade i nÄ rda l i nc onnec t ion w i th S k r iva rhe l le r en ( 1L a te

W in te r s a r e c o ld a nd u sua l ly h ave h eavy s now s . S now s

B ronze A ge mou ld , 3L a te N eo l i th ic & E a r ly B ronze A ge b ronze f r agmen t s , m ic ro scop ic t r a ce so fb ronze i n 2E a r ly B ronze A ge

m e l t a round l a te May , a nd c an r e tu rn a round l a te O c tobe r .

o ch r e s amp le s ) a nd N y se t -S tegg je ( 1p i n a nd 1f r agmen ta ry

Wea the r i nt h e s umme rc an c hange a b rup t ly , t h ough s now

c r uc ib le ) , s e e B jo rgo , K r i s to f f e r sen & P r e sco t t1 992 : 1 16 , 1 2 5 &

i nJ u ly i ss e ldom o fg rea tc on sequence . A cco rd ing t oB jo r -

P r e sco t t 1 99 1 :76f f .

g o ( 1 986 : 122 ) t h e a ve rage j anua ry t empe ra tu re i s8 .7 °C ,

T ab le 4 .F l in td agge r sf o und f r om t h e o u te rS ogn e f jo rd r e g ion t o

t h e a ve rage i nJ u ly i s+ 10 .4 °C , a nd a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion i s

F age rne s i nV a ld r e s , b a sed o n S cheen 1 979 , m ap s 1— 1 9 .

6 00 mm .

D agge rt y p e*

When g o ing u p f r om t h e f j o rd s , t h e re i sa tf i r s t av e ry

S ogn

V a ld r e s

6 **

3

s t eep c l imb . T he rea f te rt h et e r ra in o pen su pi n to mo re l e ve l

1

I V

3 3

v a l leys , wh ich s l an t a nd b y s t eps r e ach h ighe r a l t i tude s .

V I

1

2

S um

2 3***

6

H I

B e rda len a nd F o ssda len ( S tegg je )a r er e la t ive ly n a r row v a l l e y s w i th s t eep s ha rp s i de s . T he v a l ley o fV ikada len ( Ny s e t )i sw ide ra nd e xh ib i t s mo re v a r ied v ege ta t ion c ommun i -

*Ma in t y pe si nt h et y po log ica l s y s t em a sp r e s en ted i nL ombo rg

t i e s a nd t opog raph ic d i ve r s i ty ( s ee e . g . H e l land 1 90 1 ,

1 973 .

I :85 f ) .T raf f ic o u to ft h ev a l ley ,i n to t h es u r round ing moun -

* I n c lude s 1d agge rf o und i n Moada len , Ä rda l ( P r e sco t t 1 9 9 1 : 1 17 f ) a f t e rS cheen c omp le ted h i s s u r vey . P robab le d agge rf r agmen t s

t a in s , i sn o t a s s t r ic t ly c hanne led i nt h e V ikada len v a l ley

f r om r e cen te xcava t ion s ( i . a . P r e sco t t 1 99 1 :520 a r e n o ti n -

a l ong l im i ted r ou te sa si st h ec a se f o rt h e S t egg je v a l ley . I n

c l uded .

t h e b o t tom o fa l l t h e se v a l ley s o ne f i nd s r i ve r s . T he l a ke s

** J ohn son ( 1 993 )r e su r veyed t h ed agge r s f r om S ogn , a nd f o und

a r e d ammed b y b ed rock t h re sho ld s ( s ee F aug l i 1 976 a nd

2 8 i na l .

N e s je & R ye 1 985 , 1 987 f o rg eomo rpho logy , K oe s t le r1 983

I nc onc lu s ion , Ä rda l h a s n ume rou s f e a tu r e s o ne w ou ld e x -

a nd L u t ro 1 98 1f o r map so ft h eh a rd -rock g eo logy .R eg iona l

p ec tt of i nd i na na r ea o nt h es ou thern S cand inav ian p er iph -

g eo logy i sd escr ibed i nO f tedah l 1 980 , e spec ia l ly 6 9 j j ) . I n

e r yi nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge .I tl i e si n ar e g ion

B e rda len a nd V ikada len t h e re a r ef a i r ly l a rge g l ac ia ld epo s -

w i th f ew , b u th igh -qua l i ty , m e ta l f i nd s . I ti sf a rf r om a r ea s

i t s t h a tc r ea te a c t ive d e l ta s i nf r on to ft h e l a ke s . T he r i ve r s

d ef ined a s t h e c en t re s o f N orweg ian L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

f l ow t h rough t h e d e l ta s , c hang ing c ou r se s , e xcava t ing a nd

B ronze A ge c u l tu re , a nd f a r the r f r om D an ish o r S wed i sh

f i l l ing f l ood c hanne ls . T he v ege ta t ion o n t h e d e l ta s i sp r i -

c en t re s . O n t h e o t he r h and , Ä rda l i sp e rhap s u nu sua l b e -

ma r i ly w i l low t h icke t s , t hough t h e re a r e p a tche s o f b i rch

c au se i tl i e s o n a n i mpo r tan te a s t -wes tr ou te . A l so i t sc u l t i -

a nd g ra ssy v ege ta t ion . O therw ise , v ege ta t ion i nt h ese v a l -

v a t ion p o ten t ia li sp robab ly e ven l owe rt h an w ha ti sn o rma l

l e y s c on s is t s o fl a rge a nd d eep b og s , g ra ssy p a s tu re s , s c a t -

f o rw e s te rn N orway .

t e red l ow v ege ta t ion a nd l i chen c l ad r ock ( s ee B jorn s tad

THE NYSET -STEGGJE PROJECT : ALP INE I NVESTIGATIONS

S t egg je v ege ta t ion , V e &V ende lboe 1 97 1 f o rÄ rda l i ng en e r a l ) . V ir tua l ly n o s i tes a r e f ound i nt h ed e l ta z one , b u tt h e

T he v a l leys n ow t ob ee xam ined a r et h o se i nw h ich a r chae -

w i l low t h icke t s a nd p a s tu re s h ave p robab ly a lway s b een

o l og ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s o fp r ima ry i mpo r tance f o r t h e p r e -

e xp lo i ted .

1 975 , S kogen e ta l . 1 985 f o r s pec if ic r e v iews o ft h e N yse t -

O fp a r t icu la r r e levance a r e t h e r e la t ive ly g ood p a s tu re s .

s e n t s t ud ied w e re c a r r ied o u t . E xcava t ion s w e re c onduc ted 2 9

T he se a r eu sua l ly s i tua ted a r ound modern ,h i s to r ic a nd p re -

s i de o fV ikada len , a nd h ad t h e i rs umme rs h ie l ing a tN y se t /

h i s tor ic s h ie l ing s , t hough p a s tu re o fh igh ly v a r iab le q ua l i ty

V ika s to len , 5 00 m e te r s a c ros s t h e N yse te lv i r i ve r f r om

i sa l so f ound u p a sh igh a st h e h igh -a lp ine z one ( F roys tad

U ru t lek rä i . A cco rd ing t o B jo rkum a o ne w ay t r ip f r om

[ 1 95 1 ] e va lua te sp a s tu re si nB e rda len a nd F o ssda len , S agen

N adv ik t oV ika s tO len t o ok f i ve h ou r s . O lde rs h ie l ings w e re

[ 1 97 1 ] d i scusse s h i s tor ica l t r anshumance i nr e la t ion t ot h e

o r ig ina l ly s uppo sed t ob e l o ca ted n ea rby , a nd h e re t o o o ne

p a s tu re s d ea l t w i th h e r e ) . T he a u tho r h a s o b se rved l u sh

f i nd s I r on Age s t ruc tu re s , a s w e l l a s s ma l l L a te N eo l i th ic ,

p a s tur e s a te l eva t ions o fn ea r ly 1 200 m e te r s , c ha rac ter is t i -

E a r ly B ronze A ge a nd L a te B ronze A ge s i te s . I r on A ge

c a l ly f o und o n t h e C amb ro -S i lur ian m e ta sed imen t s s ou th

s h ie l ing s a r e a l so f ound f a r the r u p t h e v a l ley s , a tg r ea te r

o fV ikada len . S uch h igh -a l t i tuda l p a s tu re s a r e e xcep t iona l

a l t i tude s , b o th s ou th a nd e a s t o f t h e l a ke s N y se tva tn a nd

a nd c ond i t ioned b yl o ca lf a c to r s .T he re i sa mp le p a s tu re f o r

S and t jern ( B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 ) . I th a s p r ev iou s ly b een a r -

b o th d omes t ica ted a nd w i ld s pec ie s i nt h e a r ea .

g ued t h a tt h ev a l ley w a sd i v ided b e tween N adv ik a nd H ov -

H igh -a lp ine r e g ion s u p t o 1 800 m a . s . 1 s u r round t h e

l a nd s ome t ime d u r ing t h eI r on A ge ( L i l lehamme r1 97 1 :135 ,

moun ta in v a l ley s . S eve ra l r ou tes l e ad f r om t h e v a l leys t o

M id t tun 1 97 1 :120 , 1 958 ) . B a sed o nt h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ,

h ighe r e l eva t ions . V ege ta t ion h e re i su sua l ly s pa r se , b u t

t h i sm ay h ave e f f ec ted t h e moun ta in v a l leys i nt h eL a te I r on

a dequa te f o r r e indee r p a s tures . I th a s b een u sed i nr e cen t

A ge ( K r is tof f e r sen p er s . c o rn . b a sed o n B jo rgo , K r i s tof -

t ime sf o rp a s tu r ing s em i tame r e indee rh e rd s , a nd o fc ou r se

f e r sen & P resco t t 1 992 ) . L ook ing a tt h e U ru t lek rä i /Nyse t

b y w i ld h e rd s .

b a s in , i tc an e a s i ly b e i mag ined t h a t b ef o re d i v id ing t h e

Aw ho le w o r ld o fa necdo tes a nd my th s r e la te t oh un t ing

v a l ley , b o th s i de so ft h er i ve rw e re u t i l ized i na n i n teg ra ted

i nt h e moun ta in s o fÄ rda l ( E ldega rd 1 950 , S ande 1 887 , V e

s t ra tegy . S uch as t ra tegy w ou ld c once ivab ly e xp lo i tt h en a t -

1 97 1 , V o ld 1 955 ) , a nd a l so i n many o t he r p la ce s i nI nne r

u ra l d i v is ion s t os ubd iv ide t h e p a s ture s .

S ogn ( e .g . O hn s tad 1 988 , 1 962 :31f ) a nd V a ld re s a nd O p -

B e rda len a nd F o s sda len a r e b o th p a r t o ft h e " Be rda len

p l and ( e .g . E ls rud 1 982 : 103f ) . T he moun ta ins s u r round ing

j e l lbe i t e" ( moun ta in p a s tu re s ) ,o wned a nd u sed b yt h ef a rm

Ny se t -S tegg je a r e k nown a s r e indee r h un t ing t e r r i to ry . O f

T angen ( F roys tad 1 95 1 :10 1 ) .T he f a rm i sl o ca ted o nt h es t r ip

o t he r l a rge mamma ls , d ee r a r e c ommon a nd moo se f r e -

o f l a nd b e tween t h e l a ke Ä rda l sva tn a nd t h e f j o rd . T he

q uen t t h e l owe r a l p ine a nd s ub -a lp ine z ones . P reda to r s i n -

t r an shumance s y s tem i n c luded ab oa tt r ip a nd as p r ing s t op

c l ude , o r a tl e a s t u n t i l r e cen t ly i n c luded ; l y nx , b ea r , w o lf ,

a tL o i( by t h el a k eÄ rda lsva tn , 3m a . s . 1 . ) ,t h en o nt os p r ing

f ox a nd w o lve r ine . Sma l l s i zed p reda to r s , s u i tab le f o r f u r ,

s h ie l ing s ( "vär s tO l") o fL o s t o rL ia s to len b y f oo t . S ummer

i n c lude ma r ten , s now w ea se l a nd e rm ine . I mpo r tan t b i rd s

a l p ine p a s tu re s ( "f i e l l s to l") w e re a t A vda len , Me l se te

i n c lude l a rge f ow l a nd p r eda to r b i rd s . H a re a r e c ommon .

( Fo s sda len ) , B e rda len a nd K ven l i . T he w a lk f r om l a k e Ä r -

T he l a ke s a nd r i ve r s a r e p opu la ted w i th t r ou t ( Gunne rod

d a lsva tn t o B e rda len t o ok a bou t t h ree h ou r s ( E ldega rd

1 974 , S agen 1 97 1 , V a sshaug 1 974 , V e 1 97 1 ) . I n s ho r t t h ese

1 9 58 :23 ) .

moun ta in v a l ley s o f f e r ar i ch v a r ie ty o fh un t ing , e i the r i n

T hough t h e c l imb f r om t h e f j o rd t o t h e N yse t -S tegg je

t h ev a l leys t h emse lve s ,o rn ea rby i nt h es u r round ing moun -

v a l ley s i ss t eep , i tc an u sua l ly b e a ccomp l ished i nt h ree t o

t a in s o rs ub -a lp ine z one .

f i ve h ou r s . I ti st h e d e scen t t h a t i s mo s t d emand ing w hen

I n moder nt ime s , t h ec ommon p a t tern o fu se o ft h is a r ea

t r ave l l ing w i th h o r se s o rp ack s . T rave l b e tween t h e N y se t -

h a sb een s t rong ly s e a sona l . P a s tur ing i nt h e moun ta in s h a s

S t egg je v a l ley s , a nd t h e Moada len v a l ley d i scu ssed b e low ,

b een t r anshuman ta nd c oncen t ra ted t ot h e l a te s p r ing /ea r ly

s e ldom t a ke s mo re t h an f i ve — s i x h ou r s o n f o o t . O ne c an

s umme rt ot h e a u tumn . P a s tur ing i n vo lved mov ing a l ong a

a l so w a lk t h rough t h e se moun ta in s t ot h e n e ighbo r ing v a l -

f i xed r ou te t o " s to /er" ( s h ie l ing s ) f r om l owe r t o h i ghe r

l e y o f Lxrda l ( s ee H e l land 1 90 1 , I : 102f , a r t ic le s i nV e 1 971

a l t i tude s a nd d own a ga in i n t h e a u tumn ( B jo rkum 1 958 ,

& v a r iou s r e f e r red t ov o lume s o f " Ärbok f or Ä rda l S oge-

E ldega rd 1 958 , F roys tad 1 95 1 , Hx re id 1 958 , s e e R e in ton

l a g" f o r d escr ip t ion o f r ou te s t h rough t h e se moun ta in s ) ,

1 955 :5 1f ff o rg ene ra ld i scu ss ion a nd Norweg ian s urvey ,a l so

a nd f r om t h e re t o V a ld re s ( Sande 1 887 :22 1 a nd R ing s tad

S o lhe im 1 952 ) . T he n o r th s i de o fV ikada len h a sb een u sed

1 987 : 2 67f ) .

b y t h e f a rm H ov land i nN adv ik . I nt h e s p r ing t h e f a rme r s h e s o ft h e l ow a l t i tude o ft h e Hov land sda len . L a te r i nt h e

SKR IVARHELLEREN I N M OADALEN : THE SUB -ALP INE ZONE

u sed ac l ose l y ing s h ie l ing ( "he im s tO l") i nt h e u ppe rr e ac s p r ing t h ey moved t ot h e l ow a l t i tude s h ie l ing ( "ve ir s tO l")

I n a dd i t ion t oN y se t -S tegg je , t h e i nqu iry f o cu se s o n S k r i -

o fL ia s to len ,c a . 9 40 m a . s . 1 . ,a nd w e re t h e re f o ra bou tt h ree

v a rhe l le ren i n Moada len . T he s i te i s ar o ck s he l te r i nt h e

w eek s . I tt ook a bou t 4h ou r s w i th p ack a n ima l s f r om t h e

s uba lp ine z one , 7 90 m a . s . 1 . . T he l owe rr e ache s o f Moada -

l ow land f a rm H ov land t oL ia s to len ( B jo rkum 1 958 :53 ) . F i -

l e nh a s s t eep s i de s , a nd t r a ff ic i sl a rge ly c hanne led t h rough

n a l ly t h ey moved u p t oU ru t lek rä i e a s t o fR iska lsva tn a nd

t h e v a l ley o r i n to t r ibu ta ry v a l ley s t h a t g o u p t ot h e s u r -

w e re t h e re t h e r e s t o f t h e s umme r ( Sagen 1 97 1 :267 , a l so

r ound ing moun ta in s . T he r ou te t o V a ld re s a nd t h e u ppe r

B jo rkum 1 958 ) . A cco rd ing t oS agen t h e f i r s tk nown b u i ld -

r e ache s o f Lxrda l p a s sed 4 0 —5 0 me te r s n o r th o ft h e r o ck

i n g a tU ru t lek rä i w a s b u i l t i n1 830 , b u t a r chaeo log ica l s u r -

s he l te r( Sande 1 887 :22 1 ) . I fo ne t r ave l st h rough t h e Moada -

v eys d emons t ra te t h a t s t ruc ture s a nd d ome s t ica ted a n ima ls

l e n v a l ley a l l t h e w ay u p ( t he n ame c hange s t oT yeda len

w e re f o und a tU ru t lek rä i i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge , t h e L a te

j u s t a bove S k r iva rhe l le ren ) o ne c ome s t o t h e l a ke T y in ,

I r on A ge a nd t h e Med ieva l P e r iod a s w e l l . As im i la r c a se

k nown f o r i t s s h ie l ing s , t r ou t a nd r e indee r . O ne c an a l so

c an b e made f o r L ia s tO len , a tl e a s t f r om t h e I r on A ge a nd

c on t inue o ve r t oV a ld re s , p ref e rab ly t h rough t h e u ppe r r e -

o n( s ee B jO rgo e ta l . 1 992 ) . T he f a rm N adv ik u sed t h es ou th

a che s o f Lxrda l . 3 0

A l though t h ea rbo rous v ege ta t ion i sd om ina ted b yb i rch ,

w h ich b e longed t ot h e V ef a rm . T he se p a s tu re s i n c lude t h e

i ti sc l ea rt h a tp ine w ou ld b e mo re c ommon i fh uman p re s -

a r ea f r om Ä rda lsva tn i nt h e l ow land s t oa l p ine T o ro lmen ,

s u re s h ad n o t s o d ra s t ica l ly r educed i t s c ond i t ions o f

a sw e l l a st h e R ausda len v a l ley , b e tween t h e v a l ley s Moa -

g row th . P ine r oo t s a r ec ommon ly f ound i nb og sa r ound t h e

d a len a nd B e rda len . T he p a s tu res w i th in t h is a r ea a r e mod -

r o ck s he l te r , a nd e ven t oday o ne f i nd s ma tu re p ine t r ee s a t

e r a te ly g ood b u tv a r ied .I nt h es p r ing a nd e a r ly s umme r ,V e

s ub s tan t ia l ly g r ea te ra l t i tude si np ro tec ted s po t s .T oday i ti s

h ad s h ie l ings i nR ausda len a nd Ho lsb rus to len ( n ea r S k r i -

l i ke ly t h a t f l uor ide p o l lu t ion f r om t h e a l um inum p lan t i n

va r he l le ren ) , a nd l a te r i nt h e s umme r moved t h e f a rm a n i -

O v re Ä rda li n h ib i t sc on if e rou st r ees ,b u tt h e re h a sp robab ly

ma l st o as h ie l ing a tT o ro lmen . O nt h eo t he rs i de o ft h eT ya

l o ng b een p r e s sure o n t h e f o re s t f r om f i rewood g a ther ing

r i ve r o ne f i nd s Mann sbe rg i a nd Moa moun ta in p a s tu re s

a nd g raz ing .B o th t h ed a iry p roduc t ion a nd i r on p roduc t ion

( F roy s tad 1 95 1 :96.ü ) .

( f o rw h ich a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sf o und i nt h e v a l ley ) ,

Two modern s h ie l ing s a r e k nown f r om n ea r S k r iva rhe l -

w ou ld t a xt h ef o res t 's c apac i ty t or ep roduce i t se lf . A cco rd -

l e ren . Ho l sbrus to len , u sed b y t h e V e -fa rm , i sm en t ioned

i n gt oM id t tun ( 1 958 : 1 17 ) t h ep l ace c a l led S kogoyn i , w h ich

a bove .T he s pr ing s h ie l ing o ft h e Moa f a rm w a sO ye s to len ,

l i e s l e s s t h an a k i lome t re f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren , w a s t h e

j u s t a bove T ya 's o u t le t f r om Ho lsbn iva tn ( g ene ra l r e f e r -

o n ly p l ace a bove H o lsbn i s to len n ea r H o l sbruva tn t h a t t h e

e nce s F roys tad 1 95 1 :96f f , S agen 1 97 1 :268 ) . A Med ieva l

f o re s tr ema ined b ef o re t h ea bandonmen to fp a s tur ing . T hus

h ou se r u in i n f r on t o f S kr iva rhe l le r en d emons t ra te s t h a t

t h e n ame " I s land s o ff o re s t" , wh ich p o s s ib ly r ep re sen t s a

a c t iv i t ie s a s soc ia ted w i th s h ie l ing s a r e q u i te o ld ( P re sco t t 1 99 1b :1 17 ) . T he many I r on Age a nd Med ieva l h ou se r e -

l o ng t r ad i t ion o fp ro tec t ion . L oca ls c l a im t h a t t h e p a s tu res i n Moada len w e re r e -

ma ins i nt h e moun ta in sa nd o the rp l a ce si nS ogn ( B jO rgo e t

n owned f o r s u s ta in ing e xcep t iona l ly l a rge c a lve s a nd

a l . 1 992 , I nd re l id 1 988 , K r is tof f e r sen 1 993 , Magnu s 1 986 ,

l amb s . T oday t h e s h ie l ing s a r e a bandoned . I n p o s t -wa r

R ande r s 1 992 ) , d emon s t ra te t h e g ene ra l a n t iqu i ty a nd t h e

w e s te rn N o rway i th a s b een c ommon t ol e t mo re o r l e ss

w idesp read d i s t r ibu t ion o fs h ie l ing p rac t ice s i nt h e r e g ion .

u nshephe rded s heep g raze t h e moun ta in p a s tu re s i n t h e

I ns umma ry t h e se v a l ley s , t h a th ave h o s ted e x ten s ive a r -

s umme r . T he v i r tua le x te rm ina t ion o fw o lve sa nd b ea r sh a s

c haeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s i nt h e 1 980 ' s —V ikada len ( Ny -

a l lowed t h is p rac t ice t of l ou r i sh ( Re in ton 1 955 :34 1 ) . When

s e t ) ,B e rda len ,F o s sda len ( S tegg je )a nd Moada len ( Skr iva r -

t h e s h ie l ing sw e re i nu se c a t t le , s heep , g oa t s a nd e ven p ig s

h e l le ren ) ,o f f e r aw ide r ange o f r e sou r ce s , e i the r i n t h e

w e r e b rough t i n to t h e a l p ine a nd s uba lp ine a r ea s i n t h e

v a l ley s t h em se lve s o r i n t h e s u r round ing moun ta in s . R e -

s p r ing a nd e a r ly s umme r . H e re t h ey w e re s hephe rded , d e -

s ou rces i nt h e se v a l leys a nd moun ta in sh ave b een f r equen t -

f e nded a nd m i lked . C heese ,b u t te ra nd o t he rd a iry p roduc t s

l yu sed i nh i s to r ica l t ime s . I ti si mpor tan tt or e cogn ize t h e

w e re p roduced i nt h e moun ta in s .

p o ten t ia l t h e se v a l leys h o ld i na n a g ro -pa s to ra l e conomy . T h i s d oe s n o t e xc lude a n e x ten s ive p o ten t ia l f o r h un t ing ,

S k r iva rhe l le ren l i es a l ong t h e n o r ther np e r ime te r o ft h e " S le t ten i s t f e l lbe i t er"

( S le t terus t

moun ta in

p a s tu res )

t r app ing , f i sh ing a nd c o l lec t ing .

3 1

H je l le . R amsoi

,V ie rv t

A svo ld

F ig . 2 .T he p r e indus tr ia ld i s tr ibu t ion o fv ege ta t ion t y pe s i nÄ rda l . C u l t iva tab le l a nd w a s s i gn if i can t ly l e s s i np r eh i s tor y d ue t oo fh i gher s ea l e ve l s . Map r ed rawn a nd s imp l if ied f rom S agen 1 97 1 :29 1 .

3 2

F ig . 3 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fs i t e sf ound i nc onnec t ion w i th t h eN y se t -S t egg j ep ro jec t . Map f rom B jorgo e ta l . 1 992 :26 .

3 3

F ig . 4 .D i s tr ibu t ion o fa l la rchaeo log ica ls i te s a round R i ska l sva t r i i nV i kada len . An umber o fp lace n ame s r e f er r ed t oi nt h e t e x ta r ea f ound o n t h e m ap . Map f rom B jorgo e ta l . 1 992 :28 .

3 4

F ig . 5 .D is tr ibu t ion o fa l la rchaeo log ica ls i tes f ound i nt h e B erda len a nd F o ssda len v a l leys , S t egg je r i ver s y s tem . Map f rom B j ego e ta l . 1 992 :29 .

3 5

D agge r t y pes •= I •= I •= I I o= I V 0=V A =V I

F ig . 6 .T he d i s tr ibu t ion o ff l in td agger s i nS ogn a nd V a ldr es ( a sf ar e as ta s F agerne s ) . B a sed o n S cheen ( 1 979 ) . T he d agger f rom S kr ivarhe l ler en i si n c lud ed ( Pr e sco t t1 99 1b ) . T he m ap i nt h e r i gh t c orner s how s t h e r eg iona ld i s tr ibu t ion n or th t oT r ond e lag ( b a sed o n H agen 1 993 :104 ) .

3 6

o= L a te

N eo l i th ic • =E a r ly B ronze A ge =L a te B ronze A ge

F ig . 7 .T he d i s tr ibu t ion o fb ronze sa nd m ou ld sf r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge i nS ogn a nd V a ld r e s . B ased o n J ohan sen 1 98 1 a nd Mand t1 99 1 , w i th r e cen tf i nd sf rom A rda l( B jOrgo e ta l . 1 992 :1 16 , 1 04 , P r e sco t t1 986 , 1 99 1b ) . T he m ap i nt h e r i gh t c orner s how s t h eg enera lf i nd d i s tr ibu t ion i nN orway n or th t oT r ond e lag ( b a sed o n H agen 1 983 :177 ) .

3 7

SOURCE CR ITICIS M , S ITES AND CO MPAR ISONS

a r gumen t —i nt h e h i s tory -a r chaeo logy c r o ss -road . H e re a r c haeo log ica ls ou rce sw e re mob i l ized a sp roof f o ro ra ga in s t

A n e s sen t ia l e l emen t i n t h i s s t udy i sa na ly se s b a sed o n a

K o s s ina 's p o s i t ion . E gge r s ma in ta in s t h a t K os s ina v i ew s

v ar ied c onf igura t ion o fs i t e s a nd s our c e s . I nd iv idua ls i t e s o r

a r chaeo log ica l s ou r ces a s

g roup s o fs i t es a re p r e sen t ed a nd d i scu s sed , a nd a spec t s o f

" unve tf ä l sch t e o b jek t ive Q ue l len w är en , d i ej ed er b e-

s i te r e pr e sen ta t iv i ty a r ee va lua t ed i ns ome d e ta i l . Empha s i si s

w ü s s t e T e nd en ze n tbehr ten ."

p laced o n l ow leve l i n t ra -s i t e a na ly s i s b a sed o n q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu t e s a nd i n t er pr e ta t ions c oncern ing

E gge r s d i sag ree s w i th K os s ina , a nd ma in ta in s t h a t f i nd s

f unc t ion .

f r om t h eg round a r e t e nd enz iö s( op . c i t . 2 57 ) . H e e l abo ra te s t h a t w i th in " l iv ing c u l tu re s" , t h ing s c hange a nd s u rv iva l r a te si nd i f f e ren ta r t ifac tg roups w i th in al i v ing c u l tu re w i l l

T he a r chaeo log ica l s ou r ces u sed i nt h i s s t udy a r e l a rge ly

v a ry .T he s oc ia lp rom inence o fa no b jec tw i l ll a rge ly d e te r -

p re sen ted a s r e po r t s a nd emp ir ica l a na lyses ( B jo rgo e ta l .

m ine t h e r a te s o f s urv iva l . U s ing t h e p ommer schen L and -

1 992 , P re sco t t 1 986 , 1 99 1a ,b ) . T he f o l low ing t h e refo re

m u seum a s a n e xamp le , E gge r s p o in t s o u t t h a t r e cen t o b -

ma in ly c once rn s i t se lf w i th t h ep re sen ta t ion o fr e su l t sr e le -

j e c t s f r om a bove t h e g round t e nd t o b e mo re n ume rou s .

v an tt ot h ep r esen t i n qu i ry . T he re i sa l so a n i n i t ia l a na ly s is

S econd ly , t h e l e ng th o ft ime a n o b jec t i sk ep t a nd h a s s u r -

o ft h e se d a ta . R e levan tf a c to r s a r e s i ze o ff i nd a r ea , a r t ifac t

v i ved c hange sa cco rd ing t o as oc ia ls ca le . I nt h e " pomme r -

a s semb lage , s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s , l o ca t ion , b a s ic i n d ica t ion s

s chen L andmu seum" a cqu i s i t ions f r om f a rm f am i l ie s w e re

o fa ge a nd q ua l i t ie s o fe xcava t ions t h a te f f ec t t h e a bove

r a re ly mo re t h an af ew h und red y ea r s o ld . T he i r t r ad i t ion s l a cked t ime d ep th , o r p e rhap s s oc ia l r e cogn i t ion? O n t h e o t he rh and w a st h eC hu rch , wh ich w a sp ub l ic a nd s a cred .I t

S our ce c r i t i c i sm

h ad c o s t ly o b jec t s o f s a cr if i c ia l n a tu re e x tend ing b ack t o

I ti sn ece ssa ry t o d i scu ss s i te r ep re sen ta t iv i ty b ef o re t h e

t h e V ik ing A ge .

s i te s t h em se lves a r e d i scus sed i n d e ta i l . E g i l B ak l ca w a s

E gge r s a l so r e v iews t h e n a tu ra l p roce sse s t h a t d e s t roy

a mong t ho se w ho c l ea r ly p laced r ep r e sen ta t iv i ty o n t h e

mo s t o fw ha t w a s o r ig ina l ly p roduced . E spec ia l ly o rgan ic

B ronze Age r e sea rch a genda ( Bakka 1 980 ) . I nt h e p r em i se

ma te r ia l i sv u lne rab le , a nd i ti sp re served o n ly u nde r s pe -

f o rh i sr eg iona l s u rvey h e d ef ined i ta s ap rob lem

c i a lc i rcums tance s .T hese a r gumen t s ,s of am i l ia rt op rac t ic -

w h ich c oncern s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e a s -

i n g a r chaeo log i s t s , a r e s e ldom c on sc iou s ly e xam ined . I n

s emb lage w e a r ef am i l ia rw i th t oday , a nd c u l tu ra lc on -

t h ep re sen ts t udy i th a sp a r t icu l ia rr e levance t oc on s ide rt h e

d i t ion si na n t iqu i ty . I no the rw o rd sh ow a r chaeo log ica l

q uan t i ta t ive r e la t ion sh ip b e tween w ha t w a s o r ig ina l ly d e -

c u l tu re i sr ep re sen ta t ive f o rc u l tu re i np reh i s to ry . I ti sa

p o s i ted ( a s a n a b so lu te i ndex o f u se ) a nd w ha t w a s r e co -

g ene ra l a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion c once rn ing s ou rce

v e red ( as k ewed i ndex o fu se ) . T he o rgan ic ma te r ia l f r om

c r i t ic ism , . . ." . ( op . c i t . 3 7 , t r an s l . b y CP ) .

t h e S k r iva rhe l le ren r ock s he l te r — as i te t h a t w ou ld h ave b een o fl i t t le i mpo r tance i ft h e d epo s i t s h ad b een e xpo sed

H e a l so d i s t ingu i she s b e tween q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive

t ot h ee l emen t s —i nc on t ra s tt ot h el i th ics f r om t h e e xpo sed

r ep resen ta t iv i ty ( op . c i t 4 7 ) .

N y se t -S tegg je e mpha s ize s t h e v a lue o fs uch a n i n qu i ry .

H an s J ü rgen E gge r s d i scus ses g ene ra l i s sue o f s ou rce

T he v a lue p eop le a t tach t o ma te r ia l sv a r ie s i nr e la t ion t o

c r i t ic i sm i nd e ta i l ( Egge r s 1 974 :255f ) . H e p re sen t s ap o -

s ub s tance a nd c i rcum s tance . I ft h ea r gumen t so fE gge r sa r e

l em ic a ga in s tt h e Me thod eK o s s ina . H i s i n i t ia l d ef in i t ion i s

f o l lowed ,p o t te ry a nd s t one w i l lo f ten h ave am in imum v a l -

d rawn f r om t h e t e x t s o fJ a cob -F r iesen ( 1 928 ) . J a cob -Fr ie -

u ew hen b roken , w or nd own ,o b so le te ,e t c . Me ta ls l i ke g o ld

s en 's i n sp i ra t iona l s ou rce f o r ( Ge rman? ) a r chaeo logy ' s

a nd b ronze r e ta in t h e re v a lue , i nt h el e a s ta sr aw ma te r ia ls .

s ou rce c r i t ic i sm w a s h i s to ry .

T he p robab le c ou r se f o r n on -f er rou s m e ta l o b jec t s w ou ld

"W as m an h eu t eb e id er v orge sc ich t l ichen A r chäeo log ie

b e r eme l t ing a nd r e ca s t ing . T he o b jec t s f ound i n mu seums

z ume i s t u n t er » Que l lenk r i t ikk« v e r s t eh t , d a s k ann m an

h ave t h er ef o re , f o r d i f f e ren t r e a sons , b een w i thd rawn f r om

a nb equeme s t en i nd em b ekann t en W er kv on J acob -F r ie -

t h e r e cyc l ing p roce ss . T he s ub jec t ive h uman e l emen t i s

s en

n ach le sen . E r v er s t eh td or t u n ter » F undk r i t ikk«

t h e ref o re i mpo r tan t . T h is i se spec ia l ly i mpo r tan tw hen d i s -

d i e F e s t e l lung , o b e i n F und , a l so e i ne ä r chä eo log i she

c u ss ing t h e B ronze Age f i nd s , f r om r i tua l o r s oc ia l c on -

Q ue l le , e ch ti s to d er g ef ä l sch t ; b e ie i nem e ch t en , o bd er

t e x t s . F ind s f r om s uch c on tex t s h ave b een w i thd rawn f r om

F undor tg e s icher t , o b d i eF undum s tände b ekann t , o be r

c on t inued u se , d e sp i te o rb ecau se o fg r ea t v a lue .

L a ien g eborgen o d er b e i e i ner w i s sen schaf t l ichen A u s -

T h i s l e ad st ot h eq ue s t ion o ft h ec on tex to fd epo s i t ion . I s

g rabungvon F ach l eu t en g ehoben w urd e . A l so a l le s F ra -

t h ef i nd ad epo t , g rave o rs e t t lemen t? T he n a tu re o fd epo s i -

g en , d i e s i ch a uf d er Z uver lä s s igk e i t d er U ber l ief erung

t i on i sv e ry d i f f e ren t , a nd t h is i so fc on sequence t oc u l tu ra l

e i ner Q ue l le b ez iehen —n i ch ta uf d i eZ uver lä s s igk e i td er

[ r e ]con s t ruc t ion s . E gge r s p o lem ize s a ga ins t t h e K o s s ina

Q ue l le s e lb s t ." ( Egge r s 1 974 :256 / ) .

s choo l ' s h i s tor ica l -e thn ic a r chaeo logy , a nd p a r t icu la r ly a ga in s t i t ' s t e ne t t h a t a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s r ep re sen t e x -

E gge r sp o in t so u tt h a tt h i si s ap roce s st h a ta r chaeo logy h a s

p r e s s ion s c ompa rab le t o h i s to r ica l s ou rces . E gger s c l a ims

i nc ommon w i th h i s to ry . I n h i s to ry i ti st e rmed T e x tkr i t ik ,

t h a tt h i si sn o tt r ue ,a nd c ompa re st h e m a te r ia lf r om S pa r ta ,

a nd i ti sf r om t h a t d i sc ip l ine a u then t ic s ou rce c r i t ic ism

A then s a nd R ome , b efo re d ea l ing w i th G e rman ic h i s tory .

o r ig ina te s . T o i lu s t ra te t h e p o in t , E gge r s u sed t h e K o s s ina -

E gge r s ( a nd K o ss ina ) a r e w o rk ing i ne a r ly h i s tor ica l p e n3 8

o d s , s oi ti sn o ts u rpr is ing t h a tE gge r sd e sc r ibe s aH ege l ian

t h a to ne s uppo se s amechan ica la nd u n id i rec t iona lc onnec -

i n sp ired me thod c a l led " archäeo log i sche T he se , l i t erar i sche

t i on b e tween mode l ( r a the r u nf o r tuna te ly e qua ted w i th

A n t i the se , h i s tor i sche S yn t e se" . F o r Ny se t -S tegg je t h e re a r e

t h eo ry a nd p reconcep t ion s , c f . K uhn 1 970 : 182 ) a nd d a ta , a s

n o p reh i s to r ic l i t e ra ry s ou rce s . B u t t h e E gge r 's e xamp le s

s ugge s ted b yA .B .J ohan sen ( 1 978 : 15f j ) .N o rd oes i tr e qu ire

a nd a r gumen t sm akes i tn eces sa ry t oe va lua te t h en a tu re o f

t h a t

s t a temen t s t h a tc an b e made b a sed o nt h ep r eh i s to r ic ma te -

1 985 :267 ) b ec ons ide red r e fu ted . R ecogn i t ion o ft h ese f a c -

r i a l s ources .

t o r s r e qu i re s ac ons tan td eba te , p h i lo soph ica l i nqu ir ies a nd

Ma lme r 's

" a r chaeo log ica l

p o s i t iv ism"

( Ma lme r

E gger s f o cu se s o n f a c to r s t h a ta r e r e levan tt od epo s i t ion

s c ience s oc io log ica l i n ves t iga t ion s . I n s ho r t , i tr equ i re s a

a nd p reserva t ion , a nd t h e p o ten t ia l a r chaeo -h is to r ica l i n -

me ta -pe r spec t ive o n o u ro wn e ndeavo r s . T he re s hou ld b e a

t e rp re ta t ion s . K r i s t ian sen ( 1 978 ) c oncen t ra te s o ne conom ic

r e cogn i t ion o ft h e d ia lec t ic a nd d ynam ic n a tu re o fs c ience .

f a c to r sa ss i gn if i can tf o re va lua t ing a r chaeo log ica l s ou r ce s .

F u r the rmo re , i td emand s s kep t ic ism t o m echan is t ic a nd

S uch f a c tor s m ay b e a c t ive , e . g . p lough ing a nd c on s t ruc -

s imp l if ied a pp l ica t ion o f " un ive r sa l" m e thodo logy o rt e n -

t i on ,o rp a ss ive ,e . g . a bandonmen t .K r is t iansen b e l ieve st h a t

e t s o fh uman b ehav iou r . T he h uman w o r ld i sc omp lex . T o

" r esea rch f a c to r s" a r e mo re i mpo r tan t t h an E gge r s d oes .

a cqu i re k now ledge o ft h e w o r ld c an b e al o ng a nd d i f f icu l t

H e d e scr ibe s h ow o u tq uan t i ta t ive f a c to r s ( s uch a ss u rvey -

p roce ss . Amb i t iou s q ue s t ion s a nd p ro jec t s c ome f r om

i n g i n ten s i ty ) , a nd q ua l i ta t ive f a c to r s i n f luence t h ec ompo -

k now ledge a nd l e ad s t ok now ledge .

s i t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l s ou rce s . T he l a t te r m eans l a rge ly t h e d ocumen ta t ion o f t h e c on tex t a nd t h e c i rcums tance s . S uch r e a son ing a nd c once rn i ss im i la rt oJ a cob -F r ie sen 's .

N y se t-S t egg j ea s as our ce ma t er ia l

T he d i scu s s ion o f K r i s t ian sen , a s t h a t o f B a l cka , r a ise s

How d oe s t h e a bove d i scus s ion h e lp e va lua te t h e N yse t -

t h eq ue s t ion o fr e p resen ta t iv i ty .H er e cogn ize st wo k ind so f

S t egg je a nd S k r iva rhe l le ren s i tes? B o th t h e r e v iew s o fE g -

r e p re sen ta t iv i ty , g ene ra l a nd s pec if ic . G ene ra l r ep re sen ta -

g e r sa nd K r is t ian sen i nd ica te as y s tem ic a pp roach t os ou rce

t i v i ty i sd ef ined a s

c r i t ic i sm a nd r e p re sen ta t iv i ty . S uch s y s tem sw i l ln o tb em e -

" t he g eog raph ica l a nd n umer ica l r e p r esen ta t iv i ty o fa

c han ica l ly i mp lemen ted h e re . N o r w i l l t h e re b e ad i scus -

g i ven g roup o ff i nd so nt h eb a s is o ft h ei n f luence o ft h e

s i on o f t h e se f a c to r s t o r e s t ruc tu re s y s tem s , a nd p ropo se

s our ce - c r i t ica l f a c to r s ." ( op . c i t . 4 )

r e v is ion s . I n s tead , p a r t ia l ly i n sp i red b y t h e g ene ra l d i scu s s i on a bove ,a nd i n s igh t si n to t h es pec if i cs t udy a r ea , an um b e ro fs pec if ic p rob lem s w i l l b e a dd res sed . T he N yse t -S tegg je s i te s a nd t h e S k r iva rhe l le ren s i te a r e

S pec if i cr epr e sen ta t iv i t y

n o t r e ad i ly c ompa rab le s ou rce s . T hey p o se s omewha t d i f -

" i s af unc t ion o fg ene ra l r ep re sen ta t iv i ty a nd h a s t h e

f e ren ts ou rce c r i t ica l p rob lem s . T hey a l so p rov ide c oun te r -

p u rpose o f d e te rm in ing t h e i n fo rma t ion v a lue o f t h e

i nd ica t ion s o fw ha ts ou rce c r i t ica l s ho r t -com ings i no ne o r

e v idence i nr e la t ion t o ac e r ta in , d e f ined i s sue ." ( op .

t h e o t he r ma te r ia l m igh tb e . T he t wo c o l lec t ions a r e t h e re -

c i t . 5 ) .

f o re d i scus sed s epa ra te ly . T he f o l low ing d i scu sse s t h e Ny s e t -S tegg je s i te s f i r s t .

T he p rob lem s a nd s o lu t ion sd i scussed b y E gge r s a nd K r i s t i an sen a r e t h eo re t ica l ly f a i r ly s imp le . T h i si so fc ou r se n o t

A r et h ef i nd s c o l l ec t ed i n as a t i sf ac tor y o rs c i en t if i cm anner?

t os ay t h a t d ea l ing w i th t h em i ss imp le i np r ac t ice . Ano the r f a c to r t h a t c omp l ica te s i st h e b ackg round a nd p r econcep t ion s o ft h e r e sea rche r . T he s oc ia l a nd h i s tor ica l

E gge r s , a nd mo s t o the r modern a r chaeo log i s t s , empha s ize

c on tex t i nw h ich r e sea rch i sc a r r ied o u t i n f luence s a l l r e -

t h e q ue s t ion o f w he the r i nves t iga t ion s a r e c onduc ted b y

s e a r ch .T h is d if i cu l ty h a sb een t h ec oncer no f many S can -

t r a ined p e r sonne l . H e re , t h i s q ue ry c an b e a n swe red w i th a

d i nav ian a r chaeo log is t s , a nd e spec ia l ly f o r r e cen t " po s t -

"Y e s , t h e s urvey s , e xcava t ions a nd a na lyse s w e re l e d b y

p roce s sua l" a r chaeo log is t s . T hese f a c to r s a r e f undamen ta l

t r a ined p e r sone l l ." Unfo r tuna te ly , u n ive r s i ty d eg rees d o

f o rc ho ice s o fp rob lem s , d a ta a nd me thod ,a nd f o ro b serva -

n o t a s su re a n e n l igh tened a nd e ne rge t ic i n qu iry . A rchae -

t i on s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s . T he se " p rob lem s" c an n o t b e

o log ica l t r a in ing r ep re sen t s as oc ia l iza t ion p roce ss , a nd

s o lved i n a ny s imp ly s t ruc tu red g ene ra l f a sh ion . T hough

e a s i ly l e ad s t o amechan ica l o b serva t ion p rac t ice . A n a r -

o f ten v i ewed a s ap rob lem ( i n t h e s ense s ome th ing t ob e

c haeo log is t may l im i t o b se rva t ion s t o t h e " s tanda rd s" o f

e l im ina ted ) , t h e se e l emen t s a r e a l so p robab ly o ne o f t h e

t e x tbook a r chaeo logy o r l o ca l " t rad i t ion s" . T he re h ave

m a in s ou r ce so fs c ien t if i cc r ea t iv i ty a nd p rog re ss ( s ee T r ig -

b een r epo r ted a dvan tage si nu s ing u n t ra ined s t a f f ,e spec ia l -

g e r 1 989 :25f , 3 96f ff o r ad i scus s ion o fp rog re ss i na r chae -

l ya tt h e i n i t ia l s u rvey ing s t age ( B jo rgo 1 988 : 159 ) . I n r e la -

o l og ica lr e sea rch ) .R ecogn iz ing t h ev a l id i ty o ft h ese f a c to r s

t i on t ot h is s t udy , ac once rn i st h e a ccu ra cy o fo b serva t ion

d oe s n o tr equ i re s ar ad ica l s ub jec t iv is tp o s i t ion . A ssum ing

a nd d ocumen ta t ion , a s w e l l a s v a r ia t ion i ns t anda rd s . T he

ad e te rm ina te c o ro l la ry l e ad ing f r om t h eh i s tor ica lr e sea rch

Nyse t -S tegg je p ro jec t l a s ted f o r s even y ea r s i n t h e f i e ld .

c on tex tt ot h en ece ss i ty o fs ub jec t iv ism u nderm ine st h ei m -

P o s t -excava t iona l wo rk c on t inued i n term i t ten t ly f o r s i x

p o r tance o fa r chaeo log ica l d i scou r se , r e fu te s t h e d i a lec t ic

y ea r sa f te rt h ec onc lu s ion o fe xcava t ion s . Wo rk p rocedu re s

v i ta l i ty o ft h em a ter ia lw o r ld a nd d i sempowe r sa r chaeo logy

c hanged a nd d e s ign sw e re n o ta lways c on s i s ten t .T h is p l ac -

( s ee T r igge r1 99 1 :68f f o r ac r i t ique ) . N e i the rd oes i tr e qu i re

e sl im i ta t ion s o n t h e p o s t -excava t iona l a na lys is . 3 9

I st h ea r chaeo log i ca lr e cord d i s turbed b ym od ern a c t iv i t ie s?

t o o lk i t . T h is w ou ld p roduce a q ua l i ta t ive ly s imp le a nd

T he i n ve s t iga t ion a r ea h a s b een d e scr ibed e a r l ie r . I tw a s a

l a rge s i te s o ne w ou ld e xpec t mo s t p e r sona l a nd e veryday

moun ta in a r ea i n w h ich n o modern , l a rge s ca le d eve lop -

u t i l i ta r ian o b jec t st ob ep re sen t . T he re w ou ld a l so b ee qu ip -

m en t s h ad t a ken p l ace b efo re t h e e xcava t ion s . P a s tur ing

m en ta nd t oo ls a pp ropr ia te f o rt h es pec if ic e nv i ronmen ta nd

a nd h un t ing w e re t h ep r ima ry a c t iv i t ie s .G raz ing l e ad t ot h e

t a sk s . T he re w ou ld b e l i t t le o r n o " low a l t i tude e qu ip -

c on s truc t ion o f s ome h ouse s a nd h u t s . T ur f , s t one a nd

m en t" , e . g . a rd s a nd p e rhap s h eavy f o re s t ry e qu ipmen t .

q uan t i ta t ive ly i mpove r ished a r chaeo log ica l s amp le . O n t h e

P o t s a nd n omad ic o rt r anshuman tp a s to ra l is t s h ave b een

w ood h ave b een c o l lec ted . T h i s may h ave c aused a n i n -

ac ommon s ub jec t o fd i scus s ion . B ecau se o ft h e n a tu re o f

c r ea sed r a te o fe ro s ion .

p o t tery a nd t h e l o g i s t ic s i n vo lved , p a s to ra l i s t s m igh t n o t b r ing p o t so rt h ey m igh th ave p o t ss t a t ioned a l ong t h er ou te

R ef l ec t ion so no t her e nv i ronmen ta lz one s

o rt h ey m igh t h ave al im i ted s e lec t ion o fp o t s . T hey m igh t

E ven t h ough t h e moun ta in sa r eh igh a l t i tuda lz ones w i thou t

a l so h ave t h e s ame s e lec t ion a s mo r e s eden ta ry g roups

p l ough ing , i ti si mpo r tan t f o r t h e a na lys is t h a t a l p ine e x -

( C r ibb 1 99 1 :75f ) .T he i n te rp re ta t ive s i gn if icance o fp o t sf o r

p l o i ta t ion i sc onnec ted t ot h e n on -a lp ine z one , a nd p a r t ic -

u nde r s tand ing e xp lo i t ive s t ra teg ie sc anno tb er i g id ly , ap r i -

u l a r ly l ow l y ing a r ea sb yt h ef j o rd .T h is i sw e l ld ocumen ted

o r i d ef ined . T he i r p re sence i s , h oweve r , s i gn if i can t . T he

i nh i s tor ica l t ime s . A rchaeo log ica l d a ta s ugge s t s as im i la r

m ean ing o f p o t s , b o th i n p reh i s to r ica l s i tua t ion s a nd f o r

s i tua t ion , a tl e a s t f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd o n . I n o t he r

a na ly s i s , mus tb e c on tex tua l ly e s tab l ished .

w o rd s , o ne p r em ise f o rt h e a na ly s i s i st h a t a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e moun ta in s a r e d i rec t ly c onnec ted t o d eve lopmen t s i n t h e

Wha tw a s l ef t?

f j o rd z one . T he l ow land s a r e g ene ra l ly mo re d i f f icu l t t o

A cco rd ing t oE gge r s ( 1 974 :262f t ) s e t t lemen t s s hou ld c on -

s t udy t h an t h e moun ta in z ones . O n t h e n ega t ive s i de , t h e re

t a in r e fu se . Worn o u t , b roken o ro b so le te t oo l s , p o in t s a nd

w i l l b e a n " a lp ine s k ew ing" . O n t h e p o s i t ive s i de , t h e a l -

d eb i tage w ou ld b e e xpec ted . I n Ä rda l , t h e mo s t c ommon

p i ne z one sp rov ide aq uan t i ta t ive i nd ica to ro fd eve lopmen t s

l i th ic p o in t s a nd s c rape r s a r e s o r e ad i ly made t h a tt h e " r e -

o u t s ide t h e i mmed ia te moun ta ins .

j e c t th re sho ld" w ou ld b e l ow . O b jec t s l o s t a nd e i the r n o t f o und o r n o t r e cove red i n a n t iqu i ty w ou ld b e p r e sen t i n

Wha tw a so r ig ina l l yp re sen t?

" the o r ig ina l , n on -decompo sed a s semb lage" . T he re r e -

Ac ommon c ha rac ter is t ic o fa l p ine S tone A ge s i tes i nN o r -

ma ins

w ay i s an a r rowe r s e lec t ion o fl i th ic a r t ifac t s t h an w ha t i s

( 1 978 :152f ) s ays t h a t o n ly w o rn o u t , b roken o ru n serv ice -

c ommon ly f ound a tl owe ra l t i tude s ( I nd re l id 1 973 :30 ) . I ti s

a b le s t one o b jec t s a r e l e f t o n t h e s i tes , h e u nde re s t ima tes

u nce r ta in h ow much t h i s o bserva t ion i st r ue f o rL a te N eo -

w ha t i su n in ten t iona l ly l o s t , o verva lue s t h e " economy" o f

l i t h ic ,B ronze A ge a nd P re -Roman s i tes . Ac ohe ren tu nde r -

l i th ics i n af o rma l is ta na lys is o fv a lue a nd d oe sn o tt a ke i n to

s t and ing o ft y p ica l l ow land L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

a ccoun t t h e mo re i d io sync ra t ic s i de o fl i th ic u se . T he p re -

t h e

q ue s t ion

o f v a lue .

When

A .B .

J ohan sen

s i te a s semb lage s h a s y e t t o e vo lve . T he f ew a s semb lage s

s en ta u tho rb e l ieve st h a tJ ohansen ap r ior ia s s ign se ach t oo l

f r om l ow land s i te s g ene ra l ly s how p a t te rn s s im i la rt oo pen

t o o g rea t v a lue . Mo s tc ommon l i t h ic o b jec t sp robab ly r ep -

a i r moun ta in s i tes . T hey a r e d om ina ted b y l i th ics o r l a ck

r e sen t am in imum o ft ime i nve s tmen ta nd w e re t h u sr e ad i ly

f i nd s , t h ough t h e f i r s t s e em s t o b e l e s s c ommon a t l ow

d i sca rded .

a l t i tude s ( b a sed o n B e rgsv ik 1 99 1 , L indb lom 1 982 , P i l0

O the r o b jec t s , s uch a s m e ta l , a r e p robab ly u nde r -rep re -

1 99 1 , S k jo l svo ld 1 977 , 1 980 ) . T he ma in d i f f e rence b e tween

s en ted o n t h e s i te s . B ronze i sa s sumed t ob e p r ec ious , a nd

l ow land s a nd h ighe ra l t i tudes i st h a ta r tefac t s l i ke b ronze s ,

e i the r r eu sed o r r i tua l ly d epo s i ted . F ind s o n t h e p re sen t

a xe sa nd d agge r s ,a sw e l la sg rave monumen t s ,r o ck a r ta nd

s i tes a r e t yp ica l ly s ma l l f r agmen t s n ea r h ea r th s ( P re sco t t

l o ng -house s ( Loken 1 987 , J ohnson & P re sco t t 1 993 ) a r e

1 99 1b :80 ) . O the r i nd ica t ions may b e mo ld s a nd c r uc ib les .

mo re t y p ica l l ow land c a tegor ie s . T he l e ve l o fr e cogn izab le

C ruc ib le s a nd mou ld s o ne w ou ld e xpec t t ob ecome w orn

a nd c on sc iou s s oc io -r i tua l d epo s i t ion sa th ighe ra l t i tude si s

o u t , b roken a nd t h rown a way . T he se a r e a l so f o und i ns i te -

l ow . T he re i sn o ap r ior i r e a son t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e s ub -

r e la ted c on tex t s ( Bakka 1 976 : 16 , J ohansen 1 986 :77 , L oken

a l p ine o r a l p ine r e g ion s s hou ld l a ck r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s . I t

1 987 ,P re sco t t1 99 1b ) . I ft h e se f i nd sa r er ep re sen ta t ive ,t h ey

c ou ld b e a r gued t h a t t h e re i s ad i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se a c t iv -

i n d ica te av e ry l ow o u tpu t o fm e ta l o b jec t s i nt h e B ronze

i t e s a cco rd ing t oe nv ironmen t , a nd t h a ts uch ad i s t r ibu t ion

A ge . T he q uan t i ta t ive f unc t iona l v a lue o f b ronze i sp rob -

i sp a r t ly f unc t iona l . S t i l l , e v idence o fr i tua l i sf ound i nt h e

a b ly n eg l ig ib le , a nd a l though i n ten t iona l d epo s i t ion o f

moun ta in s . S eve ra l d agge r s a nd af ew b ronzes h ave b een

b ronze m igh tb el im i ted t or i tua lc on tex t s ,t h el a ck o fm e ta l

r e cove red f r om moun ta in c on tex t so f ar i tua lc ha rac te r( e .g .

o n s i te s i sp robab ly r e la t ive ly r e p r esen ta t ive f o r t h e 1 500

P re sco t t 1 99 1b :1 17 / ) . D e sp i te t h i s , t h is s t udy c ove r s a s sem -

y ea rl o ng B ronze A ge .

b l age sw h ich a r e mo s t ly r e f er red t o ap roduc t ive -func t iona l s phe re o fa na ly t ic c a tegor ie s .

t h e ref o re u sua l ly s epa ra te s e t t lemen t s , s a c r if i ce s , d epo t s

H uman a c t iv i t ie s a r e d iv ided i n to s pace . A rchaeo log i s t s

T he c oncer ned s ub -a lp ine , l ow -a lp ine a nd a l p ine s i te s

a nd g rave s . T he p rob lem i st h a t t h ere i sa mp le r e a son t o

r e p re sen t av a r ie ty o fs i te t ypes a nd f unc t ion s .T hese c an b e

b e l ieve t h a t b o th s a cr if ic ia l a c t iv i t ie s a nd b u r ia l s c an t a ke

p l aced o n as c a le f r om v ery s ho r tt e rm h un te ra nd /o rs hep -

p l ace o n t h e s ame s i te . A lso , o b jec t s f r om t h e " func t iona l

h e rd c amp s t os e a sona l , l o ng t e rm s e t t lemen t s . T he f o rme r

s phe re" , c an b e t r an sf er red t o a" r i tua l s phe re" . T h is c on -

a r e mob i le a nd t h e ref o re w i l l h ave al im i ted , t a sk -o r ien ted

f u se s t h e i n terp re ta t ion o fm ean ing o ft h e f i nd s . 4 0

Wha ti sp r e ser ved o nt h es i te s?

T he h e te rogeneou s n a tu ra l s ed imen t s a l so c r ea te p rob l em s i n i d en t ify ing s t ruc tu res . S ing l ing o u t a n th ropogen -

A r chaeo log i s t s d e te rm ine t h e s i ze a nd n a tu r e o f s i tes b y f e a tu re s f ound o n t h e s i te s a nd t h rough c i rcum s tan t ia l e v i -

i c a l ly c ond i t ioned p a t terns i n t h e s t ony , s ha l low u nde r -

d ence . T he l a rge a moun t s o fp rec ip i ta t ion , t h e s ha l low s o i l

g round c an b e a n a rduou s t a sk . T he re i s ar i sk t h a t

c ove r a nd a c id ic p edo log ica l f a c ie s i n w e s tern Norway

" s t ruc tu re s" ( s tone s e t t ing s ) a r e n o t t h e w o rk o f h uman s ,

l e ads t or ap id o rgan ic d ecompo s i t ion . V i r tua l ly n o o rgan ic

b u tt h er e su l to fn a tu ra l a genc ies .

ma ter ia ls u rv ived o nt h eo pen a i rs i tes i nt h is s t udy .O rgan ic

T he p rac t ica l c onsequence i st h a t i t ems l i ke u nk napped

r e la ted r ema in s t h a t w e re r e cove red , w e r e c ha rcoa l p i eces

s t one sa r ep robab ly u nde r -rep resen ted i nt h e ma ter ia l . S im -

a nd d us t , b ur n tb one f r agmen t s t h a t h ave n o tt o ta l ly d i s in -

p l es t ruc tu re s w i l l o f ten n eed s uppo r tf r om o t he ra na ly t ica l

t e g ra ted i nt h e f i re a nd c oncen t ra t ion s o fs i l ty , g rea sy a nd

c a tegor ie s t o b o ls te r c r ed ib i l i ty . S uch e v idence i su sua l ly

c ha rcoa l r i ch s ed imen t s i n te rp re ted a s r e s idua l c oncen t ra -

a r tefac ts p read s( e .g . N yse t -S tegg je s i te s4 7 ,107 & 1 30 , s e e

t i on o fr e fu se l a ye r s . R ock s he l te r s o f ten e xh ib i t e xce l len t

B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 ) .

p re serva t ion c ond i t ion s , a s t h ey p rov ide p ro tec t ion f r om t h ee l emen t s , a nd o rgan ica l ly e n r iched d epo s i t s t e nd t oa c -

Wha ti sc o l l ec t ed?

c umu la te t h e r e . I n S k r iva rhe l le ren , p re se rva t ion o f b one

E xcava t ions i n N yse t -S tegg je a nd S k r iva rhe l le ren f o r t h e

w a s e xce l len t , w h i le s he l l w a s f r agmen ted . R ock s he l te r s

mo s t p a r t emp loyed t r owe l s . A l l t h e s o i l f r om t h e o pen

a t t rac t h uman v i s i t s t h roughou t t h e a ge s . T he se c an c ause

N yse t -S tegg je s i te s a r e r un t h rough s i eve s w i th 4 mm

d i s turbance s , d e s t ruc t ion o r r emova l s . T he e f f ec t o f t h e

m e shes . T e s t s w e re c a r r ied o u t w i th 2mm s i eves o n s ed i -

f o remen t ioned c an b er educed b y ah or izon ta ld i sper s ion o f

m en t s f r om a r b i t ra r i ly s e lec ted s qua res . A l l d epo s i t s f r om

a c t iv i t ie st h a tl e ad t od epo s i t sa nd f e a ture s .I nS k r iva rhe l le -

S k r ivarhe l le ren a r e w a shed t h rough as e t o f 2a nd 4 mm

r e n t h is m ean s t h a t t h e b run t o f I r on A ge a nd Med ieva l

s c reens . 2 7 s amp le s ( 1 t o 2l i t re s ) f r om t h e s he l te r a r e

a c t iv i t ie sw e r e f o und a t ad i s tance f r om L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

s i eved t h rough m e she s d own t o0 . 5 mm . T h is ef or t mean s

B ronze A ge d epo s i t s .

t h a t much i s i d en t if ied a nd c o l lec ted ( c f : d i scuss ion i n

S tone i su sua l ly p re served . Howeve r s i te a s semb lages

B ang -Ande r sen 1 985 ) . T he s y s tema t ic s c reen ing i sp a r t ic -

c an b e p o s t -depo s i t iona l ly " p i lf ered" f o rr aw ma ter ia l s o r

u l a r ly i mpo r tan tb ecause o ft h el i th ic d eb i tage ( r ef .P re sco t t

s ouven i r s . P o t te ry r e s is t s c hem ica l s o lu t ion , b u t c an b e

1 99 1b :56 ) a nd b one w a s te . T h is a spec t i sf undamen ta l ly

f r agmen ted o r d e s t royed b y mechan ica l w ea r . I n t ra -s i te

i mpo r tan tf o rl a te rd i ach ron ica l c ompa r ison s . Ma te r ia l t h a t

s he rd d i s t r ibu t ion i st h us ama t te r o f ap o t b e ing b roken .

w ou ld n o t s u rv ive w a te r s i ev ing , s uch a s s ome s he l l f r ag -

T he rea f te r , i ti s aq ue s t ion o f i fs he rd s w e re moved a f te r

m en t s , w ou ld b e l o s t i fn o t r e covered b efo re g o ing t ot h e

b reakage a nd i ft h ey w e re p ro tec ted f r om t r amp l ing , e i the r

s c r eens .

b yb e ing c ove red o rb y b e ing l e f ti n ap e r iphe ra l s po t .

T h ing st ha tc anno tb ei d en t if ied a si n te res t ing w i l ln o tb e

A l though h uman d i srup t ions i nt h e moun ta in sw e re m in -

s y s tema t ica l ly c o l lec ted . T h is i s , h oweve r , n o t as imp ly

i ma l , a tl e a s t c ompa red t o wha t a r chaeo log is t s c ommon ly

s t ruc tu red p rob lem . T he p eop le who p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h ee x -

e xper ience , t h e re i ss ome n a tu ra l d e s t ruc t ion o fe v idence .

c ava t ion sw e re g ene ra l ly s e lf -cr i t ica li nt h ec o l lec t ion p roc -

F i r s t , o n a l l o pen s s i te s o rgan ic ma te r ia l i sd ecompo sed .

e s s .T her ea r es ome c a se so fi n suff ic ien tc o l lec t ion o fi t em s

T he re h a s c ommon ly b een s ome e ro s ion a nd r e sed imen ta -

t h a th ave b een i d en t if ied a si mpo r tan t i nr e t ro spec t . T he se

t i on . F ro s t , w a te r , a n ima l s a nd p lan t s d i s tu rb s i te s ( e .g .

s ho r tcom ing s d o n o t s i gn if ican t ly r educe t h e v a lue o f t h e

B u tze r 1 982 :98 / 3 ) . C reepage a nd l a ndmovemen t s h ave c ov -

s ou rce ma te r ia l a su sed h e re .

e r ed s i te s . T h is i s ap rom inen tp rob lem i nB e rda len . I nt h a t n a r row , s t eep ly w a l led v a l ley , s i te s h ave b een c ove red b y

Wh i ch s i te s w er ef ound?

s c ree a nd t h ick a l luv ia l f a n l ike d epo s i t s . I n S k r ivarhe l le r en , r educ t ion o ft h e o ve rhang t h rough w a te r a nd f r o s t a c -

T he N yse t -S tegg je p ro jec t r ep resen t s o ne o f t h e mo s t i n -

t i on , h a s a l so c l ea r ly r educed t h e p ro tec ted a r ea .

t e n s ive a nd t ho rough a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey s w i th in ar e s t r ic ted a r ea i nN o rway ( c f . B jo rgo 1 986 :123f ,B jO rgo e ta l . 1 992 :19f ) .T he s u rvey m e thods w e re a l so d ev i sed t oi d en t i -

Wha ti so b ser ved?

f y s i te s ma rked b y s u r face s t ruc tu res a nd a s w e l l a s s ub -

K napped s t one o b jec t s a r e c ommon ly i d en t if ied a nd c o l -

s u r f ace s i te s w he re n o s u r face t r ace s w e re a ppa ren t . T he

l e c ted o n t h e s i tes . O the r s t ones may b e c o l lec ted b ecau se

n umbe ro fs urveyed s i te sw a sc l ea r ly i n c rea sed b ecause t h e

o ft h e i rs hape ( e gg -shaped s t one s ) ,o rr aw m a te r ia l( c rys ta l -

p ro jec tw a sc oncen t ra ted t or e la t ive ly r e s t r ic ted a r ea sf o rs o

l i ne q ua r tz ) , o r b ecause t h ey a r e f o und i n an on -na tu ra l

many y ea r s ( 1 98 1 -87 ) .

c on tex t ( f or e xamp le p hy l l i te i n S k r iva rhe l le ren , P re sco t t

I ti sp e rhap s n eces sa ry t oc l a r ify t h e " s i te" t e rm , b ef o re

1 99 1b :103 ) . I ti so f ten d i ff icu l t t o i d en t ify n on -mod if ied

s i te t y pe s a r e d i scu ssed . I n a r chaeo logy " s i tes" i sc om -

s t one s a sb rough t t o as i te . T h i s i sp o ten t ia l ly r el a tab le t o

mon ly t hough to fa sp l ace sw i th i d en t if iab le a r t ifac t s ,s t ruc -

v e ry h e te rogeneou s g ra in s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s i nt h e n a tu ra l

t u re s o r c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s . Mo re g ene ra l ly , as i te i s as po t

s ed imen t s . T ha tt h i s i s ap rob lem , i si lu s t ra ted b y f i nd s i n

w he re h uman s c a r r ied o u t s ome a c t iv i ty . T here a r e s i te s

S k r ivarhe l le ren . H e re , s t one s t h a t c anno ti n dependen t ly b e

w i th i d en t if ied t r aces o fh uman a c t iv i t ies , s i tes w i th t r aces

i d en t if ied a s " cu l tu ra l p roduc t s" , b u t a r e n eces sa r i ly

t h a t a r e n o t i d en t if ied a nd s i tes w i th n o t r ace s . T he l a t te r

b rough t t o t h e s h e l te r b y h umans , w e re i d en t if ied . T he se

t wo a r eo fc ou r se n o tp os i t ive ly r ep re sen ted i nt h es e lec t ion

w ou ld n o th ave b een i d en t if ied i no pen a i rc on tex t s .

o ft h is s t udy .T he re a r ec l ue st o wh ich s i te sm igh tb eu nde r 4 1

r ep resen ted . S ub -sur face s i te sw i th o n ly ah ea r th o r as ma l l

t i ve e v idence o fL a te B ronze Age h ab i ta t ion , b u tt h e q uan -

c ha rcoa l c oncen t ra t ion a r e d i ff i cu l t t o f i nd . When f ound ,

t ia t ive r e p re sen ta t iv i ty a nd t h e c on tex t 's m ean ing c anno t

o ne h e s i ta te s t o d a te t h em . S i te s w i th n o l i th ics a r e p rob -

b e a s se s sed i na ny d e ta i l .

a b ly u nde r rep re sen ted . S i te s w i th s ma l l a r tef ac t a nd /o r

B ecause o f t h e a na ly s is o f t h e N yse t -S tegge s i te s p re -

c ha rcoa l s p reads a r ea l so u nde r rep re sen ted . S ur face s t ruc -

s en ted l a te r , t h ose i n t h e R iska lsva tn b a s in ( f rom S ka r -

t u re s a nd l a rge s e t t lemen t s w i th l a rge a r t ifac t s p reads o r

h augsf o s sen t oK a lvebe i te t ) i nV ikada len a nd t h e b a s in i n

s ed imen td epo s i t sa r el i ke ly t oh ave b een f ound i n an umbe r

B e rda len ( f rom t h e w a te r f a l l b e low t h e l a ke t oj u s t b e low

t h a t i sf a i r ly c on s is ten t i nr e la t ion t ot h e t o ta l p opu la t ion .

V ierva tn ) w i l l r e ce ive mo s t a t ten t ion . T he o the r s i tes w i l l

P r io r t o s u rvey ing , t h e l a rge s i tes a r e p robab ly u nde r -

b e d rawn i n to t h e d i scus s ion b a sed o n t h e N y se t -S tegg je

e xcava ted . Ar e la t ive ly l a rge rp o r t ion o fa ni d en t if ied s ma l l

" co re s i te s" a nd S k r iva rhe l le ren t op rov ide q ua l i ta t ive d a ta

s i te i sl i k e ly t o b e e xcava ted . I ndeed , t h e re a r e e xamp le s

a nd t o e va lua te t h e r e levance o f r e su l t s , a nd t o p rov ide

f r om Nyse t -S tegg je w he re as ma l l s i te , r ep re sen t ing as i n -

i n d ica to rt e s ta r ea sf o rh ypo the se sf o rwa rded o nt h eb a s is o f

g l el i th ic r e duc t ion e p isode ,i sn ea r ly t o ta l ly e xcava ted w i th

t h e c o re ma te r ia l .

at e s tp i t a nd 1x 1m e te r s qua re .

Q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive : o pen a i rs i t e s F rom t h e a bove i tc an b e c onc luded t h a t t h e o pen a i r s i te s

G eog raph i c v ar ia t ion s

f r om R i ska lsva tn -V ikada len a nd B e rda len h ave an umbe r

T he s urvey ing a nd e xcava t ion i n ten s i ty c hange a cco rd ing

o fq ua l i ta t ive f a c to r s :

t og eog raphy , e ven i nN yse t -S tegg je . T h i s v a r ia t ion i sd i s -

—T he s i te s a r e d a tab le .

c u s sed b e low .

—T hey h ave y i e lded v a r ied a r t ifa c t a s semb lages a nd s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s .

R i ska l l sva tn a nd B erda len . T he R iska lsva tn a nd B e rda len

—A n ega t ive f a c to ri st h ep oo rp re serva t ion o fo rgan ic

b a s in s h ave b een s ub jec ted t o t h e mo s t i n ten s ive a r chae -

ma te r ia l .

o log ica l a nd p a lyno log ica l f i e ldwo rk . T hey c an a l so b e d e l im i ted a s e n t i t ie s , a s t h e i nve s t iga t ion s c ove r t h e v a l ley

I nq uan t i ta t ive t e rm s :

b a s in s a t ag i ven a l t i tude . O ft h e t wo , R i ska l sva tn i nV ika -

—T he d i s tr ibu t ion o fs i tes i ns pace a nd t ime i sa na ly t -

d a len h a s b een t h e o b jec t o f g rea tes t i n te re s t . T he t h ick

i c a l ly a pp rop r ia te t od i ach ron ic s t udy , i ft ov a r iab le

s ed imen t st h a tc ove rt h eB e rda ls to len a r ea h a s made p o ten -

d eg ree s .

t i a l L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge d epos i t s i n acce ss ib le .

—A r tefac td i s t r ibu t ion s ,e spec ia l ly f o rl i th ic s ,a r ec om p a rab le .

F o s sda len . T he s urvey ing a nd e xcava t ion a c t iv i t ies i nF o s s d a len a r e mo re l im i ted . S urvey ing c oncen t ra ted o n v i s ib le

—S t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s c an b e c ompa red .

s t ruc tu re t r aces i nt h e a r ea a round as ma l l p ump ing s t a t ion a nd i t s f e ede r d am . E xcava t ion s w e re c en te red a r ound t h is a r ea . L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age o b jec t s a r e p r ima r i ly

S our ce c r i t i ca le va lua t ion o fS k r ivarhe l l er en

f ound a s ar e su l t o ft h e e xcaua t ion s o fI r on A ge s i tes h e re .

T he p r ima ry l im i ta t ion o fS k r iva rhe l le r en i st h a to n ly p a r t s o f t h e d epo s i t s a r e e xcava ted . E ven i ft h e a r ea u nde r t h e

Smedda len a nd o t her a r ea s . T he r oad f r om Smedda l sva tn i n

s he l te rh ad b een t o ta l ly e xcava ted , v a r ia t ion b e tween p re s -

L e e rda l , t h rough V a ld resda len a nd d own V ikada len t ot h e

e r va t ion c ond i t ion s i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h e s he l te r w ou ld

R i ska l lsva tn r e servo i r , w a s s y s tema t ica l ly t e s t p i t ted i n a

h ave c omp l ica ted c ompa r isons w i th in p rac t ica l ly a l l f i nd

manne r s im i la r t o t h a t a pp l ied i n V ikada len . T he s urvey

c a tegor ie s e xcep t l i t h ic s . T h is p e r ta in s b o th t od i rec t c om -

w a s , h oweve r , r e s t r ic ted t ot h e g ene ra l c ou r se o ft h e r oad .

p a r ison s f r om l a ye r t ol a ye r , a nd b e tween S k r iva rhe l le r en

A s s uch i td oes n o th ave t h eq uan t i ta t ive r ep resen ta t ivene ss

a nd N yse t -S tegg je . I n o rde r t o c ompa re S k r iva rhe l le ren

o f t h e B e rda len a nd V ikada len s urvey s . I t s v a lue i s mo re

w i th o the rf i nd s ,a na na ly t ic p rem ise mus tb ea ccep ted : T he

q ua l i ta t ive : S i tes f ound i nt h ed i f f e ren tl a nd scape s a nd a l t i -

f i nd sa nd l a ye ra r ef a i r ly r ep re sen ta t ive f o rt h et o ta l makeup

t udes a r e e v idence t h a t t h e se a r ea s a nd e nv i ronmen t s w e re

i nt h es he l te r .T h i si sn o ta nu n rea sonab le p rem i se ,i fc a re i s

u sed . T he ma ter ia l c an a l so b e r e ga rded a s a n a r b i t ra ry

e xe rc i sed .

s amp le .

C ompa r i sons o f s ed imen t q uan t i t ie s a r e a l so c omp l ica t -

I n t h e d i s t r ic t s u r round ing t h e d eve lopmen t b a s ins , a

e d .E ven i fm ea su remen t so fl a ye rt h ickne ss o rq uan t i ty a r e

n umbe ro fs i te sh ave b een f ound , ma in ly i nc onnec t ion w i th

r e p resen ta t ive f o r t h e d epo s i t a s aw ho le , t r an s la t ing l a ye r

h ikes a nd t e s t s urveys . S y s tema t ic t e s t p i t t ing i st h e ref o re

t h ickne s st o mo re m ean ingfu lv a r iab le s , s uch a sd u ra t ion o f

l a ck ing , a nd f i nd s a r e g ene ra l ly l im i ted t o s t ruc tu ra l r e -

u se o r i n ten s i ty , c an b e d i ff icu l t . T h i s c an b e p a r t ly o ve r -

ma in s v i s ib le o n t h eg round s u r fa ce a nd l i th ic p i ece s f ound

c ome b y c ompa r ing q uan t i ta t ive l a ye r f i gu re s w i th o t he r

i ne ros ion z one s a nd o n r ock s u r faces .

q uan t i ta t ive a spec t s s u ch a sn umbe ro fa r tefac t s o rb one s .

T he s u rveys i nl ow land N adv ik a r el im i ted t o as ma l lp lo t

S kr iva rhe l le ren i sn o t p a r t o f ad e ta i led s u rvey i n t h e

a tD a lsg je rde , a nd t o af ew d ay s o f t e s t s ur vey s f r om t h e

Moada len v a l ley , b u t i s as i ng le h i gh q ua l i ty s i te . I ti sr e -

f a rm o f H ov land a nd u p t h e v a l ley . D a lsg je rde h a s b een

g a rded a sp a r to fa na r ea o fi n te rac t ion t h a ti n c lude sN yse t -

s ub jec ted t oc u l t iva t ion i n mode rn t ime s . S urvey s i nN add -

S t egg je a nd T y in ,b u ti n ad i f f e ren te nv i ronmen t .T he l a yer s

v ik a r e t h u s q ua l i ta t ive o fn a tu re . T he f i nd s h e re a r e p o s i -

a nd t h ea r tefac ta s semb lages c an b eu sed i ni n te r -a nd i n t ra 4 2

s i te c ompa r i son s . H oweve r , a n u nknown f a c to r i nr e la t ion

as i ng le c oun ty .T hey a r ef r om d e f ined e nv i ronmen t s .T hey

t ol o ca la r chaeo logy c r ea te sp rob lem si ne va lua t ing t h er ep -

a r e f ound a s t h e r e su l t o f u np receden ted s u rvey ing t h o r -

r e sen ta t iv i ty o f t h e s i te . T h i s r e s t r ic t s c ompa r ison s . T he

o ughne ss a nd t h ey a r e e x tens ive ly e xcava ted a nd d a ted .

l i th ic a s semb lage i sr e ga rded a sr e p re sen ta t ive f o rt h i st ype

F u r the rmo re , d a ta e x t rac ted f r om d i f f e ren t s ource s c an b e

o fs i te . T he b one a r tef ac tt ol i th ics r a t io i sv i ewed a sf a i r ly

u sed t oc onf ron t s im i la rp rob lem s f r om d i f f e ren t a ng le s .

r e p re sen ta t ive .

THE S ITES

S k r iva rhe l le ren a l so s upp l ie s an umbe r o f q ua l i ta t ive f a c to r s , s uch a st h e e v idence o fb ronze m e l t ing , i mpo r tan t

T he t h eme o ft h i sp aper i sN eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge d eve l -

" s ta tu so b jec t s" ,t h ep re sence o fc h i ld ren e t c . F u r the rmo re ,

o pmen t s i n f e r r ed f r om s i te d a ta . H oweve r , w i th in t h e N y -

t h e s i te i lus t ra te s w ha to b jec t st h a tm igh th ave b een i nu se

s e t -S tegg je p ro jec ts i te sf r om a l lp e r iod sw e re s u rveyed a nd

o n o t he r s i te s w he re o n ly l i th ics a r e p r eserved .

e xcava ted . T he l owe r c h rono log ica l b o rde r i sd eg lac ia t ion

S kr iva rhe l le ren a nd N yse t -S tegg je c omb ined e x tend t h e

a round 9 500 b . p . , w h i le t h e u ppe r l im i t i st h e p o s t -wa r

g ene ra l r e pre sen ta t iv i ty o ft h e t o ta l s e t o fa s semb lage s f o r

e poch . S i te s f r om o the rp e r iod s t h an t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t o

t h ese r e a son s :

P re -Roman a r e o f i n te res t f o r c ompa ra t ive p urpo se s , a nd

—A n umbe r o f s ou rce c a tego r ie s ( l i th ic s a nd 1 4C -

t h e refo re e n l i s ted i nt h e s t udy w he re t h ey s e rve ap u rpo se .

d a te s )o nn on -s t ra t if ied Nyse t -S tegg je s i te sa r ef o und

I nt h e f o l low ing p re sen ta t ion t h e t o ta l s i te make -up i sf i r s t

i nt h e s t ra t if ied S k r iva rhe l le ren s equence .

s umma r i ly p re sen ted w i th a ge a nd g ene ra lc ha rac ter iza t ion

—T he p re se rva t ion c ond i t ion s i nt h e r o ck s he l te r p ro -

( t ab le 5 ) . A s a l l s i te s c anno t b e g i ven e qua l a t ten t ion , em -

v i de s ou r ce ma te r ia l n o t o the rw ise f o und .

p ha s i si so nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic ,B ronze Age a nd P re -Roman

—S k r iva rhe l le ren i sf o und i nt h el ow -a lp ine z one , t h us

s i te s .

e x tend ing t h e e nv i ronmen ta l r a nge o ft h e s t udy .

Ny se t -S tegg je A pprox ima t e ly 1 40 s i t e s o ld er t h an t h e C hur ch R ef o rma t ion

N y se tS t egg j ea nd S k r ivarhe l l er en :R epr e sen ta t i v i ty

a r ei d en t if i ed i nt h eN y se t -S t egg j ev a l ley s . T h i ss e c t ion s hor t ly

I n N yse t -S tegg je many s ma l l s i te s w e re p robab ly n o t

o u t l ine s a l l o ft h e s i t es , a nd t h en a na ly ze s i n d iv idua l s i t es

f o und . A s s urvey ing w a s i n tens ive i nr e s t r ic ted a r ea s , t h e

d a t ed t ot h eL a t eN eo l i th ic , B ron ze A ge a nd P r e -Roman I r on

r e la t ive p ropo r t ion so ff o und s i tes p robab ly r e f lec tt h et o ta l

A ge .

n umbe r o f s ma l l s i te s t h a t c an b e i d en t if ied . R e la t ive ly l a rge p a r t so ft h es ma l ls i te st h a ta r ei n ve s t iga ted h ave b een

T he i n i t ia lN yse t -S tegg je s u rvey h ad n oc h rono log ica lp ref -

e xcava ted . R ep re sen ta t iv i ty i sh igh . S pa t ia l a nd c h rono log -

e r ence s . I ng ene ra l t e rm s t h e s u rvey ing g u ide l ine s w e re t o

i c a l c ompa r i son s o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s ma l l s i te s i s

o b serve s u r f ace s t ruc tu re s ( f o re xamp le c a irn s , s t one f e nc -

t h e ref o re av a l id p rocedu re .

e s , d ep re s s ion s , mound so rs t ruc tu ra lo u t l ines ) ,d ig t e s tp i t s

A l l t h e l a rge s i tes i n t h e R i ska l sva tn b a s in h ave b een

a nd c heck e ro s iona l z one s f o r c ha r coa l , c u l tu ra l l a ye r s o r

f o und . I nB e rda len t h e re i sp o ten t ia l ( i ndeed p robab le ) g e -

mod if ied l i th ics . T he s urvey w a s c a r r ied o u t i n a ,f o r i t s

o l og ica l " de s t ruc t ion" o fl a rge rs i te sa round B e rda l s s tO len .

t ime , s i ngu la r ly t ho rough f a sh ion . F o r e xamp le , t e s t p i t s

A l though e x ten s ive ly e xcava ted , al e sse rp ropo r t ion o ft h e

w e re d ug a nd w a te r s i eved t h roughou t t h e v a l leys i nq ues -

p er ime te ro ft h e l a rge 4 7 U ru t le l c rä i s i te h a s b een e xcava t -

t i on , r e ga rd les s o fv ege ta t ion c ove r , d i s tance f r om o b serv -

e d ,c ompa red t ot h a to fs ma l le rs i tes .T he v a l id i ty o fq uan t i -

a b le w a te r s ou r ces o rt e r ra in t y pe . A f te rt h e i n i t ia l s u rvey p ha se , i tw a s d ec ided t oc oncen -

t a t ive c ompa r isons i n S k r iva rhe l le ren a r e c ond i t ioned b y t h ep rem i se t h a tt h ee xcava ted s e c t ion sa r er e p re sen ta t ive o f

t r a te e xcava t ion s t ot h e I r on A ge s t ruc tu re s a nd s i te s w i th

t h e d epo s i t a s aw ho le . Q ua l i ta t ive ly , S k r iva rhe l le ren p ro -

b i fac ia l l i th ics o r s i te s t h a t y i e lded L a te N eo l i th ic t oP re -

v i de s o rgan ic p r e serva t ion a nd s t ra t ig raphy n o t f ound o n

R oman I r on A ge v a lue s i nt h e p re l im ina ry d a t ing r ound s .

o pen -a i r s i te s .

I n c onnec t ion w i th e xcava t ion s o ft h e se o b jec t s , n ew s i tes w e re d i scove red i n t h e v i c in i ty . C h rono log ica l ly r e la ted

R ep re sen ta t iv i ty i sa l so aq ue s t ion o fa im sa nd p rob lem s . T hu s , a sa n a r b i t ra ry s amp le , t h e s i te s i nt h i s t h es is h ave a

s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion sc ou ld t h us b e s omewha ta mp l if ied ,b u t

h i gh d eg r ee o fr e levance t og ene ra lq uan t i ta t ive c h rono log -

t h is i sn o tv i ewed a ss e r iou sp rob lem .N ea r ly 1 35 p reh i s to r -

i c a l t r end s . T he se t r end s c an b e c hecked a ga in s t ar ep re -

i cs i te s h ave b een l o ca ted d u r ing t h e N yse t -S tegg je p ro jec t

s en ta t ive c o l lec t ion o fs i te sf r om amo re l im i ted a r ea ,V ika -

( B j ego 1 986 :124 , B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 :20 ) . As umma ry o fa l l

d a len . L ikew ise , t h e r e p re sen ta t ive s u rvey s i n V ikada len ,

t h e s i te s i sp rov ided i nt a b le 5 .

a nd i np a r ti nB e rda len a nd S k r iva rhe l le ren ,c an b eu sed f o r

T he s i te sf r om t h eb a s in a r ea si nV ikada len a nd B e rda len

d i ach ron ica l a s se ssmen t o f t h e h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t o f

a r e t h e mo s t c en t ra l s i te s i nt h i s s t udy , a nd t h e se a r e p re -

l a nd -u se f r om t h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd o n .A st h es e lec t ion i s

s en ted i n g r ea te s t d e ta i l b e low . T he s i te s a r e s ub -d iv ided

r e p re sen ta t ive ,a nd t h e s i te sa r ei n te rp re ted a ss t rong ly e co -

a l ong g eog raph ica l l i ne s ( Be rda len , V ikada len a nd o the r ) .

n om ica l ly d e te rm ined , d a ta e x t ra c ted i sr e la t ive ly a dequa te f o re conom ic a na lys is .

T he g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s i te s o f t h e s i te s i s s hown f i g . 3 ,4 , 5a nd 1 0 .

R ep re sen ta t iv i ty i sn o t s o much aq ue s t ion o fc ompa r i c ur ren ta r chaeo log ica l p r ac t ice . I nt h i s l i gh tt h eÄ rda l s i te s

N y se t -S t egg j e :D e scr ip t ion o fL a t eN eo l i th i ct oP r e R oman I r on A ge s i t e s

a r e r ep re sen ta t ive b ecause t h ey a r e f r om r e s t r ic ted a r ea s i n

D ef in i t ion o fs i te sf r om t h eL a te N eo l i th ic ,B ronze A ge a nd

s on w i th a b so lu te n o rm s ,b u tc ompa r i son w i th p r ev iou sa nd

4 3

T ab le 5 .S umma ry o fa l t h e s i tes s urveyed i nc onnec t ion w i th

c u l tu ra l d epos i t s . T he re a r e t wo f undamen ta l p rob lem s i n

t h e N yse t -S tegg je p ro jec t .

u s ing t h i s p rocedu r e . F i r s t , t h e re i sn o t ag ene ra l , d i rec t

B a sed o n B jo rgo , K r is tof f e ren & P re sco t t 1 992 . C la s s o fs i te*

* *V ikada len 9

Me so l i th ic

B e rda len

r e la t ion sh ip b e tween r e cove rab le a c t iv i ty t r ace s a nd t h ea c O the r

3

S um

t u a l s phe re o fa c t iv i ty . T h is i sr e la ted t ot h e g ene ra l q ues -

1 6

t i on : w ha t d ef ine s as i te? T he s e cond p rob lem i st h a t e ven

4

t h ough s i te s a r e e x ten s ive ly e xcava ted , b o th d i s t r ibu t ion s

E a r ly /M idd le 3

N eo l i th ic

1

4

a nd t e s t p i t s d emon s t ra te t h a t f i nd s c an b e s p read f a r b e -

L a te N eo l . / B ronze A ge

1

7

4

U nde t . l i th ic s i te

1

3

E a r ly I r on Age

1

3

1

1

1 6

2 8

2

1 9

2 1

7 0

1 45

y ond t h e a s sumed s i te p er ime te r s . Sma l l s a te l l i te c oncen -

2 2

2 5

t r a t ion s o f f i nd s c ommon ly l i e b eyond t h e " co re a r ea" —

3 9

a nd a r e e i the r f r equen t ly n o t d i scove red o r a r e n o t a s soc i -

1 5

1

a t ed w i th t h e r e levan t s i te c omp lex . T he r e su l t ing f r om

I r on A ge t o Med ieva l O the r S um

5 6

1 9

s k ew ing o ft h is p rob lem d oe s n o t i n va l ida te r e su l t s o n t h e l e ve l o fi n qu i ry p u r sued h e re . S i te s i ze i sd esc r ibed i nt wo w ay s . T he f i r s ti s ag ene ra le s t ima te o ft h ec omp le te e x ten t o f a r te fac t s a nd d epo s i t s . T he o t he r i sa n a r b i t ra ry f i gu re

*No te o n s i te c l a s s if ica t ion :

d e s igned t of a c i l i ta te c ompa r i son b e tween l i th ic s i te s . T h is

Me so l i th ic s i te s w e re d ef ined o n t h e b a s i s o fm i rcob lade s ( r ef .

f i gu re i st h en umbe ro fe xcava ted s qua re s ( 1 x1m e te r )w i th

H e lskog e ta l . 1 974 : 14f , I nd re l id 1 986 :197 ) a nd /o r 1 4C -va lues

mo re t h an 5 0 l i th ic p i ece s > 4 mm .

o lde rt h an c a . 5 200 B P ( r ef . Nx roy 1 988 ) . E ar ly a nd M idd le

S i ze o ft h e l i t h ic a r t ef ac t a s semb lage i sc once rned o n ly

N eo l i th ic ( Neo l i th ic I ,N 1 ) s i te s w e r e d ef ined o n t h e b a s is o f r egu la rb l ade s , s l a te a nd r ad ioca rbon d a tes b e tween c a . 5 200 —

w i th l i th ics f r om t h e> 4 mm f r ac t ion . T he s p l in te rf r ac t ion

3 700 b .p . ( ba sed o n I nd re l id 1 986 , Nx roy 1 988 , 1 993 ) . L a te

( 2 —4mm ) o ft h e d eb i tage i sc o l lec ted o n ly f r om a r b i t ra ry

N eo l i th ic a nd B ron ze A ge s i te s w e re d ef ined b y t h e p re sence o f

t e s tu n i t sa nd f o rt h i sr e a son i se xc luded f r om c ompa r ison s .

s u r face f l aked b i fa ce s a nd /o r 1 4C -va lues b e tween c a . 3 700 —

T he s i ze o fa n a r tef ac t a s semb lage w i l l b e c r i t ica l ly i n f lu -

2 200 b .p . ( a f te rP r esco t t 1 986 , V andk i lde 1 989 :abb .1 ) . U nde term i n ed l i t h ic s i tes a r e d ef ined a s s i te s t h a t c ou ld n o tb e c l ea r ly d a ted

e nced b y s e ve ra l o ft h ea bove d i scus sed f a c to r s . A ni mpo r -

o n at ypo log ica l b a s is , a nd f r om wh ich n o 1 4C -samp les a r e

t a n t p o in t i nr ega rd t ot h e p rob lem o f v a l id i ty i st h a t t h e

d a ted . E ar ly I r on A ge s i te s w e re d a ted a pp rox ima te ly t ot h e l a t te r

m agn i tude o fv a r ia t ion u sed i nl a te rc ompa r ison s i sl a rge .

P re -Roman I r on A ge o rR oman I r on Age a nd h ave n o t y i e lded

T he q ua l i ta t ive f ea tur e so ft h el i t h ic a s semb lage a r et i ed t o

l i th ic s , n o re xh ib i ted h ouse s t ruc tu re s . T h i s g roup c h ief ly e n c ompa sse s s ma l l c ha r coa l p i t s , b u t a l so af ew h ea r th s . I r on A ge

p o in t s a nd o t he rt o o l s . T oo ls a r e d ef ined o n mo rpho log ica l

t o Med ieva l s i te s h ave h ouse r ema in s , f e a tu re s r e la ted t oh ou se s ,

g round s . N ow ea ra na lys i s ,b eyond amac ro -ana ly s i s t od e -

g rave c a irn s a nd as m i thy . T he se w e re d a ted ( by t ypo logy o r

t e rm ine p o s s ib le u sage o r i mpac t f r ac tu re s , h a s b een c on -

1 4C ) t ot h e l a t te rh a lf o ft h e R oman I r on A ge u p t ot h e Med ieva l

d uc ted .

P e r iod . S eve ra l h ouse s t ruc tu re s c an b e r e g i s te red u nde rt h e s ame

N on l i th ic o b jec t s a nd n on -s t ruck s t one s a r e a l so af a ir ly

l o ca l i ty n umbe r . O ther s i t es c on s is ted o fs ma l l c a irn s , t r app ing

q ua l i ta t ive a na ly t ica lc a tego ry . T h is c a tego ry i n c lude s m e t -

p i t s , s t one f ence s , p o s t -Refo rma t ion h ou se r ema in s e t c .

a l , p o t s he rd s , s oap s tone , p um ice e t c .

* No te o n a r ea d iv is ion s ( c ff i gs . 3 , 4 & 5) :

S t ruc tura lf ea tur e sc an ,a sm en t ioned i nt h er e p resen ta t iv -

V ikada len i n c ludes t h e R iska lsva tn b a s in f r om S ka rhaug sfos sen t oK a lvebe i te t . B erda l en i n c lude s t h e B e rda l sva tn b a s in f r om t h e

i t y s e c t ion ,b e d i f f icu l tt od i scer n . S tones , s o o f ten t h et e l l -

w a ter fa l l b e low t h e l a k e t ot h e V ierva tn d am . O ther i n c ludes

t a le t r a ce u sed t o d e tec t f o r e xamp le d we l l ing s , c an h ave

a r ea s w he re s urvey s a nd e xcava t ion s t h a t a r e r e levan t t ot h e

b een r emoved a nd r e u sed , o rd i spe r sed b y h uman a c t iv i ty .

p resen t s t udy , a r e n o t a ss y s tema t ica l ly e x ten s ive . T h i s i n c lude s t h e a r ea s o u t s ide o ft h e r e se rvo i rb a s in s a r ound B e rda len a nd i n

O the r f a c to r s may b e a r te fac t d i s t r ibu t ion s , b u t t h ough

V ikada len , a sw e l l a sN adv ik , F ossda len , K vam sda len , F age r se t -

t h e se w i l l o f ten b e p a t terned , p o s i t ive ly d e te rm in ing t h a t

d a len , Smedda lsva tn , V a ld re sda len a nd M id tva tn .

t h e se p a t te rn s r ep re sen t h ouse s t ruc tu res c an b e d i ff i cu l t . Mo r e t h an o ne l i ne o fe v idence s hou ld b e f o l lowed i nt h is a r ea o fi n t ra -s i te a na ly s is .

e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge i se xp l ic i t ly d i scu ssed i ns eve ra l

A b so lu t ea nd r e la t ive a ge i sb a sed o nt ypo logy a nd r ad io -

p r ev ious w o rk s ( P re sco t t1 986 , P resco t t1 99 1a , B jo rgo e ta l .

c a rbon .

1 992 ) . T he p r ima ry s e lec t ion c r i te r ia a r e , b r ief ly , s ur face f l ak ing o r r ad ioca rbon v a lue s b e tween 3 700 — 2 200 b .p .

I n t erpr e ta t ion o fg enera ls i t e c harac t er a nd o fo n -s i te a c -

T he s i te d i scuss ions f r om e a r l ie r p ub l ica t ion s a r e s umma -

t i v i ty r e la t ion s i si n f luenced b y moder nS tone A ge s t ud ies .

r i zed , a nd p a r t ly r e -eva lua ted b e low . T he p u rpo se o f t h is

H e re , B inf o rd s hou ld g e t s pec ia l m en t ion . H oweve r , B in -

c hap te r i st op re sen t as umma ry a nd a n i n i t ia l a na lys is o f

f o rd ian i n te r - o r i n t ra -s i te c a tegor ie s h ave n o t b een r i go r -

t h ed a ta f r om t h ei n d iv idua ls i te su sed i nt h is t h e s is ,p resen t

o us ly a pp l ied h e re . T he g ene ra l a pp roach w a s t ob u i ld i n -

s ome n ew d a ta a nd o u t l ine t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s ou rce c r i t -

t e rp re ta t ive ,

i c a l a nd m e thodo log ica l p rob lem s f o r e ach u n i t . F o r l e ss

a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , a nd n o tp l ace s i te s i np redef ined mod -

e xp lana to ry

mode ls

i n a d i a logue

w i th

d e ta i l , s e e t h e t a b le s w h ich s um u p t h e r e su l t s o f t h e d i s -

u l a rc a tegor ie s .T he u n ive r sa la pp l icab i l i ty o fB info rd 's c a t -

c u s s ions ( t ab le 5& 7 ) ;f o r mo re d e ta i ls ,s e et h ep ub l ica t ions

e go r ie sa nd g ene ra l iza t ion s( e .g . B in fo rd 1 988 )i sa l so q ue s -

r e f er red t oa bove .

t i onab le . T he i mpo r tan tp o in ti st ou nde r s tand t h a tf unc t ion

A l l o f t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t o e a r ly P re -Roman s i tes a r e

o fc on tempo raneou s s i te s m ay v a ry , p erhap s e spec ia l ly s o

d e sc r ibed , w he re p o s s ib le , i nr e la t ion t ot h e f a c to r s l i s ted b e low .

b efunc t iona l a nd s o c ia l r e a son sf o ri n te r - a nd i n t ra -s i te p a t -

i n ap a s to ra l p e r spec t ive , a nd t h a t t h e re w i l l a tt h e l e a s t

S i te s i ze i sp r ima r i ly d e te rm ined b y l i t h ic d i s t r ibu t ions o r

t e rn s . 4 4

S i t e si nV ikada l en

f o r t , c ook ing o r w a rd ing o f f p r eda to r s . T he c ruc ib le i n -

S i t e 2 7 K a lvebe i t e t w a s l o ca ted i n t h e e a s tern e nd o f t h e

d i ca te s t h a t t h e h ea r th m igh t h ave b een u sed f o r b ronze

R iska l sva tn b a s in b e tween U ru t lek rä i a nd V ika s to len ( f ig s .

s me l t ing , i nd ica t ive o fh igh t empe ra tu re s a nd e ven t h e u se

4& 1 0 ) .T he s i te l o ca t ion w a sf a i r ly f l a t ,w h i le t h et e r ra in i n

o fb e l lows ( s ee t h e r e la ted a rgumen tf o rS k r iva rhe l le ren i n

g ene ra lr o se i ns t ep sf r om t h er i ve ru pt o af a i r ly s t eep s l ope

P re sco t t 1 99 1b :78f , w i th r e f e rence t o T y leco te 1 987 : 106 ,

t owa rd s t h e e a s t . T he s i te w a s o n as l igh t ly e l eva ted s po t ,

J en sen 1 979 :29 ) . T he n a tu re o f t h is s i te i sp e rhap s b es t

s u r rounded b y d amp p ea t d epo s i t s . T he s i te w a s c l ea r ly

u nde r s tood n o ta sd i s t inc te n t i ty ,b u ta s as ub -sec t ion o ft h e

d i s tu rbed t owa rd s t h e n o r thea s t b y t h e E a r ly I r on A ge

l a rge U ru t lek rä i 4 7 s i te . T h is t h eme i sd eve loped i n al a te r

h ou se s i te o f5 3 K a lvebe i te t .

c hap te r .

1 6 s qua re m e te r s w e re e xcava ted , a nd a l l h ad f i nd s . 8

S i t e 2 8 K a lvebe i t e t l a y i n t h e p ro tec t ive s hadow o f t h e

s qua re s h ad mo re t h an 5 0 f i nd s > 4 mm . F ind s w e re a l so

b ou lde r a tK a lvebe i te t , a nd 1 5 —2 0 me te r s e a s t o f s i te 2 7

made a ts i te 5 3 ,c oncen t ra ted t ot h e2 0 —2 5 w e s tern s qua re

( f ig . 1 0 ) . T he b ou lde r w a s ap rom inen t f e a tu re , a nd d own

m e te r s o ft h e s i te , t h a t i sa d jacen t t os i te 2 7 . B a sed o n t h e

t h rough t h e a ge s h a s p robab ly a t t rac ted p eop le i nn eed o f

d i s t r ibu t ion o fl i th ic s , s i te 2 7 /53 w a s a s sumed t ob e u p t o

s he l te r .T h is w a sa l so i nd ica ted b yt h e mu l t ip le o ccur rences

a pp rox ima te ly 3 5 s qua r e m e te r s . As i ng le h ea r th w a s u n -

o fc ha rcoa lf ound i nt h ep ea t . No s t ruc tu re so rc ha rcoa lc an

c ove red o nt h es i te . I n ar a d ius a r ound t h eh ea r th o f 1m e te r

b ep o s i t ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h ea r tef ac tm a te r ia l . T he s i te

t h e re w e r e n o l a rge rs t one s , p e rhap s i nd ica t ive o fa n a c t iv -

c on s is ted o f t wo s ma l l s ca t te r s o f d eb i tage a nd a s i ng le

i t y o r c amp ing s pace . Af ou r s qua re m e te r l a rge a r tefac t

r e touched f l ake . T he s p read s w e re 1a nd 7 s qua re m e te r s

c oncen t ra t ion s t re tche s s ou thwe s t f r om t h e h ea r th p er im -

l a rge , a nd h ave r e spec t ive ly y i e lded 2 5 a nd 1 69 p i ece s > 4

e t e r . I tmay b ec onc luded t h a tp roduc t ion , ma in tenance a nd

mm . O ne s qua re h ad mo re t h an 5 0 f i nd s > 4 mm . T he d eb i tage w a s u n ifo rm ly s ma l l , l e s s t h an 1 0 mm . I t

mod if i ca t ion o ft o o ls t o ok p l ace h e re . N o h ou se s t ruc tu re s w e re f o und o n t h e s i te , b u t s uch s t ruc tu re s w ou ld e a s i ly

w a s i n te rp re ted a st wo e p i sode s o fb i fac ia l s u r face f l ak ing ,

h ave b een o b l i te ra ted w hen t h eh ouse s i te 5 3w a sc on s t ruc t -

o r p e rhap s p repa ra t ion o f a( c y l ind r ica l ) c o re . I fb i f ac ia l

e d a nd u t i l ized .

r educ t ion t ook p l ace , t h e s i te r ep re sen t s aL a te N eo l i th ic o r

I n a l l 1 234 l i th ic p i ece s w ere f ound . I n a dd i t ion , 7 57

B ronze A ge e p i sode . T he s i te i sb es t i n te rp r e ted a s at a sk

l i th ics w e re r e cove red a ts i te 5 3 . Af ew f i nd s f r om s i te 5 3

s i te i nr e la t ion t oo t he rL a te N eo l i th ic o rB ronze A ge s i te s .

w e r e t y po log ica l ly o lde rt h an t h ep er iod s i te 2 7 r ep re sen t s ,

S i t e2 9K a lvebe i t e tw a s o n t h e b r ink o f as he lf i nt h eh i l l

e . g . af l in tb l ade . T he se o l de rl i th ics w e re p robab ly b rough t

b eh ind s i te 2 7K a lvebe i te t( f ig . 1 0 ) .A ss uch i tof e r s ag ood

t ot h es i te w i th t u r fu sed i nt h ec ons t ruc t ion o ft h eI r on A ge

v i ew o f t h e e a s te rn R i ska lsva tn b a s in . T he s i te w a s o n ly

h ou se . T hey h ave l i t t le q uan t i ta t ive e f f ec t o n t h e a s sem -

p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted , b u t i n tens ive t e s t p i t t ing a nd e xcava -

b l age , a nd am a jor i ty o ft h ef i nd sw e re t e chno log ica l ly a nd

t i on a tK a lvebe i te t i n d ica te t h a t t h e s i te w a s p robab ly n o

ma te r ia l i nt e rm s o f r aw s im i la r t ot h e r e s t o f t h e s i te 2 7

mo re t h an 1 0 s qua re m e te r s . T he 2 9 f i nd s a nd t h el a ck o fa

f i nd s . T he s i ze o ft h e c omb ined l i th ic a s semb lage > 4 mm

h ea r th w e re i mpo r tan ti n te rp re ta t ive p o in t s . T he l i th ics a nd

w a s 1 992 . Mo s t o ft h is ma te r ia l w a s d eb i tage , a nd o ft h i s

ap o ss ib le b i fac ia lp o in tr e semb le t h e ma te r ia lf r om 2 7K a l -

ma te r ia l , mo s t h a s ag rea te s t d imens ion n o l a rge r t h an 1 0

v ebe i te t a nd 4 7 U ru t lek rä i . A L a te B ronze Age o r P re -

mm . T he t o o l g roup w a s d om ina ted b y b i fac ia l p o in t s , b u t

R oman I r on A ge d a te i si nd ica ted . T he s i te i si n te rp re ted a s

a tl e a s t 1 8 o t he r b i fac ia l ly r e touched p i ece s w e re f ound .

t h er e su l to f as ho r ts t op ,u sed t op r epa re f o r at a sk ,p e rhap s

A lso , ac ruc ib le f r agmen t w a s f ound o n t h e s i te . B a sed o n

w h i le g ua rd ing f l ock s . I t may b e r e la ted t os i te 2 7 K a lve -

v i sua l ,c hem ica l a nd m ic ro scope a na lyse s ,t h ec ruc ib le w a s

b e i te ta nd /o r4 7 U ru t lek rä i .

p robab ly u sed t o m e l t ab ronze a l loy ( B jo rgo e t a l .

S i t e 3 1 V ika s tO l en w a s w es t o f t h e r i ve r t h a t r un s f r om

1 992 : 104 ) . I tc an b e c onc luded , r a the r s u rpr is ing ly , t h a t

A sva ld sva tn i nV ikada len ( f ig . 1 0 ) . T he l a rge s t p a r t o ft h e

b ronze c a s t ing w a s p robab ly c onduc ted o n t h e s i te .

s i te w a s e xcava ted . N a tu ra l f e a tu re s , a r tef ac t f r equenc ie s a nd t e s tp i t sd e l im i tt h es i te t oc a .4 0s qua re m e te r s . A 4—5

T he r aw m a ter ia l a nd t h e p o in t morpho logy ( P r esco t t 1 986 [ 1 987 1 : 163 ) r e semb le s t h e ma te r ia l f r om t h e l a rge 4 7

s qua re m e te r l a rge a r tefac t c oncen t ra t ion w a s f ound s ou th

U ru t lek rä i s i te . I tw a sp o s s ib le t h a tt h et wo s i te sw e re r e la t -

o f ac ha r coa lp a tch . Two s egrega ted c ha rcoa ld epo s i t sw e re

e d t oe ach o t he r . A l though t h e r ad ioca rbon d a te f r om 2 7

f ound . O ne w a s ap a tchy s p read a nd i n te rp re ted a sa s soc i -

K a lvebe i te tw a ss omewha ty ounge rt han t h o se f r om s i te 4 7 ,

a t ed w i th t h e l i th ics . T he o the r w a s ac l ea r p i t l ike s t ruc -

i tw a s i nt h e r ange o f t h e y ounge r d a te s o ft h e l a t te r s i te .

t u re , a nd w a s i n t ru s ive ly d ug t h rough t h e p od so l s o i l p ro -

T he d a te s d o n o t e xc lude ap os s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e s i te s w e re

f i le . I tw a st h e ref o re s e conda ry t ot h el i th ic b ea r ing s i te . No

c on tempo raneou s i nr e a l t e rm s . T h is q ue s t ion w i l l b e d i s -

o the r s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s w e re o b se rved o n t h e s i te . T he n umbe ro fl i th ic s> 4 mm f o und o nt h es i te w a s2 432 .

c u s sed more i nt h e d i scu s s ion o f i n te r -s i te p a t tern s i nt h e v a l ley .

Mo s to ft h is w a s d eb i tage , b u t 7p i ece s w e re p o in t s a nd 1 9

2 7 K a lvebe i te t w a s i n te rp re ted a s as ma l l l a t te r L a te

w e re o t he rw ise mod if ied a f te r d e tachmen t . No n on l i th ic

B ronze A ge o r e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge c amps i te , a nd

f i nd sw e re r e cove red f r om t h es i te . 1 0s qua re sy i e lded mo re

t h e r e su l t o f as ho r t v i s i t . T he a c t iv i ty s pec t rum , a s i n -

t h an 5 0p i ece s> 4 mm . As i ng le s amp le w a sd a ted f r om t h e

d i ca ted b y f i nd s o n t h e s i te , i st h e refo re s u rp r is ing . P o in t s

c ha r coa l p a tch i n te rp re ted a s c on tempo raneou s w i th t h e

a nd t h ep roduc t ion o fs uch i n d ica te af u tu re h un t ing e xped i -

l i th ics .T h is d a te w a sc a l ib ra ted t o1 970 —1 6 70 B .C . ( P&S ) .

t i on ,w h i le t h en umbe ro fo t he rl i th ic p i ece sw e re i nd ica t ive

B a sed o n V andk i lde 's d i ag ram ( 1 990a , 1 990b ) t h e se r ad io -

o fc u t t ing / sc rap ing . Ah ea r th w a s i nu se , w he ther f o rc o rn -

c a rbon v a lues s ugge s t t h e L a te N eo l i th ic I , o r p o ss ib ly 4 5

E a r ly B ronze A ge I .T he re i st ypo log ica l s uppo r t ( i n t h e

I tc anno tb er u led o u tt h a tt h eh ea r th s , w he the rt wo s uch o r

p o in t ma te r ia l )f o rt h i sd a te b yc ompa r i son w i th S kr iva rhe l -

o ne l a id o u ta s af i gu re " 8" , h ad an on -u t i l i ta r ian p urpo se . C ha r coa l s amp le sf r om 3 4f w e re r ad ioca rbon d a ted . T he

l e ren c on tex t s Va nd V I c on tex t s ( P resco t t 1 99 lb :44f ) .

c a l ib ra t ed d a te i nd ica ted al a t te rL a te B ronze A ge ,p o ss ib ly

T he s i te w a s o fi n te rmed ia te s i ze . T he re w e re n o s t ruc t u re s , t h ough o f c ou r se l i gh t s t ruc tu res c ou ld h ave b een

e a r ly P r e -Roman I r on A ge d a te ( P&S 7 90 — 4 10 , 7 80 —

p r e sen t . T race s o ft h ese c ou ld h ave b een d i s to r ted s o a st o

4 00 ) . 3 4 f c an t hu s b e c on tempo raneou s w i th o t he r L a te

b e u n recogn izab le t ot h e e xcava to r . T he s i te i si n terp re ted

B ronze A ge s i te s i nt h e V ika s to len -Ka lvebe i te t -U ru t lek rä i

a s as ho r t t e rm c amp s i te . T he l i th ics d emon s t ra te p rep -

a r ea .T he s i te i si n te rp re ted a st h er e su l to fe p isoda la c t iv i ty .

a r a t ion f o r ah un t , wh i le t h e s c rape r s a nd t h e o t he r t o o l s

I tc anno tb e l i nked t o ah un t ing s equence , a nd may h ave a

d emon s t ra te w o rk ing o fo rgan ic ma ter ia ls .

n on -u t i l i ta r ian f unc t ion . S i te 4 7U ru t lekra iw a sa c ro s st h eN yse tr i ve rf r om V ika s -

S i t e 3 2 V i ka so len w a s s i tua ted n o r th o f s i te 3 1 , b u t w a s s epa ra ted f r om t h a t s i te b y a2 5 me te rw ide s t re tch o fp ea t

t o len . I tr e pre sen ted t h e n o r the rn p o in t i n aU ru t le l c rä i —

( f ig . 1 0 ) . T he s i te w a s n ea r ly t o ta l ly e xcava ted a nd w a s

K a lvebe i te t —V ika s to len t r iang le i nt h e e a s ter ne nd o ft h e

a pp rox ima te ly 3 0s qua re m e te r si na r ea . As ma l lc oncen t ra -

R iska l sva tn b a s in ( f ig . 1 0 ) . T he Un i t lekrä i s i te w a s mo re

t i on o f c ha rcoa l w a s f ound o n t h e s i te . No c l ea r ing s o r

c omp lex t h an t h eo t he rs i ng le p ha sed s i tes . I tc on s is ted o fa

s t ruc tu re s w e re r e po r ted . T he s ur face t opog raphy makes i t

c o re d e l im i ted t o 1 75 — 2 00 s qua re m e te r s w i th h i gh f i nd

u n l ike ly t h a ta ny s uch s t ruc tu res w e re p resen t . 7 2 1 a r t ifac t s

d en s i t ie s . As u r round ing a r ea o fa tl e a s t1 800 —2 000 s qua re

> 4 mm w e re f ound o n t h e s i te a nd o ft h ese 1 w e re p o in t s .

m e te r s y i e lded l ow f i nd l e ve l s a nd s ma l l f i nd c oncen t ra -

N o o t he rw i se mod if i ed p i ece s o r n on l i th ic s w e re r e co -

t i on s . T he c o re a r ea w a s l o ca ted o n as l igh t ly e l eva ted

v e red . 4s qua re s c on ta ined mo re t h an 5 0 p i ece s > 4 mm .

mound ,a nd w a s s u r rounded b y t h ick ,f l a t -sur faced a nd r e l -

Two r a d ioca rbon s amp le s f r om t h e c ha rcoa l c oncen t ra t ion

a t ive ly f i rm p ea t d epo s i t s . T he " sa te l l i te s" l a y i nt h e s u r -

w e re 1 4C -da ted a nd g ave v a lue s e qu iva len tt ot h eL a te N e -

r ound ing p ea t , a nd w e re o n o r a r ound r o ck k no l l s i n t h e

o l i th ic I( P&S c a l ib ra ted t o 2 330 — 2 040 , 2 200 — 1 970 ) .

p ea t .

T ypo log ica lc ompa r i son w i th t h ea s semb lage f r om S l c r iva r -

1 94 ,356 l i th ic p i eces > 4 mm ( o f at o ta l o f2 06565 ) w e re

h e l le ren l a ye rV I I I , s uppo r t s t h is d a te . T he s i te i si n terp re t -

c o l lec ted f r om t h e s i te . 1 70 s qua re sh ave y i e lded mo re t h an

e da st h e r e su l to f as ho r tv i s i t . I tw a sp robab ly ac amp s i te .

5 0 l i th ic p i ece s > 4 mm . A l l l i th ic r educ t ion s t age s w e re

A c t iv i ty t r a ces w e re l im i ted t or ema in so fp o in tp roduc t ion ,

f o und o n t h e s i te . 7 48 p i ece s w e re p o in t s , mo s t ly b i faces ,

a nd t h e h un t i mp l ied b y t h ep o in t s .

t h ough u n ifac ia l o r e dge r e touched f l ake p o in t s o ccu r . A

S i te 3 4f V i ka s tO len w a sf ound w i th in t h eV ika s to len c om -

f ew o f t h e c a ta logued p o in t s w e re c l ea r ly n o t p ro jec t i le

p l ex o fs i te s ( f ig . 1 0 ) . I tw a su ncove red d u r ing t h ed e tur f ing

p o in t s ,b u tb o re r sa nd s c rape r s( P re sco t t1 986 :f i g .4 5 ,B jo r -

o f 1 03 s qua re m e te r s i n s ea rch o f s ubsur face s t ruc tu re s

g o e ta l . 1 992 :123f f i . 3 4 l i t h ic p i ece s w e re c a ta logued a s s c rape r s ,7 39 w e re o t he rw ise r e touched f l ake s ,8 3w e re c a t -

a r ound t h e I r on A ge h ou se s i tes a tV ika s to len . 3 4f c on s is ted o f t wo c i rcu la r h ea r th s o r p i t s l i ned w i th

a l ogued a sc o re s , 2w e re s t r ike -a l igh t s , 4p i ece sw e re b l ade

f l ag s a nd f i l led w i th a sh , c ha rcoa l a nd b u rn t b one . T hey

s haped a nd 7w ere n on typed , b u tc l ea r ly mod if ied p i eces .

w e re s i tua ted n ex t t o e ach o t he r , a nd t o ge the r f o rmed a

O f n on -s t ruck l i th ics a nd n on l i th ic i t em s t h e re w e re 2 8

f i gu re " 8" . T he h ea r th sh ad ad i ame te ro f0 . 5 —0 . 6 me te r s .

s he rd s o f a sbes to s t empe red p o t te ry , o ne f r agmen t o f a

B e low t h e se s t ruc tu re s w a s ap i t w i th c ha rcoa l e nr iched

s oaps tone v e sse l , o ne b ronze p i n /aw l , aw he t s tone ,p um ice ,

s and , i n terp re ted a sp a r to ft h eh ea r th . No f u r the rs t ruc tu ra l

m ica a nd b urn tb one f r agmen t s .

f e a tu res o r c u l tu ra l l a ye r w ere f ound a s soc ia ted w i th o r

P iece s o f b ur n t b one w e re c o l lec ted f r om h ea r th s a nd

n ea rby t h e h ea r th s . O f c ou r se , i ti sp o ss ib le t h a t al i gh t

m idden d epo s i t s . T he f r agmen t s w e re s ma l l a nd o r ig ina l ly

s t ruc tu re h ad o r ig ina l ly b een p resen ti nt h ev i c in i ty ,b u tt h a t

n umbe red 1 223 . R o lf L ie o ft h eZ oo log isk museum i nB e r -

e x ten s ive I r on A ge a nd modern a c t iv i t ie s l e dt or emova lo f

g en e xam ined t h e se a nd t h e r e su l t s a r e s hown i nt a b le 6 .

a l l s t one s t h a tw ou ld h e lp t oi d en t ify s uch as t ruc tu re .

N o te t h a t t h e s i ng le s pec ie s -de te rm ined f r agmen t w a s s heep /goa t .

1 5b one f r agmen t sr e cove red f r om 3 4f w e r ee xam ined b y R o lf L ie , Z oo log i sk Mu seum , B e rgen , a nd w e re c l a ss if ied

T ab le 6 .S i te 4 7 , U ru t lek rä i . I d en t i f ied b one f r agmen t s

a su n iden t if ied mamma l s . A r tefac t s c o l lec ted i nt h e i mme -

( b a sed o nL ie 1 992 :325 ) .

d i a te v i c in i ty , w h ich w a sn o ts t r ingen t ly d e l im i ted , c ons is t -

N umbe r

e d o f ap o s s ib le b i f ac ia l p o in t , aq ua r tz i te b i fac ia l p o in t b a se , ap r e s su re f l aked p i ece o f q ua r tz i te a nd a p i ece o f

G ram s

Mamma l ia

s t ruck q ua r tz .N ot o o l so ra r tefac ts p read sw e re f ound i nt h e

A v ie s /Capra

i mmed ia te a r ea a r ound 3 4 f . W i th in t h e w ho le V ika s to len

S pe c ie s i n d e t .

1 1 223

0 . 5 6 0

A v ie s

a r ea ,i n c lud ing b o th h ouse e xcava t ion sa nd d e tur f ing z one s ,

S pec ie s i n d e t .

6 70 p i ece s o fq ua r tz , q ua r tz i te a nd f l in t d eb i tage , o ne m i -

2

< 0 .5

c rob lade a nd s i x p r es su re f l aked p o in t s w e re r e cove r ed . T he se c an r e p resen to ne o r mo re s i tes i nt h ea r ea . A l though

T he a ge o ft h e s i te w a s e s t ima ted i nt h ree w ay s : T ypo log -

t h e re h a sb een s ub s tan t ia lp o s t -Bronze A ge a c t iv i t ies a tV i -

i c a l d a te s , r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om f e a ture s w i th in t h e

k a s to len ,t h e re w a sn oe v idence o fs ubs tan t ia ll i th ic s p read s

s i te a nd r ad ioca rbon d a te s o f p ea t a bove a nd b e low a n

r e la ted t os i te 3 4f .T he s i te w a st hu sa s sumed t or e p re sen ta

e r os ion h or izon " down -s t ream" f r om t h e s i te ' s c o re . T he

" non l i th ic f a ce t" o fL a te B ronze A ge a c t iv i t ie si nt h ea r ea .

ma te r ia l f r om t h e s i te r e p re sen t s as i ng le l i t h ic p ha se , 4 6

t h ough i n t ru s ive I r on A ge c ha r coa l p i t s w e re f ound o n t h e

B u tche r ing , h ide p repa ra t ion , w oo l s hea r ing , h orn c u t t ing ,

s i te . T ypo log ica l ly , a n a s semb lage c on s i s t ing o f ab ronze

m i lk ing e t c .w e re p o ss ib le a c t iv i t ie st h a tc ou ld ,i ndeed mu s t

p i ece , t h e s oap s tone w a r e , a sbes to s t empe red s he rd s a nd

h ave b een , c a r r ied o u ti nt h e e x tended s i te z one . T he r e a r e

p re ssu re f l ak ed p o in t s i n d ica te s t h e B ronze Age a nd /o r

a l so e t hnog raph ic e xamp le sf r om h un te rs oc ie t ie st h a td oc -

e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge , a nd mo re s p ec if ica l ly al a t te r

umen t s im i la r u se o fs i te s , e . g . B inf o rd ( 1 988 : 146f ) . R e le -

L a te B ronze A ge o r e a r ly P re -Roman I r on Age d a te

v an t mode ls c ou ld a l so b ew o rked o u to nt h eb a s i so f ma te -

( Ägo tne s 1 986 :88 f ) . Ab ody o fn i ne d a te s f r om l i th ic c on -

r i a l f r om n omad ic p a s to ra l is t s , f o r e xamp le b a sed o n

t e x t s o n t h e s i te p rov ide a P&S c a l ib ra ted c h rono log ica l

e xamp les i n C r ibb ( 1 99 1 : 1 13 j , ) , a s w e l l a s i n co rpo ra t ing

f r ame o f8 10 — 1 20 B .C . , t h ough ama jo r i ty o fs i x d a tes l i e

a na log ies

w i th in 7 90 —4 00 B .C . w i th in o ne s t anda rd d ev ia t ion . Two

1 955 :283f ) o r e ven l o ca l e t hno log ica l -h is to r ica l ma ter ia l

b a sed

o n

s pec if ica l ly

Norweg ian

( Re in ton

d a ted s amp le sw e re e v idence o ft h ei n tru s ive n a tu re o f ap i t

a bou t s h ie l ing s ( Sagen 1 97 1 :280f ) . F igu re 8i sa n i n te rp re -

f o und i nt h e c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e s i te ( P&S c a l ib ra ted t o9 0

t a t ion o ft h ep lan f i gu re 8 7 i nB jo rgo e ta l . ( 1 992 : 120 f ) a nd

B .C . —6 0 A .D . , 1 20 — 3 20 AD ) . F ina l ly t h e d a ted p ea t

s how st h e ma in f e a tu re sa nd a l so af unc t iona li n te rp re ta t ion

s amp le s wh ich c ome f r om a n e ro s ive h o r izon i n t h e p ea t

o ft h e se . F igu re 9s hows t h el a rge -sca le d i s t r ibu t ion o fl i th -

b e low t h e s i te s ugges t c h rono log ica l l im i t s f o r t h e l i th ic

i ca r tefac t s .

p ha se w i th in 2 250+ / -90 BP — 2 530+ / 1 10 BP . T he se c on -

T he V ikada len v a l ley b e long s t o t wo modern f a rm s :

f i ne s g enera l ly f i t t h e o t he r d a te s f r om t h e s i te . I t may b e

N adv ik a nd H ov land . T he b ounda ry b e tween t h ese t wo

c onc luded t h a tt h e re w a s as i ng le l a t te rL a te B ronze A ge o r

p rope r t ie s f o l low s t h e r i ve r f r om Ä rda lsf jo rden t ot h e w a -

e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge l i th ic p ha se .

t e r shed t owa rd s B o rgund i n Le rda l , e xcep tf o r ap a r ce l b y

T he s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s f ound a ts i te 4 7 U ru t lek rä i w e re

t h e f j o rd .

B o th L i l lehamme r ( 1 97 1 :135 )

a nd M id t tun

mo re i n t r ica te t h an t ho se f ound a to t he r s i tes . I n t h e w e l l -

( 1 958 :2 16 f ) b e l ieve t h a t t h e v a l ley w a s d i v ided i nt h e I r on

d ra ined c ore a r ea a na pp rox ima te ly 4x4m e ter l a rge h ou se

A ge . B ef o re t h is d iv i s ion , as i ng le f a rm u n i t o ccup ied t h e

o rh u t s t ruc tu re w a s b u i l t . I tc an b e i n f e r r ed t ha tt h i s s t ruc -

e n t i re v a l ley . A s d i scus sed p rev iou s ly V ika s to len , K a lve -

t u re h ad a g r ea te r d eg ree o f p e rmanence t h an o the r L a te

b e i te t a nd Um t lek rä i r e p re sen tt h e mo s t a t t rac t ive p a s ture s

N eo l ith ic o rB ronze Age s t ruc tu res f ound i n Ny se t -S tegg je .

i nt h i s moun ta in v a l ley . I fi t s a s sumed t h a tb efo re t h e d iv i -

S t ruc tu ra l r ema ins i n c luded s t one f i l led d i tch f ounda t ion s ,

s i on t h e re w e re n op rope r ty b a r r ie r sa l ong t h em idd le o ft h e

d ra inage d i t che sa nd ama rked e n t rance .S ome c ha r coa la nd

v a l ley , as i ng le s e t t lemen ta tU ru t le l c rä ic ou ld h ave i n co rpo -

e v idence o ft o o lc u ra t ion f r om w i th in t h es t ruc tu re i n d ica te

r a ted t h e who le V ika s to len —K a lvebe i te t —U ru t lek rä ib a s in

a n i n terna l h ea r th . T he h ouse 's e n t rance w a s p robab ly t o -

i ni t sp a s to ra lp rac t ice s . S uch as e t t lemen t w ou ld h ave h ad

w a rd s t h e s ou thea s t . T h is r ef lec t s t h ef a c tt h a tt h e p r edom -

a cce s st ov a r ied p a s tu re st h a tw e re d i v ided a nd s ub -d iv ided

i n an t w ind d i rec t ion i sf r om t h e w e s t . I nf r on t o ft h e e x i t ,

b y m ino rn a tu ra l b a r r ie r s , s uch a sr i ve r s , s t ream a nd h i l l s .

p a r t ly i nt h e e x i t a nd i n s ide t h e h ou se n ea r t h e e x i t , t h e re

E ach s ub -d iv i s ion o f f e red s l igh t ly d i f f e ren tp o ten t ia l i nr e -

w a s a n a ccumu la t ion o fl i th ic d eb r is a nd c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s .

g a rd t o p a s tu re q ua l i ty , v i ew a nd p ro tec t ion f r om b ad

I n f r on t o f t h e s ou thern w a l l , al e ve l a c t iv i ty s pace , 4x5

w ea the r . As y s tem o fc omp l ica ted h u sband ry ,s pa t ia l ly s ep -

m e ter s , w a s l o ca ted . T he a c t iv i ty a r ea w a s a r t if ic ia l ly e x -

a r a t ing v a r iou s h u sband ry a c t iv i t ie s , c an b e i mag ined .

t e nded a tl e a s t 3 0 —4 0 c m t ot h e s ou th o ve r t h e a d jacen t

Mov ing a nd d i v id ing f l ock s a nd h erd s i sw e l l k nown f r om

p ea t . T h i s e x ten s ion t ook p l ace i nt h e c ou r se o fs e t t lemen t

h i s to r ica l a nd modern t ime s ( Re in ton 1 955 :63f f ) . A s d em -

o n t h e s i te . O n t h e p l a t fo rm as ma l l h ea r th p i t w a s i d en t i -

o n s t ra ted i n t h e c h rono logy s e c t ion , a nd a s d i scu s sed i n

f i ed . E v idence o fs eve ra l " gene ra t ions" o fu se w a s f ound ,

c onnec t ion w i th s i te s ,i ti sp robab le t h a ts ome s i te s , s uch a s

b yi nd ica t ion so f emp ty ing t h eh ea r th . We s to ft h eh ea r th ,a

2 7 ,2 8 ,2 9K a lvebe i te t ,3 4f V ika s to len a nd 5 0a & 5 1 1 Un i t -

n ea r ly t h ree m e te r l ong l e an to o rd ra inage d i tch w a s c on -

l e k rä i , w e re c on tempo raneou s w i th 4 7 U ru t lek rä i . T he

s t ruc ted . T he a c t iv i ty -su r face o u t s ide t h e h ouse w a s a l so

many l i th ic p o in t s , a nd t h e v a r ied q ua r tz i te s , d emon s t ra te

s k ir ted b y r e fu se d epo s i t s . O ne d epo s i t t ot h e e a s t m igh t

t h eu se o ft h e s u r round ing moun ta in s ,p o s s ib ly a sf a ra way

h ave b een u sed a sb o th ad ump a nd ar oa s t ing a nd /o rc ook -

a st h e Le rda lq ua r r ie s ,4 0 -50 km t ot h e s ou thea s t . I ft h i s i s

i n gp i t .

c o r rec t , n o t o n ly d oes t h e Un i t le l c rä i s i te r ep re sen t i n ten -

Sma l l a moun t s o f a r t ifac t s a nd s ma l l c oncen t ra t ion s o f

s i ve , mu l t ip le a c t iv i t ie s a nd l e ng thy s t ay s , t h e s i te w a s a l so

a r t ifac t s , a sw e l la sa s soc ia ted c ha rcoa lp a tches w e re f ound

t h eh ub o fa ni n ten s ive ,f i ne ly t u ned p a s to ra le xp lo i ta t ion o f

a r ound t h e s i te c o r e . T hese w e re f ound u sua l ly o n k no l ls

t h ee a s tern R i ska lsva tn b a s in .T he s e t t lemen tw a s as t a r t ing

s t ick ing u p a bove t h e s u r round ing p ea t . T he se k no l ls c ou ld

p o in tf o rh un t ing a nd t r app ing o n ar e g iona l l e ve l o fI nne r

h ave b een l o ca t ion sf o rh aza rdou ss t age si nt h el i th ic r educ -

S ogn a nd ar e c ip ien to fq ua r r ied a nd c o l lec ted r aw m a ter ia l

t i on p roces s , b u t a s t h e s i te o therw ise e xh ib i ted l a rge

o n as im i la r l e ve l . T he w ide r a ng ing a nd v a r ied r e sou rce

a moun t s o fd eb i tage i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h e h ouse , t h is e x -

e xp lo i ta t ion t h a tt h is l ow -a lp ine L a te B ronze A ge s i te d em -

p l ana t ion s e em s i n adequa te . A n a l ter na t ive e xp lana t ion i s

o n s t ra tes h a sc e r ta in p a ra l le ls i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r sa t

t h a t p eop le s imp ly w en t a nd s a t a r ound t h e s i te — p e rhap s

s ub -a lp ine S k r iva rhe l le ren ( P re sco t t 1 99 1a , b ,h e re ) .

t h ey s a t o n g ua rd? — a nd s t ruck q ua r tz i te w h i le t h e re . An -

T he a bove d i scu ss ion e xemp l if ies t h e g ene ra l p rob lem s

o t her e xp lana t ion i st h a t c e r ta in f unc t ion s w e re s t ruc tu red

i n he ren t i nd e l im i t ing as i te . Ac on tex tua l a pp roach s hou ld

b y t h e l o ca l t o pog raphy . T he p ea t s u r f a ce a round t h e s i te

b e a dop ted , e ven i ns uch a" s imp le" ma t te r . H oweve r , e l e -

w a s r e la t ive ly l a rge a nd h a s f l a t e xpan se s . T hese s u r f aces

men t s o f aB inf o rd ian a pp roach a r e s t i l l v a luab le . T he re i s

c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s w o rk ing a nd p roces s ing s pace s .

s ome f a i r ly c l ea r a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , b u t c on jec tu re 4 7

b a sed o n g enera l i d ea s , a na log ie s a nd f am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e

s t udy . A s amp le f r om e ach o f t h e t wo h ea r th s w a s 1 4C -

a r ea a r e a l so n ece ssa ry .

d a ted a nd h ave y i e lded P&S c a l ib ra ted d a te s t o t h e P re -

T o s um u p , 4 7 U ru t le l c rä i w a s i n ten s ive ly u t i l ized , p rob -

R oman I r on Age a nd L a te B ronze A ge ( 360 —9 0 &8 00 —

a b ly e ve ry s umme r f o r al o ng p e r iod o f t ime — p e rhap s a

5 70 B .C . ) .

g ene ra t ion o r mo re . T he s i te w a s t h e f o cu s f o r n ea r ly a l l

Sma l l c oncen t ra t ion s o r p la t f orm s ( 1t o 2 m2)o f b u rn t

t ypes o f a c t iv i t ies , e xcep t f o r g ra in c u l t iva t ion . T he l a t te r

r o ck w e re f ound a d jacen t t o t h e t wo h ea r th s . No o t he r

p robab ly t ook p l ace a tl owe r a l t i tude s . I tw a s a l so a" ba se

s t ruc tu re s t h a t c ou ld b e c onnec ted t ot h e h ea r th s w e re u n -

c amp" f o re xped i t ions t oo t he rz one s . I ft h e s i te 2 7 a nd 4 7

c ove red a t S ka rhaug sf o ssen . L i th ic s w e re p rac t ica l ly a b -

w e re p a r to ft h es ame s e t t lemen tc omp lex ,t h en e ven b ronze

s e n t : O n ly 1 5p i ece sw e re f ound ,a nd s even o ft h ese w e re o n

s me l t ing a nd c a s t ing w a s c ar r ied o u th e re . T he b ronze a w l

t h eb a s i s o fr aw ma te r ia l a nd b l ade t e chn ique c onnec ted t o

s how s t h a tb ronze w a s u sed o n t h e U ru t lek rä i s i te .

n ea rby E a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te 8 8 . T h i s l e ave s e i gh t p i eces o f

S i t e5 0a U ru t l ekrä iw a sf ound u nde r an i ne teen th -cen tury

q ua r tz i te t h a t c ou ld h ave h ad s ome th ing t o d o w i th t h e

h ou se f ounda t ion ( f ig . 1 0 ) .T he s i te w a sc on s i s ted o f ac ha r -

h ea r th s .

c oa l p i t , t wo me te r s i nd i ame ter a nd 4 5 c m d eep ( f ig . 1 ) .

T he s i te s w e re v e ry s ma l l , a nd p robab ly r ep re sen t a n

T he p i t c on ta ined c ha rcoa l a nd b u rn t r ock s . T he c u l tu ra l

e p isode . T hey s how t h e p o s s ib le v a r ia t ion s o f s i te t y pes .

l a ye r w a s l im i ted t o t h e p i t a nd i t s i mmed ia te v i c in i ty .

A ga in ,t h e se s i te s may b ec on tempo raneous w i th o the rL a te

S ince s o l id s t ruc tu res c ove red t h e p i t , o n ly al im i ted a r ea

B ronze A ge s i te s i nt h e a r ea . A s s uch t h ey c ou ld r ep r esen t

w a s o pened b eyond t h e p i t . O n t h e o t he rh and , t h e g ene ra l

s hephe rd 's c amp s ,p e rhap sr e la ted t o" spec ia lp urpo se p a s -

a r ea s u r round ing t h eU ru t lek rä ih ouse sw a st h o rough ly t e s t

t u res" . T hese p a s tu re s c ou ld h ave b een u sed d ur ing b ad

p i t ted , a nd amed ieva l h ouse s i te w a se xcava ted l e s st han 7

w ea the r , o r when a n ima ls w ere moved i n a nd o u t o f t h e

m e te r s t o t h e e a s t o f t h e 5 0a s i te . O n ly t h ree p i eces o f

a r ea . A s s o i l a nd v ege ta t ion c ond i t ion s h e re w e re o fh igh

s t ruck , b u t n on -d iagno s t ic , s t one w e re f ound d ur ing t h is

q ua l i ty , b u t r e s t r ic ted , t h e S ka rhaugf o ssen h o l low m igh t

e xcava t ion ( B jO rgo e ta l . 1 992 :204 ) . I ts e em s t h e refo re u n -

h ave b een u sed f o r s pec ia l a n ima l g roup s , o ra s al a s t s t op

l i ke ly t h a tt h e s i te w a sa ni mmed ia te p a r to f al a rge r ,u nd is -

b ef o re r e tur n ing t ol owe ra l t i tude s i nt h e w in te r .

c ove red s e t t lemen t c omp lex i n t h e v i c in i ty . I tw a s n o t d i -

S i te 8 5 K a lvebe i t e t w a s l o ca ted i nt h e s l ope t h a t r ound s

r e c t ly c onnec ted t ol i th ic p roduc t ion .

o f ft h e R iska lsva tn b a s in i ng ene ra l , a nd t h e U ru t lek rä i —

C ha rcoa l p i t s w i thou t a s soc ia t ions t ol i th ic s w e re g ene r -

K a lvebe i te t —V ika s to len p a r to ft h eb a s in i np a r t icu la r( f ig .

a l ly d a ted t ot h eI r on Age i nt h ec once rned v a l ley s , a sw e l l

1 0 ) . A l though t h e s l ope w a s r e la t ive ly s t eep , t h e s i te s e ems

a si ns ou thern Norway i ng ene ra l ( B j ego e ta l . 1 992 , F a r -

t oh ave b een l o ca ted o n as ma l ls he lf i nt h es l ope .T h i ss he lf

b regd 1 979 , Gu s ta f son 1 982 :73f f , P re sco t t 1 986 ) . S i te 5 0a

w a s l a te rl e ss d i s t inc td ue t os o i l movemen t .

d i f f e r s f r om s uch p i t s i nt h a t i tw a s t w ice a s l a rge a s t h e

S i te 8 5 K a lvebe i te tw a sn ea r ly c omp le te ly e xcava ted a nd

t yp ica l I r on Age p i t ( c a . 2m v e r sus c a . 0 . 9 m ) . T h ree s am -

w a s 2 8 —3 0 s qua re m e te r s i ns i ze . N o t e n t s t ruc ture s w e re

p l es f r om t h e c ha rcoa l l a ye rh ave b een d a ted , a nd t h e P&S

f o und o nt h e s i te ,b u tt h ree s ma l l h ea r th s w e re l o ca ted . 8 74

c a l ib ra ted 1 4C -va lue s i n d ica te s ad a t ing t ot h e l a t te r L a te

f i nd s > 4 mm w e r e c o l lec ted , 1 2o ft h e se w er e p o in t s a nd 7

B ronze A ge o re a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge ( 4 10 —2 30 B .C . ,

w e re o t he r mod if ied p i eces . 5s qua re sy i e lded mo re t h an 5 0

7 70 — 4 00 & 8 00 B .C . —5 30 B .C . ) . T he y ounges t s amp le

f i nd s > 4 mm . No n on l i th ics w e re o b se rved o r r e cove red .

w a s f r om t h e h ighe s t l e ve l , whe re r i sk o f c on tam ina t ion

B ifac ia l p o in t s w i th s t ra igh t b a se s a nd r ad ioca rbon d a ted

f r om t h e o ve r ly ing p o s t -Refo rma t ion h ou se w a s g r ea te s t .

t h e s i te t ot h e l a te E a r ly B ronze A ge o re a r ly L a te B ronze

T h i s d a te c an t h e refo re b e d i s rega rded i nt h ef u r the ra na ly -

A ge ( P&S c a l ib ra ted d a te s w e re 1 00 — 8 40 & 9 20 — 8 10

s i s . S i te 5 0a Un i t lek rä i c ou ld b e o f t h e s ame a ge a s 4 7

B .C . ) .

U ru t lek rä i . T hey may r ep re sen t p a r t s o f ac ommon l a nd -

8 5 K a lvebe i te tw a s as ma l ls i te .T he p o in t si nd ica te h un t -

u se s t ra tegy .

i n g . T he o t he r p i ece s s e em t oi nd ica te w o rk ing o fo rgan ic

S i t e5 1 U ru t lekrä ic on s i s ted o ft wo c ha r coa lp i t s ,5 1 1 a nd

m a te r ia l . L i th ic t oo l mod if ica t ion t o ok p lace o n t h e s i te ,

5 1 -2 , b o th s ma l le r t h an 5 0a . 5 1 1 w a s a bou t 1 . 5 m e te r s i n

p e rhap s ma in ly t h e f i n ish ing o fb lank s . T he s i te w a s p rob -

d i ame te r , wh i le 5 1 -2 w a s a bou t 0 . 8 m e te r ( f ig . 1 ) . T hey

a b ly as ho r t term c amp .T he p o s i t ion o nt h e s l ope i n d ica tes

w e re a c ro s s t h e r i ve r "K lypeda l se lva" f r om t h e U ru t lek rä i

an eed f o rk eep ing al ook o u t . T h is m igh tr ep resen t s cou t -

4 7 s i te ( f ig . 1 0 ) . 5 1 -2 w a s d a ted t ot h eR oman P e r iod ( A .D .

i n g f o rp rey . S t i l l , i nv i ew o fl o ng t e rm p a s to ra l p a t tern s i n

2 40 -420 ) , wh i le 5 1 1 w a s r ad ioca rbon d a ted t o t h e L a te

t h e a r ea , t h e s i te i sr e a sonab ly a s soc ia ted w i th s hephe rd ing

B ronze A ge o r P re -Roman I r on A ge ( 760 — 4 00 B .C . ) .

a sw e l l .

N e i the rw e re a s soc ia ted w i th l i th ic s , b u t5 1 1 c ou ld b ec on -

S i te 8 6H e l l ingbOen w a s f ound i n ap ea t d epo s i t , 1 0m e -

t empo raneous w i th t h e 4 7 U ru t lek rä i s i te . I fs o , i tw ou ld

t e r s e a s t o f t h e I r on A ge a nd mode rn s h ie l ing c omp lex a t

h ave b een p a r t o f t h e p a t tern o f i n t r ica te l a nd -u se t h a t i s

H e l l ingboen , d own s t ream f r om R iska lsva tn . T he s i te w a s

i n c rea s ing ly a ppa ren t . P e rhap s i tr e p resen ted as hephe rd 's

n o t t o ta l ly e xcava ted , a nd n o a t temp t w a s made a td e l im -

c ook ing p i t o r f i re — k i nd led f o r c omf o r t , o rf o r p ro tec t ion

i tng i t .T he f ew f i nd sf ound d ur ing e xcava t ions a tt h en ea r -

f r om p r eda to r s o rt ok eep p es t s a t ad i s tance?

b y I r on A ge s i tes a nd t h e n a tu ra l t opog raphy o f f e r s ome

S i te 8 4 S karhaugsf o s sen w a s ac o l lec t ion o ff i ve h ea r th s

i n d ica t ion s o ft h e s i te ' s s i ze . I ti sc on s ide red ar e a sonab ly

w i th in a n a r ea o f c a .95 s qua re m e te r s , l o ca ted o n t h e e n -

s ma l l s i te , n o g rea te r t h an 1 00 s qua r e m e te r s , a nd i n a l l

c l o sed a nd p ro tec ted " ho l low" b e low S ka rhaug sfo s sen .

p robab i l i ty i tw a s 2 0 —3 0 s qua re m e te r s . Two c ha rcoa l

Two o ft h eh ea r th s w e re f r om t h ep er iod s t h a tc oncern t h is

s amp le s f r om t h e s i te w e re d a ted , a nd t h e se i n d ica te l a t ter 4 8

L a te B ronze A ge o r e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge v a lues

h ea r th . As ma l l s ca t te r o f c ha rcoa l w a s a l so f ound t ot h e

( P&S c a l ib ra ted t o7 60 —4 00 & 5 20 — 3 80 B .C . ) .

s ou th . No s t ruc tu re s w e re p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied , b u t t h e e x -

N o s t ruc tu re s w e re f o und , b u t c ha rcoa l a nd s ome b urn t

c ava t ion p lan s a nd t h e a r tefac t s p read ( f ig . 1 3 & 1 4 ) r e -

s t one s w e re r e po r ted . T he s i te w a s n o t t o ta l ly e xcava ted .

s emb led s i te s t h a t y i e lded r ema ins o f t e n t s t ruc tu res , e . g .

1 67 a r t if ac t s > 4 mm w e re c o l lec ted a tt h e s i te . O f t h ese

1 30n B e rda len .

f i ve w e re b i f ac ia lp o in t sa nd 1 2w e re o the r mod if ied p i ece s .

3 57 1 a r t ifac t s> 4 mm w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h e s i te . 3 0o f

F ive s qua res p roduced mo re t h an 5 0 p i ece s > 4 mm . T he

t h e se w e re p ro jec t i le p o in t s , f ou rw e re o the rw ise mod if ied

r e su l t sf r om s i te 8 6H e l l ingboen a r en o tr e ad i ly c ompa rab le

f l ake s , wh i le f ou rw e re m ic ro -b lades . T he b l ade s r ep resen t

w i th t h e o the r s i te s . T he s i te w a s , h oweve r , c l ea r ly i nt h e

a n e a r l ie r Meso l i th ic p ha se o f l i t t le c onsequence h e re . 1 3

c a tego ry o f " sma l l s i tes" a nd h ad ah ea r th . T he f i nd s i n -

s qua re s y i e lded mo re t h an 5 0 f i nds > 4 mm . No n on l i th ic

d i ca te h un t ing , w o rk ing o f o rgan ic ma te r ia l a nd l i t h ic r e -

o b jec t s w e re f o und i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e E th ics o r t h e

d uc t ion .

h ea r th . T h ree c ha rcoa l s amp le s w e re 1 4C -da ted . C a l ib ra t i on s i nd ica te e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge , p o ss ib ly l a t te r

S i t e 1 07 K a lvebe i t e t l a y i nt h e e a s ter n e nd o f t h e R i sk -

L a te B ronze Age v a lue s ( P&S c a l ib ra ted 7 60 —4 00 , 4 00 —

a l sva tn b a s in , t wo " s tep s" a bove t h e v a l ley f l oo r( f ig . 1 0 ) . I tw a s s i tua ted b e tween s i te 8 5 a nd s i t e s 2 9 a nd 2 7 /53 ,

2 00 & 4 00 —3 80 B .C . ) . S i te 1 03 w a s as ho r tt e rm c amp s i te ,

r ough ly 5 0 m e te r s f r om e i the r . T he s i te o f f e red a n u nob -

p robab ly w i th al im i ted r epe r to i re o fa c t iv i t ie s . I th ad c l ea r

s t ruc ted v i ew o ft h e e a s ter n R i ska l sva tn b a s in . 1 07 K a lve -

a f f in i t ies t oh un t ing , l i th ic r educ t ion a nd mod if ica t ion a nd

b e i te th a sy i e lded f i nd sw i th in a na r ea o fc a . 2 5m ,b u t9 3%

s ome i n d ica t ion s o fw o rk ing o rgan ic ma te r ia l .

o f t h e f i nd s w e re made i n e i gh t c en t ra l s qua re m e te r s .

S i t e1 05 B erda len w a s f o und o n as ma l l , d ry s pace n o r th

T he se f i nd s l a y a r ound a nd i n ah ea r th . A round o rs ou th o f

o ft h eo u t f low f r om t h eB e rda l sva tn l a k e . I tw a s o ne o ft h e

t h e h ea r th , w a s ac i rc le o rs em i -c i rc le , a pp rox . t wo me te r s

t h ree s ma l l h ea r th s d i scove red w i th in a s many d e tur f ing

i nd i ame te r , c on s is t ing o f1 3 —1 5 s t one s ( f ig . 1 2 ) . T he u n i -

p lo t s . T he se t h ree p l o t s c ove red 7 0 s qua re me te r s w i th in

f o rm n a tu re o ft h e u nde r ly ing s ed imen t s f a c i l i ta ted r e cog -

2 50 s qua re me te r s .T he f e a tu re t h a td ef ined s i te 1 05 c on s is t -

n i t ion o ft h es t ruc tu re .N ea r ly a l lo ft h ea r t ifac t sw e re f ound

e do f a0 . 8 x0 . 6m e te rl a rge a nd 1 5c md eep d ep re ss ion . O n

w i th in t h e s t ruc tu re . T he s t one s w e re i n te rp re ted a st r ace s

e i the rs i de o ft h e d ep re s s ion , " pavemen t s" o fb ur n t s t one s

o f at e n to r al e an to .

w e re f ound . T he se w e re c a . 1 . 5 s qua re m e te r s l a rge a nd

3 245 a r t if ac t s > 4 mm w e re r e cove red f r om t h e s i te . O f

b e tween 4a nd 1 5c md eep . P a tches o fc ha rcoa l w e re f ound

t h ese 1 2w e r ep o in t s , wh i le 7w e re o the rw i se mod if ied f l ak -

b e tween t h e s t one s . As i ng le q ua r tz i te f l ake w a s f ound i n

e s . N ine s qua res p roduced mo re t h an 5 0f i nd s > 4 mm . No

c onnec t ion w i th t h e f e a tu re . N o o the r f e a tu re s w e re f ound

n on l i th ic f i nd s w e re o b served . U nfo r tuna te ly r a d ioca rbon

a r ound s i te 1 05 . Two c ha rcoa ls amp le sw e re d a ted f r om s i te

s amp le s w e re n o t c o l lec ted f r om t h e s i te . C ompa r isons o f

1 05 B e rda len . T hey i n d ica ted aL a te B ronze Age d a te ,p o s -

t h ep o in tf i nd sw i th o the rs i te s s ugges t s aL a te B ronze A ge

s i b ly e x tend ing i n to t h e P re -Roman I r on A ge ( P&S c a l i -

o rP re -Roman I r on Age d a te ( P re sco t t 1 986 :164 ) .

b ra t ions : 9 10 — 8 00 & 7 60 — 3 90 . b o th B .C . ) . I n t h e s ame

T he s i te i si n te rp re ted a s as ho r t t e rm c amp s i te o fL a te

a r ea t wo o the rs t ruc tu re s ( 1 04a & b )t h a tr e semb led h ea r th s

B ronze A ge o rP re -Roman I r on A ge d a te . T he w o rk ing o f

w e re u ncove red . O ft h e se , 1 04a w a s r ad ioca rbon d a ted t o

l i th ics a nd o rgan ic ma ter ia l , p e rhap s f o rp r epa r ing / s tag ing

t h e e a r ly R oman I r on Age . 1 05 w a s i n te rp re ted a s s ho r t

h un t s , s e em s t o c ha rac te r ize t h e s i te . P e rhap s t h e se p rep -

t e rm s t op , p e rhap s as hephe rd 's c amp .

a r a t ion st ook p l ace wh i le t h ea c to r sw e re t e nd ing h e rd s .I ti s

S i t e 14 B erda l en w a s as ma l lr o ck s he l te ro nt h en o r thern

i n te re s t ing t h a tt h es t ruc tu ra lf e a tu re si d en t if ied w ou ld h ave

e dge o f t h e s t eep -s ided v a l ley t h a t e x tend s e a s t f r om t h e

b een d i ff i cu l tt of i nd i n ah e te rogeneou s s e d imen t .

B e rda len l a ke . O ft h e f ou r s ma l l r ock s he l te r s f ound i nt h e

S i t e s i nB erda l en

l e nw a st h eo n ly r ock s he l te rw i th p o s i t ive L a te N eo l i th ic o r

A ma jor i ty o f t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , B ronze A ge a nd P re -

B ronze A ge f i nd s .

a l p ine s e c t ion s o fV ikada len a nd B e rda len , s i te 1 4 B e rda -

R oman s i te si nB e rda len w e re d a ted t ot h eL a te B ronze Age

T he r o ck s he l te r w a s f i ve m e ter s l o ng a nd 1 . 3 m e te r s

o rP re -Roman I r on A ge .T he re w e re f ewe rs i te sh e re , wh ich

d eep . F rom t h e p r e -excava t ion f l oo r t ot h e r oof t h e re w a s

m igh t b e b ecause o f B e rda len ' s g rea te r a l t i tude . S i te s

b e tween 0 . 5 a nd 1 . 4m e te r s c l ea r ing . S ed imen t s w e re c om -

w ou ld b e p r ed ic ted t o b e f r equen t a tB e rda l s tO len , i ft h e

p o sed o fn a tu ra la nd c u l tu ra ld epo s i t sa t ad ep th a s much a s

p a t tern f r om R iska lsva tn s e rve s a s ar e f e rence . U nfo r tu -

1 . 25 m e te r s . T he d epo s i t s i nt h e s he l te r y i e lded 1 57 f i nd s ,

n a te ly ,t h ick ,h a rd s ed imen t se f f ec t ive ly h i nde red i n ve s t iga -

b u t o n ly o ne o f t h e t oo l s , ab i fac ia l q ua r tz i te p o in t w i th

t i on s h e re .

s l igh t ly c oncave b a se , w a s p o s i t ive ly L a te N eo l i th ic o r

S i te 1 03 B erda len w a s l o ca ted o n as ma l l p en in su la p ro -

B ronze Age . B lade s a nd s l a te i n d ica te o l de rp ha se s , ac on -

t r ud ing i n to t h e B e rda l sva tn l a k e f r om t h e n o r thern s ho re .

c l u s ion s uppo r ted b y r a d ioca rbon d a te s ( P&S c a l ib ra t ion s

T he n o r thern s ho re w a st h e s i de o ft h el a ke t h a to f f e red t h e

t o4 000 —2 7 10 & 5 750 —5 640 B .C . ) .

b e s t p a ssage a l ong t h e l a ke . S i te 1 03 w a s l o ca ted a bou t

T he b i fac ia l p o in t s e em s t ob e o f at y pe n o t o therw ise

m idway f r om e i the r e nd o f t h e B e rda l l a ke . H is to r ica l ly ,

f o und i nL a te N eo l i th ic o rE a r ly B ronze A ge c on tex t si nt h e

s h ie l ing a c t iv i t ie s a r e k nown t oh ave b een s i tua ted a tb o th

a r ea .T he s i te c anno tb er e ad i ly i n terp re ted i nr e la t ion t ot h e

e nd so ft h el a ke .T he a r tefac td i s t r ibu t ion i n d ica ted as i te o f

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age ,b u tc e r ta in c onc lu s ion sc an

a bou t 3 0 s qua re m e te r s . As i ng le h ea r th w a s f ound o n t h e

b ed rawn .T he c u l tu ra ld epos i t sw e re af a i r ly h e te rogeneous

s i te . T he l a rge s t c oncen t ra t ion o fa r tefa c t s w a s e a s t o ft h e

m ix tu re o f n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s . A ny L a te N eo 4 9

l i th ic o r B ronze A ge s e c t ion i nt h is d epo s i t w a s p robab ly

w e re r e cove red f r om 1 30n . O ft h e se 4 9w e re p o in t s , 6w e re

s ma l l . N e i the r o u t s ide , n o ri n s ide t h e s he l te rw e re c oncen -

c o re s a nd 7 w e re o therw ise mod if i ed p i eces . 1 6 s qua res

t r a t ion s o f l i th ic ma te r ia l i ng ene ra l , a nd p r e s su re f l ak ing

c on ta ined mo re t h an 5 0 f i nd s > 4 mm . Al a rge p a r t o ft h e

ma te r ia l i n p a r t icu la r , f ound . T he b i f ace p robab ly r e p re -

s ma l l s h e lf o n wh ich 1 30n w a s l o ca ted , w a s e nc i rc led b y a

s en t s as ho r t v i s i t , p e rhap s ah un te r -shephe rd who s ough t

s t one r i ng ( f ig . 1 5 ) . T he r i ng h ad a d i ame te r o f c a . 2 . 5

s he l te rf r om t h e r a in o rf o r an i gh t .

m e te r s . Mo s tf i nd sw e re f ound w i th in t h er i ng ,e xcep tf o ra n

S i te 16 B erda l en w a s l o ca ted a pp rox ima te ly 5 0 m e te r s

" hou rg la s s" d i s t r ibu t ion t h a t e x tended t owa rd s t h e w e s t -

n o r thea s t o f s i te 1 4 i nt h e t h ree km l o ng s t re tch o fv a l ley

s ou thwe s t . T he r i ng w a si n terp re ted a s at e n t l ike s t ruc tu re ,

t h a te x tend sf r om B e rda len t oV ierva tn .I tw a sd epo s i ted o n

a nd t h e " hou rg la s s" d i s t r ibu t ion r e p re sen ted t h e e x i t .

as ma l l l e ve l s pace s l igh t ly a bove t h e v a l ley b o t tom . T he

T he r e s e em s t oh ave b een ac en t ra l h ea r th i nt h e s t ruc tu re ,

s i te w a s n o t t o ta l ly e xcava ted , b u t b a sed o n t e s t p i t s e r ies ,

b u t t h i s w a s d i s tu rbed b y a n E a r ly I r on Age h ea r th . T he

f i nd d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd t opog raphy , t h e s i te w a se s t ima ted t o

d a ted 1 4C -samp le s f r om t h is a r ea d a ted t h e s e conda ry I r on

b e a bou t 5 0 s qua re m e te r s w i th a 1 0 t o 2 0 s qua re m e te r

A ge a c t iv i ty , a nd t h e re i st h us n or a d ioca rbon d a te f r om t h e

c o re . 3 909 a r t ifac t s > 4 mm w e re r e cove red . 1 o f t h e se

l i th ic s i t e . T he p o in t s f r om 1 30n s ugge s t at ypo log ica l d a te

w e re p o in t s , t wo w e re c o res a nd f ou rw e re o t he rw ise mod -

t ot h e L a te B ronze A ge , b a sed o n c ompa r isons w i th d a ted

i fed p i ece s . T he f ou r s qua re s a r ound t h e h ea r th w e re n o t

a s semb lages f r om o t he rN y se t -S tegg je s i tes .

e xcava ted d own t op o s i t ive ly s t e r i le s o i l , s o t h e n umbe ro f

1 30 sB erda l en w a s l o ca ted o n as h e lf , 3— 4m e te r s f r om

a r t ifac t sa c tua l ly d epo s i ted w a sp robab ly s omewha th i ghe r .

1 30n . A s omewha t a r b i t ra ry b o rde r b e tween t h e 1 30n &

Non l i th ic a r t ifac t s w e re n o t o b served . 1 6 s qua re s y i e lded

1 30s w a s d rawn a tc oo rd ina te 5 5x . T he s i te w a s d e l im i ted

mo re t h an 5 0f i nd s > 4 mm .

t oa na r ea o fc a . 3 0 —4 0s qua re m e te r s . Ah ea r th w a sf o und

Ah ea r th w a s l o ca ted c en t ra l ly i nr e la t ion t ot h e a r tef ac t

i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e l i t h ic ma te r ia l , b u t n o s t ruc tu ra l r e -

c oncen t ra t ion . N o o t he r s t ruc tu res w e re d ocumen ted . Two

ma in s w e re o therw ise p o s i t ive ly o b se rved . T he s pace o n

c ha rcoa l s amp le sw e re c o l lec ted f r om t h eh ea r th a nd d a ted .

w h ich 1 30n l a y w a s c l ea red a nd l e ve l . T o d i scer n c oncen -

T he se i n d ica ted a L a te B ronze A ge , p o ss ib ly e a r ly P re -

t r a t ion s o f ma te r ia l , 5 0 x5 0 cm u n i t s w i th mo re t h an 1 00

R oman I r on A ge d a te ( P&S c a l ib ra ted t o7 60 —4 00 & 8 30

f i nd s> 4 mm ( a na r b i t ra r i ly c ho sen f i gu re ) w e re p l o t ted f o r

—7 90 B .C . ) .

t h e w ho le o f s i te 1 30 . As im i la r p l o t w a s made f o rp o in t s .

A p rob lem w i th s i te 1 6 B e rda len w a s t h a t i tw a s n o t

I n te re s t ing ly ,t wo c i rcu la rs ca t te r s ,a pp rox ima te ly t h ree m e -

e xcava ted a se x ten s ive ly a sc ou ld b e w an ted . I ti st h e ref o re

t e r s i nd i ame te r , r e su l ted . E x tend ing o u tf r om b o th t h e c i r -

d i f f icu l t t o c ompa re w i th o the r s i te s . S t i l l , t h e f a c to r o f

c u la r c oncen t ra t ion s , t owa rd s t h e w e s t -sou thwes t , w e re

u nce r ta in ty c oncern ing s i ze i sl im i ted . T he s i te r ema in s i n

" t a i l s" o fp o in t s . O ne o ft h ese c oncen t ra t ion sl a yi n s ide t h e

t h e c a tego ry " sma l l" a nd " sho r t te rm s t ay" . T hough

s t one r i ng a t1 30 n .T he 1 30s s ca t te rc an b e c ompa red w i th

s l igh t ly l a rge r , i tt h u s s e em s t ob e i nt h e s ame r ange a s1 03

1 30n , a nd w a s p robab ly a l so t r ace s o f at e n t s t ruc tu re .

B e rda len . T he s i te p rov ided e v idence o fh un t ing , c ook ing /

A s ap rof i le b a lk w a s l e f t i nt h e 1 30 s a r ea , t h e f i nd f i g -

h ea t ing ,w o rk ing w i th o rgan ic ma ter ia la nd l i t h ic r educ t ion .

u r es a r es omewha tl ow .4 765 a r t ifa c t s> 4 mm w e re c o l lec t -

S i t e 1 30 B erda len w a s l o ca ted f a r the r u p t h e v a l ley t h an

e d f r om 1 30 s , o ft h e se t e n w e re p o in t s , s i x w e re r e touched

16 , b u t o n t h e s ame e a s tern s i de . T he s i te w a s s e t o n t wo

f l ak e sa nd 1 w e re c o re s . 1 7s qua re sc on ta ined mo re t h an 5 0

s ma l l s he lve s i nt h e s l ope . Me thodo log ica l ly , s i te 1 30 w a s

f i nd s > 4 mm . T he l i th ic s r e semb led t ho se f r om 1 30n a sf a r

e xcava ted i n5 0 x5 0 cm u n i t s , a s o ppo sed t o 1x 1m e te r

a s ma ter ia l , t e chn ique a nd morpho logy w e re c oncer ned .

u n i t s o t herw ise u sed i nN yse t -S tegg je . T he s pa t ia l p a t te rns

H oweve r ,t h e re w e re d i f f e rence s i ns ome o ft h er aw ma te r i -

i n t h e a r tefac t d i s t r ibu t ion w e re , i . a . t h e ref o re , mo re d i s -

a l s . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t 1 30n a nd 1 30 sr ep re sen tc on tempo ra -

t i nc t .7 8 .5 s qua re m e te r sw e re e xcava ted i nc onnec t ion w i th

n eou s a c t iv i ty a r ea s . H oweve r , a l though 1 4f r agmen ta ry b i-

t h e s i te , a nd w i th in t h is a r ea t h ree B ronze A ge p ha ses ( a l -

f a c ia lp o in t s c ou ld b e r e a ssemb led t o 7p o in t s ( o f at o ta l o f

t e rna t ive ly t wo p ha se s , o ne w i th t wo s ub -pha se s o r t wo

6 7 f r agmen t s a nd 1 2 w ho le p o in t s ) , n o f i t s c r os sed f r om

s eg rega ted a c t iv i ty z one s ) , o ne Me so l i th ic p ha se a nd o ne

1 30 s t o 1 30n . A s ma l l s oap s tone d i sc shaped p l ug w a s

E a r ly I r on Age p ha se w e re f ound . Apa r t f r om d emon s t ra -

f o und o nt h eo u t sk i r t so f1 30 s .I tc anno tb ep o s i t ive ly t i ed t o

t i ng t h e d eg ree o f c ommon l o ca l iza t ion a nd p o ten t ia l f o r

a ny s p ec if ic p ha se o n t h e s i te . T ypo log ica l ly , t h e b i fac ia l

s i te m ix tu re ,t h eI r on Age a nd Meso l i th ic p ha ses w i l ln o tb e

p o in t s i n d ica te ad a te t ot h e L a te B ronze Age . Ar a d ioca r -

d i scus sed f u r the r . T he t h ree B ronze Age p ha se s w i l l b e

b on d e te rm ina t ion f r om t h e h ea r th i n d ica tes as im i la r a ge

d ea l tw i th s epa ra te ly . T hey w e re t e rmed i nr e la t ion t oc om -

( P&S c a l ib ra ted 1 0 10 —7 90 B .C . ) .

p a s s d i rec t ions , 1 30n , 1 30 s a nd 1 30w . An t ic ipa t ing t h ep re -

1 30w B erda len w a s s ou thwe s t o f 1 30 s , a nd c anno t b e

s en ta t ion b e low , t h e mo s t l i k e ly i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e 1 30

c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i shed f r om i t . 1 30w c anno t b e p o s i t ive ly

B e rda len s i te i st h a t i ta t t rac ted r enewed v i s i t s f r om t h e

a s soc ia ted w i th l i t h ic s . I ndeed , i tw a s c ha ra c ter ized b y

Me so l i th ic i n to t h e I r on A ge . T he L a te B ronze Age p ha se s

c ha r coa l w i th l i t t le o b servab le m ine rogen ic c on ten t a nd a

1 30n & 1 30 s p robab ly r ep resen td i s t inc tv i s i t s . T he se v i s i t s

l a ck o fa s soc ia ted l i th ic s . 1 30w w a s p robab ly d i s tu rbed b y

a tl e a s t i n c luded p u t t ing u p t e n t s , l i th ic w o rk ing , s c rap ing

1 30n a l ong i t s n o r thea s te rn p er ime t e r , a nd a st h e s i te l im i t s

a nd w o rk ing o rgan ic ma te r ia l . T he f unc t ion o f t h e 1 30w

w e re n o t a ccura te ly d ef ined , i t s s pa t ia l b ound s w e re d i ff i -

p ha se i su nc lea r , b u t d emons t ra te s u se o f B e rda len i nt h e

c u l tt od e l im i t . B a sed o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc ha r coa l i nt h e

E a r ly B ronze A ge .

e xcava t ion s e c to r s , a nd t h e s u r round ing t e s t p i t s , 1 30w p robab ly h a s amax imum v e r t ica l d i s tr ibu t ion o fa r ound 2 0

1 30n B erda len w a s 2 5 —3 0 s qua re m e te r s . 9 8 14 a r t if ac t s 5 0

s qua re m e te r s . No s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s w e r eu ncove red . Two

1 992 :259 ) . Ac ha r coa ls amp le f r om t h ep i tw a sr ad ioca rbon

r a d ioca rbon s amp les f r om 1 30w w e re d a ted t o t h e E a r ly

d a ted , a nd i nd ica ted a L a te B ronze A ge d a te ( P&S c a l i -

B ronze A ge ( c ompa re P&S c a l ibra t ion s 1 6 70 — 1 460 B .C .

b ra ted t o9 90 — 8 20 B .C . ) .

&1 500 — 1 320 B .C . w i th V andk i lde 1 990a :abb . 1 ) .

T he s i te r e semb le s as im i la r L a te B ronze Age p i t ; e . g . 5 0a U ru t lek rä i . T he p i t m igh t r ep resen t ad i s t inc t e p i sode ,

S i t e s o u t s id eo ft h eN y se t-S t egg j ec or ea r ea

b u t s t i l l b e p a r t o f al a rge r e xp lo i ta t iona l s t ra tegy . T h i s

An umbe r o f s i tes w e re f ound o u t s ide o f t h e R iska l sva tn

l e ad st o ap red ic t ion t h a t al a rge rb a se s e t t lemen tw i th mo re

a nd B e rda len c o re a r ea i nc onnec t ion w i th s urvey s b efo re

p ermanen t s t ruc tu re s s hou ld b e f ound i nF o ssda len — p e r -

c on s t ruc t ion o fa cce ss r oad s , o t he r l im i ted o r c o inc iden ta l

h ap s d own b y o ne o ft h e s h ie l ing s f a r the rd own t h e v a l ley

s u rvey s a nd e xcava t ion s o f I r on Age s i te s i n F o ssda len .

( f o r e xamp le Me lse te a nd L o s t ) . T he s i te may h ave b een

T he se s ou rce s p rov ide s ubs id ia ry q ua l i ta t ive d a ta . T hey

p a r to f al a rge rp a s to ra l s e to fc amps .

m ay a l so s e rve a sc omponen t s i na n a r b i t ra ry s amp le .

S i t e1 39 B uhaugene , Lx rda l w a s f ound s ou th o ft h e r i ve r

S i te 2B uhaugene i n Lxrda l w a s l o ca ted s ou th o f as ho r t

b e tween t h e Smedda lsva tn l a ke s . T he s i te a r ea w a s al e ve l ,

r i ve r t h a t r un s b e tween t h e u ppe r a nd l owe r Smedda len

s andy a nd w e l l -d ra ined e xpan se . N o s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s

l a ke s .T he s i te w a sp a r t ia l ly c ove red b y ar oad ,s ot h eo r ig i -

w e re v i s ib le o nt h es u r face . E xcava t ions c ons is ted o f ame -

n a le x ten tw a su nce r ta in . B a sed o nt wo 1x1me te rs qua re s ,

t e rs qua re a nd n i ne t e s tp i t sw i th in a na r ea o fa pp rox ima te ly

f i ve e n la rged 8 0 x4 0 cm t e s t p i t s a nd 1 6r egu la r t e s t p i t s

1 5 s qua re m e te r s . A lmo s t a l l f i nd s ( 90 .6% ) c ame f r om a

( c a .4 0 x4 0c m )w i th in a na r ea o f8 0s qua re me te r s ,t h es i te

s i ng le 5 0 x5 0c m l a rge q uad ran to ft h e s qua re . T he r e s to f

w a s a s sumed t ob e v e ry s ma l l . O ft h e 3 76 f i nd s f r om t h e

t h e f i nd s w e re f ound i nt h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty , w e re t hu s

a bove u n i t s , 30 s t emmed f r om o ne s qua r e m e te r . T he d i s -

i nd ica t ive o f av e ry s ma l l s i te . U nf o r tuna te ly , t h e who le

t a l s e c t ion o f ap re ssu re f l aked p o in t w a s r e cove red . T he r e

a r ea w a s n o t s u rveyed i n d e ta i l , n o r c an i tb e b ecau se o f

w e re n o o t he r t oo ls t h a t p rov ide p rec ise t ypo log ica l e v i -

modern r oad c on s t ruc t ion . I ti st h e refo re p o ss ib le t h a t t h e

d ence o ft h ea ge ,n o rw e re s amp le sf r om t h es i te 1 4C -da ted .

s i te w a sn o ta ni ndependen te n t i ty a ss uch ,b u tw a s a" sa te l -

T he ref o re , o n ly a g ene ra l L a te N eo l i th ic o r B ronze A ge

l i t e" a s semb lage c onnec ted t o al a rge r s i te .

d a te c an b e o f f e red . H oweve r , 9 2 .6% o ft h e ma te r ia l w a s

3 27 f i nd s > 4 mm w e re r e cove red f r om t h e s i te . O ft h e se

f l in t , a nd t h e p o in t t i p a nd t h e d eb i tage b o th l e ave af i ne

p i eces , o ne w a s ac o re . One s qua re y i e lded mo re t h an 5 0

i mp re s s ion . T h is c an i n d ica te a L a te N eo l i th ic d a te ( r ef .

f i nd s > 4 mm . T he s i te d id n o t c on ta in f o rma l t oo ls . No

P re sco t t 1 986 [ 1 987 ] : 153 / / ) . T he s i te c ou ld r ep re sen t t h e

c ha rcoa l w a s o bse rved , a nd t h e s i te w a s n o t r ad ioca rbon

" sub -sec t ion" o f al a rge r ,u nd iscove red o rd e s t royed s i te .I t

d a ted . T he t e chno logy e xh ib i ted b y t h e d eb i tage a nd t h e

c an a l so b e i n te rp re ted a s as i ng le e p i sode o fl i th ic r educ -

c o re w e re c l ea r ly f l ake -ba sed a nd b i fac ia l . T he s i te w a s

t i on .

t e chno typo log ica l ly d a ted t o t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , B ronze Age o r P re -Roman I r on A ge . P redom inance o f as i ng le

S i t e 5S l u t edO la i n Lx rda l w a s f ound o n t h e n o r ther n s l ope a bove t h el a ke O v re Smedda l sva tn .I tw a s s i tua ted o n

k ind o fc oa r se q ua r tz i te ( 90 1o f9 05 p i ece sw e re q ua r tz i te ,4

t h e e a s ter n b ank o f t h e s ma l l r i ve r S lu tedO la , n ea r as po t

w e re f l in t )c ou ld i nd ica te ad a te t ot h el a t te rp a r to ft h eL a te

w h ich u n t i l r e cen t ly w a s c ommon ly u sed t of o rd t h e r i ve r .

B ronze A ge o r e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge . S ince t h e s i te

T he s i te c on s is ted o f as ma l lp a tch o fc ha r coa l w i th in at e s t

p robab ly r e p re sen ted a n e p isode , t h is a s se r t ion i sn o t r e a -

s qua re o f 1x1 . 5 m e te r s . As i ng le f l in t f l ake w a s f ound i n

s onab ly i nd ispu tab le .

c onnec t ion w i th t h e c ha rcoa l , wh i le t h ree q ua r tz i te f l ake s

T he s ma l l s i ze o ft h e a s semb lage , i t s l im i ted s pa t ia l d i s -

w e re f o und i n a n a d jacen t t e s t p i t . S ub sequen t , i n tens ive

t r ibu t ion , t h e h omogeneous n a tu re o ft h e ma te r ia ls a nd t h e

t e s t ing i nt h e v i c in i ty f a i led t ot ur n u p mo re f i nd s o r f e a -

l a ck o fo the rf e a tu re s d emon s t ra tes t h a t s i te 1 39 B uhaugen

t u r es . Ac ha rcoa l s amp le f r om t h e s i te y i e lded L a te N eo -

w a s t h e r e su l t o f as i ng le r educ t ion e p isode d a ted t o t h e

l i t h ic v a lue s ( P&S c a l ib ra ted t o2 180 —1 9 10 B .C . ) . T he s i te

L a te N eo l i th ic , B ronze Age o re a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge ,

s e em st or ep re sen t ah ea r th o rc ampf i re . T he re w a s n o e v i -

a nd t h en mo s tl i ke ly t ot h eL a te B ronze A ge o rP re -Roman

d ence o fl i th ic mod if ica t ion o nt h e s i te . I tr ep re sen t s av e ry

I r on Age . Whe the rt h e s i te w a sp a r to fa n i n teg ra ted i n t ra s i te o rgan iza t ion o fa c t iv i t ie s , o rr ep re sen ted a n i n depend -

s ho r tL a t e N eo l i th ic e p isode . S i t e1 22 -K59 F o s sda len w a sf ound s t ra t ig raph ica l ly u nde r

e n ts hor tt e rm s t op , w a s u nce r ta in . I t may b e a r gued t h a ti f

I r on A ge d epos i t s .T he s i te w a sa na pp rox ima te ly 1 . 4m e te r

as i te o f t h e "Uru t lek rä i type" w a s l o ca ted i nt h e a r ea , i t

i nd i ame ter a nd 0 . 35 m e te rd eep p i t . A pa r tf r om p u re c ha r -

w ou ld h ave b een d e tec ted d u r ing s u rvey s a nd e xcava t ion s

c oa l , i tc on ta ined c ha rcoa l m ixed w i th s and a nd b u rn t

i n t h e a r ea i n 1 978 ( J ohan sen 1 979 : 106f ) , 1 98 1 a nd 1 987

s t one s . A s 1 22 -K59 l a y u nde r a n I r on A ge c omp lex , a nd

( B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 ) .

t h e re w e re d i s tu rbance s h e re , i tc anno t b e a s ce r ta ined i f o t he rs t ruc tu re s , c on tempo raneous w i th t h e p i t , w e re o r ig i n a l ly l o ca ted h e re . N o l i th ic s w e re f ound i nd i r ec t a s soc i -

S i t e s t ha tp o s td a t et h el i th i cp er iod s

a t ion w i th t h ep i t ,b u t1 4 1 l i th ic p i ece sw e re c o l lec ted i nt h e

T he l i th ic p e r iod s i te s a r e o fp r ima ry i n te res t i nt h is s t udy .

c ou r se o ft h ee xcava t ion o ft h eI r on A ge s i te .N ea r ly h a lf o f

H oweve r , l a te r s i te s a r e a l so o f i n te res t f o r c ompa ra t ive

t h e se p i ece s w e re f l in t a nd t h e se c ommon ly b o re c r ush ing

p urpo se s ,a nd w i l lb eb r ief ly p r e sen ted b e low .T he s i tes t h a t

t r ace s , t h us i n d ica t ing s t r ike -a l igh t f r agmen t s . I th a s b een

i mmed ia te ly p o s t -da ted t h el i th ic L a te B ronze Age a nd P re -

s ugge s ted t h a ts ome o ft h eh andfu lo ff l ak e sf ound t h rough -

R oman s i te s , w e re t h e " cha rcoa l p i t s" ( s ee g ene ra l d i s -

o u t t h e a r ea may b e r e la ted t o t h e p i t ( B j ego e t a l .

c u ss ion s i n F ab regd 1 979 , G u s ta f son 1 982 :73f f P rev ious 5 1

T ab le 7 .A s umma ry o fs i te a t t r ibu te s ( on ly s i te s u sed i nc on t inued s t udy ) . S i te

P e r iod

n o .

S ize m

2*

L ih ics

P o in t s

T oo l s

O the r

S t ruc tu re s

C ruc ib le

H ea r th

< 4 rnm

V ikada len ( Ny se t ) : 2 7

LBA /PR

2 8

1 6 /8

1 995+

1 7

2 0

1 +7 / 1

1 94

0

1

2 9

LBA /PR?

1 0 /0

2 9

1

3 1

LN (EBA )

4 0 / 10

2 432

7

1 9

3 2

LN

3 0 /4

7 2 1

1

1 8

3 4f

LBA /PR

1 / -

4

1 ( ? )

4 7

LBA /PR

2 000 / 170

1 94 ,000

7 48

5 0a

LBAJPR

2 / -

5 1-1

LBA /PR

1 / -

8 4

LBA

5 / -

7

8 5

( E )LBA

3 0 /5

8 74

1 2

7

H ea r th s

8 6

LBA /PR

3 0 /5

1 000

5

1 3

H ea r th

1 07

LBA

2 5 /9

3 245

1 2

7

T en t (? ) &h ea r th

3 0

4

H ea r th

H ea r th (? ) H ea r th (? ) B one

7 82

S eve ra l

H ea r th H ou se & e t c . P i t P i t H ea r th s &p avemen t s

B e rda len : 1 03

LBA /PR

3 0 / 13

3 571

1 05

LBA

4 / -

1

14

EBA

? / -

16

LBA

5 0 / 16

3 909

1

4

H ea r th

1 30n

L BA/PR

3 0 / 16

9 814

4 9

7

T en t

1 30 s

LBA

4 0 / 17

4 765

1 0

6

H ear th

1 30w

EBA

2 0 / -

H ea r th & p avemen t s 1

R ock she l te r

O the r a r ea s : 2

LN?

? / 1

5 2

5

LN

2 / -

1

1 22 -K59

LBA

2 / -

1 39

LBA /PR?

2 / 1

H ea r th (? ) P i t

3 27

LN = L a te N eo l i th ic , EBA = E a r ly B ronze Age , LBA = L a te B ronze A ge & P R =P re -Roman I r on A ge . *a / b : T he f i gu re s p o s ted h e re r ep re sen t : a )e s t ima ted s i ze b a sed o n c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s a nd a r tef ac t d i s t r ibu t ion / b ) n umbe ro fs qua re s w i th mo re t han 5 0 s t ruck l i th ic p i ece s > 4 mm . +I n c lude s 7 6 1 f i nd s f r om s i te 5 3 . " -" i nd ica tes t h a tt h e s i te i sn o t c ha rac ter ized b y al i th ic a s semb lage , s o an umer ica l e xp re ss ion i sn o tr e levan t h e re .

d i scu s s ion o ft h ep i t sf r om N y se t -S tegg je i nP resco t t1 986 ) .

o f t h e p i t s w e re l o ca ted i n t h e s ame l o ca l i t ie s a s B ronze

N ea r ly 2 5 s uch p i t s w e re f ound i nc onnec t ion w i th N yse t -

A ge s e t t lemen t s a nd I r on A ge h ou ses . T h is o b serva t ion i s

S t egg je , 2 1 o ft h e se w e r e r ad ioca rbon d a ted .

s uppo r ted b y t h ei n t ru s ive p i t sf ound o nL a te N eo l i th ic a nd

C ha r coa l p i t s w i th n o l i th ic a s soc ia t ions w e re d a ted t o

B ronze A ge s i te s ( s i te s 3 1 V ika s to len a nd 4 7 U ru t lek rä i ) ,

t h eB ronze A ge i nt h eN y se t -S tegg je moun ta in a r ea s . H ow -

a nd t h e d i s tu rbed p i t s f ound u nde rI r on A ge s t ruc tu re s ( 26

e ve r t h e ma jor i ty o f s uch p i t s w e re d a ted t ot h e I r on Age

R iska l sva tn a nd 8 2d H e l l ingboen ) . T h i s c an i n d ica te c om -

( t ab le 1 0 & 1 , B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 , P resco t t 1 986 :143 ) . T he

mon l o ca l iz ing f a c to r .

f ew B ronze Age p i t sg ene ra l ly s e emed t ob ea bou tt w ice a s

I ns umma ry ,t h ep i t sp o s t -da ted t h el i t h ic s e t t lemen t s ,b u t

l a rge a st h e I r on A ge p i t s —u p t oa round 2m e te r s i nd am -

mo s t ly p re -da ted I r on A ge h ouse s . T hey w e re n o t a s soc i -

e t e r .

a t ed w i th mo re p ermanen t s t ruc tu re s o r e v idence o f

T he I r on A ge p i t s c on ta ined c ha rcoa l a nd b urn t r ock s .

h un t ing .T he re w a s ,h oweve r ,s ome c ommon l o ca t iona lf a c -

T he re a r e r e po r t s t h a t t h ey w ere l i ned w i th b ranche s . T he

t o r b e tween a l l t h e t h ree s i te c a tegor ie s c ompa red h e re .

p i t s t h a t w e re n o t d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th I r on A ge h ouse

A n t ic ipa t ing t h e f o l low ing d i scu s ion o f B ronze A ge r e -

s t ruc tu re s , w e r e p r ima r i ly d a ted t o t h e E a r ly I r on Age .

s ou rce e xp lo i ta t ion , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t t h e se p i t s w e re r e -

T he se p i t sw e re t h us n o ta s soc ia ted w i th s i tes i nt h eB ronze

l a ted t ot h e u se o fp a s tu re s , b u t i n ad i f f e ren t manne rt h an

Age s en se ,t h ey w e re n o ta s soc ia ted w i th s t ruc tu re sl i ke t h e

l a te ri nt h eI r on A ge o re a r l ie ri nt h eB ronze A ge . T hey a r e

I r on A ge h ouse s , a nd l a rge ly p re -da ted t h e l a t te r . T hey

t h e ref o re t e n ta t ive ly i n terp re ted a s e xp re s s ions o fh e rd ing

w e re n o ta s soc ia ted w i th a ny a r tef ac t s .H oweve r , am a jo r i ty

a c t iv i t ie s .

5 2

F ig . 8 .U ru t lek rä i . A n i n terpr e ta t ive s k e tch o ft h e c en tra lp ar t o fs i te 4 7 U ru t lekrä i . B a sed o n t h e s e c t ions t e rmed l a : 2t o 9i nf i g . 8 7 &8 9 i nB lo t-g oe t . a l . 1 992 [o r ig ina l ly i nP r e sco t t1 986 ] ( s ee f i g . 9h er e ) . D raw ing b y E . Hof fH i s tor i sk m u seum .

5 3

H ov land g n r .3 / 1 A rda l ,S ogn o gF j o rdane NYSET -STEGGJE L ok .47 U ru t lek rä i O B op lass P lanove rs ik t C .P . O

5 0y I

3

0

0 0 0 d

a a c ;

a o 0 a o

00

O

a a o a a

0

5 8y I

0

6

0

0

a

2 00

0 2

D 3

4

3 0

o

4 5

a

0

0

0

0

Ot

a

1 0

I 0

6

0

0

1 4 00

0

5 0

0

8

ö

O l K u l lg rop2 K V . 12 : 3

9 9 2 0

0

2 0

K u t lg rop _54 x 5

g

a O

—62x

—58x

a

7 3 D

I ii

K u l lg rop3

a

a

0

a

3 (k 6x K u l lg rop 4 6

0

a

8

4 0

z

2 1 g s

6

0

K u l lg rop 1

0

—5 0x

—46x

0

o

I — 7 4x

_7 0x

0

0

0

5 4y I

a

— 4 2x

a

0 3 O

a

ID 0a

E 3

a

—38x

9 0

o

0 0

—34x

a

P o l len l oko l i te t N$-1 1

1

— 3 0x

2

a

o

— 2 6x

0

, I 3 4 1

a

—22x

o —18x

N 0

f

o

—14x

o

a

—10x

— 6 x 12 m

3 O

I 1 0y

I 1 4y

I 1 8y

1 3

o

8 o

i 3 0y

I 3 4y

i 3 8y

,

— 2 x

0

I 4 2y

I 4 6y

I 5 0y

I 5 4y

i 5 8y

i 6 2y

I 6 6y

i 7 0y

I 7 4y

I 7 8y

F ig . 9 .U ru t l ek rä i . D i s t r ibu t ion o fl i t h ic a r t ef ac t s> 4 mm a ts i t es i t e4 7 U ru t l ek rä i . U nb rok en l i ne s r e pr e sen te xca va t ion p lo t sa nd t e s tp i t s . D ashed l i ne i n d ica t e se l eva t ed , w e l l -d ra ined s i t ec en t r e . R ough d i s t r ibu t ion o fl i t h ic f i nd s i si n d ica t ed . F rom B je go e ta l . 1 992 : 122 .

5 4

1 — , 2x 8 2y

F ig . 1 0 . N y se t -S tegg je . Map o ft h e U ru t lekrä i —K a lvebe i t e t —V i 1 cas to len a r ea . S i te s a nd e xcava t ions i nd ica ted . F rom B jorgo e ta l . 1 992 :22 .

5 5

F ig . 1 . C harcoa lp i t s5 0a & 5 1 / 1 -2 U ru t l ekrö i . R ad iocarbon d a te s s ugge s t t h a t 5 0a a nd 5 1 1 w ere f rom t h eL a t e B ron ze A ge o re ar ly P r e -Roman I r on A ge . P i t5 1 -2 w as d a ted t ot h e R oman I r on A ge . F rom B jorgo e ta l . 1 992 :206 f .

5 6

N addv ik g n r . 2 / 1 Ä rda l , S ogn o g F j o rdane NYSET -STEGGJE L ok .107 K a lvebe i te t A pen b op lass P lan C .P .

F ig . 1 2 . F ea tur e so n s i te 1 07 K a lvebe i te t i n te rpr e ted a s t r ace s o f at e n to rl e an to . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o fc har coa l ( s had ing ) a nd b urn t r o ck s i si nd ica ted . F rom B jorgo e ta l . 1 992 :138 .

5 7

0 O

0

c ç

c i o

o

a A

e a

A s e .

C q > , () , c z,

0 8

0

Ab D D o D o ot , s 3 o e (Pc\

a

o Q

0

42

F ig . 1 3 . F ea tur e s o n s i t e 1 03 B erda len i n ter pr e ted a s ah ear th a nd p o s s ib l e t r ace s o f at e n t . P lan b a sed o n u npub l i shed d raw ing b yA .J . N c eroy 1 983 . S had ing i n d ica t e sd i s tr ibu t ion o fc har coa l i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e h ear th . D r aw ing b yE .H of fH i s tor i sk m u seum .

5 8

4I 4y

I

4 6y 1

1

4 8y 1 1

5 0y 1 1

5 2y 1

5 4y 1

1

5 6y I l

1

5 8y l

I

6 0y l l

T angen g nr .4 / 1 Ä rda l S ogn o g F jo rdane NYSET -STEGGJE L ok .103 B e rda len P lan A .J .N . /C .R

—54x

—5 2x

E l

8

E l

2 2

T-5 562 T -5 602 T -5663

1 5

7 6

4 1

4

9 6 1

6 9

4

4 1

9 5

1 4

1 32

2 •7 0 3 7 ) 15 )

4

8 6 ` '14 98

2 8 1 ( 3 18 )

9

5 8 ( 28 )

2

r . •• . ( 472 ) r . • •

—50x

L I —4 8x

-1

1 3 1 1 1 3

E 1 _4 6 x L I

L I

_ —4 4x

3 — 4 2x

E l

— 4 0x

F ig . 1 5 . F ea tur e s o n s i te 1 30 B erda len i n terpr e ted a s t r ace s o f at e n ts t ruc tur e ( s haded ) . F rom B jorgo e ta l . 1 992 :146 .

6 0

F ig . 1 6 . F ind d i s tr ibu t ion so n s i t e 1 30 B erda len . S had ing i nd ica te s t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o fc har coa l . F rom B jorgo e ta l . 1 992 :144 . T he n umber s o fs p l in t er sa nd m icrof lakes ( 2 -4 mm )f r om t e s t u n i t s a r e l i s ted i np ar en tese s .

6 1

T he S kr ivarhe l leren s i te

XV , V , V I a nd V I I I , i nc hrono log ica l o rd er ) a nd a r e t h e

S kr ivarhe l ler en i s al a rge r ock s he l t er p a r t ia l ly e xca va ted

u n i t s t h a tw i l l b e r e f e r red t oi nt h is monog raph . L aye r s I V ,

f rom 1 987 t o1 989 . E xca va t ion s i nt h e r o ck s he l t er w er ei n i t i -

XV ,V ,V Ia nd V I I Ia l lc on ta ined p re s su re f l aked l i t h ic t o o ls

a t ed i nr e spon se t ol i m i ta t ions i n her en t i nt h e N y se t -S t egg je

a nd b i f ac ia l p ro jec t i le p o in t s . T he se l a ye r s w e re d a ted t o

s our ce sa nd d a ta . T he s he l t er h a ss t ra t if i ed l a yer sd a t ed t ot h e

t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t o L a te B ronze A ge /P re -Roman I r on

L a t eN eo l i th ic , t h rough t h eB ron ze A ge a nd i n to t h eI r on A ge .

A ge a nd w e re o fg rea te s ti n te re s th e re .L aye rI Iw a sm ixed

T he f o l low ing c hap ter p r imar i ly c over st h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd

w i th c omponen t s f r om t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd I r on A ge

B ron ze A ge l a yer s . B e s id e s t h e l i t h ic sa nd o t her n on -organ ic

u p t ot h e p re sen t .

m a t er ia l s , t h es i te h as y i e ld ed a n u n ique a s semb lage o fb one

L ayer V I I I w a s t h e b a semen t l a ye r , a nd w a s a l so t h e

f ragmen t s .A par tf rom t h eS kr ivarhe l ler en s i t e , t h er ea r es ome

t h icke s t a nd mo s t v o lum inou s u n i t ( t ab le 8 , P re sco t t

o t her p r eh i s tor ic f i nd s i nt h e Moa - a nd T y eda len v a l ley t h a t

1 99 1b :36 ) . I tw a s a l so t h e l a ye r t h a ty i e lded mo s tb one ( c f P re sco t t 1 99 1a :40f , 1 993 ) . T he l a ye r c on s i s ted o f g r ave l ly

s hou ld b e t a k en i n to a ccoun t .

c ha rcoa l w i th s ome p an -shaped h ea r th s . T he l a ye ry i e lded 5 80 p i ece s o fd eb i tage > 4mm a nd 3 13 m ic rof lake s ( s pa l ls /

S k r iva rhe l le r en r ep re sen t s as i te t ype d i f f e ren tf r om t h e Ny s e t -S tegg je s i tes . I ti sl o ca ted i n av a l ley o u t s ide o f t h e

s p l in te r s , 2 -4 mm ) . C on s ider ing t h a t o n ly p a r t o f t h e s i te

Ny se t -S tegg je p ro jec t , i n Moada len . S k r iva rhe l le ren l i es a t

w a si n ve s t iga ted , a ni n i t ia lr e ac t ion w ou ld b et os a yt h a tt h e

al owe ra l t i tude , 7 90 m a . s . l . i nt h e s ub -a lp ine z one , o rj us t

f i nd s a r e c ompa rab le w i th f i nd s f r om i n termed ia te s i zed

b e low t h et r ee l i ne . P robab ly mo s ti mpo r tan t ly , S k r iva rhe l -

N y se t -S tegg je s i te s , a nd t h e d eb i tage f i gu re c ou ld i n d ica te

l e ren r e p re sen t s al a rge r o ck s he l te rw i th e x tens ive a nd w e l l

l i t h ic p roduc t ion . A s t h e se f i nd s w e re d i s t r ibu ted t h rough -

p ro tec ted c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s . F o rp reh is tor ic p eop le i tw a s a

o u t t h e d epo s i t , a nd n o p a r t icu la r ly l a rge c oncen t ra t ion s

l a rge , p e rmanen ts he l te r , w e l lp ro tec ted f r om t h e e l emen t s .

w e re o b served , t h e d eb i tage i sv i ewed a s p r ima r i ly r e p re -

T he s he l te ri sc oncea led a nd c an b e d i f f icu l tt of i nd , wh ich

s en t ing t o o l mod if ica t ion , d amage , r e sha rpen ing e t c . ( c f

m igh tb e i mpo r tan t i ni t s h i s to ry o fh ab i ta t ion . S k r iva rhe l -

P re sco t t 1 99 lb :56f ) . T he mo s tc ha rac te r is t ic mod if ied l i th -

l e ren h a sb een r epea ted ly i n hab i ted t h rough s eve ra l p reh is -

i c p i ece s w e re f ou r b i fac ia l p ro jec t i le p o in t s , t h ree r e -

t o r ic e r a , w h ich h a s l e ad t o s t ra t if ied d epo s i t s . T he s t ra t -

t o uched f l ake s , ab o re r , f r agmen t s o f s ha f tho le a xe s a nd

i fca t ion p rov ide s as ou rce o f c heck ing c h rono log ica l

" v e s t land " a dze s , f l in tp re sumed t oo r ig ina te f r om D an ish

s equence sc on s t ruc ted o nt h eb a s is o f1 4C -da ted , n on -s t ra t -

d agge r s a nd u ndef ined p r es su re f l aked o b jec t s . T he m a jo r -

i fed N y se t -S tegg je s i te s ( P re sco t t 1 986 ) . F u r thermo re , t h e

i t yo ft h eb one o b jec t sw e re s ma l l ,p o in ted f r agmen t s . O th -

v a lue o fS k r iva rhe l le ren a sa n a r chaeo log ica l s i te i st i ed t o

e rw i se t h e re w a s ap i e rce r , ak n if e l ike o b jec t a nd d eco -

t h e e xce l len t p reserva t ion o fb one , t o o th a nd a n t le r . I n i t s

r a t ive i t em s . T he l a t te rc ons i s ted o f as ma l l b one d i sc w i th

o wn r i gh t , S k r iva rhe l le ren i s a n u nusua l ly h igh q ua l i ty

d r i l led d ep re s s ions , o n ly o ne p e r f o ra t ing t h e p i ece , a nd a

s ou r ce f o r d a ta . C omb in ing S k r iva rhe l le ren a nd Nyse t -

s ma l l b ead . Me ta l w a s o f s pec ia l i n te res t , a nd a s ma l l

S t egg je m ean s n ew i n s igh t s t h rough a n i n teg ra ted a na ly s i s

b ronze ,p robab ly as t ud o rr i ve th ead , o r ig ina ted f r om l a ye r

o fd a ta , w h ich n e i the ro ft h e t wo s i te c omp lexes c ou ld s u s -

V I I I . T he l a ye rd id n o t y i e ld c e ram ics . S t ra t ig raph ica l ly , l a ye rV I I I w a s o l de rt h an l a ye rV I ( s ee

t a in i ndependen t ly .

b e low ) , w h ich w a s d a ted t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic I .T ypo log i c a l ly l a ye rV I I I wa sa l so r e f e r red t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic ,a nd

G enera lc ommen t s

a st h e d agge r s a r e o fp o ss ib le t ype s Ia nd /o r I , ap robab le

T he S k r iva rhe l le ren i n ve s t iga t ions a nd f i nd s a r e p resen ted

L a te N eo l i th ic Id a te i si mp l ied . C ir cum s tan t ia l s uppo r tf o r

a t l e ng th i n p rev iou s p ub l ica t ions ( P re sco t t 1 99 1b , a l so

t h i s d a te w a s p rov ided b y at y pe l bf l in t d agge rf o und o u t -

1 988a ,b & 1 99 1a , 1 993 ) , s o t h e f o l low ing i s as ho r t s um -

s i de o f t h e s he l te r . P&S c a l ib ra ted r a d ioca rbon v a lues

ma ry o ft h e r e su l t s . T he S k r iva rhe l le ren c omp lex c ons i s t s

( 1 900 — 1 540 & 1 740 — 1 520 B .C . ) i n d ica ted al a te r L a te

o fs i xp r inc ipa ll a ye r si nt h es he l ter a nd t wo o u t s ide . Unde r

N eo l i th ic o rE a r ly B ronze Age Id a te .I n ap rev iou sa na lys is

t h e s he l te r , t wo s e c t ion s a r e i n ves t iga ted , t h e ma in t r ench

t h e l a ye rw a s e va lua ted a sL a te N eo l i th ic o fa ge , a nd mo s t

( 1 ) a nd t h e u ppe r t r ench ( 2 ) . T he t wo t r enche s a r e r e spec -

p robab ly L a te N eo l i th ic I( P re sco t t 1 99 1b :37f , 1 08 ) .

t i ve ly 1 a nd 2 s qua re m e te r s . T hey r ep re sen t o n ly as ma l l

L ayer V I /V I I Iw a s c ompo sed o f ma s ses o n t h e i n te r face

p a r t o ft h e e s t ima ted 8 0 t o1 50 s qua re m e te r l a rge c u l tu ra l

b e tween V I a nd V I I I , b u t c ou ld n o tc l ea r ly b e a s s igned t o

d epos i t s . O u t s ide o ft h e s he l te r as t ruc tu re h a s b een t e s ted

e i the r . T he mod if ied l i t h ics c ons i s ted o ft wo p re s su re f l ak e dp o in t sa nd ar e touched f l ake .T he b one t oo ls c on s i s ted o f

a nd af l in t d agge rh a s b een f ound .

p i e rce r s , t i p s o f s ha rpened t oo ls /po in t s , a nd u n iden t if ied w o rked p i eces . O therw i se , b ead s , p o t te ry a nd o t he r i t em s ,

T he ma in t r ench 1

a s sumed t o s t emmed f r om l a ye r V I , w e re f ound h e re . A

T he 1 s qua re me te r m a in t r ench w a s e xcava ted d own t o

r a d ioca rbon d a te f r om as amp le c o l lec ted o n t h e i n te r sec -

n a tu ra l d epo s i t s , a t ad ep th o f 2 me te r s . 1 020 e xcava t ion

t i on b e tween V I a nd V I I Ip rov ided ma in ly L a te N eo l i th ic I

u n i t s w e r e d ef ined i nt h ef i e ld . T hese w e re l a te rg rouped i n

v a lue s ( 2 100 — 1 900 B .C . , S&R c a l ib ra ted ) .

1 7c on tex t s , a nd t h e 1 7c on tex t sw e re g rouped i ns i xp r inc i -

L ayer V Iw a s t h e s e cond mo s tv o lum inous u n i t( P re sco t t

p a l l a ye r s . T he s i x l a ye r s a r e e ach p robab ly mo re o r l e s s

1 99 1b :36 ) a nd w a s a l so s e cond mo s tr i ch i nf i nd s ( t ab le 8 ) .

e qua lt o a" s i te" o ft h eN yse t -S tegg je p ro jec t .T he s i xp r in -

T he l a ye rw a s d i s t ingu ished b y as e r ie s o fh ea r th s i nc ha r -

c i pa l l a ye r s a r e d es igna ted w i th R oman n ume ra ls ( I I I , I V ,

c oa l r ich s ed imen t s . T he l i th ic a s semb lage c on s i s ted o fb i6 2

f a c ia l p o in t s , s c rape r s , r e touched f l ake s a nd o the r r e -

w a s i n te rp re ted a s a n i n t rus ive p i t d ug t h rough l a ye r V ,

t o uched p i ece s . Ar ound ,e dge r e touched ,q ua r tz i t ic d i sc ,2 1

t h e reby p o s t -da t ing t h a tl a ye r . T he l i th ic t oo ls c on s is ted o f

cm i nd i ame te r , w a s an ove l ty a nd w a s p e rhap s al i d f o ra

as i ng le b i fac ia l p o in t . T he b one a r te fac t s w e r e c omp r ised

w ooden p a i l , d ecomposed l ong a go . A c ha rac te r i s t ic

o f ap i e rce r a nd ap in . A l l p o t te ry w a s a sbe s to s t empe red .

w edge shaped s l a te p endan t s t emmed f r om t h e l a ye r . T he

Mo s t p o t te ry w a s o f as i ng le t ype , MA l . T he s he rd s w e re

b one a s semb lage c ons is ted o fp i e rce r s a nd s ma l l t i p s a nd

l a rge , o ne s he rd w e ighed 2 8 g ram s . T he p i t w a s d epos i ted

u n iden t if i ed b i t s , b u t a l so many d eco ra t ive i t em s . T he se

r ap id ly . T he p o t te ry p rov ided ag ene ra l B ronze A ge d a te ,

i n c luded as ma l lh o l lowed b ead , ab a r r e l s haped b ead w i th

wh i le t h es i ng le 1 4C -de te rm ina t ion i n d ica ted a na ge a r ound

ah o le i nt h e s i de , at oo th p endan t , al i p o r e a r s t ud a nd a

t h e E a r ly B ronze Age p e r . I( P&S c a l ib ra ted t o 1 420 —

c ha rac te r i s t ic p i n w i th ah o l lowed , d i agona l ly p e r f o ra ted ,

1 320 B .C . ) .

c up shaped h ead . T he p o t te ry f r om t h i s l a ye r c on s i s ted o f

M ix tur e o fl a yer sI V —V Iy i e lded ap i e rce r , s ma l l s ha rp -

n on -a sbe s tos t empe red s he rd s , a nd w a s n o t d eco ra ted .

e ned t i p s , as ma l l p in w i th a s poon -shaped h ead a nd a n

Sma l l s ha le , s he l la nd mo the r -of -pea r lb ead sw e re f ound i n

a n t le rt o o l .T he t oo lw a sc oa r se ly p o in ted i no ne e nd , w h i le

t h e l a ye r . Am inu te a nd c o r roded b ronze p i ece ( f o i l? ) w a s

t h e b lun t e nd h ad t wo c ro s s ing f u r rows , a s sumed t o b e

a l so r e cove red f r om ah ea r th .

a s soc ia ted w i th s ha f t ing . Ac ompa rab le t oo ls t emmed f r om l a ye rI V . T he l a ye rr ep re sen ted ag ene ra l L a te N eo l i th ic I

T ypo log ica l ly t h ea r tefac t ma ter ia lp rov ided ac l ea rL a te

a nd B ronze A ge c on tex t .

N eo l i th ic I d a te .T he r ad ioca rbon d a te p rov ided S&R c a l i -

L ayer I V c on s is ted o f c ha rcoa l ly c l ay w i th p ocke t s o f

b ra ted L a te N eo l i th ic I v a lue s( 2040 —1 750 B .C . ) ,p o ss ib ly

b u rn tr ock s . N oh ea r th l ike f e a tu re s w e re d i scove red i nt h e

s t re tch ing b ack t oL a te N eo l i th ic I . M ix tur e o ft h e l a yer s Va nd V I —V I I I c on ta ined p o t te ry

s ed imen t s .T he l i th ic sc on s i s ted o fp re ssu re f l aked p o in t so f

w i th a nd w i thou ta sbe s to st empe r . Two r e cove red b one o b -

aL a te B ronze A ge t o e a r ly P re -Roman A ge t y pe . O the r

j e c t s c on s is ted o f ap i e rce ra nd a n u nde te rm ined f r agmen t .

l i th ics c on s is ted o fr e touched f l ake s a nd s c rape r s . T he p o t -

O the rw ise t h e l a ye r c on ta ined af ew s ma l l s he l l a nd s ha le

t e ry s he rd sw e re a sbe s to st empe red .O fb one o b jec t s , al ong

d i sc b ead s , c ha ra c ter is t ic o f l a ye r V I . A 3 0 g ram b ronze

a r rowhead w i th b a rb s a nd at a ng , at o o l s im i la r t ot h e o ne

f r agmen t , c hopped u p f o r r eme l t ing , w a s o fp a r t icu la r i n -

d e sc r ibed i nc onnec t ion w i th m ixed l a ye rI V —V I , ap o in t ,

t e re s t . O che r s amp le s w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h e l a ye r , a nd

p i e rce r s a nd f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red . T he d i s ta l e nd o f

c on ta ined s ma l lb ronze b i t s , a sw e l la so t he rc i rcums tan t ia l

o ne o f t h e h a lve s o f as oap s tone c a s t ing mou ld w a s o f

e v idence o f b ronze me l t ing . T he b ronze me l t ing e p isode

s pec ia l i n te re s t . I t w a s p robab ly f o r c a s t ing l a nce t s , a

h a s p r ev iou s ly b een r e la ted t ot h e E a r ly B ronze A ge c om -

b ronze t ype o f w h ich t h ree s pec imen s a r e k nown i n No r -

p onen ti nl a ye r V( P re sco t t 1 99 1b :78 1 ) .

w ay ( Baudou 1 960 :Kar t e 7 ) . T he u ppe r l e ve l s o ft h e l a ye r

L ayer Vw a s s t ra t ig raph ica l ly i n te rp re ted a s at h ree c om -

y i e lded s ome i r on ,w h ich w a s mo s t ly a ni r on l ump ,c o r rod -

p onen t u n i t . I t s c omponen t p a r t s w e re f r om l a ye r V I , a n

e d i r on f l ake s f r om t h a t l ump a nd a s ma l l p i ece o f s l ag .

i n dependen tE a r ly B ronze A ge d epo s i t t h a t p reda ted l a ye r

T he se p i ece s o fi r on w e re f ound j u s tb e low t h el a ye rI I / IV

XV a nd ar e s t r ic ted p a tch o fs ed imen t sf r om l a ye r XV .T he

b ounda ry . T hey c anno tb e i n te rp re ted a sr e l iab le r e p re sen -

l i t h ics i n c luded ab i fac ia l p o in t s im i la rt ot ho se f r om l a ye r

t a t ive s f o r e a r ly i r on p roduc t ion , a s t h ey may h ave b een

V I , t h ree r e touched f l ake s a nd ap o s s ib le t ype V If l in td ag -

p re ssed d own f r om t h e l e ve l a bove .

g e rf r agmen to rd agge rs haped s t r ike -a l igh t .T h i si nd ica ted

T he t y po log ica ld a te i n d ica ted b yt h el i th ic sa nd t h ep o t -

a nE a r ly B ronze A ge WI I ) d a te . T he b one o b jec t si n c luded

t e ry s ugge s ted aL a te B ronze Age o re a r ly P re -Roman I r on

ap i e rce r , u n iden t if ied f r agmen t s , w o rk ing d eb r is , ab one

A ge d a te . L ance t s o ft h e t ype c a s t i nt h e mou ld f r agmen t

s pa tu la , as pea rhead -shaped , m i l l ime t re t h ick " p la te" , a

a r e g ene ra l ly d a ted t o t h e L a te B ronze A ge p e r . I V , t o a

p i n f r agmen t w i th i n c ised p a t tern s a nd a " T"-shaped p i n

l e sse r e x ten t p e r . V ( Baudou 1 960 :15 ) . Two r ad ioca rbon

h ead . T he p o t te ry a s semb lage r e f lec ted t h e l a ye r 's m ixed

s amp le s f r om t h e l a ye r w e re d a ted . T he s amp le f r om a

g ene s i s ,a nd c on ta ined s ome n on -a sbe s to st empe red s he rd s ,

c en t ra l z one o ft h e l a ye r I V a ccumu la t ion g ave c a l ib ra ted

o ft h e t y pe f ound i nl a ye r V I . O therw ise t h e re w e re a sbe -

v a lue s t h a t s ugge s ted t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e L a te B ronze

s t o s t empe red s he rd s . Af ew d i sc -shaped b ead s , c ha rac te r -

Age o rt h ee a r ly P r e -Roman p e r iod ( S&R c a l ib ra ted t o7 90

i s t ic f o rl a ye rV I , w e re f ound h e re , a sw e l l a s s ma l l b i t s o f

—3 90 B .C . ) . T he o the rd a te w a s f r om t h e u ppe r s e c t ion o f

s e rpen t in i te a nd a sbes to s .

t h e l a ye r , c ompa rab le t ot h e i r on , a nd y i e lded P re -Roman I r on Age v a lue s( 3 50 — 10 B .C . ) .I n ap r ev iou sr e v iew o ft h e

T he re w e re e l emen t st h a tt ypo log ica l ly p o in tt o as im i la r d a te f o r Va sf o rV I , i . e . L a te N eo l i th ic I , a sw e l l a sE a r ly

s i te , t wo p o ss ib le i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e a ge r e la t ion s h ave

B ronze A ge e l emen t s .T he e v idence e mpha s ized t h el a ye r 's

b een o u t l ined ( P re sco t t 1 99 1b : 110 f ) . T he f i r s t , a nd p e rhap s

m ixed n a tu re . T h is i se spec ia l ly t r ue i nr ega rd t ot h e p o t -

mo s tl i ke ly ,w a st h a tl a ye rI Vw a s ad ua l -pha sed u n i tw i th a

t e ry . T he 1 4C -da ted s amp le c ame f r om a f r agmen ta ry

p r inc ipa l L a te B ronze A ge c omponen t a nd a s ubo rd ina te

h ea r th s t ruc tu re , w h ich w a s s t ra t ig raph ica l ly i n te rp re ted a s

P re -Roman p ha se , wh ich w a sr ep re sen ted b y at h in d epo s i t

ad i s tu rbed p a r t o f l a ye r V I . T he d a t ing p rov ided v a lue s

o nt op o ft h eL a te B ronze A ge d epo s i t .T he s e cond s ugge s t -

s im i la rt ot h ose o t he rw ise f r om V I( S&R c a l ib ra ted t o1 960

i o nw a st h a tl a ye rI Vr ep re sen ted amo re o rl e ss c on t inuous

—1 750 B .C . ) . T he l a ye r c omponen t s w e re f o r t h e a bove

u se o ft h e s he l te r i nt h e L a te B ronze Age a nd P r e -Roman

r e a sons d a ted t o t h e L a te N eo l i th ic I , t h e E a r ly B ronze

I r on A ge . T he ma in c omponen tw ou ld t h us h ave b een f r om

A ge Ia nd E a r ly B ronze A ge I .

t h e L a te B ronze A ge . M ix tur eo fl a yer sI I / IV —V Ic ons is ted p a r t ia l ly o f ma s ses

L ayer XV w a s t h e s ma l le s t S k r iva rhe l le ren c on tex t , a nd 6 3

t o ta l , i ti sc l ea r t h a t l i t t le d eb i tage w a s d epo s i ted i n t h e

f r om t h el a ye r sI Ia nd I Vi n te r sec t ion ,a nd p a r t ly o f ma sse s s ub jec ted t ot h ee l emen t si no u te ra r ea so ft h es he l te r .I nt h e

s h e l te r . A n e a r l ie r c onc lus ion b a sed o n t h i s p rem ise w a s

l a t te rc a se ,t h es t ra t ig raph ic d i s t inc t ion sf ound i nt h es he l te r

t h a t mo s to ft h e s t age s o fl i th ic p roduc t ion w e re n o tc a r r ied

a r e l e s s d i s t inc t .

o u t i n t h e s he l te r ( P resco t t 1 99 lb :56f ) . T h is m ean s t h a t f i n ished o rn ea rf i n i shed t oo ls f o rc u t t ing a nd s c rap ing w e re

A pa r t f r om d eb i tage , t h e l i th ics c on s is ted o f as i ng le w e re

b rough t t ot h e s i te . Mo s t o ft h e p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e re f i n -

f r agmen ta ry . T he p o t s he rd s c on ta ined a sbe s to s . S ome

i s hed a nd u sed ( op . c i t . 4 7 ) , a nd p e rhap s b rough t t o t h e

s he rd s p o s s ib ly

s h e l te ra f te rt h e c onc lus ion o f ah un t ing e xped i t ion .

p re ssu re

f l aked

b i f ac ia l

s c rape r .

s t emmed

B one

f r om R oman

o b jec t s

I r on Age

o r

M ig ra t ion P e r iod b ucke t -shaped p o t s , a nd n o tB ronze Age /

A ma jor i ty o ft h e d ebr is w a s f r om L a te N eo l i th ic l e ve ls

P re -Roman a sbe s tk eram ikk . Ah a lf o f as ma l l a mbe r b ead

( 9 27 o r7 2% o ft h e f l ake s , 5 18 o r7 8% o ft h e m ic ro f lake s ) .

w a sr e cove red .T he b ead a f fo rded m eage rt y po log ica la s so -

T he a b so lu te f i gu re s f o rt h e L a te N eo l i th ic w e re o fc ou r se

c i a t ion , a nd c ou ld n o t b e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly o rt ypo log ica l ly

r e la t ive ly h i gh , b u t a s d emon s t ra ted i n ap rev iou s p ub l i -

d a ted mo re p rec ise ly t h an t h eB ronze A ge o rI r on Age .T he

c a t ion ( op . c i t . 5 7 ) t h e re w a s ar e la t ive ly l ow f r equency p r .

i r on c on s is ted o f ac o r roded b i t , ap i ece o fs l ag a nd ah o r se -

L a te N eo l i th ic u n i t . A l though a f ew p ocke t s o f d eb i tage

s hoe n a i l .T he mo s ta ccu ra te ly d a t ing I r on Age o b jec tw a sa

w e re o b served , c a . 2 0 p i ece s i n a5 0 x5 0 x 5c m u n i t , t h e

s ma l l " ca te rp i l la r -shaped b rooch" , at ype S he te l ig d a ted t o

a r tefa c t ma te r ia l w a s g ene ra l ly s p read t h roughou t t h e d e -

t h e l a t te rh a lf o ft h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod ( Sche te l ig 1 9 1 1 :86 ) .

p o s i t . G ra in s i ze s w e re s ma l l a nd t h e r e w a s n o q ua l i ta t ive

L ayer I I w a s t h e t op l a ye r . I tw a s g ene ra l ly t h in , a nd

e v idence o fp r ima ry c o re r educ t ion o n t h e s i te . Ar e a son -

c on ta ined s ma l l n on -con t inuous s ed imen t s t ruc tu re s . T o -

a b le i n terp re ta t ion o ft h is s i tua t ion i st h a tt h e l i th ic s o n t h e

w a rd st h ee xpo sed s e c t ion o ft h es he l te r ,o nt h eb r ink whe re

s i te d id n o t r ep resen t p r ima ry r e duc t ion , b u t a r e t h e p rod -

t h e s u r f ace b roke o f fa nd f e l l , l a ye r I I w a s d eepes t . S t ra -

u c t s o fc omp le t ion , u se , mod if i ca t ion a nd r e sha rpen ing . T he S k r iva rhe l le ren r epo r tp o in ted o u tt h a tt h ec ha rac te r

t i g raph ica l ly t h e l a ye r w a s b e l ieved t o c on ta in s ed imen t s a nd f i nd s f r om l a ye rI V .

o ft h el a ye r sV I I I ,V I , Va nd XV i n d ica ted r ap id d epo s i t ion .

A pa r t f r om s ome d eb i tage , t wo f l in t s t r ike -a l igh t s w e re

I nd ica to r s w e re i n tac ts t ruc tu re s , s ed imen tc ompac t ion a nd

r e cove red . A w o rked , b u t u n typ i f ied b one p i ece a nd

s i ze o f p o t she rd s . T he l e ng th a nd i n tens i ty o f o ccupa t ion

p i e rce r s w e re r e cove red . B one f i nds w e re f ew a nd i n a

s t i l l r ema in s h a rd t od e te rm ine ( s ee g ene ra l d i scuss ion i n

p oo rs t a te o f p reserva t ion . P o t s he rd s w e re a sbe s to s t em -

B e rg sv ik 1 99 1 :65 f j ) . T he b a s ic v a r iab le s i nt h e a na lys i s a r e

p e red a nd s ome p o s s ib ly s t emmed f r om E a r ly I r on Age

t h e s i ze a nd c ha rac te r o ft h e a r tefac t m a ter ia l a nd t h e v o l -

b ucke t -shaped p o t s . O the r d a t ing e l emen t s w e re t h e p in

ume o ft h e c u l tu ra l d epos i t s . O n ly as e c t ion o ft h e s he l te r

s e c t ion o f aV ik ing A ge p ennanu la rb rooch , ag l a s sb ead o f

w a s e xcava ted a nd t h e n umbe r s o f a r tefac t s c an o n ly b e

g ene ra l I r on Age d a te a nd p o s t -reforma t ion c l ay p ipe s . A

u sed i n av ery g ene ra l f a sh ion t o e va lua te d u ra t ion a nd

L a te I r on A ge i r on a r rowhead , ah o r se shoe n a i l , s ma l l

i n ten s i ty .F ina l ly , s ed imen t sh ave d i f f e ren t " gene t ic" b ack -

amoun t s o fs l ag , a nd s ma l l i r on f r agmen t s w e re a l so f ound

g round s , a nd a r en o tr e ad i ly c ompa rab le . D e sp i te t h ese d i f -

i nt h e l a ye r .

f i cu l t ie s , t h e magn i tude o fq uan t i ta t ive v a r iance f r om L a te

T he l a ye r w a s n o t 1 4C -da ted , b u t t h e a r tefac t ma ter ia l

N eo l i th ic t oB ronze A ge l a ye r sw a ss og r ea t ,t h a ta na ccep t -

f r om m ixed l a ye rI I / IV a nd I Ir evea led v i s i t si nt h eM ig ra -

a b le w o rk ing p ropo s i t ion i st h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l v a r ia -

t i on P er iod , t h e L a te I r on Age a nd p o s t -Ref o rma t ion p e r i -

t i on s r e f lec t r e la t ive d u ra t ion a nd i n tens i ty o f t h e h ab i ta -

o d . S t ra t ig raph ic o b serva t ion s i nd ica ted L a te B ronze Age /

t i on . T ab le 8 ( a nd t a b le s i n P r esco t t 1 99 1b :36 ) i lus t ra te

P re -Roman e l emen t sa sw e l l .I r on Age d epo s i t sw e re o the r -

s ome o f t h e d i f f e rence s . I n mo s t o f t h e c a lcu la ted c a te -

w ise f o und i nt h e s t ruc tu re i nu ppe r e xcava t ion s e c t ion 2

g o r ie s , l a ye r V I I I c ompr ised r ough ly 1 / 3 o f t h e t o ta l v o l -

a nd i n aMed ieva l h ou se s t ruc tu re f ound o n t h e r i dge o u t -

ume /a ssemb lage , w h i le l a ye r V I w a s t h e s e cond mos t i m -

s i de o ft h e s he l te r ( P re sco t t 1 99 1b ) . Wr i t ten a ccoun t s s ub -

p o r tan tl a ye r .

s t an t ia te u se o ft h e s he l te ri np a r t icu la r , a sw e l l a st h er ock

A n e xcep t ion w a s f ound f o r p o t tery . S ome a u tho r s c i te

s he l te r s o f Ä rda l i ng ene ra l , i nh i s tor ica l a nd mode rn e p -

p o t te ry a s a n i nd ica t ion o f s e t t lemen t s t ab i l i ty ( Ra f f e r ty

o ch s ( P resco t t 1 99 1b : 12f f i .

1 985 : 133f f ,w i th d a ta f r om Murdock 1 967 , Mu rdock & P ro v o s t1 973 ) ,b u to the rh ave s ugge s ted t h a tp o t te ry i sn o ta l ien t o n omad ic ma ter ia l c u l tu re ( Cr ibb 1 99 1 :75f ) . P o t s he rd s c an r ep re sen t ac a tego ry t h a t i sv e ry s en s i t ive t oc h rono -

S ome c ompara t ive a spec t s

c u l tu ra l o r u t i l i ta r ian d e te rm inan t s . T h is c an r e nde r i tu n -

T he t o ta l n umbe r s o fl i t h ic d eb i tage p i ece s r e cove red f r om

s u i tab le f o rd i ach ron ic c ompa r ison s o fi n tens i ty a nd /o rd u -

e xcava t ion t r ench 1w e re 1 292 f l ake s ( >4 mm ) a nd 6 6 1

r a t ion o f s t ay . T he s i ze o f l a ye r V I I I i nr e la t ion t oi t s a c -

s p l in te r s /m ic ro f lake s( 2 -4 mm ) . I nc onnec t ion w i th s e ve ra l

e r am ic n a tu re c e r ta in ly s e ems t oi n d ica t e t h a tt h i si s av a l id

o lde r

r ock

s he l te r

i n ves t iga t ion s ,

s u rp r is ing ly

s ma l l

a r gumen tf o rS kr iva rhe l le ren .D iach ron ic a na lys is i n al a te r

a moun t s o f l i th ic d eb i tage h a s b een r e cove red ( e .g . B oe

c hap te ra l so i n ve s t iga tes t h er e la t ive i n ten s i ty o fu se a nd /o r

1 934 :40f ) . I tc ou ld b e s ugges ted t h a t o l de r c o l lec t ion p ro -

p ha se d ura t ion . P o t te ry s ugge s t ss omewha tc on t ra ry i n d ica -

c edu re s w e re r e spon s ib le f o r t h is s i tua t ion . T he r e cove ry

t i on s i n t h is s t udy . I n ac ompa r ison o f S kr iva rhe l le ren

m e thod s f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren w e re mo re r i go rou s t h an

l a ye r s , i tw a s t h e l a rge s t l a ye r s t h a t c on ta in l e a s t p o t te ry .

t h o se u sed i n mos t p r ev ious e xcava t ion s . I ft h e e xcava ted

H oweve r , c ompa r ing L a te N eo l i th ic I a nd B ronze A ge

a r ea s o f t h e s he l te r w e re r ep resen ta t ive f o r t h e d epo s i t i n

c on tex t s , i . e . e xc lud ing l a ye r S k r iva rhe l le ren l a ye r V I I I , 6 4

f r om N yse t -S tegg je a nd S k r iva rhe l le ren , i ti sl a rge s i te s

T he s t ruc ture w a s l o ca ted u nde r t h e p ro tec t ive s he l te r

w i th ac ha rac te ro fr egu la rs ea sona l s e t t lemen t s —t h eb a se

o ve rhang , b u t a t ah ighe rl e ve l a nd 2 5 m e te r s t ot h e s ou th e a s to ft h e ma in e xcava t ion ( t rench 1 ) .T he s t ruc tu re w a sc a .

s i te s —t h a th ave y i e lded s he rd s .

4x4m e te r ,a nd t h ec u l tu ra ld epo s i t si ni tw e re a tl e a s tu pt o

I tc an b ec onc luded t h a ti nS k r iva rhe l le ren t h eL a te N eo l i t h ic p ha se s w e re t h e mo s t e x ten s ive . I nt e rm s o fa c t iv i ty ,

1me te rd eep . T he re w a s s ome s t ra t if i ca t ion i nt h e d epo s i t .

t h i s may b e c ompa red t o t h e a s sumed r a p id d epo s i t ion .

T he d epo s i t s a round i tw edged o u t w ay f r om i t .T he a r te -

T hus f a i r ly i n ten s ive u se i sa l so a f a c to r . T h i s o f c ou r se

f a c t s f ound w e re f ou r teen l i th ic p i ece s ( unmod if ied d eb i t age ) , f ou r p i ece s o f i r on , t wo p i eces o f p um ice a nd a

d oes n o te xc lude d u ra t ion a sw e l l .

r ound s t one . No f o rma l l i th ic t oo l s o r p o t te ry w e re r e co v e red .T he l i th ic sw e re p redom inan t ly f l in t , a nd w e re p rob -

T ab le 8 .Q uan t i ta t iv e a sp ec t so ft h el a ye r s i nS k r iv a rhe l le r en .

a b ly s t ruck f r om s t r ike -a l igh t s . I n a dd i t ion t ot h e a r chae -

L aye r

V o lume

F lake s / S p l in t e r s

L i th ic p i ece s

B one p i ece s

V I I I

3 6%

4 5 /47%

3 5%

2 1%

V I -VI I I

5%

6%

6 %

3%

V I

1 8%

1 9 /22%

2 7%

3 2%

9%

V -V I I I

4%

2 / 2%

1 0%

2 %

2%

d a te s . Two c ha rcoa l s amp le s ,c o l lec ted a tt wo d i f f e ren tl e v -

V

5%

5 / 5%

2%

1 5%

1 9%

e l s , w e re 1 4C -da ted . T he se y i e lded d a tes t ot h e I r on A ge ,

XV /V

2%

1 / 3%

XV

1 %

2 / 4%

2%

2%

I V -V I

4%

2 / 3%

6%

5%

I V

8%

6 / 2%

1 4%

9%

3 7%

6% 1 2%

4 / 3%

2%

4%

1 6%

4 / 1%

3%

4%

5%

1 292 f l ake s

6 3

17

2 38

8 / 9%

P o t s h e rd s

o log ica l ma te r ia l , b one refuse w a s c o l lec ted , a nd ab lack t horn ( p runu s s p inosa ) p lum w a s f o und ( s ee P resco t t 1 99 1a :40f f , 1 993 f o r a n ima l s pec ie s , s e e S o l tved t 1 99 1 f o r p l an t s ) . None o f t h e i r on f i nd s p rov ided a ccu ra te t ypo log ica l

S amp le -

9 52 .5 l i t r e s

s i ze

t h e u ppe r d a te w a s P&R c a l ib ra ted t o A .D . 7 30 — 8 80 , wh i le t h e l owe r s amp le w a s c a l ib ra ted t oA .D . 2 40 — 4 20 .

5%

T he u ppe r s e c t ion , t r ench 2 ,a nd t h e o the r I r on A ge f i nd s d emon s t ra ted t h a t S k r iva rhe l le ren c on t inued t ob e u sed i n t h e I r on Age o n af a i r ly e x ten s ive a nd r e gu la rb a s is .

Med ieva lh ou se s t ruc tur e

6 6 1 s p l in te r s

O n t h e r i dge o u t s ide o ft h e s he l te r , t h e r ema in s o f ah ou se N o te s :

w e re f o und . T he h ouse w a s n o t e xcava ted , b u t ar ad ioca r -

L ayer . O n ly l a ye r s i nt h em a in e xcava t ion s e c t ion a r ei n c luded .

b on s amp le f r om ah ea r th i nt h e h ou se g ave Med ieva l v a l -

L aye rI X , f r om n ea rt h ee dge o ft h e s he l te r , i s om i t ted . V o lume : S ee P r e sco t t 1 99 1b :35f .

u e s ( S&R c a l ib ra ted t oA .D . 1 030 1270 ) . T he h ouse w a so f

F lak e s / Sp l in ter s : P e r cen tage so ff l ake sa nd s p l in t e r so ft o ta l .

at ype c ommon t o t h e moun ta in s i n S ogn . T he se a r e i n -

L i th ic/ bone p i ec e s : T h i s i n c lude sa l l w o rk ed p i ece s i nt h el a ye r s

t e rp re ted a s l i on Age a nd Med ieva l s h ie l ing s . A s men -

u s ed .

t i oned b ef o re , t h e re w e re a l so s eve ra l f a i r ly moder n s h ie l -

P o ts herd s : S he rd s a r e h e r ec a lcu la ted b y n umbe r ,n o tw e igh t .

i n gs i nt h e g ene ra l a r ea .

S im i la rc a lcu la t ion sb a sed o n w e igh tw ou ld ,f o re xamp le , p rov id e h i ghe rv a lue s f o rl a ye r XV , s e eP r e sco t t 1 99 1b :88f f i .

E xcava t ions a nd f i nds a tT y in a nd S l e t teru s t T he r i ve r T ya i n Moada len r un s f r om t h e l a ke T y in ( c a . 1 080 m a . s . 1 . ) , 1 0k i lome te r s f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren . T y in i s

F l in td agger

t h e l a rge s t l a ke i n t h is p a r t o f t h e c oun t ry ( 30 .5 s qua r e

I n1 970 ah un te rf o und at y pe 1 B f l in td agge ro n al ow r i dge 3 00

m e te r s

n o r thea s t

o f

S k r iva rhe l le ren

k i lome te r s ) , a nd l i es a tt h e f oo t o ft h e u ppe r a l p ine J o tun -

( P re sco t t

h e imen r eg ion . T he l a ke w a sr e nowned f o ri t st r ou tf i sh ing ,

1 99 1b : 117 j ) . T he d agge r w a s r epo r ted t oh ave s t uck o u t o f

wh i le t h e s u r round ing c oun t ry w a s e xp lo i ted f o r h un t ing

t h eg round .E f f o r t si n1 989 f a i led t ot u rn u pr e la ted f i nd so n

a nd s t ock g raz ing . I nc onnec t ion w i th c a t t le d r ives t oe a s t -

t h e r i dge . B a sed o n t h e f i nd c i rcum s tance s , t h ep o s i t ion o f

e rn N o rway , o ne r ou te p a s sed b y T y in , a nd as t a t ion w a s

t h e f i nd i n r e la t ion t o t h e s he l te r , n ea r t h e mo s t c ommon

l o ca ted h e re ( Ä rebru 1 97 1 ) . T he mo s t c ommon r ou te t o

r ou te t h rough t h ev a l ley ,t h ef i nd -con tex tw a si n te rp re ted a s

Lx rda l , V a ld re s a nd e a s te rn No rway s e em s t oh ave t ur n ed

s a cr if i c ia l .

o f f f r om T yeda len b efo re c om ing t o T y in , c ros s ing t h e moun ta in s t o Lx rda l ( Sande 1 887 :22 1 ) . T y in s t o re s t h e w a te rt h a t f e ed s p ower s t a t ion s i nÄ rda l .

S k r i varhe l l er en , u pper t r ench 2

A cco rd ing ly i th a s b een d ammed o n s eve ra l o cca s ion s . I n

E xcava t ion t r enche s w e re d ug i n as t ruc tu r e f o und i nt h e

r e spon se t ot h e c ons t ruc t ion o ft h e l a s t d am a nd i n crea sed

s ou thea s t e nd o f t h e c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s i n S k r iva rhe l le ren .

f l ood ing o f t h e s u r round ing s i n t h e e a r ly 1 960 's , a r chae -

T he s t ruc tu re w a sv i s ib le o nt h e s u r fa ce . Two 0 . 5 x2m e te r

o log ica l s urvey s a nd e xcava t ions w e re c onduc ted . T he se

t r enche sw e re e xcava ted h ere ;o ne d i tch i n s ide t h es t ruc tu re

e xcava t ions w e re a mong t h e p ionee r i n ves t iga t ion s i nt h e

a nd o ne o u t s ide .T he r e su l t so ft h i si n ve s t iga t ion w i l ln o tb e

moun ta ins , a nd w e re c onduc ted u nde rd i ff icu l t c ond i t ion s .

d ea l tw i th a tl e ng th , o n ly s umma r ized , a st h ei n ve s t iga t ion s

T he s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion m e thod s u sed a tT y in i mpo se

w e re s ol im i ted . T he I r on A ge ma ter ia l p r ima r i ly s e rve s a s

s t rong s ou rce c r i t ica l r e s t r ic t ion s o nt h eq uan t i ta t ive u se o f

ac on t ra s t f o r t h e o t he r o l de r ma ter ia l ( f o r amo re d e ta i led

t h e f i nd s . I nve s t iga t ion s w e re s t a r ted a f te r t h e o r ig ina l

p r e sen ta t ion s e e P re sco t t 1 99 1b :1 12f ) .

s ho re s w e re f l ooded . T he w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t i n ah uge 6 5

a r ea i no n ly af ew s umme r mon th so f1 96 1-62 . Ma r tens h a s

w i th r o adwo rk n ea r t h e s ou thwe s t e nd o f t h e l a ke T o ro l -

c ha rac te r ized t h e a s semb lage s a s " unfo r tuna te ly l a rge ly

m en , i nT yeda len w h ich i sf i ve k i lome te r sb e low T y in , a nd

p i cked u p i nt h e e r oded z one s a f te rt h e l a ke w a s d ammed"

s i x k i lome te r s a bove S k r iva rhe l le ren . T he d agge rw a s d i s -

( Ma r ten s 1 973 :86 , t r ans l . b y C P ) . S t i l l , t h e f i nd sf r om T y in

c ove red 3 0 c m u nde rt h e g round a nd w a s v i r tua l ly u ndam -

d o h ave i n te re s t h e re a st h ey w e re f r om t h e s ame v a l ley a s

a ged .T he t ype w a st y po log ica l ly d a ted t ot h eE a r ly B ronze

S k r iva rhe l le r en , t h ough i n ad i f f e ren t a l t i tude z one . T hey

A ge p er iod I ( 1 I I ) ( Lombo rg 1 973 :76 ) .

t h u s p rov ide s ome q ua l i ta t ive i nd ica t ion s o ft h e u se o ft h e

A sf a ra si ti sk nown ,n os i te sh ave b een f ound h e re ,b u ti t

g ene ra l a r ea .

i sn o t c e r ta in w he the r t h e e xac t f i nd s po t h a s b een v i s i ted

B a sed o nt h es urvey a nd e xcava t ion r e po r t s ,a nd t h ec a ta -

b y a r chaeo log i s t s . I n terp re ta t ion s o ft h e f i nd v a ry f r om t h e

l o gue s i n t h e se r e po r t s ( L ien 1 96 1 , R o senqv is t 1 962 , a l so

p ro sa ic t ot h er i tua l .T he f i nd c an h ave b een l o s t3 500 y ea r s

L av ik 1 962 , Myh re 1 979 ) i tc an b e c onc luded t h a t t h e re

a go b y s omeone h un t ing o r p a s s ing t h rough t h e v a l ley .

w e re s i tes f r om t h e L a te Meso l i th ic ( m ic ro -b lade s ) , E a r ly

H oweve r , i ts e em s mo re l i ke ly t h a t i sw a s d epo s i ted i n

N eo l i th ic ( c y l indr ica l -co re s , t a nged f l in t b lade p o in t s ) ,

c onnec t ion w i th a s a cr if ice , o r p os s ib ly i n c onnec t ion

M idd le N eo l i th ic ( s la te p o in t s ) a nd L a te B ronze ( b ifac ia l

w i th ab u r ia l . I td oe s n o t s e em t oo r ig ina te f r om as e t t le -

p o in t s w i th s t ra igh t b a se s ) , a s w e l l a s aM ig ra t ion P e r iod

m en t .

i r on a r rowhead a nd H i s tor ica l -Per iod s t ruc tu re s . T he p r e s en t a u tho r h a s i n spec ted t h e f i nd s a nd t h ree s i te s c an b e s a id t oh ave c on ta ined L a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze Age a r tefac t s :

CHRONOLOGY

IV ika , I V N o rd re F lä ten a nd V S ond re F lä ten ( t ab le 9 ) .

S i t e s a nd l a yer s h ave s o f ar b een d a t ed i nd iv idua l ly . T he

T he se s i te s y i e lded at o ta l o ff i ve q ua r tz i te b i face s .

p urpo se o f t h i s c hap t er i st o e xp l ic i t ly s um u p t h e d a t ing

E xam ina t ion o ft h e r e levan t a r tefac t c o l lec t ion s , l e ad t o

e v id ence a nd a r range t h es i t e sc hrono log ica l ly . T he f i r s ts e c -

t h e g ua rded c onc lus ion t h a t t h ey r e p resen ted as t ep c l o se r

t i on l i s t s t h e r e levan tr ad iocarbon v a lue s , t h e s e cond s e c t ion

t oq ua r ry ing o fr aw ma te r ia l t h an t h e N y se t -S tegg je s i te s .

d ea l s w i th s t ra t igraph ic a nd t y po log ica l d a t es . F ina l ly , s i t e s

T he s i te sa l so r e p resen ted amo re l im i ted r a nge o fa c t iv i t ie s

a r eo rd er ed a ccord ing t or ad iocarbon y ear s , c a lendar y ear s ,

t h an S k r iva rhe l le ren o r N yse t -S tegg je , a nd many s t ep s i n

p er iod s y s t em sa nd r e la t ive d a t e s . T he c hrono log ica lo rd er ing

t h e l i th ic r e duc t ion s equence w e re c a r r ied o u t a to t he r l o -

i s ap r er equ i s i t ef or d i achron ic a na ly s i s , a s w e l la sf or p o s i -

c a l i t ie s . O the rw i se t h ef i nd s a r e i nd ica t ive o fL a te N eo l i th -

t i on ing t h e l o ca la r chaeo logy i n ab road er c on t ex tua lf rame -

i c /Bronze A ge h un t ing i n t h i s u ppe r a l p ine e nv ironmen t .

w ork

Modern u se o ft h e a r ea a sp a s tu re s a nd p os s ib le p a s tu r ing i n t h e B ronze A ge a tB e rda len , d emons t ra tes t h a t T y in 's a l t i tude d oe s n o te xc lude p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s .

T he r ad iocarbon c hrono logy

O ne q ue s t ion o fi n te re s t i si fc h rono log ica l t r end s i nt h e

R ad ioca rbon a ge d e te rm ina t ion sf r om t h eL a te N eo l i th ic t o

L a te N eo l i th ic — B ronze Age ma ter ia l c an b e d i scerned .

P re -Roman I r on Age s i te s a nd c on tex t s a r e l i s ted i nt a b le

S eve ra l ,i fn o ta l l , s i te sw e re m ixed ,a nd a s men t ioned s am -

1 0 . T he l o ca l c h rono logy c an b e w idened a nd d e ta i led f u r -

p l ing mus tb er ega rded a si n adequa te . T h ree q ua r tz i te b i fa -

t h e r b y c ompa r ing t h e l i s ted L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze

c i a l p o in t s w e re r e cove red f r om s i te I V ika ( C -30642b ) .

A ge v a lue s w i th v a lues f r om N yse t -S tegg je s i te s t h a t e x -

Two o ft h e se h ad s t ra igh tb a se s . T he max imum w id th w a s

h i b i tb l ade t e chno logy , a nd h ave y i e lded o l de rd a te s ( B jo r -

i nt h e u ppe rt h i rd o ft h ep o in t . T he t h i rd p o in th ad a na t yp -

g oe ta l . 1 992 , s e eN z e roy 1 993 c once rn ing w e s tern N o rwe -

i c a l b a se , a nd c an a tf i r s t g l ance r e semb le a n a t temp t t o

g i an N eo l i th ic 1c h rono logy )a nd y ounge rc ha rcoa lp i t s( s ee

p rov ide t h ep o in tw i th ah a f ta nd t a ng s .A l li na l lt h e r ew e re

t a b le 1 , a l so P re sco t t 1 986 [ 1987 ] : 143f , a nd B j ego e ta l .

i nd ica t ions o f aL a te N eo l i th ic o r E a r ly B ronze A ge d a te .

1 992 ) .T he r e su l t sc an a l so b ec ompa red w i th S cand inav ian

Two p o in t s f r om t h e t wo o t he r r e levan t s i te s w e re o f t h e

c h rono log ies ( Vandk i lde 1 990a :abb . 1 , r e p roduced i nV and -

t ype w i th s t ra igh tb a se s , max imum w id th a l ong t h e b a se —

k i lde 1 990 :109 , a l so L ombo rg 1 975b :123 ) .

g ene ra l ly a na logou s t of i nd s i nL a te B ronze Age c on tex t s ( s ee P re sco t t 1 986 ,199 1b :44f ) .

D a t ing b yt y po logy a nd s t ra t ig raphy A nE ar l yB ronze A ge f l in td agger a tT oro lmen

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge p er iod iza t ion i sl a rge ly

At y pe V I f l in t d agge r ( B 1 1279 ) w a s f ound i nc onnec t ion

b a sed o n t y po logy c omb ined w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a t ing

T ab le 9 .F ind s f r om t h e T y in e xcava t ion s . O n ly s i te s w i th L a te N eo l i th ic , B ronze A ge o rE a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge f i nd s a r e l i s ted . S i te

S ugge s ted

F ind s

d a te IV ika

MP , LBA , LN , MN

P redom inan t ly s l a te ; a l so 3p r e s su re f l aked p o in t s , d eb i tage a nd a n i r on a r rowhead .

I V N o rd re

LBA , MN

A dze f r agmen t , s l a te p o in t s , ap r e s su re f l aked p o in t .

LBA , MN , EN

S la te , a l so t a nged f l in t b l ade p o in t s , c y l ind r ica l c o re , p r es su re f l aked p o in t .

F lä ten VS ond re F lä ten P e r iod d e s igna t ion s : EN = E a r ly N eo l i th ic , MN = M idd le N eo l i th ic , LN = L a te N eo l i th ic , LBA = L a te B ronze A ge , MP = M igra t ion P er iod .

6 6

m e thod s s uch a s s t ra t ig raphy a nd c ro s s -f ind s . C or re la t ion

n ece s sa ry t oa t ta in a ccu ra te " per iod d a te s" . I ft ypo log ica l

o fp e r iod s y s tem s w i th r ad ioca rbon s y s tem s c an b e d i ff i -

e l emen t s a r e f ound i nr ad ioca rbon d a ted c on tex t s , p e rhap s

c u l t , a nd i n accu ra te . A l though mo re o r l e s s a ccu ra te

a l so f r om s t ra t if ied d epo s i t s , t h e c omb ined m e thod s p ro -

s cheme s t h a t c o r re la te t h e p e r iod s a nd r ad ioca rbon a r e

v i de c ro ss c heck s .

w o rked o u t ( e .g . H edeage r & K r is t ian sen 1 985 :280 , L om -

I f r ad ioca rbon -ancho r s f o r r e la t ive c h rono log ica l s y s -

b o rg 1 975b :123 , V andk i lde 1 990a ) , t y po log ica l e v idence i s

t em sa r ed i srega rded ,t h eN yse t -S tegg je c o l lec t ion sc on ta in

T ab le 1 0 . R ad io ca rbon d a t e sf r om L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge c on t ex t s i nN y se t -S t egg je a nd S k r iva rhe l le ren . S e lec ted I r on A ge d a t e s a r e a l so i n c luded . D a t e sa r e p r ev iou s ly p ub l i shed i nP r e sco t t 1 986 , 1 99 1b & B jo rgo , K r is tof f e r sen & P r e sco t t 1 992 . S i t e

T -n r :

B P :

C a l ib ra t ion :

N y se t -S t egg je ,B erda len & V ikada len : 2 7

K a lv ebe i t e t

T -6068

2 250+ / -70

BC 4 00 -200 P&S .

3 1

V ika s to len*

T -4779

3 480+ / -130

BC 1 970 1670 P&S .

3 2

V ika s to len

T -4780

3 760+ / -90

BC 2 330 -2040 P&S .

T -478 1

3 690+ / -80

BC 2 200 -1970 P&S .

T -6 100

2 480+ / -80

BC 7 90 -4 10 P&S .

T -7251

2 450+ / -80

BC 7 80 -400 P&S .

R eg . 1983

T -5485

2 200+ / -90

BC 3 90 -120 P&S .

KK 1

T -5860

2 470+ / -80

BC 7 90 -410 P&S .

T -5861

2 430+ / -70

BC 7 70 -400 P&S .

T -6063

2 490+ / -80

BC 8 00 -4 10 P&S .

T -6064

2 340+ / -70

BC 4 10 -380 P&S .

T -5864

2 460+ / -100

BC 7 90 -400 P&S .

T -6065

2 390+ / -70

BC 7 60 -400 P&S .

T -5863

2 490+ / -40

BC 8 10 -790 P&S .

T -6062

2 500+ / -70

BC 8 00 -520 P&S .

T -6 105

2 430+ / -80

BC 7 70 -400 P&S .

T -6106

2 510+ / -60

BC 8 00 -530 P&S .

3 4f

V ika s to len

4 7

U ru t le l c rä i* /**

KK3 KK4 5 0a

U ru t le l c rä i

5 1 1

U ru t le l c rä i

T -62 12

2 420+ / -70

BC 7 60 -400 P&S .

8 4

S ka rh .f o s s .023

T -4489

2 130+ / -80

BC 3 60 -90 P&S .

R 24

T -4788

2 540+ / -50

BC 8 00 -570 P&S .

T -6066

2 810+ / -100

BC 100 -840 P&S .

T -6067

2 710+ / -70

BC 9 20 -8 10 P&S .

T -5566

2 400+ / -80

BC 7 60 -400 P&S .

T -5567

2 350+ / -90

BC 5 20 -380 P&S .

T -5562

2 420+ / -50

BC 7 60 -400 P&S .

T -5602

2 250+ / -70

BC 4 00 -200 P&S .

T -5563

2 300+ / -40

BC 4 00 -380 P&S .

T -6874

2 680+ / -80

BC 9 10 -800 P&S .

T -6875

2 400+ / -80

BC 7 60 -390 P&S .

T -6639

2 420+ / -70

BC 7 60 -400 P&S .

T -6640

2 6 10+ / -70

BC 8 30 -790 P&S .

T -6629

2 700+ / -150

BC 1 0 10 -790 P&S .

1 30w

T -7156

3 280+ / -80

BC 1 670 1460 P&S .

1 30w

T -7157

3 130+ / -60

BC 1 500 -1320 P&S .

8 5

K a lv eb e i t e t

8 6

H e l l ingboen

1 03

1 05 16 1 30 s

B e rda l sva tn

B e rda len B e rda len B e rda len

N y se t -S tegg je ,o ther s i te s : 5

S lu ten

T -4495

3 650+ 1 -90

BC 2 180 19 10 P&S .

1 22

K 59 F o s sda len

T -7163

2 740+ / -70

BC 9 90 -820 P&S .

S kr ivarheler en : L aye r

I V top

T -8068

2 100+ / -90

BC 3 50 10 S&R .

L aye r

I V -m id

T -7829

2 440+ / -120

BC 7 90 -390 S&R .

L aye r

XV

T -7685

3 090+ / -50

BC 1 420 1320 P&S .

T -7830

3 520+ / -80

BC 1 960 1750 S&R .

L aye r L aye r

V I

T -7831

3 550+ / -110

BC 2 040 1750 S&R .

L aye r

V I /V I I I

T -7686

3 6 10+ / -50

BC 2 100 1900 P&S .

L aye r

V I I I

T -7832

3 420+ / -130

BC 1 900 1540 S&R .

L aye r

V I I I

T -7833

320+ / -90

BC 1 740 1520 S&R .

*I n t ru s ive c ha r coa l p i t s f o und o n 3 1V ika s to len & 4 7 U ru t le l c rä i a r e d a ted t ot h ep o s t l i th ic I r on A ge ( B j ego e ta l . 1 9 92 : 109 , 1 14f ) . * T he E t h ic p ha se o n s i t e4 7 U ru t lek rä i i sr e la tab le t oa n e r o s ive h o r izon i nt h e s u r round ing b og b y ac on t inuou s s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence ( P r e sco t t 1 9 86 [ 1 987 ] : 1 19 , 1 24f f , E i jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 : 1 17 ) . P ea ts amp le s , c o l lec ted i mmed ia te ly u nde ra nd o ve rt h e e r o s ion l a ye ra r e d a ted . O v e r t h e h o r izon v a lue s a r eT -4990 2 250+ / -90 b p &T -6 16 1 1 800+ / 130 b p , w he r eT -4990 i st h em o s ta ccu ra te . U nd e rt h eh or izon v a lue s a r e T -499 1 2 8 10+ / -70 b p &T -6 162 2 530+ / 1 10 b p . O ft h e se , T -6 162 i sc l o se s tt ot h eh o r izon . B a sed o nt h e se d a ta t h e s i t e w a s i nu se b e tween 2 250+ / -90 b p a nd 2 530+ / 1 10 b p .

6 7

T ab le 1 . R ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om c ha roa l p i t s n o tf ound i np r ima ry a s soc ia t ion s w i th l i t h ic s o rI r on A ge h ou se c omp lexe s , o rd a ted t ot h e B ronze A ge ( b a sed o n B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 , a l so P r e sco t t 1 9 86 ) . S i t e

T -n r .

B P

C a l ib ra t ion ( p& s )

2 6

R i ska l sva tn

T -5570

2 200+ / -80

BC390 170

2 9

K a lveb e i t e t 1

T -6 112

1 850+ / -50

AD 9 0 -230

2 9

K a lvebe i te t -2

T -62 16

1 650+ / -80

AD 2 60 -450

3 1

V ika s to len , g r .

T -4778

1 630+ /40

AD 3 90 -440

4 7

U r u t lek rä i , KK

T -5862

2 00+ / -50

BC 9 0 -AD 6 0

T -606 1

1 8 10+ / -70

AD 1 20 -320

T -6 108

1 700+ / -80

AD 2 40 -420

T -6 109

1 670+ / -80

AD 2 50 -440

p i t2

T -62 11

1 670+ / -60

AD 2 60 -430

p i t4

T -6 110

1 890+ / -100

AD 1 0 -230

5 1

U ru t lek rä i , 2

T -62 13

1 700+ / -80

AD 2 40 -420

5 3

K a lvbebe i t e t , 1

T -6866

1 830+ / -70

AD 9 0 -250

,2

T -6867

1 770+ / -50

AD 1 50 -330

,3

T -6868

1 820+ / -80

AD 9 0 -320

,4

T -6869

1 590+ / -100

AD 3 50 -590

8 2d

H e l l ingboen

T -5488

1 790+ / -100

AD 10 -370

12

B e rda l sva tn

T -7254

1 780+ / -70

AD 1 40 -340

T -6626

1 570+ / -80

AD 4 00 -590

T -7259

1 660+ / -50

AD 2 70 -430

1 22 f F o s sda len

T -7260

1 2 10+ /40

AD 7 70 -880

1 25

T -62 14

1 770+ / -80

AD 1 30 -370

T -62 15

1 580+ / -70

AD 4 00 -560

, 6

T -6 111

1 550+ / -60

AD 4 20 -590

1 28

F o s seda len

T -76 13

5 870+ / -100

BC 4 900 -4620

1 32

B e rda l sva tn

T -76 15

1 740+ / -80

AD 2 10 -400

4 7 4 7

p i t 1

1 22e F o s sda len

U ru t lek rä i , 2

f ew t ypo log ica l ly d a tab le f i nd s . T he c r uc ib le f r agmen t

1 978 :175 , 1 76 , O s tmo 1 977 :185 ) . A t temp t sh ave b een made

f r om s i te 2 7 K a lvebe i te t i si n d ica t ive o f ag ene ra l B ronze

a tt y p ing t h ese a xe s ( e .g . G lob o p . c i t . , O s tmo o p . c i t . , S e -

Age d a te , t h ough L a te N eo l i th ic b ronze c a s t ing o therw ise

g e rbe rg o p . c i t . ) , b u t t h e s ugges ted t ypo log ica l s y s tem s a r e

i n S cand inav ia i s n o t u ncommon ( Vandk i lde 1 993 ) . O f

d i f f icu l t t oa pp ly a nd p e rhap s n o tc h rono log ica l ly r e levan t

c ou r se , b ronze c on t inued t o b e c a s t i nt h e I r on A ge . T he

( Sege rbe rg o p .c i t . 1 70 ,M ikke lsen 1 989 :229 ) . T he s pec imen

n eed le -shaped b ronze o b jec tf r om s i te 4 7U ru t lek rä ic anno t

f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren i sf r agmen ta ry , a nd t h e ref o re e ven

b ea ccu ra te ly t yped . I tc ou ld b ea na t yp ica la w l ,p o s s ib ly o f

mo re d i ff i cu l t t ot ype . T he t ypo log ica l d a te i n d ica ted i sa t

L a te B ronze A ge o r ig in . A sbe s tos p o t te ry , a l so f ound o n

t h e g ene ra l l e ve l o f t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , p e rhap s E a r ly

s i te 4 7 , i sg ene ra l ly r e f e r red t o t h e B ronze A ge a nd P re -

B ronze A ge .

R oman I r on A ge i n w e s tern Norway ( i kgo tne s 1 986 :104 ,

Af ou r s ided p o l i shed b a sa l t ic a dze / ch ise l ( f n r .6 4 ) , s im i -

P re sco t t 1 99 lb :94f ) . T he a sbes to s p o t te ry f r om U ru t lek rä i

l a r t o t h e " ve s t /and sok s" t y pe , i sf o und i n c on tex t V I I I .

d oe s

n o t p rov ide a n a r row t ypo log ica l d a te , t h ough

D a t ing s ugges t ion s f o r t h e se a dze s a nd c h ise l s r e vo lve

Ägo tnes ( 1 986 :95 ) f i nd s i tc ompa rab le t oL a te B ronze Age

a r ound t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic ( G je r land 1 985 :28 , 3 2 , O lsen

s he rd s f ound a t F la tebakken i n Mo re & R om sda l . T h in -

1 98 1 :145 , 1 49 , Nxroy 1 987 :109 ) . B akka s ugge s ted t h a t a

w a l led s oap s tone w a re i sa l so i n d ica t ive o ft h eL a te B ronze

l a rge r v a r ian t o f t h e V e s t land a dze m igh t d a te t ot h e L a te

A ge o r P re -Roman I r on Age ( P i lo 1 990 , S he te l ig 1 9 12 : 1f f ,

N eo l i th ic ( Bakka 1 97 1 :8 , 1 3 ) . A c on tex tua l a spec t i n t h e

S k jo lsvo ld 1 969 ) . B a sed o n A go tnes ' d i scuss ion ( 1 986 :88 ,

S k r iva rhe l le ren c a se i st h a t s e ven u nmod if ied f l ake s a nd

1 5 ) , a n a s semb lage l i ke t h a t a tU ru t lek rä i , c ons is t ing o f

t wo mod if ied p i ece s ( ar e touched f l ake ,f n r . 6 9 , a nd ap r es -

t h in -wa l led s oap s tone w a re , a sbe s to s p o t tery , b ronze f r ag -

s u re f l aked b i fac ia l p o in t , f n r . 6 8 ) f r om p o l ished b a sa l t ic

m en t sa nd p re ssu re f l aked l i th ics , s hou ld b ea s s igned t ot h e

a xes /adze s w e re f ound . T he a xes /adzes w e re c l ea r ly a s ou r ce o fr aw ma ter ia l - as i tua t ion a na logous t of i nd s o f

L a te B ronze A ge o re a r ly P re -Roman p er iod . S k r iva rhe l le ren p rov ide s mo re c ohe ren t t y po log ica l e v i -

f r agmen ta ry N eo l i th ic f l in t a xe s b o th o n H a rdangerv idda

d ence t h an N yse t -S tegg je . C la ss if ica t ion a nd d a t ing i sd i s -

( I nd re l id 1 983 , 1 986 ) a nd i n N yse t -S tegg je ( B jo rgo e ta t .

c u s sed i nd e ta i l e l sewhe re ( P resco t t 1 99 1b ) a nd t h e f o l low -

1 992 :95 ) . T h is i n d ica te s t h a t a xe s /adze s f r om o lde r s i te s

i n g i sb a sed o n t h e r e su l t s p r esen ted t h e re .

w e r e as ou rce o f r aw ma ter ia l , o r t h a t s uch t oo l s w e re i n

L ayer V I I Iy i e lded a na t yp ica l s i de -f ragmen to f ab a sa l t ic

c on t inued u se i nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic . I nc onc lus ion t h e p r i -

s ha f tho le a xe ( f nr 4 30 ) . 4 5 y ea r s o f d i scu s s ion a bou t

ma ry t y po log ica l d a te f o rt h e " V es t land- a dze f r agmen t i s

s ha f tho le a xe s s ugge s t st h ec onc lus ion t h a tt h ey a r ep r ima r -

t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic ,b u tc on t inued L a te N eo l i th ic u se c an -

i l y L a te N eo l i th ic , a nd p robab ly n o t f r om t h e e a r l ies t p a r t

n o t b e r u led o u t . T he o t he r f r agmen t s i nd ica te a g ene ra l

o f t h e p er iod . T hey a l so o ccu r i n t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge

N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge d a te .

( Bakka

G lob

T h ree f l in t s h ave b een i n terp re ted a s p o ss ib le d agge r

1 938 :43 , H agen 1 944 :122 , Me inande r 1 9 54 :84 , S ege rbe rg

1 97 1 :12 ,

1 980 :4 1 ,

F o r ssande r

1 936 :133 ,

f r agmen t s . T he s t anda rd r e f e rence t od agge r t ypo logy a nd 6 8

c h rono logy i sL ombo rg 's w o rk f r om 1 973 ,w h ich i s ad eve l -

&1 9 54 :33 ) , o nt h eb a s i s o f ag rave c omb ina t ion f r om V in -

o pmen t o f Mü l le r ' s ( 1 902 ) a nd F o r ssande r ' s ( 1 936 ) s y s -

g äke r i n Sweden , t h a t s uch p endan t s may a l so b e d a ted t o

t em s . T he b a s ic r e su l t o fL ombo rg ' s s t udy i st h a t d agge r s

t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic B a t t le A xe C u l tu re . Ma lme r r e fu te

c an b e d i v ided i n to s i x ma in t ype s , a nd t h ese a r e a ga in

t h i s c l a im , p o in t ing o u t t h a t t h e p endan t w a s n o t f ound i n

d i v ided i n to s ub types . T he s i x t ype s h ave c h rono log ica l

t h e g rave o r w i th t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic p o t tery f r om t h e

a nd g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s . T hus t ype s I& I a r e L a te

g rave ( Ma lme r 1 962 :573 , 1 975 :90 ) . T he p in s s hou ld t h e re -

N eo l i th ic A ,t ype I Ia r eL a te N eo l i th ic B ,w h i le t ype I V /V

f o re p r ima r i ly b e r ega rded a so fL a te N eo l i th ic I a ge .

a r e L a te N eo l i th ic C . A l though t h e re h a sb een c r i t ic i sm o f

D i sc -shaped b ead s , f r om 4 , 1 mm t o7 , 5 mm i nd i ame te r

L ombo rg 's d agge r s y s tem ( Ebbe sen 1 975 , Mad sen 1 978 ,

a nd 0 , 7 mm t o2 , 3 mm t h ick , made o fs he l ls a nd s ha le ,w e re

S ege rbe rg 1 978 :178f f , V andk i lde 1 990a :175 , a l so L indman

c oncen t ra ted t oo r n ea r l a ye r V I . E igh t o ff our teen b ead s

1 988 ) , t h e g ene ra l t y po logy i sa ccep ted b y mo s t . Mad sen

s t emmed f r om l a ye rV I . F ive b ead s s t emmed f r om l a ye rV ,

a nd V andk i lde ( op . c i t . ) p ropo se m ino rc h rono log ica l r ev i -

ac on tex t s ed imen to log ica l ly a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l ly i n te r -

s i on s t h a tj o in L ombo rg 's L a te N eo l i th ic A & B ( d agge r

p re ted a s c on ta in ing ama jo r c omponen t o r ig ina t ing f r om

t ypes I ,I a nd I I ) t o a" La te N eo l i th ic I " , w h i le L a te

l a ye r V I . O ne b ead w a s f ound i n t h e u ppe r p a r t o f V I I I .

N eo l i th ic C i sr enamed " La te N eo l i th ic I " ( dagge r t ypes

S ha le a nd s he l lb ead s h ave b een f ound i nc on tex t s d a ted t o

I V a nd V ) . T hese r e v is ion s a r e a dop ted h e re . T he f i na l

B r i t i sh

d agge rt y pe , V I , i sp r ima r i ly d a ted t oE a r ly B ronze A ge I ,

1 980 :9 1 , R u s se l 1 990 , Wa tk in s 1 973 ) a nd t h e Dan ish L a te

b u ti sa l so f ound i np er iod I ( Lombo rg 1 973 :76 ) .

N eo l i th ic ( mo s t ly L a te N eo l i th ic I ) ( K jx r1 9 10 : 189f f ,B e rg

B eake r /We s sex

( C la rke

1 970 :438f f ,

H a r r i son

O ne f r agmen t f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren ( f n r . 4 45 ) i sp rob -

1 973 :150 , L ombo rg 1 973 :145 j ) . A l though s uch s imp ly

a b ly f r om a t y pe I d agge r h and le , p o s s ib ly t ype I .T he

s haped b ead s a r ef ound i nv a r ious g eog raph ica l a nd c h ron -

s e cond p i ece ( f n r .4 11) i sa l so ah and le f r agmen t , p robab ly

o log ica l s e t t ing s , i n t h e p r esen t c on tex t aL a te N eo l i th ic

o f L omborg 's t y pe I a . T he t h ird p i ece ( f n r . 1 ) i sf r om a

d a te t h ey s ugge s t aL a te N eo l i th ic ( I I ) d a te .

b l ade a nd c anno t b e mo re a ccu ra te ly t y ped . T he d agge r

A s ma l l a nd w ea the red p i ece o f b ronze ( l es s t h an 0 . 1

ma te r ia l i nd ica te s aL a te N eo l i th ic Id a te f o rl a ye r V I I I . A

g ram ) w a s a l so f ound i nl a ye r V I ( f n r . 1 89 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o

t y pe I b d agge r ( B 14456 ) , f ound o n ar i dge o u t s ide o ft h e

w ha t w a s s t a ted i n t h e d i scuss ion o f t h e b ronze i n l a ye r

s he l te r ,p rov ide sc i rcums tan t ia le v idence o f aL a te N eo l i th -

V I I I , i tmay b ep o in ted o u tt h a ti nS cand inav ia b ronze w a s

i c Ip ha se i nt h e s he l te r( P re sco t t 1 99 1b :1 17 , 1 08 ) . I fr e la ted

mo re c ommon i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic I t h an i nL a te N eo l i th -

t oS l c r iva rhe l le ren ,i tc ou ld b ea r gued i ti sc on tempo raneous

i c I( Vandk i lde 1 990b :1 1 1 ,f i g s . 7& 8 ) . Ab ur n tf l in td agge r

w i th l a ye rV I I I .

f r agmen t( f n r . 1 )s t emmed f r om t h el a ye r .A si tw a s ab l ade

As i ng le b ronze a r t ifac t( f n r . 1 87 )w a sf o und i nt h el owe r

f r agmen t ,o n ly ab road L a te N eo l i th ic o rE a r ly B ronze Age

p a r t o fl a ye rV I I I . I tw e igh s 0 , 3 g ram s a nd i sc one -shaped

p e r .I / I Ic an b ei n f e r red .P o t she rd sf r om l a ye rV Iw e r ec ha r -

a nd i sp robab ly p a r to f as t ud o rr i ve t .A l though m e ta li sn o t

a c te r is t ica l ly w i thou ta sbe s to st empe r . B if ac ia lp o in t s w e re

p r ev ious ly b een r epo r ted f r om L a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s

a l so f ound i nt h e l a ye r .

i n s ou the rn No rway , i th a s b een r epo r ted i n o ne o r t wo e qua l ly

e a r ly

c a ses

i n n o r the rn

No rway

T he a bove l a ye r V I a s semb lage i sr e ga rded a s aNo r th

( Schanche

E u ropean f i nd c omb ina t ion i nd ica t ive o ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic

1 989 :62 ) . C oppe ra nd c oppe ra l loy sh a sb een f ound i nL a te

I . As im i la rN o r th E u ropean b ackground i sa l so i n d ica ted

N eo l i th ic g rave sa nd d epo t si ns ou ther nS cand inav ia ( Fo r s -

b y ab one b ead f r om l a ye r V I . S im i la r t o Wes sex /La te

s ande r 1 936 : 10 1f f , S t enbe rge r 1 979 : 139f f ,V andk i lde 1 990a ,

B eake r t ype s ( f n r . 2 09 /228 ) , i ti s wha t P iggo t t ( 1 958 :228 )

1 990b , 1 990c ) . Non -f er rou sm e ta li st h e ref o re n o ti nc on t ra -

t e rm s a" togg le" . I th a s al ong i tuda l p e r f o ra t ion , l i ke

d i c t ion t o aL a te N eo l i th ic d a te . I n s um t h e t ypo log ica l

b ead s , a nd a l so h a s a n a dd i t iona l l a te ra l p er f o ra t ion . I n

e v idence i nd ica te s aL a te N eo l i th ic d a te f o r l a ye r V I I I ,

B r i t ish c on tex t st h ese t o gg le s a r ed a ted t oB eake ra nd We s -

p robab ly L a te N eo l i th ic I .

s ex c on tex t s . B a sed o nV andk i lde ' s ( 1 990a :abb . 1 )c ompa ra -

L ayer V Ih a s y i e lded n ume rous t y po log ica l ly i mpo r tan t

t i ve c h rono logy t h is i sc on tempo raneous w i th t h e S cand i -

f i nd s . A b one p in , o b l ique ly d r i l led f r om t o p t o f r on t

n av ian L a te N eo l i th ic t oE a r ly B ronze A ge I . P a ra l le l s t o

t h rough t h e c up -shaped h ead ( f n r . 2 3 ) , i s at e x tbook s pec i -

t h e B r i t ish b ead s a r e f ound i nF rance ( P iggo t t o p . c i t . , D a -

m en o ft h e t ype i n te rp re ted a s i m i ta t ion s o fC la ss ica l Un -

n i e l 1 958 ) . L ayer Vw a s as t ra t ig raph ic m ix tu re o fl a ye rV I , a nE a r ly

e t ice b ronze a nd g o ld p i n s . T ypo log ica l r e a son ing a nd f i nd c omb ina t ion s i nn o r thern G e rmany , D enma rk a nd Sweden

B ronze Age c omponen t a nd s ome l a ye r XV . I tw a s t hu s a

d a te s uch p ins t ot h el a t te rL a te N eo l i th ic , mo s tl i ke ly L a te

m ix tu re o fL a te N eo l i th ic I t oa bou t E a r ly B ronze A ge I

N eo l i th ic I ,a l though a nE a r ly B ronze A ge Id a te c anno tb e

c on tex t s . B ronze w a s a l so f ound i nt h is l a ye r . Ap i ece o fa

r u led o u t ( Be rg 1 973 : 148 , F o r ssande r 1 936 :135f f , G lob

ma ss ive , n on typ if ied b ronze w a s r e cove red ( f n r . 1 90 ) .

1 952 :596f f ,

L ombo rg

1 973 :145f f ,

Mon te l iu s

1 900 :1 16 ,

C hopp ing s ca r ss ugge s t sr eme l t ing o fb ronze i nt h e s he l te r .

1 9 17 :627 j j ) .

T h i s o bserva t ion i ss uppo r ted b y m icro scop ic ( 0 .0 1 mm ) f r agmen t s o f b ronze f ound i n s amp le s o f o che r ma te r ia l

S im i la r ly , t h e w edge -shaped s l a te p endan t w a s a l so o b l ique ly d r i l led f r om t h e t o p t of r on t ( f n r . 4 47 /448 ) . T he

c o l lec ted a round an ea rby h ea r th . T he o che rh ad b een s ub -

t y pe i st y po log ica l ly t i ed t ot h e We s ter n B e l l B eake r C u l -

j e c ted t os eve re h ea t , i n d ica t ive o fn on -f er rou s me ta l w o rk -

t u re ( Fo r s sande r 1 936 :135 , L ombo rg 1 973 : 149 ) . I n S cand i -

i n g ( P resco t t 1 99 1b :8 1 / ) . I nc h rono log ica l t e rms t h i s p o in t s

n av ia t h e se p endan t sa r ef ound i nc on tex tw i th o ra na logous

p r ima r i ly t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic I o rB ronze A ge . T he c on -

t ot h eb one p i n s a bove . O ldebe rg s ugge s ted ( 1 952 : 125 , 2 39

t e x tua l s i tua t ion w a r ran t s a n E a r ly B ronze A ge I / I I d a te . 6 9

Ad agge r h and le f r agmen t ( f n r . 1 70 ) w a s f ound i n t h is

B ronze A ge o r P re -Roman p ha se s i na dd i t ion t oI r on A ge

l a ye r . T hough n o t s e cu re ly i d en t if i ed a s t ot ype , i ti sp o s -

p ha se s i nS k jonghe l le ren . T he e a r ly p ha se s w e re e s tab l ish -

s i b ly f r om a n E a r ly B ronze A ge t ype V I d agge r . Apa r t

e d b y 1 4C -da te s ( So lbe rg 1 984 :17 1 , 8 4 ) a nd a sbe s to s p o t -

f r om p re s su re f l aked t o o ls a nd f l ake s , t h e re w a s as i ng le

t e ry ( P re sco t t 1 99 1b :62 ) . S he rd s o f a sbe s to s p o t te ry w e re

b l ade ( f n r . 6 7 ) a mong t h e l i th ic s . T h is w a s t h e o n ly b lade

a l so f o und i nS k r iva rhe l le ren .

f ound i nS k r ivarhe l le ren .I ti sn o t ma jo rt ypo log ica lo rt e ch -

L ayer I I wa s c ompo sed o f s e ve ra l s ma l l s t ra t ig raph ic

n o log ica l s i gn if icance , a s n o o the r i n d ica t ion s o f b lade

u n i t so nt op o ft h el i th ic l a ye r s . I nt h ei n te r face b e tween I I

t e chno logy w e re p r e sen t . L aye r Va l so c on ta ined b o th n on -

a nd V I as ma l lb ronze " ca terp i l la r" b rooch w a sf ound ( f n r .

a sbes to s a nd a sbe s to s t empe red p o t s he rd s , w h ich w a s a

1 92 ) . T he t ype d a tes t ot h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e s i x th c en tu ry ,

r e f lec t ion o ft h e mu l t i -componen t s t ra t ig raphy .

i . e . , t h e l a t te r h a lf o f t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod ( S che te l ig

Ap a r to fl a ye r Vc ou ld b e i s o la ted f r om V I a nd w a s n o t

1 9 11 :86 ) .U nde r as t one ,t u cked a way i n as ma l ln i che i nt h e

c on tam ina ted b y t h e l a ye r XV p i t , i . e . w a s " pu re V" . Un -

s he l te r w a l l , w a s t h e b ronze p in o f ap ennanu la r b rooch

f o r tuna te ly , t h e l e ve l w a s n o t r ad ioca rbon d a ted . I tc on -

( f n r . 1 2 ) . T he t ype i sd a ted t ot h e L a te I r on Age . I r on a l so

t a ined t h el owe rs e c t ion o f ah a tch -deco ra ted p in h ead ( f n r .

o ccu red i nl a ye r I I o r i n t h e l a ye r i n ter face i mmed ia te ly

4 16 )a nd af r agmen ta ry c ru tch o r" T" s haped b one p in ( f n r .

b e low I I . H is tor ica l u se o f S k r iva rhe l le ren i sa t te s ted b y

4 20 ) . I n ag ene ra l f a sh ion t h is l a t te rp in may b e a s soc ia ted

c l ay p i pe sf r om l a ye rI I , a sw e l l a sl i t e ra ry s ou rces ( Sande

w i th L a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze p in s .I tr e semb le st h e

1 887 :22 1 ) . A l l 1 3 p o t s he rd s f r om l a ye r I I w e re a sbe s tos

t o p s e c t ion o f aWe s sex C u l tu re b one p in e nd ing i n ap ha l -

t empe red . S ome o ft h e s he rd s p o ss ib ly s t em f r om b ucke t -

l u s ( Cu r le 1 9 16 :303 ) . T he s imp le mo rpho logy o ft h e b one

s haped p o t s a nd n o t a sbe s tos p o t te ry . T h i s i n d ica te s a

p i n i sa na logous t om e ta lp in s f r om l a te B eake r /ea r ly We s -

R oman o rM ig ra t ion P e r iod d a te .A pa r tf r om af r agmen ta ry

s e x c on tex t s , c on tempo raneous w i th S cand inav ian LN I

s t r ike -a l i te a nd a s c rape r , n o l i th ic t oo ls w e re f ound i n

a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge I / I I . T -shaped p i eces a r e f ound i n

l a ye rI I .

S chnurk eram ikk c on tex t i n Sw i tze r land ( S t rahm 1 969 :100 1 0 1 ) . T he r e la t ive c h rono logy i sc onfus ing , b u tt h e S chnu r -

O ther c ommen t s

k e ram ikk w a s p robab ly c on tempo raneous w i th Sw is s l a te

P o t te ry . A sbes tos p o t te ry i n We s tern N orway h a sp rev ious -

B e l l B eake r a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge , o r l a te S cand inav ian

l yb een r e f er red t ot h eB ronze Age a nd P re -Roman P e r iod .

M idd le N eo l i th ic ( "Overgrav"-pha se ) ( op . c i t . 1 22 ) . I fa

I ti sn o t e ncoun te red i n r e l iab le L a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s

t ypo log ica ld a te f o rt h e No rweg ian p i ece i ss ough t , i tc ou ld

( r ev iew i nP resco t t1 99 1b :94f f , Ägo tne s1 986 ) .T he s i tua t ion

b e N eo l i th ic , a nd i n r e f e rence t o t h e B r i t ish f i nd s , L a te

i nS k r iva rhe l le ren c onf i rmed t h is p a t tern . T he u ppe r L a te

N eo l i th ic p er iod I , o r E a r ly B ronze Age I / I I . T he s imp le

N eo l i th ic l e ve l ( l aye r V I ) c on ta ined p o t tery w i thou t a sbe -

s hape o f t h e p in i so f l im i ted t y po log ica l v a lue , b u t s t i l l

s t o s , w h i le t h e e a r l ie s t a sbes to s p o t te ry w a s f r om m ixed

s e em s t o e mpha s ize t h e mo rpho log ica l r e la t ion b e tween

L a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze A ge a nd " c lean" B ronze A ge u n i t s

me ta l a nd b one o b jec t s i nt h e N o r th E uropean p er iod s i n

a bove L a te N eo l i th ic l e ve ls . L aye r V ma rked t h e t r an s i t ion

q ue s t ion . P o t te ry f r om t h e " pu re" p a r t o fl a ye rVi sa sbe -

f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t ot h e B ronze Age .

s t o s t empe red , b u t o f ad i f f e r en t w a re t han t h e p o t s he rd s

F l in t d agge r ; B 14456 , w a s f ound o n ar i dge i nf r on t o f

f ound i nl a ye r XV . T he " pu r e l a ye r V" , t hough q uan t i ta -

S k r iva rhe l le ren , 3 00 m e te r s n o r thea s t o f t h e s he l te r . I t

t i ve ly s ma l l , s ub s tan t ia ted t h ep re sence o fa nE a r ly B ronze

i s at y pe l b d agge r f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic I( P re sco t t

A ge c omponen t o l de rt h an l a ye r XV .

1 99 1b :1 17 f ) . T he d agge ri sp l aus ib ly a s soc ia ted w i th d epo s -

L ayer XV w a s t y po log ica l ly d a ted b y t h e a sbes to s p o t

i t s i nt h e s he l te r , i nw h ich c a se i ts hou ld b e l i nked t ol a ye r

s he rd s t ot h e B ronze A ge o rP re -Roman p er iod .

V I I I .T he d a te f o rV I I It h ereby i n d ica ted i sL a te N eo l i th ic I .

L ayer I Vy i e lded af r agmen ta ry s oap s tone mou ld ( f n r . 1 )

T h i s i sn o t c on t rad ic to ry t ot h e s t ra t ig raph ic a nd t ypo log -

o ft ypo log ica l i mpo r tance . T he mou ld i s mo s t l i ke ly u sed

i c a l e v idence p re sen ted a bove , b u t d i ve rge s s l igh t ly f r om

f o r c a s t ing s ma l l u ndeco ra ted l a nce t s ( "k le ine , u nver z ier t e

t h e r a d ioca rbon v a lue s .

L an ze t ten") a sd escr ibed b y B audou ( 1 960 :15 ) . I ndeed , o ne ( B -3875 ) o f t h ree " Lanze t ten" f ound i n No rway ( op .c i t .

S i te s w i thou ti nd epend en td a tab l e e l emen t s

K ar t e 7 ) f i t s t h e mou ld p e r f ec t ly ( P re sco t t 1 988a :f ig . 3 ) . T he t ype i sp r ima r i ly d a ted t oB ronze Age p e r iod I V , b u t

S eve ra l s i tes w i th s u r face f l ak ing ma ter ia l w e re n o t r a d io -

r e la ted a r t ifac t s ( " lan ze t tar t ige") a r e f ound i n p e r iod V

c a rbon d a ted , a nd d i dn o tc on ta in t y po log ica le l emen t s , e x -

( Baudou 1 960 :15 ) .

c ep ti nr e f e rence t ot h el o ca lp o in tt ypo logy ( P re sco t t1 986 , 1 99 1b :44 1 ) . T hey mu s t t h e ref o re b e d a ted i n r e f e rence t o

A b one p ro jec t i le p o in t ( f n r . 1 6 /222 ) w a s f ound i n a n a gg rega t ion o f b one s ( p rov id ing ma ter ia l f o r 1 4C -da te

l e ss p r ec i se e l emen t s o r mo re c i r cu la ra rgumen t s b a sed o n

T -8068 : 2 100+ / -90 b p ) . S im i la r p o in t s w e re f ound i n

t h e l i t h ics , i . e . , o n s u r face f l aked p o in t s , t e chno log ica l i n -

S k jonghe l le ren . B rogge r d a ted t h o se t o t h e L a te R oman

d i ca t ion s , a nd r aw m a ter ia l . T he s i te s i n q ue s t ion a r e : 2

I r on A ge o rM ig ra t ion P e r iod b y c ompa r ison w i th D an ish

B uhaugene , 1 07 K a lvebe i te t , 14 B e rda len , 1 39 B uhaugene ,

ma ter ia l ( Brogge r 1 9 10 , 1926 ) . T he p resen t a u tho r b e l ieve s

1 30N B e rda len . S i te 1 07 w a sp rev ious ly r ev iewed ( P re sco t t

B rogge rw a s i ne r ro r . F i r s t , B rogge r a s sumed t h a t a l l b one

1 986 [ 1 987 1 :164 ) , a nd w a s d a ted t ot h e L a te B ronze A ge .

p o in t s f r om S k jonghe l le ren w e re c on tempo raneous . T h i s

T he a ge o fs i te 2B uhaugene i si nd ica ted b y t h e a moun to f

w a s f a r f r om c e r ta in , a s t h e p o in t s a r e morpho log ica l ly

f l in t ( 9 2 .6% ) a nd t h eb i fac ia l p o in tf r agmen t . I ti st h u s d a t -

d i f f e ren t . B rogge r s e emed , u nde r s tandab ly , u nawa re o f

e d t ot h e L a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze A ge , a nd may t e n ta t ive ly 7 0

b e a s s igned t o t h e L a te N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronze A ge b e -

T ab le 1 2 . N y se t -S tegg je a nd S k r iva rhe l le r en . R e la t iv ea nd p e r iod ica l

c ause o ft h e f i ne p re ssu re f l ak ing t e chn ique a nd l a rge p e r -

o rde r ing o fs i te sa nd l a ye r s w i th p r e s su r e f l aked l i t h ic s . T he l i s ti s i nc h rono log ica l o rde r . T he l o ca l t y po logy f o rb i f a c ia l p o in t s ( P r e -

c en tage f l in t . T he L a te N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronze A ge p ha se

s co t t 1 986 ) i sn o tu sed f o rt y po log ica l d a t ing .

a ts i te 1 4i si n d ica ted b y t h ep re ssu re f l ak ed p o in t s ' s hape . T he p o in t s v ague ly r e semb le t ho se f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren l a ye rV Ia nd N y se t -S tegg je s i te 3 1 V ika s tO len . No " too ls" w e re f ound a t 1 39 B uhaugene . T he c oa r se f l ak ing t e ch -

LN I :

A rgumen t :

S i t e 3 2 : D agge r ,

O lde s t 1 4C -da te s .

B -14456 :

D agge r , t ype I b

n i que , a nd t h e l o ca l q ua r tz i te u sed , w h ich r e semb le L a te LN ( I ? ) :

B ronze A ge /P re -Roman s i te s i nB e rda len , i nd ica te aL a te

L aye rV I I I :

B ronze A ge /P re -Roman d a te .

U nde rV I , p o s s ib le I ad agge r . A xe f r agmen t s , p ha se b e s tr e la ted d agge rB 14456 .

LN I :

C hrono log i ca lo rd er ing o ft h eu n i t su sed i na na l y s i s S o f a r r ad ioca rbon , s t ra t ig raph ic a nd t y po log ica l e v idence

S i te 3 1 :

1 4C -da te s .

&L aye rV I :

A s semb lage o fb one p i n , b ead s , s l a te p endan t , d agge rf r agmen ta nd b ronze f r agmen t . S uppo r t iv e

h a s b een d i scu s sed s epa ra te ly . T ab le 1 2p r e sen t s ar e la t ive

i n d ica t ion s i nb one b ead . P o t te ry d oe s n o tc on ta in

o rde r ing o fL a te N eo l i th ic , B ronze Age a nd e a r ly P re -Ro -

a sbe s to s . 1 4C -da t e s .

m an s i te s a nd c on tex t s b a sed o n t h e c omb ined c h rono log -

EBA ( I ? ) /LN I :

i c a l e v idence . I ta l so p re sen t s a n a t temp ta tc o r re la t ing t h e

L aye rV :

C ru tch shaped p i n . P o t te ry w i th a nd w i thou t a s be s to s . P o s s ib le t y p eV I d agge rf r agmen t . D is c -

s i t e s w i th t r ad i t iona l p e r iod iza t ion . When a b so lu te d a te s

b ead s . S t ra t ig raph ic e v idence o fi n -m ix tu r eo fl a ye r

a nd p er iod iza t ion a r e s o le ly b a sed o nr ad ioca rbon , a nd n o t

V I . S t ra t ig raph ica l ly b e tween V I ( LN I ) & XV

c or robo ra ted t h rough t y po logy , c e r ta in r e serva t ion s s hou ld

( EBA ) . 1 4C -da t e .

b e m ade i nr e ga rd t oa ccu ra cy . T ab le 1 2a nd f i gu re 1 7s um

E BA I ( I I I ) :

u p t h e c h rono log ica l s i tua t ion .

L aye r XV :

S t ra t ig raph ica l ly b e tween V ( EBA /LN ) &I V ( LBA ) . A sbe s to s p o t t e ry . 1 4C -da t e .

L BA ( I I ) I V ( V ) : S i te 8 5 :

1 4C -da te s .

L BA I VN : S i t e 1 30w :

1 4C -da te .

L aye rI V 1* :

S oap s tone mou ld f o rl a nce t s , 1 4C -da t e .

L BA V /V I /PR IA : S i te 16 :

1 4C -da t e s .

S i te 4 7 :

A s semb lage o fa sbe s to sp o t te ry , p i ece o ft h in w a l led s oap s tone w a r e , b ronze f r agmen t &b i f a c ia l l i t h ics . 1 4C -da te s .

( LBA ) P R IA : S i te 8 6 : S i te 2 7 :

1 4C -da te s . 1 4C -da te s . C ruc ib le f r agmen t . P R IA :

S i t e 1 03n , s : L aye rI Vu* :

1 4C -da te s . 1 4C -da te . S t ra t ig raph ica l ly u nde rM ig ra t ion P e r iod f i nd s &o ve r BA laye r s .

L a t e P R IA : L i th ic u sage i st e rm ina ted b e tween 0 200 B .C . *L aye rI V S k r iva rhe l le r en i sd i v ided b e tween al owe r( 1 )a nd a n u ppe r (u ) s egmen t . T h is i sd ue t ot h ed if e ren ce i n1 4C -va lue s y i e lded b y t h e l owe rc ha r coa l s amp le a nd t h e u ppe rb one s amp le . A bb rev ia t ion s : LN = L a te N eo l i th ic , BA = B ronze A ge , P R IA = P r e -Roman I r on A ge .

7 1

F ig . 1 7 . C hrono log ica lc har tf or N y se t -S t egg j ea nd S k r ivarhe l l er en . I np ar t " A ." s had ing i n d ica t e s t y po log ica ld a t e s . T he t y po log ica le va lua t ion i si n d epen d en to ft h e l o ca lb i f ac e t y po logy . B rack e t s i n d ica t e r ad iocarbon v a lue s( o ne s i gma ) , w h i l et h eh eavy b l ack i n d ica t e sp er iod o fm ax imum o v er lap b e twe en m u l t ip l ed a t e s . I ns e c t ion " B ." s had ing i nd ica te ss i t ea ge b a sed o n t h e l o ca lt y po logy f or b i f ac ia lp o in t s ( P r e sco t t1 986 ) . T ot h e r i gh tt h ss i te sp o s i t ion i n r e la t ion t o Mon t e l iu s ' t r ad i t iona lp er iod s y s t em a nd c hrono logy a nd V and k i ld e ' s( 1 990 )s c heme i si nd i ca t ed . ( Char tb yE .H of fH i s tor i sk m u s eum ) .

7 2

3 .T owa rd sb a s i ci n t e rp r e t a t ion s : P r ima ry s ub s i s t en ce e v iden ce B a sed o ni n t ra s i t ee v id enc e , i n t er s i t ep a t t er n sa nd g en era le nv i ronmen ta ld a ta , t h i s s e c t ion c over st h eq ue s t ion so fs ub s i s t enc ea nd p roduc t ion . S om et e rm ino log ica la nd m e thodo log ica lc on s id era t ion si ne va lua t ing p a s tora ls ub s i s t enc ea r ed i scu s sed .

A s a n i n t roduc t ion t ot h e d i scus s ion o f s ub s is tence a c t iv -

b eyond s imp le " sub s is tence" . H e re t h e t e rm s " pa s to ra l

i t e s , t h e d i f f e rence b e tween t wo r e la ted t e rm s , " subs is t -

p roduc t ion" a nd "mode o fp roduc t ion" a r e u sed . T he f i r s t

e nce" a nd " economy" ,n eed t ob ed ef ined . " Sub s i s tence"

h a sn a r rowe ri mp l ica t ion st h an t h el a t te r ,w h ich i su sed i na

i sc oncerned w i th s ou rce s a nd m ean s o f s uppor t , o r l i ve -

manne r s im i la rt oC r ibb ' s "mode o fs ub s i s tence" .

l i hood —i . e . i n many w ay st h ep roduc t ion p roce ss . " Econo -

T he c o re o ft h ef o l low ing c hap te ri sc oncerned w i th s ub -

my" i sc once rned w i th t h e s t ruc tu re a nd o rgan iza t ion o f

s i s tence a nd p roduc t ion . E conomy i sc ove red mo re e xp l i -

p roduc t ion ,d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c on sump t ion o fg ood sa nd s e r -

c i t ly i nt h e c onc lud ing c hap te r . A ma in p rob lem i na t ta in -

v i ce s . O n t h i s l e ve l o f a na lys is t h e t e rm s a r e d ef ined i n

i ng s ub s i s tence a nd p roduc t ion e v idence i n s ou thern

a cco rdance w i th c ommon E ng l ish u sage .T he s ame s ub s is t -

No rway ,i st h ep oo rs t a te o fp re se rva t ion o fo rgan ic ma ter i -

e nce a c t iv i t ie s ( f o r e xamp le h un t ing ) c an b e c a r r ied o u t

a lo n o pen -a ir s i tes . O rgan ic ma te r ia l i sr a re ly p re se rved ,

w i th in d i f f e ren t e conom ie s o r e conom ic s y s tem s , wh i le

a nd , a bove a l l , s t one i sr e cove red . I fc ha r red , s ome b one

s im i la re conom ic s y s tem sc an c on ta in d i f f e ren ts ub s i s tence

a nd p l an tr ema ins may b er e t r ieved ,t hough s pec ie si d en t if i -

t ype s ( a g r icu l tu re , t r ade o r i ndu s t ry b a sed e conom ies i n

c a t ion i so f ten d i ff icu l ta nd q uan t if i ca t ion mean ing le ss . A s

c ap i ta l ism ) . A s w i th c u l tu re a nd s ub s is tence , t h e re i sn o

f a ra ss e ed sa r ec oncerned ,c o l lec t ing r equ i re ss pec ia la t ten -

s i ng le d e te rm inan t s t ruc tu re w h ich n a r row ly l e ad s f r om

t i on a nd p rocedu re s t h a th ave r a re ly b een i mp lemen ted . I n

s ubs is tence t oe conomy . O n t h e s ca le " ac t iv i ty" — " sub -

r ega rd N y se t -S tegg je , t h e se s t ep s w e re n o t s ys tema t ica l ly

s i s tence" — " economy" , t h e re c an b en or i g id d i s t inc t ion s .

t a k en .

T he a u tho r w ou ld a r gue t h a t ma in ta in ing a l e ve l o f d i s -

A l toge the r ,f o ro pen a i rs i te sa t Ny se t -S tegg je t h i sm eans

t i nc t ion i sn eve rt h el e ss v a luab le .T he u nf o r tuan te u sage o f

t h a t :

t h e t e rm " hun t ing e conomy" t od e scr ibe p a r t s o fN orway f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t ot h e I r on A ge i sa n e xamp le o ft h e

-

n ece s s i ty f o r at e rm ino log ica l s epa ra t ion o f " subs is tence"

D i rec ts ub s is tence e v idence i s meage r ,a nd i su neven ly d i s t r ibu ted f r om s i te t os i te .

a nd " economy" , a nd f o rt h a t ma t te r " cu l tu re" . -

T he re a r es t i l lp rob lem si nt h ep r esen td i scu ss ion . P a s to -

C i rcum s tan t ia le v idence , s uch a sf unc t iona li n te rp re ta -

r a l i sm c on ta ins a n e l emen t o f s ub s i s tence , b u t " pa s to ra l

t i on s o ft oo ls , s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s w i th in av a l ley a nd

s ub s is tence" i sh a rd ly a n a dequa te t e rm t od e scr ibe p a s to -

p o l len a na ly s is ,a r eo f ten t h ep r inc ipa ls ou rce so fd a ta .

r a l p roduc t ion . " Pa s to ra l e conomy" i sa l so u nf o r tuna te .

-

P a s to ra l i sm c an b e i n corpo ra ted i n n ume rous e conom ic

A va i lab le s ub s is tence d a ta i sr a r e ly s u i tab le f o rd i rec t , d e ta i led q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is .

s y s tem s . H oweve r , t h e re a r e s t i l l t r a i t s c ommon t o mo s t s y s tem s o fp a s to ra lp roduc t ion . C r ibb h a sa t temp ted t oc i r -

-

"Nega t ive e v idence" , e . g . , l a ck o fp l an to rb one ma te -

c umven t t h e Ma rx is t c onno ta t ion s o f t h e t e rm "mode o f

r i a l mus tb e c onf ron ted w i th c au t ion . F o re xamp le , a n

p roduc t ion"

a b sence o ff i sh b ones i sn o t as uf i c ien tg round t or u le

b y u s ing

"mode o f s ub s i s tence"

( Cr ibb

1 99 1 :17 ) , d ef ined a sf o l low s :

o u tf i sh ing .

" By "mode o f s ub s i s tence" i sm ean t :"some c onf ig u ra t ion o f p roduc t ive f o rce s a nd r e la t ions p e rm i t t ing

F o r tuna te ly , S k r iva rhe l le ren p rov ided l a rge b one a s sem -

t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fn a tu ra l r e sou rce s a nd r eproduc t ion

b lage s f r om a s t ra t if ied c on tex t . T hu s t h e S k r iva rhe l le ren

o ft h e s o c ia l g roup s i n vo lved" ( Cr ibb 1 984b , p . 4 )" .

d a ta c ove r s b o th a s i te t ype , ag eog raph ica l a r ea a nd a s ou rce ma ter ia l n o t a va i lab le i nN yse t -S tegg je I ta l so p ro -

T he a u tho r f i nd s "mode o f s ub s is tence" a n u nf o r tuna te

v ides a s t rong a na logy f o r i n te rp re t ing t h e Nyse t -S tegg je

t e rm , a s ag oa l w i th t h e p resen t d i scu s s ion i s t o move

ma ter ia l . 7 3

THE PASTORAL PARADOX

t i on? We re t h ey l e f tb yp eop le w i th a na g r icu l tu ra lo rp a s to r a l mode o fp roduc t ion?

"A s e ve re l im i ta t ion o nd e scr ip t ion ,l e ta l one n a r ra t ive a nd d i scus s ion , i st h a t b y i t s v e ry n a tu re p a s to ra l ism

I tc ou ld b e a r gued t h a tf o rt h e p e r iod a f te r t h e i n t roduc -

make s amuch l e s s o bv iou s i mpac to nt h e a r chaeo log -

t i on o fd ome s t ic s , i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l

i c a lr e co rd t h an d oe st h ec u l t iva t ion o fc r ops b y a r ab le

h a sb een s y s tema t ica l ly s k ewed i n an on -pa s to ra l d i rec t ion .

f a rm ing . T h i si ss od e sp i te t h ef a c tt h a tt h ea ppea rance

A pa r t

f r om

t h e i r i mpa c t

o n

t h e

l a nd scape

( Fow le r

o f much o fo u r e x i s t ing l a ndscape , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e

1 981 :232 f ) , t h e mo s tc on sp icuous r ema ins l e f tb yp a s to ra l -

H igh land Z one , may o we mo re t oa n ima lt h an t oa r ab le

i s t s c an a r guab ly b e f r om t h e i r n on -pa s to ra l s e c to r . T hese

c rop h usband ry . . .P a s to ra l ism , i ts e em s , t e nd s t oc r e -

a c t iv i t ie s may b e r e la ted t o h un t ing a nd a gr icu l tu re .

a t e l a nd scape s r a the r t h an p roduce d i sc re te a r chaeo -

"Wo rk ing d own" f r om t h e l i on A ge a nd " up" f r om t h e

l og ica l s i te s ." ( P .J . F ow le r 1 981 :232 f ) .

S tone A ge , a r chaeo log i s t s a r e p e rhaps b e s t t r a ined t ol o ok f o r h un t ing ( a r rowhead s a nd k napp ing ) a nd a g r icu l tu re

Ab a s ic i n terp re ta t ive p rob lem , t h a tw i l l p robab ly c onf ron t

( f ie ld s , h ouses a nd g ra in ) . T h is a gg rava te s p a s to ra l i n v is -

a r chaeo log is t s r e ga rd le ss o f t h e d eg ree o f a r chaeo log ica l

i b i l i ty .

p re se rva t ion o r r e cove ry , i st h e " pa s to ra l e n igma" . T h is

I n 1 925 B rogge r f o rmu la ted t h e a x iom t h a t s i nce t h e

d i scu s s ion w i l l f o re shadow r e su l t s t h a t a r e p r e sen ted l a te r .

i n t roduc t ion o fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l sa nd p lan t si n No rway ,

N omad ism i so ne , a l be i t i mpo r tan t , p a s to ra l i s t s t ra tegy .

mu l t i re sou rce s t ra teg ie s a r e t h e mo s tc ommon a dap ta t ion

O the r s t ra teg ie s m igh t b e s eden ta r ism o r , a s i sf am i l ia r

t ot h e e nv i ronmen t o ft h i s c oun t ry ( Brogge r 1 925 :96 ) . We

f r om N orway , t r anshumance . S pec ia l ized " pu re p a s to ra l

s hou ld t h e refo re a vo id t h ink ing i ne xc lu s ive c a tego r ie s o f

n omad s" i sg ene ra l ly a l a te p henomena , r e la ted t o s t ra t -

e i ther h un te ro rf a rme r ,a nd a vo id am echan ica lr e la t ionsh ip

i fed , s pec ia l ized s oc ie t ie s ,o f ten s t a tes ( Cr ibb 1 991 :10 , 2 7 ,

b e tween

C hang & K os te r 1 986 :104f ) . Mo re c ommon ly ,p a s to ra l ism

c hap te r

i s mu l t i -resou rce b a sed ( Chang & K os te r 1 986 :112 , a l so

d i scu s s ion ) .

a r chaeo log ica l o n

c u l tu re

c u l tu re

h e re

a nd

a nd

s ub s is tence

P re sco t t

i n p r e s s

( s ee f o r

C r ibb 1 991 :39 , S a lzman 1 971) . I n d ea l ing w i th o the r s e c -

I ti sn o t s u rp r is ing t h a t Norweg ian a r chaeo logy h a s n o t

t o r st h an t h ep a s to ra l ,s t ud ie sh ave f o cu sed o nt h ea g r icu l tu -

i n co rpo ra ted p a s to ra l ism i ni t s d esc r ip t ive a nd e xp lana tory

r a l o r t r ade a c t iv i t ies o f p a s to ra l is t s , b u t h un t ing , f i sh ing

r epe r to i re . An i n i t ia l u nde r s tand ing o f N orweg ian a nd S cand inav ian p a s to ra l ism i sb e s t a t ta ined t h rough at h ree -

a nd f o rag ing a r e p o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan t a c t iv i t ie s . F o r t h e s ake o f c l a r i ty , d i s t inc t ion mus t a l so b e made

f o ld p roces s : H igh q ua l i ty d a ta , e t hno -a r chaeo log ica l s t ud -

b e tween as e conda ry b a sed p a s to ra l i sm ( f o re xamp le d a iry

i e s o fp a s to ra l ism a nd r e v iew o ft h e r i ch e v idence o ft r an -

b a sed ) a nd ac a rn ivo rous p a s to ra l ism . I ti st h e f i r s tt h a th a s

s human t p a s to ra l i sm i n , f o r e xamp le , N orway . T he l a t te r

s oc l ea r ly h ad v i ta lr epe rcu ss ion st h roughou tt h eO ld Wo r ld

h a s v i r tua l ly b een i np rac t ice u p t ot h ep r esen t . T he e t hno -

( Eh renbe rg 1 989 , S he r ra t t 1 981 , 1 983 ,e xamp le so fa pp l ied

h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om Ä rda l r ep re sen t s a

s t ud ies G reenf ie ld 1 988 , H a r r ison 1 985 , H aa land 1 991) .

h i gh q ua l i ty c a se s t udy . T he s t ud ie s b y C hang & K os te r

C a rn ivo rous p a s to ra l i sm d oe s n o t make s en se i n w e s tern

( 1986 ) a nd C r ibb ( 1 991) a r e a r chaeo logy re la ted d i scus -

No rway , w i th i t sr i ch s ou rce s o fw i ld m ea ta nd f i sh . P a s to -

s i on so fg ene ra la nd A s ian p a s to ra l i sm . AN o rweg ian s t udy

r a l i sm i nt h i s p ape r i st h e refo re s ynonymou s w i th s e cond -

i sf ound i nR e in ton ' s ( 1955 ) w o rk s . T he se a r e s ou rce s f o r

a r y p roduc t s b a sed p a s to ra l ism , a nd c a rn ivo rou s p a s to ra l -

u nde r s tand ing t h ep r eh is tor ic ma te r ia l .

i sm w i l l b e d i s rega rded i nt h e f o l low ing . O fc ou r se , d a iry p a s to ra l ism d oe s n o te xc lude t h e c on sump t ion o fh e rd a n i -

NYSET -STEGGJE : SUBSISTENCE EVIDENCE FRO M I NDIVIDUAL S ITES

ma ls . T he i rs l augh te r may b et h er e su l to fc u l l ing p rac t ices , r i tua l o r " cap i ta l c on sump t ion" — f o r e xamp le , a s a n a d -

T he d i r ec t s ub s i s t ence d a ta f rom N y se t -S t egg je , w he ther

j u s tmen tt o ap er iod o fs t re s s .

b a sed o n a r chaeo log ica l s our ce s o rp a leobo tany , i su neven

T he t e rm ino logy d i scu ss ion l e ad s t ow ha t may b e c a l led

a nd g enera l ly n o tq uan t if iab l e . T he c ond i t ion so fp r e ser va t ion

t h ep a s to ra lp a radox i na r chaeo logy . Ap a s to ra l ly b a sed a d -

l e ad s t o as k ew ing t oward s a c t iv i t ie s t h a t c an b e a s se s sed

a p ta t ion , e spec ia l ly b a sed o n m i lk p roduc t s , m ay l e ave f ew

t h rough t h e l i t h ic m a t er ia l —p ar t icu lar ly l i t h ic t o o lp roduc -

o bv iou s ma ter ia l t r ace s o ft h e a c t iv i t ie s i n vo lved . G ene ra l -

t i on a nd h un t ing .

l y , t h is s t a temen t s e em s t ob e more t r ue , t h e mo re mob i le s t ra tegy t h a ti se mp loyed . Many p a s to ra ls i te sw i l ln o th ave

T h is s e c t ion d ea l s w i th r e la t ive ly d i rec t s ub s is ten t ia l e v i -

s ub s tan t ia l s t ruc tu re s , a nd i mpo r tan t e qu ipmen t w i l l o f ten

d ence f r om N yse t -S tegg je . S uch e v idence i sa r tefac t , b one

b e o f p e r ishab le ma ter ia l s . No s ub s tan t ia l a r chaeo log ica l

a nd p l an tf i nd s o nt h e s i te s a nd p o l len ma te r ia l e i the rf r om

t r ace sa r ea ppa ren t ,a nd e ven f i nd so fb one sw i l lo f ten l e ave

as i te , s t ra t ig raph ica l ly r e la tab le t oi ta nd t o al e sse re x ten t ,

a na mb iguous i mp re s s ion .T he d i scu s s ion c once rn ing g ra in

p o l len m a te r ia l f r om t h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty .

i mp ress ion s i np o t te ry a nd d ome s t ica ted a n ima ls o n s ome

S i te 2 7 K a lvebe i t e t . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n d i -

N orweg ian L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s i te s , f o re xam -

c a te s l i t h ic p roduc t ion , h un t ing ( a r rowhead s ) a nd b ronze

p l e t h e r o ck s he l te r R uskene se t i n H o rda land ( Bakka

s me l t ing ( c ruc ib le f r agmen t ) .T he re i sn od i rec te v idence o f

1 973 :119 , B r inkman & S he te l ig 1 920 , H agen 1 983 :110f ) ,

o t he r a c t iv i t ies . P o l len d i ag rams a r e c on s t ruc ted f r om p ea t

i sa n e xamp le i nc a se . We re s uch f i nd s t h e r e su l t o fs t o len

s amp le s c o l lec ted n ea rby , a bou t 1 5 m e te r s t o t h e n o r th

a n ima ls a nd b a r te red p o t s , o r ac u l tu ra l ly d e te rm ined b u t

( B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 :177 K vamme e t . a l . 1 992 :40 f ) . T hese

ma rg ina l e conom ic a c t iv i ty , o r a" t ru ly" N eo l i th ic a dap ta -

d i ag rams i n d ica ted c hange s i n t h e v ege ta t ion a t at ime 7 4

e qu iva len tt ot h el a t te rL a te N eo l i th ic o rE a r ly B ronze A ge .

t h a t q uan t i ta t ive ly s i gn if ican t , d i rec t i nd ica to r s w ere n o t

T he se c hange s s e em t oi n d ica te h uman a c t iv i t ie s , a nd p o s -

f ound i nt h e p o l len s amp le s .

s i b ly a l so r e f lec t g raz ing o f t h e p a s tu re s . T he re w e re n o

I nt h e a u tho r 's o p in ion , t h e v ege ta t ion d eve lopmen tr ep -

p a r t icu la rc hange s i nt h e v ege ta t ion t h a t w e re c l ea r ly c on -

r e sen t s c hange s t h a t c an b e c onnec ted t oe i ther p a s tu r ing

t empo raneou s , o rd i rec t ly t i ed t o , s i te 2 7 .

a nd /o r g ene ra l h uman u se . T he B ronze A ge l e ve ls i n t h e

S i te s3 1 a nd 3 2 V ikas tO l en e xh ib i ted g ene ra l e v idence o f

d i ag ram sw e re s amp led f r om s ed imen t st h a ti na l lp robab i l -

h un t ing i nt h e a r rowhead s . T he re w a s o t herw i se n o d i rec t

i t y w e re e roded f r om t h e s e t t lemen t . I ndeed , s amp l ing

s ub s is tence e v idence . T h ree p o l len d i ag ram s w e re c on -

c o re s w e re f r om w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t , a s d ef ined o n t h e

s t ruc ted f r om s amp les i nt h e V ika s to len a r ea ( K vamme e t

b a s i s o f c u l tu ra l s ed imen t s a nd a r tefac t s ( c on t ra ry t o a s -

a l . 1 992 :13 / j ) . Two o ft h e se w e re f r om a c ro s st h er i ve rf r om

s e r t ion s i nK vamme e ta l . [ 1 993 :37 ] ) . I ti su ncer ta in wha t

t h e s i te s i n q ue s t ion . O ne o f t h e d i ag ram s w a s b a sed o n

t h e p o s tu la ted v ege ta t ion d eve lopmen t s mean i n t e rm s o f

s amp le s c o l lec ted b e tween s i tes 3 1 a nd 3 2 . U nfo r tuna te ly ,

h uman a c t iv i ty , a nd t ow ha td eg ree t h ey r e p re sen tf e a tu re s

i td oe sn o ts e em t og ob ack t ot h eE a r ly B ronze Age .T he se

g ene ra l f o rt h e R iska lsva tn b a s in . As i ng le A vena p o l len i s

o the r d i ag ram s i nd ica te h uman u se o ft h e a r ea i nt h e L a te

f ound a t ar e levan t l e ve l ( 4b ) . I t may b e i nd ica t ive o fc on -

N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronze A ge p e r iod . T he se i nd ica t ion s

t a c tw i th p lace sw he re a g r icu l tu re w a sp rac t iced i nt h eL a te

m igh tb er e la ted t op a s tu r ing o fa n ima l s .T he d i ag ram sc an -

B ronze Age . T he p o l len i sp o s s ib ly t r an spo r ted f r om a n

n o t b e l i nked t o s i tes 3 1 & 3 2 w i th c onf idence . T hey a r e

a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t ing i n d ige s t ive t r ac t s , f u r , b aggage a nd

i n te re s t ing b ecause t h ey i n d ica te h uman u se o fa r ea a c ross

s upp l ie sb yh uman s , b y w i ld l if e o rb y d ome s t ica te s ( F z egr i

t h e r i ve rf r om s i tes 3 1 &3 2 i nt h e g ene ra l L a te N eo l i th ic /

e ta l . 1 989 :37 , 1 81f , I nd re l id & Moe 1 983 :61 , Moe 1 973 ,

E a r ly B ronze A ge .

R ob in son a nd H ubba rd 1 977 ) . H oweve r , i ts e em s c on tex -

S i t e 3 4f V i kas tO len , w i th i t s f i gu re " 8" h ea r th s t ruc tu re ,

t ua l ly d ub ious t op l ace much e mpha s is o n as i ng le p o l len .

y i e lded 1 5 b u rn t b one f r agmen t s ( 0 .5 g r am s ) o f u nde te r -

I n c onc lu s ion , t h e p o l len e v idence d oes n o t c on t rad ic t t h e

m ined mamma ls ( L ie 1 992 :324 ) . A p o s s ib le a r rowhead

a r chaeo log ica lc onc lu s ion s . U nf o r tuna te ly , t h eq uan t i ta t ive

b a se c an h ave b een d epo s i ted i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e

f e a tu re s o ft h e s amp le s a nd t h e s amp l ing c on tex tc r ea te a n

s t ruc tu re . I fi ti sa n a r rowhead , a nd i fi ti sd epo s i ted i n

amb iguou s s i tua t ion . T he p a leobo tany o f f e r l i t t le s ub s tan -

a s soca i t ion w i th t h e h ea r th s , i tp rov ide s a n i n d ica t ion o f

t i a l s uppo r tf o ra c t iv i ty i n terp re ta t ion s .

h un t ing . T he t wo p o l len d i ag ram s men t ioned i nc onnec t ion

T he q ue s t ion o fh un t ing mus ta l so b ec ove red . C ompa red

w i th s i te s3 1 &3 2a r eb a sed o np ea ts amp le sw e re c o l lec ted

t oo t he r s i ng le -pha sed s ou ther nN orweg ian L a te N eo l i th ic

a bou t 5 0 m f r om 3 4f V ika s to len . T he d i ag ram s c anno t

o rB ronze Age s i te s ,U ru t lek rä ih a sy i e lded l a rge q uan t i t ies

b e l i nked t o t h e s i te w i th a ny c onf idence , t h ough t h e re

o f p o in t s . C ompa r i son o f t h e a moun t o fp o in t s r e cove red

m igh t b e i n d ica t ion s o f h uman i nf luence s i n t h e g ene ra l

f r om t h eo the rL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s i tes i n Ny -

p er iod .

s e t -S tegg je i si lus t ra t ive i nt h is r ega rd ( t ab le 7 ) . I ft h en um -

S i t e 4 7 U ru t l ekrä i h a s y i e lded h und red s o f p o in t s a nd

b e r o f p o in t s a r e a ny i nd ica t ion o f h un t ing a c t iv i ty , t h en

s c rape r s , a nd 2 00 ,000 f l ake s . T h i s i si nd ica t ive o f ar o le i n

U ru t lek rä i h a s b een r e la ted t oa n i n ten s ive h un t ing e f fo r t .

t h e h un t ing p roces s , a nd i ti si nd ica t ive o fl a rge s c a le p ro -

T he l a rge a moun t so fl i t h ics m igh ti nd ica te t h a tt h es i te w a s

d uc t ion o f l i t h ic t oo ls . F rom t h e h ea r th s a tt h e s i te s ma l l

a l so u sed f o rp repa ra t ion o ft oo l sf o ru se e l sewhe re ,b u ti ti s

b one f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red . T he se a r e d e term ined t o

v e ry l i ke ly t h a tt h ep o in t sw e re a l so r e la ted t oh un t ing e xpe -

t h ef am i ly l e ve l o f mamma l a nd f ow l . Among t h e mamma l

d i t ion s s t aged f r om t h e s i te . I ti sc r ed ib le t h a t h un t ing a t

b ones , as i ng le f r agmen ti si d en t if ied a ss h eep o rg oa t( t ab le

U ru t lek rä i r ep re sen ted mo re t h an p r ima ry s ub s i s tence

7 ) . Whe the r d omes t ica te s w e re h e rded i n t h e U ru t lek rä i

n eed s . I tc ou ld b e s e en a s p a r t o f a n i n t r ica te e conom ic

a r ea c an , o fc ou r se , n o tb e d ec ided o n t h eb a s is o f as i ng le

s y s tem . T he s i te m igh t b e t h ough t o f a s af o re runner t o

b one f r agmen t . S t i l l , i n te rp re t ing U ru t lek rä i a st h ef o cu so f

l a rge s ca le , s oc ia l ly c omp lex t r app ing — i n l a te r p e r iod s

c ons ide rab le p a s to ra l a c t iv i ty i sc r ed ib le o n t h e b a s i s o f

r ep re sen ted b yt h e s y s tem s o ff a l l -p i t s ( Ba r th 1 983 , B j ego

e v idence o f t h e t o ta l n a tu re o f t h e s i te . I n s ho r t , c i rcum -

e ta L 1 992 ) .

s t an t ia l i nd ica t ions o f h e rd ing a r e f ound i n t h e c omp lex

S i t e8 4S karhaugf o s sen h a s l i t t le l i th ic ma te r ia l , a nd n one

s t ruc tu re o f t h e s i te , t h e s heep b one , p o t te ry s he rd s a nd

o fi tw a sp os i t ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h eh ea r th s t h a tc ha rac -

s oap s tone w a re . T ha tp a s to ra l ism w a sp ra c t iced i nt h eg en -

t e r ize t h e s i te ( B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 :127 ) . T he l a ck o fp o in t s

e r a l a r ea a tt h e t ime i sc l ea r ly d emons t ra ted b y t h e f i nd s

s ugge s t s t h a ti ti sn o tr e la ted t oh un t ing i n ad i rec tf a sh ion .

f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren .

T he s i te w a sp robab ly u sed f o ra c t iv i t ies i nt h el a t te rp a r to f

P o l len e v idence f r om t h e s i te w a s o b ta ined f r om t wo

t h e B ronze A ge a nd /o r e a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge i n t h e

c o re s d rawn f r om ap ea tb og o n t h e s ou thern p er ime te ro f

a r ea . T h ree p o l len d i ag ram s w e re c ons t ruc ted b a sed o n

t h e s i te ( s ee f i g . 9 ,B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 :117 ) . Two d i ag ram s

s amp l ing f r om t h ree d i f f e ren tp o l len s i tes . K vamme e ta l . 's

w e re c ons t ruc ted i nt h is a r ea . I n r e spon se t oq uer ie s f r om

( 1993 :82f ) d i scus s ion s ugge s ted h uman i n f luence o n t h e

a r chaeo log i s t s , K vamme e ta l . ( 1992 :37 ) c onc luded t h a t

v ege ta t ion p robab ly s ome t ime i nt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic . T h is

p rox im i ty t ot h e s e t t lemen t s i te o pen s f o r i n te rp re t ing a n -

c ou ld h ave b een r e la ted t op a s tur ing . L oca l p o l len z one 2

t h ropogen ic i n d ica tor sa se v idence o fg ene ra ls i te a c t iv i t ie s .

p rov ided a 1 4C -da te f r om a l e ve l t h a t h a s g iven v a lue s

H oweve r , t h ey p ref er t oi n te rp re t s uch i n d ica to r s a st h e r e -

c on tempo raneou s w i th s i te 8 4 . T he s amp le s w e re c o l lec ted

s u l to fp a s tur ing ( a l so K vamme 1 988a & b ) . I na dd i t ion t o

f r om ac ha rcoa l l a ye r . F rom t h e d escr ip t ion i nK vamme e t

t h e s amp l ing s i te 's l o ca t ion , a mb igu i ty s t em s f r om t h ef a c t

a l . i ts e ems t h a tt h e s amp l ing s i te w a s c l o se t os i te 8 4 , a nd 7 5

t h e c ha r coa l l a ye r i sp o s s ib ly a n e x tens ion o f t h is s i te .

e v idence a pa r t f r om p o in t s . S i t e 2B uhaugene p roduced a

T he refo re ,t h e re s e em st ob e ad i rec tc on tex tua lr e la t ion sh ip

f r agmen ta ry p o in t .

b e tween t h e p o l len a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i te . H oweve r , h u i mpac t o n t h e p o l len s equence , c ompared w i th t h e l a ye r s

D ISCUSSION OF THE I NTRA -SITE RELATED SUBSISTENCE EV IDENCE

t h a t i mmed ia te ly p r e - a nd p o s t -da te t h e c ha rcoa l l a ye r . No

T he s ub s is tence e v idence mo re o r l e s s d i rec t ly r e la ted t o

p o s i t ive s ubs is tence e v idence w a s o the rw ise a t ta ined f r om

t h e s i te s , w he the r f r om a r chaeo logy , z oo logy o r p a lyno l -

t h e s i te .

o gy ,w a ss can ty .T he a r chaeo log ica ld a ta o n mo s ts i te ss ug -

man a c t iv i ty a t t h e s i te d oe s n o t s e em t o h ave h ad a ny

S i t e 8 5K a lvebe i t e tg ave e v idence o fh un t ing t h rough t h e

g e s ted h un t ing , t hough s ome s i tes w er ea ppa ren t ly u sed f o r

a r rowhead s f ound o n t h e s i te . O therw ise d i rec t e v idence

o the r p u rposes . S i te s 4 7 U ru t le l c rä i a nd 1 03 B e rda len o f -

w a s l a ck ing . T he p o l len d i ag rams d i scu ssed i nc onnec t ion

f e red mo re d i rec t e v idence . S i te 4 7 h ad r e la t ive ly c onc lu -

w i th s i te 2 7 a r e a l so r e levan t t os i te 8 5 . S i te 8 5 , h oweve r ,

s i ve e v idence o ff ow l ing a nd h e rd ing . P o l len c an i n d ica te

w a sa bou t 1 00 m e te r sf r om t h ep o l len s amp l ing s i te .A c t iv -

c on tac t w i th c e rea l g row ing m i l ieu o n b o th s i tes 4 7 a nd

i t e s a ts i te 8 5 d o n o t s e em t ob e c l ea r ly r e f lec ted i n t h e

1 03 . T h is e v idence i sq uan t i ta t ive ly i n sub s tan t ia l a nd c on -

d i agram .

t e x tua l ly i n conc lu s ive . S eve ra l N y se t -S tegg je s i te s c an b e

S i t e8 6H e l l ingb0en o f f e red a r rowhead s a sd i rec t s ub s i s t -

r e la ted t op o l len d i ag ram s .A l lo ft h e se d i ag ram sl a ck d i rec t

e nce e v idence . T he s i te w a sd i scove red i nc on junc t ion w i th

i nd ica t ion s o fa g r icu l tu re o rh e rd ing ( C er ea l ia & P lan tago

s amp l ing f o rp o l len a na lys i s , s o ap o l len d i ag ram i sd i rec t ly

p o l len ) , t hough t h e g ene ra l make u p o f t h e v ege ta t ion , a s

r e la ted t o t h e s i te . F u r thermo re , t wo o the r d i ag ram s h ave

r ep resen ted b y t h e d i ag ram s , c ou ld b e i nd ica t ive o fc ond i -

b een w o rked o u tb a sed o n s amp le s c o l lec ted n ea rby . T hese

t i on s c r ea ted o r f a vo red b y h e rd ing . T h is i sb a sed o n a

d i ag ram s d o n o t s e em t op rov ide p os i t ive d a ta a bou ta c t iv -

r educ t ion i na rbo rou sp o l len ,i n crea se si n ,e . g . ,P oaceae a nd

i t e s o n t h e s e t t lemen t s i te ( K vamme e ta l . 1 992 :54 , 6 0 ) .

o t he rp l an t s t h a ta r ef a vo red b y o pen , l i gh to rn u t r i t ion r i ch

S i te 1 03 B erda len y i e lded n ume rou s l i th ic a r rowhead s ,

c ond i t ions , o r p l an t s t h a t f o r d i f f e ren t r e a son s a r e n o t

w h ich i n d ica ted h un t ing . O therw ise , n o p o s i t ive i n f orma -

g razed ( J un iperu s ) . U nfo r tuna te ly , i ti sl i ke ly s u ch c ond i -

t i on w a s r e cove red f r om t h e s i te . T h ree p o l len d iag ram s

t i ons w e re c r ea ted b y o the r s i te a c t iv i t ie s , p e rhap s e n -

w e re c on s truc ted o n t h e b a s is o fp o l len s amp le s f r om t h e

h anced b y n a tu ra l g raz ing a f te r t h e s e t t lemen t c ame t oa n

B e rda len v a l ley . T he se d i ag ram s s eem t oi nd ica te c hange s

e nd . T hus t h e o b se rved t r end s c an v ery l i ke ly r e p re sen t

i nt h e v ege ta t ion i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge ( K vamme e ta l .

f i rewood c o l lec t ing , n u t r ien te n r ichmen t , d i s tu rbed v ege ta -

1 993 :109 f ) .C hange sw e re p robab ly r e la ted t oh uman a c t iv -

t i on i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e s i te o ccupa t ion a nd p o s t -se t t le -

i t e si nt h ea r ea . O ne o ft h ed i ag ram sw a sb a sed o ns amp le s

m en tg r az ing . S amp l ing c on tex t sa r ep rob lema t ic .T he mos t

i nt h e s ame p l a ce a st h e 1 03 B e rda len s e t t lemen t . As i ng le

s i gn if ican t p o l len i n d ica t ion s a r e g ene ra l ly o b ta ined f r om

p o l len o fH ord eum w a s f ound i n as pec t rum t h a t p o s s ib ly

p o l len s i te s p rac t ica l ly w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t s .

w a s c on tempo raneou s w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l f i nd l e ve l .

T he d i rec t , mo re o r l e s s i n t ra -s i te d a ta p o in t s t owa rds

T he s i ng le p o l len i sw eak e v idence . C on tex tua l ly , t h e r e la -

h un t ing , f ow l ing — a tl e a s t i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge . S ome q ua r ry ing a nd l i th ic t o o lp roduc t ion a nd p o ss ib ly p a s tu r ing

t i ve ly t h in s ed imen t s f r om w h ich s amp le s w e re d rawn , i n

o f d omes t ica te s t ook p lace , a ga in , a s f a r a s t h e l a t te r i s

a n a r ea t h a t c hanne l s t r a ff i c a l ong t h e l a ke , w eaken s a t -

c oncerned , a tl e a s t i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge .

t emp t s a te qua t ing t h e p o l len l e ve l t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . T he s ed imen t w a s p robab ly mo s t ly f o rmed i n de -

OTHER RESOURCES

p enden t o fo n -se t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie s . A s w i th t h e U ru t le l c rä i

H uman e x i s tence d epend s o n n umerou s r e sour ce s . I nN y se t -

A vena , t h e B e rda len Hord eum p o l len m igh t r ep resen t c on -

S t egg j es ome o ft h e se o r ig ina t ed l o ca l ly , w h i le s ome o r ig ina t -

t a c t w i th a n a g r icu l tu re m i l ieu a t l owe r a l t i tude s . O the r -

e di no t her p ar t so fS cand ina v ia . E v id ence o fe xp lo i ta t ion a nd

w ise , t h eh uman a c t iv i t ie so nt h e s e t t lemen ts i te 1 03 d on o t

p o t en t ia lr e source si nt h em inera l , a n ima la nd p lan tk i ngdom s

s e em t ob er e f lec ted i nt h e d i ag ram . K vamme e ta l . s ugge s t

a r e e xam ined .

t h a tt h is m igh tb eb ecause r e levan tl e ve ls l a yb e tween s am p l ed l e ve ls i nt h ep ea t .

L i th i c ma t er ia l s

S i t e 1 05 B erda l en r ep re sen ted a " non l i th ic a c t iv i ty" .

T he l i t h ic r aw ma te r ia ls i nt h e N y se t -S tegg je a s semb lage s

T he re w a sn od i rec tp o s i t ive s ub s is tence e v idence . S i t e 1 07

c an b ed i v ided i n to t h ree ma in c a tego r ies :

K a lvebe i te t h a s y i e lded n ume rous a r rowhead s . T hese a r e t h eo n ly d i rec ts ub s i s tence e v idence , i . e . ,o fh un t ing . O the r w i se , f o r t h is s i te , a nd s i te K a lvebe i te t 2 9 , s e e t h e d i scu s -

1 )

F l in t .

2 )

Q ua r tz i te a nd q ua r tz i te l ike s t one f r om t h e Lx rda l q ua r r ies , o r ma te r ia l t h a t i sv e ry s im i la r .

s i on o fp o l len m a te r ia l i nc on junc t ion w i th s i te s 2 7 a nd 8 5 .

3 )

S i t e 14 B erda len p roduced a s i ng le p o in t , p rov id ing a n

V a r ious q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te t y pes f r om l o ca l s ou r ce s . I ti si n te res t ing t h a t a s semb lages f r om B e rda len a nd

i n d ica t ion o f h un t ing i n t h e a r ea . S i t e 16 B erda len h a s

V ikada len c on ta in s ome s im i la r ma te r ia l s , b u t mo s to f

y i e lded a r rowhead s . H un t ing w a st h e reby i n d ica ted . Ap o l -

t h e ma ter ia l s d i f f e r . T h is p robab ly r e f lec t s p rox im i ty

l e n d i ag ram b a sed o n s amp le s f r om an ea rby p ea ta ccumu -

t or e ad i ly e xp lo i tab le s ou rce s o fr aw ma te r ia l .

l a t ion i n d ica te h uman i mpac to nt h e v ege ta t ion i nt h e s ame p e r iod a s s i te 16 . K vamme e ta l . ( 1992 :104 ) f e e l t h a t t h is

T h is d i v is ion i nd ica te st h ree g eog raph ica l z one so fi n te rac -

r e f lec t s a c t iv i t ie s o n t h e s i te . T he n a tu re o ft h ese a c t iv i t ie s

t i on : s outhe rn S cand inav ia ,r eg iona ls ou th -we s tern N orway

i so bscu re . S i te 1 30 B erda len y i e lded n o d i rec t s ubs is tence

a nd t h e N yse t -S tegg je v a l leys . 7 6

d a rke rb and st h a tv ary i nt h ickne s sf r om af r ac t ion o fa

A s f a r a s l o ca l s our ce s i nt h e Ny se t -S tegg je r eg ion a r e c once rned t h e r ea r eg eo log ica lf a u l tz one st h a tr un t h rough

m i l l ime t re t o a bou t ac en t ime t re ." ( A skv ik 1 966 :27 ,

V ikada len a nd K lypeda len . T he re a r e a l so my lon i t ic b rec -

t r an s l . b y CP ) .

c i az ones i nw e s to fB e rda len .S t rong ly d ef ormed m e ta sed i m en t sa nd g ne is s ,a nd p hy l l i te c u tb yl a ye r so fq ua r tz i te a r e f o und a r ound R i ska lsva tn i nV ikada len ( Koe s t le r 1 983 ,L u -

A l though t h e Lxrda lq ua r tz i te i sg eo log ica l ly u nusua l ,a nd

t r o 1 981 , a l so N e s je & R ye 1 985 :6 ,V e 1 971 :28 ) .T he se a r e

t h eo ccu r rence ss e em t ob el im i ted i nr e ga rd t od i s t r ibu t ion ,

p robab ly p a r t o f at h ru s t z one a s soc ia ted w i th t h e J o tun

i tc an n o tb ea s sumed t h a ta l l " a rchaeo log ica l" q ua r tz i te o f

N appe .

t h i s t ype s t em f r om t h e Lxrda l q ua r r ie s . A skv ik r e f e r s t o

L a rge s e c t ion s o f t h e f a u l t s i n V ikada len a r e c ove red

s im i la r o ccur rence s n ea r O s te rbo i n A u r land ( op . c i t . 3 0 ) .

w i th s ed imen t s a nd s c ree . I n spec t ion o f o u tc rop s a l ong

S im i la r q ua r tz i te c an p os s ib ly b e f ound many p l ace s , i n

t h ese f a u l t s , w he re p os s ib le , h ave n o t i n d ica ted a ny p o ten -

s im i la rg eo log ica lf a c ie s w i th in t h eJ o tun N appe C omp lex .

t i a l r aw ma te r ia l s ou rce s h e re . O u tc rop s a r e a l so f ound

T h i s g eo log ica l c omp lex e ncompa sse s J o tunhe imen , a nd a

a l ong t h e t h rus t -zone , a nd s eve ra l p o ten t ia l s ou r ce s o f

s t re tch f r om I nne r S ogn t oH a rdange r ( Of tedah l 1 980 :72 ) .

w h i te , b l ack ,b anded a nd g r ey q ua r tz i te w e re f ound . T hese

I tc anno tb er u led o u tt h a tt h e Lx rda l type q ua r tz i te i sa s so -

o u tc rop s c an b e l a ye r s o rb and s t h a t s t re t ch f o rk i lome te r s ,

c i a ted w i th u nde r ly ing C a ledon ide c omp lexes .

o rt h ey c an b er e s t r ic ted o u tc rop s . Q ua r tz types o fv a r iab le

D e sp i te t h e se p rob lem so fp roven ience ,t h eo n ly r eg iona l

q ua l i t ie s a r e f o und t h roughou tt h e a r ea . Al a rge o u tcrop o f

q ua r tz i te s ou rce s t h a t h ave b een p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied , a r e

g ood q ua l i ty q ua r tz i s l o ca ted i n n ea rby K va rn sda len .

t h e Lxrda lq ua r r ie s .J ohan sen ' sd e scr ip t ion ss ugges ta ni m -

S p l in te red q ua r tz i sf ound i n l a rge q uan t i t ies a tJ on sva tn

p re s s ive s ca le o fq ua r ry ing . No s uch s ou r ce h a sb een f ound

b e tween F ossda len a nd B e rda len .

i nt h es ou thern Ä rda la r ea ,t hough t h ey h ave b een s ea r ched

Ma ter ia l f r om t h e o u tc rop s , e spec ia l ly d e tached p i ece s

f o r . T hus t h e f i ne g ra ined q ua r tz i te s p robab ly o r ig ina te

o fc ompa rab le s i ze s , c an u sua l ly b e v i sua l ly ma tched w i th

f r om s ou rce s i n Lxrda l . T he q ua r tz i te d emons t ra te s ar e -

s ome ma ter ia l i nt h ec o l lec ted a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s .

g iona l s y s tem o f r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion a nd s ome k ind o f

D e sp i te i n spec t ion o f many k i lome te r s o fo u tc rop s , n o i n -

d i s t r ibu t ive s y s tem .T he f i nd so ns i te si nÄ rda l ,s ugge s tt h a t

d i spu tab le q ua r r ies w e r e f ound a l ong t h e t h rus t -zone

t h ep eop le f r om Ä rda lc ou ld h ave q ua r r ied a nd t r anspo r ted

b ounda ry o r i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e q ua r tz o u tcrop s . P o s -

t h e ma te r ia l t h em se lve s .

s i b le q ua r r ie s r e po r ted f r om V ikada len ( B jo rgo e t a l .

"Norweg ian f l in t" i sc ommon ly a t t r ibu ted t ot wo s ou rc -

1 992 :51) e xh ib i tc oncave r emova ls o no u t c rop s u r f ace sa nd

e s .I tw a se i the rf r om b each d epo s i t s ( Hagen 1 983 :68 f )o ri t

f l ake s f ound b e low t h e o u tc rop . T he f l ake s m igh t b e i n -

w a s i mpo r ted f r om D enma rk . I nD enma rk f l in tw a s m ined

t e n t iona l ly s t ruck , b u t i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a tt h e f l ake s a r e

( Becke r 1 958 , B rond s ted 1 957 :333 ) . T he c ommon L a te

t h e r e su l t o fn a tu ra l f r ac tu re . T he mechan i sm s i nvo lved i n

N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge o b jec t s —d agge r s , a xe s , s i ck le s ,

t h i s l a t te rc a se w ou ld b e :

s pea r s —w e re p roduced i nD enma rk . Sma l le ro b jec t s , s uch

1 )

a s s c rape r s , p o in t s , f l ak e s , may h ave b een made f r om

2 )

A ss of t ma t r ix ma te r ia le rodes ,b and so fq ua r tz i te w e re e xpo sed .T hese p ro t ruded f r om t h ev e r t ica lr ock f a ces .

" co re s" f r om l a rge ro b jec t s p i cked u po n a bandoned s i te s .

S tone s f e l lf r om a bove o rw e re t r an spo r ted a th i gh w a -

T hey may a l so h ave b een made f r om b each k no l ls . F l in t

t e rl e ve l si nt h er i ve r s ,a nd " s t ruck" t h ee xpo sed q ua r t -

f ound i nt h e moun ta in s w a s n eces sa r i ly t r an spo r ted s ome

z i te a nd p roduced f l ake s . T he rma l f r ac tu r ing i sa l so

d i s tance b y h umans .

p o ss ib le .

T he n umbe ro ff l in tp o in t si nt h eN y se t -S tegg je a nd S k r i v a rhe l le ren ma ter ia l i sl ow . A t t h e L a te N eo l i th ic s i te 3 2 V ika s to len o n ly 2 p o in t s ( 16 .5% ) w e re f l in t . L a te B ronze

F ind s o f i n d ispu tab le h uman mod if ica t ion o r a n " unna t -

Age /P re -Roman s i te s 1 07 , 8 5 &2 7V ika s to len a nd 8 6H e l -

u r a l" l i th ic s p read f r om t h e s ou rce s c ou ld b e e v idence o f

l i ngboen y i e lded n of l in tp o in t s .U nf o r tuna te ly ,c ompa rab le f i gu res f o r t h e s c rape r s a r e n o t t a l l ied . H owever I nd re l id

h uman q ua r ry ing . T h is i sn o tr epo r ted . E ven t hough n o i nd i spu tab le q ua r r ie s w e re i d en t if ied ,

p o in ted o u t t h a t o n H a rdangerv idda , f l in t w a s mo re c om -

t h e c i r cum s tan t ia l e v idence f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f l o ca l

mon ly u sed f o rs c rape r st h an f o ro the rt o o lc a tego r ie s ,e ven

q ua r tz i te i ss t rong . Qua r r ie s may b e f o und i n t h e f u tu re .

o n s i te s w i th o the rw i se s ma l l f l in t q uan t i t ie s ( I nd re l id

P e rhap s t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fq ua r tz i te w a sb a sed o n c o l lec t -

1 986 :225 ) . T hu s p e rhap s f l in tw a s t h e p r ef e r red r aw ma te -

i n g b lock s , a nd n o t q ua r ry ing f r om ac en t ra l s ou r ce . I fs o ,

r i a l f o r s c rape r s . T he f l in t d emon s t ra te s a n e conom ic s y s -

n o e a s i ly r e cogn izab le , c en t ra l q ua r ry n eed e x is t .

t em t h a t b r ing s t h e ma ter ia l t o Norway , a nd e spec ia l ly t o

R eg iona ls our ce s , s uch a st h e L z e rda l q ua r tz i te q ua r r ies ,

c en t ra l a r ea s w i th c oncen t ra t ion s o fi mpo r ted Dan ish f l in t

r e p resen tt h e f i ne rq ua l i ty q ua r tz i te s ( A skv ik 1 966 , J ohan -

o b jec t s ( Hagen 1 983 :104 , S cheen 1 979 , S o lbe rg 1 993 . )

s e n 1 967 , 1 968 , 1 978 :69 ) . A skv ik d escr ibe s t h e Lx rda l

T he s y s tem r e d is t r ibu te sp a r to ft h ei mpo r ted f l in tf r om t h e

s t one :

Norweg ian c en t re s t oa l l p a r t s o fs ou the rn Norway a nd t o

"Macro scop ic d e sc r ip t ion :T he r ock f r om b o th q ua r r ie s

S ogn ( op . c i t . , Mand t 1 991 , J ohn son 1 993 . ) . F l in t s e rve s t o

i s aq ua r tz i te w i th a n u nu sua l a ppea rance . I t i s

empha s ize t h e l e ve l o f r e g iona l e xchange . T he l i th ic r aw

v e ry p u re . T he c o lou ri sl i gh tg r ey t ow eak g reen . I ti s

ma ter ia li sa ne xamp le o ft h el o ca l ,r eg iona l Norweg ian a nd

v ery f i ne g ra ined , a nd f r ac tu res i n amanne r t h a t r e -

r eg iona l S cand inav ian l e ve ls o fi n te rac t ion t h a tI nne rS ogn

s emb le s f l in t . I ti sb anded w i th s l igh t ly l i gh te r a nd

w a s e ngaged i n . 7 7

T ab le 1 3 . S pec ies d e term ina t ion o fc ha rcoa l s amp le s s ubm i t ted

r aw m a te r ia l f o r b ows a nd a r row s haf t s , d emand v e ry s pe -

t or ad ioca rbon d a t ing , Ny se t -S tegg je . I den t if ica t ion b y L .M . P au l s en , O s lo .

c i a l ized q ua l i t ie s . B i r ch ,j un ipe ra nd w i l low h ave al o ng l i s t

Nyse t -S tegg je :

T -n r .

Ma ter ia l

ma ter ia l i s a l so n ece ssa ry , w he the r f o r t e n t s , l o dge s o r

5

S lu ten

T -4495

b i r ch a nd j un ipe r .

h ouse s . L eave s a nd s hoo t s c an b e s u i tab le f odde r ( Fxgr i e t

2 7

K a lvebe i te t

T -6068

b i r ch .

3 1

V ika s to len

a l . 1 989 :181 , Hoeg 1 976 ) , a nd u n t i l r e cen t ly t h ese h ave

T -4779

b i r ch .

3 2

V ika s to len

T -4780

b i r ch a nd p i ne .

b een av i ta l s ou rce o ff odde ri nÄ rda l ( Sagen 1 971 :265 ) .

T -4781

b i rch a nd p i ne .

o f p o ten t ia l u ses a s r aw m a te r ia l f o r e qu ipmen t . B u i ld ing

Wooden ma ter ia lc an b eo b ta ined f r om s eve ra ls ou rces i n t h e a r ea . I n V ikada len , t h e b i rch -dom ina ted v ege ta t ion

3 4f V ika s to len

T -6100

3 4f V ika s to len

T -7251

b i r ch .

p robab ly e x tended t h rough t h eR i ska lsva tn b a s in u n t i lg raz -

4 7

T -5485

b i r ch .

i n g p u shed i td own . T oday t h e b i r ch e x tend s a s f a r a st h e

T -5860

b i r ch .

T -5861

b i r ch .

l owe rp a r t o ft h e b a s in , i . e . , a r ound S ka rhaug sf ossen . P ine

T -6063

b i rch .

T -6064

b i rch .

t h a ti tn ea r ly r eached a sh i gh a s 1 000 m a . s . l . P ine s amp les

T -5864

b i r ch .

f r om R i ska l sva tn h ave p rov ided d a te s o f5 670+ / -100 B .P .

T -6065

b i r ch .

( T -4217 ) a nd 8 470+ / -120 B .P . ( K vamme e ta l . 1 992 :71) .

T -5863

b i r ch .

T -6062

b i r ch .

T -5486

b i rch a nd p i ne .

T -6 105

b i r ch .

h i gh a l t i tude s i nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age , t h e re

T -6 106

b i rch .

a r e l a rge l o g s , a s much a s4 0 —5 0 cm i nd i ame te r , w h ich

5 1-1 U ru t le l c rä i

T -6212

u nde t . c ha r coa l .

w e re f o und i nt h ep ea t ,w he re t h ey w e re p re served s i nce t h e

8 4

S ka rhaugf os sen 0 23

T -4489

b i rch .

R 24

T -4788

b i r ch a nd p ine .

P rebo rea l a nd A t lan t ic o p t ima . L oca l s s ay t h a t s u ch p ine

8 5

K a lvebe i te t

T -6066

b i rch .

T -6067

b i r ch .

a l sa nd f i rewood . Ad ig re s s ion h e r ec once rns t h ee f f ec tt h is

8 6

H e l l ingboen

T -5566

b i r ch .

ma te r ia l c ou ld h ave o n r ad ioca rbon d a tes .

T -5567

b i r ch .

O ne o ft h e c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e s o fb o th B e rda len a nd

T -5562

b i r ch .

T -5602

b i rch .

V ika s to len i st h e w i l low t h icke t s o n t h e d e l ta s , a l ong t h e

T -5563

b i rch .

U ru t le l c rä i

5 0a U ru t lek rä i

1 03 B e rda lsva tn

1 05 B e rda len 16 B e rda len

T -6874

b i r ch .

T -6875

b i rch .

T -6639

b i rch .

i su sua l ly f ound t oa bou t 8 00 m e te r s , b u tt h e r e i se v idence

P ine s p read i n to t h e a r ea o n a tl e a s t t wo o cca s ion s i nt h e p o s t -g lac ia l p er iod s . A l though , p ine f o re s t d i d n o t g row a t

w a s u sed u n t i l r e cen t ly a sh ighe s t q ua l i ty b u i ld ing m a ter i -

s t ream s a nd a round t h e p ea t b og s . F ina l ly j un ipe r a nd c r eep ing b i rch i sc ommon i nt h e m id -a lp ine e nv i ronmen t .

GENERAL NATURAL POTENTIAL

T -6640

b i r ch .

1 22 1 ( 59 F o ssda len

T -7163

b i r ch .

" Il a nge t i d er g ay j e l l e t E ld egard sf o lk e t d e t m e s t e t i l

1 30 B e rda len

T -6629

b i r ch .

1 30w

T -7156

b i r ch .

l e vema ten m ed v e id ing i o g a vdro t t en p a s t O lane . D e t

1 30w

T -7157

b i r ch .

s ame k an n ar d e tg j e ld g am l et i d er s e ia s to g so o ma nd re g ardar iÄ rda l ." ( "Fo r al ong t ime t h e moun ta ins p rov ided t h e p eop le f r om t h eE ldega rd f a rm w i th mo s t o fl i f e 's n ece s s i t ies

W ood

t h rough h un t ing a nd t h e p roduc t s f r om t h e s h ie l ing s .

E v idence o f wh ich s pec ie s o fw ood w e re u sed a sf i rewood

T he s ame c an b e s a id o fo l d t imes o n o t he r f a rms i n

i sf ound i nt h e s pec ie s d e term ina t ion o fr ad ioca rbon c ha r -

Ä rda l") ( K . E ldega rd 1 950 :56 , t r ans l . b y CP ) .

c oa l s amp le s ( t ab le 1 3 ) . B i r ch w a s mo s t c ommon ly u sed . T h i si sn o ts u rp r is ing ,b ecause b i rch w a s t h e mo s tc ommon

T of u r the re l uc ida te t h eq ues t ion o fs ub s is tence t h is c hap ter

a rbo rou s s pec ie s a th i gh a l t i tude s . I tw a s u ndoub tab ly c o l -

a im st od ef ine mo re p o ten t ia lr e sou r ce s . S uch a na na ly s is i s

l e c ted l o ca l ly . I ta l so h a s s pec ia lq ua l i t ies f o rd a i ry p roduc -

o f i n te re s t , a s i ti d en t if ie s a n i n dependen t v a r iab le . C om -

t i on :

b i ned w i th as pa t ia l a na lys is , w he re r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween " B i rch h a sb een mo re u sed f o rf i rewood t h an a ny o t he r

s i te s a r e s pec if ied , i d en t ify ing t h e p o ten t ia l r e sou r ce s i s

t y pe o f w ood , a nd mo s t p lace s i tw a s c on s ide red t h e

e ven mo r e v a luab le t ot h e a na lys is .

b e s t . U se o fb i rch w hen c hee se w a s made o nt h e s h ie l i n g sw a ss og rea t. . ,t h a tf i rewood c o l lec t ing a nd g raz i n g l e ad t o s upp re s s ion o f t h e t r ee l ine ."

T he p o t en t ia lf or d ome s t i ca t eg raz ing

( Hoeg

T he " na tu ra l" v ege ta t ion w a s p robab ly a n i mpo r tan tl o ca -

1 976 :238 , t r ans l . b y CP ) .

t i ona ld e te rm inan tf o rp reh i s tor ic p a s to ra l is t s .I ti st h e refo re F ue l i sn ece ssa ry i n ap a s to ra l s i tua t ion . I ndeed , s t o r ies t e l l

i n te re s t ing t ol ook a tt h e mode rn v ege ta t ion i n mo re d e ta i l .

t h a t o t herw ise p roduc t ive s h ie l ings w e re a bandoned b e -

G ene ra lr e v iews o ft h ev ege ta t ion a nd f o res tc ompo s i t ion i n

c au se o f al a ck o f f i rewood ( Sagen 1 971 :268 ) . E ven f o r

Ä rda l a r e f ound i n S agen ( 1971 :290f f ) , V e ( 1 930 , 1 940 )

f a i r ly s imp le c ampf i re n eed s ,f i rewood c an b ea ni mpo r tan t

a nd V e &V ende lboe ( 1971) .

f a c to r i n c o ld c l ima te s , a s s ome e t hnog raph ic e xamp le s

T he s ou rces f o r i n dependen t e va lua t ion o f t h e g r az ing

d emon s t ra te ( I ngs tad 1 975 :16 e K le ivan 1 962 ) .

p o ten t ia l a r e b o tan ica l e va lua t ion a nd l o ca l a ccoun t s . I n

Wood f i l l s av a r ie ty o fo the r n eeds . S ome u se s , s uch a s

c onnec t ion w i th t h e h yd ro -e lec t r ic d eve lopmen t t wo r e 7 8

p or t s e va lua te t h e v ege ta t ion i nt h e N yse t -S tegg je v a l leys

t hough n o t o f s uch an a tu re a s t ob e c ha rac te r ized a s

( B jorne s tad 1 975 , S kogen e ta l . 1 985 ) . L a te r , i nt h ep e r iod

d ange rou s p a s tu r ing t e r ra in . C a t t le c an g raze i n t h e

1 981 — 1 985 ,p a leobo tan ica lf i e ldwo rk h a sb een c a r r ied o u t

b o t tom o ft h ev a l ley a sf a ru pa sV ierva tn ,w h i le s heep

( K vamme e ta l . 1 992 ) . B ef o re t h e mode rn h yd ro -e lec t r ic

c an r oam t h e w ho le a r ea ." ( F roy s land 1 951 :100 ,

d eve lopmen t , s eve ra l v a l leys i n S ogn , i n c lud ing B e rda len

t r an s l . b y CP ) .

w e re s ub jec ted t op a s tu re a na ly s is ( F re s tad 1 951) . V i kada l en . I n as umma ry o f h i s r e su l t s , B jorne s tad

T he s h ie l ing B e rda l s to len i sr e f e r red t oi n ar e v iew b y S a -

( 1975 :1) w r i te s o ft h e Ny se t a r ea t h a t " the re a r e f i ne p a s -

g en ( 1971) . O therw ise , as t o / w a s o r ig ina l ly l o ca ted a tt h e

t u re s —p e rhap s t h e f i ne s t i n t h e d i s t r ic t ." B jo rne s tad d e -

w e s tern e nd o ft h e l a ke a s w e l l , a cco rd ing t ol o ca ls ( E lde -

s c r ibe s t h e v ege ta t ion i nt h e r e servo i r b a s in a s t y p ica l f o r

g a rd 1 958 :28 ) . E ldega rd w r i te st h a tt h ev a l ley so fA vda len ,

l owe ra l p ine e nv i ronmen t s ,e xcep to ft h ee a s te rn z one .T h is

F o ssda len , B e r rda len a nd S kon sda len , a nd t h e s u r round ing

z one h ea na lyze si nd e ta i l .H i sc onc lus ion i st h a te spec ia l ly

h i l l s a nd moun ta in s , w e re g ood p a s tu re s . B e rda len w a s a

v a luab le p a s tu re s a r e f ound i n t h e V ika s tO len a r ea a nd

moun ta in s h ie l ing —i . e . , i tw a s u sed i nt h e s umme r . S agen

a round U ru t lek rä i . T he l a t te ra r e l e s s r i ch . B jorne s tad a l so

a l so men t ion s B e rda len a s o ne o f t h e f ew h igh a l t i tude

men t ions p a tches o fr i ch v ege ta t ion o nt h en o r th s i de o ft h e

s h ie l ings , a nd t h a t t h e re c ou ld b e d i ff icu l t ie s i n f i nd ing

Nyse t r i ve r , b e low R i ska lsva tn . F rom h i s d e scr ip t ion t h is

e nough f i rewood . P a s to ra lu se o ft h ev a l ley p robab ly l e dt o

mus tb e t h e H e l l ingboen a r ea .

c on s tan tp re s su re o n t h e a r bo rou s v ege ta t ion .

S agen ( 1971) r e v iewed s h ie l ing a c t iv i t ie s i n mode rn a nd h i s to r ica l Ä rda l . H e b a sed h i s a ccoun t o n l o ca l t r ad i t ion s

F o s sda l en

a nd v i s ib le h ou se r u in s . I n t h e R iska l sva tn b a s in a r ea h e

I nF roy s land 's r epo r t , F o ssda len a nd n e ighbo r ing A vda len

make s s pec ia l men t ion o f Ny se t /V ika s to len a nd Un i t lek rä i .

a r ec ha rac te r ized a sg ood p a s tu re s , a nd a r ep a r to ft h es ame

B jo rkum ( 1958 :56 ) s ay s t h a tt h e p a s tu re s i mmed ia te ly b e -

p a s to ra l l a nd s y s tem a s B e rda len . E xp l ic i t r e f e rence t oa n

l ow t h eh ou se s a nd a tK a lvebe i te t( b e tween V ika s to len a nd

a bandoned s umme r s h ie l ing i nF os sda len i s made b y S o l-

U ru t lekrä i ) w e re e spec ia l ly g ood . I n h i s n a r ra t ive , K a lve -

h e im ( 1952 :285 f ) .

b e i te ti sc l ea r ly p a r to ft h e s h ie l ing a tN y se t . H ew r i te st h a t t h e f i r s t U ru t le l c rä i h ouse s w e re b u i l t a r ound 1 830 , t h e r e ma ins o fw h ich a r es t i l lv i s ib le . B jO rkum ma in ta in st h a tt h e

T r ee sa nd l e ave sa sf odd er

U ru t le l c rä i p a s tu re s w e re g ood , b u t t h e v i ew f r om t h e

U s ing s hoo t s a nd l e ave s a s w in ter f odde r w a s c ommon i n

h ou se s w a s r e s t r ic ted . S agen mean t t h a t a n a bandoned

I nne r S ogn u n t i l modern t ime s . T he s t eep moun ta in s i de s

s h ie l ing w a s l o ca ted w e s t o f Un i t lek rä i , a nd r e f e r s t ot wo

a nd t h e l owe ra l p ine z one w e re r i ch s ou r ce s o ff o dde r a nd

r u ins t h e re . A ga in , t h is i sH e l l ingboen . S im i la r c ommen t s

g oa t p a s tu re s . I ndeed , b i r ch a nd a l de r s o c ha rac te r ized t h e

a r e made b y B jO rkum ( 1958 :58 ) i n r ega rd t o "H ed l ing -

l i f e o ft h e g oa t , t h a ti th a s l e dt o ap oe t ic g oa tm enu :

ben" . I n ad i scus s ion o ft h e p l a ce n ame "H e l l ing" , M id -

" B jek e lauv t ulb i sk ,

t un ( 1958 :36 )r e f e r st oa na bandoned s h ie l ing i nV ikada len

h øy t i ld ugurd s

c a l led "H e l l ingane" .T he n ame m ean s " s lope s" ,w h ich d e -

a or e lauv t i ln on s

s c r ibe sH e l l ingboen w e l l .T he re s e em st ob e ag ene ra lt r end

b f ork e lauv t ulk ve ld s ."

i nl o ca l t r ad i t ion , t oe spec ia l ly h ono rp a s tu re s w i th n ame s . B erda l en . T he v ege ta t ion i n B e rda len i sd escr ibed b y

" B i rch l e ave s f o rb reak fa s t ,

B jorne s tad a s " t r iv ia l" ( B jorne s tad 1 975 :5 ) . H oweve r , t h e

h ay f o rl u nch ,

a r ea a r ound t h e " Be rda ls to len" s h ie l ing i sf ound t ob e e s -

a l de rl e ave s f o rd inne r ,

p ec ia l ly s u i tab le f o rp a s tur ing i nn ea r ly a l r epo r t sa nd n a r -

b i rch l e ave s i nt h ee ven ing .

r a t ive s . T he v ege ta t ion i sr i ch a l ong t h e s t ream s t h a t r un

( K ros sen 1 978 :117 , t r ans l . b y CP ) .

d own f r om t h e s i de s o ft h e v a l ley . F a s te land ( 1974 ) m en t i ons t h ed e l ta sa tt h en o r th e nd o ft h el a k e . T he re a r ep rob l em si nu s ing t h e moder nv ege ta t ion i nB e rda len a sa na na l -

P a s tora lr e sour ce s :P r e l im inar yc onc lu s ion

o gy t o p a s t c ond i t ion s . T he d ra inage a r ea w a s s eve re ly

T he a bove p e rm i t s ag ene ra lc onc lu s ion a bou t moder np a s -

r educed ( a nd t h e w a te r t a b le t h e reby a f f ec ted ) , a pp rox i -

t o ra l u se o ft h e N y se t -S tegg je v a l leys : V ikada len , B e rda -

ma te ly 6 6% o rf r om 2 7 .5 km t o9 . 3 km ( Va sshaug 1 974 ) ,i n

l e n , F o s sda len a nd t h e o the rv a l leys w e re a l l u sed f o rp a s -

t h e l a te 1 950 's a s ar e su l t o f h yd ro -e lec t r ic d eve lopmen t .

t u r ing p u rpo se s B e rda len s e em s t o r ep re sen t amax imum

F u r the rmo r e , c omme rc ia lg raz ing w a sf o rb idden a f te rg en -

a l t i tude f o r p e rmanen t s h ie l ing s , a nd w a s u sed f o r as ho r t

e r a t ion so fi n tens ive u se ,b ecau se o ff l uo r ide c on tam ina t ion

p e r iod i nt h e s umme r . S c ien t if i c , h i s tor ica l a nd f o lk -h is to r -

( B jorne s tad 1 975 ) . Modern B e rda len i s an o -ana logy s i t -

i c a l e v idence d emon s t ra te t h e p l ace s o ff o cu s f o r p a s to ra l

u a t ion . S t i l l , ar e a sonab ly a ccu ra te p i c tu re o ft h ev ege ta t ion

a c t iv i t ie s . T he se a r ee spec ia l ly t h ee a s te rn e nd o ft h eR isk -

i sa t ta inab le , a nd i ti ss uppo r ted b y o l de ra ccoun t s . B ef o re

a l sva tn b a s in ( V ika s tO len t oU ru t lek rä i ) , t o al e s se r e x ten t

t h e d ra inage w a s a l te red , a nd o n ly a f ew y ea r s a f te r t h e

H e l l ingboen a nd B e rda ls to len . T he ma in c oncen t ra t ion o f

g raz ing b an , F roys land e va lua ted B e rda len i n r e la t ion t o

b o th L a te N eo l i th ic t oB ronze A ge a nd I r on Age s i tes a r e

g raz ing :

f ound i nt h e se p lace s . T he re s e em s t ob e ac or r e la t ion b e -

" The b o t tom o ft h ev a l ley i sp ra c t ica l ly f l a t .T he s i de s

t ween t h eb e s tp a s tu re s a nd t h e s i te s ( c f . f i g . 2 0 , t a b les 1 5 ,

o f t h e v a l ley a r e s t eep , i n c lud ing s ome c l if f -faces ,

1 6 & 1 8 ) . 7 9

W i ld l if ea nd p o t en t ia lg ame

T ab le 1 4 . S ome s pec ie s r epor ted i nÄ rda l .

H un t ing w a s f o und t ob e t h e mo s t e v iden t a c t iv i ty i nt h e

H ab i ta t f o re s t

s ub -a lp ine

a l p ine

h igh -a lp ine

s i te a na ly s is . A r e v iew o f t h e s pec ie s k nown t oday a nd h i s tor ica l ly ,a nd t h e i rh ab i ta t s , s hou ld c l a r ify w h ich s pec ie s

Mamma l s

w e re p robab ly h un ted . T rad i t iona l ly , a na ly se s o f moun ta in

R e indee r

s i tes h ave a s sumed t h a tt h el a rge a r t iodac ty le sw e re v i r tua l -

Moo se R ed d ee r

l yt h e o n ly i mpo r tan t g ame . H oweve r , t h e b one c o l lec t ion

W i ld c a t s

f r om S k r iva rhe l le r en ( P re sco t t 1 993 ) s howed t h a t mo s t o f

L ynx

t h e a va i lab le s pec ie s w e re s t a lked . I tw a s s u re ly t h e c a se a t

Ma r ten

l owe ra l p ine a nd a l p ine a l t i tude s a sw e l l .

E rm ine S now w ea se l

A rchaeo log is t s t e nd t o c on s truc t d e te rm inan t r e la t ion -

Wo lve r ine?

s h ip sb e tween c u l tu re a nd c e r ta in s ub s i s tence e l emen t s ,e . g .

Wo lf

" Bronze Age = a gr icu l tu re" a nd " hun t ing = S tone Age" .

F ox

Ar e la ted p rob lem i s at e ndency t ol o ok a ta g r icu l tu re a nd

B ea r

h e rd ing v e r sus h un t ing , g a ther ing a nd f i sh ing a s mu tua l ly

Ha re

e xc lus ive . H is tor ica l d a ta f r om S ogn a nd o t he r p a r t s o f

F ow l

Norway s how t h a ta gr icu l tu re ,h e rd ing ,h un t ing a nd f i sh ing

P ta rm igan

h ave n o t e xc luded e ach o t he r . B rogge r made t h is p o in t i n

a nd f ow l

1 925 ( Brogge r 1 926 :21) . T he i mpo r tance o f w i ld a n ima l

H awk s

s pec ie s i nÄ rda l i se xp res sed i nf o lk lo re . P la ce n ame s t i ed

Duck s

t oh un t ing a nd t r app ing a r ea l so a ne xp re ss ion o ft h ei mpo r t a nce o ft h e w i ldernes s r e sou rce s ( E ldega rd 1 950 , M id t tun 1 958 :141f f , Y e 1 97 1a , b ) . S to r ie s a bou tt h e o l de s t s on t u rn i n g d own a n i n he r i tance i n c lud ing t h e f a rm i t se lf , p r ef e r -

v an tr e indee rr e sea rch ) . T he h ides a r e v a luab le . T he w in te r

r i ng r i gh t s t o moun ta in r e indee r p i t s , a r e f o und i n Ä rda l

h ide s f u rn ish b edd ing a nd s l eep ing b ag s , wh i le a u tumn

( M id t tun 1 958 :139 f ) . A l though n o t n ece s sa r i ly h i s tor ica l

h ide sa r es u i tab le f o rw in te rc l o th ing . " Aw e l l -sewn c oa to f

f a c t ,t h ey i lus t ra te t h es ubs i s ten t ia l ,e conom ic a nd i d eo log -

c a r ibou -sk in c l o th ing i sw a rme rt h an modern " goo se -down

i c a l p o s i t ion h un t ing h ad . T he f a rm ing p opu la t ion t h us

c l o th ing ." O the r u se s o f t h e h ide a r e r e co rded i n e t hno -

r e ad i ly h un ted a nd f i shed , a nd t h e re w e re p robab ly af ew

g raph ic a ccoun t s , a nd i n c lude b ag s , l o dg ing c ove r s , r aw -

mo re o rl e s s p rof e ss iona l h un te r s / t rappe r s a sw e l l .

h ide l i ne ( f o ri . a . s now shoe s ) , s na re sa nd n e t s . I ti sr e po r ted

E lemen t s o f t h e s ame p a t tern a r e c l ea r ly p r e sen t i nt h e

f r om A u r land i nI nne r S ogn t h a t r e indee r h ide s w e re u sed

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l .

a s s l eep ing b ag s a nd " ra in c l o the s" ( Ohn s tad 1 988 :25 ) .

T h i si sd emon s t ra ted b yd i scus s ion si nt h ep r e sen ts t udy , a s

T he l a t te rw ou ld d ef in i te ly b ep ra c t ica li nw e s tern N orway .

w e l l a so the r s ( P resco t t 1 991a ,b , 1 993 , i np r e s s ) . K now ing

A s s eve ra l a u tho r s p o in t o u t , r e indee r h ides k eep p eop le

wha tc ou ld h ave b een h un ted ,w hen a nd w he re c an b ev a lu -

w a rm e ven w hen w e t , b ecause o f t h e h o l low h a i r f i be r s .

a b le i nu nde r s tand ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l .

A n t le r s c an a l so b e v a luab le , b u t c an b e c o l lec ted w hen t h ey a r e s hed . R e indee r b one s a nd a n t le r s a r e w e l l -su i ted

A cco rd ing t o G unne rod ( 1974 ) s pec ies v a r ia t ion a nd

f o rt o o l mak ing ( Ho lm 1 991 :93 ) .

p opu la t ion s i ze s i nÄ rda l a r e s im i la r t o w ha t i sg ene ra l ly c ommon f o r t h is p a r t o f No rway . L id ( 1980 :348 ) a s se r t s

V ikada len l i e s c en t ra l ly p l aced i n ar e indee r h ab i ta t

t h a ti nt h e Norweg ian moun ta in s s pec ies v a r ia t ion g ene ra l -

( Gunne rod 1 974 ) . I ti st emp t ing t o a s sume t h a t r e indee r

l yd ec l ine sw i th i n c rea s ing a l t i tude .F o rh uman si ti si mpo r -

r ep re sen t a n a l p ine t oh i gh -a lp ine r e sou r ce , b u t a cco rd ing

t a n t t h a t a l though v a r ie ty o f s pec ie s d ecrea ses , s ome s pe -

t ot h e s u rvey made b y S p ies s ( 1979 :31f f , 6 3 ) c a r ibou / re in -

c i es may b e p re sen t i nl a rge n umbe r s . T he mo s ti mpo r tan t

d ee rb ehav iou ri sv a r iab le . S p ie ss r e f e r sa mong s to t her st oa

o ft h e se i st h e r e indee r . R e indee r a gg rega te s i nh e rd s , a nd

s t udy b y S t een ( 1968 ) . H er epo r t st h a tr e indee ri ns ou ther n

s e em t o b ehave i n ar e la t ive ly p red ic tab le manne r ( A l -

Norway s pend w in te r s i nt h e " f o re s t s" , e ven m ig ra t ing t o

t h ough t h is c an b e e xagge ra ted , c ompa re J ohansen 1 978

t h e c oa s t . T h i s s e ems u n l ike ly i nw es tern N orway . B a sed

w i th G ronnow 1 993 :57 ) . Ar e g iona l f ound r e v iew i sp r e -

o n S p ie s s ' g ene ra l o u t l ine o f t h e b ehav iou r o f n on -fo res t

s en ted b yH e l land ( 1901J :482f ) . Al o ca lr e v iew i sf ound i n

r e indee r , a nd t h e v i ew t h a t w i ld r e indee r w ou ld s t ay a way

Y e ( 1971 :103f f ) . T he s pec ie sl i s t sf r om S k r iva rhe l le ren a r e

f r om s e t t lemen t s a nd p a s tu re s e xp lo i ted b y d omes t ica ted

a l so r e levan t( P re sco t t 1 993 ) .T ab le 1 4s umma r ize st h es pe -

s pec ie s ,h umans w ou ld h ave e ncoun te red r e indee rf r om t h e

c i e s r epo r t s a bove .

l owe r a l p ine l e ve l ( e .g . l owe r R i ska lsva tn b a s in ) a nd u p . T he a l p ine a nd h igh -a lp ine z one w e re w he re h uman s a nd r e indee r mo s t f r equen t ly e ncoun te red e ach o the r .

W i ld h erb ivor e s

T h i s g ene ra l iza t ion d oe s n o t o n ly t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e

T he c l ea r ly mo s t i mpo r tan t , p o ten t ia l g ame w a s r e indee r .

s ea sona la nd r e indee rs o c io log ica la spec t so fr e indee rb eha -

T he a n ima l i sc ommon i nt h e a r ea . As i ng le r e indee r p ro -

v iou r . I ta l so b u i ld s o n t h e i d ea t h a ta u tumn t oe a r ly w in ter

v ide s s ub s tan t ia l a moun t s o f h i gh q ua l i ty f ood ( Sp ie ss

h un t ing w ou ld b e mo s ta dvan tageou si nr ega rd t om ea ta nd

1 979 :26f f d i scus se s r e indee r a s f ood . S p ies s ' b ook i s a

h ide s ( Sp ie ss 1 979 :29 ) . T h is w ou ld e spec ia l ly b e t h e c a se

c omp rehen s ive s t udy a nd r e v iew o f a r chaeo log ica l ly r e le -

f o rp eop le w ho h ad r e indee ra s as ub s id ia ry s ou rce o fn u t r i 8 0

t i on , b u t h ad e conom ic i n te re s t s i nt h e h i de s , f u r s a nd a n -

h e ld b y t h ew o lve r ine , w o lf o rl a rge rc a t s . Sma l le rs pec ie s ,

t l e r s . S p r ing h un t ing w ou ld b eu ncommon , a st h e s k ins a r e

s uch a sf ow l ,p reda to rb i rd s ,h a re ,s now w ea se l , ma r ten a nd

o f p oo r q ua l i ty a t t h i s t ime ( Ho lm 1 99 1 :94 ) . A cce ss t o

e rm ine , m igh t h ave b een s t a lked w i th s na re s a nd t r ap s .

h un t ing g round s i nt h e moun ta in s i sd i ff i cu l ti nt h e s p r ing .

F ow l w a s u n t i l r e cen t ly c augh t w i th n e t s ( Vo ld 1 955 ) .

T he r i ve r s a r e w i ld a nd w a te r laden , o r s em i -open . T he

S na res l e ave f ew a r chaeo log ica l t r ace s , b u t s imp le t r aps ,

l a nd i sc ove red w i th d eep , w e t s now . F rom as ys tem ic p e r -

c omposed o f al a rge s t one p ropped u pb y as t ick h ave b een

s pec t ive , r e indee rt h u s s t rong ly s ugge s ta n a u tumn s o journ

u sed u n t i l r e cen t ly ( V e 1 971 :215 ) . T he p u rpo se o fh un t ing mo s to ft h ea bove s pec ies w ou ld

s t re tch ing i n to w in te r .

h ave h ad t wo g oa l s . Mea t w ou ld h ave b een g a ined , b u t a

T he t e ndency t o s t a lk r e indee r i n t h e a l p ine a nd h igh a l p ine z one i sd emon s t ra ted b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fb l ind s ,

n umbe ro ft h e a bove s pec ies w ou ld h ave b een mo re v a lua -

p i t fa l ls a nd f a l l t r ap s i nt h e a r ea . S uch s t ruc tu re s a r e f ound

b l e f o rt h e i r s k ins , f u r s a nd f e a the r s . Woo len t e x t i le s p rob -

i n t h e a l p ine a nd h igh -a lp ine moun ta in s a bove a nd s u r -

a b ly b ecame mo re c ommon i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic o rB ronze

r ound ing V ikada len a nd B e rda len ( B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 , V e

A ge ,a si nd ica ted b yt h eJ u t t ish o ak c off in g rave s( Brond s t -

1 971 :221) . Mapp ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fp i t fa l ls a nd b l ind s

e d 1 958 :63 j j )a nd f i nd so fp in s( She r ra t t 1 981 :283 ,P re sco t t

i s ame thod u sed t or e con s t ruc t b ehav iou r p a t tern s o f t h e

1 991a :44 ) . S t i l l , s k ins a nd f u r s p robab ly r ema ined ac om -

r e indee r f r om b ef o re modern c on s t ruc t ion a c t iv i t ie s p a r t i -

mon c l o th ing ma te r ia l . T he re w ou ld h ave a l so b een ad e -

t i oned t h e l a nd ( Skog land & J o rdh e 1 987 ) . P i t fa l l s r ep re -

mand f o r s pec ia l -pu rpose o rs t a tu s f u r s —a st h e re h a s b een

s e n t at y pe o ft r app ing a tv a r iance w i th t h ec oncep to fh un t -

i n to t h ep re sen t .

i n gi nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge .T h i s i sr e f lec ted

T he a bove s how s t h a t aw ide r ange o fw i ld s pec ie s w e r e

i nt h eg ene ra l ,b u tm eage rd a t ing e v idence t h e re i sa bou tp i t

p re sen t . T he se a n ima ls c ou ld h ave p rov ided p roduc t s f o r

f a l l s i ns ou the rn Norway : R ad ioca rbon d a te s p rov ide I r on

l o ca l c on sump t ion a nd r eg iona l S cand inav ian e xchange .

A ge o rl a te rp e r iod v a lue s ( Ba r th 1 983 ) . S t i l l , t h e t r app ing

T he ma te r ia l f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren w i l l b e p resen ted s ep -

s t ruc tu re s i nd ica te b ehav iou rp a t te rns .

a r a te ly ,a nd t h e ref o re h a sn o tb een as ou rce o fa na logy h e re . S t i l l , S k r iva rhe l le ren i nd ica te st h a t many o ft h e m en t ioned

Moo se i sa l so r epo r ted a nd o b served i nt h e s ub -a lp ine a nd l owe r a l p ine r eg ion s . V e ( 1971 :103 ) r e f e r s t o a n o ld

s pec ie s w e re e xp lo i ted i nÄ rda l i nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

f o lk ta le t h a td e scr ibe sh ow d ee rc ame t oh ave t h e i rd oma in

B ronze Age .

i nt h ew e s t ,h ow r e indee rh ad t h e i rd oma in i nt h e moun ta in s a nd t h e moo se c ho se t o l i ve i n t h e e a s tern f o re s t s . T he

F i sh

d oma in s o ft h e se t h ree a n ima l mee ti nÄ rda l . A cco rd ing t o V e ( 1971 :103 , 2 50 ) , moo se i sp robab ly n o t ap e rmanen t

" F ish ing h a s a lways b een a n i mpor tan t l i ve l ihood i n

i n hab i tan tb u t :

Ä rda l . T he f i r s t h un te r s t h a t s e t t led h e re , b e tween t h e

" E in o ga nnan e i gen k j em s t igand ep ä l a nge f O t er v e s t -

moun ta in sa nd t h ef j o rd ,d id n o ts o le ly s ub s ide o nr e in -

o ver j e l la g j ennom d a lar o g s mog o gv i t jar Ä rda l" .

d ee r a nd p ta rm igan a nd o t he r f ou r -f oo ted a n ima l s o r

( "A f ew moo se c ome c l imb ing o nt h e i rl o ng l e g so ve r

b i rd s . No ,f i sh ing h a sa lways b een a ni mpor tan tp a r to f

t h e moun ta in s , t h rough v a l leys t o t h e w e s t a nd v i s i t

l i f e , b o th t h en a nd d own t h rough t h e a ge s , r i gh t i n to

Ä rda l" ) ( Ve 1 971 :103 , t r an s l . b y C P ) .

t h e p re sen t ." ( Sagen 1 971 :253 , t r ans l . b y CP ) .

D ee r a r e r epo r ted a nd o b se rved t ob e p l en t ifu l i nÄ rda l 's

T he o n ly f i sh s pec ie s p re sen t i n t h e moun ta in r i ve r s a nd

f o res t s . J udg ing f r om V e 's d emog raph ic o b serva t ion s , t h e

l a ke si nÄ rda li st r ou t .I nt h eR i ska l sva tn l a ke ,r e p roduc t ion

s i ze o f t h e d ee r p opu la t ion h a s v a r ied g rea t ly . H e l land

c ond i t ions a r e v ery g ood ( Va s shaug 1 974 ) . I ft h e f i sh p op -

r e po r t s t h a t r e d d ee r w a s an ew -come r f r om a round t h e

u l a t ion w a s p rope r ly ma in ta ined , V a s shaug e s t ima tes t h e

c en tu ry ( He l land 1 902 , 1 : 488 ) . H is r e po r t i sp robab ly a n

l a k e 's p o ten t ia l a nnua l p roduc t ion t ob e a bou t 9 0 k g . T he

e xp re s s ion o f t h e s pec ie s , d emog raph ic f l uc tua t ion . V e

r i ve r s , l a ke s a nd p oo ls a bove a nd b e low R iska lsva tn a l so

( 1 971 :104 ) c i te s z oo log ica l r e sea rch w h ich i nd ica te s t h a t

h ave t r ou t .

r e d d eer d i sappea red f r om I nne r S ogn a ts ome u n spec if i ed

T he B e rda l sva tn l a ke i sa l so s t ocked w i th t r ou t . T he p o -

t ime , a nd t h a tt h e s pec ie s r e appea red b ef o re t h et u rn o ft h e

t e n t ia lo ft h i sl a ke i s mo re d if i cu l tt oa s se s sa st h ed ra inage

c en tury . D ee rb ones i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r s a tS k r iva r -

w a s s eve re ly a l te red i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e h yd ro -e lec t r ic

h e l le ren s how t h a t t h e s pec ie s h a s al o ng h i s to ry i nI nne r

d eve lopmen t i nt h e 1 950 ' s . T he q ua l i ty o ft h e f i sh n ow i s

S ogn .

p oo r , t hough i tw a s c e r ta in ly b e t te rb efo re t h e h yd ro -e lec -

U n l ike r e indee r , d ee r a nd moo se a r e n o t g r ega r iou s .

t r i c d eve lopmen t . I n i t s r educed s t a te , a nd w i th ma in te -

T hey a r e f ound i n d i f f e ren t e nv i ronmen t s t h an r e indee r .

n ance ,V a s shaug e s t ima ted t h a tB e rda l sva tn c ou ld a nnua l ly

T hey a r et h e refo re ar e source t h a tc an s upp lemen tr e indee r ,

p roduce a bou t 1 30 k g .

o ra tt ime s b e a n a l terna t ive t or e indee r .

T he p roduc t ion e s t ima t es f o rt h e B e rda lsva tn a nd R i sk a l sva tn s how t h a t f i sh c ou ld n o t h ave b een ad e term inan t

C arn ivor e s , r od en t sa nd f ow l

r e sou rce . F i sh w a s ad i e ta ry s upp lemen t , v a r ia t ion a nd r e -

B ea r s w e re n o d oub ted r e la ted t o v a lue s o f p r e s t ige . I n

s e rve . A rchaeo log ica l ly t h e q ue s t ion o fw he the rt h e moun -

a dd i t ion t ou t i l i ta r ian a spec t s , b ea r -hun t ing a nd b ea r -p rod -

t a in l a ke s a nd s t reams w e re e xp lo i ted i sp romp ted b y t h e

u c t s w ou ld h ave b een v a luab le i nr i tua l , s t a tu s o r p re s t ige

l o ca t ion o f s i te 1 03 B e rda len o n t h e s ho re o f t h e l a ke . A

s phe re s o f s o c ia l l i f e . S im i la r p o s i t ion s c ou ld h ave b een

d e term inan tr e la t ion sh ip b e tween s ho re p rox im i ty a nd f i sh 8 1

i ng , a sa r gued b y Hoge s to l ( 1983 :4 1 j ) f o r s i te 3 0 a tS t ee ,

a nd B ronze A ge . I tw a s n o t , h oweve r , a n i mpor tan t e co -

V e s t re S l id re , i so fd ub iou s v a lue . S t i l l , i ti sr e a sonab le t o

n om ic o rs i te l o ca l iz ing f a c to r .

c onc lude t h a t i ft h e l a ke s w e re s t ocked , f i sh c an b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t . T he s a lmon idae b one s f r om S kr iva rhe l le ren

P lan t sa nd h erb s

s uppo r t t h i s a s se r t ion . T he q ues t ion a r ise s w he the rt h e moun ta in l a ke s a nd r i v -

U t i l iza t ion o fn on -dome s t ica ted p l an t -re sou rce si nN eo l i th -

e r si nÄ rda lc on ta ined f i sh .T he t h re sho ld sc r ea ted b ys t eep

i ca nd B ronze A ge N orway h a s b een m en t ioned i ns e ve ra l

a s cen t s c r ea ted b a r r ie r s . A f te rd eg lac ia t ion , t r ou tc ou ld n o t

r e cen t

monog raph s

( I nd re l id

1 986 :283 ,

M ikke lsen

n a tu ra l ly m ig ra te u p t h e r i ve r s a nd i n to t h e l a ke s . H umans

1 989 :204f f , P re sco t t 1 991b ) . T he re a r e many r e a son s t o

mu s th ave s t ocked t h er i ve r sa nd l a ke s . S tock ing c ou ld h ave

b e l ieve t h a tn on -dome s t ica ted p lan t sg ave ar a nge o fc on t r i -

b een t h e r e su l to fa n e p i sode i n wh ich f i sh w a s c a r r ied t h e

b u t ion s . C on t r ibu t ion s c ou ld h ave b een f ood , d i e t s upp le -

s ho r t b u t s t eep d i s tance s f r om t h e w e s t . A l terna t ive ly , i t

men t s , s p ice , med ic ine sa nd r aw ma ter ia l .T he re i s ,h owev -

c ou ld h ave b een t h e o u tcome o ft r an spor ta t ion t h rough t h e

e r , l i t t le p os i t ive d a ta o n t h e u se o fp l an t s . I n te rp re ta t ion s

l ong e a s te rn No rweg ian v a l leys , i n to T y in a nd o the rd ra in -

r a re ly move b eyond r e su l t so ft h et y pe " they p robab ly u sed

a ge s y s tems .F rom t h eu ppe rr e ache so ft h e se r i ve r s ,g rav i ty

w i ld p l an t s" .T he re a r et h ree r e a son sf o rt h em eage rr e su l t s

wou ld l e ad t h e f i sh d own i n to l owe rr e ache s .

i n u nde r s tand ing p reh is tor ic p l an t -use . F i r s t , d i rec t e v i -

P o in t s o fr e f e rence t ot h eq ue s t ion o fs t ock ing a r e f o und

d ence d epend s o na dvan tageous c ond i t ion s o fp re serva t ion

i n I nd re l id 's d i scuss ion ( 1986 :272f ) . H e r e f e r s t o O lsen

a nd p rope r me thod s o f r e covery . T h i s m ean s t h a t t h e a r -

( 1941 :118f ) a nd h i s t r an s la t ion o ft h e L a te I r on Age r un ic

c haeo log is t mus t h ave a r e a sonab le c oncep t o f t h e o rga -

i n scr ip t ion f r om G au sda lt h a tt e l l so fE i l if E lg 's s t ock ing o f

n i za t ion o fa c t iv i t ie so n ag i ven s i te ,a sw e l la sp o s t -depo s i -

t h e moun ta in l a ke R au s joen . H e a l so r e f e r s t ot wo Me so -

t i ona l p roce sse s . I n N orway , t h e e mpha s i s i n v ege ta t ion

l i th ic s i te s o n H a rd a ngerv idda t h a t y i e lded t r ou t b ones .

h i s to ry h a s b een o n g ene ra l v ege ta t ion d eve lopmen t , d o -

S kr iva rhe l le ren h a s a l so y i e lded q uan t i t ie s o f s a lmon idae

m e s t ica t ion r e la ted p rob lems a nd p a lyno logy . T he se p rob -

b one s ( P re sco t t 1 991a :4 1 , 1 993 ) , an umbe ro f wh ich c ou ld

l em s a nd p r ior i t ie s h ave h ampe red p rog ram s f o r ab roade r

b e t r ou t . I ft h is i sa ccep ted a s e v idence t h a t T y in a nd T ya

u nde r s tand ing o fp l an t u se .

w e re s t ocked b y t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , t h ere i sr e a son t ob e -

S econd , r e levan t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i se i the r n o t

l i eve t h a t l a ke s a nd s t ream s i n B e rda len a nd V ikada len

p r eser ved o r r e ad i ly u nder s tood b y a r chaeo log is t s . T he re

w e re s t ocked , t o o .

a r e e xcep t ion s . C e r ta in t o o ls f ound i n S cand inav ia h ave

L oca l a ccoun t s m igh t c on t rad ic t s uch c onc lu s ion s . F i sh

b een t i ed t ot h er e covery o fr oo t sa nd p repa ra t ion o fv ege ta -

w e re i n t roduced i n to as ma l l l a ke , S to reva tn , as ma l ld ra in -

b l e m a t te r ( e .g . B roadben t 1 978 , V insrygg 1 979 ) . S t i l l ,

a ge s y s tem af ew k i lome te r s w e s t o fR iska lsva tn , i n 1 936

t h e re i sa n e l emen to ft r u th i nI nd re l id 's ( 1 986 :283 ) p o s tu -

( Sagen 1 971 :258 ) . V a s shaug ( 1975 ) b e l ieve s t ha t s h ie l ing

l a te t h a t n o o r f ew s pec ia l ized t o o l s a r e u sed i n " co l lec t -

a c t iv i t ie s l e d t ot h e i n t roduc t ion o f t r ou t i nB e rda len a nd

i n g" , a nd t h a t s uch a c t iv i t ie s l e ave n o t r ace s i nt h e a r chae -

R iska l lsva tn , a s as ou r ce o f f r e sh f i sh a nd a t s ome u n -

o log ica l r e co rd . N one t h e l e ss , t oo l sw e re p robab ly u sed a t

d ef ined p o in ti nt h ep a s t . A cco rd ing t oE ldega rd ( 1958 :28 ) ,

s ome s t age o fp repa ra t ion o fs ome c o l lec ted s pec ie s . S uch

A rn f inn A rnf innsen V a tne t s t ocked t h e B e rda len l a ke

t o o l sm igh tb eo fo rgan ic ma te r ia l .T he mo s tc ommon l i th ic

a round 1 880 — 1 890 . L oca l s h ave s a id t h a t t r ou t w a s i n -

t oo ls u sed i nt h e c o l lec t ion a nd p repa ra t ion o fp lan tm a t te r

t r oduced t oA sva ldva tn a bove V ika s to len o n s eve ra l o cca -

m igh th ave b een u nmod if ied f l ake s .F u tu r ef unc t iona la na l -

s i ons . T oday t h is l a k e i sc omp le te ly b a r ren o f f i sh . T he

y s is o fb one a nd l i t h ic t oo l sw i l lp robab ly r e nde ri n te re s t ing

i mp l ica t ion i st h a t s ome o ft h ese l a ke s w e r e b a r ren i nh i s -

i n f o rma t ion . F unc t iona l a na lys is i st oday v i r tua l ly n on -ex -

t o r ica l t ime s , a nd m igh th ave b een i np reh i s to ry a sw e l l . A

i s ten ti nN orweg ian a r chaeo logy .

r ea sonab le i n te rp re ta t ion i st h a t t r ou t p opu la t ion s i ns ma l l

T h i rd , i ti sp os s ib le t h a tr e cove r ing e v idence a bou tg a th -

l a k es a nd s t ream s y s tem s c an e i the rb e w iped o u to rm igh t

e r ing h a s s imp ly n o t b een v i ewed a s a n i n ter es t ing t a sk .

a bandon a l a k e . S tock ing w ou ld b e r epea ted t h rough t h e

T h is c ou ld b e p a r t ia l ly b ecause o fa spec t s o fr e cove ry a nd

a ge s . E i l if E lg 's s t ock ing o f R aus joen a s l a te a s t h e I r on

i d en t if i ca t ion o u t l ined a bove . H oweve r , h un t ing s t ra teg ies

A ge i sa n i nd ica t ion o f t h e s ame . I n c onc lus ion t h e re i s

a nd a g r icu l tu re h ave c ommon ly b een g i ven p r ior i ty . S uch

amp le r e a son t oa r gue t h a t b o th t h e S t egg je a nd t h e N yse t

c ho ice s a r e r e la ted t o t r ad i t ion s i n p reh is tor ic r e sea r ch ,

r i ve rs y s tem sc ou ld h ave b een s t ocked b yt h eL a te N eo l i th ic .

wh ich a r ep a r t ia l ly r oo ted i ns t e reo typed p r econcep t ion so f

J ohansen r e v iewed p ub l ica t ion s c oncern ing a spec t s o f

p r eh is to ry . T he se s t e reo type s a r ec once rned w i th "man t h e

t r ou tb ehav iou ri nh i s s t udy o ft h e moun ta in si n Lx rda l . H e

h un te r" a nd t h e r e vo lu t iona ry n a tu re o fa gr icu l tu re . I th a s

w a se spec ia l ly p reoccup ied w i th b ehav iou rt h a tc ou ld h ave

b een p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e se r e la t ion sh ips mus t b e s e en i n

b ea r ing o n i n terp re ta t ion s o f s ea sona l a c t iv i t ie s ( J ohansen

v i ew o f ma le b ia se s i n t h e g ene ra l s oc ie ty a nd r e sea rch

1 978 :64f t ) . H e c onc luded t h a t c a tche s w ou ld b e e spec ia l ly

c ommun i ty ( Eh renbe rg 1 989 :41f f ) .

p l en t ifu l i n t h e s pawn ing s e a son , t ha t i sS ep tembe r a nd

P lan t r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave b een f undamen ta l a s p a s -

O c tobe r . O therw ise , t r ou tc ou ld b ec augh t mo s to ft h es um -

t u re s , f o dde r , b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls , t o o l m a te r ia ls , b edd ing ,

me ra nd a u tumn .

s hoe s o le s ,l i n ing a nd f i rewood .P lan ts p rov ided f o od ,a dd i -

T h i s e v idence s how s t h a t s t ock ing c ou ld h ave s t a r ted a s

t i ve s i nf ood p roce ss ing , d ye s , m ed ic ine s a nd mag ica l s ub -

e a r ly a s t h e Me so l i th ic , a nd p robab ly c on t inued u n t i l t h e

s t ance s . T u rn ing s pec if ica l ly t o N yse t -S tegg je , n o s i ng le

p re sen t . T rou t w a s p robab ly c augh t i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic

e d ib le s pec ie s w ou ld h ave b een h a rve s tab le o r s t o rab le i n 8 2

s u ch a moun t s t h a t i tw ou ld h ave b een n u t r i t iona l ly f unda -

d emon s t ra t ion o f t h e p o ten t ia l f o r p l an t u sage e ven i n a

m en ta l . S ing le s pec ie s c ou ld h ave p l ayed q ua l i ta t ive r o le s ,

r e la t ive ly ma rg ina lb o tan ica lm i l ieu s uch a sN yse t -S tegg je .

f o re xamp le a s as ou r ce o fv i tam ins a nd m ine ra ls . Howeve r ,

Me thodo log ica l ly t h is e n ta i ls t h a t mo re v igo rou se ndeavo r s

s e a sona l c on t r ibu t ion s t o mo re o r l e s s d i rec t h uman c on -

t oc o l lec tp lan t ma ter ia l f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i tes mus t b e

s ump t ion c ou ld h ave b een i mpor tan t .

made . T he g oa ls f o r t h ese e f f o r t s mu s t n o t b e l im i ted t o i d en t ify ing d ome s t ica ted c e rea ls . S ome a r chaeo -bo tan ica l

S eve ra l e d ib le b e r r ie s g row i n t h e a r ea . T he se i n c lude

e v idence f r om S l c r iva rhe l le ren w i l l b ep resen ted l a te r .

b l uebe r ry ( V acc in ium m yr t i l lus ) , c l oudber ry ( Rubus c hame m orus ) , c r anbe r ry ( V acc in ium v i t i s idaea ) a nd c rowbe r ry ( Emper e t rum n i grum ) . I n c a lo r ie s t h e se w e re o fm ino r i m -

" Ka ld eho l"

p o r tance .T hey c ou ld ,h oweve r ,r ep resen tf l avou ri nt h ed i e t

T he c apac i ty t o s t o re f ood s t uf f s w ou ld b e a n i mpo r tan t

a nd an eeded v i tam in s upp lemen t :

f e a tu re i na n a g ro -pa s to ra l e conomy . T he l o ca l h i s to ry o f

" The c l oudbe r ry ' sp opu la r i ty i sn o to n ly b ecau se o fi t s

Ä rda l h a s as e c t ion a bou ta i ra nd g round t empe ra tures a nd

g ood t a s te a nd t h a ti ti sa bundan ti np l ace s w e re o t he r

s p r ing s . T he f i r s tc hap te ri se n t i t led " Na tu ra l r e f r ige ra t ion

b er r ie s a r e u ncommon . I tc on ta in s l a rge a moun t s o f

a nd f r eez ing s pace s ( "ka ld eho l" )" . V e ( 1971 :114 ) d e -

v i tam in C . C loudbe r r ie sh ave t h e refo re b een ar emedy

s c r ibe st h e se k a ld eho la sp a r t icu la rp l ace si ng rave l ,b ou lde r

f o rs cur vy ." ( Fxg r i 1 970 , 1 : 241 , t r an s l . b y CP ) .

a nd s c ree d epo s i t s w he re n a tu ra l t empe ra tu re s a r e l ow i n t h e s umme r . I nt h e w in te r t empe ra tu re s s e ldom f a l l b e low

P e rhap sb er r ie sa nd w i ld f r u i tw e re i n g red ien t si na l coho l ic

z e ro . S im i la rn a tu ra l r e f r ige ra t ion i sk nown f r om o the ra r -

b eve rage s o r " con se rve s" . F xg r i p o in t s o u t ( op . c i t . ) t h a t

e a s ( Ohn s tad 1 988 :23 ) . Un t i lr e cen t ly d a i ry p roduc t s ,f r e sh

c l oudber r ie s r e ad i ly f e rmen t , a nd t h a t mo s t b e r ry s pec ie s

m ea t a nd f i sh a nd o the r s en s i t ive p roduc t s w e re p laced i n

h ave b een u sed i nw inemak ing . I n p er iod s o fs t rong r i tua l

" ka ld eho l" f o rc oo l , d ry s t o rage .

e xp res s ion l i ke t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge , i n tox -

T he l a rges ta nd mo s tc omp lex s i te i n Nyse t -S tegg je w a s

i c an t s w ou ld h ave b een e s sen t ia l .

t h e U ru t lek rä i s i te . A c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu re , wh ich a l so

O the r p l an t s c ou ld h ave p l ayed a r o le i n d a iry r e la ted

g ave U ru t lek rä i i t s n ame — w a s t h e b ou lde r s t ha t c ove red

a c t iv i t ies . B u t te rwo r t ( P ingu icu la v u lgar i s ) h a s c ommon ly

t h e K lypeda l se lv i r i ve r , wh ich r an b yU ru t lek rä i . T he r i ve r

b een u sed i nS cand inav ia t oc u rd le f r e sh m i lk ( Fxg r i 1 970 ,

w a s mo re o rl e s sf ed f r om me l t ing s nowd r if t s i nt h e moun -

1 :236 ) . J un ipe r ( J un iperus c ommun i s ) p roduces b e r r ie s

t a in s a bove . I n s ho r t , t h e K lypeda l a r ea n ea r U ru t lek rä i

u sed a s s p ice o r f l avo r ing . J un ipe r w ood h a s o f ten b een

c ou ld h ave p rov ided r e f r ige ra t ion f a c i l i t ie s . R ecen t ly ,i th a s

p r ef er red f o r s mok ing m ea t . Ad ecoc t ion b a sed o nj un ipe r

s ugges ted t h a tc oo l ing f a c i l i t ie s p e rhap sb ecame i mpo r tan t

h a s c ommon ly b een u sed f o r c l ean ing s h ie l ing h ou se s ,

w i th t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f d a iry p roduc t s a nd t h e n eed f o r

d a i ry e qu ipmen ta nd s t o rage v esse l s . J un ipe rh a s a l so b een

s t o rage ( P re sco t t 1 991a :44 ) . D ry a nd c oo l f a c i l i t ie s m igh t

u sed i nb ee r b rew ing . J un ipe r o rj un ipe r e x t rac t h a s b een

h ave b een a c on t r ibu t ing r e a son f o r t h e l o ca l iza t ion o f a

u sed a sl i ve s tock m ed ic ine a nd d i e ts upp lemen t s f o rs heep

c en t ra l p a s to ra l b a se a tU ru t lek rä i , a nd n o t a tV ika s to len ,

a nd c a t t le . As ay ing q uo ted b y Hoeg ( 1 976 :402 ) i s :

w he re t h ep a s tu re s a r eb e t te r .

"When t h e c ow g e t sj un ipe re x t ra c t , i t s l i ke w hen t h e o l d w if e g e t s c of f ee ."

R ou t e so ft r an spor ta t ion

G ene ra l r e f e rence s f o rt h e f o l low ing i sH oeg ( 1976 :395 M ,

I n ar eg iona l p e r spec t ive , Ä rda l l i e s a tt h e e nd o ft h e S og -

a nd a l so F z egr i ( 1970 , I : 10 ) a nd S agen ( 1971 :282 ) . S eve ra l

n ef jo rd .T he f j o rd c u t s af a i r ly s t ra igh tl i ne n ea r ly h a lf w ay

p l an t sp rov ide e d ib le l e aves , s t a lk s o rr oo t s , a nd h ave b een

t h rough t h ec oun t ry .I tp rov ide sa ne xce l len t ma r i t ime r ou te

c on sumed i nr e cen tt imes . F xg r iw r i te st h a t "K vann" ( An -

o f t r an spor ta t ion f r om t h e c oa s t t o t h e h ea r t o f s ou the rn

g e l ica a r change l ica ) h a s b een a n i mpo r tan t p lan t t h rough -

N o rway . Mov ing o n f r om t h e f j o rd , a f te r a n i n i t ia l s t eep

o u th i s to ry . I ndeed , i t s i mpo r tance i sr e f lec ted i ni t s s c ien -

c l imb ,p a ssages l e ad t h rough r e la t ive ly p ro tec ted v a l ley st o

t i f ic n ame . I tw a s b e l ieved t h a t i tw a s t h e a r change l w ho

V a ld re s , a nd t h en f u r the r e a s t . T ran spo r ta t ion b e tween

m ade p eop le f am i l ia rw i th t h e p lan t ' s p rope r t ie s . K vann i s

c ommun i t ie s b y t h e f j o rd , w ou ld a l so b e f a c i l i ta ted b y t h e

e spec ia l ly k now f o ri t sa r oma t ic a nd t a s ty s t em s .I n mode rn

f j o rd . T he N y se t -S tegg je v a l ley s V ikada len , B e rda len a nd

t imes , y ou th s h ave o rgan ized s p r ing t r ip st ot h e moun ta in s

F o s sda len ,a l lt i ei nt ot h e se r eg iona ls y s tem so ft r anspo r ta -

u nde rt h ep r e tex to fc o l lec t ing k vann . S im i la ru se h a sb een

t i on .T hey a l so h ave al o ca lf a ce tt ha tw i l ln ow b ee xam ined

m ade o f" t ur t" ( Lac tuca a lp ina ) . S o r re l( 0 . xyr ia d i gyna )h a s

i n mo re d e ta i lb e low .T he l a nd r ou te sd e scr ibed h ave f o rt h e

c ommon ly b een e a ten a s ag reen . H a re r ye ( Po lygonum

mo s t p a r t b een t r ied b y t h e p re sen t a u tho r , a s w e l l a s d e -

v i v iparum ) h a s a cco rd ing t o G jx revo l l ( 1980 :330 ) a nd

s c r ibed b y l o ca l s . T he c a irn s t h a t ma rk t h em s how t h a t

H oeg ( 1976 :515 ) b een e a ten w i th m i lk , w h i le t h e r oo t h a s

t h e se a r e i n s t i tu t iona l ized , a nc ien t r ou te s . T he p a th s a r e

b een g round t of l ou r . P o ten t ia l med ica l a nd mag ica l u se s

f o und o n m ap s b a sed o n p re -wa r s u rvey s , a s w e l l a s d e -

f o rp l an t s a r e t r emendous ( Hoeg 1 976 :73 , n ume rou s r e f e r -

s c r ip t ion s i n o lde r g eog raph ic s t ud ie s ( He l land 1 90 1 ,

e nce s i nF xgr i 1 970 , L ID . Many p lan t s h ave b een u sed i n

I : 102f , S ande 1 887 :221) .

d ye s ( Hoeg 1 976 :63f ) .

V i l cada len , f r om S ka rhaug sfo s sen u pt ot h ew a te r shed , i s

T he a bove i sn o t m ean t t ob e as y s tema t ic e t hno log ica l

a ne a s i ly p a s sab le e a s t -we s tc hanne l .T he a s cen tf r om N ad -

r e v iew o fp l an tu se ( s ee Hoeg 1 976 f o rc omp rehen s ive e t h -

v i kb yt h e S ognef jo rd i sa tp l ace sp reca r iou s a nd s t eep ,b u t

n obo tan ica lr e v iew , a l so F xgr i 1 970 ) . I ti si n tended t ob ea

mo s t ly e a s i ly n ego t ia ted . I n many p l ace sp a th s ,b r idge sa nd 8 3

r amps w e re u n t i l r e cen t ly r ou t ine ly ma in ta ined t o s e cu re

d eve lopmen t s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e s amp l ing s po t . T o i n -

s a f e t r ave l . E a s t o ft h e w a ter shed , i nV a ld re sda len , am i ld

t e rp re tt h e d i ag ram s i n al o ca l f r ame i sc omp l ica ted b y t h e

v a l ley l e ads t o Smedda lsva tn i nt h e u ppe rp a r t s o f Lerda l .

u nknown f a c to r o f r e g iona l i nf luence . A ma jor i ty o f t h e

H e re ap r inc ipa l e a s t -we s tr ou te r un s o n t oV a ld re s . N or th -

d i ag rams a r e b a sed o n s amp le c o l lec ted n ea r a r chaeo log -

s ou th r ou te s , s t a r t ing i no the r v a l leys , t h e u ppe r a l p ine r e -

i c a l s i te s . T h is m ean s t ha t d i ag ram v a lues c on tempo rane -

g ion s o r b y t h e f j o rd , r un t h rough K lypeda len a nd a c ro s s

o u s w i th t h e s e t t lemen t s s hou ld , t o a n u nknown d eg ree ,

V ikada len . A f te r as l igh t c l imb t h ey l e ad t ot r ibu ta ry v a l -

r e f lec t s i te a c t iv i ty l i k e t r amp l ing , f i rewood c o l lec t ing a nd

l e y s i nt h em idd le r e aches o f Le rda l . U ru t lek rä i , K a lvebe i -

w a s te a ccumu la t ion .I ns umma ry ,i ti sd i ff icu l tt od e te rm ine

t e t a nd V ika s to len a r e t h us c en t ra l i nr e g iona l e a s t —w e s t

w ha tk i nd o fa c t iv i t ie sa r er ep re sen ted i nt h ed i ag ram s , a nd

movemen t s , a nd l o ca l n o r th -sou th movemen t s .

t h e g eograph ic l e ve l t h a ti sa na lyzed .

T he l o ca lc ommun ica t ion r ou tes g ive a cce ss f r om V ika s -

A n a dd i t iona l p rob lem i sd a t ing . T he d a t ing o fl e ve ls i n

t o len — U ru t lek rä i t o mos t o f t h e r e sou r ce s l i s ted a bove .

t h e d i agrams i sl a rge ly b a sed o n 1 4C -da ted p ea t s amp les .

R e indee r p a s tu re s l i e t o t h e i mmed ia te n o r th , e a s t a nd

T he se p rov ide o n ly g ene ra la ge i n d ica t ion so fl e ss a c cu racy

s ou th .T hese r ou te sl e ad t of i sh ing p lace s ,h un t ing g round s ,

t h an t h ose d a ted f r om c ha rcoa l . V a lue s f r om p ea t s amp les

p a s tu re s , r aw ma te r ia ls , f i rewood , a s w e l l a s q u ick move -

w i l l t e nd t ob e y ounge rt h an t h e o r ig ina l d epo s i t ion ( Fegr i

men tb e tween l ow land a nd h igh land .

e ta l . 1 989 :170 f ) . C o r re la t ions b e tween s pec if i c s p ec t ra i n t h e d i ag rams t o s pec if ic a r chaeo log ica l s i te s mus t b e

B erda len a nd F o s sda len . B e rda len i sn o t q u i te a s c en t r a l ly p l aced a sV ikada len . I td oe s n o th ave a ny i mmed ia te

r ega rded w i th c au t ion , a nd e spec ia l ly a dh oc " ad ju s tmen t"

e a s t -wes t o r n o r th -sou th p o s i t ion . O n a mo re l o ca l s ca le

b e tween

B e rda len o f f e r s a cces s t o moun ta ins a nd l ow land s w i th

a vo ided . T h is i se spec ia l ly t r ue w hen t h e o f ten c omp lex

h un t ing g round s a nd p a s tu res . T he F o ssda len v a l ley , h ow -

n a tu re o fa r chaeo log ica l a ge d e term ina t ions t h a t a r e b a sed

e ve r , h a s b een a n i mpo r tan t r ou te o f l o ca l a nd r eg iona l

o ns t ra t ig raphy , a r tefa c ta nd s t ruc tu r et ypo log ie sa nd r ad io -

c ommun ica t ion .

c a rbon i sc on s ide red . T he re s hou ld i d ea l ly b e d i r ec t s t ra -

s e t t lemen t a nd p a lyno log ica l d a te s mu s t b e

t i g raph ic c onnec t ion b e tween t h e s e t t lemen t a nd p o l len s i te s . Ac a se r e levan tt o Nyse t -S tegg je i lus t ra te s t h e a r gu -

T he a bove d i scus s ion s hows t h a t t h e moun ta in v a l leys o f

m en t . T he s e lec t ion o f s i tes i n V ikada len w a s p r ev iou s ly

Nyse t -S tegg je a r e w e l l -s i tua ted f o r : -

i n terp re ted a sr ep re sen ta t ive . T he d i scove red s i te s s t i l l r ep -

A ccess t o aw ide r ange o fl o ca lr e sou rce sf r om f j o rd t o

r e sen t as e lec t ion . T he re may c e r ta in ly b e n ume rou s s i tes ,

h i gh -a lp ine moun ta in s . -

s uch a s s ma l l s i te s a nd s i tes w i thou t v i s ib le s u r fa ce s t ruc -

G ood r ou te s o ft r an spo r ta t ion o ve r l a nd . T he se r ou te s

t u re s o rw i thou t s ub s tan t ia l l i th ic c oncen t ra t ion s , t h a t h ave

a r e b o th o f al o ca l c ha rac te r , p rov id ing e x ten s ive a c -

n o tb een d e tec ted .P o l len a na ly s is p rov ide st wo s uch e xam -

c e ss t o t h e a r ea b e tween Ä rda lsf jo rden — Lerda l sf -

p l e s . T he s i te 8 6 H e l l ingboen w en t u nde tec ted u n t i l t h e

j o rden —T y in , a sw e l l a sr e g iona l r ou tes .

s amp l ing d i tch w a s d ug b y t h ep a lyno log is t s . T he c ha rcoa l h o r izon a tK a lvebe i te t , d a ted b y T -5618 t o3 350+ / -70 B .P . i nc onnec t ion w i th d i ag ram K a lveb e i te t 6( K vamme e ta l .

NYSET -STEGGJE : A REVIE W OF PALYNOLOGICAL DATA

B ronze Age s i te f o r w h ich t h e re i so therw ise n o e v idence .

T he u s e o f t h e m oun ta in s i sc ond i t ioned a nd c an a l so b e

When d i ag ram s a r e c o r re la ted a ga in s t s pec if ic s i te s t o

u nd er s tood b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fr e source s . I n t h i s a nd t h e

w h ich t h e re a r e n o a ccu ra te c on tex tua l t i e s , t h ey a r e c or re -

1 992 :42 / ) , p robab ly r e p re sen t s aL a te N eo l i th ic o r E a r ly

n ex tc hap t er ,p o t en t ia la nd c l ear ly e xp lo i t ed r e sour ce s i nt h e

l a ted a ga ins t ah igh ly i n comp le te " deck o f c a rd s" . D ia -

N y se t -S t egg je v a l ley s a r e e xam ined . T h i s c hap ter e xam ine s

g rams " ou t o fc on tex t" s hou ld b e u sed t oo u t l ine g ene ra l

d a ta a cqu ir ed t h rough p a lyno logy — am a jor f i e ld o fi n ve s t i -

d eve lopmen t s . P a lyno log ica l d a ta u sed i nd i rec tr e f e rence t o as i te mus t

g a t ion i nt h eN y se t -S tegg je p ro jec t . T he c ond i t ion sf or p a lyn -

b e s ub jec t t o t h e s ame l e ve l o f c on tex tua l s t r ingency a s

o l og ica lr e sear ch a r ed i scus sed .

a r tef ac t s a nd s t ruc tu re s . I n ad i scu ss ion o fe a r ly a gr icu l tu re i nS cand inav ia , T o r s ten Mad sen a dd re s se s u se o fd i ag rams o ft h e n on -reg iona l t ype .

P rob l em s i np o l l en a na l y s i s

"W i thou tc on tex to b serva t ions t h eb a se a nd t h eu sefu l -

2 5 s e t so fp o l len d i ag ram w e re c on s t ruc ted f r om c o res s am -

n e ss o ft h ej o in tr e sea rch i sb eg inn ing t oc rumb le . We

p l ed i n t h e Ny se t -S tegg je v a l ley s . R e su l t s o f t h e p o l len

w i l l b e f a ced w i th t h e v ery s e r iou s p rob lem s o fc or re -

a na lys is i n c onnec t ion w i th i n d iv idua l s i te s h ave a l ready

l a t ion b e tween p o l len d i ag ram a nd s e t t lemen t , e ven i f

b een d i scussed . B efo re e mba rk ing o n amo re g ene ra l e va l -

w e u se 1 4C -da te s e x tens ive ly . I fw e c anno t p l ace t h e

u a t ion o f t h e p a lyno log ica l r e su l t s , s ome s ou rce c r i t ica l

s e t t lemen t e xac t ly i n r e la t ion t o t h e p o l len d i ag ram

c ommen t s mus tb e made . R ef e rence st op o l len w o rk i nN y -

c om ing f r om t h es e t t lemen t ,i fw ec anno tp o in td i rec t ly

s e t -S tegg je a r e f ound i n ar epo r tb y K vamme e ta l . ( 1992 ) .

t ot h ei n f luence i nt h ed i ag ram c om ing f r om t h es e t t le -

E xcep t f o r o ne s e t o fh i gh ly d i s tu rbed d i ag rams ( "T j er -

m en t , t h en t h e d i ag ram m igh t a sw e l l h ave b een t a ken

n e t") , t h e d i ag ram s a r e b a sed o n s amp les f r om t e r re s t r ia l

a nywhe re e l se i nt h e r eg ion . T he u sefu lne s s t ot h e a r -

p ea ta ccumu la t ions . T hey a r ei n terp re ted t ob ep r ima r i ly o f

c haeo log i s tw ou ld b e a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame , a nd t h e

l o ca l c ha rac ter ( Kvamme e ta l . 1 992 :123 . ) , a nd s how t h e

t e rm j o in t w ou ld b e r a the rm is lead ing . 8 4

T he c o re o f t h e p rob lem i st h a t a r chaeo log ica l i n te r -

A t ten t ion c an b et u rned t ot h ev ege ta t iona ls equence o u t -

p re ta t ion s a r e ma in ly b a sed o n c on tex t s . When p o l len

l i ned b y K vamme e ta l . ( 1992 :125f f ) . B a sed o ng ene ra le v i -

d i ag ram sa r em ade f r om s amp le st a ken o u t s ide a r chae -

d ence ,t h ed eg lac ia t ion i sd a ted t oa round 9 200 —9 400 B .P .

o log ica lc on tex t s ,t h ey a r ee x t reme ly d if i cu l tt ou se i n

( Ne s je & R ye 1 990 ) . T he o pen p ionee r v ege ta t ion w a s

ad i rec ti n te rp re ta t ive manne r . T he ref o re , Ih ave c ome

g radua l ly c hanged w i th t h ei n f lux o fp i ne , a nd l a ter a l de r—

t od oub tq u i te s e r iou s ly t h e u sefu lne s s t oa r chaeo logy

a tl e a s ti nV ikada len u pt oR iska lsva tn .T h i ss i tua t ion c ha r -

o ft h et r ad i t iona l p o l len a na ly se s , b a sed o n as e r ie s o f

a c te r ize s t h e v ege ta t ion 9 000 — 6 000 B .P . R e levan t l e ve l s

s amp le s f r om al a ke o r m i re d epo s i t . T hey s e t u p a

f r om t h e d i ag ram s g i ve l i t t le i n f orma t ion a bou t t h e p e r iod

f r amewo rk f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e n a tu ra l e nv i -

6 000 — 4 000 B .P . B a sed o n mo re g ene ra l d a ta f r om t h e

r onmen t , . . . . ,b u tt h ey d ov e ry l i t t le t oh e lp t h ea r chaeo l -

I nne r S ogn a r ea , i ti st hough t t ha t s umme r t empe ra tu re s

o g i s tu nde r s tand t h ed e ta i led man land r e la t ion sh ip s . .

w e re l owe r . P ine a nd a l de r p robab ly r e t rea ted t oa l t i tudes

F o r ap o l len s amp le t ob e v a luab le f o r t h e a r chaeo l -

1 00 —2 00 me te r sl owe r , a nd b i rch d om ina ted . B e tween t h e

o g i s t ,i th a st ob et r ea ted u nder t h es ame s e to fr u le sa s

p er iod 4 000 — 2 000 B .P v ege ta t ion i st hough t t oh ave b e -

a l l o t he r a r chaeo log ica l i n fo rma t ion , a nd t h is i mp l ie s

c ome mo re o pen . S ing le g ra in o rs i ng le s pec t rum " ag r icu l -

.t h a t i t s r e la t ion t os t ruc tu re s a nd o b jec t s w i th in t h e

t u ra l —p a s to ra l" i nd ica to r s c omb ined w i th g ene ra l v ege ta -

i nd iv idua le xcava t ion b e s e cu red . . . t h is . . may m ean

t i ona l d eve lopmen t s l e ad s K vamme e ta l . t oc onc lude t h a t

f a rewe l l t op o l len a na lys i s i n mo s t a r chaeo log ica l r e -

p a s to ra l ly i nduced t r ansf o rma t ion o ft h e v ege ta t ion b egan

s ea rch ." ( Mad sen 1 985 :92 j ) .

b e tween 3 300 a nd 4 600 B .P . I ff undamen ta l p rob lem s i n i n te rp re t ing t h e 1 4C -da te s a r e i gno red f o r t h e t ime , t h e

T he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge c a se s f r om Ny se t -

d a te s e qua te mo s t o f t h e N eo l i th ic p er iod . D i rec t p o l len

S t egg je u nf o r tuna te ly d emon s t ra te t h a t e ven w hen t h e

i n d ica to r so fa g ro -pa s to ra l i sm ,e . g . g ra in o rp l an ta in p o l len ,

p rob lems o fc on tex t a r e mo re o rl e s s s o lved , t h e d i ag ram s

a r eb e s te xp la ined i nt e rm so fi n te rmed ia te o rl ong -d is tance

d o n o t s upp ly r e levan t d a ta a bou t " the d e ta i led man land

t r an spo r ta t ion f r om l owe r l y ing a r ea s . T hey h ave l i t t le d i -

r e la t ion sh ip s" . Mad sen i sp robab ly r i gh t t ha t t h i s m ean s

r e c t r e levance o n t h e a c t iv i t ies c a r r ied o u t i n t h e N yse t -

f a rewe l lt ot r ad i t iona lp o l len a na ly s i s , a tl e a s ti nt h e moun -

S t egg je v a l leys , h oweve rt h ey p rov ide g ene ra l e v idence .

t a in s . Howeve r , t h e p a lyno log ica l d i sc ip l ine c an p robab ly

T he re a r e s ome m ino rc hange s i nt h ev ege ta t ion , mo s t ly

p rov ide v a l id r e su l t sf o ra r chaeo logy i far e newed , s y s tem -

r e p re sen ted b y s i ng le s pec t ra , a ts ome d i s tance f r om a ny

a t ic a nd i n ten s ive r e sea rch c omm i tmen t a nd r e s t ruc tu red

k nown , p oss ib ly c on tempo raneous s i te s . T he se m igh t s ug -

m e thodo logy w e re a pp l ied . T h i s w ou ld m ean c hoo s ing o b -

g e s t v ege ta t iona l t r an sf o rma t ion s o f t h e l o ca l v ege ta t ion

j e c t s o f i n ve s t iga t ion b y mo re s t r ingen t s t anda rd , a nd i n -

c ond i t ioned b yp a s tu r ing . H oweve r , t h e s amp l ing l o ca l i t ie s

v e s t ing more i nt h o se s t ud ie s ( c fd i scu s s ion i nF xg r i e ta l .

w e re l o ca ted i n a r ea s t h a t a t t rac t b o th h uman s e t t lemen t ,

1 989 :1 76f ) .

p a s tur ing a n ima ls , a nd wh ich c hanne l t r af i c t h rough l a rge

T he a bove a l so m ean s t h a tt h ep a lyno log i s t mu s tu nde r -

t r a c t s o ft h e v a l ley . T he c hange s t h e refo re s ugge s tp a s to ra l

s t and mo re o f a r chaeo logy . T h is d oe s n o t m ean a r tefac t

u se , a nd /o ri n c rea sed l e ve l s o fg ene ra l h uman u se , o re ven

t y po log ie s . I t mean s m e thodo log ie s . I te spec ia l ly m eans

c hanges i nw i ld l if e b ehav iou r , p e rhap s i nr e spon se t oh u -

i n co rpo ra t ing f undamen ta l c oncep t s o f h uman b ehav iou r

man b ehav iou r . P e rhap st h eN eo l i th ic v ege ta t ion r ep re sen t s

i n to i n te rp re ta t ion s . I fp a lyno logy i n tend s t o p rov ide i n -

a l l o ft h e a bove . T he i n i t ia l p a s to ra l t r an sfo rma t ion o ft h e

t e rp re ta t ion s o fp reh is to ry , b i o log is t s w i l l h ave t og rapp le

l a nd scape , h ow i tt o ok p la ce a nd w ha t i tl e d t o , i ss t i l l

w i th h uman i s t ic t h eo ry a nd mode ls .

o b scu re . F rom c a . 2 000 B .P . t ot h e p resen t t h e v ege ta t ion i sb e -

T he g enera lv eg e ta t ion s equence f or N y se t-S t egg j e

l i eved t o h ave b een f a i r ly s im i la r t o t h e p r e sen t d ay s i t -

P o l len a na ly s is t h a t c ou ld b e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly a s soc ia ted

u a t ion . E xcep t ion s a r e f ound a round t h e t ime o ft h e d eve l -

w i th a r chaeo log ica l s i te s h a s a l ready b een d i scu s sed . T he

o pmen t o f l a te R oman I r on Age s e t t lemen t s . T he p o l len

d a ta d id n o t p rov ide s i gn if i can t i n s igh t s i n to t h e n a tu re o f

d a ta s ugge s t s t h a t t h e re w a s a n i n ten s if ied e xp lo i ta t ion o f

"man —n a tu re" r e la t ion sh ip s .H oweve r ,t h ep o l len d a ta c an

p a s tu re s .O the rs ou rce sr e f lec tp a s to ra lu se f r om t h eB ronze

b e u sed t oc on s t ruc ti ndependen t g ene ra l ized d eve lopmen t

A ge a nd o n . F rom t h e l a te R oman I r on Age t h e re i ss t ron -

s equence s . T h is s equence c an l a te r b e c ompa red w i th t h e

g e rn on -bo tan ica le v idence o fp a s to ra l ism . I nt h eh i s to r ica l

a r chaeo log ica ls equence . C ompa r i son o ft h et wo i n depend -

e r a ,b o th ma te r ia lr ema in sa nd w r i t ten s ou rce s s how av e ry

e n ts equence s c an r educe t h el i ke l ihood o fc i r cu la rr e a son -

h i gh l e ve lo fp a s to ra le xp lo i ta t ion . I ti st h e ref o re c onf ound -

i n g , wh ich n on -con tex tua l ma tch ing o fa r chaeo log ica l a nd

i n g t h a t p a s to ra l e xp lo i ta t ion i sn o t mo re o bv ious i n d i a -

b o tan ica l s i te se a s i ly l e ad s t o . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f ag ene r -

g ram s t h a t w e re d e s igned t o a na lyze g raz ing i n t h e mo s t

a l ized s equence i s , i n t h e p r e sen t c a se , ar e la t ive ly s e lf -

i n tens ive ly u sed a r ea s .

c on t rad ic to ry u nde r tak ing .T h i si sb ecau se t h es ou rce ma te r i a lw a sd eemed t op r ima r i ly r e p re sen td eve lopmen t si nt h e v i c in i ty o f t h e s amp l ing l o ca l i ty . T he s i t e s pec if i c r e su l t s ,

Ap arad igm i nc r i s i s?

w h ich w e re t h e ref o re t h e se d i ag ram s s t reng th , w e re o fl im -

T he d i ff icu l t ie s i nd eve lop ing a dequa te i n te rp re t ive t h eory

i t ed r e levance . I ti st h e ref o r e ab i t p a radox ica l t h a t r e su l t s

a nd me thodo logy f o r a l p ine e nv i ronmen t s c an b e f u r the r

t h ed i ag ram s w e re n o td e s igned t oi lum ina te , i . e . ag ene ra l

s hown b y av e ry s pec if i c d i scus s ion o f e ach d i ag ram a nd

v ege ta t iona l d eve lopmen t , s hou ld b e mo r e v a l id .

s pec t rum l e ve l . A l terna t ive ly o ra dd i t iona l ly , s ome t h eo re t 8 5

i c a l u nde rp inn ing s c ou ld b e e xam ined . T o l im i t t h e d i s -

N eo l i th ic , E a r ly B ronze A ge , L a te B ronze Age a nd L a te

c u s s ion t o ar e a sonab le l e ng th , t h e l a t te r i sc ho sen . I n t h e

B ronze Age /P re -Roman I r on A ge .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se

a u tho r 's e xpe r ience i ts e ems t h a t s ome p rob lem s m igh t b e

s i tes a r e c ompa red t ot h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fo lde ra nd y ounger

p a r t icu la r t o p a lyno logy . Howeve r , s eve ra l o f t h e f unda -

s i te s . S e t t lemen td i s t r ibu t ion i sa l so c ompa red t o" na tura l"

men ta l p rob lem s a r e s im i la r i n p a lyno logy a nd a r chaeo l -

f e a tu r e s , s u ch a sp r ime p a s tu re s .T he v a l id i ty o fa na na lys is

o gy .T hey m igh th ave t h e i rr oo ti nc ommon a pp roache sa nd

o ft h i sk ind i sb a sed o nt h ree p r em i se s .T he f i r s tp r em ise i s

r e sea r ch p rob lem s , b u t a l so w i th in ac ommon b ackg round

t h a t s i t e l o ca t ion i sc ond i t ioned b y p e rce ived r e sou rce a nd

w i th in c on t rac tr e sea r ch .

e xp lo i t ive

P o l len r e sea rch e vo lved t h rough i n ve s t iga t ion s i ne nv i -

p r ior i t ie s .

C ommon

l o ca t ion

d emons t ra tes

e l emen t so fc ommon r e sour ce u t i l iza t ion . T h is p r em ise i sa

r onmen t s d i f f e ren tt h an t h e a l p ine v a l ley s d e scr ibed i nt h i s

g u ide l ine . I ti sn o tn o rma t ive . E ven t h ough l o ca t ion c anno t

s t udy ( c f : F xg r i e ta l . 1 989 :5f f ) . P a lyno logy f o l lowed a r -

b e i n dependen to fe xp lo i ted r e sou rces , c omp lex u t i l i ta r ian ,

c haeo logy i n to t h e moun ta in s i nt h e p o s t -wa r p er iod . T h i s

i d io syncra t ic a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s t h a tc an b e i n f luen t ia l .

e xpan s ion r e qu i red u se o f me thod s d eve loped i nt h e l ow -

T he s e cond p rem i se i st h a tg ene ra l p roduc t ive s t ra teg ies

l a nd s . P o l len r e sea rch i n t h e moun ta in z one a t temp ted t o

i nt h e p e r iod s b efo re a nd a f te r t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , B ronze

c ope w i th t h i s b y s t ep -by -s tep a d jus tmen t o ft h e d i sc ip l in -

A ge a nd P re -Roman I r on Age a r e i n f e r red w i th r e a sonab le

a r y ma t r ix d eve loped i nl ow land t oa l p ine c on tex t s( Expe r i -

c onf idence . T h is d emand s t h a t t h e f o l low ing a s sump t ions

men t s a nd o b serva t ion s b y Moe [ Moe 1 973 , I nd re l id &

a r e c o r rec t :

Moe 1 983 ] p e rhap s r e p re sen t s a n e xcep t ion ) . U se o f " low

1 )

Meso l i th ic s ub s i s tence w a s b a sed o n h un t ing , f i sh ing

2 )

N eo l i th ic 1 ,i . e . E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic ( O lsen &

a nd c o l lec t ing .

l a nd m e thod s" i nt h e moun ta ins h a s l e dt o ar ange o ft h eo r e t ica l , m e thodo log ica l a nd emp ir ica l d i sc repanc ie s . I n a n a t temp tt om ee tt h ep rob lems , ac ons tan ta dh oc p roduc t ion

A l sake r 1 984 :87 ) s i te s i na n a l p ine e nv i ronmen t s uch

o fc ond i t iona l s t a temen t s h a s e nsued .

a st h a t s t ud ied h e re , p r ima r i ly r e p re sen t u t i l iza t ion o f

G ene ra l ly ,t h e re i sa l so an eed f o r as t ronge ra pp rec ia t ion

n on -domes t ica ted r e sou rce s .T h is a s se r t ion i sl e s sc e r -

o f t h e c u l tu ra l p roce sse s b eh ind t h e v ege ta t ion r e co rd .

t a in t h an t h e f i r s t . T he re a r e s ome t e n ta t ive r e po r t s o f

T he re i s an eed f o r a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft h e me thodo log ica l

N eo l i th ic 1a gr icu l tu re o rh e rd ing o t he rw ise i nw e s tern

a nd c on tex tua l r e s t ra in t s a nd p o ss ib i l i t ie s i nw o rk ing w i th

N orway ( Ba l cka & K a land 1 971 , B je rck 1 987 , H uf th -

h uman ly d epo s i ted o r c ond i t ioned ma te r ia l . At h eo re t ica l

a r nme r

1 988 :36 ,

I nd r e l id

&

Moe

1 983 ,

O lsen

a nd m e thodo log ica l r e too l ing f o r a l p ine r e sea r ch w ou ld

1 976 :23f f ) . I n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e p o l len d a ta a s se r t

c ha l lenge s e ve ra lp rem i ses o f much p os t -wa rp a lyno log ica l

p o ss ib le p a s tu r ing i nN y se t -S tegg je a se a r ly a st h eN e -

r e sea r ch . I tw ou ld a l so i n vo lve b a s ic e xpe r imen ta l -compa r -

o l i th ic 1( K vamme e ta l . 1 993 :84 ) . H oweve r , K vamme

a t ive r e sea r ch t od eve lop a nu nde r ly ing t h eo re t ica lp o s i t ion .

a l so s e ems t o c onc lude w i th a B ronze Age d a te f o r

A n umbe r o f p a lyno log is t s h ave a l so r e cogn ized t h is ,

i n i t ia l p a s tur ing i n t h e r e g ion ( K vamme 1 988a :105 ,

t hough t h e e f f ec t s o f t h is r e cogn i t ion o n a pp l ied r e sea rch

1 988 1 J :365f ) . B o th g ene ra l a nd s i te -spec if ic i n d ica -

h ave y e t t ob e f e l t .

t i ons o fp a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie sa r et h u se qu ivoca l . T he N y -

R ea son s f o rt h i s l a ck o fp rog re ss a r e t ob e f ound i np a r t

s e t -S tegg je N eo l i th ic 1s i te s a r et h e refo re n o tr e ga rded a sp a s to ra l s e t t lemen t s .

i n as i tua t ion p a ra l le l t ot h a t d escr ibed f o rt h e B ronze Age 3 )

r e sea r ch o u t l ined i n t h e r e sea rch h i s to ry ( a lso P re sco t t i n

I ti su nce r ta in w ha t t h e E a r ly I r on A ge c ha rcoa l p i t s

p r e s s ) . When c onf ron ted w i th i n cons is tenc ies i nt h e d a ta ,

r e p re sen t , b u t a r gumen t s b a sed o n c i rcum s tan t ia l e v i -

me thodo logy a nd i n terp re ta t ion , p a lyno log is t s a r e t h e f i r s t

d ence c an b e a dvanced i nd ef ence o f ap redom inan t ly

t op o in to u tt h ei n te rp re ta t ive c ha rac te ro ft h ep a lyno log ica l

p a s to ra l s ub s is tence a nd e conomy . H oweve r , t h ese a r -

d i sc ip l ine . S t i l l , t h e i d ea o f a n " ob jec t ive , h a rd , n a tu ra l

g umen t s a r e o ft h e s ame n a tu r e a st ho se u sed f o r t h e

s c ience" i n ac l a ss ica lo rn eo -po s i t iv i s ts ense s e em st ol i ve

B ronze A ge s i te s . T he c ha rcoa l p i t s s hou ld t h e ref o re

o n . T he s ub jec t ive a nd s oc io log ica l ly c ond i t ioned a spec t s

b e s ub jec ted t ot h e s ame t y pe o fi n qu iry a sL a te N eo l i t h ic a nd B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t s .

o fp a lyno logy h ave n o tb een r e cogn ized . 4 )

T he many a nd l a rge l i on A ge a nd Med ieva l s i tes a t h i gh a l t i tude s i n I nne r S ogn ( I nd re l id 1 988 , Magnus

NYSET -STEGGJE : S PATIAL D ISTR IBUTION OF S ITES

1 986 ) , p a r t icu la r ly i nÄ rda l a nd L 2 e rda l ( B jo rgo e ta l .

A st h er ei sl i t t le d i r ec t ,p o s i t ive e v id ence o fs ub s i s t ence a c t iv -

s human tp a s to ra l i sm .

1 992 , P resco t t 1 991 :112f ) , a r e a s soc ia ted w i th t r an 5 )

i t e s i nt h e N y se t -S tegg je v a l ley s , c i r cum s tan t ia l e v id ence i s

T he many r u ins o fh i s to r ic s h ie l ings , a sw e l l a ss t and -

u sed i nt h e s ub s i s tence d i scu ss ion . T her e i sf i r s t ag enera l

i n g s h ie l ing s , a r e a l so a s soc ia ted w i th at r an shuman t

d i scus s ion a nd a n e xam ina t ion o fo t her l o ca t iona l s t ud ies .

p a t te rn —t h ey a r es h ie l ing s ( No rw . " s c e t er" & " s t0 l") .

S pa t ia lp a t t er n s a r e e xam ined b y c ompar ing t h r ee s i t e c a te g or ie s : Me so l i th ic t oN eo l i th ic I ,L a t e N eo l i th ic /Bronze A ge

At h i rd p r em i se i sb a sed o n s i te r e p resen ta t iv i ty , d i scu ssed

a nd s i t e sf rom t h el a t t er R oman I r on A ge t ot oday . T he d i s t r i -

i nd e ta i l e a r l ie r . T he V ikada len s i te s i nt h e R iska lsva tn b a -

b u t ion o fs i t e s i sc ompar ed t oe t hno -h i s tor ica l ly a nd b o tan -

s i n h ave ah i gh d eg ree o f r e p r esen ta t iv i ty . S ur vey ing w a s

i c a l ly d ef ined a r eas o fp as tora lf ocu s .

v e ry t h o rough , r ega rd le s s o f t e r ra in a nd p rev iou s f i nd s . R esu l t s f r om B e rda len w e re n o t f ound t ob e a sr e p resen ta t i ve a s V ikada len , b ecause o f m e te r d eep a l luv ia l f a ns ,

T h i s s e c t ion e xam ine s s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s i n t h e L a te 8 6

r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion a nd s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s a r e r e la ted

s c ree a nd s l ide ma ter ia l t h a t h ave c ove r ed t h e " op t ima l B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t z one" i n t h e B e rda ls to len a r ea .

( I nd re l id 1 986 :295 ) . A s a n e xamp le h e m en t ion s t h a t s i tes

S t ra t ig raph ic o b serva t ion s a nd l i th ics r e cove red i nt h e a r ea

r e la ted t of i sh ing m igh tv e ry w e l ln o tb et h es ame s i te su sed

v a l ida te t h e a s sump t ion t h a t L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze

f o rr e indee rh un t ing . T h i s s ound s r ea sonab le . I na c tua l a p -

A ge s i tes a r e s t rong ly u nde r rep re sen ted h e re . F o ssda len

p l ica t ion i ti sn o ts imp le , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e s ub -a lp ine a nd

h a s n o tb een s ub jec ted t os y s tema t ic s u rvey ing . F ie ldwo rk

l owe r a l p ine m i l ieu . T h is i sl i nked t o t wo ma in c ons id -

w a s c oncen t ra ted t ov i s ib le s u r face s t ruc tu re s . T he Smed -

e r a t ion s :

d a len —Nyse tr oad s t re tch i ss urveyed u nde rd i ff icu l tc on -

1 )

T he re a r e g ood r e a son s t ob e l ieve t h a t many s i te s d o

d i t ions , a nd i sa n a rb i t ra ry l i ne t h rough t h e l a nd scape . I t

n o t r ep re sen t t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f as i ng le r e sou rce . A

r un st h rough many k ind s o fe nv i ronmen t s .I tm ay t h e ref o re

g i ven r e sou rce c an r e p re sen t al o ca t iona l f a c to r , o rr e -

b e r ega rded a s a n a r b i t ra ry t e s t . T he r e su l t s o b ta ined i n

f l ec tp reh i s to r ic d ec i s ion s ,o n as ca le f r om d e term inan t t ou n in f luen t ia l .

e ach o ft h e se a r ea s a r e n o t mu tua l ly c ompa rab le , a nd w i l l 2 )

t h e r ef o re b ee va lua ted s epa ra te ly .

I n s t ra teg ie s o f r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion , s i tes m igh t b e

T he f o l low ing a na lys is a im s a ti d en t ify ing s pa t ia l d i s t r i -

d i rec ted a t ar e sou rce , b u tn o t l o ca ted i nd i rec t s pa t ia l

b u t ion o fs i te s o n ac h rono log ica l s ca le , w h ich c an s ugge s t

o r t empo ra l p rox im i ty t o t h e r e sou rce . A " hun t ing

i mpo r tan t r e sour ce s . T he p rem ise s t h a t r e sou rce a cce s s i s

s i te" m igh t b e ap repa ra to ry c amp a t ad i s tance f r om

a n i mpor tan t l o ca t iona l f a c to r , a nd t h a t c ommon l o ca t ion

t h eh un t ing g round o ri tm igh tb el o ca ted i nt h ei mme -

i n d ica tes c ommon r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion l e ad s t o as pec if i c

d i a te h un t ing g round .

p a s to ra l p rob lem . How i mpo r tan t w e r e d ome s t ica ted a n i m a l s a s al o ca l iz ing f a c to r? C r ibb ( 1991 :20f ) s t re s se s t h e

T he se p rob lem sa r eb o th v e ry p ronounced a nd l e ss p re ss ing

n eed f o rp a s to ra l is t s t ol o ca te i nr e la t ion t op a s tu res . P rox -

i nr e la t ion t op a s to ra l s i te s . S ome k i nd o fs e t t lemen t mus t

i m i ty t ot h eb e s tp a s ture s h a sc l ea r ly b een al o ca t iona l f a c -

b e c l o se t op a s tu re s a nd w a te rs ou rce s . H owever , t h e s ame

t o ri nh i s tor ic e r a s . A cces st oo the rr e sou r ce s , s uch a sv a r i -

s i te s c an a l so b e s t ag ing b a se s f o r f o rag ing , h un t ing a nd

o u st ypes o fh un t ing g round s ,w ou ld b ea no the ri mpo r tan t ,

f i sh ing . I th a sb een p o s tu la ted t h a tt h e re w a s ap ref e rence f o rl a ke

b u t s ub s id ia ry , f a c to ri nt h e l o ca t ion o fs i te s .

s ho re s , p ref e rab ly n ea r i n - a nd o u t f lows . T h is h a s b een a

I ft h ese p rem i se s a nd a r gumen t s a r e a ccep ted , t h e q ue s t i on i s whe the rt h e re a r e s pa t ia l s im i la r i t ie s i nt h e d i s t r ibu -

s ub jec to fd i scu s s ion . Ap o s tu la te o fs y s tema t ic l o ca l iza t ion

t i on o fL a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze Age s i te sc ompa red t o Me so -

t o l a k e s ho re s i s m e thodo log ica l ly c omp l ica ted , a s t h e

l i t h ic /Neo l i th ic 1s i tes . A l te rna t ive ly , a r e t h e re s im i la r i t ie s

s ho res g ene ra l ly a r e mo s t i n ten s ive ly s urveyed , a nd a r te -

i nt h el o ca t ion o ft h e se s i te sw i th I r on A ge t o modern s i te s?

f a c t sa r e mo re r e ad i ly f ound h e re . L ake sp rov ide f e a tu re si n

I ft h e l a t te ri st h e c a se , t h e re i sa n a r gumen tf o r ac ommon

t h e t e r ra in t h a t e a s i ly s t ruc tu re s u rveyo r s ' c ogn i t ive c on -

p a s to ra l l o ca l iz ing mechan i sm . I ft h e f i r s t i st h e c a se , n o

s t ruc t ion s o f t h e l a nd scape — a nd t h e reby t h e i r s urvey i n

s u ch a rgumen ti ss u s ta ined . F ina l ly ,t h e re i s aq ues t ion o fa

t h a t l a nd scape . I nd re l id h a s p o in ted o u t s im i la r p rob lem s .

p r ef e rence f o r a r ea s i n V ikada len t h a t a r e i ndependen t ly

H eh a sd emon s t ra ted t h a ts i te so nt h eH a rdangerv idda p l a t -

i d en t if ied a st h eb es tp a s tu re s ; V ika s tO len , K a lvebe i te ta nd

e au a r e f ound a ta r b i t ra ry d i s tances f r om l a rge b od ie s o f

U ru t le l c rä i .

w a te r( I nd re l id 1 986 :245 f ) . T o s uppo r tt h e a s sump t ion t h a t m e thodo log ica l b i a se s l e ad t o i d en t if ica t ion o f l a k e s a s a l o ca l iz ing f a c to r , I nd re l id c l a im s s uppo r t f r om t h e N y se t -

S t ud i e s o fs i t el o ca t ion

S t egg je s ur vey .

An umbe r o fs t ud ies d ea l w i th s i te l o ca t ion a mong h un te r -

A tN yse t -S tegg je s i te s w e re f ound a t ad i s tance o fu p t o

g a the re r s i ng ene ra l , a sw e l l a sw i th s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s i n

1 . 5 km f r om l a ke s ( I nd re l id 1 986 :247 ) . H oweve r , H a rd a n -

c omp lex s oc ie t ie s .I np o l i t ica lt e rm s , S erv ice h a ss ugge s ted

g erv idda a nd N y se t -S tegg je a r e n o t r e ad i ly c ompa rab le :

c e r ta in s pa t ia l a nd r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion f e a tu res c ommon

H a rd a ngerv idda i s ap l a teau w i th l i t t le r e l ief o n wh ich l a kes

t o " seden ta ry c h iefdom s" ( Se rv ice 1 975 :75f ) . S uch p a t -

a r ep rom inen tf e a tu re s . N y se t -S tegg je i s made u p o fs t eep ,

t e rns r equ ir e ad i s t r ibu t iona lh i era r chy b a sed o ne co log ica l -

s ho r tv a l ley s . L ake s a r en o tp rom inen tf e a ture s . R ive r s a nd

l y d e term ined s pec ia l iza t ion .

S e rv ice ' s g ene ra l iza t ion s

s t ream s a r e mo re s t r ik ing , s o much s ot h a tt h ey g ive Ä rda l

h ave b een m e t w i th c r i t ic i sm , a nd l i t t le e mp i r ica l s uppo r t

i t s n ame . Ano the r ma t te ri si fo ne s ub s t i tu tes " lake s" w i th

h a s b een mus te red ( Ea r le 1 977 ) . S tud ie s t h a t d ea l w i th

" r ive r s a nd l a ke s" t h e re a r e n o t many N yse t -S tegg je s i te s

m ixed a g ro -pa s to ra l a nd h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s a r e

a tg rea td i s tance sf r om w a te r .A t ten t ion mus ta l so b ed i rec t -

f ewe r . Ar e cen te t hno -a rchaeo log ica ls t udy i sC r ibb ( 1991) .

e d t owa rds c h rono logy . J ohansen , B j ego a nd I nd re l id

A l though h e i sc once r n ed w i th t h e M idd le E a s t , e spec ia l ly

mo re o rl e ss a s s ign l i th ic s i tes t o as i ng le a na ly t ic c a tego ry ,

T u rkey , h i sb ook c on ta ins an umbe ro fd ef in i t ion s , t e rm in -

i r rega rd less o f q uan t i ta t ive , q ua l i ta t ive o r c h rono log ica l

o l og ica l c l a r if ica t ions a nd g ene ra l iza t ion s t h a t a r e u sefu l

f a c to r s . T he re i s , h oweve r , s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion , a nd e spe -

h e re .

c i a l ly c h rono logy w i l l b e d i scu ssed b e low . I nd re l id p o in t s h ave

o u tt ha t Me so l i th ic a nd B ronze Age s i te so nH a rdange rv id -

a dd re ssed q ues t ion so nl o ca t iona lp a t ter n sf o r" l i th ic s i te s"

d a a r e mo re c ommon ly d i spe r sed t h roughou t t h e t e r ra in

i nt h e moun ta in s .J ohansen ' ss t ud ies a r eo fl i t t le i n te re s t ,f o r

t h an N eo l i th ic s i te s ( I nd r e l id 1 986 :249 ) . I fo ne i n se r t s a

r e a son s d i scu s sed i nt h e r e sea rch h i s to ry s e c t ion . I nd re l id

c h rono log ica l g rad ien ti nr e ga rd t ot h e mo re r ep re sen ta t ive

b eg in s w i th t h e p rem ise , s im i la rt ot h e o ne u sed h e re , t h a t

g roup o f Ny se t -S tegg je s i te s ,t h en Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic

I n

Norway ,

J ohan sen ,

I nd re l id

a nd

B jo rgo

8 7

1s i te s s e em t ob e s p read t h roughou t , b u t w i th g rea te r s i te

T he se f i nd si n d ica te l o ca t iona lc o r respondence b e tween o l -

c oncen t ra t ion n ea r l a ke s a nd f o rd s . L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

d e r s i t es a nd I r on A ge h ouse s i te s . T he p redom inance o f

B ronze A ge s i tes , a tl e a s ti nV ikada len , s e em t ob ec oncen -

b i f ac ia l p o in t s a mong t h e f o rma l t o o ls s ugges t s t h a t t h e

t r a ted t o mo re l im i ted a r ea s , o f ten a ts ome d i s tance f r om

o l de r s i te s ma in ly o r ig ina ted i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

l a rge b od ie s o fw a te r( t ab le 1 5 & 1 6 , f i g s . 1 9 &2 0 ) . T he se

B ronze Age . O fs pec ia li n te re s ta r ef i nd sf r om t h eI r on A ge

a r ea s a r e t r ad i t iona l ly t h ough t o fa s t h e b es t p a s tu res . T he

t or e cen th ouse s i te c omp lex a tV ika s to len , o n t h ee a s ts i de

i mp l ica t ion o f t h is d i scu s s ion i st h a t Meso l i th ic a nd N eo -

o ft h eA sva ld r i ve r ,w he re o n ly o ne s ma l lL a te B ronze A ge

l i th ic 1s i te s m igh t d emons t ra te ar ea l p ref e rence f o r s ho re

s i te i sd e tec ted . H e re , t wo b i fac ia l p o in t s d emons t ra te a

l o ca t ion s . P rox im i ty t ol a rge b od ie s o fw a te r may b e ad e -

L a te N eo l i th ic o re a r ly -Ea r ly B ronze A ge d a te . I fL a te N e -

t e rm inan tf a c to r f o rt h e se s i te s . T he r e su l t s o ft h e H a rdan -

o l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge f i nd s w e re n o tb rough tt oV ika s t0 -

g e rv idda a nd Ny se t -S tegg je s u rveys d o n o t s o le ly d emon -

l e n w i th t u r f c o l lec ted w es t o f t h e A sva ld r i ve r ( a round

s t ra te

m e thodo log ica l

s kew ing

i n t h e

a r chaeo log ica l

s i te s 3 1 a nd 3 2 ) o r n o r th o f t h e Ny se t r i ve r ( a round 4 7

r e sea rch . T hey may a l so i nd ica te p reh is tor ic p ref e rences .

Un i t le l c rä i ) , t h ey i mp ly mo re e x ten s ive L a te N eo l i th ic a nd / o r B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t a tV ika s to len t han t h e d e tec ted

N y se t-S t egg j e : V ikada l en

s i te s i n d ica te . O the ri n te res t ing f i nd s c ome f r om s i te s 1 00a

T he f o l low ing N y se t -S tegg je a na lys is e vo lve s a r ound L a te

& bU ru t lek rä i . T he l i th ic s a r e o f t h e s ame t y pe a s t ho se

N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s i tes c ompa red t o s i te s f r om

f o und a t4 7 U ru t lek rä i . I ft h e ma t r ix t u r fw a s n o tc o l lec ted

o t he r p e r iod s w i th ap r e sumed s ubs is tence b a se . L oca t ion

c l o se r t o t h e 4 7 s i te , t h e f i nd s i nd ica te t h a t mo re L a te

w i th in p r ime p a s tu re z ones i sa l so a dd re ssed . D i s tance s

B ronze A ge a c t iv i ty s phe re s c an b e f ound f a r the r w e s t .

f r om l a ke s a r en o ted , f o rt h e s ake o fa r gumen t . T he a na ly t -

B if ac ia lp o in t sa r ea l so f ound o u t s ide o ft h es i te 8 6c on tex t ,

i c a l f ounda t ion i st h e map s a nd t a b le s u sed t o p lo t t h ese

a t8 2A /E a nd 8 2F H e l l ingboen . T he p o in t s a nd d eb i tage

v a r iab les . I nV ikada len , t h e maps s how t h a t Me so l i th ic a nd

r e cove red a tH e l l ingboen , i n d ica te l o nge r u se o f t h e a r ea

N eo l i th ic 1s i tes a r es p read t h roughou tt h ev a l ley ( f ig . 1 8&

t h an t h e s i te 8 6 a l one s ubs tan t ia tes . I ta l so e mpha s ize s t h e

1 9 ) . L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s i te s a r e c l us te red

p a t ter n o fc ommon l o ca l iza t ion f o rL a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze

a r ound I r on Age t o mode rn s h ie l ing s i te s . T he map s a l so

A ge s i tes a nd I r on A ge t o mode rn s i te s .

d emon s t ra te q ua l i ta t ive f a c to r s n o t f ound i nt h e t a b les . I n

I n s umma ry , s e t t lemen t s f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

g enera l , t h ei n t ra -pe r iod d i s t r ibu t ion r e vea ls t h a tL a te N eo -

n ea r ly t ot h e p re sen th ave b een l o ca ted i nt h e s ame p l a ces .

l i th ic t o P re -Roman I r on Age s i tes a r e c l u s te red , wh i le

T he se p l ace s a r e i n dependen t ly d ef ined a s t h e b e s t -pa s -

Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic 1s i te s a r ed i spe r sed . I nt h e U ru t -

t u re s , i . e . U ru t lek rä i , V ika s to len , K a lvebe i te t a nd H e l l ing-

l e k rä i —K a lvebe i te t —V ika s to len a r ea ,t h eL a te N eo l i th ic t o

Wen . I ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze A ge g roup i ss ub -d iv id -

mode rn s i tes a r e c oncen t ra ted i nt h ree z one s . T he Me so -

e d , t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd e a r ly E a r ly B ronze Age i s

l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic 1 s i te s a r e f ound b e tween t h e Ny se t

s pa r se ly r e p resen ted ,a nd t h ep a t te rn s a r e mo s tp ronounced

r i ve r a nd K lypeda l r i ve r — whe re p rac t ica l ly n o l a te r s i te s

i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge t oe a r ly P re -Roman p er iod .B u tt h is

a r el o ca ted . A me thodo log ica lc ons ide ra t ion i st h a tt h e d i s -

d eve lopmen tc an b ei n terp re ted a s ag ene ra l i n c rea se i nt h e

t a nce s e xp re s sed i nt h e t a b le s a r e m ea su red o n maps , i r re -

s c a le o fe xp lo i ta t ion f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t ot h e e nd o f

g a rd le s so ft opog raph ica lo bs tac les . T he map s i nd ica te t h a t

t h e B ronze A ge . T oi d en t ify t h ef a c to r sf o rt h el o ca l iz ing o fs i te s ,t h ea na l -

e f f ec t ive d i s tance s b e tween Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic 1 s i te s a r e g r ea ter i n p rac t ice . S pa t ia l c o r re spondence b e -

y s is r e s ta te s t h e p rem ise t h a t t h e I r on Age t or e cen t s i tes

t ween Me so l i th ic /Neo l i th ic 1 s i te s a nd L a te N eo l i th ic /

h ad ap a s to ra l f unc t ion a nd w e re l o ca ted i nr e la t ion t op a s -

B ronze A ge -modern s i te s i sn o t f ound ( t ab le 1 6 ) . I fd i s -

t u re s . I ti sk now t h a t p a s to ra l i sm w a s p re sen t i n S ogn a t

t a nce t oI r on Age t o modern h ouse s i te si sa na x ia lv a r iab le ,

l e a s t f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic ( P re sco t t 1 991a ) . T hus , i ti s

t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion o f Me so l i th ic & N eo l i th ic 1a nd L a te

r e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a tt h eL a te N eo l i th ic t oP re -Roman

N eo l i th ic t oP re -Roman s i te s c an b e e xp re ssed g raph ica l ly

I r on A ge s i te sw e re f o und i nt h e s ame p a s tu res a sl a ter s i tes

( f ig . 2 0 ) . L a te N eo l i th ic t oP re -Roman I r on Age s i te s s how

b ecau se o f t h e p a s tu re s . P a s to ra l ism w a s i n crea s ing ly t h e

as pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion i nc ommon w i th I r on Age s i tes . Me so -

b a s ic m e thod o f r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion i n V ikada len f r om

l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic 1s i tes d o n o t s how as im i la r d i s t r ibu -

t h eL a te N eo l i th ic t h rough t h eB ronze A ge a nd i n to t h eI r on

t i on .

A ge .

T he c o r re spondence b e tween L a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze Age

A l terna t ive c oncep t s o f t h e e vo lu t ion o f t h e c u l tu ra l

s i tes a nd l a te r s i te s i sa l so d emons t ra ted b y l i th ic f i nd s

l a nd scape o f f e r ss ome b a s is f o r ac r i t ique o ft h ea bove . Two

made i nt h e c ou r se o fi n ves t iga t ing I r on Age h ou se s t ruc -

s c ena r io s p o r t ray p o s s ib le v a r ia t ion s i nt h e p rob lem c om -

t u re s . T he se f i nd s r e p resen t o lde r a s semb lages d epo s i ted

p l ex . S cenar io 1d er ive s f r om t h e t h eo ry a bove . V ikada len

b ef o re t h eI r on A ge ,o rf i nd sb rough tt ot h eI r on A ge s i te i n t u r fu sed i nt h e w a l ls a nd o n t h e r oof ( K r is tof f er sen p er s .

w a s i n co rpo ra ted i n ap a s to ra l s t ra tegy i nt h eL a te N e -

m ed . b a sed o n B j ego e ta l . 1 992 , P re sco t t 1 986 :ch .9 ) . T he

o l i th ic , t hough w i th mo re i n ten s i ty i nt h e L a te B ronze

t u r fa nd a r tefac t sa r ea s sumed t oo r ig ina te f r om t h ev i c in i ty

A ge . T he v a lue o ft h e p a s tu re s l e d t os e lec t ion o ft h e

o ft h e s t ruc tu res t h ey w e re u sed i n . Al i s to fl i th ics f ound i n

V ika s to len — U ru t le l c rä i , a nd t o al e sser e x ten t a l so

s uch c on tex t s i st a bu la ted f r om K r is tof f e r sen 's c a ta logue s

H e l l ingboen ( a t al a te r d a te ) , a s p r ima ry s e t t lemen t

( B jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 ) . N ea r ly 2 606 s t ruck l i th ic p i eces w e re

z one s . T he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s equence

f ound i nt h e c our se o f 1 6h ouse s i te e xcava t ion s ( t ab le 1 7 ) .

s e em s t o i n d ica te a " p ionee r" p a s to ra l s e t t lemen t a t 8 8

V ika s to len . I n t h e B ronze A ge , s e t t lemen t b ecame

O ve r ap e r iod o f s eve ra l h und red y ea r s , t h e a bove

c oncen t ra ted a r ound U ru t lek rä i a nd K a lvebe i te t . A t

a genc ie s l e dt oc on sp icuous mod if i ca t ion o ft h e v ege -

t h is t ime H e l l ingboen a l so b ecame amo re r e gu la rp a r t

t a t ion . When t h e v a l ley s a ts ome u nknown t ime b e -

o ft h ee xp lo i ta t ion p a t tern . A s w i l l b ed emon s t ra ted i n

c ame p a r to ft h ep a s to ra le xp lo i ta t ion ,t h eo ld s i te a r ea s

t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion , i ti sa tt h i s t ime t h a t t h e h ighe r

p rov ided t h e b es t p a s tu re s . T he mod if ica t ion o f t h e

l y ing B e rda len i ss ub jec ted t o mo re i n ten s ive e xp lo i ta -

v ege ta t ion a nd l a nd scape w a s f u r the r e nhanced . T he

t i on .T h i sr ep re sen t s ac on t inued e xpan s ion i n to h i ghe r

a r ea s s i ng led o u t a s p r ime p a s tu re s b y h i s to r ica l a nd

a l t i tude s .T he c on t inuous e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e se v a l leys ,

moder n o bserve r s w e r e v i r tua l ly c r ea ted , o r a tl e a s t

i n a r chaeo log ica l t e rm s at r ad i t ion , i sd e term ined b y

i n i t ia ted ,b yh uman s , a nd w e re n o tt h eb es tp a s tu res b y

t h ep a s tu re s . T he p a t te rn w ou ld b e s e lf re inf o rc ing , a s

n a tu re . F rom t h is p e r spec t ive , h uman o ccupa t ion w a s

p a s tu re s w ou ld i mp rove t h rough u se .

n o ti n i t ia l ly c ond i t ioned b y p a s tu re s . I n s tead , p a s tu re s w e re c r ea ted t h rough h uman o ccupa t ion .

S cenar io 2 s t a r t s w i th s e t t lemen t c oncen t ra ted i n t h e

T he p a leo -vege ta t iona l d a ta c anno t b y i t se lf p rov ide e v i -

a r ea s i nq ue s t ion . T he r ea son f o rt h i s c oncen t ra t ion i s

d ence n eeded t o c ho se t h e mo re c o r rec t i n te rp re ta t ion .

n o t i d en t if ied , b u t ap o ss ib le c au se may h ave b een a n

Wi thou t g o ing i n to d e ta i l s , b a sed o n e v idence o fp a s to ra l -

i n c rea se i n h un t ing , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o r r ou tes f o r

i sm a to t he rn ea rby l o ca l i t ie si nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic ( S l c r iva r -

c ommun ica t ion .T he c oncen t ra t ion o fh uman a c t iv i t ie s

h e l leren ) ,t h eg ene ra ls i te p a t tern a nd t h el o ca lg eo logy a nd

l e dt os o i l e n r ichmen ta nd " def o r e s ta t ion" . T he f e r t i l -

g eog raphy ,t h ea u tho ra ccep t ss cena r io 1a st h e mo s tl i ke ly .

i z a t ion a nd v ege ta t ion mod if ica t ion w a s f u r the r p ro -

I ti st h i s s c ena r io t ha tw i l lb e u sed i nt h e f u r the ra na ly s is .

mo ted a f te rs ea sona la bandonmen to fs i te s . W i ld h e rb i v o re s w e re d rawn t ot h e l u she r v ege ta t ion h e re . T he w i ld h e rb ivo re s w ou ld a l so ma in ta in t h e se " cu l tu ra l

B erda l en

l a nd scape s" t h rough l onge r p e r iod s a bandonmen t .

S u rvey si nB erda l en w er et h orough , b u tn a tura la genc ie sr e n -

T ab le 1 5 . L o ca l iza t ion o fL a te N eo l i th ic ( LN ) , B ronz e A ge ( BA ) a nd e a r ly P r e -Roman p e r iod ( PR IA ) s i te s i nt h e V ikada len b a s in i nr e la t ion t o o l de r ( Me so l i th ic [ Me so . ] &N eo l i th ic 1[ N i ] ) a nd y ounge rs i te s ( I ron A ge [ IA ] ) a nd b od ie so fw a t e r . S i te

D a t e

N ea r e s ts i t e I A

Me so .

N i

P a s tu r e?

R iv e r /Lake

1 8 / 1300

2 7

L BA /PR IA

0

2 90

2 90

K a lvebe i te t

2 8

LN /BA

5

2 90

2 90

K a lvebe i te t

1 6/ 13 00

3 1

( LN )EBA

5 0

7 0

6 00

V ika s to len

2 0 /900

3 2

LN

5 0

6 0

6 00

V ika s to len

2 0 /900

3 4 f

L BA

0

7 0

6 50

V ika s to len

1 0 /950

4 7

L BA (PR IA )

0 100

2 50

2 50

U ru t lek rä i

5 0 /900

5 0a

L BA (PR IA )

0

1 95

1 50

U ru t lek rä i

3 0 /950

5 1 -1

L BA

5 0

15

9 5

U r u t le l c rä i

1 0 /950

8 4

L BA

7 50

2 5

2 0

N one

7 0 / 1000

8 5

( E )LBA

8 5

3 50

2 50

K a lvebe i te t

7 0 / 1700

8 6

L BA (PR IA )

1 5

2 50

1 000

H e l l ingboen

1 20 /700

1 07

L BA (PR IA )

6 0

3 00

2 00

K a lvebe i te t

6 0 / 1650

8 8 -97

1 89

3 66

A ve rage

4 1 / 1100

T ab le 1 6 . V ikada len : L oca t ion o f Me so l i th ic ( Me so . ) a nd N eo l i th ic 1( N i ) i nr e la t ion t oL a te N eo l i th ic /B ronze A ge ( LN /BA ) a nd I r on A ge t o moder n( IA /Mod . ) s i te s . S i te

D a te

N ea r e s ts i t e

P a s tu r e

LN /BA

I A /Mod .

R ive r / lak e

2 2

R i ska l sva tn

Me so

3 70

3 70

N one

3 5 /850

3 3

V ikada len

Me so

6 0

1 20

V ika s to len

5 0 /900

4 8

K lypeda len

Me so

1 25

1 60

N one*

1 0 / 1000

4 9

K lypeda len

Me so

1 30

1 95

N one*

1 5 / 1100 4 0 / 1000

8 3

S ka rhaug sf o s sen

Me so

2 5

7 50

N one

8 8

S ka rhaug sf o s sen

N 1

2 0

7 50

N one

1 0 / 1000

8 9

H e l l ingboen

Me so

3 20

3 20

H e l l ingbo en?

3 0 /450

9 1

R i ska l sva tn

Me so

9 2

R i ska l sva tn

Me so

5 00 7 50

5 00 3 10

N one? N one

5 0 /600 2 00 /0

9 3

R i ska l sva tn

N i

7 30

30

N one

1 70 /30

9 6 1 02

R i ska l sva tn

M /N 1

6 00

6 00

N one

1 00 / 100

K lypeda len

Me so

1 09

K lypeda len

N i

9 0 9 5

1 05 1 58

N one* N one*

7 0 / 1100 5 0 / 1100

2 93

3 59

A ve rage

*B e tween U ru t lek rä i a nd K a lv ebe i te t . #I ft h e P re -Roman h ea r th u nde rt h eh ou se s t ruc tu r e , s i t e 2 6 , i su sed a s aLN /BA s i te t h e d i s tan ce i s3 10 m .

8 9

6 4 /710

T ab le 1 7 . S tone A ge t oP r e -Roman E th ic s a nd s t ruc tu re s f o und o n I r on A ge t op o s t -Ref o rma t ion h ou se s i t e s i nV ikada len a nd B e rda len ( ba sed o n c a ta logue s i nB jo rgo e ta l . 1 992 ) . I n c lude s f r agmen t s a nd w ho le s p ec imen s . S i te

D eb i tage*

F o rma l t o o l s

S t ruc tu r e s H ea r th ,PR IA

2 6

R iska l sva tn

4 8

2b l ade s , 1s c r ape r

3 4a / c

V ikada len

3 64

2b i f a c ia l p o in t s

3 4b

V ikada len

2 06

1s c rape r

3 4d

V ikada len

3 9

3 4g

V ikada len

4 3

5 0b

U ru t le l c rä i

3

5 3

K a lvebe i te t

7 63

3b i f a c ia lp o in t s , 1b l ade

8 2 f

H e l l ingboen

2 39

5b i f a c ia l p o in t s

8 2d

8 7

1r e touched b l ade

8 2c

H e l l ingbo en H e l l ingboen

8 2b

H e l l ingboen

1 6

8 2a e

H e l l ingboen

2 20

1b i f a c ia l p o in t

1 00a

2 4 1

5b i f a c ia l p o in t s

1 00b

Un i t lek rä i U ru t lek rä i

2 78

1b i f a c ia lp o in t , 1s c rape r

15a

B e rda len

2 60

2b i f ac ia l p o in t s ,

1b i f a c ia lp o in t

3

3s u r f a ce f l aked p i ece s , 1c o r e f r agmen t , r e semb lan to f af l ake . 15b

B e rda len

4 4

15c

B e rda len

8 4

1 22a /b

F o s sda len

1 26

1 22c

F o s sda len

6

H ea r th

*N on -d iagno s t ic f l ak e s a nd c o re s . C ommen t s t ot h e a s semb lage s : —T he c o l lec t ion f r om s i te 2 6R i ska l l sva tn a nd 3 4d c on ta in f ew d i agno s t ic f i nd s , t h ough s e v e ra l p i ece s o fd eb i tage i n d ica t eb i f a c ia l f l ak ing . T he d eb i tage f r om s i t e 2 6c on ta in s ap o s s ib le f r agmen ta ry c y l ind r ica l f l in tc o r e . —T he d eb i tage a s semb lage s f r om 3 4a / c , 3 4b , 3 4g , 8 2d , 8 2 f , 8 2g , 1 00a a nd 1 00b a r ea l l d om ina ted b y b i f a c ia l f l ak ing w a s t e . T he c o r e f r om s i t e 3 4g i sa n i r regu la rf l ake c o r e . T he t yp e i sr e la t ive ly c ommon o n BA s i t e s i nt h e a r ea . —A n umbe ro ft h e p o in t s a r e s of r agmen ta ry t h a tt h ey d o n o tp rov ide a ccu ra te c h rono log ica l d a te s , b eyond ag ene ra l LN /BA d a te . O ne p o in t f r om s i te 3 4a / c h a s as l igh t ly c oncav e b a se ( B 14034 /363 ) , w h i le t h e o t he rh a s am o r e p ronounced c oncav i ty ( B 14034 /366 ) . B o th p o in t s a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l , a nd e xh ib i t ah i gh d eg r ee o fw o rk ing . T hey t h u s i n d ica te aLN ,p e rhap se a r ly E BA a g e . —O ne p o in tf r om t h e a s semb lage f r om 8 2f i ss im i la ri nr e ga rd t os hape a nd r aw m a te r ia l t op o in t sf o und a tn ea rb y s i t e 8 6 . T h ree o t he rp o in t s a r e s im i la rt op o in t s f o und a t Un i t lek rä i . T h i s i n d ica te s t h a ta no the rL BA s i t e i st ob ef o und i nt h e v i c in i ty o fH e l l ingboen . —T he p o in t s f r om s i te s 1 00a a nd 1 00b a r e s im i la rt ot h o se f o und a ts i te 4 7 Un i t lek rä i . T h i s i n d ica te s t h a tt h ep ea tw a sc o l lec t ed f r om t h e s i t e4 7 a r ea , o rt h a ta n o u t ly ing s a te l l i te s i te h a s b een d i s tu rbed , a nd w a s p e rhap s a sf a rw e s ta ss i t e s 1 00 a /b .

d er ed i mpor tan ta r ea s a r chaeo log ica l ly i n acce s s ib le . B erda -

e xc luded f r om a na na lys i so ft h et y pe p r esen ted f o rV ikada -

l e nl i e sa tg r ea t er a l t i tud e sa nd i sm or eb ar r en t h an t h eR i sk -

l e n . S t i l l , t h e r e a r e s ome i mpo r tan t a spec t s a nd c l ue s o n

a l sva tn i n V i kada len . B erda len i st h er ef or e a n i mpor tan t

w h ich t ob u i ld a n e va lua t ion .

s ource o fd a ta f or d i achron ica l i n ve s t iga t ion o fe xp lo i ta t ion

I nd ica t ion s o fL a te N eo l i th ic o r B ronze Age s e t t lemen t

s t ra t eg ie s . M inor i n ve s t iga t ion s i nt h e F o s sda len a nd S med -

a tB e rda ls tO len w e re f o und i nc onnec t ion w i th e xcava t ion s

d a len v a l ley sp rov id ea rb i t ra ry s amp les a nd q ua l i ta t ive d a ta .

a tI r on A ge s i te 15 B e rda len . K r i s tof f e r sen c onc luded t h a t t h ree ma in p ha se s w e re p resen t w i th in t h e 1 00 s qua re m e t e r st h a tw e re e xcava ted ( B jO rgo e ta l . 1 992 :268 ) .S he d a te s

T he p rob l em o fB erda l s tO l en

t h e d eepe s t l e ve l a sf o l lows :

T he r e su l t s o fa r chaeo log ica l f i e ld w o rk i nB e rda len w e re

" Cha rcoa l i nt h e s and u nde r t h e l owe s t c u l tu ra l l a ye r

e a r l ie rf ound t ob e l e s s r e p re sen ta t ive t h an t ha tf r om V ika -

s hou ld p robab ly b er e la ted t oq ua r tz i te a r tefac t s f o und

d a len . A cco rd ing t ot r ad i t ion , t h e n o r thea s te rn s i de o fB e r -

i ns eve ra l l a ye r s . T he n umbe ro fE th ic p i ece s i n c rea se

d a lsva tn a nd " Be rda ls to len" a r ew he re s h ie l ings h ave b een

d ownwa rd i nt h ed epo s i t . I na l lp robab i l i ty t h e re w a s a

l o ca ted . B e rda ls tO len i st h e mos t i mpo r tan t o f t h e se . A t

s i te i n l a t te r p a r t o f t h e L a te L i th ic P e r iod , s e ve re ly

B e rda ls tO len e xcava t ion s a nd s urveys h ave s how t h a t c u l -

d i s tu rbed b y l a te ra c t iv i t ie s ." ( op . c i t . , t r ans l . b y C P ) .

t u ra l d epo s i t s , u nde tec ted i nt h e f i r s t s u rvey r ound s , w e re c ove red b y t h ick s ed imen t s f r om t h e moun ta in s l ide s . A f te r

O f2 59 d eb i tage p i ece s r e cove red f r om t h e s i te , 1 39 p i ece s

d epo s i t ion t h e se s ed imen t s w e re c oncre ted . T h is s i tua t ion

c l ea r ly c ame f r om t h e l owes t l e ve l . 1 5 o f 1 39 p i ece s

c ou ld h ave p rov ided r a r e s t udy o ppo r tun i t ie s d ue t op o ten -

( 10 .7% ) w e re f l in t , o f at o ta l o f 7 5 f l in t s ( 28 .9% o f t h e

t i a l s t ra t if ica t ion , a nd c once ivab ly u nu sua l p re se rva t ion .

d eb i tage ) f r om t h e w ho le d epos i t . A ma jor i ty o f t h e f l in t

Unf o r tuna t ly , t h e se d epo s i t s w e r e f i r s t u nde r s tood a t t h e

p i ece s t h u s c ame f r om h ighe r l e ve ls . Mos t o ft h e f l in t h ad

c onc lus ion o f e xcava t ion s a tI r on A ge a nd Med ieva l s i te

c r u sh ing s c a r s , a nd t h e refo re w a s p robab ly r e la ted t ot e n -

15 ,a nd n oe x tens ive i n ves t iga t ions b eyond t h eh ouse s i te s

d er ing f i re i nI r on A ge p ha se s o n t h e s i te . Ab i fac ia lq ua r t -

w e re c onduc ted . T o a n e x ten t , B e rda len c an b e ap r ior i

z i te p o in t , i r regu la ra nd w i th as t ra igh tb a se , w a sa l so r e co 9 0

v e red . T he t y pe i ss im i la r t o t hose f o und o n o t he r L a te

T he re a r e n o e x ten s ive p hy l l i te d epo s i t s i nB erda len . E x -

B ronze A ge s i te s i nt h e a r ea , a nd t hu s i n d ica te s t h e a ge o f

h au s t ion o f l im i ted f i rewood s upp l ies h a s b een ap rob lem

t h eq ua r tz i te a s semb lage ,a ss ugges ted b yK r is tof f e ren .T he

f o rt h e s ea sona l d a i ry s e t t lemen t s i nt h eh i s to r ica l e r a . T he

o t he r p re s su r e f l aked f i nd s g i ve g ene ra l s uppo r t f o r t h i s

v a l ley i sn a r rowe r , s ma l le r a nd w i th l e ss g raz ing p o ten t ia l

a s sump t ion . Ar e po r ted b l ade c ou ld b e i n d ica t ive o fo t he r

t h an V ikada len . U n l ike V ikada len o r Moada len , B e rda len

S tone A ge p e r iod s .T he p i ece h a sp e rpend icu la rs c a r so ni t s

i sn o t an a tura l l i nk i n r e g iona l o r l o ca l c ommun ica t ion

v en t ra l s i de s , a nd r e semb le s ac r e s ted b l ade . T he p i ece ,

n e two rk s . I n s ho r t , B e rda len i sn o t a s a t t rac t ive i nr e la t ion

h oweve r , i sn o t c l ea r ly t h e r e su l t o f b l ade t e chn ique , b u t

t o amu l t i -face ted p a s to ra l s t ra tegy .

m igh t h ave b een d e tached f r om j u s t a bou t a ny c o re t y pe .

T ab le 1 8p re sen t st h es pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te N eo l i th -

T he b l ade c an t h e ref o re n o ti n f e ra n E a r ly o rM idd le N eo -

i ct oe a r ly P re -Roman s i te s i nr e la t ion t os i te s f r om o t he r

l i t h ic s e t t lemen ti nt h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o fB e rda l s tO len .

p e r iod s ,p a s tu re sa nd b od ie so fw a te r . S i te sa r en o tc en te red

L i th ic f i nd sw e re a l so r e cove red i nc onnec t ion w i th e xcava -

a r ound a s i ng le p a s to ra l h ub , b u t s p read t h roughou t t h e

t i on s o f Med ieva l h ouse s i te 15b a nd E a r ly I r on A ge

v a l ley ( f ig . 5 ) . C ompa red t oi n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e s i tua t ion

h ou se s i te 15c ( t ab le 1 7 ) . A t 15b , 8 9% o ft h e r e cove r ed

i nV ikada len , t h e se a r e s ome p o ss ib le e xp lana t ion s :

f l ake sw e re q ua r tz i te o rq ua r tz ( 39 o f4 4 ) ,w h i le t h ec ompa -

1 )

T he c onc lus ion s f r om V ikada len c anno t b e u sed t o

r a b le f i gu re f o r 15c i s9 6% ( 80 o f 8 4 ) . T he r e s t o f t h e

e xp la in t h e p a t te rn s i nB e rda len , e i the rb ecau se :

d eb i tage w a sf l in t . T hese f i nd s i nd ica te aw ide d i s t r ibu t ion

a )T he d i sce rned p a t te rn sa r ei n adequa te f o re xp la in ing

o fl i th ic s i te ma ter ia l i nt h eB e rda ls to len a r ea .

mo re c omp lex e xp lo i ta t ion s t ra teg ie s , o rm is taken

F ou r o rf i ve o t he rl i on A ge t o modern h ouse s i te s w e re

o r

f o und a tB e rda l s to len , h igh l igh t ing t h e p a s to ra l p ref e rence

b )T he p a t ter n s d i scerned f o r V ikada len a r e r e levan t

f o r B e rda l s to len a nd t h e a r ea ' s a r chaeo log ica l c omp lex i ty .

f o rt h a tk ind o fe nv i ronmen t . Howeve r ,t h et wo v a l -

When c onc lud ing e xcava t ion s a tB e rda l s to len , ab u l ldoze r

l e ys r ep re sen t d i ss im i la re nv i ronmen t s . I ft h e b a s i s

o pened u p a d jacen t a r ea s t o t h e n o r thwe s t . S ubs tan t ia l

f o rs pa t ia lp a t ter n ing i nB e rda len i sp a s to ra l i sm ,t h e

a moun t s o fn on -excava ted c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s w e re o b served

v a l ley 's mo re ma rg ina l c ha rac te rc ou ld l e ad t ol e s s

( Kr is tof f e r sen p er s . c omm . ) .

i n ten s ive ,s ea sona l ly s hor te ru se a nd h ab i ta t ion .A c -

I nc onc lu s ion ,t h e re i se v idence o fL a te B ronze Age s e t -

t i v i t ies i n t h e v a l ley c ou ld h ave i n vo lved h un t ing

t l emen ta tB e rda l s to len .T he e x ten ta nd n a tu re o ft h is s e t t le -

mo re t han i nV ikada len . 2 )

m en t c anno t b e p o s i t ive ly a dd re ssed , b u t i ts e em s t oh ave

T he c ond i t ion s a t B e rda ls to len s kew t h e d a ta , a nd t h e refo re s kew t h e s pa t ia l a na ly s is .

b een e x tens ive .O the rp ha se sa r eq u i te p o s s ib ly p resen t ,b u t u nde tec ted .T he L a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen ti s ,s i gn if i can t l y , l o ca ted a tt h e s ame s po t a s E a r ly - a nd L a te I r on A ge ,

A ne va lua t ion t h a tc ou ld c omb ine t h e se p o s s ib i l i t ies s e em s

Med ieva l a nd modern h ou se s i te s .

f e a s ib le . T he re i sa mp le r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e a r chae o l og ica lr e co rd i ss kewed . E nv i ronmen ta la nd e t hno -h is to r -

B erda l en a sa na na l y t i ca le n t i ty

i c a ld a ta d emon s t ra te t h a tB e rda len h a s mo re ma rg ina lp a s -

Mov ing f r om B e rda ls to len , t h e w ho le o ft h e B e rda len v a l -

t u re s , a nd h a sh ad amo re mode s tr o le a s as h ie l ing z one .I n

l e y c an b e e xam ined . Af ew e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s may b e

o t he rw o rd s , t h e p i c tu re t h a t eme rges f r om B e rda len i st h e

e xp l ic i t ly d e sc r ibed h e re . B e rda len l i e s a ta l p ine a l t i tude s ,

r e su l t o f s kewed d a ta , b u t a l so t h e r e su l t o f t h e t ype a nd

1 0 10 m a . s . l . T he s o i l q ua l i ty i sp oo re rt h an i nV ikada len .

magn i tude o fu se o ft h is v a l ley .

T ab le 1 8 . B e rda len : T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te N eo l i th ic ( LN ) , B ronze Age ( BA ) a nd e a r ly P re -Roman ( PR IA ) s i te s i nr e la t ion t os i te s f r om t h e I r on Age t or e cen tp e r iod ( IA /mo ) , Meso l i th ic ( Me so ) a nd N eo l i th ic 1( Ni) , p a s tu r e s a nd r i ve r s / lake s . S i te

D a te

N ea r e s t s i te I A /mo .

Me so .

N 1

P a s tu re?

R ive r /Lake

1 03*

LBA /PR IA

6 00

8 50

2 100

None*

7 50 /4

1 05

( LBA )PR IA

0 **

1 500

2 700

W . B e rda l

5 / 100

15a

LBA (PR IA )

0

1 50

1 500

B e rda l s to l

1 200 / 100

14

( LN /EBA? )

1 500

0

0

None

7 0 /600

16

L BA (PR IA? )

6 30

3 50

3 00

None

1 00 /300

1 30n

LBA

100+

0

4 20

None

1 00 / 1000

1 30 s

LBA

100

0

4 20

None

1 30w

EBA

100

0

4 20

None

7 54

3 56

9 83

A ve rage

1 78 /263

*P a th s l e ad ing u p f r om t h e v a l ley , p a s t t h e " we s tern B e rda l s to len" t oB e rda l s to len a nd o n , f o l low t h e n or thern s i de o ft h e l a ke . C ommon ly u sed c a t t le , g oa t a nd s heep p a th s t hus c ro s s t h e s i te . * A cco rd ing t ot r ad i t ion , as h ie l ing wa s f ound i nt h is a r ea i nh i s tor ica l t ime s . #T he l owe r l e ve l s t h a t y i e lded q ua r tz i te a r tefa c t s a r e l i s ted h e re a s as epa ra t e s i te . +P ha ses d a ted t ot h e Meso l i th ic , E a r ly B ronze A ge , L a te B ronze A ge a nd R oman I r on A ge a r e a l so i d en t if ied w i th in t h e s i te . T he R oman I r on A ge p ha se i sr e p re sen ted b y ah ea r th a nd i r on s c rap s . I ti st h e r ef o re n o t u sed a sa n I r on Age p o in to fr e f e r ence .

9 1

W i th in t h e g ene ra l p er iod o f t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t o t h e

T he d a ted p i t , a nd p o ss ib ly t h e l i th ics a sw e l l , r ep resen t

P r e -Roman I r on A ge , mo s t o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l s i tes a r e

a n a r b i t ra ry s amp le o fB ronze A ge f i nds . A s s uch t h ey a r e

d a ted t ot h e L a te B ronze Age . T h is e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t

q ua l i ta t ive e v idence t h a tt h e v a l ley w a s u sed i nt h e B ronze

t h e ma rg ina lr e sou rce so ft h is v a l ley w e re d r awn i n to r egu -

A ge .

l a r p a s to ra l e xp lo i ta t ion a t al a te r d a te t h an l owe r l y ing l o ca l i t ies i n V ikada len a nd Moada len ( S l c r iva rhe l le ren ) . T he B ronze A ge d a te f o r t h i s e xpan s ion i n to h i ghe r a l t i -

Smedda l en

t ude s c o r re spond s w i th a n g ene ra l i n ten s if i ca t ion o f p ro -

T he s i tes i n Smedda len w e re f o und i n ar oad s u rvey . T he

d uc t ive a c t iv i t ie s a nd a n e x tended g eog raph ic e xp lo i ta t ion

i n ve s t iga ted a r ea t hus r ep re sen t s a n a r b i t ra ry l i ne t h rough

b a se ( "a l t i tuda le xpan s ion" i sd ea l tw i th i n al a te rc hap te r ) .

t h e t r ac t t h a t s t re tche s f r om Smedda lsva tn i n Lxrda l t o

T he s ma l l ,d i spe r sed L a te B ronze Age s i te ss ugge s tt h a tt h e

V ikada len i nÄ rda l . T he w ho le a r ea h a s b een e xp lo i ted a s

v a l ley w a sg razed l e ss i n ten s ive ly t h an l owe rl y ing p a s tu re s

p a s tu r es i nh i s tor ica lt ime s , a nd modern s h ie l ing s a r ep l en -

—a sw a st h ec a se f o rh i s tor ica lu se . T he v a l ley w a sp e rhap s

t i fu l : Smedda len , B ru se s to len , S lu ten , O sen a nd F i l les t0 -

r e la t ive ly mo re i mpo r tan t a s as t ag ing g round f o r h un t ing

l e n . I r on A ge h ouse s i te s w e re d i scove red i nt h ei mmed ia te

e xped i t ions . B e rda len c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r s ho r t term

v i c in i ty o fs i tes 2a nd 1 39 B uhaugene i n Smedda len ( 920 m

s umme r p a s tu re s i nc on junc t ion w i th n e ighbor ing F ossda -

a . s . 1 ) ( K r is tof f e r sen 1 992 ) . A Me so l i th ic a nd aN eo l i th ic 1

l e n , A vda len a nd t h e h i l l s i de s u p f r om t h e f j o rd .

s i te a r es u rveyed o no t he ro cca s ion s .T he f i nd sd emons t ra te L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge u se o f Smedda len , a nd o f f e rs ome w eak q ua l i ta t ive e v idence o fc ommon l o ca t ion o f

F o s sda l en

s i te s f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze A ge t ot h e p r esen t —

A rchaeo log ica l s u rvey s h ave n o t b een c onduc ted i nF o ss -

b u t a l so b efo re .

d a len i nt h e s ame manne r a s i nV ikada len a nd B e rda len . T he s u rveys h ave n o t c ove red m a jo r s e c t ion s o ft h e v a l ley a nd t h ey d id n o t emp loy s y s tema t ic t e s tp i t t ing . T hey c on -

C ommen t s o nt h e l o ca t iona le v id ence f rom N y se t -S t egg j e

c en t ra ted o n v i s ib le s u r face s t ruc tu re s . L a te N eo l i th ic t o P re -Roman f i nd s a r e t h us " acc iden t s o fi n ve s t iga t ion" o n I r on A ge s i te s .

S u i tab le p a s tu re sr ep re sen t as t rong s e t t lemen tl o ca t ing f a c -

I n h i s to r ica l t ime s , p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s h ave c en te red

t o r i nt h e l ow -a lp ine z one , p robab ly a l ready f r om t h e L a te

a round t wo s po t s i nF o ssda len . T he Me l se te s h ie l ing ( 723

N eo l i th ic a nd c l ea r ly i n t h e L a te B ronze A ge . A s im i la r

ma . s . 1 . ) h a s b een i nu se u n t i l r e cen t ly , b u t n o a r chaeo log -

c o r re la t ion i sn o t f ound i n r e la t ion t o t h e Me so l i th ic o r

i c a l e xcava t ion s h ave b een c onduc ted h e re . O ld p i c tu res o f

N eo l i th ic 1p e r iod s . F u r the rmo re , h un t ing c on t inued t ob e

Me l se te ( Sagen 1 971 :269 )d emon s t ra te t h ed eva s t ing e f f ec t

a n i mpo r tan t s phe re o fp roduc t ion .

d a i ry f a rm ing c an h ave o n a r bo rous v ege ta t ion . 5 0 y ea r s

T he c l a ss ica lw e s ter n -No rweg ian s t udy o fs pa t ia l -ch ron -

a go t h ea r ea w a sc omp le te ly d ef o res ted .T oday ,b i rch t h ick -

o l og ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t s a nd a gr icu l tu re i sb y E g i l

e t s make p a ssage t h rough t h e l owe r r e ache s o f t h e v a l ley

B akka ( Bakka & K a land 1 971) .F o re a s tern N o rway , s eve r -

d i f f icu l t .T he o t he ra r ea i st e rmed " Fo ssda len" .R ef e rence s

a l s t ud ie s h ave c ove red L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age

t o as h ie l ing h e re , 9 25 m a . s . l . a r ef ound i ne t hno -h i s tor ica l

p r ef e rence sf o rl i gh te rs o i lt ype sa l ong t h eg l ac ia l mo ra ines

s ou rce s ( Sagen 1 971 :268 , S o lhe im 1 952 :285 j ) . S tand ing

( "Ra") ( s ee H agen 1 987 f o r ar e cen tr e v iew ) . G ene ra l iz ing

h ou se f ounda t ion s a t te s t t o s e t t lemen t i n h i s to r ica l e r a s .

B akka ' sr e su l t ,t h e ma in i d ea i st h a ts e t t lemen ts h if ted f r om

S t ruc tu re sd a ted t ot h eI r on A ge s ugge s tt h a tt h eg raz ing o f

o p t ima l h un t ing a r ea s , t oo p t ima l a g r icu l tu re a r ea s . I ft h e

t h e r i ch v ege ta t ion h a s l o ng t r ad i t ion s .

i d ea a nd m e thod f r om B akka 's s t udy i sa pp l ied o nt h es ame

T he s i te 1 22 /k59 c ha rcoa l p i t w a s f ound u nde r a n I r on

l a rge s ca le t oÄ rda l , t h e a na ly s is i so bv iou s ly i n app ropr i -

Age s t ruc tu re 1 22a a nd 1 4C -da ted t ot h e L a te B ronze Age

a t e . T he d i s t r ibu t ion map w ou ld s how ma rk ing s f o rn ea r ly

( P&S c a l ib ra ted v a lue so fT -7163 : 9 90 -820 B .C . ) . N o a r te -

a l l p o s t -g lac ia l p ha se s c l us te red t o ge the r . I f amo re i n te r -

f a c t s w e re f o und i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h ep i t . H oweve r , d u r -

m ed ia te t om ic ro leve l o fs t udy i sa s sumed , a nd t h e m ixed

i ng t h ee xcava t ion o ft h eI r on A ge s t ruc tu res a t1 22a /b , 1 25

n a tu r e o f e nv i ronmen t , s ub s i s tence a nd e conomy i st a ken

p i ece s o f d eb i tage w e re r e cove red . 6 5 o f t h e se w e re f l in t

i n to a ccoun t , ad i f f e ren t p a t te rn a r i ses . A t t h e s ame t ime ,

( 52% ) , a nd 2 2 o f t h e f l in t p i ece s h ad c r u sh ing s ca r s , a nd

t h e a dop t ion o f ap a s to ra l s t ra tegy i nt h e l owe r a nd a l p ine

p robab ly o r ig ina ted f r om s t r ik e -a l igh t s . T he r ema inde ro f

z one s d oes n o te xc lude h un t ing . T he i d ea i nB akka 's s t udy

t h e d eb i tage w a s q ua r tz i te , q ua r tz a nd j a spe r . N o f o rma l

i st h us v a l id ,t h ough t h es ca le o fa pp l ica t ion a nd t h ed i cho t -

t oo l s w e re r e cove red . I tc ou ld b e r e a sonab ly a r gued t h a t

om ized v i ew o f a g r icu l tu re /pa s to ra l i sm v e r su s h un t ing /

s ome o f t h e l i t h ic s r e p re sen t ap ha se o lde r t h an t h e l i on

g a the r ing i si n app rop r ia te .

Age s t ruc tur es , a nd p o s s ib ly c ame f r om B ronze A ge c on t e x t s .

9 2

9 3

9 4

M e iers t o I r on A ge o r m odern 8 00 s i te

• •

: 3 • 4

6 00

4 00

3 4 ; M • 1« i•

4+4

4.

4 .

1 -

4.

2 00 4 4

mil

> .

4 4

> $ 6 : 4.

4.

M eso lith ic &N eo l . 1 I M M ILa te N eo p& B r . A ge

2 7 5 0a 8 6 3 2 5 1 -1 8 4 3 1 0 9 4 9 8 9 2 2 9 6 8 8 3 4 1 2 8 3 1 4 7 1 0 7 1 0 2 4 8 9 2 9 3 9 1 9 3 S ite n umber F ig . 2 0 . N y se t -S t egg j e . G raph ic e xpr e s s ion o fd i s tance sf rom a )L a t e N eo l i th ic t oe ar ly P r e -Roman s i te s ( s o l id ) a nd b ) Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic 1s i te s ( h a tched ) t oI r on A ge t or e cen ts h ie l ing h ou se s . B a sed o n t a b le s 1 5a nd 1 6 .

SUBSISTENCE & SKR IVARHELLEREN

d eep s t ra t if ied d epo s i t s w a s a n i mpo r tan t m e thodo log ica l

S kr ivarhe l ler en h a s q ua l i t ie s t h a t d if er f rom t h e N y se t -

f e a tu re c ompa red t o t h e Ny se t -S tegg je s i tes . A rchaeo log -

S t egg j e s i te s . I ti sl o ca t ed i n as ub -a lp ine e nv ironmen t , a nd

i c a l m a ter ia l , f i nd c ond i t ions a nd p lan t r ema ins f r om S k r i -

t h e a s semb lage s a r e n o t c omp le t e ly d om ina t ed b y l i t h ic s .

v a rhe l le ren a r e p ub l ished i n as epa ra te r epor t ( P re sco t t

A par tf rom a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , t h e s i te h a s y i e ld ed l a rge

1 991b , S o l tved t 1 991) . T he b one ma te r ia l i so f p a r t icu la r

a s semb lages o fo s t eo log ica lm a t er ia la nd s ome p lan tm a t er i -

i n te re s t h e re . P re l im ina ry s pec ie s l i s t s a r e t a bu la ted a nd

a l . T h i s e v id ence p rov id e s av a luab le o ppor tun i ty f or t h e e x -

t a b le s a r ep ub l ished . T he s pec ie sl i s t s u sed i nt h ef o l low ing

p lora t ion o fs ub s i s t ence a nd e conomy i n am anner p r ev iou s ly

a r eb a sed o nd a ta f r om Z oo log isk mu seum i nB e rgen w h ich

n o tp o s s ib le .

a r e p r ev ious ly s umma r ized i n p ub l i shed t a b les ( P re sco t t 1 991a , u pda ted l i s t s i n 1 993 ) . T he s epe ra t ion o fL a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r s V I a nd V I I I i sb a sed o n t h e u npub l ished s pe -

S ub s i s tence e v idence f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren e ncompa ssed

c i e s l i s t wh ich t h e a bove t a b le s s umma r ize .

f ew o f t h e i n d i rec t s ou rce c a tego r ies f ound i n N yse t S t egg je . S pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s ,p a lyno logy a nd t h er ep re sen t a t ive n a tu r e o f a n i n ten s ive s u rvey c an n o t b e u sed i ni n -

B one , t o o th a nd a n t l er a s s our ce ma t er ia l

t e rp re t ing t h e S k r iva rhe l le ren d a ta . N o d e ta i led s urvey s

A n i mpo r tan t f a c to r i ne va lua t ing t h e r e covery o f b one a t

w e re c onduc ted i n Moa /Tyeda len , t h ough s uch i nve s t iga -

S k r iva rhe l le ren , a nd t h e reby r ep re sen ta t iv i ty , i st h a ta l l s o i l

t i ons w ou ld h ave b een b enef ic ia l . A t N yse t -S tegg je t h e

ma sses w e re w a te r -s ieved t h rough t wo a nd f ou r mm m e sh -

c ompa ra t ive f ounda t ion f o r i n terp re t ing s eve ra l d a ta -ca te -

e s . A ne f fo r tw a s made t oc o l lec ta l lb one f r om t h e se s i eve s .

g o r ies , s uch a s p o l len d a ta , w a s w eak . I tw ou ld t h e ref o re

P re serva t ion c ond i t ion s w i th in t h e r o ck s he l te rw e re g ene r -

h ave b een o fm e thodo log ica l i n te re s tt oc ompa re t h e d i rec t

a l ly e xce l len t ,t h ough d e te r io ra t ion w a s a ppa ren ti n am ino r

e v idence f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren w i th r e su l t s f r om o t he r i n -

p ocke t s . B one f r om l a ye r I I w a s p a r t icua r ly f r agmen ted ,

d i rec t s ou r ce c a tegor ies s uch a s s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd

p robab ly d ue t op o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce sse s . T hough t h e re

p o l len ma ter ia l . F o r tuna te ly , t h e l a nd scape a r ound S k r iva r -

i sn o a na lys is o f s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion s , i n t h e f i e ld i tw a s

h e l ler en i sr e la t ive ly u nd i s tu rbed . S u rvey s , s pa t ia l a na lyse s

n o ted t h a t b one s w e re c oncen t ra ted a l ong t h e w a l ls . I ti s

a nd p o l len r e sea r ch c an t h e refo re b e d one i nt h e f u tu re .

a r gued t h a t t h e b one s w e re d i sca rded t h e re . La rge f r ag -

T he S k r iva rhe l le ren a s semb lage sh ad a bundan te v idence

m en t s w ou ld c once ivab ly b e c on sequen t ly r emoved f r om

i n o the r w ay s , l a rge ly b ecause o f f o r tu i tous p reserva t ion

a c t iv i ty z ones t h an s ma l le rb one s .T he l a t te rw ou ld g ene ra l -

a nd d a t ing c ond i t ions . T he f a c t t h a t S k r iva rhe l le r en h ad

l ys imp ly b e d ropped . S uch r e a son ing i sa na logou s t oB in 9 5

p loyed i n S k r iva rhe l leren mak e i to ne o f t h e mo s t w e l l -

f o rd 's " d rop z one" a nd " to s s z one" ( B info rd 1 988 :153f ) . L a rge b one s w ou ld t e nd t ob e b e t te r r e p re sen ted . S pec ie s

s u i ted p re -h is tor ic s i te s i nN o rway f o ra na ly s is o f ma te r ia l

r ep re sen ta t ion c ou ld a l so b e a f f ec ted . F u r thermo re , t h e re

t h a t i sn o t s e lf -da t ing . T h is p e r ta in s t o t h e b one a s w e l l .

w a s p robab ly a " f i l te r ing e f ec t" b ecau se o f d i f f e ren t ia l

S t i l l i tmus tb e ap r ior ia s sumed t h a ts ome b one f i nd s w e re

t r an spo r ta t ion o fb one t ype s a nd s pec ie s t ot h e s he l te r . F o r

a s s igned t ol a ye r s t h a t t h ey w e re n o t o r ig ina l ly d epo s i ted

e xamp le , s ome b ones o fl a rge mamma ls k i l led a t ad i s tance

i n . I n s t ra t if ied r o ck s he l te r d epos i t s t h e re w i l l b e h uman

f r om t h e r o ck s he l te r w e re p robab ly l e f t a tt h e b u tche r ing

a nd n a tu ra l ly c ond i t ioned d epo s i t iona la nd p o s t -depos i t ion -

s i te . T he re w a se v idence o ff u ra nd p e l tp rocu remen ti nt h e

a l movemen t b e tween l a ye r s . S uch p rob lem s c an b e b a l -

b one a s semb lage s . B one f r om s pec ie s n o t c on sumed f o r

a nced b yl a rge s amp le s . A l so ,t h er e p re sen ta t iv i ty o fi d en t i -

f ood , w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een u nde r rep re sen ted o n t h e

f i ed t r end s w i l l b e g rea te r i n al a rge b one a s semb lage .

s i te . O n ly s e lec ted p a r t s o f t h e p rey w ou ld h ave b een

A ccep tab le s i ze i sp a r t ia l ly r e la t ive , a nd s t anda rd s c an b e

b rough t t o S k r iva rhe l le ren , a nd e ven l e s s w ou ld c ome t o

s e t a r b i t ra r i ly . I n S k r iva rhe l le ren , t h e b one s r ep resen t o ne

r e s to n ad ome s t ic s i te l i ke S k r iva rhe l le ren .

o ft h el a rge s ta nd b e s tp re ser ved d a tab le ,p reh is to r ic c o l lec -

T he re a r e n ume rou s s ou rce -cr i t ica l p rob lem s i nt h e i n -

t i on si nS ou thern N o rway . T he mo s tp ronounced r ep re sen -

t e rp re ta t ion o ft h eS k r iva rhe l le ren b one a sr ep resen ta t ive .I t

t a t iv i ty p rob lems a r e f ound i nr e la t ion t ol a ye r XV , a so n ly

i sc l ea r f r om t h e s t ra t ig raphy s e c t ion o ft h e e xcava t ion r e -

ah andfu l f r agmen t s w e re i d en t if ied t ot h e l e ve l o fs pec ie s

p o r t t h a t t h e l a ye r s ' n a tu re a nd h i s to ry v a r ied . T he re w e re

( t ab le 1 9 , 2 0&2 1) . T he s ame a r gumen t may p a r t ia l ly p e r -

a l so p rob lem s r oo ted i nv a r ia t ion i nh uman b ehav iou r , t h a t

t a in t ot h e I r on Age l a ye r s .

s hou ld b ee xpec ted t oh ave l e ad t ov a r iab le d epos i t ion p roc e s ses .T he re w e re a l so h uman a nd n a tu ra lp o s t -depo s i t iona l

Hun t ing a nd h erd ing : T he b one ma t er ia l

a genc ies t h a tm igh t s e lec t ive ly a f f ec t a n a s semb lage . A r t i -

I nt h is s e c t ion , b one ma ter ia l f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren w i l l b e

f a c ta s semb lage s , s ed imen ts t ruc tu re sa nd s ed imen tq uan t i -

a na lyzed d i ach ron ica l ly . L ook ing f i r s ta tt h eg roup l e ve l o f

t i e sv a r ied f r om l a ye rt ol a ye r . T h is i nd ica te st h ev a l id i ty i n

i d en t if ica t ion ( t ab le 2 2 ) i ti s c l ea r t h a t mamma ls w e re

a s sum ing a c t iv i ty -cond i t ioned v a r ia t ion s i n t h e s ed imen t

p redom inan t . B ird s , f o l lowed b y f i sh , r ep re sen t l e s se r

g enes i s . T he re w a s a n u nknown d eg ree o f v a r ia t ion a s t o

g roup s i n a l l c on tex t s . I n te res t ing ly , f ow l a nd f i sh w e re

wh ich b one s w e re d epo s i ted i n t h e e xcava ted a r ea . T he

s ca rce i n t h e I r on A ge a nd Med ieva l a s semb lages . T h is

d epo s i t ion o fb one w a s e xpec ted t ov a ry i nr e la t ion t ot h e

o b serva t ion i sp robab ly v a l id b ecau se o ft h es i ze o ft h es i ze

f unc t iona l n a tu re o f as i te . B one w a s u ndoub tab ly d i sca rd -

o ft h e I r on Age a s semb lage . T he ref o re o ne c ou ld c onc lude

e d o u t s ide t h e r o ck s he l ter a nd d ecompo sed . P o s t -depo s i -

t h a t L a te N eo l i th ic t oe a r ly P re -Roman s ub s is tence , a sf a r

t i ona l f r ac t ion ing , t h rough t r amp l ing a nd b urn ing , w ou ld

a sa n ima l sa r ec once rned ,w a sd er ived f r om l a rge t e r re s t r ia l

h ave e spec ia l ly d e s t royed s ma l l b one s d ropped o n t h e l i v -

mamma l s , a nd s upp lemen ted b y ma r ine mamma l s , h a re ,

i n g a nd a c t iv i ty s pace s . T he p ro tec ted z one u nde rt h e s he l -

f i sh a nd f ow l .

t e r h a s f u r the rmo re p robab ly b een r educed t h rough t h e

T he t a b les 1 9 t o2 1 s how t h a t aw ide r ange o f s pec ie s

y ea r s . B one l a den s ed imen t s w e re t h e reby e xpo sed t o t h e

f r om ma r ine , l ow land , s ub -a lp ine a nd a l p ine e nv i ronmen t s

e l emen t s a nd d ecompos i t ion w a s e nhanced . F ina l ly , o n ly a

w e re e xp lo i ted . T hese t a b le s a l so d emon s t ra te t h a t b o th

s e c t ion o ft h er o ck s he l te rw a s e xcava ted , s o o t he rp a r t s o f

w i ld a nd d ome s t ica ted s pec ies ( s heep , g oa t s , c a t t le a nd ,

t h e s he l te r may c on ta in n ew s pec ie s , o r y i e ld a d i f f e ren t

f r om t h e L a te B ronze Age , p ig s ) w e re c on sumed f r om t h e

q uan t i ta t ive c onf igura t ion t h an a s semb lage s a na lyzed s o

f i r s t s e t t lemen t i n t h e s he l te r a nd s i nce . T he r e w e re t h e

f a r .T hese p rob lem sc anno tb ea dequa te ly a dd re ssed i np o s -

b road c a tego r ies o f s t ock k eep ing a nd h un t ing / t rapp ing .

i tve t e rm s w i th i nt h e l im i t s o f t h e p re sen t s t udy , b u t a r e

T he h un t ing & t r app ing s e c to r c an b e s ub -d iv ided . T he re

p o in ted o u ta sp o s s ib le s ou rce c r i t ica l f a c to r s . Mo re e x ten -

w a s " exped i t iona l" , p l anned r e indee r a nd p e rhap s s e a l

s i ve e xcava t ion s , s ed imen t a na lys i s a nd e xcava t ion o u t s ide

h un t s , a nd t h e re w a s " oppo r tun is t ic" , o rc on s tan t , t r app ing

t h e s he l te r w ou ld c once ivab ly s hed mo re l i gh t o n t h ese

a nd h un t ing o fl e s sg r ega r iou s s pec ie sa r ound S k r iva rhe l le -

p rob lem s .

r e n a nd o t he r s e t t lemen t s . S pec ie s s u ch a s h a r e , f ow l , f i sh

T he p rob lem s i n he ren ti nt h e a na lys i s o fa n o s teo log ica l

a nd p e rhap s d ee r w ou ld h ave b een i nt h e l a t te r c a tego ry .

a s semb lage a r e d e te rm in ing t h e n umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls , t h e

T he s ma l l g ame h un t ing w a s c once ivab ly b a sed o n t r aps

u nknown s pec ie s t h a t mak e -up t h e " no t -de te rm ined c o -

a nd s na re s , wh ich w ou ld l e ave v i r tua l ly n o a r chaeo log ica l -

l umn" a nd i d en t if ica t ion r e l iab i l i ty . S uch p rob lem s a nd

l yd i scernab le t r ace s . I ti si mpo r tan tf o ru nde r s tand ing s pa -

f a c to r s p l ace l im i ta t ions o n t h e v a lue o f t h e b one a s sem -

t i a l d i s t r ibu t ions i n I nne r S ogn , t h a t t h e " exped i t iona l"

b l age s , e spec ia l ly a s aq uan t i ta t ive s ou rce ma te r ia l . Age ,

h un t ing w ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace a td i s tances f r om S k r iva r -

s ex a nd n u t r i t ion -s ize a na ly s is w ou ld p robab ly p rov ide a

h e l le ren — o n t h e f j o rd a nd i na l p ine moun ta in s . S i te s d i -

much mo re p owe r fu li n terp re ta t ive f undamen t . S oph is t ica t -

r e c t ly r e la ted t o " exped i t iona l h un t s" w ou ld h ave b een l o -

e d a pp ra i sa l o f t h e se p rob lem s mus t b e c onduc ted b y a

c a ted i n e nv ironmen t s a way f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren . T he

s pec ia l is t . T h is w i l l h opefu l ly b e d one i n t h e f u tu re . F o r

l i t h ic p o in t ma ter ia l f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren ( a nd i n deed N y -

n ow , t h ough , t h is s t udy w i l l t r y t oa dd re s s t h e s pec ie s l i s t s

s e t -S tegg je ) p rov ide s uppo r tf o rt h i s c onc lu s ion .

i nt h e c on tex t o fS k r iva rhe l le ren . Af i na l s ou rce c r i t ica l n o te a bou t t h e a bou t t h e s i ze a nd c on tex tua l q ua l i ty o f t h e b one a s semb lages s hou ld b e

C ompar i son s

made . T he s t ra t ig raphy a nd e xcava t ions t e chn ique s e m -

T he s pec ie s l i s t s s ugge s tt h a tt h e re w e re c h rono log ica l v a r 9 6

r ep re sen t b e tween at h i rd a nd af i f th o f t h e f r agmen t s . A

i a t ion s i nt h er e la t ive i mpo r tance o fs e ve ra l s pec ie s ( t ab le s 1 9 , 2 0 &2 1) , t h ough i ti sa ppa ren tt h a ts ome s pec ie s w e re

w o rk ing h ypo thes is i s t h a t t h e u n iden t if ied a r t ioda c ty le

c ons i s ten t ly p r e sen t i n r e la t ive ly l a rge n umbe r s t h rough

b one s w ou ld b r eak d own i n to g roup s p ropo r t iona te t ot h e

l o ng t ime s pan s . T he se w e re h a re , r e indee r , c a t t le , s heep /

d e te rm ined a r t iodac ty le s pec ie s —i fmo re a ccu ra te i d en t if i -

g oa t , p t a rm igan , t r ou t / sa lmon ( s a lmon idae ) a nd , t o al e sse r

c a t ion w a s p o s s ib le . P e rcen tage s o ft h e n umbe r o fd ome s -

e x ten t , s ea l . I ti sn o t as imp le t a sk t oe va lua te f u r the r wha t

t i ca ted , w i ld a nd n o t -de term ined a r t iodac ty le b one f r ag -

d eve lopmen t s c an b e r e ad f r om t h e e v idence . E ven i fi ti s

men t s a r e a l so i lu s t ra ted i nt h e f i g . 2 1 . I nt h e o l de s t L a te

a s sumed t h a t ar ep resen ta t ive s amp le w a s d epo s i ted , p re -

N eo l i th ic l a ye r ( V I I I ) t h e re a r e a bou te qua l p ropo r t ion s o f

s e rved a nd c o l lec ted ,i ti sn o tk nown h ow many i nd iv idua ls

t h et h ree g roup s . Y ounge rl a ye r s a r e d om ina ted b y d ome s -

t h i s s amp le r e p re sen t s . A n a t temp t a tq uan t i ta t ive a na ly s is

t i ca te s ,p e rhap sw i th t h ee xcep t ion o ft h eE a r ly B ronze Age

c an b e c onduc ted i ft h ef o l low ing o pe ra t iona l p rem i se s a r e

l a ye r XV . L aye r XV i s , h oweve r , r ega rded w i th s ome r e -

a ccep ted : 1 )

s e rve . I ta ppea r s t ob e a n " a rchaeo log ica l e p isode" ( P res -

T ha t t h e s amp le c o l lec ted w a s r e p re sen ta t ive f o r wha t

c o t t 1 991b :34 ) , a nd i nn ume r ica l t e rm s t h e b one s amp le i s

w a s b rough ti n to t h e s he l te r . 2 )

s ma l l ( 2 5 f r agmen t s ) a nd t h e ref o re o fl im i ted c ompa ra t ive

T ha t t h e c o l lec ted s amp le ( a nd w ha t e nded u p i nt h e

v a lue . T he h igh l e ve l o f n on -de term ined a r t iodac ty le s i n

s he l te r ) w a s a l so r e p re sen ta t ive f o rw ha t w a s a c tua l ly

l a ye r I I i sp robab ly t h e r e su l t o f h eavy m echan ica l f r ag -

c on sumed a sm ea t . T h is p rem i se mu s tb e mod if ied a l -

m en ta t ion .O the rf i nd c a tegor ie sf r om t h el a ye re xh ib i ts im -

r e ady f r om t h e s t a r t , b ecau se i ti sa l so a s sumed t ha t

i l a r d amage ( P re sco t t 1 991b :34 , 6 1 , 8 3 ) . I n ad i ach ron ica l

s e conda ry p roduc t s w e re c on sumed a nd t h a t a n ima ls

p e r spec t ive , i ti si n te re s t ing t h a t t h e i d en t if ied b one f r ag -

t r apped f o r p e l t s a nd f u r s w e re u nde r -rep resen ted i n

m en t s f r om t h eI r on A ge d epo s i ta r e d om ina ted b y d omes -

t h eb one ma te r ia l . 3 )

t i ca ted s pec ie s . F igu re 2 1 d emon s t ra tes t h a t i n a n i n i t ia l

T ha t o ne f r agmen te qua te s o ne i n d iv idua l .

L a te N eo l i th ic ( I ) p ha se , b one s o f w i ld a nd d ome s t ica ted l a rge mamma l s w e re e qua l ly c ommon . I nl a te rp e r iod s , a s o ft h e L a te N eo l i th ic I , d ome s t ica te s w e re mo re c ommon ,

T he r e la t ive e conom ic a nd s ubs is ten t ia li mpo r tance o fe ach

a nd p robab ly t h e p r ima ry a n ima lr e sou rce .

s pec ies i si mpo r tan t . T he re i sn o d i rec t m e thod o f d e te r -

C a lcu la t ion o ff r agmen tp e rcen tages d oe sn o tn ece s sa r i ly

m in ing t h i sf r om n umbe ro fb one s o ri n d iv idua l s . G ene ra l -

r e f lec t t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o ft h e s pec ie s d i scu s sed , a s

l y , i nd iv idua l s i ze a nd f a t -con ten t w i l l v a ry i nr e la t ion t o

i nd iv idua l s i ze s v a ry s og rea t ly . A l so , w e igh tv a lue sw i th in

a ge , s e x a nd s e a son ( f o r e xamp le S p ie s s 1 979 :27f ) . T he

as pec ie sv a r ie s a nd c hange s . We igh ts t anda rds mu s tt h e re -

e x ten tt o wh ich ac a rca s si se xp lo i ted c an v a ry . An e xamp le

f o re b er ega rded a sa r b i t ra ry v a lue s t h a tp rov ide as t anda rd

o f t h i s p rob lem i st h a t i ti sd i ff i cu l t t og ene ra l ize h ow a

f o rc ompa r i son . Odne re s t ima ted t h er e la t ive s i ze o fs e ve ra l

r e indee r c a rca ss w ou ld b e e xp lo i ted i n an on -a rc t ic e nv i -

s pec ie s ( Odne r 1 972 :632f ) , l a rge ly b a sed o n a modern ,

r onmen t . A na log ie s b a sed o n I nu i t p rac t ices w ou ld p rob -

N orweg ian n u t r i t ion t a b le (M er ing sm idd e l tabe l l 1 961) . H i s

a b ly b e i n adequa te . F u r the rmo re , s e conda ry p roduc t s p ro -

e s t ima te s a r ep re sen ted i nt a b le 2 4 . O dne r 's c a lcu la t ion f o r

d uc t ion e a s i ly g i ve s r e turn s t h a t o u t s t r ip a n a n ima l 's mea t

r e indee ri sb a sed o nS k jennebe rg ' se s t ima te o f mean w e igh t

v a lue . H oweve r , s pec ie sl i s t sc anno ts upp ly d i rec te v idence

f o r b u tche red c ow s a nd b u l ls ( Sk jenneberg 1 965 ) . O dne r

o f as e conda ry p roduc t s b a s is , o r t h e s p ec if ic c on ten t o fa

r e duced S k jennebe rg 's f i gu re s l igh t ly t oa ccoun tf o rc a lve s

s e conda ry p roduc t s s t ra tegy i n ag i ven c a se . G reenf ie ld 's

( Odne r 1 969 :80 f ) . H i s e s t ima te s f o rr e indee rp robab ly r ep -

( 1989 ) a nd H a r r ison ' s ( 1985 ) c omp lex d i scu ss ion s o f s e c -

r e sen t t h e a n ima ls i n t h e o p t ima l h a lf o f t h e y ea r . S t i l l ,

o nda ry p roduc t s s t ra teg ie s i nr e la t ion t os pec if ic b one a s -

e s t ima t ing t h e n u t r i t iona l v a lue i sc omp l ica ted . F o r e xam -

s emb lages i lu s t ra te s t h ep rob lem .

p l e ,t h ei mpo r tan tf a c to ro ff a tc on ten tv a r ie s a l ong l i ne so f

T he i n f luence o f " ex te rna l" f a c to r s —s uch a s e nv i ron -

s ex , a ge a nd s e a son ( Sp ie ss 1 979 :26f ) .

m en ta l f l uc tua t ion s —c anno t b e a dd re s sed a dequa te ly i n

A n i d ea o f t h e r e levance o f O dne r 's f i gu res c an b e a t -

t h i sp aper .T he s ame i st r ue o fd a ta o ni n terna lf a c to r s , s uch

t a ined b y e xam in ing o t he r w o rk s t h a t d ea l w i th s im i la r

a s a ge , s e x d imo rph ism , s i ze a nd g row th . T he se a r e a r ea s

p rob lem s . O dne r ' s 1 972 e s t ima te s o ft h eb u tche red w e igh t

f o r s pec ia l i s t s a nd c r o s s -d isc ip l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion s . S t i l l ,

f o r r e indee r d i f f e r s s l igh t ly f r om c ompa rab le d a ta i n t h e

a n i d ea o f t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f t h e s pec ie s c an b e

s t udy b y S p ie s s ' ( op . c i t . 2 7f , b a sed o n H a l l [ 1971 ] ) . T he

s ugge s ted b y c ompa r ing a r b i t ra ry v a lue s f o r e ach s pec ie s . T he v a lue s c an b e d e r ived f r om h i s to r ica l a nd mode rn

m ean w e igh t o f e d ib le f a t a nd m ea t f o r y oung a du l t s a nd

s ources , a nd e qua t ing e a ch f r agmen tw i th o ne i nd iv idua l .

ma tu re /o ld c a r ibou b y S p ie ss ' e s t ima te i s4 0 .5 k g . T h is i s

T ab le 2 3 d e s igna te s s pec ie s t h a t a r e a s sumed t o h ave

5 . 5 k g l e ss t h an t h e " ca lf -reduced" f i gu re b y Odne r . U nd -

b een t h e mos ti mpo r tan ts ou rce so fm ea t ,a nd t h a ta r ei nt h e

h e im h a s s t ud ied a n o s teo log ica l c o l lec t ion f r om Med ieva l

s ame g ene ra lo rde ro fs i ze . S pec ie s s u ch a sr e indee r ,c a t t le ,

c on tex t s r e cove red f r om D r a 3ggen i n B e rgen ( Undhe im

s heep a nd s e a l a r e i n c luded . Non spec ie s i d en t if ied a r t io -

1 985 :64 ) . H e s ugges ted t h is c onve r s ion t a b le f o r d omes -

d ac ty le s a r e i n c luded a s w e l l . S pec ies s u ch a s p ta rm igan ,

t i ca tes : 1c ow = 3p ig s = 6s heep /goa t s .T he s i ze o f Med ie -

h a re a nd f o x a r e n o t i n c luded . L ik ew i se t h e " no t -de te r -

v a lc a t t le , a sp ropo sed b yU ndhe im i sn ea r ly t w ice a sl a rge

m ined" c a tegory i si g no red . T he n umbe r s o f b one f r ag -

a st h e f i gu re u sed b y O dne r . U ndhe im ' s f i gure s may b e a n

m en t s w i th in t h e s e lec tg roup a r ec ompa red . A r t iodac ty les

e xp ress ion o fp r e -bu tche rw e igh t . 9 7

T ab le 1 9 . Mamma l ia f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren . B a sed o n u npub l ished d a taba se s i nH uf tha rnme r ( n .d . ) . D i s t inc t ion s i nt e x t a nd i n f i gu re s b e tween L a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r s V I a nd V I I I a r e b a sed o n u npub l ished d a taba se s . F rom P re sco t t 1 993 . MA M MAL IA

MA

BA /

I A

LBA / L P BA R/I A

MO

_ L epu s t im idu s , h a re

7 7

1

S c iurus v u lgar i s , s qu ir re l

EBA /

E BA

EBA 7 4

LN 1 33

2 2

LN

S um

1 045

1 362

1

1

C as tor f i be r ; b eave r

1

L emmu s l emmu s , l emm ing

1 6

6

R oden t ia , r oden t s

3 8

4 4

2 1

2 3

A lopex l a gopu s , a r c t ic f o x

1 4 8

2 1

5

2

1 38

2

2 64

3

5

C an idae , d og s / f oxes /wo lve s

2

2

U r su ss p . b ea r

1

Man e sm ane s , ma r ten

5

F e l idae , c a t s

1

P hoc idue , s ea l s

1

S u ss crof a , p i g

4

8

3

1 1

2

5

1

1 0

4 0

5

3 4

8

O v i s a r ies , s heep

8

2

1

O v i s a r ie s /Capra h i cu s , s heep /goa t

3 7

A r t iodac ty la , c l oven -f oo ted a n ima l s S pec ie s i nde t .

5 1 4

1 579

1

5 1

9 0

5 1

3 8

2 322

180

8

5 8

5 3 83

1 4

1 625

2 935

2 6 15

2 31

2 4

4 4

1

1 3

3 1 88

4 35

MA : Med ieva l .

I A : I r on A ge .

BA : B ronze A ge .

MO : Mode rn .

PR IA : P re -Roman .

LN : L a te N eo l i th ic .

8 4 43

3 9

1 93

4 2 1

1 2089

2 2620

1 1 384

5

1 25

2 366

1 S um

4

1

1 3

2 687

Homo s ap iens , man

4

1

2

8 8

1 3

1

1

C apra h i rcus , g oa t

6 5 4

1

B o s t a uru s , c a t t le

Abb r ev ia t ion s :

5 6

1

C erou s e l aphus , r ed -dee r R ang if er t a randu s , r e indee r

1 1 7

2 667

1 1 3885

3 2 5560

T ab le 2 0 .A ye sf r om S l c r iva rhe l le ren . B a sed o n u npub l i shed d a taba se s i nH uf thamme r ( n .d . ) . D i s t inc t ion s i nt e x t a nd i nf i gu res b e tween L a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r s V I a nd V I I I a r e b a sed o n u npub l ished d a taba se s . F rom P resco t t 1 993 . AVES

BA /

LBA /

E BA /

MO

PR IA

L BA

A nas p la tyrhyncho s , ma l la rd

EBA

EBA / LN

S um

1

1

C langu la h yema l i s , l o ng ta i led d uck

1

Mergu ss er ra ton r ed -b rea s ted me rganse r

1 1

L agopu ss p . , w i l low -g rou se /p ta rm igan

2 0

3 6

2 3

T e t raon idae , w i ld -fow l

9

1 3

P as ser if or rne s , p a sser ine b i rd

2

H irundo r u s t ica , s wa l low

1

9

1 64 1 4

1 4

4

1 3

1 04

1 52

2

1 2

S pec ie s i nde t . S um

2 72

4 1 2

T urdus p h i lome los , s ong t h rush

1

2 1

T urdus p i lar i s , f i e ldf a re L u sc in ia s vec ica , b lue th roa t

2

8

L yrurus t e tr ix , b l ack g rou se

Abb r ev ia t ion s :

LN

2 1

1

3

5 6

1 25

9 4

3 0

1 44

1 278

1 727

8 6

1 80

1 29

4 2

1 79

1 564

2 180

BA : B ronze Age .

MO : Mode rn .

PR IA : P re -Roman .

LN : L a te N eo l i th ic .

9 8

T ab le 2 1a .P i sce s b one f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren . B a sed o n u npub l ished d a taba se s i nH uf tha rnme r ( n .d . ) . D is t inc t ion s i nt e x t a nd i n f i gu re s b e tween L a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r s V I a nd V I I I a r e b a sed o n u npub l ished d a taba se s . F rom P re sco t t 1 993 . I A

P ISCES

BA J

LBA /

E BA /

MO

PR IA

LB A

C lupea h ar engu s , h er r ing

4 4

3 2

LN

LN

S um

5 9

1 62

2 2

1 7

2

6

3

G adus m orhua , c od

3

P o l lach iu s v i r ens , k oa lf ish

1

6 1

1

L abru s b erggy l ta , w ra s se S pec ie s i n de t . S um A bb rev ia t ion s :

EBA /

/

1 3

7 2

S a lmon idae , s a lmon s pec ie s

EBA

2

1

4 5

14

7 7

1 2

6 0

2 07

5 15

8 8

1 75

9 6

1 8

6 2

2 66

7 07

I A : I r on A ge .

BA : B ronze A ge .

P R IA : P r e -Roman .

LN : L a te N eo l i th ic .

MO : Mode rn .

T ab le 2 1b . Mo l lusca , G a s tropoda a nd E ch inod erma ta f r om S kr iva rhe l le ren . S pec ie s i d en t if ica t ion b y D r . H .P . S e jrup ( r epo r ted i nP re sco t t 1 99 1b : 107 ) . F rom P re sco t t 1 993 :158 . YBA

EBA /

( KT? )

YBA

EBA

SN

1

3

3

Mo l lu sca , u be s tem t

3 /

2 6

1 *

1 *

E ch inod erma ta , s j op innsv in S um

1

3

*I d en t if ied a tt h e Z oo log i sk Mu seum , B e rgen . YBA / (KT ) : L a te B ronze A ge ( P r e -Roman ) . E BA /YBA : E a r ly /La te B ronze A ge . EBA : E a r ly B ronze A ga . SN : L a te N eo l i th ic . U ten k on t . : N o c on t ex t .

9 9

3

4

3 3

3

/

2

G a s t ropoda , u bes . s neg l

S um

5 1

2

N uce l la l a p i l lus , p u rpu r sneg l

A bbr ev ia t ion s :

UTEN KONT .

2

3

My tu l i s e du l i s , b l ä sk je l l

SN

1

1

A r c t ica i s land ica , k usk je l l

EBA /

1

4 5

T ab le 2 2a . N umbe ro fb one f r agmen t s f ound i nt h e i nve s t iga ted l a ye r s i nS l c r iva rhe l le ren a tg roup l e ve l o fi d en t i f ica t ion . 1 f r agmen t s s a t if ied a s Amph ib ia , 1 6 1 1 f r om v e ry m ixed l a ye r s a nd 5 13 f r agmen s t f r om l a ye rI X a r e n o t i n c luded i nt h e t a b le . L aye r

V I I I

V I /V I I I

V I

D a te

LN ( I )

LN

LN I

V+

Mamm .

V

LN /EB A

V /XV

XV

EBA

EBA

I V

I I

S ec . 2

L BA /PR B a - Mo .

7 622

9 68

5 037

1 00

1 299

3 45

4 35

2 6 14

2 937

A ye s

5 72

5 7

9 35

3 8

9 8

4 0

4 2

1 80

8 6

Mam/A ve s

1 29

1 3

8 3

P i sce s

2 38

S um

8 561

1 1 039

2

6 8

0

0

3

1 625 0

1

2 8

1 2

1 3

3 7

1 8

1 75

1 08

6 083

1 52

1 478

4 22

4 95

2 972

3 132

V

V /XV

XV

I V

I I

EBA

EBA

8 2

8 8

S um

I A 2 2982 2 048

0

2 99

2

6 32

1 627

2 5961

T ab le 2 2b . V a lue s i nt a b le 2 2a e xp re ssed a sp e rcen tages . L aye r D a te Mamm . A ye s

V I I I

V I /V I I I

V I

LN ( I )

LN

LN I

8 9

9 3

V+

LN /EBA

8 3

6 . 7

5 . 4

Mam/A ves

1 . 5

1 . 2

P i sce s

2 . 7

9 5

1 5 .4 1 . 3

-

8 8

3 . 6

6 . 6

-

0 . 5

9 . 5

4 . 6

1 . 1

8 8

8 . 5

-

1

L BA /PR B oMo .

-

8 . 8

9 3 .8

6

I A 1 00

2 . 7

-

3 . 6

S ec . 2

-

5 . 9

-

3 . 4

-

T he l a ye rt e rmed "V+" i sm ixed w i th s ed imen t s f r om l a ye rV I . " Sec . 2 " i st h e u ppe re xcava t ion s e c t ion 2 . A bb r ev ia t ion s : LN = L a te N eo l i th ic , EBA = E a r ly B ronze A ge , LBA = L a te B ronze A ge , PR = P re -Roman I r on Age , I A =I r on A ge a nd Mo . = Modern .

T ab le 2 3 . T he r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f mamma l s i nt h e b one a s semb lage f r om S k r iva rhe l le r en , e xp re ssed a sp e r cen tage s o fb one f r agmen t s . R od en t ia , H omo , C an idae a nd U r su s a r e n o t i n c luded . P e r iod

LN ( I )

LN

LN2

L aye r

V I I I

V I /V I I I

V I

LN2 /EB A VN I

V

EBA XV

LBA (PR ) EBA IA L BA - Mo . I V

I L I J IV /XV

I I

I A S ec . 2

S pec ie s P hoc idae

1 .8

5 . 7

8

S u ss c rof a

1 . 4 0 . 6

C er vus e l aphus

0 . 6

R ang if er t a randus B o s t a uru s

0 . 9

2 3 .1

9 . 1

1 2 .7

3

1 4 .3

3 . 6

9 . 1

4 . 5

3

4 . 3

4

1 . 4

4

O v i sa r ie s

1 . 9

C apra h i rcus

0 . 4

6 . 5

1 . 4 3 2

1 . 1

2 6 5 . 2

4 .2

4 . 4

4 .2

1 . 8

2 . 2

0 . 6 1 . 3

O v i s/Capra

2 5 .5

5 4 .5

5 0 .9

5 4 .5

5 1 .4

3 2

3 3 .1

6 1 .4

3 3 .3

8 0 .4

A r t iodac ty la

3 2 .9

2 7 .2

2 9 .1

3 9 .4

2 1 .4

2 0

3 3 .1

2 8 .6

6 0 .5

1 0 .9

3 3

7 0

2 5

1 54

S amp le S i ze

4 71

2 2 9 . 1

13 1 5

7 0

14

4 6

W i ld

3 5 .6

3

2 1 .4

4 0

2 6

5 . 6

4 . 4

Dome s t ica te s

3 1

6 3 .6

5 6 .5

5 7 .5

5 7 .1

4 0

4 0 .8*

6 5 .6

3 5 .1

8 6 .9*

2 . 2

A r t iodac ty le s

3 2

2 7 .2

2 9 .1

3 9 .4

2 1 .4

2 0

3 3 .1

2 8 .6

6 0 .5

1 0 .9

*S u ss crof a i sa s sumed t ob e d ome s t ica ted . " Sec . 2 " i st h e u ppe re xcava t ion s e c t ion 2 . A bb rev ia t ion s : LN = L a te N eo l i th ic , EBA = E a r ly B ronze Age , LBA = L a te B ronze A ge , PR = P re -Roman I r on A ge , I A =I r on A ge a nd Mo . = Modern .

1 00

T ab le 2 4 . B u tche rw e igh t s f o ri mpo r tan ts pec ie s

v a l ley , t h e re a r e s ome s pa t ia l a spec t s t h a t e mpha s ize t h e

( b a sed o n O dne r 1 969 ) .

p a s to ra lc ha rac te ro fS k r iva rhe l le ren .T he se a r eb r ie f ly p re -

C a t t le :

1 25 k g

C a lve s :

3 0k g

s en ted h e re . T he r o ck s he l te ri si na na r ea w i th p ronounced

S h /goa t :

1 0k g

L amb /k id :

5k g

R e indee r :

3 5 k g

h i s to r ica l

H a r e :

1 . 75 k g

G rou se :

0 . 250 k g

a s soc ia t ion s

t o

s t ock -g raz ing

( F roy s tad

1 951 :96f ) . T he re a r e a l so s pa t ia l a s soc ia t ion s w i th I r on Age a nd modern s i te s . S l c r iva rhe l le ren w a s u sed t h rough t h e I r on Age . T h i s u sage w a s r e la ted t o s t ock k eep ing ( ba sed o n P re sco t t 1 991a ,b , 1 993 ) . F ur the rmo re , aL a te

A n e va lua t ion o fb u tche r w e igh t s ( t ab le 2 5 a nd f i gu re 2 2 )

I r on A ge /Med ieva l h ouse s i te w a s f ound o n t h e r i dge i m -

e xh ib i t st h e s ame g ene ra lp a t tern a sf i gu r e2 1 . D isc repancy

med ia te ly i nf r on t o ft h e s he l te r ( op . c i t . 12f ) . B a sed o n

b e tween t h ec u rve si nl a ye rI Ii sr e la ted t ot h eh igh l e ve lo f

a na log ies w i th o the r f i nd s i n I nne r S ogn ( B jo rgo e t a l .

n on -de te rm ined a r t iodac ty le s , a nd n o t ad r ama t ic r educ t ion

1 992 ,I nd re l id 1 988 , Magnu s 1 986 ) ,t h i sh ouse s i te mu s tb e

o f d ome s t ica te s . C ompa r ing b one f r agmen t f r equenc ie s

a s soc ia ted w i th e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e s p r ing a nd s umme rp a s -

w i th w e igh t r a t io s d emon s t ra te s t h a t a l though w eak ly r ep -

t u re s . F ina l ly , t h e re w e re s eve ra l mode rn s h ie l ing s i n t h e

r e sen ted b y b one f r agmen t s ,c a t t le a r ei mpo r tan tb yw e igh t

v i c in i ty ( Sagen 1 971 :268 , F rOys tad 1 951 :96 ) .

( c ompa re t a b le s 2 3 a nd 2 5 ) . T he t a b les a nd d i ag ram sd on o te xp re s sa ne xac tr e la t ion i lum ina te d i s t inc t t r end s . Ma rg ins a r e s i gn if ican t e nough

S econdary p roduc t s :g enera lc ommen t s t o as pec if i cc a se

t og i ve a no u t l ine o ft r end s , w i th r ea sonab le s e cu r i ty .I nt h e

Dome s t ica te s a r e p o ten t ia l s ou rce s o fo t he r a nd mo re i m -

L a te N eo l i th ic ( I ) , r ep re sen ted b y l a ye r V I I I , t h e re w a s a

p o r tan t p roduc t s t h an mea t . S econda ry p roduc t s , e . g . m i lk

s h ip t op reh i s tor ic p a s to ra l ism a nd h un t ing . H oweve r , t h ey

s t rong p a s to ra l s e c to r i n t h e e conomy , b u t w i ld s pec ie s

a nd d a i ry p roduc t s , a r e r epea ted ly h a rve s tab le . O the r p o -

w e re mo re s t rong ly r ep re sen ted . L a te r , r e p resen ted b y t h e

t e n t ia l s e conda ry p roduc t sc ou ld b eb lood , w oo l ,h a i r , t r a c -

y ounge r l a ye r s , d ome s t ica te s w ere g ene ra l ly mo re i mpo r -

t i on a nd t r anspo r ta t ion . F ind s f r om S l c r iva rhe l le ren ( So l t -

t a n t . T he re w e re d eve lopmen t s f r om L a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r s

v ed t 1 992 ) i nd ica te t h a tp a s to ra lp roduc t ion w a s c omb ined

V I I It oV I . L aye rV I I Im igh tr ep re sen tt h ei n i t ia l e s tab l ish -

w i th g ra in c u l t iva t ion a tl owe ra l t i tude s . I na ne nv i ronmen t

m en t o f ap a s to ra l e conomy , wh i le V I a nd l a te rl a ye r s r ep -

l i k e Ä rda l 's , s or i ch i nw i ld r e sou rce s , i ti sa rguab le t h a t a

r e sen t aw e l l -e s tab l i shed p a s to ra l a dap ta t ion a nd e conomy .

" seconda ry p roduc t s r e vo lu t ion" p rov ided t h e e conom ic

A l though p a s to ra l i sm w a s v i ta l i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

l og ic o fp a s to ra lp roduc t ion ( a sa r gued i nP re sco t ti np r e s s ) .

B ronze A ge , h un t ing a nd t r app ing w e re c l ea r ly s i gn if ican t

T he re a r ep rob lem si nu s ing h i s to r ica la nd modern d a i ry

a sw e l l . Ano the r i mpor tan t t r an s i t ion may b e i nd ica ted b y

f a rm ing a s as ou r ce o fa na logy . Mode rn c a t t le h ave s t ead i ly

t h e d om inance o f d ome s t ica ted s pec ie s i n t h e I r on A ge

i n c rea sed m i lk o u tpu t , a nd modern p roduc t ion i so u t o f

c on tex t .

p ropo r t ion

t o h i s to r ica l

o u tpu t p r .

c ow

( e .g .

R yde r

1 981 :388 f ) . F u thermo re , ac ruc ia l p roduc t ion f a c to r i ni n t e n s ive p roduc t ion i n t h e r e cen t e r a w a s a cce ss t o w in te r

P a s tora l i sm a nd c i r cum s tan t ia le v id ence

f odde r ( Sagen 1 971 :265 , s e e Hxre id & S agen 1 971 f o r

C i r cum s tan t ia l e v idence o fp a s to ra l i sm i nr e la t ion t oS kr i -

f odde rs ource si nÄ rda l ) . I ti sn o tk nown i ft h i sw a s al im i t -

v a rhe l le ren i so f m ino r i mpor tance c ompa red t o N y se t -

i n g f a c to r i nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic . I fi ti sa s sumed t ha t l a nd -

S t egg je . T hough t h e re w e re n o i n ten s ive s urveys i n t h e

u se w a s mo re e x ten s ive i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , aw in te r

T ab le 2 5 . T he r e la t ive b u tche rw e igh tv a lue sf o rt h e m o s tc ommon a n ima l s i nS l c r iva rhe l le ren , b a sed o nf i gu r e s a ts p ec ie s l e ve l o fd e t e rm ina t ion ( sma l lR od en t ia a r en o ti n c luded ) . Two c a lcu la t ion b a se s , r e spec t ive ly f r om O dne r 1 969 ( 0 c 1 ) a nd U ndhe im 1 985 ( Un ) , a r ec ompa red . T he u n i to fc a lcu la t ion i nt h e " Odne r -f igu r e" i st h ec a lcu la ted w e igh tf o rc a t t le . O dne rd oe sn o tp rov ide af i gu r ef o rp i g s , s o U ndhe im 's r e la t ive p r opo r t ion s a r eu sed . XV

I V

L aye r

V I I I

B a sed o n

O d . -

U n .

O d . -

U n .

O d . -

U n .

O d . -

U n .

B o s t a ur u s

1 7

1 7

5

5

3

3

1

1

V I

V

S u ss c rof a O v i s C apr a

1 0 .5

R ang ./C er

3 2

2 2

4 . 6

9 . 6

3

6

3 . 2

1

1 . 1

1

0 . 3

0 . 6

0 . 04

—

D ome s t ic . W i ld

3 8%

6 6%

6 0%

6 2%

4 4%

4 0%

2

3

6

9

2

1 3

2

8

3

0 . 5

U n .

0 . 3

4

I A -Sec .2

O d . -

8

1 . 5

F ow l

I I U n .

0 . 1 1

L epu s

1 0 1

O d . -

O d . -

U n .

0 . 3

1

3 1

6

1

0 . 1

4 6%

5 1%

8 2%

9 4%

5 3%

4 9%

1 8%

6 %

0 . 2

" crunch" m igh th ave b een a vo ided . T he re h ave b een t e n ta -

d i ve r se t o pog raph ic , v ege ta t iona l a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ions

t i ve r e po r t st h a tt h eb one sf ound i nS k r iva rhe l le ren a r er e la -

f o und i nI nne r S ogn .

t i ve ly l a rge , wh ich i nd ica te s g ene rou s n u t r i t iona l c ond i t i ons ( r ef er red i nP re sco t t 1 988 :30 ) .

W oo la nd p in s

S o , a dd re ss ing t h ep o ten t ia l o fs e conda ry p roduc t s i sn o t

O n ly v ege tab le f i be r s h ave b een f ound i nt h eN o r thern E u -

as imp le ma t te r ,a nd modern a na log ies a r ei n adequa te . S t i l l ,

r opean c on tex t st h a tp re -da te t h eL a te N eo l i th ic .T he o l des t

e xam in ing t h e p o ten t ia l f o rp roduc t ion o fd a i ry p roduc t s i s c oncep tua l ly

v a luab le ,

d esp i te a l l

f i nd o fw oo l s t emmed f r om t h el i n ing o ft h eW iepenka then

t h e m e thodo log ica l

f l in t d agge r ( Sher ra t t 1 983 :93 , J o rgensen 1 990 :8 ) . F rom

s ho r tcom ings . I tg i ves a n i mp re ss ion o ft h e s ca le o fi mpo r -

t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge , w oo len g a rmen t s w e re f ound i nt h e

t a nce t h a ts uch p roduc t sm igh th ave h ad . I ta l so a ccen tua te s

D an i sh o ak -coff in b u r ia ls ( Brond s ted 1 958 :63 / / ) . T he f i r s t

t h ef undamen ta li mpo r tance o fp a s to ra l ism i nL a te N eo l i th -

d i rec tN o rweg ian e v idence o fw oo len t e x t i le sw a sf r om t h e

i ca nd B ronze A ge e conomy . T he e xamp le s c ove red b e low

B ronze A ge . T he f i nd s , f r om g rave s i nJ ä sund i nS o la a nd

s e rve t oi lus t ra te t h er e la t ive p o ten t ia lo f as e conda ry p rod -

B lohe ia , A va ld sne s , w e re f r om t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge ( a p -

u c t s s t ra tegy c ompa red t o a" bu tche r" s t ra tegy . T he s ca le

p rox . 1 500 B .C . ) a nd w e re c ompa rab le t ot h e D an i sh o ak -

o fd i f f e rence i ss o g rea t , t h a t e ven t h ough i ti sn o t k nown

c off in f i nd s i n a ge a nd p roduc t ion t e chn ique ( Hougen

h ow much m i lk p reh is to r ic c ows , s heep a nd g oa t sp roduced

1 935 :59f ,J o rgensen 1 986 :15 , 2 38 , 1 991 :20 ) .

o rh ow e ff i c ien t ly as l augh te red a n ima l w a s u sed , t h e r e la -

T he re w e re n od i rec tf i nd so fw oo lf r om S k r iva rhe l le ren ,

t i ve p o ten t ia l i sc onveyed . A f ter r e v iew ing e v idence f r om

b u t t h e re w e re s ome o t he rc i rcum s tan t ia l i nd ica t ion s o fi t s

s evera l c a ses i n s ou thern N orway f r om l a te 1 700 t o t h e

p re sence , i na dd i t ion t ot h e s heep b ones t h em se lve s . T he re

b eg inn ing o ft h is c en tury , R e in ton s ugge s ted t h a t o n a ve r -

w e re s e ve ra l b one p in s . T he se h ave c ommon ly b een i n -

a ge ac ow p roduced a pp rox . 8" po t tar" m i lk ad ay w h i le a t

t e rp re ted a s i nd ica t ive o f t e x t i le g a rmen t s , a nd e spec ia l ly

t h e s h ie l ing ( Re in ton 1 961 :507 ) . H e c a lcu la ted a n a ve rage

w oo l ( H jä r thne r 1 975 :66 , H jä r thne r -Ho lda r 1 978 :243f ,

s h ie l ing v i s i tt o9 0d ay s .A" po t" w a sa cco rd ing t o Odne ra

P iggo t t 1 973 :104f f , P re sco t t 1 991a :44 , S he r ra t t 1 981 :283 ) ,

b i tl e s st h an al i t re ( Odne r 1 969 :70 ) ,t h us a pp rox . 7 00 l i t res

t h ough H jä r thne r -Ho lda r p o s tu la ted t ha t p in s c ou ld h ave

m i lk c ou ld h ave b een p roduced i nc onnec t ion w i th s umme r

b een u sed i nc on junc t ion w i th h o le s i nl e a the rg a rmen t s .

p a s tur ing . O fc ou r se t h e a nnua l t o ta l w a s g rea te r , a s ac ow

I fa n a s soc ia t ion b e tween c e r ta in p in t ype s ( e .g . S k r ivar -

p roduced i n t h e a u tumn a nd i n c onnec t ion w i th c a lv ing .

h e l le ren f n r . 2 3 ) a nd w oo l i sa ccep ted , t h e b one p i n s a r e

H jo r t a nd D ah l c i ted f i gu re s f r om moder n E a s t A f r ican

c i rcum s tan t ia l , a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o fp a s to ra l a dap ta -

h e rds t h a tw e re i nt h es ame r ange a nd u pt oa r ound 100 k g

t i on . T he p in mo rpho logy h a s aw ide r No r ther nE u ropean

p r . l a c ta t ion ( i . e d ur ing t h e r a iny s ea son ) ( H jo r t & D ah l

b ackg round ( P re sco t t 1 991a :70f , a l so t h is v o lume ) , a nd

1 976 :144 ) . T he p roduc t ion , a nd t h e a moun t o f m i lk d i s -

p e rhap s d emons t ra te s t h e C ha lco l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronze Age

p osab le f o rh uman c on sump t ion c an g ene ra l ly v a ry i nr e la -

b ackg round f o r d eve lopmen t o fw e s tern Norweg ian p a s to -

t i on t ot h e t ime o fb i r th f o r c a lve s . C ow m i lk c on ta ins a p -

r a l ism .

p rox ima te ly 6 7 c a lor ie s p r . 1 00 g ram s . I n ay ea r ac ow c ou ld y i e ld mo re t h an 4 69 ,000 c a lo r ie s i nm i lk . I f ab u tch -

P o t t er ya nd p a s tora l i sm

e r ed c ow y i e ld s 1 25 k g m ea t , a nd m ea t h a s a n a ve rage

I ti si n te re s t ing t h a tp o t te ry f r om L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze

c a lory c on ten to f1 79 p r . 1 00 g ram s , ac ow p rov ide s ay i e ld

A ge c on tex t s i n Ä rda l w a s f ound o n l a rge , mu l t i -ac t iv i ty

o f2 23750 c a lo r ie s . T he l o ng term v a lue o fd a iry p roduc t s

s i te s —S k r iva rhe l le ren a nd 4 7 U ru t lek rä i . T he se w e re t h e

w ou ld f a r o u t s t r ip a ny s i ng le h a rves t o f m ea t . R yde r h a s

s i te s t h a t s e em t oh ave b een mo s t i n vo lved i nh e rd ing a nd

e va lua ted t h e r e la t ive e ff ic iency o f ad a iry s t ra tegy a sf o l -

d a i ry p roduc t ion . I tc ou ld b e a r gued t h a t i n t h is r e g ion ,

l ow s :

p o t tery w a s a s soc ia ted w i th " pa s to ra l b a se c amp s" . P o t s

" I t [ m i lk ] i s t h e mo s t e ff i c ien t w ay o f c onve r t ing

c ou ld h ave b een u sed t oc o l lec t ,s t o re o rp roce s sd a iry p rod -

p l an t s t o a n ima l p ro te in , t h e e f f ic iency b e ing 2 7 p e r

u c t s o r b lood . P o t s a r e g ene ra l ly c umbe r some , a nd t h ey

c en tc ompa r ed w i th 1 8p e rc en ti np ig m ea t ,a nd o n ly 6

w ou ld n o tr e ad i ly h ave b een p a r to f amob i le h un t ing s t ra te -

p e rc en t i nb eef a nd mu t ton ." ( Ryde r 1 981 :313 ) .

g y ( c fR af f e r ty 1 985 :132 ) . P o t s c an t hus ma rk s em i -f ixed s e t t lemen t s . O f c ou r se , t h e g ene ra l iza t ion i nhe ren t i n t h e a bove i n te rp re ta t ion si sn o ti n va r iab ly a pp l icab le t oa l lp a s -

O fc ou r se , o the rp roduc t s s uch a sb lood ( c f :H jo r t &D ah l ,

t o ra l o r h un te r -ga the re r s o c ie t ies . F o r e xamp le , e l sewhe re

1 976 :171f f ,R yde r 1 981 :313 ) , d ung a nd t r ac t ion c ou ld a l so

p o t s w e re u sed b y s e ve ra l n omad ic p a s to ra l i s t g roup s ,

b e e xp lo i ted .

t h ough t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t ype s a nd s i ze s e em s t o h ave

T he mo s t c ommon d omes t ica ted s pec ie s i nt h e S kr iva r -

v a r ied i n r e la t ion t o t h e d eg ree o f mob i l i ty a nd s pec if ic

h e l le ren a s semb lage s w e re g oa t s a nd s heep . T he v a lue o f

s t ra teg ies ( Cr ibb 1 991 :75f ) .

t h e i rm i lk ,b lood ,h a ir a nd w oo lw ou ld a l so h ave b een g r ea t . I ti sc once ivab le t h a t t h e m ixed s t ock c ompo s i t ion i sa n

Dwarf s t one s , t o r e lo a nd s ko t lo

e xp re s s ion o ft h e d i f f e ren t p roduc t s e ach s pec ie s " spec ia l i z e s" i n . T he t h ree s pec ie s h ave s omewha td i f f e ren tc apac -

S ome s ma l l s t one s m ay a l so b e o f f e red a s c i r cum s tan t ia l

i t e s i nr e ga rd t oe nv i ronmen t . T hu s t h e s pec if ic make -up

e v idence f o rp a s to ra l ism i nS ogn . 2 3 mo re o rl e ss r ounded

o f t h e s heep — g oa t —c a t t le s t ock m igh t a l so r ep resen ta

s t ones a nd f ou r p i ece s o fp hy l l i te w e re r e cove red i nS k r i -

p a s to ra l s t ra tegy t o max im ize e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e v e ry

v a rhe l le ren . T he s t one s d i d n o t e xh ib i t h amme r s c a r s . T he 1 02

r o ck sw ere r ep re sen ted i na l ll a ye r s . I na dd i t ion ,t h ree mo re

o log ica l a dvan tage t h a ti sd ocumen ted i nt h ea r ea o fs t udy .

o r l e ss i n tac t q ua r tz c r ys ta l s w e re f ound i n l a ye r V I a nd

F u r the rmo re , t h e f unc t iona l c on tex t s h ad n ume rou s p a ra l -

V I I I .

l e l s ,a nd t h eh i s to r ica lc a se m igh ta c tua l ly s p rung f r om L a te

H is tor ica l ly ,r ounded s t one sw e re u sed i nÄ rda lf o rt r ea t -

N eo l i th ic t r ad i t ion s . T o e va lua te t h e c r ed ib i l i ty o ft h is h y -

i n g c a t t le i n f ec t ion s ( Kro ssen 1 978 :171) . Q ua r tz c r ys ta ls

p o the s is f o r a r chaeo logy , c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion a nd

h ave a l so h ad a c en t ra l p l ace i n p opu la r b e l ief s o f r u ra l

d epo s i t ion c on tex t ss hou ld b ee xam ined i n mo re d ep th .A re

N o rway ( R ing s tad 1 988 :331) . S o lhe im d e scr ibed c u s tom s

s t one s c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th " pa s to ra l" c on tex t s , a nd

a s soc ia ted w i th d a i ry f a rm ing a nd l i f eo nt h es h ie l ing s( So l-

a r et h ey f ound i ne a r l ie rp e r iod s? R ounded s t one sa nd c r y s -

h e im 1 952 :99f ) .H er e f e r red t op rac t ice st h a tc u rbed " t ro l l -

t a l s a r e f ound i nl a te rc on tex t s i nS k r iva rhe l le ren a nd o the r

p akk" a nd e v i l p owe r s . H e a l so r e f er red t oi d ea s a bou tt h e

p l ace s ( s ee P resco t t 1 99 l b :102f , 15 ) . S epa ra t ing n a tu ra l

r e la t ion s b e tween t h e b ucke t , t h e m i lk , t h e c ow a nd t h e

a nd c u l tu ra l s t one s i sc on tex t -dependen t , b u t s t one s o ccu r

w ea the r . E v i le n ter ing o ne p a r to ft h e s y s tem c ou ld d e s t roy

i ng ood c on tex t s i ns e t t lemen t s a nd g rave s . H oweve r , t h e re

t h e w ho le c ha in . S o lhe im l i s ted an umbe r o fc a se s w he re

a r e r e po r t s o fs t one s i no l de r c on tex t s a sw e l l ( Mo r ten sen

r o ck c r ys ta l s , a nd s ome t ime s s i lve r c o in s o r s t ee l , w e re

1 991) .

moun ted o n l a d le s o ri nw ooden b ucke t s , p ref e rab ly i nt h e

T he v e ry c ha rac te ro ft h es t one s make r e l iab le i n te rp re ta -

b o t tom . S ome t ime s t h ey w e re s imp ly p l aced i nt h e b o t tom

t i on s d i ff icu l t . S t i l l , i ti sp l au s ib le t h a t t o r e lo , s ko t lo a nd

o fb ucke t s . T he f i r s t m i lk t h a t h i t t h e c r y s ta l w a s u sed t o

d wa r f -s tone s h ad t r ad i t ions t h a tg o b ack t o ap a s to ra l L a te

p ro tec to rc u re c a t t le f r om g iv ing p oo rm i lk . I ns ome c a se s

N eo l i th ic . T hese t r ad i t ion s r e p re sen ted me taphys ica l i d ea s

u dde r d i so rde r s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th " dwa r f s" s u spec ted

c oncern ing t h e n a tu r e o f t h e w o r ld , a nd h ow t od ea l w i th

o f s uck ing o f fm i lk . C rys ta l s i nt h e m i lk ing g ea r s t opped

p owe r s .T he s t ones w e re p a r to f ap rac t ice t oh and le d i sea se

t h em . S o lhe im e xp la ined t h e u nde r ly ing p r inc ip le s . T he

i nt h e v i ta l h e rd s .

" cu r ing l i ke w i th l i ke" max im w a sf undamen ta l . T he p ow e r o f " unde rwo r ld l ing s" w a s t o " suck o f f" p owe r a nd

Hun t ing :B one sa nd f ur

c ou rage . R ock c r ys ta l w e re t h e r e su l t o f t h e e xce l len t

I n a dd i t ion t o mea t a nd s e conda ry p roduc t s , t h e h ide s ,

s m i thy c apab i l i t ie s o f t h e " dwa rve s" , a nd u s ing c r y s ta l s

b one s a nd a n t le r s f r om r e indee r ,p ig , r e d -dee r , s heep , g oa t ,

w a s i n as en se u s ing t h e p roduc t s o f t h e u nde rwo r ld t o

c a t t le a nd s e a lw e re u ndoub tab ly v a luab le . T he re w e re a l so

c omba ti t so wn b e ing s .S o lhe im b e l ieved t h a ts ome o ft h e se

an umbe r o f s pec ie s r ep resen ted i n S kr iva rhe l le ren t h a t

b e l ief s a nd p rac t ice s c ou ld b e t r aced b a ck a tl e a s t t o t h e

w e re p robab ly p r ima r i ly o rs o le ly v a lued f o rt h e i rh i de sa nd

L a te I r on Age o r e a r ly M idd le Age . H e i n te rp re ted s ome

f u r . T he se i n c lude a r c t ic f o x , s qu ir re l , h a re , c an ine s , b ea r ,

w r i t ten s our ce s t ob e a bou t a bou t d wa rve s . I ti si n te re s t ing

ma r ten ,a nd c a t s .I ti sd i ff i cu l tt oe va lua te t h ei mpo r tance o f

t on o te t h a tt h ei d ea sa nd p rac t ice sd e scr ibed a bove s e em t o

t h e se b one s a s t h ey w e re p robab ly s e ve re ly u nde r -rep re -

h ave h ad a w ide g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion . T h i s c ou ld i n -

s en ted i nt h e ma te r ia l :

d i ca te t h a ts uch l o re w a sc ommon t op a s to ra lb e l ief s . I fs o ,

-

t h e r oo t s o fs u ch l o re m igh t g o b ack t ot h e i n t roduc t ion o f

t h e ref o r e p robab ly w e re s k inned i nt h e f i e ld . O n ly s e -

p a s to ra l ism a nd s e conda ry p roduc t s u t i l iza t ion .

l e c t b one t y pe s w ou ld h ave e n te red t h e s he l te r , e . g .

S im i la r b e l ief s w e r e t i ed t o " t or e lo" a nd " sko t lo" ; " thunde r

s t one s" .

K ro ssen

( 1978 :171 )

a nd

S ome o ft h e se s pec ie s w e re mo s t ly s ou r ce s o ff u r , a nd

p aw s a nd c r an ia w i th f u r s o ra sr aw ma te r ia ls .

S o lhe im

-

( 1 952 :224 ) d e scr ibed t h e se s t one s a s r ound t o o va l i n

A s t h e s pec ies i nq ue s t ion w e re n o t e a ten , f r agmen t s t h a t d id e n te rt h e s he l te rw ou ld h ave s e ldom b een d e -

s hape .A cco rd ing t oS o lhe im ( ba sed o nR e ichborn -K jenne -

p o s i ted t h e re .

r ud 1 921) t h e se s t one s w e re "m ine ra l" — wh ich i sh e re i n te rp re ted a s ac r y s ta l l ine , q ua r tz l ike a ppea rance .T oc u re

I nt h i sc on tex ti ti si n te res t ing t h a tt h eb ea rb one f r om S kr i -

s i ch c a t t le s ko t lo s t one s w e re p l aced i nt h e b o t tom o f t h e

v a rhe l le ren i s ac a rpu s ( "w r i s t") b one . T h i s b one c ou ld

m i lk b ucke t , a nd t h es i ck c ow w a s t h en m i lk ed , a nd f e dt h e

r e p re sen t al o o se a na logy t o t h e s umma ry o f I r eg ren o f

m i lk . A lso , t o r e lo s t one s w e re p l aced i nw a te r , w h ich t h e

p ha lange b one c on tex t s :

s i ck c ow w a s t h en g i ven . T he me taphy s ica l r ea son ing f o r

" The b ea rp ha langes r ep resen t aq u i te d i f f e ren tt y pe o f

t h e se p ra c t ice s w a s a cco rd ing t oS o lhe im r e la ted t oc ur ing

f i nd . T he i r o ccu r r ence i nt h e g rave s i s mos t o f ten t h e

l i ke w i th l i ke , a s soc ia t ions w i th t h e " underwo r ld" , a nd a n

l a s t r ema ins o f af u r . T he t e rm ina l p ha lange s r ema in

u nderwo r ld a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e r educ t ive s i de o fa n " in -

n ame ly i nt h ef u rw hen ac a rca ss i ss k inned ." ( I reg ren

c r ea se a nd d ec rea se" d i cho tomy . H is "ma te r ia l is te xp lana -

1 988 :299 ) .

t i on" r e f er red t ot h e p r eca r iou s e x i s tence l e d b y f a rme r s , a nd t h e ir v u lne rab le p o s i t ion i nr ega rd t ot h ee l emen t s ,d i s -

C ou ld t h e b one i nq ue s t ion r ep re sen t af u r n ow d ecayed?

e a se a nd p reda to r s .F o lk -mag ic w a st h e reby a cco rded ama -

T he re m igh tb e as im i la ra nd q uan t i ta t ive ly s i gn if ican tp a t -

t e r ia l f o unda t ion . A cco rd ing t o S o lhe im t h e a bove d e -

t e rn f o rt h e Mus te l idae ( ma r ten f am i ly ) ,i ff u tu re i d en t if ica -

s c r ibed p rac t ices moved f r om t h e s phe re o ff o lk k now ledge

t i on s s how t h a t a ma jo r i ty o f t h e b one s f r om t h i s f am i ly

t os upe r s t i t ion w hen t h e re w e re b e t te r ma te r ia l c ond i t ion s

w e r e f r om t h e l e g s a nd f e e t . S ku l l f r agmen t s a nd t a i l v e r -

a nd s c ien t if i c k now ledge o fd i sea se s .

t e b rae s hou ld a l so b ee xpec ted .T h is w ou ld c l ea r ly b ei n d ic -

T he a bove d e scr ibe s l o ca l a na log ie s t h a tg i ve t h e s t one s

a t ive o ft r app ing /hun t ing f o rf u r . Ar e la ted p o ss ib i l i ty , t h a t

a nd c r ys ta ls f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren m ean ing i n ap a s to ra l

w ou ld l e ave as im i la ro s teo log ica l p a t te rn , w ou ld b e t ou se

f r ame o fr e f e rence . T he h i s to r ica l a na logy h a s t h e m e thod -

b ea r p aws i n med ic ine o r r i tua l ( K r i s tof f e r sen 1 990 :24 ) . 1 03

Hun t ing b ea r , w o lver ine a nd w o lf m igh th ave b een s oc ia l ly

t i ve p l o t s b y t h e f ‚ jo rd . T he se w e re t h e mo s t o p t ima l l o ca l -

a nd r i tua l ly s i gn if i can t , p e rhaps a sp a r to f ar i t ed ep as sage

i te sf o rg ra in c u l t iva t ion . I nh i s to r ica lt ime st h is w a sw he re

( c fK rüge r 's [ 1 988 ] d i scus s ion o fI r on A ge f i nd s ) .

c u l t iva t ion t ook p l ace . T he b one m a te r ia l a nd s ome o ft h e

A m a jor i ty o f t h e a bove l i s ted s pec ie s w ou ld h ave b e -

a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia lp rov ided a mp le e v idence o fr e gu la r

c ome u ncommon i nl a rge p a r t s o f n o r the rn E u rope i nt h e

f j o rd t o moun ta in c on tac t .

c ou r se o f t h e N eo l i th ic . F u r s a nd h ide s f r om S cand inav ia

Mo re g ene ra l ly , t h e re a r e r e po r t s o fh i s to r ic a nd p r eh is -

c ou ld h ave h ad p rac t ica l , s oc ia l a nd a e s the t ic v a lue s . T he

t o r ic g ra in c u l t iva t ion i n s ub -a lp ine a nd l ow -a lp ine e nv i -

a n ima l s w e re s u re ly i n vo lved i n my th , r i tua l a nd f o lk lo re .

r onmen t s i n o the r p a r t s o f s ou the rn N orway . Ah i s to r ica l

T h is w ou ld h ave i n c rea sed v a lue a nd d emand , a nd l e ad t o

c a se w a sf r om t h el a s tc en tu ry a tO s te rbo i nA u r land ,8 00 m

w ide s p read d i s t r ibu t ion ,p a r t icua r ly t h rough s o c ia l ly med i -

a . s . l . ( Ohn s tad 1 988 :24 , 3f f ) . S ome r e s t ra in t mus tb ee xe r -

a t ed e xchanges . T he b one f i nd s s ugge s t t h a t t h e s pec ie s i n

c i sed i n u s ing O s te rbo a nd s im i la r c a se s a s s uppo r t f o r

q ue s t ion w e re a c tua l ly c augh t , e ven t h ough t h e b one d oe s

p r eh is to r ic c u l t iva t ion :

n o t p e rm i t q uan t i ta t ive a na lys i s . S t i l l , t h ey w e re o f e co -

-

n om ic v a lue . A l though m ea t a nd f a t f r om h a re , s ea l , d ee r ,

E nv i ronmen ta l ly , c u l t iva t ion w a s c oncen t ra ted t o a f ew o p t ima l s po t s . E ven t h en t h e g ra in o f ten d i d n o t

r e indee r a nd d ome s t ica ted s pec ie s w e re u ndoub ted ly i m -

r i pen b ef o re t h e f i r s tf r o s t ( op . c i t . 2 6 ) .

p o r tan t , t h e ir p e l t s , h ide s a nd f u r s w ou ld h ave h ad i mpo r -

-

t a n t l o ca l f unc t ion s , a sw e l l a s r eg iona l v a lue . H ide s , f u r s

G ra in c u l t iva t ion t o ok p lace w i th in ama rke te conomy .

a nd p e l t s w e re , a r guab ly , e xchange o b jec t s . A lmo s t e ve ry

S ucce ssfu l c u l t iva t ion r e l ieved e conom ic s t ra in , b u t i f

s t udy c once rn ing t h e i mpo r t o f f l in t t o N o rway a nd t h e

t h eh a rve s tf a i led , o t he ro p t ion sw e re a va i lab le t oh e lp f i l l t h e g ap .

i mpo r to fn on -f e r rou sm e ta lt oS cand inav ia r a i se st h eq ue s -

t i on o f w ha t w a s p rov ided i n r e turn . Mo s t a n swe r s h ave

G ra in c u l t iva t ion , a nd i ndeed t h e moun ta in f a rm s ,r ep r e sen t as pec if ic h i s to r ica l e p i sode . T he p e r iod w a s

r ema ined i n t h e r e a lm o f s pecu la t ion . T he a s semb lage s

c ha rac te r ized b y s t rong d emog raph ic p re ssu re , ama r -

f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren a r e e v idence o fp robab le " exchange

k e t s y s tem a nd e conom ic s t agna t ion . S im i la r c ond i -

g ood s" .

t i on s w e re n o tr e levan tf o rt h e L a te N eo l i th ic .

P lan tr ema in s &a g r i cu l tur e

G ra in o rc erea l p o l len f r om p reh is tor ic c on tex t s h ave a l so

S ome p l an t r ema in s w e re r e cove red f r om S k r ivarhe l le ren

b een i n te rp re ted a si nd ica t ive o fc u l t iva t ion . T he i n ve s t iga -

( So l tved t 1 991 ,P r e sco t t 1 991b :108 ,3 6 / ) .T he s e ed ma te r ia l

t i on s i n q ue s t ion a r e V a l lda len ( Ha f s ten 1 965 ) , D okka

w a s f o und i n 2 7 s o i l s amp les o f o ne t o t wo l i t re s . T he

( Hoeg

s amp le sw e re s pec ia l ly c o l lec ted a nd w e re e i the rw a te rn o -

( K vamme e ta l . 1 992 :51f f ) . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f S eca le

t a ted o r c a refu l ly s i eved t h rough a s e t o f 1 0 t o 0 . 5 mm

1 990 :107f f )

a nd

H e l l ingboen ,

N yse t -S tegg je

( Hoeg 1 990 :104 ) c e rea lp o l len d i spe r s ion d oe s n o ts e em t o

meshe s . S eed s a nd p l an t s w e re n o t u sua l ly a s w e l l p re -

b e b y a e ror ia l mechan isms ( Fxg r i e ta l . 1 989 :186 ) . I ti s

s e rved ,r e cogn ized o rr e cove red a sb one f r agmen t sa nd a r t i -

d i spe r sed i n c onnec t ion w i th t h re sh ing , a nd t hu s i sp rob -

f a c t s . T he refo re , p l an t m a ter ia l i s ma in ly q ua l i ta t ive e v i -

a b ly g rown i nt h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty . I tc an a l so b e t r an s -

d ence . S t i l l , t h el im i ted a t temp ta tr e cover ing p l an tr ema in s

p o r ted b yh uman , a n ima lo rg eo log ica la genc ie s ( f o re xam -

d emon s t ra tes t h e f e a s ib i l i ty a nd p rof i tab i l i ty o f c o l lec t ing

p l e

s uch m a te r ia l .

w a te r e ro s ion ) .

G ra in

a nd g ra in

p o l len

c an b e

t r anspo r ted i n to s ub -a lp ine a nd a l p ine e nv i ronmen t s b y a

T h ree C er ea l ia k er n e l s w e re i d en t if ied . T hey w e re r e -

n umbe ro f mean s . H uman s t r anspo r t k erne ls a nd p o l len a s

s pec t ive ly o ne H ord eum v u lgare v ar n udum ( ba r ley ) f r om

g ra in , g rue l , f l ou r , f odde r a nd u n in ten t iona l " s towaways"

l a ye r V I I I , a nd 2 T r i t icum a e s t ivum ( whea t ) f r om l a ye r V I

i n b aggage , f ood a nd c l o thes , o r i n t h e d i ges t ive s y s tem

a nd V /V I ( So l tved t 1 991 :130 ) . I na dd i t ion t h e re w a s as i n -

( Rob in son & H ubba rd 1 977 , Moe 1 973 :70 ,I nd re l id & Moe

g l e s e ed o fL a thyru sm on tana , wh ich a cco rd ing t oS o l tved t

1 983 :6 1j ) . An ima ls ,w i ld a nd t ame ,t r an spo r tp o l len i ns im -

may i n d ica te g ra in c u l t iva t ion . T he e v idence s ubs tan t ia te s

i l a r f a sh ions . A f te r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f a gr icu l tu re , g ra in

L a te N eo l i th ic g ra in c on sump t ion i nS k r iva rhe l le ren . T he

a nd c e rea lp o l len w ou ld b ed epo s i ted i nd ump s a l ong p a th s

e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s a r ound S k r iva rhe l le r en w e re u n -

l e ad ing i n to t h e moun ta in s , a r ound s e t t lemen t s a nd a tp a s -

s u i tab le f o rg ra in c u l t iva t ion . T he g row ing s e a son w a sv ery

t u re s . O fc ou r se , t h e Ä rda l moun ta in s w ou ld b e e spec ia l ly

s ho r t( a pp rox .J une —A ugu s t ) ,a nd b e low z e ro t empe ra tu res

e xpo sed , a sl ow land f i e ld s a r e c ommon ly o n ly af ew h our s

a r en o tu ncommon t o day ,e ven i nJ u ly ( P re sco t t 1 991b :21) .

w a lk f r om t h e moun ta in p a s tu res . Af i na lp rob lem m igh tb e

T he g ra in w a sp robab ly n o tg rown h e re ( So l tved t 1 991 :13 ) .

t h a tt h e c u l t iva t ion g oa l s m igh tv a ry .

T he re w a s t h us n o p o s i t ive e v idence o fw he re t h e g ra in

T od e term ine w he the rp o l len o rc e rea lk er n e ls r e a l ly r e p -

w a s g rown . L a te N eo l i th ic /Bronze A ge -f ie lds h ave n o t

r e sen t i ns i tu a g r icu l tu re , t h e re a r e t h ree t e n ta t ive c on s id -

b een i d en t if ied i nt h e I nne r S ogn r eg ion . T h is i st ob e e x -

e r a t ion s :

p ec ted , a s mos tl ow land a r ea s h ave b een i n ten s ive ly c u l t i -

-

v a ted . L a rge p a r t s o fÄ rda l h ave b een d eve loped f o r h ou s -

C u l t iva t ion w i l l p robab ly t a k e p l ace i ns u i tab le e nv i -

i ng a nd i n dus t ry . Mo re i mpo r tan t ly , a r chaeo log is t s h ave

r onmen t s . H oweve r , t h is p o s tu la te e a s i ly l e ad s t oc i r -

n eve r c onduc ted as e r iou s s ea rch f o r f i e ld s , a nd f u tu re i n -

c u la r r ea son ing a nd c onf i rma t ion o f a l ready h e ld

v es t iga t ions w i l l n o d oub t u nea r th s ome . T he re i ss ome

v i ew s . I n a dd i t ion , d e ta i led k now ledge o f t h e e nv i -

c i r cum s tan t ia l s uppo r t f o rc u l t iva t ion o n s ma l l b u tp roduc -

r onmen ta l h i s to ry i s ap r e requ is i te . 1 04

-

-

P o l len c oncen t ra t ion s n o t f ound o n s e t t lemen t s o r

c ommon ly b een e a ten ( H0eg 1 976 :422 ) a nd e ven b een

d ump s m igh t r ep re sen t t h re sh ing o r b ea t ing , t hough

t r ade g ood s ( Fxgr i 1 970 , b d . 1 . 326 ) . H oweve r , t h e re d oe s

l a ck o f c e rea l p o l len i sn o t a u toma t ica l ly a n ega t ive

n o ts e em t ob er e po r t so ft h e s eed sb e ing u sed . T he r ea son s

i n d ica to r( c fF xgr i e ta l . 1 989 :186 ) .

f o ri t sp re sence i nS k r iva rhe l le ren a r eo b scu re . T he p l an ti s

P o l len o rk erne lo ccur rences t h a tc an b ec r ed ib ly r e la t -

c ommon a l ong t h e c oa s t a nd f j o rd s ( L id 1 963 :458 ) , a nd

e dt oi n dependen t ly i d en t if ied c u l t iva t ion p l o t so ra g r i -

w a s p robab ly b rough t t o S k r iva rhe l le ren b y p eop le . S o l t -

c u l tu ra l s e t t lemen t s , r e p re sen tc r ed ib le e v idence .

v ed t ( o p . c i t . ) ma in ta ined t h a t t h e p lan t o f ten g row s w i th c e rea l . Whe the ri tw a sb rough tt ot h e s he l te rw i th al o ad o f

T he r e por t s o fB ronze A ge c u l t iva t ion o fC er ea l ia i nV a l l -

g ra in , o rf o r s ome s pec if ic p urpo se c anno t b e d e te rm ined .

d a len ( c a . 7 00 m a . s . 1 . ) a nd I r on Age /Med ieva l c u l t iva t ion

R ubu s c hamemoru s i sc ommon o n t h e b ogs i n t h e a r ea .

o fA vena ,H ord eum , T r i t icum a nd S eca le a tD o l ck f loy ( 5 50 —

F ea tu re s c once rn ing t h i s p lan t a r e d i scu ssed p rev iou s ly .

7 10 m a . s . 1 . ) c anno t b e c on s ide red t o b e c onc lu s ive f o r

G aeop s i ss p . d oe s n o ts e em t oh ave a ny p rac t ica lp u rpo ses .

whe re c e rea l s w e re g rown . R epo r t s o f h i gh c e rea l p o l len

I tr e ad i ly g rows i ne nv i ronmen t s l i k e t h o se i na nd a r ound

c oncen t ra t ion s c omb ined w i tah af i e ld a tH e l l ingboen ( 9 50

S k r iva rhe l le ren , a nd i sa l so ac ommon w eed i na g r icu l tu ra l

ma . s . 1 . ) i nV ikada len a r e mo re c onv inc ing ( K vamme e ta l .

a nd p a s to ra l c on tex t s ( Fxgr i 1 970 , 1 :175 , L id 1 963 :576 )

1 992 ) . D e ta i l sa r en o tc l ea r , a nd t h e re s e ems t ob e ac a se o f

B i rch b a rk w a s o bserved i ns eve ra l l a ye r s , b u ti tw a s n o t

c i rcu la rr e a son ing b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd b o tany . S t i l l ,i t

s y s tema t ica l ly s amp led o r d ocumen ted . O ne c onsp icuou s

s e em s t h a t c u l t iva t ion w a s p rac t iced h e re . I ta l so s e em s

c on tex t , d ocumen ted i nt h e o r ig ina l p rof i le d raw ings , w a s

l i ke ly t h a t a t temp t s w e re made t og row c e rea l i nt h e I r on

b i rch b a rk u nde r ly ing ah ea r th i nt h eb o t tom o f ma in l a ye r

Age o r Med ieva l P er iod . H e l l ingboen e xh ib i t s b o th c e rea l

V I . Wood i su sua l ly f ound i nt h e f o rm o fc ha rcoa l . C ha r -

p o l len a nd af i e ld . D e sp i te i t s a l t i tude , H e l l ingboen w a s

c oa l s pec imen s f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren w e re i d en t if ied b y

a mong t h e mo s tf a vo rab le l o ca l i t ie s i na l p ine V ikada len a s

L .M . P au l ssen , O s lo , i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e r ad ioca rbon

f a ra sl o ca l c l ima te a nd s o i l q ua l i ty w e re c oncerned . C u l t i -

d a t ing b y t h e T rondhe im l a bo ra to ry ( P re sco t t 1 991b :36 f ) .

v a t ion a tH e l l ingboen p robab ly r ep resen ted a ne p isode ,a nd

P ine w a s mo s tc ommon , b u t b i r ch a nd r owan o ccu red . A l l

w a s p e rhap s a n e xpe r imen t d ur ing a p e r iod o f e conom ic

t h e se g row l o ca l ly . I na dd i t ion t of ue lt h ey c ou ld h ave b een

a nd d emog raph ic e xpan s ion .

u sed a sb u i ld ing a nd t o o l ma te r ia ls , wh i le b i rch a nd r owan

T hough t h e re a r e h i s to r ica l c a se s o fg ra in p roduc t ion i n

h ave h i s tor ica l ly s e rved m ed ic ina l p urpo ses a nd f ur n ished

s ub -a lp ine e nv i ronmen t s ,t h e se r ep re sen ti n adequa te s ou rc -

b and sa nd f i be r s ,d ye a nd f odde r .R owanbe r r ies h ave s ome -

e so fa na logy f o ri n te rp re t ing t h ec e rea l k e rne ls a tS k r ivar -

t ime s b een u sed f o rf ood .

h e l le r en . O ft h e r e po r t s o fp reh is tor ic , h i gh a l t i tude g ra in

T he k e lp r e cove red f r om t h el owe rL a te N eo l i th ic l e ve li s

c u l t iva t ion , H e l l ingboen r e p re sen t s t h e mo s t c onv inc ing

r a the rc u r iou s ( P re sco t t 1 99 1 b : 108 ) . K e lp c ou ld h ave b een

c a se . T he re i sn o t h o rough a na lys is o ft h e s oc io -econom ic

u sed i n s eve ra l p roce sse s , s uch a s f ood , s p ice , m ed ic ine ,

c i rcum s tance s f o r c u l t iva t ion a tH e l l ingboen , b u t i ts e em s

d ye a nd p ack ing ma ter ia l . R e la ted e v idence o f ma r ine c o l -

p o s s ib le t h a t i tw a s ar e spon se t oe conom ic p re s su re s . I n

l e c t ing w a sf ound i nt h e s e a she l ls r e cove red f r om L a te N e -

c onc lu s ion t h e a na log ie s d on o tg ive ag ene ra l c on tex tt h a t

o l i th ic l a ye r s i nt h e s he l te r ( P re sco t t 1 99 1 b : 106f , a l so 7 3f f

w eaken s t h e l o ca l ly b a sed i n te rp re ta t ion f o r S k r iva rhe l le -

S ee L ee 1 968 :41 f o r ar e v ised c on ten tl i s tf o rt h ec a tego r ie s

r en : C e rea l sf ound i nt h e r o ck s he l ter w e re g rown a tl owe r

" hun t ing , " f ish ing a nd " ga ther ing") . G a s t ropoda ( s na i ls ) ,

a l t i tudes . A s s uch t h ey w e re e v idence o ft h e d ecen t ra l ized

Mo l lu sca ( s he l lf i sh ) a nd E ch inod erma ta ( u r ch in s ) a r e r e -

n a tu re o fp roduc t ion .

f e r red t ot h i s c a tego ry . C er ta in s he l l s a r e i d en t if ied t ot h e s pec ie s l e ve l : A r c ica i s land ica , My tu l i s e du l i s a nd N uce l la l a p i l lu s . O n ly s a l twa te r s pec ie s h ave b een i d en t if ied . T he

C o l l ec t ing p lan t sa nd s he l l s

s he l ls a nd t h e s e aweed a r e i mpo r tan ta st h ey s ubs tan t ia te a

A rchaeo log i s t s u sua l ly a s sume t h a t p lan t s w e re c o l lec ted

s ub s is tence p a t tern t h a t i n corpo ra tes ab road s e lec t ion o f

( e spec ia l ly s i nce L ee & D eVo re 's a n to logy f r om 1 968 ) .

a va i lab le e nv i ronmen t s .

T he s ub jec t i s , h oweve r , s e ldom i nve s t iga ted i n d e ta i l . T he re a r e t wo g ene ra l a pp roache s . O ne i sb a sed o n d i rec t e v idence , t h e o t he r i sc i r cum s tan t ia l . T he N yse t -S tegg je

P ro j ec t i l ep o in t s

d i scu s s ion i sa ne xamp le o fc i r cums tan t ia la r gumen t s . T ha t

P ro jec t i le p o in t s w e re f ound i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

d i scu s s ion i sa l so r e levan t t oS k r iva rhe l le ren . I n a dd i t ion ,

B ronze A ge l a ye r s i n S k r iva rhe l le ren . A l l o f t h e p o in t s

u nea r thed d i rec t e v idence

s e em t oh ave b een u sed , a nd t h e re w a s l i t t le e v idence o f

( P resco t t 1 991b , S o l tved t 1 991) , a pa r tf r om t h ec e rea l k e r -

p roduc t ion o n t h e S kr iva rhe l le ren s i te ( P re sco t t 1 991b :47 ,

n e ls d i scus sed a bove .

5 6ü ) . T he h un t ing p roce s s c an b e c once ived o f a s t h ree

S k r iva rhe l le ren e xcava t ion s

ma in t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l c omponen t s , t h e p re -hun tp rep -

S o l tved tp o in t s o u tt h a tt h eP oaceae s e ed s f r om S kr iva r h e l le ren c ou ld h ave b een r e la ted t oc o l lec t ion o fg ra s s ,p o s -

a r a t ion , t h e h un t a nd p o s t -hun t b u tche r ing , t h e c a tch -cu ra -

s i b ly f o rf odde r . U nfo r tuna te ly ,t h ee v idence h a sn oq uan t i -

t i on a nd /o rc on sume .T he t wo f i r s tw e re n o ts t rong ly r e p re -

f i ab le p o ten t ia l —al im i ta t ion w h ich i s i nhe ren t i n t h e

s en ted o nt h eS kr iva rhe l le ren s i te .T h is a na ly s is o ft h ep o in t

s amp l ing m e thod s . A g ra s s s e ed h ave c ou ld e n te red t h e

ma te r ia l s uppo r ted t h ec onc lus ion t h a tS k r iva rhe l le ren w a s

s he l te r i n an umbe r o f w ay s . L a thyru s m on tanu s p roduce s

as e a sona l " hub s i te" a nd t h a t " exped i t iona l" r e indee r

s wee t , l i co r ice ta s t ing " bu lb s" o n i t s r oo t s . T hese h ave

h un t s w e re l a unched f r om s i te s a ta l p ine a l t i tude s . 1 0 5

F ig . 2 1 . S kr ivarhe l ler en . P ercen tage so fb one f ragmen t sf rom i d en t if i ed w i ld a nd d ome s t ica t ed m amma l s , a nd n o t -d e te rm ined a r t iodac ty le s . LN I= l a yer V I I I , LN 2 = l a yer V I , EBA ( 2 / 3 ) =l a yer XV , 'L BA ( PR ) =l a yer I VL BA - Mo . =l a yer I I &I A =e xcava t ion s e c tor 2 .B a sed o n t a b l e2 3 .

A l t i tud e sa nd e nv i ronmen t s T he a n ima la nd p l an te v idence d emon s t ra ted t h a tp rac t ica l -

r e ache s .T he f r e sh w a te rf i sh C or r engu sa l bu la i nt h eo l de s t

l ye ve ry e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing w a s e xp lo i ted . S ea l , s he l l ,

L a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r( V I I I )a nd t h ec oa s ta lb l ack tho rn ( P ru -

s a l twa te rf i sh a nd k e lp d emons t ra ted h un t ing / t rapp ing / f i sh -

n u ss p ino sa ) i nt h e I r on A ge c on tex tr a i se s ome i n te re s t ing

i n gi nt h es e a /f jo rd . G ra in s ugges ted t h a tt h e re w a sa g r icu l -

i s sues . T he f i r s t s e em s t od emon s t ra te movemen t o fg ood s

t u re o n l ow ly ing c l ea rance s , p robab ly o n w e l l -d ra ined ,

i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic f r om e a s to ft h e w a te r shed . T he l a t te r

s ou th -fac ing g l ac ia l d epo s i t s . S eve ra l s pec ie s f r om t h e f o r -

s ugge s ted t h a t f ood s tuf f s w e re t r an spo r ted f r om ar e g ion

e s t s a s h i gh a s t h e s ub -a lp ine z one w e re f ound ( s qu ir re l s ,

s ou th o fB e rgen i nt h e I r on A ge . B eave r , n o t f ound i nt h e

d ee ra nd b eave r ) . T he s ub -a lp ine / lowe ra l p ine z one a round

a r ea t oday , m igh t i nd ica te r e g iona l c onnec t ion s .

t h e s he l te r w a s c l ea r ly u sed , a st h e h a re , f ow l , t r ou t , a r bo -

T he e v idence d i scu s sed a bove i sv i ta l f o r u nde r s tand ing

r ou s s pec ie s a nd c l oudber ry t e s t if ied . T he r i ve r s a nd l a ke s

ac omp lex s i tua t ion . I fs o le ly a r chaeo log ica l d a ta h ad b een

w e r ee xp lo i ted f o rt h e i rf i sh a nd p e rhap sb eave r .T he h i ghe r

a va i lab le t h e d e ta i led p i c tu re t h a t e n sued f r om t h e d i scu s -

a l p ine z one w a s a l so c l ea r ly r ep re sen ted b y r e indee r a nd

s i on w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le . T he e v idence d emon -

a r c t ic f o x .D ome s t ica ted s heep a nd c a t t le i nS kr iva rhe l le ren

s t ra ted t h e b road p rocu remen t b a se a nd t h e a g ro -pa s to ra l

i n d ica ted l ow land a nd s ub -a lp ine p a s tu re e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd

e conomy . I ta l so s ugges ted l o ca l a nd r eg iona l n e two rk s o f

i n n o w ay e xc luded p a s to ra l movemen t s i n to t h e a l p ine

g ood s e xchange . 1 06

F ig . 2 2 . S k r ivarhe l l er en . R e la t iv em ea tv a lue o fi d en t if i ed a r t iodac ty le s . LN ( 1 ) =l a y er V I I I , LN 2= l a yer V I , LN /EB = =l a y e rI V &I A e x ca va t ion si ns e c to r2 .B a sed o n t a b l e2 5 .

E BA ( 2 / 3 ) =l a yer XV L BA ( PR )

THE CO MBINED SUBSISTENCE EVIDENCE

B ronze .T he n umbe ra nd s i ze o fs i tes ,a sw e l la st h eq uan t i -

T he e v id ence f rom N y se t -S t egg je a nd S kr ivarhe l ler en h ave

t i e s o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e re n o t c ompa rab le w i th t h a t o f

b een p r esen t ed s epara t e ly . T h i s c hap ter a t t emp t s t oc omb ine

a ny p reced ing p e r iod . P roduc t ion t h rough h un t ing w a s i n -

t h e se s our ce st ou nder s tand r e sour ce e xp lo i ta t ion .

t e n s if ied a nd w a s o n al a rge rs ca le . T he f a c tt h a t as umme r

T he e v idence f r om N y se t -S tegg je , S k r iva rhe l le ren a nd

p ine z one , s uppo r t st h i s c l a im . T he l e ve lo fg ame e xp lo i ta -

T y in s how t h a t h un t ing c on t inued i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic ,

t i on m igh tb ec ompa red w i th t h e o rgan iza t ion a nd s ca le o f

B ronze Age a nd e a r ly P re -Roman p e r iod . T he c ha rac te r

I r on Age t o r e cen t d r ive s a nd p i t -sys tem s . T he re w a s a n

s e t t lemen t s uch a s U ru t lek rf f iw a s l o ca ted i nt h e l owe r a l -

a nd r o le o f h un t ing v a r ied a cco rd ing t o t h e e nv i ronmen t

i n ten s ive h un t ing s y s tem w i th a n a g ro -pa s to ra l e conom ic

a nd s o c ia lc on s t i tu t ion o f ag i ven s i te . H un t sd i rec t ly o u to f

b a se i nb o th t h eL a te B ronze A ge a nd l a te r . T he i mpo r tan t

S k r iva rhe l le ren w e re mo re o ppo r tun is t ic a nd /o rc on t inuou s

s im i la r i t ie s a r e n o t i nt h e m e thod o f s e cu r ing t h e p rey , o r

a nd d i rec ted t owa rd s s ma l l g ame a nd n on -g rega r iou s

e ven i nt h ep rey i ts e lf , b u ti nt h e e f f ec ta nd s oc ia l c oope r -

s pec ie s .

a t ion i n he ren ti n al a rge s c a le " hun t ing o pe ra t ion" .

I nt h es equen t ia ls e r ie so u t l ined f o r" exped i t iona l" h un t -

C i rcum s tan t ia la r gumen t sc an b e made f o r ac omp rehen -

i n g , S k r iva rhe l le ren w a s a tt h e r e c ip ien t e nd . T he a l p ine

s i ve u se o fp l an t ma te r ia l s . Howeve r ,t h e re i ss ome p o s i t ive

N y se t -S tegg je l o ca l i t ie s w i th a n i nven to ry o f p o in t s a nd

e v idence . T he re i se v idence o fg ra in c on sump t ion , a nd i ti s

l i th ic d eb r is w e re mo re d i rec t ly r e la ted t ot h e " exped i t ion -

a r gued t h a tc u l t iva t ion t ook p l ace b yt h ef j o rd . Wi ld p l an t s

a l " h un t ing s e c to r .T he v a r ia t ion i nt h es i te t ype ss ugges t sa

w e re a l so u sed ,a sf i nd sf r om S k r iva rhe l le ren i nd ica te .C o l -

d i v i s ion o f w o rk t a sk s a nd ag eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f

l e c t ing a nd s ma l l g ame t r app ing w a s p robab ly mos t s y s -

t a sk s , a ndmos tc l ea r ly o fl i th ic r educ t ion p ha se s . T he l a rge

t ema t ic a nd i n ten s ive i n c onnec t ion w i th f i xed , s e a sona l

s c a le p a t tern i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f " l i th ic s i te s" w a s p rob -

s e t t lemen t s , s uch a s S k r iva rhe l le ren , L a te B ronze A ge

a b ly r e la ted t o r aw ma ter ia l s ou rce s , t a sk s t ra teg ie s a nd

U ru t lek rä i a nd h ypo the t ica l f j o rd s e t t lemen t s . P e rhap s a

s oc ia l d e lega t ion o ft o o l p roduc t ion .

s im i la r a r gumen t c an b e made f o r f i sh ing . Howeve r , t h e

T he n a tu re o f a n e xped i t iona l h un t s e em s t o h ave

s i te si nt h ea l p ine z one s mu s th ave p a r t ly b een ar e spon se t o

c hanged t h rough t ime . T h roughou t mo s t o ft h e p e r iod s i n

s e a sona l a nd g r ega r iou s b ehav iou rp a t te rn s i nt h e r e indee r

q ue s t ion ,s i t es w e re s ma l l .T he l e ve lo fp roduc t ion s e em st o

p opu la t ion .

h ave b een r e la t ive ly l e ve l a nd s ma l l s c a le . I n t h e L a te

T he p a s to ra le v idence w a sp e rhap st h e mo s td e ta i led . A t

B ronze t h i s c hanged . T he re w e re mo re s i te s a nd mo re

S k r ivarhe l le ren a nd U ru t lek rä i p a t te rn s w e re f ound t h a t

p o in t s i n terp re ted a s p ro jec t i le s f r om t h i s p e r iod . T h i s d e -

s how t h a t t h e se s i te s w e re b a se s e t t lemen t s i n ad ecen t ra l -

v e lopmen t v i r tua l ly e xp loded t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e L a te

i z ed mu l t i re sou rce a g ro -pa s to ra l mode o f p roduc t ion . 1 07

S k r iva rhe l le ren w a s mo s t r egu la r ly a nd i n ten s ive ly u sed

u se o fh ighe rl y ing z ones , i n co rpo ra t ion o f mo re ma r -

d ur ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd p e rhaps E a r ly B ronze Age

g i na l p a s tu re s i n to t h e p a s to ra l s t ra tegy a nd mo re i n -

V I I . T he s i te d id n o t s eem t ob e u sed s o i n ten s ive ly l a te r .

t e n s ive h un t ing o f p a r t icu la r ly r e indee r . I n t h e l a t te r

S k r iva rhe l le ren i n d ica ted t h a te xp lo i ta t ion s t ra teg ies w i th in

h a lf o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge , t h e p a s to ra l b a se s i tes

t h ep a s to ra le conomy c hanged t h rough t ime . F rom t h eL a te

w e re e s tab l ished i nt h e l owe r a l p ine a nd p o s s ib ly a l -

N eo l i th ic t o t h e P re -Roman p er iod , d ome s t ica ted s pec ies

p i ne z one . T he i mp l ica t ion i st ha t p a s tu re u t i l iza t ion

a ccoun ted f o r5 0% t o8 0% o ft h e "mea tv a lue" . As e cond -

h ad b ecome mo re r ef ined , a nd e xp lo i ta t ion mo re i n -

a ry p roduc t s s t ra tegy g ave c a t t le , s heep a nd g oa t s a n e co -

t e n s ive . A lp ine p a s tu re s b ecame mo r e i n tens ive ly

n om ic r o le v a s t ly g rea te rt h an b one p e rcen tage s i nd ica te .

u sed . S ub -a lp ine p a s tu re s s e em t oh ave b een u sed i na

N yse t -S tegg je a l so h ad s omewha td ive r se e v idence ,u su -

mo re t r an s i to ry f a sh ion , p robab ly a tt ime s w hen q ua l -

a l ly o fa ni nd i rec tn a tu re .T he s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion s ugges ted

i t y w a s o p t ima l a nd a l p ine p a s ture s i n acce s s ib le . T h is

ap a s to ra lc omponen tf r om t h eL a te N eo l i th ic o n .T he U ru t -

i s ap a t te rn k nown f r om modern p a s to ra l i sm i nS ogn .

l e k rä is i te c omp lex made c l ea rt h ef undamen ta lr o le o fp a s -

P a s to ra l e xpan s ion a nd i n ten s if ica t ion f r om t h e L a te

t o ra l i sm i nt h e d i f f e ren t a l p ine z one s . C ur ious ly , p a s to ra l -

N eo l i th ic t ot h e P re -Roman p e r iod w a s a ccompan ied

i sm w a s c onnec ted w i th a s t rong h un t ing c omponen t .

b ye xpan s ion i nt h eh un t ing s e c to ra sw e l l . I ti si mpo r -

U ru t lek rä i w a s p a r t o f ag ene ra l e xpans ion i n t h e L a te

t a n tt or e cogn ize t h a td eve lopmen t s w e re n o tt h er e su l t

B ronze A ge a nd e a r ly P re -Roman p er iod i n to h ighe r a l t i -

o fo ne a dap ta t ion t a k ing p recedence o ve ra no the r . D e -

t udes a nd p a s to ra l ly ma rg ina l e nv i ronmen t s . T h i s e xpan -

v e lopmen t s w e re t h e r e su l t o f ag ene ra l e conom ic e x -

s i on w a s i nb o th t h e h un t ing a nd t h e p a s to ra l s e c to r s .

p an s ion .

C omb in ing t h e i n f orma t ion f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren a nd Ny se t -S tegg je , a n i n terp re ta t ive , i n teg ra ted d eve lopmen ta l s equence i so u t l ined i nf i g . 3 0 a nd b e low .

T he i mpo r tance o ft h e d ecen t ra l ized , mu l t i -re sou rce a g ro -

1 )

p a s to ra l i sm w a st h a ti ta dm i rab ly s u i ted t h ee nv i ronmen to f

I n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd mo s t o f t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge t h e re w e re t wo ma in f o c i o fs em i -pe rmanen t s e t -

I nne r S ogn . I ndeed , much o f t h is s t ra tegy h a s s u rv ived

t l emen t . O ne o ft h e se w a s b y t h e f j o rd . T he re i sl i t t le

d own t o t h e p re sen t . T he p a s to ra l s ec to r a nd t h e " w i ld"

d i rec t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f t h i s t ype o f s e t t le -

s e c to ro f f e red t oge the rt wo n ece s sa ry f a c to r sf o rt h ee xpan -

m en t s . G ra in w a s g rown , s ea ls w e re h un ted , f i sh w e re

s i ve L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s oc ie ty . T he se t wo

c augh t , a n ima l s w e re h e rded a nd p l an t s a nd s he l ls

s e c to r s f e d t h e l o ca l s ub s is tence e conomy . P roduc t ion , e s -

w e re c o l lec ted .F lock s ,h e rd sa nd p eop le s t ayed h e re i n

p ec ia l ly i n t h e p a s to ra l s phe re , w a s a b le t o m ee t t h e d e -

t h e w in te r . G ra in c u l t iva t ion s ugge s t s t h a t p a r t o ft h e

mand so f ag row ing p opu la t ion .T he e co log ica lv a r ia t ion i n

p opu la t ion s t ayed h e re i nt h e s umme r mon th s , t oo .

V a ld re s a nd S ogn w ou ld p e rhap s , i nt h is s i tua t ion , f o s te red

T he o t he rf o cus w a s f o und i nt h e s ub -a lp ine z one — a s

a n " i nc ip ien t" s pec ia l ized t a sk a l loca t ion . T he mode o f

d emon s t ra ted b y S k r iva rhe l le ren . A l a rge s e c t ion o f

p roduc t ion a l so p rov ided a ne xpand ing c on t r ibu t ion t op a r -

t h e p opu la t ion w a s p re sen t h e re i n t h e s umme r a nd

t i c ipa t ion i nt h er eg iona le conomy a nd t r ade ( c f :d i scu ss ions

e a r ly a u tumn t e nd ing f l ock s , c o l lec t ing p l an t s , f i sh ing

i n K r i s t ian sen 1 987 :83 , a l so 1 981 :253A . G iven t h e g eog -

a nd h un t ing / t rapp ing . Sma l le r p a r t ie s s pen t t ime i n

r a phy a nd t e chno logy o f L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

h i ghe r l y ing a l p ine v a l leys a nd moun ta in s t oh un t , t o

w es te rn N o rway , s e cu re a nd e xpandab le l o ca l s ub s is tence

c o l lec t a nd k nap q ua r tz i te /qua r tz a nd t o s hephe rd

w a s ar e qu i remen t f o r e xpanded p roduc t ion i n ar e g iona l

s t ock s .

e conom ic s e c to r . T he n ex tc hap te r s d eve lop t h e se p e r spec t i ve sf u r the r .T hey e xam ine t h ee mp ir ica lb a s i sf o rs t udy ing

2 )

I nt h e B ronze A ge t h e p a s to ra l a spec t a nd t h e g ene ra l

c hang ing l a nd -u se , p a s to ra l e xpan s ion a nd t h e d iv i s ion o f

e conomy e xpanded . T h is m ean t t ha t t h e re w a s mo re

l a bou rt a sk s i na n e xp l ic i t ly d i ach ron ica l p e r spec t ive .

1 0 8

4 .T owa rd sc on c lu s ion s : L a te B ronze A ge l a nd -u se a nd d i a ch ron ic d ev e lopm en t s T h i sc hap t er i n i t ia l l yo u t l ine ss om em e thodo log ica lp rob l em si nd ea l ing w i th p a s tora l i s t s . P r em i se sf r om t h i sd i scu s s ion a r eu s ed t oi n t erpr e tt h eL a t eB ron z eA ge s i t e s . T h i sl i m i t ed i n t er p r e ta t ion i sp lac ed i n al o ng t e rm d i a chron ic p er spec t iv e .

THEORET ICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PROBLE MS I N CO MPAR ISONS OF P ASTORAL S ITES

p o r ted b y b oa t . I n t h e p re sen tc on tex t , s uch g ene ra l iza t ion

A l though a n umber o f r e sear cher s a rgue f or a n onna t ive

p o t s , o f p o t s t r an spo r ted o n n omad ic w ande r ing s a nd o f

m e thodo logy i ni n te rpr e ta t ion o f " S tone A ge" s i t e s , am or e

p o t s t h a t a r e p e rmanen t i n s ta l la t ion s o n r egu la r ly v i s i ted

mu s t b e c onf ron ted w i th e t hnog raph ic d e scr ip t ion s o fn o mad ic p a s to ra l i s t s . T he re a r e r epo r t s o fn omad s n o t u s ing

h i s tor ica lo rc on t ex tua la pproach i sp r ef er r ed h er e . T her ea r e

s i te s ( C r ibb 1 99 1 :75f f ) . E ve ry g ene ra l iza t ion mu s t make a l -

a l so q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e v a l id i ty o fa pp ly ing g enera l i za t ion s

l owance f o r t h e p rob lem t h a t p eop le h ave c u l tu ra l r e a son s

a bou t " hun t er -ga ther er" b eha v iour t om u l t i -r e source p a s to -

f o rn o tf o l low ing af o rma l i s t , max im iz ing s t ra tegy .I ts hou ld

r a l i s t s .

b ea l lowed f o rt ha tc umbe r some b u rden sc an h ave ac u l tu r -

A rchaeo logy h a s i n r e cen t y ea r s b ecome w e l l s t ocked

a l ,s oc ia la nd i d eo log ica lr o le ( c fC r ibb 1 99 1 :80 ) .F o re xam -

w i th l i t e ra tu re o n s i te e va lua t ion . T h i sl i t e ra tu re c an f o rt h e

p l e , w hen s e t t lemen t t y pe s a r e d i scu s sed , t h e p o ss ib le r o le

s ake o f s imp l ic i ty b e c l a s s if ied i nt wo r e la ted a pp roache s .

o fp o t s mu s t b e s e t i nt h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l c on tex tua l ma t r ix

O ne a pp roach a im sa tc l a s s ify ing s i te si nn omo log ica lc a te -

( c f J O rgen sen & O lsen 1 988 ) . T he v e ry s ma l l amoun t s o f

g o r ie s b a sed o n e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s . B inf o rd i sa n a d -

s he rd s g ene ra l ly f ound o n t h e N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

h e ren t t ot h i s a pp roach ( e .g . B info rd 1 988 ) . T he o the r a p -

s i te s w he re p o t te ry d oe s o ccu r , s ub s tan t ia te s t h is l i ne o f

p roach r e la te s t o mo re g ene ra l f e a tu re s s uch a s s i te s i ze s ,

t hough t ( P re sco t t i np r ep . ) . When t h i s s t udy d i scusse s t h e

s t ruc tu re s a nd a s semb lage c on ten t ( e .g . R a f f e r ty 1 985 ) .

p o t s he rd s , t h ey a r e n o t p re requ is i te f o r u nde r s tand ing a

B o th " schoo l s" h ave b een i mpo r tan t f o r r e cen t d eve lop -

s i te . T he s he rd s a r e i mpor tan tb ecause o f wha tt h ey a dd t o

m en t s i n i n t ra - a nd i n te r s i te a na ly s is o fS tone Age s e t t le -

t h ee v idence , a nd t h ey a dd d e ta i l t ot h e n a r ra t ive .

m en t si nE u rope . No rweg ian a r chaeo logy h a sb een i n f luen -

I n ac omp rehen s ive s t udy ,n o s i ng le m e thodo logy c an b e

c ed t oo ( e .g . B e rg sv ik 1 99 1 , K r is tof f e r sen 1 990 , N ygaa rd

m echan ica l ly a pp l ied . Ar e sea rch p roce s s i s as pec if ic a nd

1 987 , Nx roy 1 993 , P resco t t 1 99 1 , i np r e s s ) . I nves t iga t ion s

d i a lec t ic p roce ss t ha t i n vo lve s s ou rce s , d a ta , a nd m e thod s

h ave e xam ined d i f f e ren t s i te t ype s a nd a c t iv i ty a r ea s , a nd

t h a ta r em ed ia ted t h rough t h er e sea rche ra t as pec if ic p o in t

t h e i rc onnec t ion t ot h eo rgan iza t ion o fs pace . A t ten t ion h a s

i nt h eh i s to ry o fp e r son sa nd s oc ie ty .R e la t ion sh ip sb e tween

b een d i rec ted t owa rd s a n e vo lu t iona ry p e r spec t ive o n o c -

c on s t i tuen t s i nt h e r e sea rch p roces s a r e o f ten p o r t rayed a s

c ur rence s a nd d eve lopmen t s o f s eden ta r ine s s . A m e thod -

s t ra igh t -f orwa rd . T h i s i su sua l ly al i t e ra ry f i c t ion , whe the r

o l og ica l r e c ipe f o r t h e a na lys i s o f t h e s i te s f r om S ogn ,

t of u lf i l l max im s o f as c ience i d ea l , t oi n c rea se p re s t ige o r

c ou ld h ave b een t oc oncen t ra te o nr e s iden t ia l i ty a nd mob i l -

s imp ly mak e as t udy a s se ssab le t or e ade r s . A rgumen t s a nd

i t y , o r t o d i scu s s s e t t lemen t s o n as c a le t h a t r ange s f r om

mode l s i nt h is s t udy s p r ing f o r t h e mo s t p a r t f r om a r chae -

n omad ic t os eden ta ry . Ac heck l i s t o ff e a tu re s , e . g . p o t te ry ,

o l og ica l s ou rce ma ter ia l a nd d a ta . I t s r e la t ive ly i mmed ia te

m e ta lw o rk ing ,d ump sa nd s t ruc tu re s ,d e s igna ted a si nd ica -

a nd b a s ic l e ve l o f a na ly s i s i s as ou rce f o r a rgumen t s a nd

t i ve o f o ne o r t h e o the r , c ou ld h ave b een c omp i led . T h is

mode l s . T he t h eor ie s , mode ls a nd a na log ie s a r e l a rge ly

m e thod w a s n o t a dop ted h e re . B inf o rd ian s t ud ie s d o n o t

d rawn i n to t h er e sea r ch p roce s s a t al a te rs t age .

h ave d e ta i led u n ive r sa lg ene ra l i ty ,b u td emon s t ra te t h a tv a r -

Ar e a son f o ra dop t ing s uch ah i s tor ica l a nd s pec if i c o r i -

i a t ion i n s i te t y pe s a nd a c t iv i ty a r ea s mu s t g ene ra l ly b e

e n ted a pp roach i st h e n a tu re o f t h e s ub jec t ma t te r . T h is

t a ken i n to a ccoun t ( s ee d i scu ss ion i nT r igge r 1 989 :363f ) .

s t udy d ea ls w i th p a s to ra l i s t s ,n o th un te ra nd g a the re r s . P a s -

P rac t ica l ly a ny f e a tu re d ef ie s d ogma t ic g ene ra l iza t ion . F o r

t o ra l is t mu s tt a ke t h ea cce s st o ab a s ic r e sou rce —p a s tu re s—

e xamp le p o t sa r ec ommon ly s e en a sa ni n d ica to ro fr educed

i n to a ccoun t ( c f K rade r 1 959 :499 q uo ted i n C r ibb 1 99 1 ) .

mob i l i ty . T h i s r e a sonab le g ene ra l iza t ion h a s l im i ted v a lue .

O the r s e conda ry c ons ide ra t ion s w i l l a l so o f ten b e u sed f o r

F o re xamp le i n ama r ine s e t t ing , p o t sc ou ld e a s i ly b et r an s -

t h e ma in tenance o f h e rd s a nd f l ock s , s uch a s p ro tec t ion 1 09

f r om t h ee l emen t s ,e nem ie so rp reda to r s , a cce s st ow a te ro r

S i t ec a t egor ie s

f i rewood a nd p rox im i ty t o r ou te s o f t r an spo r ta t ion ( r ef .

T he s i te s a r e e va lua ted a cco rd ing t o s i ze , c omp lex i ty a nd

C hang & K o s te r 1 986 :1 12f f l . " Pa s to ra l is t" i sa n a na ly t ica l

a s sumed i n ten s i ty / tempo ra l l e ng th o fs t ay . T he s i tes r ep re -

c a tego ry t h a t o pe ra te s i ns o c ia l a nd e conom ic ma t r ixe s o f

s en t t h e se s pec if i c c a tegor ie s :

v a r iab le c omp lex i ty . T he r oom f o r v a r ia t ion i sg rea t . I t

a )

m igh tb e mo re d i ff i cu l tt og ene ra l ize a bou tp a s to ra l is t st h an

e p isoda l i n c iden t s o f l i th ic r e duc t ion , s i ng le h ea r th s , c ha rcoa l p i t s a nd c ha rcoa l / rock s p read s , s ma l l s i tes

h un te r -ga the re rg roup s . Ap a s to ra l h i s to ry mus tb e s t ud ied

w i th h ea r th b u tn o s t ruc tu re s ,

o n p a s to ra l p rem i se s . I t s n ece s sary t os t udy h un te r -ga the r -

b )

s ma l l s i te s w i th s imp le , l i gh t s t ruc tu res a nd

e r s a nd p a s to ra l i s t s f r om d i f f e ren t p e r spec t ive s a nd i nd i f -

c )

l a rge ,s i ng le p ha sed s i te s ,o rs i te c omp lexe s ,w i th s o l id

f e ren t w ay s . T h i s n eed c anno t b e e vaded b y r e f e r r ing t o

s t ruc tu re s , h ea r th s , r e fuse a nd a c t iv i ty a r ea s .

" p r im i t ive" p a s to ra l is t s . A spec t s o fp a s to ra l s oc ie ty , e con -

T he c a tegor ie s a r e e xemp l if ied i ni nt a b le 2 6 .

omy , t e chno logy may b e " p r im i t ive" , b u t a n e vo lu t iona ry i d ea o fp r im i t ive p a s to ra l i sm i sn o t a u toma t ica l ly t e nab le .

T ab le 2 6 . S i te c a tego r ie s b a sed o n t h e N y se t -S t egg je m a te r ia l .

I ft h ei n t roduc t ion o fp a s to ra l ism i sv i ewed a st h er e su l to f

C a tego ry

C ha rac t e r i s t ic s

1 . E p i soda l

lu t en , 1 39 C amp f i r e , k napp ing 5S

S cand inav ian i n te rac t ion w i th B e l l -Beake rc u l tu re s , t h en a n on -evo lu t iona ry a pp roach i se ven mo re r ea sonab le . I tmay b e a r gued t ha t ar e la t ive ly a dvanced p a s to ra l mode o fp ro -

2 . E p i soda l?

E xamp le

e p i sode

B uhaugene

P i t s a nd c ha r coa l

5 0a U ru t lek rä i

s p read s

d uc t ion w a si n t roduced a sp a r to f ac omp lex s oc io -econom -

3 . S ho r tt e rm 1

i cp ackage .

Sma l l l i t h ic

8 5 K a lvebe i t e t

a s semb lage s , n o

T he re a r e f undamen ta l p rob lem s c once rn ing t h e r e cog -

s t ruc tu r e s

n i t ion o f p a s to ra l i s t s , p a s to ra l c a tegor ie s , a nd e conom ic

4 . S ho r tt e rm 2

a nd s oc ia lg ene ra l iza t ion si ns oc ia la n th ropo logy ( Bu rnham

A s 1b u tw i th

1 07 K a lvebe i te t

s t ruc tu re s 5 . L ong t e rm

1 987 , C r ibb 1 99 1 ) . T he p rob lem s a r e , o fc ou r se , e ven mo re

( a nnua lb a se )

d i f f icu l tf o ra r chaeo logy . D iff icu l t ie s i nu nde r s tand ing p a s -

L a rge , mu l t i f ea tu r ed 4 7 U r u t lek rä i mu l t i -func t iona l

t o ra l i sm a r e m e thodo log ica l ly magn if ied b y t h e a r chaeo l og ica l " inv is ib i l i ty" o fp a s to ra la c t iv i t ie s . T he se m igh tb e

C hrono log i ca lc a t egor ie s

s ome o ft h e r e a son s why a r chaeo logy h a s n o t s t ud ied p a s -

F ou r c h rono log ica l s ub -g roup s w re p rev iou s ly d ef ined f o r

t o ra l i sm i nS cand inav ia i nd e ta i l .

t h e N yse t -S tegg je ma ter ia l ( P re sco t t 1 986 [ 1987 ] :147f f ) . T he se w e re t h ee a r ly L a te L i th ic P er iod ( LLP ) ,h i a tu s ,m id -

S hor ti n t ense v i s i t s v s . l o ngt e rm u se

LLP a nd l a te LLP .T he c h rono log ica lc hap te ri nt h ep re sen t

C ompa r ing q uan t i ta t ive s i te f e a tu re s s uf f e r s , f o r e xamp le ,

s t udy p rov ided t h er eg iona lp er iod e qu iva len tf o rt h ea bove

f r om t h e p rob lem s o f d ec id ing w he the r r e su l t s r ep re sen t

l o ca l s e quence . T hu s l o ca l s equence a pp rox ima te s t h eL a te

e x ten s ive u se t h rough al o ng p e r iod o ft ime ,r e cu r r ing v i s i t s

N eo l i th ic , t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge , t h eL a te B ronze A ge a nd

o ri n tens ive u se f o r as ho r tp er iod o ft ime . B e rg sv ik ma in -

t h e L a te B ronze A ge /P re -Roman I r on Age . W i th in t h e se

t a in st h a tt h e re a r ed i ff i cu l t ie si ng ene ra l iz ing t h ed i f f e rence

p e r iod s f i ne r d i s t inc t ion s a r e s ome t ime s made . F o r e xam -

b e tween b a se s i te si n an omad ic s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t

p l e , i ns ome c a ses d i s t inc t ion sb e tween t h eL a te N eo l i th ic I

p a t te rn ,a nd a c t iv i ty s i te si n as eden ta ry s y s tem .T he s i ze o f

a nd t h eL a te N eo l i th ic I , o rt h e e a r ly a nd l a t te rp a r to ft h e

t h eg roup c an b et h es ame i nb o th c a se s ,a nd t h ed u ra t ion o f

E a r ly B ronze A ge , c an b e d rawn .

s t ays l i kew ise , o nt h e se f unc t iona l ly d i f f e ren t s i te s ( Be rg s v ik 1 99 1 :36 ) . T he d i ff icu l t ies o fd ef in ing o pe ra t iona l c r i te -

NYSET -STEGGJE : LO W -ALP INE LAND -USE I N THE LATE BRONZE AGE

r i a i n a dvance f o r d i s t ingu i sh ing t h e n omad ic o r t r an shu man t " ba se c amp s" f r om t h es eden ta ry " ba se c amp s" i si n

T he L a te B ronze A ge s i te s i nV i kada len r epr e sen t ac omp lex

p rac t ice n o tv e ry e a sy . I ti st h e ref o re n ece ssa ry a l so t oe va l -

i n te rpr e ta t ive s i tua t ion . T he a r chaeo logy r ef l ec t s d eve lop -

u a te q ua l i ta t ive d a ta , a nd u se t h e c on tex t . B e rg sv ik ' s s t udy

m en t si nl a nd -u se . I ti sn ece s sar y t oc l ar if yt h en a tur e o ft h i s

c ompa re s s i te s p roduced b y d i f f e ren t e conom ic a nd s oc ia l

s i tua t ion b ef or e am or e c ompr ehen s ive d i achron ica l s t udy

s t ra teg ie s . I tc an b ea rgued t h a ts i te sf r om t h e Me so l i th ic t o

c an b ec onduc ted .

t h ee a r ly B ronze A ge , t hough b o th c ha rac te r ined b y l t h ics , d o n o t c on s t i tu te a n a na ly t ic e n t i ty i n w h ich c omponen t

T he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge s i te s i nt h e l ow -

p a r t s c an b e r e ad i ly c ompa red . I n t h e p re sen t s t udy , d i f f i -

a l p ine a nd a l p ine z one w e re v e ry s im i la r i n s i ze a nd i n -

c u l t ie s o fc ompa r i son a r e n o t a sg rea t s i nce t h e re i s ah igh

v en to ry . T he s i tes i nt h eL a te B ronze Age ,a nd e spec ia l ly i n

d eg ree o fe co log ica l , e conom ic , s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l h omo -

V ikada len , w e re mo re d i ve r se . I th a s b een s ugge s ted p rev i -

g ene i ty w i th in t h e s cope o ft h e c ompa r ison . T he t ime s pan

o u s ly , a nd i tc ou ld b ea r gued f r om f i g . 1 7 , t h a t an umbe ro f s i tes w e re p o ten t ia l ly c on tempo raneou s w i th s i te 4 7 Un i t -

i sa l so r e s t r ic ted . F u r the rmo re ,t h ee xp lana to ry o rh eur is t ic mode l sa r et oa

l e k rä i . T he se s ma l le r s i te s w e re i n te rp re ted a s " sa te l l i te s"

l a rge d eg ree d er ived f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l o r

o rp a r t icu la rt a sk s i te s . T hese i n c lude b o th l i th ic a nd " non -

h i s tor ica l e xamp le s f r om t h e a r ea . O ne a dvan tage o f s uch

l i th ic" s i te s : 2 7 a nd 2 9 K a lvebe i te t , 5 0a a nd 5 1 1 U ru t lek -

a na pp roach ,a so pposed t oo rde r ing a r chaeo log ica ls i te sb y

r ä i , 3 4 fV ika s to len , 8 6 H e l l ingboen a nd 8 4 S ka rhaug sf os -

n o rma t ive mode l s , i st h a t amo re s ca led a nd l e s s d i cho to -

s en . F ig . 2 3 i lu s t ra tes t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te B ronze A ge

m ized v i ew c an b e d eve loped .

s i te st h a tc ou ld h ave b een p a r to fa n "Uru t lek rä ic omp lex" . 1 0

T he c h rono log ica ls cheme d oe s n o tp rove t h a ts i te sw e re

L iu tl il ä vemann ,

c on tempo ra ry i nr e a lt e rm s . R ef i t t ing a nd s t y l is t ic a na ly s i s

t o lv m ann is kogen ,

b e tween s i te s c ou ld o f f e r mo re s ub s tan t ia l e v idence . S uch

t o lv m ann e r ed e i ,

a n a na lys i s w a s n o t c onduc ted h e re . I ti s , h oweve r , o pe r -

t o lv s v erd ib er ed e i ,

a t iona l ly a s sumed t h a ta tl e a s ts ome o ft h es i tes a r ec on tem -

B uhund en b i nda d e i ,

p o ra ry . T he re a r e s ome c i rcum s tan t ia l a r gumen t s f o r t h i s ,

s t or eu k sen s t inga d e i ,

a nd t h e re a r e p l au s ib le e xp lana t ion s f o r s eve ra l c on tempo -

o gm eg s ol i t en e r

r aneous s i te s w i th in s uch a l im i ted a r ea a s U ru t lek rä i —

v i id e ij aga s äl a ng tu t or l a nd e t .

K a lvebe i te t —V ika s to len . I ti se s sen t ia lt oa l low f o rr ef ined

C ome o u t , f a rme r ,

s t ra teg ie s o fl a nd -u se t h a te vo lved i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge .

t we lve m en i nt h e f o re s t ,

Two p rob lem a r ea s c an b e u sed t od eve lop e xp lana t ion s : 1 )

t we lve men t h ey a r e , t we lve s wo rd s t h ey c a r ry

I den t ify ing t a sk v a r ia t ion a nd i d en t ify ing t h e s e lec t ion

t h e d og t h ey 've t i ed

o fs oc ia l a c to r s t h a t w e re p re sen t i si mpo r tan t f o r u n -

T he b i g o x t h ey 've s t abbed

d e r s tand ing t h e s pa t ia l p a t te rn s . 2 )

a nd l i t t le m e

T he g ene ra l d emand s a n i n tens ive p a s to ra l s t ra tegy

t h ey w an tt oc ha se f a ro u to ft h ec oun t ry .

make s o n t h e s u r round ing l a nd p rov ide s c oncep t s f o r u nde r s tand ing b o th s oc ia l a nd s pa c ia l p a t te rn s .

O n t h e f a rm , t h ey u nde r s tood i mmed ia te ly t ha t s ome t h ing w a sw rong a tt h es h ie l ing . T hey . .a s semb led a s many p eop le a st h ey c ou ld f i nd . , a nd t h ey w en t o f f a nd f ound t h e v agabond s a tt h e s h ie l ing , a nd t h ey d i d

T he re w e re n ume rou s p roduc t ion t a sk s p e r fo rmed w i th in

a way w i th t h em .T ho se w ho t h ey [ t he f a rm p eop le ] d i d

t h e B ronze A ge U ru t lek rä i c omp lex . T he se i n c luded l i th ic

n o t k i l l i mmed ia te ly , t h e f a rm p eop le t i ed t o t h e

r e duc t ion , m e ta l lu rgy , f i rewood c o l lec t ing , f o rag ing f o r

h o r se s ' r ump s a nd c ha sed t h e h o r se s , a nd k i l led t h em

p l an t s , e xped i t iona l h un t ing , l o ca l h un t ing , f ow l ing , f i sh -

i n t h a t manne r ." ( "S c e t er l i s ta f or Ä rda l h erad" p . lg

i n g , w a tch -ou t , s hephe rd ing a nd a t tend ing a n ima l s , d a i ry

q uo ted f r om S o lhe im 1 952 :285f , t r an s ! . b y CP ) .

p roduc t ion , c u r ing f ood , p r epa r ing h i de s a nd f u r s . T he se

P lace n ame s r e f lec ted a s soc ia t ion s b e tween t r ac t s o f l a nd

a c t iv i t ie s r e qu i red t h a t t a sk s i tes w e re l o ca ted i nt h e l a nd s c ape a ccord ing t o t h e r e sou rce s , l o ok o u t p o in t s , s oc ia l

a nd t h e i r u se . O ne f i nd s n ame s l i ke K a lvebe i t e t ( "ca lve s

t a boo s , r i tua l e t c . T h i s mean s t h a t t h e re w e re mo re t a sk

p a s tu re") , S aueno s i ( "sheep ' s moun ta in") , S kog en i ( " i s -

s i te s t h an h ave b een l o ca ted a r chaeo log ica l ly . E spec ia l ly

l a nd o ff o res t") ( s ee M id t tun 1 958 ) . N a tu ra lf e a tu res , e spe -

s i te si nt h eh i ghe r -a lp ine z one sw e re u nde r iden t if ied i nt h e

c i a l ly r i ve r s , w e re p robab ly u sed t od ef ine p a s tu re s i np r e -

p r e sen t s i te c o l lec t ion . S uch h i gh -a l t i tude s i te s w ou ld h ave

h i s to ry f o rt h e i rs oc ia lo ru t i l i ta r ian u se —a st h ey h ave u n t i l

b een d i rec ted a tr e indee r h un t ing a nd q ua r ry ing . J udg ing

r e cen t ly . P a s to ra l ism d emand s s pec if i c c oncep t s a nd u se s o f t h e

f r om t h e q ua r tz i te a tU ru t lek rä i , t h e h i gh -a l t i tude s i te s o f

l a nd .I ti sf r om t h i sp e r spec t ive t h a tt h ev a r ia t ion a nd s pa t ia l

t h e " U ru t lek rä ip eop le" m igh tb el o ca ted u pt o4 0k i lome -

d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge s i te s s hou ld b e i n -

t e r s a way —t h e d i s tance t ot h e q ua r r ie s i n Lx rda l .

s pec ted . Mo s to ft h er e levan ts i te s , w e re l o ca ted a c ro s sr i v -

A no the rp rob lem i st h eu se o fl a nd f o rp a s to ra l i sm . Ana l -

e r s o r h idden b y ah i l l i nr e la t ion t o4 7 U ru t lek rä i . S ome

o g ie s may b ef ound l o ca l ly i nh i s to r ica l s umme rp a s tu r ing .

c ommanded a v i ew o r g ave a cce s s t o d e l im i ted p a s tu re s .

D e scr ip t ion s o f mode rn g raz ing d e sc r ibe sp a s tu re r o ta t ion .

V ikada len w a sd i v ided b e tween t h ef a rm sN adv ik a nd H ov -

S uch r o ta t ion w a s ar e spon se t o n eed s f o r g roup ing a nd

l a nd , b u t n o t b ef o re t h e I r on A ge ( M id t tun 1 97 1 :120f , a l so

s eg rega t ing a n ima l sb yp r inc ip le so fa ge ,s e x ,d i sea se ,o wn -

1 9 58 ) . T he "Uru t lek rä i p eop le" c ou ld t h e ref o re h ave u sed

e r sh ip a nd i n d iv idua lq ua l i t ie s . An ima l s w e re moved i nr e -

t h e l a nd o n b o th s i de s o ft h eN yse tr i ve r . T he p o ten t ia l f o r

l a t ion t ot a sk a r ea s ,l i k em i lk ing f a c i l i t ie s .D if f e ren tp a s tu re

s pec ia l ized p a s tu re s ,d ef ined b yn a tu ra lf e a tu re s , w a se no r -

p lo t sw e r eu sed i nr e spon se t ow ea the r ,p reda to r sa nd p e s t s .

mous .

T he re w a s a l so a s oc ia l h i e ra rchy i n t h e o rgan iza t ion o f

An i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h es i te si nt h ea r ea i st h a tU ru t lek rä i

a cce s st op a s tu re s ( e .g . R e in ton 1 955 :65f f , 1 69f f ,3 4 1f ) . A c -

w a s ab a se s e t t lemen t . N ea r ly a l l s oc ia l g roup s w i th in a

c oun t s o f t h ef t a nd r a id s make i tc l ea r t h a t p ro tec t ion o f

f am i ly u n i tw e re p r e sen to nt h e s i te a tt ime s . A round U ru t -

h e rd s , o fp roduc t ion a nd o fp eop le h ad t ob e p rov i s ioned

l e k rä i , s a te l l i te s i te s w e re e s tab l ished . T he se w e re e s tab -

f o r :

l i shed i no rde r t o manage t h e h e rd s a nd f l ock s , t oe xp lo i t

" The re w e re t wo d a i ryma id s i n F o s sda len , a n a du l t

p a s tu re o p t ima l ly a nd t o g ua rd a ga in s t p reda to r s a nd

a nd a na do le scen t . A tt h a tt ime t h e re w e re many v aga -

t h ieve s . Ap rob lem h e re i st h ea r rowhead sa nd l i th ics f ound

b ond s i nt h e moun ta in s . Aw ho le g ang o fv agabond s

o n s ome s a te l l i te s i te s . T he se c ou ld r e p re sen t s hephe rd s

c ame t oF o ssda len , a nd h e lped t h em se lve s t o a l l t h e

p a s s ing t h et ime o rp repa r ing n ece s sa ry t o o ls a nd w eapon s

f ood a tt h e s h ie l ing . T he y ounge s t g i r l t ook h e r h orn ,

f o rl a te ro cca s ion s . T he h ea r th s a nd p i t s a s soc ia ted w i th a l l

a nd s a id t h a ts he h ad t og oo u ta nd l o ok f o rt h ec a lve s .

t h e se s i te s —w i th a nd w i thou t l i th ics — w e re e i the r c amp -

S he r a na sf a s ta sh e rf e e tw ou ld c a r ry h e r ,t oG r eene

f i re s o rf i re s t ow a rd o f fp reda to r s . H is to r ica l s ou rce s n o te

w he re s he c ou ld s e e a l l t h e w ay t ot h e f a rm . A t Lx -

t h a tf i re sw e re c ommon ly l i tt os ca re p r eda to r sa nd " smok e

g re id t h ey [ t he f a rm p eop le ] w e re d r iv ing t h e g ra in

o u t" i n sec t p e s t s . B ronze c a s t ing , a s d ocumen ted b y t h e

i n to t h eb a rn . S he p u tt h eh o rn t oh e r mou th a nd s ang :

c r uc ib le f r agmen tf r om s i te 2 7 K a lvebe i te t , b ecome s mo re 1 1

r ead i ly c omp rehen s ib le i nt h i s p e r spec t ive . T he p i ece w a s

i n c rea se s i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge . As im i la rp a t te rn i ss e en

n o t f r om a n i s o la ted s ma l l c amp , b u t f ound o n p a r t o f a n

i nt h et a b le 2 9 , a sL a te B ronze A ge /P re -Roman a s semb lag -

i n t r ica te s e t t lemen ti nt h eR iska l sva tn b a s in . T he re r ema in s

e se xh ib i tg r ea te rv a r ia t ion .

t h e q ue s t ion o fw hy b ronze w a s w o rked o n as a te l l i te s i te . I tm igh t h ave r e p resen ted ar i tua l a spec t o fm e ta l w o rk ing

T ab le 2 7 . N y se t -S t egg je : T he s i te sp e rc h rono log ica l p e r iod .

( c f P re sco t t

P e r iod

S i te s

S um

LN

2 * , 5 ,3 1** , 3 2

4

E BA

14* , 1 30w

2

V ikada len n o t o n ly s ugge s t s a n i n t r ica te a nd i n ten s ive ly

L BA

8 4 , 8 5 , 1 05 , 1 07* , 16 , 1 30 s , 12 /k59 ,

6

u sed s i te c omp lex a ts ub -a lp ine U ru t lek rä i . T he i n terp re ta -

L BA JPR IA

2 7 /47 , 2 9? , 3 4 f , 5 0a , 5 1 -1 , 8 6 , 1 03 ,

1

1 99 1b :123 ) , c o inc iden ta l , i d io sync ra t ic o r

f unc t iona l . T he a bove i n terp re ta t ion o ft h eL a te B ronze Age s i te s i n

1 30n , 1 39*

t i on s ugge s t sc on tou r so fu np receden ted i n ten s ive e xp lo i ta -

U nda ted

t i on o ft h e p a s tu res . T he re i sa l so amp le e v idence t h a t t h e p redom ina t ly

p a s to ra l

a dap ta t ion

w a s

2 8

*S i te i sd a t ed o n t h eb a s i s o fl o ca l p o in tt y po logy o ra spec t s o f

mu l t i re sou rce

l i t h ic t e chn ique / raw m a t e r ia l ( c f . P r e sco t t 1 9 86 [ 1987 ] ,

b a sed . T he s e ve ra l h und red a r rowhead s a r e e v idence o fi n -

1 99 lb :44f ) .

c r ea s ing e xp lo i ta t ion o f w i ld f a una l r e sou rce s . T he p o in t s

* T he r a d ioca rbon d a te f r om t h e s i te ( w i th o ne s i gma ) s t re t che s

m igh t a l so r e f lec t t h e g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft a sk s —

i n to t h e f i r s tp a r to ft h e E a r ly B ronze A ge ) .

p o in t sw e re p roduced i nt h e moun ta in s ,b u tu sed i n aw ide r a r ea . T hey m igh t a l so r e f lec t an eed t op ro tec th e rd s , l a nd -

T ab le 2 8 . N y se t -S t egg je . C h rono log ica l v a r ia t ion i ns i t e t y pe s .

r i gh t s , p o sse ss ion s a nd p eop le . T he se i n terp re ta t ion s a r e i n

LN

many w ay s c omp l imen ta ry .

E BA L BA L BA /PR

E p i soda l C ha r coa l s p r ead

AD IACHRONICAL EVALUATION OF DEVELOP MENTS I N ÄRDAL BASED ON THE S ITE MATER IAL

1

2

C ha r coa l p i t s

1

S i ng le l c napp ing e p i sd e

1

O the r

3

1 *

S ho r tt e rm

D iachron ica l c ompar i son s a r ef i r s t o n at i me s ca le , t h en a

C amp s i te s w / s t ruc tu r e C amp , n o s t ruc tu r e

g eograph ic f ac tor i si n t roduced . B o th a na ly se ss how s ub s tan -

2

1

1

3

3

t i a ld eve lopmen t s i nt h eN y se t -S tegg je v a l ley s .

B a se s e t t lemen t

1

Nyse t -S tegg je : C ompar ison o fa r tefac t a nd s i te q uan t i t ie s

LN = L a te N eo l i th ic , E BA =E a r ly B ronze A ge , L BA = L a t e

*P o in tf o und i nr o ck s h e l t e rs i t e 1 4 B e rda len . B ronze A ge & L BA JPR = L a t e B ronze A ge / E a r ly P re -Roman I r on A ge .

T he f i r s ta pp roach t op rob ing d i ach ron ic d eve lopmen ti st o c ompa re s i te q uan t i t ie s . T he n umbe ro fs i te s p r . p e r iod a r e

T ab le 2 9 . N y se t -S tegg je . C h rono log ica l v a r ia t ion i ns ome

s imp ly c ha r ted , r ega rd le s s o f s i ze a nd g eog raphy . T he r e -

a r tef ac tc a tego r ie s .

s u l t s a r e p r esen ted i nt a b le 2 7 . T hese r e su l t s a r e s im i la rt o

LN

r e su l t s f r om t h e c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fl i th ic q uan t i -

E BA

L BA

L BA JPR

B ronze

t i e s ( f ig . 2 4 ) . L i th ic q uan t i t ie s c an b e d ependen t o n t h e

C ruc ib le

n umbe r o f s i te s . I ti st h e refo re i n te re s t ing t h a t t h e m agn i -

P o t she rd s

t ude o f d i f f e rence i ss o g rea t , w h ich i nd ica te s t h a t s i te s

S oap s tone

w e re n o to n ly b ecom ing mo re n ume rou s , b u t a l so l a rge r .

P um ice Whe t s tone s

T he s imp le p l o t s a bove c ou ld b e s k ewed , s i nce t h e p e r i -

M ica

o d s r e p resen ted u nequa l t ime s pan s . T he L a te N eo l i th ic

S c rape r s /kn ive s

w a s a pp rox ima te ly 6 50 y ea r s , t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge w a s

P o in t s

6 00 y ea r s ,t h eL a te B ronze Age w a s4 00 y ea r s ,a nd t h eL a te B ronze A ge /P re -Roman p ha se w a s a pp rox ima te ly 4 00 y ea r s . T he t e n s i te s f r om t h e L a te B ronze A ge /P re -Roman

C ompa r ing t h e t wo mo s tr ep re sen ta t ive v a l leys , V ikada len

p ha se c ove red o n ly 2 / 3 o f t h e t ime s pan t h e t wo E a r ly

a nd B e rda len , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t V ikada len w a s u sed t h e

B ronze A ge s i te s c ove red . I ft h e r e la t ive l e ng th s o f t h e

w ho le t ime ,t h ough i n c rea s ing ly s oi nt h eL a te B ronze A ge .

s ub -per iod s a r e t a ken i n to a ccoun t , af i gu re t h a t e xp re sses

As i ng le E a r ly B ronze A ge s i te w a sf ound i nB e rda len , b u t

t h en umbe ro ff i nd sp e ry ea rc an b ep r esen ted . I nt h i sa na l -

i n aw eak c on tex t ( as i ng le p o in t f r om 1 4 B e rda len ) . T he

y s is , L a te B ronze A ge a nd L a te B ronze A ge /P re -Roman

o t he r B e rda len s e t t lemen t s b e longed t o t h e L a te B ronze

p ha se s a r e mo re p redom inan t ( f ig . 2 5 ) .

A ge . U se o f B e rda len s e em s t oh ave b een aL a te B ronze A ge -phenomena .

S i te r ep re sen ta t iv i ty a nd g eog raph ica l a r ea a r e n o tt a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion i nt a b le 2 7 . I tc an t h e ref o re b e s a id t ob e b a sed o n a n a r b i t ra ry s amp le . T o e va lua te t r end s b a sed o n

N yse t -S tegg je : S ome q ua l i ta t ive a spec ts

r e la t ive s amp le s , s epa ra te g raph s b a sed o n t h e t wo mo s t r ep re sen ta t ive g eog raph ic e n t i t ie s , V ikada len a nd B e rda -

A l though t h e a bove l e ad t oq ua l i ta t ive c onc lu s ion s , q uan t i -

l e n , a r e made ( f ig s . 2 6 ) . T he g raph s c onf i rm t h e a bove

t a t ive v a r iab le s w e re u sed . B e low s ome q ua l i ta t ive v a r ia -

n o ted c h rono log ica l t r end s . S ome q ua l i ta t ive t r end s c ome

b l e sa r ee xam ined .T he o n ly s i te si nB e rda len w i th s t ruc tu r -

f o r th i nt a b le 2 8 . T he t a b le s how s t h a t s i te t ype v a r ia t ion

e s o r w i th i n f e r red s t ruc tu re s w e re f r om t h e L a te B ronze 1 2

A ge .E ven t h en , s i te sl i ke 1 30 s , 1 30n , 1 03 a nd 1 6e xh ib i ted

h ave b een t h e mo s tw eak ly r ep re sen ted p er iod . I nt h e L a te

s ma l l a s semb lage s a nd s imp le s i te o rgan iza t ion c ompa red

B ronze A ge t h e re w a s as l igh t i n crea se i n amoun t s o fd e -

t oU ru t lek rä i i nV ikada len .

p o s i t s . T he a bove o u t l ined t r end s a r e r ough ly t h e s ame

As t r ik ing a spec ti nV ikada len , w a st h a ta f te r ap er iod o f

w hen c o r rec ted f o rt h e r e la t ive p e r iod l e ng th s . L i th ic d eb -

i n c rea s ing L a te B ronze Age u se o f t h e v a l ley , e xpan s ion

i t age w a s t h e a r tef ac t c a tego ry c ommon t oa l l l a ye r s . I ti s

w a s i n tens if ied t owa rd s t h e e nd o fL a te B ronze A ge , p o s -

p e rhap s t h e mo s t r e p re sen ta t ive i ndex o f u se i n ten s i ty /

s i b ly i n to t h eP re -Roman P e r iod .T h i sw a sd emon s t ra ted b y

l e ng th . F ig . 2 8 p lo t s t h e s t ra t ig raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f u n -

q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive a spec t s o ft h e s i te c omp lex 4 7

mod if ied f l akes ( I n troduc t ion > C on sol ida t ion > L oca l

n ew s ub s i s tence b a se , n ew t e chno logy a nd n ew e conom ic

r egre s s ion >R enewed e xpans ion > Max ima le xp lo i ta t ion

p a t te rn sd i sp laced o lde re l emen t s . W i th in r eg iona lp a t tern s

>D is con t inua t ion .

o fi n te rac t ion t h e re w a sa l so as t rong g eog raph ic p r io r i ty .I n

T he se p ha se sa r ed er ived f r om t h eÄ rda ld a ta , w i th s ome

t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , c ommun ica t ion o u to fw e s tern N o rway

s ubs id ia ry s uppo r tf r om r eg iona l Norweg ian s ou rce s .H ow -

w a s p r ima r i ly d i rec ted t owa rd s s ou the rn S cand inav ian ( c f .

e ve r , t h e s equence r e semb le s as pec if ic , h i s tor ica l ly s t ruc -

r e f e rence s i nP resco t t 1 99 1b ) . S ou thern S cand inav ian i n te r -

t u red r e nd i t ion o f t h e g ene ra l mode l o u t l ined b y Z ve leb i l

a c t ion w a sd i rec ted t owa rd sc en t ra la nd w e s te rn E u rope , a s

a nd R ow ley -Conwy f o r t h e t r ans i t ion t of a rm ing i nn o r th -

t h em e ta lf i nd sa nd o the ra r tefac tc a tegor ie ss oc l ea r ly d em -

e rn E u rope . T hey h ave s ugges ted a n a va i lab i l i ty p ha se , a

o n s t ra te ( r ef e rence s a bove , a l so J ensen 1 973 , K r is t iansen

s ubs t i tu t ion p ha se a nd a c onso l ida t ion p ha se ( Zve leb i l &

1 987 , L ombo rg 1 973 , 1 975 :12 1 , R a smus sen 1 990 , S U M -

R ow ley -Conwy 1 984 ) .

b e rg 1 9 75 , V andk i lde 1 990 ) . H oweve r , t h e S cand inav ian

R epo r t s o f s ome e l emen t s f ound i nw es tern Norweg ian

c en t re s 1 32

a l so

ma in ta ined

t i e s

t owa rd s

t h e

p e r iphery .

E v idence o ft h is , e . g . i nt h ec a se o fL a te N eo l i th ic J u t land ,

R oman I r on Age a nd t h e R oman I r on A ge w e re p er iod s o f

i sf ound i n t h e many f l in t d agge r s r e cove red i n w e s tern

p roduc t ion r eo rgan iza t ion a nd e conom ic r e s t ruc tur ing . T he

N orway . T he c h rono log ica l s cope f o rt h e c hange s i nw es t -

ma ter ia l c u l tu re a nd e xp lo i ta t ion s t ra teg ie s w e re a l so

er n Norway w e re b y a r chaeo log ica l s t anda rd s d rama t ic .

c hanged d rama t ica l ly . I nt h el a te P re -Roman p er iod t h e a r -

T he se c hange s w e r e c omp le ted i n as ho r t p er iod o f t ime .

c haeo log ica l d a ta w a s s e en a s a n e xp re s s ion o f as ma l le r

T he re w a s l i t t le g augeab le c on t inu i ty i n l o ca l t r ad i t ion s

s phe re o f i n te rac t ion a nd c ommun ica t ion . T he e conomy ,

f r om t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic t ot h e L a te N eo l i th ic p er iod .

e xp lo i ta t ion s y s tem s a nd t h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re s how t h a tt h e l o ca l e conomy a nd p roduc t ion b ecame mo re i mpo r tan t .

A f te r t h e t r an s i t ion t o t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t h e re w a s a c on so l ida t ed p hase i nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd e a r l ie s t E a r ly B ronze Age . T h is p ha se r e p re sen ted a n i n s t i tu t iona l ized

PRODUCTION AND ECONO MY

o rgan iza t ion o fr e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion a nd r e g iona l i n te ra c -

An e s sen t ia l e l emen ti nt h ep re sen ta r gumen ti st h a t an ew

t i on , a nd a ccep tance o ft h e n ew Me ta l A ge s oc ie ty . C om -

f o rm o fe conomy a nd p roduc t ion w a s a n i mpo r tan tf e a tu re

p a red t ot h ei n t roduc t ion p ha se , t h e re s e em st oh ave b een a

i nt h e t r an s i t ion t ot h e L a te N eo l i th ic . T he d i rec t a nd c i r -

s l igh t ly h ighe rl e ve l o fd ome s t ica te e xp lo i ta t ion . A lso ,p o t -

c um s tan t ia l e v idence f r om Nyse t -S tegg je s howed t h a tp a s -

t e ry c ame u nequ ivoca l ly i n to u se o nt h eb a se s e t t lemen t si n

t o ra l ism w a s t h e b a s i s o fs ub s i s tence a nd p roduc t ion . T he

t h e moun ta in s . T he c u l tu ra l e xp re ss ion t h rough ma ter ia l

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s ub s is tence e v idence

c u l ture w a s s t i l l s t rong ly s ou thern S cand inav ian .

s hou ld b e d i scu ssed a nd c ompa red w i th s im i la r e v idence

T he m id -Ear ly B ron ze A ge w a s ar egr e s s ive p er iod , a sf a r

f r om o lde rN eo l i th ic p er iod si nÄ rda l a nd w e s ter nN orway

t h e moun ta in s w e re c oncer ned . F rom t h i s i tc ou ld b e i n -

i ng ene ra l . T he ma rg ina l a nd /o rp e r iphe ra lc ha ra c te ro fA r-

f e r red t h a t t h e re w a s ag ene ra l r eg ress ion i nw e s tern No r -

d a l s hou ld a l so b e d i scu s sed .

w ay o r S ogn . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e l o ca l e v idence i s

T he I nne rS ogn r e g ion h a sb een e xp lo i ted s i nce d eg lac ia -

s omewha t p e rp lex ing , a s t h e l a t te r E a r ly B ronze A ge w a s

t i on ( BY /ego e ta l . 1 992 c ompa red w i th N e s je & R ye 1 99 1 ) .

g ene ra l ly ap er iod o fe xpan s ion i no the rp a r t s o f s ou thern

T he re a r e p a lyno log ica l ly f ounded a s se r t ion s o f h uman -

S cand inav ia ( BrOnd s ted 1 958 :28 , S t enbe rge r 1 979 : 176 f ) .

c ond i t ioned mod if i ca t ion o ft h e v ege ta t ion f r om s ome t ime

T he i n terpr e ta t ion s o f l o ca l ma te r ia l m igh t r e su l t f r om

i ni nt h eg ene ra lN eo l i th ic ,p o s s ib ly a se a r ly a st h eN eo l i th -

s ou rce -cr i t ica l ly s kewed d a ta . T he e v idence c an b ea l terna -

i c 1( K vamme e ta l . 1 992 :84 ) . T h is p a lyno log ica l e v idence

t i ve ly i n te rp r e ted a st h er e su l to f al o ca l c hange i n empha -

i se qu ivoca l , a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s a st ow ha ti tmean s i nh u -

s i s . T he l ow leve l o fa c t iv i ty i nt h e E a r ly B ronze Age may

man b ehav iou ra r eo pen t od eba te .T he e v idence f r om N eo -

r e p resen t ac on so l ida t ion o fp roduc t ion a nd d eve lopmen to f

l i th ic 1a r chaeo log ica l s i te s i nt h eÄ rda l moun ta in s s ugges t

f i e ld sa nd p a s tu res a tl owe ra l t i tude s .T he i n d i rec te v idence

ah un te r -ga there r a dap ta t ion . A g ro -pa s to ra l s t ra teg ie s b e -

f r om t h e l ow land s c anno t t h row l i gh t o n t h e v a l id i ty o f

c ame c l ea r ly p redom inan tf r om a round t h et r ans i t ion t ot h e

e i ther o ft h e se p os i t ion s . T he E a r ly B ronze Age d a ta a l so

L a te N eo l i th ic .

s hows c hang ing r e la t ion so fr eg iona li n te rac t ion a nd c u l tu r -

A s i n te rp re ta t ion s o f M idd le N eo l i th ic a g r icu l tu re o r

a le xp res s ion . A l though t h ec on tac t s w i th s ou the rn S cand i -

p a s to ra l ism f r om I nne rS ogn a r ed ub iou s ,t h eb roade rw e s t -

n av ia w e re s t i l l p ronounced ( P re sco t t 1 99 1b , h e re , a l so

e rn Norweg ian ma te r ia l i sb r ief ly r e v iewed h e re . E v idence

K r i s t iansen 1 987 ) , t h e re w a s a l so i n te ra c t ion w i th r eg ion s

o fa gr icu l tu re a nd p a s to ra l ism f r om N eo l i th ic 1p e r iod s i n

t ot h en o r th a nd /o rn o r thea s t .I nr eg iona lt e rm st h es i tua t ion

t h ew ide rr eg ion i sa l so u nce r ta in .T he re a r es ome t e n ta t ive

r e p resen ted t h e d eve lopmen t o f aw es tern -coa s ta l c u l tu ra l

r epo r t so fa g r icu l tu re a nd p a s tu r ing ( Bakka & K a land 1 97 1 ,

r e g ion i n t h e s ou the rn S cand inav ian p e r iphe ry ( P resco t t

B je rck 1 987 , H je l le 1 992 , I nd re l id & Moe 1 983 , O l sen

1 99 1b :94f f , 1 20f , s e e Ä go tne s 1 986 :116 ) .

1 976 :23f f S ee H uf thamme r 1 988 :36 , 1 992 :60 f o r r e levan t

A round t h et r an s i t ion t ot h eL a t eB ron z eA ge t h e re w a sa

o s teo log ica l ma ter ia l ) , b u t s ub s tan t ia l e v idence o fs uch a c -

r e newed s urge o fe xp lo i ta t ion . T he c ha rac te r o ft h is e xpan -

t i v i t ie sh a so n ly b een f ound a so ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic o rl a te r

s i on wa s s im i la r t o t h e c on so l ida t ion p ha se . T he re w a s

p e r iod s . I ft h e N eo l i th ic 1e v idence a c tua l ly r e f lec t s a g r i -

s t rong i n te r e s t i n e xp lo i t ing r e sou r ce s a th ighe r a l t i tude s ,

c u l tu re o rp a s tu r ing , t h ese a c t iv i t ie s a r eb es t i n terp re ted a s

a nd e spec ia l ly i n t h e l ow -a lp ine z one . T he l a t te r L a te

l ow -sca led ,a nd a sa ne l emen to fr i tua la nd a ne xp re ss ion o f

B ronze Age a nd p robab ly e a r ly P re -Roman p e r iod w a s

i d eo logy ( B je rck 1 988 , Nygä rd 1 988 , P resco t t i np r ep . ) .

c ha rac te r ized b y c on t inued e xpan s ion , a nd t h is p e r iod r ep -

L a te N eo l i th ic a g r icu l tu re a nd p a s to ra l i sm d o n o tc ompa re

r e sen ted t h et ime o fm ax ima lr e sour ce e xp lo i ta t ion .T h i sw a s

t os uch a c t iv i t ie s i nt h ep reced ing p e r iod ( Compa re a s sem -

n o to n ly r e g i s te red q uan t i ta t ive ly i nt h e m a te r ia l e v idence ,

b l age s p resen ted i nP re sco t t 1 99 1 :40f f , w i th O lsen 1 976 o r

b u t a l so t h rough q ua l i ta t ive v a r iab le s . T he s i tua t ion r ep re -

H uf thamme r 1 992 ) .

s e n ted an ew e xp lo i ta t ion s t ra tegy . G eog raph ic e xpans ion i n to mo re ma rg ina le nv i ronmen t sc on t inued ,a nd b o th h un t i n g a nd p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s w e re p u r sued i n t h is p er iod o f

D eve lopmen t sf rom al o ca lp er spec t ive

m ax ima l r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion .

Ä rda l , I nne r S ogn a nd w e s te rn Norway w e re l a rge ly ma r -

T he e nd o ft h e B ronze A ge e poch w a s v i r tua l ly a sd ra -

g i na l f r om a n a gr icu l tu ra l p e r spec t ive . T he re w e re , h owev -

m a t ic a s t h e b eg inn ing . H oweve r , t h e r e su l t s , r e a son s a nd

e r ,l a rge o u t -f ie ld p a s tu re s .T he re w e re a l so s ubs tan t ia la l t i -

m echan i sm s f o rt h is p er iod o fd i scon t inua t ion o ft h eB ron ze

t uda l v a r ia t ion s w i th in r e la t ive ly s ho r t d i s tance s i n i n ne r

A ge a nd t r an s i t ion t ot h eI r on A ge w e re d i f f e ren tt han t ho se

S ogn .I nne rS ogn w a sn o to n ly g ene ra l ly s u i tab le f o rp a s to -

f o und i nt h et r an s i t ion t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic . T he l a t te rP r e -

r a l i sm , b u t i tw a s a l so a dm i rab ly s u i ted f o r t r anshuman t 1 33

p a s to ra l ism . T he p a s tu re s a nd t h e i rs u r round ing s w e re a l so

p re sen ti nw e s tern N orway b efo re t h eL a te N eo l i th ic , i tw a s

g ood h un t ing g round s .Ä rda la nd i n ne rS ogn w e re t h e refo re

p os s ib ly a ne r ra t ic " ga rden c u l t iva t ion" . B a sed o n t h ee v i -

n o t m a rg ina l i nr e spec tt or e sou rce s .

d ence a va i lab le t oday s u ch c u l t iva t ion d i d n o t h ave a ny

Ä rda l w a s , h oweve r , g eog raph ica l ly p e r iphe ra l t oS can -

p rof ound i mpac to n t h e e nv i ronmen t .

d i nav ian L a te N eo l i th ic c en t re s , l i k e L imf jo rden i nJ u t land

A s e conda ry p roduc t s mode o f p roduc t ion w ou ld h ave

( Vandk i lde 1 990 ) o r e a s tern D enma rk ( Ra smus sen 1 990 ,

r ap id ly o u t s t r ipped t h e p roduc t iv i ty o f h un t ing -ga the r ing

a l so L ombo rg 1 973 ) .I ti su n l ike ly t h a tt h eM idd le N eo l i th ic

a nd n on -da iry p a s to ra l ism . Af u r the r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e

h un te r s i n S ogn e xe r ted s uch p re ssu re o n w i ld r e sou rces

d eve lopmen t o f t h e s y s tem i sb a sed o n t h e p rem i se t h a t

t h a ta ni mba lance b e tween t h er e sou rce sa nd t h ep opu la t ion

p a s to ra l i sm i sg ene ra l ly e xpan s ive .P a s to ra li d eo logy ,e con -

s i ze d eve loped . T he n a tu re o ft h e l o ca l o rr eg iona l s i te ma -

omy a nd p o l i t ics w i l l n ece ssa r i ly r e spond t ot h e e xpand ing

t e r ia ld oes n o ts ugge s td emog raph ic p res su re i nt h eM idd le

q ua l i ty o f t h e p a s to ra l mode o f p roduc t ion . T h i s d ynam ic

N eo l i th ic . F o r t h e se r e a son s , i ti sd i ff icu l t t o u nde r s tand ,

s i tua t ion i se xemp l if ied i ns ome r e cen t s t ud ie s o fc on tex t s

f r om af unc t iona l is to rn a r row e co -de te rm in i s tp e r spec t ive ,

i nt h e c r o ssroad s b e tween a r chaeo logy , h i s to ry , e t hno logy

why a nd h ow a g r icu l tu re o r p a s to ra l ism w ou ld e vo lve l o -

a nd l i ngu is t ic s . T he a dop t ion o f as e conda ry p roduc t ss t ra t -

c a l ly . T he re w a s n o a ppa ren t ma ter ia l b a s i s f o r d eve lop -

e gy c an r e ad i ly a t ta in r e vo lu t iona ry p ropo r t ion s , a nd

men t o fa n a g ro -pa s to ra l mode o fp roduc t ion .

e f f ec t s much mo re t h an p roduc t ion a nd e conomy . T he f un -

I ti sg ene ra l ly h e ld a s at h eo ry a mong a n th ropo log is t s , o r

d amen ta ls o f s oc ia l l i f e c an b e t r ansf ormed . T h i s t r an s -

i ti s ar e a sonab le d educ t ion f r om s uch t h eo ry , t h a tp eop le s

f o rma t ion c an i n c lude i d eo logy , l a nguage , p o l i t ica l o rga -

who p rac t iced l ow l a bou r inpu t p roduc t ion , l i ke many

n i za t ion a nd i d ea s o fe t hn ic i ty , a sd emon s t ra ted i n ar e cen t

f ood -ga the re r s , w ou ld r e s is t c hange t o f ood p roduc t ion

c ros s -d i sc ip l ina ry s t udy ( Haa land 1 992 ) .T h i sw a sa l so p a r t

( d iscu s s ions o ft r ans i t ion s t oa nd i n tens if ica t ion o fa gr icu l -

o f t h e g ene ra l i d ea i n he ren t i n S he r ra t t 's a r gumen t s c on -

t u re a r ef ound i nB ende r1 975 , B inf o rd 1 988 : 195f f ,B o serup

c ern ing t h e " Seconda ry P roduc t s R evo lu t ion" i nt h e O ld

1 965 : 1 1 , C ohen 1 977 , H aa la nd 1 992 , L ee 1 968 , Wenke

Wo r ld ( Sher ra t t 1 98 1 , 1 983 , a l so G reenf ie ld 1 988 ) . I ti s

1 984 ) . I ft h is i st h ec a se i ti sd i ff i cu l tt ou nde r s tand , a tl e a s t

o pen f o r a rgumen t w he the r as e conda ry p roduc t s " r evo lu -

f r om ar i g id ly ma ter ia l is tp e r spec t ive ,h ow t h es y s tem st h a t

t i on" i sg ene ra l ly ar e su l t o r c ause . T h is p robab ly d i f f e r s

e vo lved i nS ogn a c tua l ly c ame t ob e a ccep ted a nd a l lowed

f o re ach i n d iv idua l h i s to r ica l c a se .

t od eve lop . I ndeed , s uch r e a son ing l e ad s t ot h e f o l low ing q ue s t ions : 1 )

P a s tora l i sm

Why a nd h ow d id t h e i n hab i tan t s a dop ta n a g ro -pa s to -

" Pa s to ra l l a bou rh a s t h ree d i s t inc t ive p rope r t ie s . F i r s t ,

r a l mode o fp roduc t ion? 2 )

a s n o ted b y B a r th ( 1973a , p . 17 ) , l a bou r i sd i rec ted

Wha t w a s t h e n a tu re o f t h e s oc io -econom ic s y s tem

p r ima r i ly a tc ap i ta l ma in tenance , t h e s ucces s o fw h ich

t h a t s t a r ted i nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic? Wha t w e re t h e d y -

i n cur s mo re r a the r t h an l e s s e f fo r t . S econd , p a s to ra l

n am ics t h a t p e rm i t ted t h e s y s tem t o e xpand , i n deed

l a bou rc an b e i n ten s if ied o n ly i ns o f a r a s i ts e rve s t o

p robab ly a l lowed a l ow leve l s oc ia l h i e ra r chy t o

c oncen t ra te t h e o wne r sh ip o fl i ve s tock w i th in c e r ta in

e vo lve?

h ou seho ld s .I td oe sn o tp erm i ta ny g i ven r eg ion t os up p o r t ag rea te r n umbe r o f a n ima l s ( Ba te s a nd L ees

S econdar yp roduc t s

1 977 , p . 836 ) . T h i rd , p a s to ra l l a bou r i sh igh ly c ompe t -

I ti sn o t r e ad i ly e v iden t f r om t h e a bove w hy p eop le p re -

i t ve . H e rd ing i s az e ro s um g ame i n wh ich o ne h e r -

f e r red t oh e rd d ome s t ic a n ima l s r a the rt h an h un t w i ld a n i -

d e r ' sg a in i su sua l ly a no the r ' sl o ss ,e xcep tu nde rc ond i -

ma l s . T h i s i se spec ia l ly t h e c a se when i ti sf r amed a s a

t i on s o f h e rd e xpan s ion d ur ing r e cove ry f r om a n

q ue s t ion o fm e re ly s ub s t i tu t ing w i ld mea ts ou rce sf o rt ame .

e x ten s ive d rough to re p idem ic ." ( Cr ibb 1 991 :37 f )

T he L a te N eo l i th ic c hange s w e re , h oweve r , f undamen ta l n ew f o rm s o fr e source e xp lo i ta t ion a nd e conom ic s t ra tegy .

Ap reh i s tor ic p a s to ra l s y s tem i n N orway w ou ld h ave d e -

T h i s s t ra tegy i sh e re , a f te r S he r ra t t ( 1 98 1 , 1 983 ) , t e rmed a

manded t h ree b a s ic r e sou rce s ;p a s tu res ,l a bou ra nd a n ima ls

" seconda ry p roduc t s s t ra tegy" . A s e conda ry p roduc t s

( r ef e rence s a nd ac r i t ica l d i scus s ion o fs ome s y s tem ic i m -

s t ra tegy i n vo lved l ong t e rm e xp lo i ta t ion o f d ome s t ica ted

p l ica t ions i nP re sco t ti np r es s , a l so C r ibb 1 99 1 ,B a r th 1 964 ) .

a n ima l s b a sed o n m i lk , w oo l , b lood a nd d raugh t p owe r o f

A n ima l s w e re p robab ly t h e mo s t f l ex ib le o f t h ese t h ree

t h ea n ima ls . T hough d eve lopmen t s i nt h ep a s to ra l s e c tor i n

v a r iab le s . H e rds w e re t h e p r ima ry g oa l f o rp roduc t ion , b e -

I nne r S ogn w e re o ft h e g rea tes t i mpo r tance , g ra in a gr icu l -

c ause o f t h e ir r o le a s p a s to ra l c ap i ta l ( Ba r th 1 964 , C r ibb

t u re w a sa l so p ra c t iced .T he a rd w a sc once ivab ly a ni mpo r -

1 99 1 :34 , a l so H aa land 1 969 :64 ) a nd t h e i rf undamen ta l r o le

t a n te l emen t i nL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge a gr icu l tu re

a s as o c io -econom ic s ymbo l . T he i r s i ze w ou ld h ave b een

( I den t if ied t r ace s o fa r d f u r rows a r e d a ted t ot h e I r on Age

a d ju s ted i n r e la t ion t o t h e o the r f a c to r s . Mo t iva t ion s f o r

a nd p o ss ib ly t h eB ronze A ge i nN orway [ Hagen 1 983 :232f f ,

e xpan s ion w e re n o t s t r ic t ly e conom ic . E xpan s ion w a s a l so

1 985 :53f f , 1 983 ] . I n D enma rk s uch t r aces g o b ack t o t h e

embedded i n t h e s oc io -econom ic v a lue o f s imp ly h av ing

F unne l B eake r C u l tu re , w h i le a c tua l a r d s a r e d a ted t ot h e

t h e a n ima ls , t ha t i s , t h e s oc ia l p re s t ige o f h av ing l a rges t

E a r ly B ronze A ge [ J en sen 1 982 :99 , 1 22 , 1 53 ] ) .T he a r dp os -

p o s s ib le q uan t i t ie s o f a n ima ls a nd /o r ac apac i ty f o r i n -

s i b ly d i s t ingu ished L a te N eo l i th ic a gr icu l tu re i n w e s tern

c r ea sed e conom ic p roduc t ion . B u t g i ven p a s tu re s a nd l a -

Norway f r om t h e g ra in p roduc t ion t h a t m igh t h ave b een

b ou r , t h e a n ima ls w ou ld r ep roduce a nd t h e h erd s w ou ld

c a r r ied o u t i n t h e N eo l i th ic 1p er iod . I fa gr icu l tu re w a s

g row , . a s l o ng a s h e rd s ( pa s to ra l c ap i ta l ) w e re n o t c on 1 34

s umed . T he l im i t ing f a c to r s , o n a n i n termed ia te t o l ong -

c en t re s . T he c en t ra la r ea so fS cand inav ia c ou ld i n te rac te c -

t e rm s ca le , w e re l a nd ( g raz ing r i gh t s , c f :B a r th 1 964 ) a nd

o nom ica l ly a nd p o l i t ica l ly w i th C ha lco l i th ic ( Be l l B eake r

l a bour ( Cr ibb 1 99 1 :27f ) . S pa t ia l e xpan s ion w a s ar e spon se

a nd l a te C o rded Wa re ) , E a r ly B ronze A ge ( Üne t ice ) , L a te

e i the r t o ad e s i re f o r i n c rea sed p roduc t iv i ty ( whe the r e co -

B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on Age s oc ie t ie s i n c en t ra l a nd

n om ica l ly , s o c ia l ly o r i d eo log ica l ly mo t iva ted ) o r e co log -

w e s tern E u rope , a nd B r i ta in a nd I r e la nd . T he e conom ic ,

i c a l s t re ss — o rb o th . E xpans ion w ou ld h ave d emanded o r -

p o l i t ica l a nd d emog raph ic p o ten t ia l i n Norway w a s much

g an iza t ion t o d ef end o r s e ize t e r r i to r ie s

a nd f l ock s .

l e ss . I n N o r th E u ropean t e rm s , t h is v a r ia t ion c an b e s t b e

I n c rea sed f l ock s a nd p roduc t ion c ou ld h ave a l so h ave b een

s e en a s ac en t re -pe r iphe ry h i e ra rchy . I n p a r t o f t h e L a te

a t ta ined b yi n ten s if i ca t ion o fe xp lo i ta t ion s t ra teg ie s ,a tl e a s t

N eo l i th ic ,t h i s s y s tem c once ivab ly e x tended f r om t h eÜ ne t -

t o ac e r ta in e x ten t . I n ten s if i ca t ion a nd /o rs pa t ia le xpan s ion ,

i c e r e g ion t oJ u t land t ow es te rn a nd n o r thern No rway .

i n deed a ny s u cce s sfu l i n c rea se i n p a s to ra l p roduc t ion ,

L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge No rway w a s n o ta n u n i -

w ou ld h ave l e d t oi n c rea sed d emand s f o r l a bou r , a nd p o s -

f o rm s oc ia le n t i ty e i the r .T h i si sc l ea r ly s hown b yt h ed i s t r i -

s i b ly a g r ea te r d eg ree o f l a bou r d iv i s ion a nd t a sk d i f f e r -

b u t ion o fp re s t ige a r tefac t s ( Hagen 1 983 :103f , 1 76f , H agen

e n t ia t ion .

e ta l . 1 989 : 10f f , S cheen 1 979 ) . I tc an b e c onc luded t h a t i n

G ene ra l ly , i n af am i ly b a sed s y s tem , t h ee vo lu t ion o ft h e

p a r t s o f t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age , N orweg ian

h ou seho ld w ou ld p e r iod ica l ly t h rea ten i t s s u rv iva l a s a n

c en t re s h ad s o l id t i e s t o J u t land . T h i s c l ea r ly p e r ta in s t o

i n dependen t p a s to ra l u n i t . S ucce ssfu l t e r r i to r ia l e xpan s ion

S ou thwe s t Norway ( Hagen 1 983 :179 , J ohansen 1 986 :15 1 ,

a nd i n c rea sed p roduc t ion c ou ld a r guab ly o u t s t r ip t h el a bou r

Ma r s tande r 1 950 , S o lbe rg 1 993 ) , a l though t h e n a tu re a nd

p o ten t ia l , e ven i n al a rge , e x tended f am i ly . Ap a s to ra l s y s -

d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se c en t re s h a s n o tb een s t ud ied i n -dep th .

t em w ou ld a t temp tt oc r ea te m echan ism st om ee tp er iod so f

T he e v idence f r om s ou thwe s tern Norway s ugge s t s f a i r ly

l a bour s t re ss . A l though t h e f am i ly w ou ld r ema in t h e b a s ic

d i rec t c on tac t w i th J u t land . I tw a s h e re t h e e a r l ie s t d eve l -

a u tonomous u n i to fd ec is ion ,i tc ou ld i n co rpo ra te n on -fam -

o ped p a s to ra l -ag r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion a nd s oc ia l h i e ra rchy

i l y membe r s t o med ia te t h e l a bou r s ho r tages ( Ba r th 1 964 ,

w e re l o ca ted . O the rc en t re s , o n as im i la ro rs omewha tl e ss -

C r ibb 1 99 1 :39 ) . T h i s s i tua t ion w ou ld p rov ide i n cen t ives t o

e r s c a le , w e re f o r e xamp le f ound i n S unnmo r e , T rond -

p roduce a s u rp lu s . P a r t o f t h e s u rp lu s c ou ld b e u sed t o

h e im sf jo rd a nd t h eO s lof jo rd r e g ion ( ba sed o nH agen 1 983 ,

a t t rac t n on -f am i ly l a bou r . I tw ou ld a l so p romo te p o l i t ica l

I nd re l id 1 984 , J ohan sen 1 98 1 , Mand t 1 99 1 ) .

i n teg ra t ion t o d i s t r ibu te s ome l a bou r a nd r e a l loca te l a nd

I n aw e s tern N orweg ian p e r spec t ive , Mand th a s s ugges t -

r i gh t s i n a n i n c lus ive u n i t . T he s ys tem t h e reby p rov ide s

e dN eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge r e g ion s i nS ogn & F jo rdane .

i n teg ra t ive i n cen t ive s t oc ope w i th l a bou r i mba lances a nd

T he d ef in i t ion o ft h e se g eog raph ica l e n t i t ie s w a s b a sed o n

p ro tec th e rd s a nd l a nd r i gh t s . T he p a s to ra l s y s tem a l so h a s

t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tefac t s ,d omes t ic s i tes a nd p e t rog lyph s

d i s in teg ra t ive i n cen t ives . T he se a r e , f o r e xamp le , f ound i n

( Mand t1 990 , 1 99 1 :458f ) .T he u neven d i s t r ibu t ion ss he p re -

t h e c ompe t i t ion f o r p a s tu re a nd l a bou r , a nd c a t t le r a id s .

s en ted s ugge s ted r i tua l a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l c en t re s i nS ogn ,

T h i s s i tua t ion wou ld i n c rea se s oc ia li n teg ra t ion t h rough a l -

s u ch a s i nt h e L e ikange r a r ea . I n a dd i t ion t o h e r w es tern

l i ance s , t h a tw e re i nt h e i rv e ry n a tu re s e lec t ive .

N orweg ian r eg ion s , V a ld re s ( e a s t o f S ogn ) w a s p e rhap s

T he a bove i sn o t me re ly s y s tem ic r e a son ing b a sed o n

p a r to ft h is r e g iona l s y s tem o fi n te rac t ion . I fr eg iona l c en -

e t hno -a rchaeo log ica lg ene ra l iza t ion s .I ti sr e a soned a cco rd -

t r e sa r ed ef ined b yc oncen t ra t ion s o fl a rge f l in to b jec t sa nd

i n gt ot h ee v idence f o und i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f r om

b ronze ,Ä rda lw a sn o t ac en t re .Ä rda lw a s al o ca lp er iphe ry

Ä rda l .T h i sr e co rd d emons t ra ted s pa t ia le xpan s ion ,p roduc -

i nt h er eg iona l w e s te rn No rweg ian p e r iphe ry .

t i on i n ten s if i ca t ion , a nd a n i n c rea s ing ly c omp lex o rgan iza -

T he p u rpo se o ft h e a bove i sn o t t oa r gue i nd e ta i l a bou t

t i on o fl a bou ra nd p roduc t ion . T he a r tefa c t sf r om " exo t ic"

t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd n a tu re o f Norweg ian c en t re s a nd p e -

a nd r eg iona ls ou rce sw e r et r a ce so fg i f t -r e la t ion s ,e conom ic

r i pher ie s ( s ee i n t roduc t ion i nC hamp ion [ 1 989 ] f o rg ene ra l

t r an sa c t ions , ma r r iage s a nd a l l iance s . Mo t iva t ions f o r

p re sen ta t ion o f c en t re -pe r iphe ry t e rm s , s e e K r i s t ian sen

e conom ic a nd p roduc t ive e xpan s ion , a nd c on f l ic t a nd a l l i -

1 987 f o r ap e r spec t ive s pec if ic t oB ronze Age S cand inav ia ) .

a nce s , w e re n o t o n ly f ound i nt h e l o ca l p roduc t ive s e c to r .

T he p o in t i st h a t t h e re i sa mp le s uppo r t f o r i n co rpo ra t ing

T hey w e re a l so f ound i nt h es o c ia l ,p o l i t ica la nd i d eo log ica l

r e g iona l s oc ia l mechan i sm s i ne xp lana t ion s o f L a te N eo -

s e c tor s .

l i t h ic a nd B ronze A ge c u l tu re , a g ro -pa s to ra l ism , r eg iona l c i rcu la t ion o fg ood s a nd s t ronge r s oc ia l i n teg ra t ion . Mo re

CENTRE AND PER IPHERY . POLITICS AND SOCIAL I NTEGRATION

w o rk w i th t h ep rob lems t h a ts p r ing o u to ft h eÄ rda l ma ter i -

T he S cand inav ian L a te N eo l i th ic r ep re sen ted t h e b udd ing

a lf r om ar e g iona lp e r spec t ive .T hese a r er e spec t ive ly a sym -

o f s oc ia l h i e ra rchy , u nequa l a cce s s t o r e sou rce s , a nd a n

m e t r ic d eve lopmen ta nd e l i t ec ompe t i t ion .

s pec if i ca l ly , t wo s oc ia l m echan ism s c an b e d rawn u pon t o

" evo lu t ion o f p owe r" . S cand inav ia w a s , h oweve r , n o t a n

A symme t r ic d eve lopmen ti sb a s ica l ly a ne co log ica lc on -

u n if orm r e g ion . P a r t so fp r e sen td ay D enma rk , Sweden a nd

c ep t , a nd i mp l ie s i n te rac t ion — h o s t i le a nd a m icab le — b e -

N o r the rn G ermany h ad g r ea tp o ten t ia lf o rd emog raph ic e x -

t ween s oc ie t ie s o n u nequa l l e ve l s o f s oc ia l i n teg ra t ion o r

p an s ion a nd p opu la t ion c oncen t ra t ion b a sed o n l o ca l a gr i -

o rgan iza t iona l c omp lex i ty ( c f . d i scus s ion i n F r ied 1 960 ,

c u l tura l p roduc t ion a nd e conom ic e xchange b a sed o n s u r -

1 975 ) . R e la t ive ly h i e ra rch ic a nd s oc ia l ly i n teg ra ted s oc ie -

p l us a nd p r e s t ige p roduc t s ( s uch a si mpo r ted m e ta l , a mbe r

t i e s w i l l e xe r t s oc io -econom ic p re ssu re o n l e s s i n teg ra ted

a nd f l in t ) , a s w e l l a s af a vo rab le g eog raph ica l j ux ta -po s i -

n e ighbo r s oc ie t ies . T he d eve loped s oc ie t ie s w i l l s e ek t o

t i on b e tween

e xpand i n to t h et e r r i to r ie so ft h el e ss d eve loped , a nd w ou ld

S cand inav ian p e r iphe r ie s a nd E u ropean 1 35

b e at h rea t t ot h e l a t te r . Ad ef en s ive r e sponse w ou ld b e t o

t h ey b o th p l ayed i mpo r tan t , a nd a r guab ly c omp l imen ta ry ,

a dop t a mor e t i gh t ly i n teg ra ted s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , a nd

r o le s i n t h e h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t . T hey c an h ave b een

p e rhap s e s tab l ish a l e ve l o f h i e ra r chy . R eg iona l a l l iance s

p a r t s o ft h e s ame h i s tor ic a nd s y s tem ic p roce ss .

a nd p roduc t ion

s u rp lu s w ou ld b e n ece ssa ry p a r t s o f

D iscu ss ion s o f t h e B eake r C u l tu re m a ter ia l ( e .g . H a r r i -

t h e p o l i t ica l -econom ic s y s tem . I n t h e c a se o f I nne r S ogn ,

s on 1 980 ) a nd a n th ropo log ica l d i scuss ion s c oncer n ing t h e

t h is s i tua t ion w ou ld h ave mean t t h a t t h e re w a s at r an s i t ion

s oc ia l n ego t ia t ion o f p o l i t ica l p owe r ( e .g . , B a r th 1 965 ,

f r om a s ub s i s tence t o a mo re e conom ica l ly o r ien ted

L each 1 977 [ 1954 ] ) c an b e u sed t os e t a n a na ly t ica l c on tex t

p roduc t ion .

f o rt h e d i scu s s ion o ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic i nt h ep re sen ta r ea .

I fa symme t r ic d eve lopmen ti s av a l id e xp lana to ry m ech -

A r tef ac t s l i ke m e ta l , f l in t d agge r s a nd i mpo r ted b ead s

a n i sm f o rw e s te rn No rway , i ti sn ece s sa ry t oi d en t ify , o ra t

w ou ld h ave p l ayed u t i l i ta r ian a nd e t hn ic r o le s ,b u ta r te fac t s

l e a s t a s sume , a" t r igge r ing u n i t" n ea r b y . I n t h e p re sen t

w e re p e rhap s mo re i mpo r tan ta s " soc ia l t o o l s" f o ri n te rna l

c a se t h is s hou ld p ref e rab ly h ave b een o n w e s te rn N orwe -

a nd e x terna l u se . W i th in a l a rge r s oc ia l g roup , p r e s t ige

g ian s o i l . Wi th t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f ah i e ra r ch ic u n i t , p e r -

g ood sw ou ld h ave b een u sed o rd i sp layed t ol e g i t im ize s t a -

h ap s i n c l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e L imf jo rd r eg ion , L a te

t u s . P re s t ig iou s o b jec t s h e lped t oc on s t i tu te i n te rna l ly a nd

N eo l i th ic c u l tu re , a g ro -pa s to ra l ism a nd s oc ia l i n teg ra t ion

e x ter na l ly d i rec ted i d en t i t ie s .T h i sw ou ld h ave b een v i ta lt o

wou ld h ave r a p id ly b een d i spe r sed w i th in s ou thern a nd

as y s tem o fe vo lv ing l ow sca le h i e ra r chy . P re s t ige o b jec t s

c oa s ta l N orway .

" Leapf rogg ing" ,

" back t rack ing"

w ou ld h ave b een v i ta l i nt h e i n terna l n ego t ia t ion o fp owe r .

a nd

T h is w ou ld h ave e spec ia l ly b een t r ue f o r as y s tem w i th a

"wave a c t ion" d esc r ibe t h e s ys tem ic f o rm t h a t t h is d eve l -

w eak l o ca l ma te r ia l b a se , f ew m ean s o f c oe rc ion , a nd

o pmen t w ou ld h ave t a k en . T he m echan i sm s h ave w ou ld

w h ich h ad b een i n s t iga ted e x te rna l ly . S uch o b jec t s w e re

b een t h rough a l l iance s , m ig ra t ion s , c oe r c ion a nd d ef en s ive

u sed t oc l a im i d eo log ica ll e g i t imacy .T he o b jec t sw e re u sed

r e spon ses .

e x terna l ly a sp o s i t iona l s i gn s , o r w e re o b jec t s u sed t o ma -

I st h e re a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o fa n i n i t ia l s ou thwe s t -

n i pu la te o rd ef end as oc ia l o rde ra ta ny g i ven momen t . A s

e rn d eve lopmen t? T he s ho r tt ime s pan s i n vo lved mean t ha t

t h ey d emons t ra ted t h e l e g i t imacy o f ap e r son o r g roup o f

a r chaeo log i s t s w i l l h ave p rob lem s i nd e tec t ing t h e v i ta l o r -

p e r son s t o " nego t ia te" o n b eha lf o f al a rge r g roup , t h ey

d e r o fc h rono logy . S t i l l , s ome a r tefac t t ype s , l i ke t h e f l in t a r rowhead s

w i th b a rb s

( Myh re

1 979 :299f ,

s e rved t oi d en t ify o r ma rk p eop le i nr e ga rd t oi n te r -g roup

S k jo l svo ld

r ank ing . A ne xamp le w ou ld b e t om a te r ia l ly s ymbo l ize t h e

1 977 :322 ) , t h e e a r l ies t o r mos t e xc lus ive d agge r s ( Scheen

c l a im o fo ne l i neage t oh o ld p recedence o ve r o the r s . O b -

1 979 ) a nd t h e s i ng le B e l l B eake r i d en t if ied i n N orway

j e c t s w i th a s oc ia l ly s u ccessfu l e f f ec t w ou ld r a p id ly b e

( Sk jo lsvo ld 1 977 : 104 ,3 64 )w e re c oncen t ra ted t os ou thwe s t -

s ough t a nd s p read .

e rn N orway . I tc ou ld b e a r gued t h a t t h e i n i t ia l d i f fu s ion o r

T he r e la t ive ly p re s t ig ious n a tu re o f s ome o f t h e f i nd s

i mpo r to ft h e se t y pe s w a s t os ou thwe s ter nN orway . W i th in

f r om Ä rda l d oe s n o tm ean t h a t a" ch ief" h ad h i sr e s idence

as ho r t t ime , i mpo r t s , " dome s t ic c op ie s" a nd s t y le s h ad

h e re . I tm ean s t h a t t h e p eop le i nÄ rda l w e re i n vo lved i na

s p read t h rough t h e w ho le c oa s ta l a nd w e s tern N orweg ian

h i e ra r ch ia l s y s tem . I ti mp l ie s t h a tt h e i ra c t ive p a r t ic ipa t ion

z one . T he r e i s t h e ref o re a r chaeo log ica l s uppo r t g iv ing

w a s p a r t o f t h e p o l i t ica l g ame , a nd t h a t k in g roup s w e re

s ou thwe s t N o rway at r igger ing r o le .

i n vo lved i na l l iance s . T he h i e ra r ch ia l s y s tem h e re d i d n o t

W i th t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f aL a te N eo l i th ic s oc io -eco -

i mp ly t wo s eg rega ted c l a s se s ,o fa r i s toc ra t ic c h ief sa nd o th -

n om ic s y s tem ,c ompe t i t ion b e tween l o ca le l i te sw ou ld h ave

e r s . I tm ean t r a the r ac on t inuou s a nd f l u id r ank ing o fk in

b een b rough t i n to f unc t ion . E l i te c ompe t i t ion w ou ld h ave

g roup s . A l l t h e se g roup s w e re i n vo lved i nt h e p o l i t ics a nd

l e dt or a p id d i spe r s ion a nd d eve lopmen ti nb o th t h e ma te r i -

e conomy , a nd t h e ref o re a l so p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e ma ter ia l

a la nd i mma ter ia l s phe re s . T h is w ou ld a l so h ave l e dt or a p -

e xp re s s ion s o ft h e p o l i t ica l g ame .

i d d i spe r s ion o f p roduc t ion t e chn iques a nd c i rcu la t ion o f p re s t ige g ood s a nd f i ne ry ( o r " t r ink e t s") . T he a r chaeo log i c a l e v idence , s o d i s t inc t ive f o r t h is p e r iod i n N orweg ian

I d eo logy

p reh is to ry , s uppo r t s t h e a bove h ypo the s i s .

T he t r ans i t ion t o t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd c on t inued s o c ia l

E l i te c ompe t i t ion w a s t h e m echan ism t h a tH a r r ison a nd

r e p roduc t ion t h rough t h e B ronze A ge n ece ss i ta ted r e f e r -

o the r s h ave u sed t o e xp la in t h e r ap id s p read o f t h e B e l l

e nce t oi d eo logy . A s f a r a s t h e s t a r t o f t h e L a te N eo l i th ic

B eake rC u l tu re i nE u rope ( Ha r r ison 1 980 : 165f i nr e f e rence

i n cep t ion i sc oncerned ,i ti sc l ea rt h a ti d eo log ica lp r econd i -

t oC la rke 1 976 ) . T he S cand inav ian L a te N eo l i th ic mus t b e

t i on ing a nd mo t iva t ion w ou ld h ave b een e s sen t ia l t o t h e

r ega rded a s as pec if ic a nd l a te p a r to ft h eE u ropean B eake r

v i ta l i n i t ia l a ccep tance o f t h e n ew o rde r . A n i mpo r tan t

d eve lopmen t . T o u se e xp lana to ry mode ls f r om t h e B e l l

s ou r ce o f i d eo logy mu s t h ave b een e x ter na l , a nd f o und i n

B eake r s t ud ie s i st h e ref o re n o t o n ly ag ene ra l c ompa r ison .

t h eg ene ra lN o r the rn E u ropean B e l l B eake rC u l tu re . Ar e a -

D eve lopmen t s i nS cand inav ia w e re l a te p a r t s o ft h e g ene r -

s onab le h ypo the s is i st h a ti tw a s i n i t ia l ly , i nt h e L a te N eo -

a l , b u t d i ve r se , E u ropean d eve lopmen t ( c f C la rke 1 976 ,

l i t h ic , s pec if ica l ly m ed ia ted t h rough J u t land , a nd p a r t ic -

Ha r r ison 1 980 :35f , 1 64 f ) . I n H a r r i son 's a r gumen t , e l i te

u l a r ly t h rough t h e L imf jo rd r e g ion .

c ompe t i t ion w a s a n a l te rna t ive t od i f fu s ion a nd m ig ra t ion

G ene ra l ly , a f te r ap roce s s o fs oc ia l c hange h a s p a ssed a

i n e xp la in ing B e l l B eake r d eve lopmen t s . I n t h e p re sen t

t h r esho ld i tp roduces i t s o wn t e rm s o f l e g i t imacy — i ta p -

s t udy , m echan ism s s uch a s m ig ra t ion a nd s oc ia l c ompe t i -

p ea ls t o i n he ren t i d eo log ica l n o rm s . I n t h e p resen t c a se ,

t i on a r en o ts e en a s mu tua l ly e xc lus ive a l te rna t ives .I n s tead ,

i d eo logy w ou ld b e a n e s sen t ia l e l emen t i nt h e l e g i t im iza 1 36

t i on a nd r e p roduc t ion o f s oc ia l a nd e conom ic o rde r s . I t

s oc ia l p res t ige w ou ld h ave g rown w i th i n c rea s ing d i s tance

p rov ided a v eh ic le o f man ipu la t ion f o r i n d iv idua l a c to r s

f r om s ou rce s .

a nd g roup st or e nego t ia te o rl e g i t im ize t h e i rs oc ia lp o s i t ion .

T he a bove mean s t h a t t h e re w a s ag eog raph ic h i e ra r chy

T he p rob lem o f why t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

o fs oc ia l ly med ia ted r e la t ionsh ip s f r om S cand inav ian c en -

s y s tem s u rv ived f o r2 000 y ea r s i st h e ref o re n o ta sp uzz l ing

t r e s t o Norweg ian c en t re s t op e r ipher ie s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion

a s w hy i tw a s i n i t ia l ly a ccep ted . I ti sn ece ssa ry t o move

o fg ood s w ou ld h ave b een o rgan ized t h rough p o l i t ica l a nd

f r om ag ene ra lo u t l ine o ft h er o le i d eo logy p l ayed t o amo re

s oc ia l c hanne ls . D is t r ibu t ion o f g ood s w ou ld h ave b een

s pec if ic d escr ip t ion o f t h e n a tu re a nd r o le o f i d eo logy i n

c onduc ted a sp o l i t ica l ly mo t iva ted g i f t st oc r ea te o ru pho ld

S ogn . Howeve r , many o ft h e b a s ic p rem ises mu s t b e s up -

a l l iance sa nd c on t rac t s . T hey w ou ld a l so h ave b een u sed a s

p l ied e x te rna l ly . T he t wo ma in s ou rce s a r e g ene ra l iza t ions

d emon s t ra t ive g i f t s t o e xp re s s p re s t ige a nd i n c onnec t ion

b a sed o n s t ud ie s o f p a s to ra l is t s , a nd s t ud ie s o f t h e L a te

w i th ma r r iage s . T he u se o f p res t ige o b jec t s w ou ld h ave

N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge , a nd a spec t s o fI ndo -Eu ropean

s e rved i nt h e c r ea t ion o fa l l iances a nd i nt h e e xp re ss ion o f

i d eo logy .

r e la t ion so fs oc ia lh i e ra rchy b e tween l i neage sa nd f am i l ie s .

As phe re o fp a s to ra li d eo logy w ou ld b ee xpec ted t oh ave

T h is d id n o t m ean t ha t t h e re w a s n o e conom ic b ehav io ra l

p l aced h i gh v a lue o nh e rd s .T h i sv a lue sy s tem w ou ld a ga in

l og ic . E conom ic t r ans i t ion s , a nd t h e i r r e la t ive u nde r ly ing

h ave b een s uppo r ted b y s o c io -econom ic p rac t ice a nd

l og ic o fv a lue ,w e re h oweve rc ond i t ioned t h rough t h ea bove

my th s . P a s to ra l i d eo logy w ou ld a l so h ave p laced ap rem i -

s oc io -po l i t ica l s ys tem s . T he a bove a l so m ean s t ha tt h e o b -

um o nt h e i mpo r tance o fa l l iance s a nd l o ya l ty , t h eg lo ry i n

j e c t s i nq ue s t ion wou ld h ave b een c oncen t ra ted t o , b u tn o t

e xpan s ion a nd t h e t i gh t -kn i t ted n a ture o ft h e f am i ly , l i nea -

l im i ted t o , c en t re s o f p owe r a nd e xchange . T he i t em s i n

g e sa nd r e la ted h ou seho ld u n i t s . As t rong empha s is o n ma s -

q ue s t ion w ou ld h ave p e rmea ted t h e who le c en t re —p e r iph -

c u l ine e l emen t so fi d eo logy w ou ld b ee xpec ted . Men w ou ld

e r y n e two rk .

h ave e xe r c i sed t h e f o rma l c on t ro l o ve r t h e p roduc t ion r e -

F rom t h e p e r spec t ive a bove , t h e ma te r ia l c apac i ty f o r

t u rn s , a nd i n he r i tance w ou ld h ave b een d i rec ted t owa rd s

w e s te rn N orweg ian p a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h e S cand inav ian s y s -

a nd t h rough m en . T he L a te N eo l i th ic i d eo logy w ou ld h ave

t em wa s b a sed o n s pec ia l No rweg ian g ood s . I n s ou thwes t -

e mpha s ized v a lue s p e r ce ived a s ma le a nd r e f lec ted a n em -

e rn Norway o r L im f jo rden i nJ u t land t h e re w a s a n a g ro -

p ha s i s o n c on f l ic ta nd s t r if e . T he i d eo logy l e g i t im ized a nd

p a s to ra lb a se . T h is p rov ided l o ca lc ond i t ion sf o rs u s ta in ing

s uppo r ted a g ro -pa s to ra l ism , a l l iance s , s u rp lu s p roduc t ion ,

ap roduc t ion o fs u rp lu sa nd t h e reby s oc ia lh i e ra rchy .T he re

g i f te xchange a nd s oc ia l h i e ra r chy .

w a s al o ca l ma ter ia l f ounda t ion f o r ar e la t ive ly l a rge p op -

S pec if i ca l ly , i nS ogn t h e i d eo logy w a s i mpo r tan tf o rt h e

u l a t ion a nd f o r d i rec t ing t h a t p opu la t ion . T h is s y s tem

v i ta l i n i t ia l a c cep tance a nd t h e r ep roduc t ion o ft h e s y s tem .

w ou ld h ave h ad t o p rov ide p re s t ige v a luab les t h a t c ou ld

T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r i n te rac t ion w i th s ou the rn

h ave b een u sed l o ca l ly t o ( t h rough r i tua l? ) e xh ib i t s t a tu s ,

S cand inav ia , a nd t h e p o s s ib ly M idd le N eo l i th ic a g ra r ian

v a l ida te p owe ra nd c onf e rf a vou ri np o l i t ica l maneuver ing s .

a nd /o r p a s to ra l i s t a t temp t s , w e re a l so e xp re ss ion s o f t h e

T he s y s tem w ou ld a l so h ave h ad t o p rov ide o b jec t s t h a t

i d eo log ica l p roce sse s l e ad ing u p t ot h e t r an s i t ion . T h is i n -

c ou ld h ave b een u sed i n d ea l ing s w i th o t he r c en t re s a nd

t e rac t ion a nd i d eo log ica l p recond i t ion ing c ou ld h ave b een

e l i te s o n s im i la ra nd h ighe rl e ve l s . I ti sd i f f icu l tt oi mag ine

v i ta lf o ri n co rpo ra t ing p a r t so fw e s tern N o rway i n to az one

wha t l o ca l a g ro -pa s to ra l p roduc t ion i n J u t land o r s ou th -

o fm ig ra t ion .

w es tern N orway c ou ld p rov ide i nr e turn f o r s uch p r e s t ige i t ems — w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f a mbe r f r om J u t land . Me ta l o b jec t s e n te red t h e s y s tem i nE u ropean c en t res a nd moved t o , i n t er a l ia , S cand inav ian p e r iphe r ie s . Ob jec t s mov ing

Ac en tr ep er ipher ye conomy

f r om t h ep er iphe ry t ot h ec en t re w ou ld h ave b een " w i lde r -

L oca l s ub s is tence w ou ld h ave r e s ted o n t wo p i l la r s . T hese

n e ss p roduc t s" a nd a mbe r , t h e f i r s t r e la t ive ly p l en t ifu l i n

w e r e a g ro -pa s to ra l p roduc t ion a nd h un t ing /ga the r ing . A s

n o r thern S cand inav ia , b u t p robab ly u ncommon i nB ronze

r e sou rce s i n w e s tern N orway w e re u neven ly d i s t r ibu ted ,

Age

p roduc t s f r om Ä rda l c ou ld h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted t oo the r

E u rope

a nd

s ou the rn

S cand inav ia

( M i l isauska s

p a r t s o f S ogn . T he e xchange s c ou ld h ave i nvo lved w i ld

1 978 :2 19 , J ensen 1 982 : 132 ) . F ind s o fa mbe ra r e u sua l ly a t -

m ea t a nd p e l t s a nd d a i ry p roduc t s f o r g ra in a nd ma r ine

t r ibu ted B a l t ic s ou rce s ( M i l isau ska s 1 978 :2260 . Ma r r iage

p roduc t s . R eg iona l e xchange a nd a l l iance s w e re u ndoub t -

r e la t ion sh ip s c an a ccoun t f o r s ome o f t h e ma ter ia l move -

a b ly b e tween t h ee a s ta nd w e s t ,t h a ti sf r om t h ec oa s tt ot h e

men t i nb o th d i rec t ion s . T he b a s is f o rr e g iona l a g ro -pa s to -

i n te r io rv a l leys , a nd Ä rda l c ou ld h ave b een ah ub b e tween

r a l c en t re s i nS cand inav ia w ou ld t hu s h ave b een f ou r -f o ld :

t h e c oa s ta nd t h e i n ter io r .

—

T he re w a s s uf f ic ien t p o ten t ia l t op roduce l o ca l c om mod i t ie s t of e ed ac oncen t ra ted a nd g row ing p opu la -

R eg iona l e xchanges o n aS cand inav ian o r n o r thern E u -

t i on .

r opean l e ve l w ou ld h ave i nvo lved t h e i mpo r t o f p re s t ige —

g ood s l i k e m e ta l , f l in t , b ead s , p in s a nd p e rhap s s oap s tone .

T he S cand inav ian c en t re s w e re s i tua ted b e tween E u r opean c en t re s a nd S cand inav ian p e r ipher ie s .

G ood s g o ing o u tw ou ld h ave p r ima r i ly b een " w i lder ne ss" —

i t em s l i ke f u r s , r e indee rh i de s , b ea rs k in s a nd a n t le r . Many

T he S cand inav ian c en t re s p roduced a mber a nd f l in t ,

o ft h e se p roduc t sw ou ld h ave h ad u t i l i ta r ian v a lue ,b u t mo s t

wh ich h ave t r ad i t iona l ly f i gu red s t rong ly i na r chaeo l -

i mpo r tan t ly o u t s ide Norway t h ey w ou ld h ave b een p re s t ige

o g is t s ' c oncep t ion s o fe xchange . —

i t em s . T he i rv a lue a si d eo log ica l ly c ond i t ioned e xh ib i t s o f 1 37

T he re w a s ap o l i t ica l n eed f o ra l l iances t h a ti nd i rec t ly

s t re tched f r om E u ropean c en t res t o S cand inav ian p e -

i n ves tmen t s c ou ld h ave b een h ad b y d r iv ing t h e o r ig ina l

r i pher ie s .

h o lde r s a way . E ven mo re i mpo r tan t , s oc ia l a n tagon i sms , t h rea t s a nd c oe r c ion c ou ld n o tb e r e so lved b y s imp ly mov -

T he a dvan tageou s p o s i t ion o f t h e S cand inav ian c en t res ,

i n g , a s r e sour ce s w e re l im i ted a nd i mmob i le v a lue s w ere

a nd t h e i rc apac i ty t os upp ly g ood si nt h ee xchange p roce ss ,

t o o s ub s tan t ia l .

w a st h u si mpo r tan t .T he l o ng -d is tance e xchange sp roduced

I n t h e c a se o fw e s tern No rway a nd S ogn , a n i mpo r tan t

as u rp lu sb a sed o nt h ev a lue o fp re s t ige g ood si n c rea s ing a s

s t ra tegy t oc on tend w i th e x ter na l c ompe t i to r s ( whe the rf o r

t h e d i s tance f r om t h e s ou rce a r ea i n crea sed . F u r the rmo re ,

p ro tec t ion , r a id ing o r e xpan s ion ) , a s w e l l a s d eve lop ing

t h ep o s i t ion b e tween E u ropean c en t re a nd S cand inav ian p e -

m eans o fi n terna l c oe rc ion i n as oc ia l e n t i ty , w a s f o und i n

r i phe ry a l lowed f o r av a lue s ub s t i tu t ion . E u ropean v a luab le s

c l ose r , mo re e xc lu s ive s oc ia l i n teg ra t ion . T o m ee t e x terna l

l i ke m e ta l , c ou ld h ave b een s ubs t i tu ted w i th f l in t when

t h rea t s o re nd i n te rna l d i spu te s , p owe r w a s d i s t r ibu ted u n -

mov ing f r om c en t re t op er iphe ry . I ne xchange s mov ing t h e

e ven ly w i th in as oc ia l e n t i ty , p e rhap sb y i nvo lv ing t h ec r e -

o the r w ay , ambe r c ou ld h ave s ub s t i tu ted " w i lderness

a t ion o f a"m i l i ta ry" c apac i ty .T h i ss i tua t ion ,h oweve r ,a l so

g ood s" . T he r e g iona l c en t res w e re i n ag eog raph ica l p o s i -

p rov ided t h e b a s i s f o r i n t ra -g roup c oe rc ion , a nd a l e g i t i -

t i on a nd h ad p o l i t ica l p owe r t o s i phon o f f a" t ran sa c t ion

m iza t ion a nd ab a se f o r u nequa l a c ce s s t o p owe r a nd r e -

s urp lu s" , o re f f ec t at r an sfo rma t ion o fv a lue .

s ou rce s w a s c r ea ted . Due t oe l i te c ompe t i t ion , a symme t r ic

I st h e re emp ir ica l s uppo r t f o r t h e s c ena r io a bove? T he

s oc ia l l e ve ls a nd t h e e xpans ive n a tu re o f t h e e conomy i n -

a moun to f me ta ld ec rea sed f r om c en t re t op er iphe ry . T here

v o lved , a ny d eve lopmen t s i no ne s o c ia l e n t i ty w ou ld h ave

w e re r e g iona l c oncen t ra t ions o fw ea l th a nd p owe r . I mpor t -

t o b e c oun te red o r a dop ted i n o the r s . S oc ia l i nnova t ions

e dm e ta li sf ound i np e r iphe ra lc on tex t sl i ke S k r iva rhe l le ren

w ou ld b er a p id ly s p read ,e ven i ft h ey w e re b a s ica l ly u npop -

a nd Un i t le l c rä i i n Ä rda l . T housand s o f f l in t o b jec t s h ave

u l a r . T he p o ten t ia l s oc ia l d ynam ics i n vo lved h e re w e re t r e -

b een f ound a tg r ea td i s tances f r om t h e i r s ou rce s , f o re xam -

m endous . G i lman 's e xp lana t ion s f o r t h e g ene ra l d eve lop -

p l et h el a rge n umbe ro ff l in td agge r st h a tw e re p roduced i n

men to fs oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion i nB ronze Age E u rope f o l low a

D enma rk ( Baudou 1 989 :36f , J en sen 1 982 :163 , K r is t iansen

s im i la rl o g ic ( G i lman 1 981) .

1 987 :31 , L ombo rg 1 975 :100f , S cheen 1 979 :7 ) . L ook ing a t t h ec ha in f r om t h ep er iphe ry t oc en t re ,B a l t ic a nd S cand ina -

Why aL a t eN eo l i th ic t r an s i t ion?

v i an a mbe ri sf ound a tg r ea t d i s tances f r om t h e s ou rce s , i n

" The g r ea t n umbe r s o f N eo l i th ic o b jec t s f r om t h e

r e la t ive p e r iphe r ie s ( e .g . Mand t 1 991 :415 ) a nd E u ropean c en t re s ( M i l isau ska s 1 978 :219 , 2 26f , P iggo t t 1 965 :137 ) .

s ame p er iod [ i . e . t h e L a te N eo l i th ic ] a nd u p i nt ime ,

Unf o r tuna te ly t h e re i sn o e v idence o fw es tern N orweg ian

d emon s t ra te t h a t w e a r e n o t d ea l ing w i th ac o inc iden -

g ood s i nD an i sh o r E u ropean c on tex t s . G ene ra t ion s o fa r -

t a l v i s i t b y l ong -d is tance t r ave l le r s . I n s tead w e a r e

c haeo log i s t s h ave f o rmu la ted s ou rce c r i t ica l r e a son s f o r

d ea l ing w i th i mm ig ran t s ,c o lon ize r s ;f a rme r sf r om J u t -

why t h is i st h ec a se . H oweve r , t h e ma ter ia lf r om t h eN yse t -

l a nd t h a th ave s e t t led i n an ew c oun t ry a c ro s st h es e a ."

S t egg je a nd S k r iva rhe l le ren s i te s , a nd t h e l o ca t ion o ft h ese

( E . B a l cka 1 963 :68 , i n ad i scu s s ion o f aL a te N eo l i th ic

s i te s ,d emon s t ra te t h ep roduc t ion o f" w i lderne ss p roduc t s"

g rave a tV i lu rd i , U l len svang i nH a rd a nge r , t r ans l . b y

a nd a l so p a r t ic ipa t ion i n " p res t ige e xchange" . T he f i nd s

C P ) .

f r om t h e s i te s s uppo r t t h e a bove c onc lus ion s a bou t e x c hange f r om t h e p e r spec t ive o ft h e p roduc t ion s i de o ft h e

E conom ic , s oc ia la nd i d eo log ica l s t ruc tu re sh ave b een u sed

s y s tem .

a bove t o a ccoun t f o r d eve lopmen t s i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge . S oc ia l mechan i sms o f d i spe r sa l , s oc ia l d ynam ic s , e conomy , a l l iance s a nd g eog raph ica l l e ve l s i na

T hr e sho ld s , i n ve s tmen t sa nd s e cur i ty

s y s tem o fp roduc td i s t r ibu t ion h ave b een r ev iewed .H owev -

I deo logy i sa ni mpo r tan tf a c to ri nt h er ep roduc t ion o fs oc ia l

e r , i ti sd i f f icu l tt os e et h e se m echan i sm sb rough ti n to f unc -

o rde r .I d eo logy e s tab l ishe st h et e rm sf o rn ego t ia t ing h uman

t i on w i thou ta na l ready e s tab l i shed a gro -pa s to ra l ism e n t i ty .

r e a l i ty . I nt h e c a se o fw ha th a s b een t e rmed t h e L a te N eo -

T ha t u n i t mus t b e g eog raph ica l ly i n o r n ea r w e s te rn

l i th ic s y s tem , t h e e s tab l i shmen to fa n i n tens if ied a g ro -pa s -

N orway .

t o ra l s y s tem a l so p rov ided means o fp hys ica l a nd ma ter ia l

T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence p o in t s t o ma jo rc hange s i n

c oe rc ion . Ag r icu l ture n ecess i ta ted ma in tenance o f f i e ld s ,

ma te r ia l c u l tu re , e conomy a nd i d eo logy . A s a r gued p r ev i -

e qu ipmen t , d raugh t a n ima ls a nd f a c i l i t ie s . P a s to ra l ism

o us ly ( P re sco t t 1 991a ) , t h e se d eve lopmen t s c ou ld n o th ave

mean t r i gh t s t op a s tu re s a nd f a c i l i t ies i n c onnec t ion w i th

a n i ndependen t l o ca l o re ven r eg iona l N orweg ian ma te r ia l

c u ra t ion o fd a iry p roduc t s . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t p a s tu res

f ounda t ion . T he c u l tu ra l a na lys is c l ea r ly i nd ica ted t h e

w e re a c t ive ly k ep t . L and f o r a gr icu l tu re a nd i n ten s ive p a s -

b road s ou the rn S cand inav ian c on tex t i n wh ich t h e w e s te rn

t o ra l ism w ou ld h ave b een v ery f i n i te i nw e s te rn N o rway . I n

N o rweg ian d eve lopmen t s t ook p l a ce . I n t h e S cand inav ian

g ene ra l , i ti sa s sumed t h a t t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze

r e g ion t h e re w a s ag ene ra l d eve lopmen t o f aB e l l B eaker

A ge mode o fp roduc t ion a nd t h e s oc io -econom ic o rde rl e d

i n sp i red ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd t e chno logy . T h i s l e d t oc on -

t os t o rage , a nd a ccumu la t ion o fc ommod i t ie s a nd p re s t ige

s t an t ly i n tens if ied a g ro -pa s to ra l u t i l iza t ion a nd n ew s oc ia l

i t ems .

f o rma t ion s i n to t h e B ronze A ge . B e l l B eake r i n f luences , m ed ia ted t h rough J u t land ,w ere a l so f e l ti nw e s tern N orway

I n s u ch a s i tua t ion , v a lue s w e re a ma s sed . T he v a lues c ou ld h ave b een t r an sf e r red t h rough r a id ing . S ub s tan t ia l

a nd Ä rda l . 1 38

Wha ti sp ropo sed h e re i st h a tt h is a r chaeo log ica l ma te r i -

I n L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge S ogn , t h e re w a s

a lp rov ide se v idence o f am ig ra t ion p roce s st os ou thwe s te rn

p os s ib ly a ni d eo log ica ld ua l i ty , t h a ti s as e to fi d eo log -

N orway a nd ,i nv a ry ing d eg ree s ,a l so b eyond .T he d a ta a nd

i c a l o ppo s i t ion s . O n o ne s i de , al o ca le ga l i ta r ian t r ad i -

i n te rp re ta t ion s ugge s t s t h a t an umbe r o f s y s tem ic f a c to r s ,

t i on w i th af ounda t ion i nt h e a u toch thonou s ma te r ia l

o f t h e t ype a r gued b y A n thony ( 1 990 ) , w e re p re sen t .

b a se c an b e p o s tu la ted . O n t h e o t he r h and t h e re w e re

" Push" f a c to r s i n c luded e xpans ive s o c ie ty i n J u t land .

h i e ra rch ia l i d eo log ie s , e conom ica l ly a nd p o l i t ica l ly

" Pu l l" f a c to r sw e re f ounded i n as u i tab le a g ro -pa s to ra le n -

d ependen t o n e x terna l s ou rce s . T he l e g i t imacy f o rt h e

v i ronmen ti nL i s ta a nd J xren . T he p roce s sua l n a tu re o ft h e

h i e ra rch ia li d eo log ies w a ss t rong ly r e l ian to nr e f e rence

m ig ra t ion i ss ugge s ted b y t h el o ng t r ad i t ion o fc ro s s -Skag -

t oe x ter na l ly d er ived s ymbo ls o fp owe r . P o l i t ica l ma -

e r ak i n terac t ion i nt h ep er iod b ef o re t h eL a te N eo l i th ic .T he

n euve r ing c ou ld c once ivab ly r e su l ti np e r iod ic o sc i l la -

p roce s s o fm ig ra t ion c l ea r ly c on t inued a f te r t h e L a te N eo -

t i ons f r om e ga l i ta r ian t oh i e ra rch ia l i d eo log ie s . T he se

l i th ic t r an s i t ion . F rom t h i s p e r spec t ive m ig ra t ion , a s sym -

o sc i l la t ion s w ou ld p robab ly a f f ec t p e rcep t ion s o f s o -

m e t r ic d eve lopmen t , e l i te c ompe t i t ion , i d eo logy e t c . w e re

c i a lr ea l i ty a nd n o rms ,a sw e l la st h ee xpans ive d ynam -

n o t mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive mechan i sms o fc u l tu ra l c hange , b u t

i c s o fg i ven s oc ia l e n i t ie s a tp o in t s i nt ime .

n ece ssa ry p a r t s o f s y s tem ic , b u t s pec if i c , e xp lana t ion s o f

I n ter na l p o l i t ica l maneuve r ing a nd t h e s y s tem 's i nhe ren t

t h e h i s tor ica l r e co rd . M ig ra t ion a nd p o l i t ica l te r r i tor ia l e x -

l im i ta t ion s c r ea ted as t rong e l emen t o fi n s tab i l i ty w i th in a

p ans ion p rov ided t h e n eces sa ry " t r igger ing u n i t" t ob r ing t h e s oc ia l d ynam ics i n to o pe ra t ion .

g i ven p o l i t ica l e n t i ty . T he s ame f a c to r s w ou ld h ave r e cu r -

T he s oc io p o l i t i ca ls y s t em i nN orway

p o l i t ica l i n s tab i l i ty w e re as ou rce o fs y s tem ic s t ab i l i ty . S o ,

r i ng ly l im i ted t h e p o ten t ia l f o r e vo lu t ion o f s ubs tan t ia l ly n ew s oc io -econom ic mode s . H oweve r , t h e se e l emen t s o f e ven t hough t h e p o l i t ica l g ame w i th in a ny e n t i ty m igh t

I ng ene ra l ,h i e ra rch ia ls oc ia lo rde r so ft h eb i g -man t oc h ief -

h ave b een d rama t ic , t h e s y s tem i t se lf w a s v e ry s t ab le . T he

d om o rde rc an n o tb er ega rded a sp o l i t ica l ly s t ab le s y s tem s .

p roduc t ion a nd b a s ic e conomy r ema ined u nd is tu rbed b y

T he e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica lb a se f o rh i e ra rchy i nL a te N eo -

l o ca l d eve lopmen t s . T h is s y s tem ic s t ab i l i ty c ame i n p a r t

l i th ic a nd B ronze Age w e s tern Norway w a s ma te r ia l ly

f r om t h e p reca r iou s s i tua t ion a l l s ucce s sfu l p re tende r s t o

b a sed o n s ome c oe rc ion a nd e conom ic p owe r , b u t i t mu s t

p owe r w e re i n . H e re , p robab ly o ne o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t

h ave h ad a s ub s tan t ia l e l emen t o f c on sen t . T hu s , t wo i n -

r e a sons f o r2 000 y ea r s o fc on t inu i ty i sf o und .

t e rna l f a c to r s c ou ld h ave u nderm ined p o l i t ica l s t ab i l i ty : 1 )

T he a bove a l so i mp l ie s t h a tt hough p roduc t ion me thod s ,

S ome p opu la r c onsen t w a s an ece s sa ry p recond i t ion

s oc io -econom ic o rgan iza t ion a nd i d eo logy w e re d i f fused ,

f o rp owe r i n al ow leve l h i e ra rchy . Ma in ta in ing o r a t -

a s a n e x terna l c u l tu ra l f a c to r s , i n to w e s te rn No rway f r om

t a in ing s ub s tan t ia l p owe r w ou ld h ave d emanded c on -

c en t re s i nS cand inav ia , t h e re w a s as pec if i ca l ly l o ca l w es t -

s t an t d i sp lay s o fw ea l th a nd g i f t -g iv ing . F a i lu re t od o

er nN o rweg ian h i s to ry . T h i s w a s b ecau se o ft h e p a r t icu la r

s o w ou ld h ave u nde rm ined p o l i t ica l c r ed ib i l i ty a nd

t r ad i t ion so ft h ea r ea ,a nd aw eak ma te r ia lf ounda t ion f o ra n

s way s uppo r t f r om o ne e l i te t oa no the r . T he n ego t ia -

a u toch thonou sd eve lopmen to fa gr icu l tu re ,p a s to ra l ism a nd

t i on o f r a nk ing b e tween k in g roup s a nd /o r p e r son s

h i e ra rchy . T he a gr icu l tu ra l ly ma rg ina l a nd g eog raph ica l ly

c on tend ing f o r ,o rc l a im ing ,p owe rw a sa na c t ive p o l i t -

p er iphe ra l p o s i t ion o f w e s te rn Norway a l so c on t r ibu ted .

i c a l s i tua t ion . T he p o ten t ia l t o a cqu i re s uppo r t w a s ,

F u r thermo re , f r om t h e B ronze Age t h e r e w a s i n te rac t ion

i n ter a l ia ,b a sed o nt h ep ro jec ted /pe rce ived c apa c i ty t o

w i th n o r ther nr e g ion s . T he se n o r the rn r e g ion sm ed ia ted i n -

a t ta in a nd w ie ld p owe r . Doub t a bou t t h e c apac i ty t o

f l uence f r om o t he rE u ropean c en t re s ,f o re xamp le t h eA na -

a t ta in o rw ie ld t h i s p owe r w ou ld u nderm ine t h e p o s i -

n i n io C u l tu r e i n t h e L a te B ronze A ge . S oc ia l mode l s o f

t i on o f ac on tende r . T he w i thd rawa lo fc ommuna lc on -

D enma rk o rs ou the rn Sweden c an t h e ref o re n o tb ea u toma t -

s en t a mong a dhe ren t s w ou ld h ave t o pp led ap e r son o r

i c a l ly t r an sf e r red t ow e s te rn N orway .

l i neage i n p owe r . Wi thd rawa l c ou ld a l so h ave b een t i ed t of e a rt h a t ac on tende rh ad t o much p owe ro rt h a t f i ed w i th d i sp lay so fw ea l th a nd g i f t s . T he s t udy o ft h e

I ft h es y s t em w a ss t ab l e , w hy d id i tc ome t oa n e nd a f t er 2 000 y ear s?

c omp lex b ehav iou r a nd r a t iona le o f p o l i t ics i n a n

D i scu ss ion s o f a r h a s d ea l t w i th t h e i n cep t ion a nd r ep ro -

t h e a dhe ren t s w e re n o ts uf f ic ien t ly i mp re ssed o rs a t is -

2 )

" acepha l ic" ,b u th i e ra rch ia ls oc ie ty i sf ound i nB a r th ' s

d uc t ion o fL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age s oc ie ty . Howev -

b ook a bou t p o l i t ics a mong t h e Swa t P a than s ( Ba r th

e r , a ts ome p o in tt h is s y s tem c ame t oa n e nd . T he c on sp ic -

1 965 ) .

u ou s

An i n t r in s ic f e a tu re o fa g ro -pa s to ra l ism i se xpans ion .

P re -Roman p e r iod i n d ica te t h a t t h is w a s t h e p e r iod o ft e r -

S ucces sfu le xpan s ion ,h oweve r , i n as y s tem w i th w eak

m ina t ion .

c hange s

i n

t h e

a r chaeo log ica l

r e co rd

i n

t h e

i n f ra -s t ruc tu re , s imp le e conomy a nd f ew m eans o fc o -

O nce a ga in , t h e i n s t iga t ion o f c hange s s e em s t o h ave

e r c ion w ou ld r e ad i ly l e ad t op rob lem si na dm in is ter ing

b een e x te rna l . T he r e g iona lB ronze A ge s y s tem u n rave l led

a nd c on t ro l l ing c on tende r s a nd s ub -sec t ion s i n ag iven

w i th t h e d eve lop ing E u ropean I r on A ge ( e .g . K r i s t ian sen

e xpanded u n i ty . S uppo r t w i th in t h e u n i t w ou ld f a i l i f

1 978 : 180 , 1 987 :84 ) . I r on A ge d eve lopmen t sd i srup ted o lde r

t h e e xpan s ion o fp owe rw a s p e rce ived a st o o s ucces s -

p o l i t ica l o rde r s , l i ne s o f c ommun ica t ion a nd r eg iona l e x -

f u l a nd t h e ref o re t h rea ten ing . T hu s , t h e re w ou ld b e

c hange , a nd t h e f ounda t ion f o r t h e B ronze A ge p re s t ige

f i ss ion a nd p o l i t ica l i n s tab i l i ty .

e xchange w a s e roded — d e sp i te S cand inav ian r e s i s tance . 1 39

E ven a r ea s n o t d i rec t ly i n vo lved i nt h e momen tou s e ven t s

p roduc t ion o ft h e B ronze Age , as y s tem t h a t c oncen t ra ted

w e re s t rong ly e f f ec ted . Wes tern N orway w a sc l o se ly t i ed t o

o n t h e l ow land s e me rged . T he q ue s t ion i sw he the r s t ron -

t h er e s to fs ou ther nS cand inav ia ,w h ich w a sa ga in l i nk ed t o

g e r r i gh t s o f u sage , o r e ven o wne r sh ip , t o p a s to ra l l a nd

w es ter n a nd c en t ra l E u rope . Wi th t h e n o r thern E u ropean

e me rged . I n s tead o fs e e ing t h eB ronze A ge " co l lap se" a nd

c hange s ,t h eb a s is f o rt h ew es tern N orweg ian p o l i t ica ll o ca l

t h eP re -Roman c on t rac t ion s o le ly a s ap er iod o fs t agna t ion ,

a nd r e g iona l h i e ra r chy a nd e xchange a l so d i sappea red .

t h is e a r ly I r on Age p e r iod r e p re sen t sr e -channe l ing o fp ro -

I nc en t ra l a r ea s o fn or thern E u rope , s uch a s t h e D an i sh

d uc t ion , e xchange a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . A s s uch i tu sh -

i s land s ,t h e " co l lap se" o fB ronze A ge s oc ie ty p robab ly l e d

e r ed t h ed eve lopmen t s t h a ts t and o u t mo re c l ea r ly f r om t h e

t os e ve re e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l t u rbu lence . I np e -

l a te R oman I r on A ge a nd o n ,b o th l o ca l ly ( c f . K r is tof f e r sen

r i pher ie sl i k e I nne rS ogn i ti sv ery l i ke ly t h a tc hange s w e re

1 993 ) a nd r eg iona l ly i n Norway ( c f . Myh re 1 978 ) .

o fl e s s d r ama t ic c on sequence . T he re m igh t a l so h ave b een l o ca l f a c to r s t h a t l e d t oc hange s . T h is p rov ide s r e a sons f o r s pec if i c e xam ina t ion o fl o ca l c ond i t ions f o rc hange a nd r e -

A CULTURAL H ISTOR ICAL SU M MARY

s pon se . I ft h e L a te B ronze Age /ea r ly P re -Roman P er iod i sc on -

T h i s c hap te r s t a r ted w i th a n o u t l ine o fh i s to r ica l d eve lop -

t r a s ted w i th t h e l a te P re -Roman P er iod , t h e re a r e t wo i m -

m en t s i nI nne r S ogn b a sed o n t h e N yse t -S tegg je a nd S k r i -

p o r tan t d i f f e rences . T he e a r l ie r p e r iod h ad mu l t i ta sk s i te

v a rhe l le ren s i te s . T he e l abora t ion s o f mechan ism s a nd h i s -

c omp lexe s i n t h e moun ta ins f r om wh ich a r ange o f r e -

t o r ica l e l emen t s t h a t f o l lowed t h e i n i t ia l h i s to r ica l o u t l ine

s ou rce s w e re e xp lo i ted b y mean s o f p a s to ra l ism , h un t ing

n ow a l low amo re d e ta i led s c ena r io t ob e d eve loped .

a nd g a the r ing . S i te s i n t h e l a t te r P re -Roman P e r iod w e re

S cand inav ia w a si n vo lved i ni n te rac t ion w i th B e l l -Beak -

p r ima r i ly c ha rcoa lp i t s a nd af ew s ma l la nd s imp le h ea r th s .

e ra r ea s t h rough al a rge p a r t o ft h e r eg iona l M idd le N eo -

No p o s i t ive e v idence o f h un t ing h a s b een i d en t if ied , a nd

l i th ic . T h is i n terac t ion p repa red t h eL a te N eo l i th ic i n co rpo -

t h e s i te s a r e i n te rp re ted a s p a r t o f a mo re b road , b u t i n -

r a t ion o f S cand inav ia i n to t h e s phe re o f t h e e vo lv ing

t e n s ive p a s to ra l e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e moun ta ins . I ft h e l a te

C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge c u l tu re s . T h i s i n co rpo -

R oman I r on Age o r M ig ra t ion P e r iod i si n c luded i n t h is

r a t ion c ou ld h ave b een c au sed b y i n terna l d eve lopmen tu n -

c ompa r i son , t h e p i c tu re f r om t h a t p er iod r e semb le s t h e

d e r p re s su re f r om e xpand ing g roup s t o t h e s ou th , o r b y

L a te B ronze A ge s i tua t ion mo re t h an i tr e semb le s t h e s i t -

m ig ra t ion o fB e l l B eak e rg roups t oD enma rk .T he ma te r ia l

u a t ion i nt h e l a te P re -Roman a nd e a r ly R oman I r on A ge .

c u l tu re , mode o fp roduc t ion , i d eo logy a nd e l emen t s o ft h e

Men t ion c an b e made o f t h e s o l id h ouse s t ruc tu r es , t h e

s oc ia l f o rma t ion r ap id ly s p read t h roughou t s ou thern S can -

b one f r om w i ld a nd d omes t ic s pec ie s a nd t h e f a l l p i t s t h a t

d i nav ia .T h is d i spe r s ion w a sf a c i l i ta ted b y ah o s to fm echa -

p robab ly c ame i n to u se i nt h e R oman I r on A ge .

n i sm st h a ti n c luded m ig ra t ion o fp e r son sa nd g roup s ,a sym -

T he e v idence f r om t h e l a te P re -Roman p e r iod i n d ica ted

m e t r ic s oc ia li n teg ra t ion ,e l i te c ompe t i t ion a nd e xchange o f p r e s t ige o b jec t s a nd a l l iance s .

l e s s i n ten s ive p a s tu r ing a nd n o l a rge s ca le h un t ing i nt h e a l p ina l z one s . T he d ec l ine o fh un t ing m igh t h ave b een t h e

T h roughou t t h e N eo l i th ic , s ou the rn S cand inav ia a nd

r e su l t o f o ve r -exp lo i ta t ion o f r e indee r p opu la t ion s i n t h e

s ou thwe s tern No rway a l so e ngaged i n e x ten s ive i n te rac -

L a te B ronze Age .H oweve r ,t h ed i sappea rance o f ar eg iona l

t i on .F u r thermo re ,t h ee nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion sw e re s im i -

s y s tem

p roduc t s"

l a r i nb o th r eg ion s . A n e xpan s ive a gro -pa s to ra l L a te N eo -

t h rough r e g iona l e xchange i s amo re p robab le e xp lana t ion

l i th ic s o c ie ty i nJ u t land q u ick ly e s tab l ished a" co lony" i n

t h a t

c ou ld

t r an sfo rm

" w i lderne ss

f o r w hy h un t ing d e ter io ra ted . R ema in ing h un t ing l ike

s ou thwe s te rn No rway , w he the rb y i n c lu s ion o fa l ready s e t -

a c t iv i t ie s w ou ld h ave b een t o mee t r e la t ive ly mode s t l o ca l

t l ed g roup s , o r b y m ig ra t ion o f an ew J u t ish g roup . T he

d emand s .

e s tab l i shmen to f aL a te N eo l i th ic a g ro -pa s to ra l b r idgehead

T he a r chaeo log ica le v idence a l so s ugges ted r educed p a s -

i nN orway c r ea ted a n e xpan s ive s o c ia l e n t i ty w i th ar e la -

t o ra l a c t iv i ty i nt h e P re -Roman p e r iod . T he a r chaeo log ica l

t i ve ly h i gh l e ve lo fs oc ia li n tegra t ion .T h is e n t i ty w a s s uff i -

s ou rce s f r om o ne p er iod t o a no the r c anno t , h oweve r ,

c i en t ly c l o se t ob r ing m echan ism s o fe l i te c ompe t i t ion a nd

r e ad i ly b ec ompa red .T he c ha rcoa lp i t sc ou ld b ei n te rp re ted

a d jus tmen t t o a symme t r ic s oc ia l i n teg ra t ion i n to f unc t ion

a st h er e su l to f as u s ta ined o re ven i n crea sed l e ve lo fp a s to -

i nw e s tern Norway . T he m ig ra t ion p roces s h ad b een p re -

r a l e xp lo i ta t ion , b u t t h rough an ew s t ra tegy a nd s pa t ia l o r -

p a red b y i n te rac t ion t h roughou t t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic ( a t

g an iza t ion . T h is m ean s t h a t t h e r eg iona l p a s to ra l o u tpu t

l e a s t a s o f t h e MNB ) . I tw a s s u s ta ined a s ap roces s b y

w a sn o tn ece ssa r i ly r e duced . T he e v idence c an t h e ref o re b e

c on t inued i n te rac t ion b e tween J u t land a nd s ou thwes tern

i n terp re ted a s t h e r e su l t o f a n i n c rea sed e mpha s is o n p ro -

N o rway . T he c on tac tw i th D enma rk c r ea ted a n i d eo log ica l

d uc t ion f o rl o ca l c onsump t ion . Ac o ro l la ry i sd eve lopmen t

r e cep t iveness i n w es te rn N orway f o r t h e n ew s oc io -eco -

o f l o ca l e conom ic s y s tem s . I n t h i s l i gh t , c hange s i n t h e

n om ic o rde ra nd mode o fp roduc t ion t h a tc ha ra c te r ize s t h e

P re -Roman P e r iod d on o ta u toma t ica l ly s ugges ti n te rp re ta -

L a te N eo l i th ic .

t i ons o f s t agna t ion o r p roduc t ive c on t rac t ion . T hey r e p re -

T he d rama t ic L a te N eo l i th ic t r an s i t ion i nS ogn a nd w e s t -

s en ted n ew e xp lo i ta t ion s t ra teg ie s , n ew e conom ic d e s ign s

er nN o rway r e su l ted f r om ac omb ina t ion o fi d eo log ica l a c -

a nd n ew s oc ia l f o rm s . T h is m ean t s t ronge r e mpha s is o n

c u l tu ra t ion , s e lec t ive i mm ig ra t ion t op a r t s o fs ou thwe s tern

l o ca le conom ic t r an sac t ion s a nd t h e d i sso lu t ion o fr e la t ive -

N orway a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l m echan isms . T hese e l emen t s

l yf o rma l h i e ra r ch ie s .

f a c i l i ta ted t h e a dop t ion o f

I tw ou ld s e em t h a to u to ft h ed ecen t ra l ized a g ro -pa s to ra l

— 1 40

a n a g ro -pa s to ra l mode o fp roduc t ion ,

-

v a r iab le , b u t u sua l ly l ow leve l , s o c ia l h i e ra r chy ,p rob -

a ccumu la t ion so fw ea l th f ound i nr eg iona lc en t re sa td i f f e r -

a b ly t h rough t h er ank ing o fk i n sh ip g roup s

e n tt ime so ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age .I ti si mpo r -

s oc ia l h i e ra rchy g eog raph ica l ly e xp re s sed t h rough a

t a n t t o e mpha s ize t h a t t h e e conom ic l o g ic o u t l ined h e re

r eg iona lN orweg ian c en t re —p er iphe ry s ys tem ,

a l so i n c luded s oc ia l mechan ism s l i ke g i f te xchange a nd a l -

s u rp lu s p roduc t ion f o r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n p r e s t ige e x -

l i ance s . I ndeed , t h e h i e ra rch ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f p re s t ige

c hanges a nd a l l iance s ,

g ood sd emon s t ra te s ah i e ra r ch ia lo rder ing o fs oc ia le n t i t ie s

p o l i t ica la nd e conom ic s y s tem so fa ne xpan s ive n a tu re .

a nd k in g roup s . A l l iance s a nd g i f t e xchanges w e re f unda m en ta l m echan ism s i nt h e s y s tem .

A f te rt h e e s tab l ishmen to ft h e L a te N eo l i th ic s y s tem , i t s

T he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age o rde re xpanded a sa

l e g i t imacy w a sb a sed o ni t si n terna l l o g ic . F u r thermo re t h e

s y s tem , w h ich r e su l ted i nn ew q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive

e conom ic s y s tem i t se lf h ad i n -bu i l td ynam ics t h a tn o to n ly

o rgan iza t ion o fl a bou ra nd r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion i nt h e l a t -

r ep roduced i t ,b u ta l so f u r the red e xpan s ion i nt e rms o fp ro -

t e rp a r to ft h e L a te B ronze A ge . T h is p er iod p robab ly r ep -

d uc t ion a nd t e r r i tory . T he l e ve l s o fi n ve s tmen ta nd l im i ted

r e sen t s t h e p e r iod o fs t ronge s th i e ra rchy a nd r eg iona l e co -

a cce ss t of i e ld sa nd p a s tu re sm ean tt h a tt h e re w a ss oon " no

n om ic i n te rac t ion . A l though t h e s y s tem h ad r ema rkab le

w ay b ack" . T he d ynam ics o ft h es y s tem t h e reby d eve loped

s t ab i l i ty , p o l i t ica l t u rbu lence b e tween a nd w i th in e n t i t ie s

ma ter ia l s uppo r t f o ri t s i d eo log ica l p ref e rence s t h roughou t

w a s p robab ly d rama t ic . I deo log ica l ly , e conom ica l ly a nd

t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge .

p o l i t ica l ly c ond i t ioned e xpan s ion w a s c hecked b y t h e n e -

T he i d eo logy a nd t h e a bove m echan i sm s o fc u l tu ra l d i s -

c e s s i ty o f c on sen t f r om t h e l o ca l k i n g roup s a nd ab a s ic

p e r s ion c ompe l led a nu nequa la nd u ns tab le a cce s st op owe r

n eed f o r a l l iance p a r tne r s . T he i n f ra s t ruc tu re a nd t e chno l -

a nd r e sou rce s . T h is w a s p a r t ly b a sed o n a nd p a r t ly l e d t o

o gy c ou ld n o t h ave s u s ta ined s ub s tan t ia l e xpan s ion f o r

t h er eg iona le xchange o fp re s t ige i t em sa nd c r ea t ion o fa l l i -

l onge r p e r iod s o f t ime . T h i s w ou ld p robab ly h ave l e d t o

a nce s .T her ew a s ap roduc t ion a nd s t o rage o fs u rp lu ses a nd

p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l o sc i l la t ion s b e tween p e r iod s o f

p res t ige g ood s . S uch g ood sp rov ided t h ee conom ic t oo l so f

h i e ra rch ia l i d eo logy a nd e xpan s ion a nd c on so l ida t ion a nd

p o l i t ica l p owe r . S urp lus a l so m ean t t h a t t h e re w a s s ome -

mo r e e ga l i ta r ian i d eo logy . I tw a s t h i s p o l i t ica l i n s tab i l i ty

t h ing t ob ew on a nd d ef ended .T h is f u r the rp romo ted s oc ia l

t h a tp erm i t ted t h es y s tem t os u rv ive f o rt wo t housand y ea r s .

i n teg ra t ion a nd c oncen t ra t ion o fp owe r .

T he c heck s o np o l i t ica l a nd t e r r i tor ia le xpan s ion s t agge red

T he e conomy o ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s y s -

i n terna l e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l d eve lopmen t t h a t

t em w a s b a sed o n a g ro -pa s to ra l p roduc t ion , t hough t h e

c ou ld b r ing s o c ia le vo lu t ion a c ro ss an ew t h re sho ld —t h a ti s

g ood s f o r w e s ter n No rweg ian p a r t ic ipa t ion i np re s t ige e x -

i n to aq ua l i ta t ive ly n ew s y s tem ic o rde r .

c hange o r ig ina ted i nt h e " w i lderne ss" s e c to r .J udg ing f r om

T he s y s tem w a s c e ra t in ly u nde r s t re s s b ecause o f i n -

t h e ma ter ia l f r om S k r iva rhe l le ren , t h e g ood s f r om S ogn

t e rna l a n tagon ism s , a nd p o ten t ia l ly , e conom ic -eco log ica l

c on s is ted o fs k in s a nd f u r s , p e rhap s a l so a n t le r a nd h or n .

o ve r -exp lo i ta t ion . H oweve r , t h e f i na l b low a ga in s t t h e

T h rough e n te r ing t h ep re s t ige e xchange a nd mov ing a way

B ronze A ge s y s tem w a s p robab ly s upp l ied e x te rna l ly

f r om t h e i r a r ea o f o r ig in , c ommon l o ca l g ood s w e re e x -

t h rough t h eg ene ra lc o l lap se o ft h e No r ther nE u ropean a nd

c hanged f o r i mpo r ted o b jec t s o fp r es t ige t h a t a r chaeo log -

S cand inav ian B ronze A ge . T h is c o l lap se w a s ap roduc t o f

i c a l ly c ha ra c te r ize t h e p er iod . T he se i n c lude n on -f er rou s

t h e h i s tor ica l -po l i t ica l d eve lopmen t s i nc on t inen ta l E u rope

m e ta l , f l in t d agge r s , o t he rf l in t i t em s , a mbe r , t o uch s tones ,

a nd may h ave b een o ne r e su l t o f t h e s y s tem ic c hange s i n

b ead s a nd p e rhap s p in s . T he r e g iona l N orweg ian c en t re s

t h ew ake o fd eve lop ing I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s . T he l a t te rw e r e

a nd t h eD an i sh c en t re sm ed ia ted s uch e xchange s a nd v a lue

s oc ia l ,e conom ic a nd t e chno log ica l ,a nd t h ey b roke t h ee vo -

t r an sf o rma t ion s . I nD enma rk ,w ea l th c ame i np a r tf r om t h e

l u t iona ry l im i ta t ion s o fB ronze Age s oc ie ty .

l o ca l ma te r ia l b a s is ( ambe r a nd f l in t ) a nd p a r ty a s ar e su l t

T he r a the r u nd rama t ic a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t h a t l e ad s

o ft h es t ra teg ic g eog raph ica lj ux ta -po s i t ion so ft h es ou ther n

f r om t h e B ronze A ge t ot h e I r on Age , w h ich i n c lude s d i s -

S cand inav ian c en t re s . T h is e nab led t h e c en t re s t oe x t rac t a

c on t inua t ion o f l i th ic t r ad i t ion s , s e t t lemen t p a t tern s a nd

s u rp lu s t h a t w a s c r ea ted t h rough t h e i n c rea se i n v a lue o f

c ha r coa l p i t s , w a se v idence o f ad rama t ic , e ven r e vo lu t ion -

g ood s moved f r om t h e i rp l ace o fo r ig in . T he a ccumu la t ion

a r yc hange i nt h eh i s tor ica lc ou r se . T he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

o f w ea l th i n t h e S cand inav ian c en t re s w a s p a r t ly d one

B ronze A ge e xpan s ion w a s b rough t t o a n e nd . H oweve r ,

t h rough t h e " subs t i tu t ion" o fi mpo r ted v a lue s , e . g . , me ta l

s oc ie ty i nw e s tern N orway d id n o t s e em t os t agna te o rd e -

f r om c on t inen ta l E u rope , w i th f l in t w h ich w a s u sed i ne x -

g ene ra te . I n s tead , t h e l o ca l a g ro -pa s to ra l s ub s is tence b a se

c hange s w i th w es tern Norway .

a nd r e s t r ic ted r eg iona l e conom ie s b ecame t h e c en t ra l f a c -

Apa r t f r om e xp la in ing t h e p r e s t ige i t ems f ound i n No r -

t o r so f ar e juvena ted e conomy a nd p o l i t ica ls y s tem .T hus i n

w ay , t h e c ha in s o fe xchange , t h a t s t re tched f r om c on t inen -

t h ec o l lapse o fB ronze A ge s oc ie ty t h e f ounda t ion f o rI r on

t a l E u rope t o t h e S cand inav ian p e r iphe r ies , e xp la in t h e

A ge c h ie fdom s w a s l a id .

1 4 1

7 .C on c lud ing r em a rk s T he p reced ing c hap te r sh ave f u lf i l led t h ree p u rpose s . F i r s t ,

p r econce ived mode l s , a nd ag r ea te r s ens i t iv i ty t ot h e s pe -

t h e re w a s ad e scr ip t ive a spec t .F ea tu res o fL a te N eo l i th ic t o

c if ic d a ta b e ing d ea l tw i th . T he se mode ls , a l ong w i th w ha t

E a r ly I r on A ge ma ter ia l c u l ture , r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion a nd

i se r roneous ly v i ewed a st e s t ing t h rough ah ypo the t ico -de -

e co logy w e re p r esen ted . A l though o fi n te re s t a s ac omp re -

d uc t ive m e thodo logy , s t rong ly s t ruc tu re r e su l t s , e ven b e -

h en s ive s i te ma ter ia l f r om a p e r iphery , t h e p re sen ta t ion

f o re r e sea r ch i ss t a r ted . T hey l e ad t oc onf i rma t ion o fp re -

s hou ld h e lp t or eo r ien t t h e c on tex tua l f r amewo rk i nw h ich

c oncep t ion s a nd h i nde r ad i a lec t ic a pp roach t h a t l e ad s t o

t h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s t ud ie sa r ec onduc ted i n

l e g i t ima te ly n ew k now ledge . " Cro s s -d i sc ip l ina ry" s c ience

t h e f u tu re . S econd , t h e a na lys i s d i scerned a h i s to r ica l

h a s l a rge ly b een s t ruc tu red a s p a ra l le l a r chaeo log ica l a nd

d eve lopmen t i nt h e a r ea . T h is i so f c ou r se i n te re s t ing f o r

n a tu ra l h i s tor ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s , a nd t h e i n corpo ra t ion o f

u nde r s tand ing t h e h i s to ry i n t h e a r ea i n q ue s t ion . I ta l so

n a tu ra l h i s tor ica l d a ta i n to a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ies . B u t i ti s

c l ea r ly r e f lec ted a spec t so fr eg iona lN o rweg ian a nd S cand i -

c l ea rt h a tc u l tu ra l ly o r ien ted o s teo logy a nd b o tany mu s t t o

n av ian d eve lopmen t s .T h i rd ,t h ea na ly s is i d en t if ied s ome o f

ag rea te rd eg ree b e s t ruc tu red i n to t h e t h eo re t ica l p e r spec -

t h e g ene ra l m echan i sms a tw o rk i nt h e p a r t icu la r c a se o f

t i ve s o fa r chaeo logy . T hey d ea l n o to n ly w i th n a tu ra lp roc -

i nne rS ogn f r om t h eL a te N eo l i th ic t r ans i t ion t ot h ee a r l ies t

e s se sa nd m echan ism s . T hey d ea l w i th s ou rce s a nd m echa -

I r on Age .

n i sm st h a ta r ev e ry much t h er e su l to fh uman a c t iv i ty —t h a t

A s s uch , t h e a bove s t udy i sa n e xamp le o fa n a pp roach

i s , t h e r e su l t o f h uman b ehav iou r . T hey mus t i n co rpo ra te

t h a td oe s n o t a t temp tt o " t es t" h ypo the se s o rf o r ce d a ta i n

d eve lop ing t h eo ry i n a r chaeo logy , a nd o t her d i sc ip l ines

t ot h e c onf ine s o fp redef ined mode ls . T he a u tho rh a s s een

w i th in t h e s oc ia l s c ience s a nd h uman i t ie s t h a t a dd re s s t h e

d a ta n o t s o much a s al im i t ing e l emen t f o r t e s t ing g ene ra l

i s sue o fb ehav iou r a nd s t ruc tu re s . T he g r ea tes t e l emen t o f

mode l s , b u t a s ac hanne l t oi n s igh t s i n to as pec if i c c a se o f

c r i t ique i nt h i s s t a temen t i sa c tua l ly d i rec ted t owa rd s f i e ld

h uman h i s to ry .T he a pp roach t ot h es t udy h a sb een ad i a lec -

a r chaeo log is t s . I ti st h e a r chaeo log i s t w ho mus t d i r ec t t h e

t i c o ne whe re s pec if ic d a ta a nd g ene ra l t h eo ry w e re med i -

a im s a nd c u l tu ra l i n terp re ta t ion o fs uch i n qu ir ies .

a t ed t h rough t h er e sea rche r .T h is p e r spec t ive s t a r t sw i th t h e

T he re w e re h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t s o u t l ined w i th in t h e

a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l , a nd b r ings i ti n to ad ia logue w i th

2 000 y ea r l ong p e r iod s t ud ied h e re . T he p e r spec t ive h e re

t h eory a nd g ene ra l iza t ion s . I n t h e a u tho r 's o p in ion , t h is i s

h a sb een t ha to ft h ep e r iphery . H oweve r , d e ta i led a nd a ccu -

a n a r chaeo log ica l a pp roach .

r a te c ompa r ison o ft h e l o ca l s equence t or eg iona l N orwe -

T he s t udy h a sb een ab road o ne i nt e rm so fs ou rce s ,d a ta ,

g i an a nd S cand inav ian , i ndeed e ven E u ropean , h i s to r ie s

me thod s , g oa l sa nd a na ly s i s . S uch ab road a pp roach n ece s -

w ou ld h ave b o th l o ca la nd r e g iona lv a lue .T he r e la t ion sh ips

s a r i ly r ep re sen t s ap ragma t ic s e t o fc ho ice s b e tween wha t

b e tween l o ca l a nd r eg iona l e conom ic s y s tem s , s oc ia l o rga -

w a sa va i lab le a nd w ha tw a sn ece ssa ry f o ra c tua l ly c onc lud -

n i za t ion a nd i d eo logy w ou ld a l so b e a n i n te res t ing f i e ld t o

i ng t h e s t udy . I ti si nt h e n a tu re o fs uch as t udy t h a t much

i n ve s t iga te . I n s uch as t udy i tw ou ld b e n ece ssa ry t o move

mo re c an b e d one a nd much c an b e i mp roved . L ook ing a t

f r om a na lys is a nd d esc r ip t ion o ft h e f unc t ion o f s u ch e l e -

t h es ou rce ma te r ia la va i lab le t oday ( w i thou tf u r the re xcava -

m en t s o fh uman s oc ie ty t ot h e i rs pec if ic h i s tor ica l c on ten t .

t i on ) , t h e re i sc l ea r ly a n u n tapped p o ten t ia l f o r i n t ra -s i te

Mo re d i ve r se ,c ohe ren ta nd a dvanced s oc ia lt h eo ry c ou ld

s t ud ie s , i n te r -s i te s t ud ie s , f unc t iona l a nd t e chno log ica l

s u re ly h ave b een i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e s t udy . I n terp re ta t ion

a na ly s i s o ft h e b one a nd l i th ic ma ter ia l .

h a s b een h eav i ly d i rec ted t owa rd s ap a s to ra l p e r spec t ive . A l though t h is i sa n a dvance , i ti sn o t s u ff ic ien t . T he re i sa

N a tu ra l s c iences , w i th in b io logy a nd p hy s ic s , h ave p ro v ided i mpo r tan t i n s igh t s . T he s uperf ic ia l s t udy b a sed o n

n eed f o r t h eo ry a nd c ompa ra t ive c a se s t ud ies t h a t mo re

t h eb one ma te r ia lh e re , mus tb es upp lan ted b y mo re p rof e s -

f o rcefu l ly i n co rpo ra te t h e mu l t i re sou r ce b a se d emon s t ra t -

s i ona l s t ud ie s . Ana ly s i s o ft h e o s teo log ica l ma te r ia l s hou ld

e d i nt h e p re sen tc a se s t udy .

b e c oun ted o n t op rov ide s u rp r i se s i nt h e f u tur e . A l though

A l though a n umbe r o f a n swe r s w e re o u t l ined i n t h is

t h er e su l t so ft h ep a lyno logy w e re f ound t ob em eage r ,t h e re

s t udy ,t h ea bove c r i t ique i mp l ie st h a tt h ep r esen ts t udy p e r -

w a s c l ea r ly ap o ten t ia l h e re . P e rhap s a n i mpo r tan t w ay o f

h ap si sl a rge ly ap rog ram f o rc on t inued r e sea rch . H opefu l ly

w rench ing d a ta o u t o f t h e ma te r ia l t h a t i sa l ready a s sem -

i tc an h e lp s t ruc tu re f u tu re e f f o r t s i n ap roduc t ive m anne r ,

b l ed , i n o t he r w o rd s r e in terp re t ing t h e s ou rce s i n amo re

a nd p rov ide an ecessa ry s e t o f i n terp re ta t ions t h a t c an b e

p roduc t ive manne r , c ou ld b e f ound i n ac r i t ique o f t h e

d eba ted a nd c r i t ic ized .

1 42

R e f e r ence s A h lbe rg , M . , A k se l s son , R . , F o rkman , B . &R au s ing , G . 1 976 . G o ld

B a r th ,F .1 965 .P o l i t ica lL ead er sh ip a mong t h eS wa tP a than s . L ondon

t r ace so nw edge shaped a r t e f a c t sf r om t h eL a t eN eo l i th ic o fs ou t -

S choo l o fE conom ic s Monog raph o n S oc ia l A n th ropo logy n o .

h e rn S cand inav ia a na ly sed b y p ro ton i n duced X ray em i s s ion

1 9 . N ew Y o rk .

s pe c t ro scopy . A r chaeom e t ry v o l . 1 8 ( 1 ) F eb . 1 , 1 976 , 3 9 -49 . O x -

B a r th ,F .1 9 73 . Ag ene ra lp e r spec t ive o nn omad -seden ta ry r e la t ion si n

f o rd .

t h eM idd le E a s t . I nN e l son ( e d . ) , T h eD e ser ta nd t h e S own :N o -

A lexande r , J .1 980 . F i r s t -m i l lenn ium E u rop e b ef o r e t h e R oman s . I n

m ad si nt h e W id er S oc ie ty , 1 -22 . B e rk ley .

S he r ra t t ( e d . ) , T he C ambr idge E ncy c lop ed ia o fA r chaeo logy ,

B a r th ,F .1 98 1 [ 1 964 ] .C ompe t i t ion a nd s ymb io s i si nN o r th E a s tB a lu -

2 22 -226 . C amb r idge .

c h i s t an .P roce s sa nd f o rm i ns oc ia ll i f e .S e l ec t ed e s say so fF r ed r ik

A n thony , D .W . 1 990 . M ig ra t ion i n A r cheo logy : T he B aby a nd t h e

B ar th , 1 79 186 . L ondon .

B a thwa t e r . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t9 2 , 8 95 -9 14 . H a r tw ick c o .

B a te s , D .G . &L ee s , S .H . 1 977 . T he r o le o fe xchange i np rodu c t ive

A n thony , D .W . 1 99 1 . T he a r cha eo logy o ft h e I ndo -Eu ropean o r ig in s .

s pec ia l iza t ion . Am er ican A n thropo log i s t7 9 , 8 24 -4 1 .

T he J ou rna lo fI ndo -European S t ud i e sv o l . 1 9 (3 ) , 1 9 3 -222 .

B audou , E . 1 960 . D i e r e g iona l e u nd c hrono log i sch e E in t e i l lung d er

A skv ik , H . 1 966 . R appo r t om g eo log i sk e u nde r sok e l se r 1 2 /7 - 2 0 /7

j ünger en B ron z e ze i ti mN ord i schen k r e i s . S tockho lm .

1 966 if o rb inde lse m ed d e a r k eo log i sk e u t g ravn inge r iom räde t

B audou , E . 1 989 . S t ab i l i ty a nd l o ng t e rm c hange s i nN o r th Swed i sh

S to r eO l ju s joen -E ld r eva tn , La rda l .A r k eo log i sk eU nd er sOk e l ser

P r eh i s to ry . I nL a r s son & L undma rk ( e d s . ) , A pproache s t oS w e -

1 967 v ed L erda l sva s sd r age t . T opog raph ica l f i l e s , H i s to r i sk m u -

d i sh P r eh i s tor y . As pec t r um o fp rob l em sa nd p e r spec t ive s i nc on -

s eum , B e rgen .

t emporar y r e s ear ch . BAR i n ter na t iona l S e r ie s 5 00 , 2 7 -53 . O x -

B aha r vand , S .A . 1 975 . T he B ahar vand , f o rme r p a s tora l i s t s o fI r an .

f o rd .

U npub l . P hd . d i s se r ta t ion , R ice U n ive r s i ty , N ew Y o rk .

B ecke r , C . J . 1 9 58 . 4 000 -aa r ig m ined r if t iT hy . F ra N a t iona lmu see t s

B akka , E .1 963 . F o rn t ida iO dda , U l len svang o g K in sa r v ik . I nK o l l t -

A rbe jd smar k1 958 ,7 3 -82 . C openhagen .

v e i t( e d . ) , O dda , U l l ensvang o g K in sar v ik ig ama lo gn y t i d , 4 7 -

B ende r ,B .1 975 .F a rm ing i nP r eh i s to r y .F rom h un te r -ga ther er t of ood -

2 05 . O dda .

p rod uc er L ondon .

B akka , E . 1 97 1 . Y t r e Moa . E in o ydega rd f r ä v i l c ing t ida . I nV e ( e d . ) ,

B end ixen , B .E . 1 892 . F o rn levn inge r iH a rd a nge r . F or en ingen t i l

B ygd ebok f or Ä rda l , b and I ,1 49 178 . B e rgen .

N or sk ef or t id sm inne smer k er s B evar ing , a ar sbe r e tn ing 1 892 , 1 3 -

B akka , E .1 973 . Omk r ing p rob leme t om k u l tu rdua l i sme iS o r -No r eg .

5 9 . C h r i s t ian ia .

I nS imon sen & Munch ( e d s . ) , B ond e -V e id emann B of a s t -l k k e

B e rg ,E .1 986 .D en eo l i t t i sk ef l in tok ser iV e s t -Norge . T ypo log i sk / krono -

b of a s t iN ord i sk F o rh i s tor i e .T rom so Mu seum ss k r if t e rX IV , 1 0 9 -

l o g i sk i n nd e l ing . B akg runn f or f l in tok sen so pp l co rn s to gf orho ld e t

1 2 7 .T rom s0 .

t i l d e l o ka l e t r ad i s jonene . Manu sc r ip t , U n ive r s i ty L ib ra ry ,

B akka , E . 1 976 .A r k t i sk o g n ord i sk ib ron s ea ld er en iN ord -Skand ina -

B e rgen .

v i a . M i sce l lan ia 2 5 . T rondhe im .

B e rg , H . 1 9 73 . Y ng r e S t e ina ld e r . I n R ud ( e d . ) , J eg s e rp ä O ld sager ,

B akka , E . 1 976b . C ommen t s o n T ypo log ica l a nd C h rono log ica l P ro -

7 0 15 1 . C openhagen .

b l em s . S t one A ge c h rono logy i n l i gh t o f H e in 3 . N orweg ian

B e rg sv ik , K .A . 1 99 1 . E r v er v s - o g b o se tn ing smon s t r e p ä k y s t en a v

A r chaeo log ica lR ev i ew v o l . 9( 1 ) , 1 6 -25 . O s lo .

N ordhorda land is t e ina ld er b e l y s t v ed f unn f r a F o sns t raumen .

B akka ,E .1 9 80 . R ep re sen ta t iv i t e t sp rob lem iv e s tno r sk b ron sea lde r .I n

Manu sc r ip t , U n ive r s i ty l i b ra ry , B e rg en .

T h rane ( e d . ) , B roncea ld erbebygge l se in orden . B er e tn ing f ra d e t

B in f o rd ,L .R . 1 988 .I nP ur su i to ft h eP a s t . D ecod ing t h eA r chaeo log i -

a nd e t n ord i sk e s ympo s ium f or b roncea ld e rf or skn ing , 3 7 -58 .

c a lR ecord . L ondon .

O den se .

B je r ck ,L .B .B . 1 987 .I n -con t ex tp o l l en d i agram sf rom 3a r chaeo log ica l

B akka ,E .1 993 .K u l tur t i lhove o gr e g iona le s k i lnad er iv e s tnor sk b ron -

s i t e s i nW e s t e rn N o rway : T oward s au n if i ed m od e lo fl a nd u s e i n

s ea ld er I n S o lbe rg ( e d . ) , M inne sknf t E g i l B ak ka . A rk eo log i sk e

t h eL a t e Me so l i thc a nd N eo l i th ic Ip e r iod s . Manu sc r ip t ,U n ive r s i -

S k r if t er f r aH i s tor i sk Mu s eum , N o . 7 ,9 0 1 17 , B ergen .

t yl i b ra ry , B e rgen .

B akka , E .n . d . P rovegrav ing iS k r ivarhe l ler en iMoada l en ,Ä rda lS ogn

B je r ck , L .B .B . 1 988 . R emode l ing t h eN eo l i th ic i nS ou ther nN orway :

o g F jo rdane . Memo i n t h e t opog raph ica l f i l e s , H i s to r i sk m u -

a no the ra t ta ck o n at r ad i t iona lp rob lem .N orweg ian A r chaeo log i -

s eum , B e rgen .

c a lR ev iew v o l . 2 1 , n r . I ,2 1 -33 . O s lo .

B akka ,E .&K a land , P .E . 1 97 1 . E a r ly f a rm ing i nH o rda land , We s t e rn N o rway . P rob lem s a nd a pp roache s i n a r cha eo logy a nd p o l len

B jo rgo , T . 1 986 . Moun ta in A r chaeo logy . P re l im ina ry r e su l t s f r om

a na ly s i s .N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l . 4( 2 ) ,1 35 .O s lo .

N y se t -S t egg je . N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew v o l . 1 9 ( 2 ) , 1 22 127 . O s lo .

B ang -Ande r sen , S .1 985 . U tg ravd -t a p t -g j en funne t . I n Na s s ( e d . ) ,

B jo rgo ,T .1 988 .R eg i s t r e r ing s om s t y rende f a k to r ia r k eo log i sk f o r sk -

A r t ik ke l sam l ing I .AmS S k r if t er 1 , 5 -24 . S t avange r .

n i ng .A r k eo log i sk eS knf t er n o . 4 ,1 56 166 . B e rgen .

B a rk e r ,G . 1 976 . Mo rpho log ica lc hange a nd N eo l i th ic e conom ie s .A n

B jo rgo , T . 1 992 . R eg i s t r e r inge r . I nB jo rgo , K r i s to f f e r sen & P re sco t t

e xamp le f r om I t a ly .J our na lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c i ence 3 ,7 1 -82 .

( e d s . ) A rk eo log i sk e u nd er s0k e l ser iN y s e t -S t egg jeva s sd ragene

B a r th ,E .1 983 .T rapp ing r e indee ri ns ou th N o rway .A n t iqu i ty v o l .L V I I

1 98 1 1987 , 2 5 -80 . A rk eo log i sk e r a ppo r t e r 1 6 . B e rgen .

( 2 20 ) , 1 09 1 15 . C amb r idge . B a r th , F .1 964 . C ap i ta l , i n ve s tmen t a nd t h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e o f ap a s -

B jo rgo ,T . , K r i s tof f e r sen , S .&P r e sco t t ,C . 1 992 .A r k eo log i sk eu nd er -

t o ra ln omad g roup . I nF i r th & Y amey ( e d s . ) , C ap i ta l , s av ing a nd

s ok e l se r iN y se t -S t egg j eva s sd ragene 1 98 1 1987 . A rkeo log i sk e

C r ed i t i nP ea san tS oc ie t ie s . L ondon .

r a ppo r te r 1 6 . B e rgen .

1 43

C o le s ,J .M . 1 9 82 .T he B ronze A ge i nN or thwe s te rn E u rope : P rob lem s

B jO rkum , A . 1 9 58 . S t o l sd r if t i iV ikada len . Ä rbok f or Ä rda l S oge lag ,

a nd A dvance s . I n Wendo r f & C lo se ( e d s . ) , A d vance s i nW or ld

n ummer I I , 5 3 -64 . L e ikange r .

A r chaeo logy , v o l . 1 ,1 982 , 2 65 -32 1 . N ew Y o rk .

B jOrn , A . 1 926 . T id l ig m e ta l lku l tu r iN o rge . O ld t id en X I , 1 76 . O s lo . B jorn s tad ,

A.1 975 . ÄS V

V a s sd raga .

C r ibb , R . 1 99 1 . N omad si nA r chaeo logy . C amb r idge .

V ege ta s jon sunde r sO l c inga r iN addv ik -S t egg je

C ro s sman ,R . 1 969 [ 1 939 ] . G ove rnmen ta nd t h eg ove rned : ah i s tor yo f

k on se s jon s so l cnad f or u t bygg ing a v N y se t -S t eg -

p o l i t ica li d ea sa nd p o l i t ica lp rac t ice . L ondon .

g j eva s sd ragene .

C u r ie , A .O . 1 9 16 . O n t h e d i scove ry o f ag r av e a tB a lne i l , N ew L uce ,

B loch , M . 1 987 [ 1 983 ] . Mar x i sm a nd A n thropo logy . O xf o rd .

W i tgown sh i r e ,c on ta in ing ap a r t ia l ly b ur n ti n te rnmen t ,a c ine ra ry

B ock , G . 1 99 1 . C ha l leng ing d i cho tom ie s : P e r spec t iv e s o n Women ' s

u rn , ab ronz e c h i se l , ab one p i n a nd ab ead o f v i t r eou s p a s te .

H i s to ry . I n Of en , P i e r son & R enda l l ( e d s . ) , W r i t ing W omen ' s

P roc e ed ing so ft h eS oc ie ty o fA n t iq u ar i e so fS co t land . V o l . LF i f th

H i s to ry . I n t er na t iona lP er spec t ive s , 1 24 . L ondon .

s e r ie s . -v o l .1 1 , 3 02 -305 . E d inbu rgh .

B oguck i , P .I .1 988 . F or e s tF armer sa nd S t ockho ld er s . E ar l yA gr icu l -

D ah l , G . & H jo r t 1 976 . H av ing H erd s : P a s tora l H erd G row th a nd

t u r ea nd i t sC on sequenc e s i nN or th -C en ta lE urope . C amb r idge .

H ou seho ld E conomy . S tockho lm S tud ie si nA n th ropo logy , n o . 2 .

B o rkom s l c i , W . 1 987 . N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge h ea r t shaped

S tockho lm .

a r row -head s f r om L i t t le P o land U p land . N ew i nS t one A ge A r -

D an ie l , G . 1 9 58 . T he c h rono logy o f t h e F r ench C o l lec t ive T omb s .

c haeo logy . A r chaeo log ia I n t er r eg iona l i s1 987 , 1 47 182 . Wa r saw .

P roce ed ing s o ft h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty . N ew s e r ie s , v o l . XX IV ,

B o serup , E . 1 965 . T he c ond i t ion so fa gr icu l tura lg row th . C h icago .

1 9 58 , 1 23 . C amb r idge .

B r inkman , A . &S he l t e l ig 1 920 . R u s l c ene se t , E n s t ena ld er sjag tp la s s .

D a rw in , C . 1 985 [ 1 859 ] . T he O r ig in o fS pec i e s b y Mean s o fN a tura l

N o r ske O ld funn I I . K r i s t ian ia .

S e lec t ion o r T he P r e s er va t ion o ffa vour ed R ac e s i nt h e S t r ugg l e

B roadben t ,N . 1 978 .P e r f o ra ted S tone s ,A n t le r sa nd S tone P i ck s .E v i -

f or L i f e . P engu in c l a s s ic s .

d ence f o rt h e U se o ft h e D igg ing S t ick i nS cand inav ia a nd F in -

E a r le , T .K . 1 9 77 . Ar e app ra i sa l o fr e d i s t r ibu t ion : C omp lex H awa i ian

l a nd . T OR v o l . XV I I , 1 975 - 7 7 , 6 3 106 . U pp sa la .

c h ief dom s . I nE a r le 8 zE r ic son ( e d s . ) , E xchange s y s t em s i np r e h i s to ry , 2 13 -229 . N ew Y o rk .

B roadben t ,N . 1 982 .S k e l l ef t ebygd en sh i s tor ia .D e l3 .D en f r irh i s tor i ska

E gge r s , H . J . 1 9 74 . E inf t ihrung i nd i e V org e sch ich t e . 2 .A uf lage , Mu -

u t v eck l ingen u nd er 7 000 á r S ke l le f t eä .

n i ch .

B rogge r , A .W . 1 925 . D e tn or s l c ef o lk io l d t id en . O s lo . B rogge r , A .W . 1 937 .A rk eo log io gh i s tor i e . O s lo .

E h r enb e rg ,M . 1 9 89 . W omen i nP r eh i s to ry . L ondon .

B rogge r , A .W . u npub l . N o t i le , c hap t e r : « Soc io log i sk e momen t en > ,

E ldega rd ,K . 1 9 50 .V e idemann s soga .I nÄ rbok f o rÄ rda lS oga lag n um m er I ,4 7 -66 . L e ikange r .

i np r epa ra t ion f o rp ub l ica t ion 1 947 .

E ldega rd , K . 1 9 58 . E in ed lagd s t o l sg r end . I nV e( e d ) ,Ä rbok f or Ä rda l

B rond s ted , J ,1 957 . D anmark s O ld t id . I .S t ena ld er en . C openhagen .

S oge lag 1 958 , n ummer I I , 2 1 -3 1 . L e ikange r .

B rond s t ed ,J ,1 958 .D anmark sO ld t id . 2 .B ron zea ld er en . C openhagen .

E l srud ,E . 1 9 82 . D y r e l iv ,j ak to gf i sk e . I nA lm ( e d . ) , V e s t -Opp land o g

B raa then ,H , 1 982 .F o rh i s to r i sk t i d iV a ld r e so gV e s t -Opp land .I nA lm

V a ld r e s , 1 0 3 133 . O s lo .

( e d . ) , V e s t -Opp land o g V a ld r e s . B ygd o g B y iN o rge , 1 34 164 .

E nge l s ,F .1 9 72 [ 1 884 ] . T he o r ig in o ft h eF am i ly , P r iva t eP roper ty ,a nd t h eS t a t e . N ew Y o rk .

O s lo . B u rnham ,P .1 987 .P a s to ra l i sm a nd t h eC ompa ra t ive Me thod . I nH o ly

E r t e svaag ,E . 1 982 . B ergen B y sH i s tor ie I I . B e rgen .

( e d . ) , C ompara t ive A n thropo logy , 1 5 1 167 . O xf o rd .

F a sham ,R .P . &R o s s ,J .M . 1 978 . AB ronze A ge F l in tI ndu s t ry f r om a

B u tze r ,K .W . 1 982 .A r chaeo logy a sh uman e co logy . Me thod a nd t h eo ry

B a r row S i te i nM iche ldeve r Wood , H amp sh i r e . P roceed ing s o f

f o r ac on t ex tua la pproach . C amb r idge .

t h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc i e ty 4 4 , 4 7 -67 . C amb r idg e .

B Oye sen , U .F . 1 820 . B id rag t ule n t o pog ra f i sk B e sk r ive l se o v e rL e i r -

F ab r egd , 0 . 1 979 . K o lg rop e r -t a l r ik e o g v i k t ige , m en p rob lema t i sk e

d a l s P rx s teg je ld . B ud s t ikk en 1 820 . R ep roduced i nÄ rbok f or Ä r -

m inne f r äv ä re l d s t ej er na lde r .I nN yda l , We s t in ,H a f s ten & G u l -

d a lS oge lag 1 952 , n ummer I ,5 33 . L e ikange r .

l i k sen ( e d s . ) , F or t id en is ok e ly se t . D a t er ing v ed 1 4C -me tod en

C hamp ion ,T .C . ( e d . ) 1 989 . C en t r ea nd P er iphe ry . C ompara t iv eS t ud i -

g j ennom 2 5k r , 1 54 167 . T rondhe im .

e si nA r chaeo logy . L ondon .

F a s te land , A . 1 974 . A r k eo log i sk e r e g i s t r er ingar / synf ar ingar iS t ed j e -

C hang ,C . &K o s t e r ,H .A . 1 986 .B eyond b one s : T owa rd sa nA r chaeo -

v a s sd rage t iÄ rda lk ommune , S ogn o gF jordane . I n« Kon se s jon s -

l o gy o fP a s to ra l i sm . I nS ch if f e r( e d . ) ,A d vance s i nA r chaeo log i -

s Oknad f o r u t bgg ing a v N y se t -S tegg jeva s sd ragene .» Ä rda l o g

c a l Me thod sa nd T heor y 9 ,9 7 148 . N ew Y o rk .

S unnda l V e rk , c opy i nt h e t o pog raph ic f i le s , H i s to r isk m u seum ,

C h i lde , V .G . 1 925 . T he d awn o fE uropean P r eh i s to ry . L ondon .

B e rgen .

C h i lde , V .G . 1 929 . T he D anube i nP r eh i s to r y . O xf o rd .

F a s te land ,A . 1 9 83 .F o rnm inne iS ogn 6 .R appor to mt o pograf i sk -ar l c e -

C h i ld e , V .G . 1 935 : C hang ing a im s a nd m e thod s o fp r eh i s to ry : P r e s i -

o l og i sk r e g i s t r er ing f or d e to l conom i sk ek ar t verk e t .Ä rda lk ommu n e . B e rgen .

d en t ia la dd r e s sf o r1 935 .P roc eed ing so ft h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty I ,

F aug l i , P .E . 1 9 76 . G eomo r f o log i sk b e fa r ing iN y se t -S t egg jeva s sd ra -

1 15 . C amb r idge .

g ene . K on tak tu t va lg f or v a s sd rag sr egu l er inger . R appo r t7 6 /0 1 .

C h i lde , V .G . 1 947 . A r chaeo logy a s as o c ia ls c ience : a ni n augu ra l l e c -

F e t t ,E .1 962 .A rk eo log i .I nO hn s tad ( e d . ) ,A ur land b ygd ebok . F ram t i l

t u r e . U n iver s i ty o fL ondon ,I n s t i tu t eo fA r chaeo logy , T h ird A nnua l

o m l a g1 920 , 5 8 100 . B e rgen .

R epor t , 4 9 -60 . L ondon .

F eye rabend , P .1 9 88 .A ga in s t Me thod . R ev i sed e d i t ion . L ondon .

C h i lde ,V .G . 1 9 57 . T he D awn o fE uropean C iv i l i za t ion ,6 .e d .L ondon .

F o rd , S . , B rad ley , R . , H awke s , J . , &F i she r , P .1 984 . F l in t -wo rk ing i n

C h i lde ,V .G . 1 979 .P r eh i s to ry a nd Ma rx i sm .A n t iqu i ty v o l . L I I I ,9 3 -95 .

t h e Me ta lA ge . O xf ord J ou rna lo fA r chaeo log yv o l . 3( 2 ) ,1 5 7 173 . O xf o rd .

C amb r idge . C h r i s t ie ,J .R . 1 842a .A n t ikva r i sk -h i s to r i sk S k i t se a fA ugva ld sne s . U r-

F o r sbe rg , L .1 985 .S i t ev ar iab i l i ty a nd s e t t l emen tp a t t ern s . A r chaeo lo -

d aI ,4 ,3 22 -347 . B e rgen .

g y a nd E nv i ronmen t5 . Umeä .

C h r i s t ie , J .R . 1 842b . B e r e tn ing o n U nd e r soge l sen a fe n G ravho i p aa

F o r sbe rg , L . 1 989 . E conom ic a nd s o c ia l c hange i n t h e i n t e r io r o f

G aa rden i n d r eA rne . U rda I ,4 ,3 67 -377 . B e rgen .

n o r ther nS weden 6 000 B .C . 1000 B .C . I nL a r s son & L undma rk

C hr i s t ie , J .R . 1 842c . B e re tn ing om F und a fO ld sage r , isr iB e rgen s

( e d s . ) ,A pproache st oS wed i sh P r eh i s to ry . As p ec t rum o fp rob lem s

S t if t . U rda I ,4 ,4 02 -403 B e rgen .

a nd p er sp ec t ive s i n c on t empor a ry r e sear ch . B AR i n t erna t iona l

C la rk e , D .L . 1 970 . T he B eak er P o t t e ry o fG r ea t B r i t ian a nd I r e land .

S er ie s5 00 , 5-82 . O xf o rd . F o r s sande r , J . E . 1 936 . D er O s t skand inav i sche N ord en w ähr end d er

v o l . 1 2 . C amb r idge . C la rk e , D .L . 1 9 76 . T he B eake rN e two rk -S oc ia l a nd E conom ic Mo -

Ä l te s t en Me ta l l ze i tE uropa s . S k r if te ru t g ivna a v K ug l . H uman i s -

d e l s . G lock enb echer sympo s ion , O b er e id 1 974 ,4 59 -476 . B u s sum .

t i ska V e t en skap s sam funde t iL und XX I I . L und .

C la rk e , D .L . 1 9 78 .A na ly t ica lA r chaeo logy . S econd e d . L ondon .

F ow le r , P . J . 1 9 8 1 . L a te rP r eh i s to ry . I nP iggo t t ( e d . ) , T he a grar ian h i s -

C ohen ,M .N . 1 977 . T he F ood C r i s i si nP r eh i s tor y . O verpopu la t ion a nd

t o ry o fE ng land a nd W a l e s . V o lume I .P r eh i s tor y , 6 3 -298 . C am -

t h eo r ig in s o fa gr icu l tur e . N ew H av en .

b r idge .

1 44

H a r r i son , R . J . 1 985 . T he ' Po l icu l t ivo G anade ro ' o r t h e S econda ry

F r ied , M .H . 1 960 . O n t h e E vo lu t ion o f S o c ia l S t ra t i f ica t ion a nd t h e

P roduc t s R evo lu t ion i n S pan i sh A g r icu l tu re , 5 000 - 1 000 b c .

S t a t e . I nD iamond ( e d . ) , C u l tur e i nH i s tor y ,7 13 -73 1 . N ew Y o rk .

P roceed ing so ft h eP r eh i s to r ic S oc ie ty v o l . 5 1 , 7 5 102 . C amb r id -

F r ied ,M .H . 1 9 75 . T he N o t ion o fT r ibe . Men lo P a rk . F roy s tad , B . 1 9 5 1 . N or s l c e F j e l lbe i t e I X . O ver syn o ver f or l i t e n y t ta

g e . H edeage r , L . & K r i s t ian sen , K . 1 985 . A rk c eo log i L ek s i l con . C open -

f e l lb e i t e iS ogn o g F jordane . D e t k g l . s e l skap f o r N o rge s v e l . O s lo .

h agen . H e l land , A . 1 90 1 . T opograf i sk s ta t i s t i sk b e sk r iv e l se o ver N ord r e B er -

F xg r i , K . 1 9 70 [ 1 958 ] . N orge s P lan t er B lom s t er o g t r c er in a tur en .

g enhu s Am t . F Or s t ed e l : D en a lm ind e l ig ed e l . K r i s t ian ia .

Med e tu t va lg f r a v är en abo la r zd sf l ora . O s lo . F xg r i , K . &I v e r sen , J .1 989 . T e x tbook o fP o l l en A na ly s i s . I V e d i t ion

H e l land , A . 1 90 1 . T opogr af i sk s ta t i s t i sk b e sk r ive l se o ver N ord r e B er -

b y F mg r i , K a land & K r zyw in sk i . C h iche s t e r .

g enhu s Am t . A nd en d e l : H er r ed erne . K r i s t ian ia .

G e l lne r , E . 1 9 86 . P o s i t iv i sm a ga in s t H ege l ian i sm . R e la t iv i sm a nd t h e

H e l skog , E .T . 1 983 . T he I v er sford L oca l i ty . AS t ud y o fB ehav iora l P a t t e rn ing d ur ing t h eL a t eS t one A ge o fF innmark N or th N orway .

S oc ia lS c ienc e s , 4 -67 . C amb r idge . G e ro ,J .M . 1 9 9 1 . G ende r l i th ic s : Women ' sR o le i nS t one T oo lP roduc -

T rom so Mu seum s S k r if t e rv o l . X LX . T rom s0 .

t i on .I nG e ro & C onkey ( e d s . ) ,E ngend er ing A r chaeo logy . W omen

H e s te r , T .R . & H e ize r , R .F . 1 973 . B ib l iog raphy o f A r chaeo logy I : E xpe r imen t s ,L i th ic T echno logy , a nd P e t rog raphy .A dd i son -W e s -

a nd P r eh i s to ry , 1 6 3 193 . O x f o rd . G ibbon , G . 1 9 89 . E xp lana t ion i nA r chaeo logy . O xf o rd .

l e y Modu lar P ub l ica t ion s2 9 , 1 973 , 1 56 . R ead ing , Ma s s .

G ibb s , L .1 9 87 . I d en t i fy ing g ende rr ep re sen ta t ion i nt h e a r cha eo log i -

H in sch ,E . 1 956 . Y ng re s t e ina lde r ss t r id sOk sku l tu r e r iN o rge . U n iv er -

c a l r e co rd : ac on tex tua l s t udy . I nH odde r( e d . ) , T he a r chaeo logy

s i t e t e t iB ergen Ä rbok . H i s to r i sk -an t ikva r i sk r e kk e 1 954 , 1 .B e r -

o fc on t ex tua lm ean ing s , 7 9 14 1 . C amb r idge .

g en . H je l le , K .L . 1 992 . P o l lenana ly t i sk eu nde r sOk e l se ri n nenf o rb op la s sen

G i l je , N . &G r imen , H . 1 99 1 . S amf unnsv i t en skapene sf oru t se tn inger E n k or ti n nf or ing is amf unn sf agene sv i t en skap s t eor i . B e rgen .

K o teda len .I nH je l le e ta l . ( e d s . ) ,K o t eda len -e nb op la s sg j ennom 5 000 ä r , 9 1 122 . B e rgen .

G i lman , A . 1 9 8 1 . T he d eve lopmen t o f s o c ia l s t ra t i f ica t ion i nB ronze

H jä r thne r , E . 1 975 . B en r u i lar f rän y ngr e s t enä ld er . U pp sa t s C 1 /20p .

A ge E u rope . C ur r en tA n thropo logy v o l . 2 2( I ) , 1 23 . G je r land ,B . 1 985 . B ergar t sok ser iV e s t -No r eg . D i s t r ibu s jon s e t ti f or -

U pp sa la . H jä r thne r -Ho lda r , E . 1 978 . B ennä la r f r än y ng r e s t enä lde r iS ve r ige .

h o ld t i lp rak t i sk f unk s jon ,o l conom i sk t i l pa sn ing o gt r ad i s jon is t e i -

T o r1 975 -77 , v o l . XV I I , 2 35 -236 . U pp sa la .

n a ld er en . Manu sc r ip t , U n iv e r s i ty l i b ra ry , B e rgen .

H o lm , L . 1 985 . V a r ia t ion s i nF lak e Ma t e r ia l . D if f e r en tu t i l iza t ion so f

G je s s ing , G . 1 944 . S t e ina lde r -B ron sea ld e r -S t e inb ron sea lde r ? V i -

S t one m a te r ia l .I n Hono r em E ven B audou .A r chaeo logy a nd E n -

k i ng V I I I , 1 5 -28 . O s lo .

v i ronmen t4 ,3 03 -31 1 . Umeä . H o lm ,L .1 989 . Manu f ac tu r eo fs t one t o o l si nN o r th S weden . As t udy

G jx revo l l ,0 . 1 980 .F j e l lp lan tene .I nV ok s0 ( e d . ) ,N orge sF je l l verd en , 3 16 -347 . O s lo . G lob , P .V . 1 9 38 . S t en r ed skabe rf r ab ronzea lde r en . W in ther F e s t sknf t .

o f s t one a s semb lage s i n t h e C a ledon ian C ha in . I n L a r s son &

A rk c eo log i sk es t ud ier t i l egne tJ ens W in the r ,4 0 -74 . C openhagen .

L undma rk ( e d s . ) ,A pproache st oS w ed i sh P r eh i s tor y . As pec t rum o fp rob l em sa nd p er spec t ive s i nc on t empora ry r e sear ch . B AR i n -

G lob , P .V . 1 9 52 . D an sk e O ld sa l c er Y ngr eS t e ina ld er 2 .

t e rna t iona lS er ie s5 00 , 1 9 1 -2 10 O xf o rd .

C openhagen .

H o lm ,L .1 99 1 . T he u se o fs t one a nd h un t ing o fr e ind eer A r cha eo logy

G r eenf i e ld , H .J . 1 9 88 . T he O r ig in s o fM i lk a nd Woo l P roduc t ion i n

a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 2 . Umeä .

t h eO ld Wo r ld : aZ ooa r cha eo log ica lP e r sp ec t iv ef r om t h eC en t ra l

H o lme s , A . 1 980 . P r inc ip le so fP hy s ica lG eo logy . T h i rd e d . N e l son .

B a lkan s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy v o l . 2 9( 4 ) , 5 73 -593 .

H o lm sen , A . 1 972 .N orge sF or h i s tor ie . O s lo .

G ronnow ,B . 1 993 . R e indee rh un te r s o nG r een land . I nH va s s &S t o r -

H ougen , B . 1 935 . S nar t emof unnene . N o r sk e O ld funn V I I . O s lo .

g aa rd ( e d s . ) , D igg ing i n to t h e P a s t . 2 5 Y e ar s o fA r chaeo logy i n

H ougen , B . 1 954 . F ra n o r sk a r k eo log i s h i s to r ie . E n s k i s se . V i k ing

D enmar k , 5 7 . A a rhu s . G unne rod , T .B . 1 974 . V i l tunde r sOk e l se r if o rb inde l se m ed u t bygg ing a v N y se t -S t egg je v a s sd r aga , Ä rda l .

ÄS V :

XV I I I , 2 9 -50 . O s lo . H ougen , B . 1 959 . V a ld re s iO ld t iden . I nH e rmund s tad ( e d . ) , V a ld r e s

K on se s jon sOknad f or

B ygd ebok I . N a tu r ; o ld t id , m ä lf or e , g ard snamn o g f o lk , 1 0 5 -

u t bygg ing a vN y se t -S t egg j eva s sd ragene , d e lB .

L e i ra .

G u s ta f son , L . 1 98 1 . Om « V e s tg r en sa» ih oyf je l le t . A r k eo 1 980 , 6 -9 .

H uf thamme r , A .K . 1 988 . D e t o s teo log i sk e m a t e r ia le t f r a F o sen s t rau -

B e rgen . G u s ta f son , L . 1 982 . A r k eo log i s l c e r eg i s t r er ing er iF läm s - o g U nd r e -

m en .I n Ma r s t rande r( e d . ) ,E r ver s s t ra t eg i er iN orge iY ngr eS t e in a ld er F or sk n ing s s ta tu sa nno 1 986 . R ik san t ikva r en s r a ppo r t e r1 7 ,

d a l sva s sd rage t . A rk eo log i sk e r appo r te r2 .B e rgen .

3 5 -36 . O s lo .

H agen , A . 1 944 . S ka f thu l lOk sene . F ra F ume s t ulU nga rn . V i k ing b i nd

H uft h amme r , A .K . 1 992 . D e o s t eo log i sk e u nd e r sok e l se r iK o t eda len .

V I I I , 1 2 1 130 . O s lo .

I nH je l le e ta l . ( e d s . ) , K o t eda len -e n b op la s sg j ennom 5 000 ä r ,

H agen , A . 1 9 7 1 . Om a r keo log ien s k u l tu rbeg r ep . KUML 1 970 , 2 67 -

9 -64 . B e rgen .

2 78 . A a rhu s .

H uf thamme r , A .K . n . d . U npub l i shed s pec ie sl i s tf rom S k r ivarhe l l e r en .

H agen , A . 1 9 83 . N orge s O ld t id . O s lo . H agen , A . 1 9 85 . Om a r d , k o rnav l o g b o se tn ing su tv ik l ing . V i k ing

H u l tg r en . T . , J ohan sen , 0 .S . , &L ie , R . 1 985 . S t iu rhe l le r en iR ana . D okumen ta s jon a vk o rn ,h u sdy ro gs i ld iy ng r es t e ina lde r . V i k ing

X LV I I I -1 984 ,4 4 -69 . O s lo .

X L I I I -1 984 , 8 3 102 . O s lo .

H agen , A . 1 9 87 . B ehov o g v ek s t . E k span s jon o g a r ea lbruk iO s t-

H oeg , O .A . 1 976 [ 1 974 ] . P lan t e ro g t r ad i s jon . F lor aen il e v end e t a le

N o rge in eo l i t t i sk t i do gb r on sea lde r . V i k ing b i nd L- 1 987 ,3 7 -64 .

o gt r ad i s jon iN orge 1 925 1973 . 3 .p ub l . O s lo .

O s lo .

H aa land , G . 1 969 . E conom ic D e te rm inan t s i nE thn ic P ro ce s se s . I n

H agen , R .M . , J ohanne s sen , K . , Ma th in sen , L . & S k ram , H .F . 1 989 .

B a r th ( e d . ) , E thn ic G roup sa nd B oundanr ie s , 5 8 -73 . O s lo .

N o r ge sH i s tor i eb i nd 1 5 , H i s tor i sk A t la s . O s lo .

H aa land , R . 1 992 . F i sh , P o t s a nd g ra in : E a r ly a nd M id -Ho lo cene

H a l l ,E .S .1 97 1 . K ang igug suk : ac u l tu ra lr e con s t ruc t ion o f as i x t een th c en tu r y E sk imo s i t e i nN o r the rn A la ska .A r c t i cA n thropo logy 8 .

a dap ta t ion s i n t h e C en t ra l S udan . T he A f r ican A r chaeo log ica l

Mad ison .

R ev iew , 1 0 , 4 3 -64 .

H an sen , A .M . 1 904 . L andni rm iN orge . E n u t s ig t o ver b o s c e tn ingen s

I nd re l id , S .1 973 .H e in 3 3 -E ns t e ina ld erbop la s sp äH ardanger v idda .

h i s tor i e . K r i s t ian ia . H a r e id , E . 1 9 58 . S t o l sd r i f t p ä Hx r e id . Ä rbok f or Ä rda l S oge lag I I ,

I nd r e l id ,S .1 975 .P rob lem sr e la ted t ot h eE a r ly Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen t

F or sOk p äk rono log i sk o gk u l tur e l la na ly s e . B e rgen . o f S ou the rn N orway . N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew v o l . 8

1 958 . L e ikange r . H a r e id ,E . &S agen , 0 . 1 97 1 . H je lpe f ö rf r äs kog o gf o r e . I nV e ( e d . ) ,

( I ) , 1 18 . O s lo . I nd re l id ,S .1 978 . Me so l i th ic e conomy a nd s e t t lemen tp a t t e rn si nN o r w ay . I n Me l la r s ( e d . ) , T he e ar ly p o s t -g lac ia ls e t t t lemen to fN or t -

B ygdebok f or Ä rda l , b and I ,3 6 1 -379 . B e rgen . H a r r i son , R . J . 1 980 . T he B eak er F o lk C opper A ge a r chaeo logy i n

h e rn E urope , 1 4 7 176 . L ondon .

W e s te rn E urope . L ondon .

1 45

i nS unnmo re . I nS o lbe rg ( e d . ) , M inne sknf tE g i lB akka .A rk e lo lo -

I nd re l id ,S .1 984 .B ron sea lde ren ss am funn .I nI nd re l id & L a r sen ( e d . ) ,

g i sk e S kr if t er . H i s tor i sk Museum s S knf t er N o . 7 ,7 0 -89 . B e rgen .

f ra d e f Or s t e f o tef ar S unnmor e s F orh i s tor ie . S unnmo r spo s ten

J o rgen sen , L .B . 1 986 . F orh i s tor i ske t e x t i ler iS kand ina v ien . C open -

F o r lag , Ä le sund .

h agen .

I nd re l id , S . 1 986 . F ang * lk o g b ond er if i e l le t . B idrag t i lH ardan -

J O rgen sen , L .B . 1 990 . S tone -Age t e x t i le s i nN or th E u rope . I n Wa l ton

g er v idda s F orh i s tor ie 8 500 -2500 ä rf or n a t id . Manu scr ip t , Un i -

&W i ld ( e d s . ) , T ex t i le s i nN or thern A r chaeo logy . L ondon .

v e r s i ty l i b ra ry , B e rgen .

J O rgen sen , L .B . 1 99 1 . T ex t i l tekno log i iO ld t iden . A rk eo - N y t tf ra

I nd re l id , S .1 988 .J e rna lder funn iF läm sf je l la .A rkeo log i sk d a ter ing o g

H i s tor i sk Mu seum iB ergen n r 2-1 99 1 , 1 9 -25 . B e rgen .

k u l tu rh i s to r i sk tam ing . A rkeo log i sk e s kr if ter f ra H i s tor i sk Mu -

J O rgen sen , R . 1 989 . E n b op la ss f r a e l d re m e ta l la lde r iNo rd land . I n

s eum n o . 4 ,1 06 119 . B e rgen .

B er te l sen , R eyme r t &U tne ( ed s . ) , F ram skr i t tf or f or t ida in ord . I

I nd re l id , S . & Moe , D . 1 983 . F ebruk p ä Ha rdange rv idda iy ng re s t e i -

P ov lS imon sens f o tef ar T rom so Mu s . S k r . XX I I , 1 35 145 . T rom -

n a lde r . V ik ing XLV I -1 982 , 3 6 -7 1 , O s lo .

s 0 .

I ng s tad , H . 1 975 [ 1 951 ] . N unam iu t . B lan tA laskas i n n land s -e sk imoer

J O rgensen , R . & O l sen , B . 1 988 . A sbe s tk eram i ske g rupper iN ord -

O s lo .

N orge 2 100 f :K r -1 00 e . K r T romu ra , K u l tu rh is to r ie n r . 1 3 .

I r eg ren , E . 1 988 . F ind s o f B rown B ea r ( Ur su s a rc tos ) i n S ou thern

T rom s0 .

S cand inav ia -I nd ica t ion s o fL oca l Hun t ing o rT rade? I nH ä rdh ,

K a land ,P .E . 1 984 . Ho locene s ho re l ine d i sp la cemen ta nd s ho re l ines i n

L a r sson , O lau s son & P e t r ( eds . ) , T r ade a nd e xchange i np r eh i s -

H o rda land , w es te rn No rway . B or ea s v o l . 1 3 , 2 03 - 2 42 . O s lo .

t o ry . S tud ie s i nh onor o fB er ta S t jer nqu i s t . A c ta A rchaeo log ica

K ee s ing , R .M . 1 98 1 . C u l tura lA n thropo logy . Ac on tempora ry p er spec -

L unden s ia s e r ie s i n8 .n o . 6 ,2 95 -308 . L und .

t i ve . N ew Y o rk .

J a cob -F r iesen , K .H . 1 928 . G rundf ragen d er K u l tu rf or schung . H anno -

K jx r , H . 1 9 10 . G ravk i s te r f r a s t ena lde ren s s l u tn ing s t id . Nye U nde r -

v e r .

s Oge lse r . A arbOger f or n ord i sk o ld kynd ighe t 1 9 10 , 1 69 -238 . C o -

J an sen , K . 1 972 . D e v e s t -no r ske h u lefunn o g p rob leme t omk r ing j e -

p enhagen .

g e r -f i ske r -bonde . I n S imonsen & Munch ( ed s . ) , B ond e -V e id e -

K l ind t Jen sen , 0 . 1 975 . AH i s tor yo fS cand inav ian A rchaeo logy . L on -

m ann B of a s t -I kk e b of as t iN ord i sk F orh is tor ie . T rom so Mu -

d on .

s eum s s k r if te rX IV , 1 00 109 . T rom s0 .

K le ivan , H . 1 962 . Oko log i sk e nd r ing iL ab rado r .N a tur en , n r . 4 ,1 962 .

J en sen , J .1 973 . T he P r eh i s tory o fD enmark L ondon .

B e rgen .

J en sen , J . 1 979 . B ronze . I n R ud ( ed . ) , A rk c eo log i sk Händbog , 2 9 .

K nu t sson , K . 1 978 . S l c rapo r o ch s k rapn ing . E t t e xempe l p ä a r tefak t -

C openhagen .

o ch b op la t sana ly s . T OR 1 975 -77 , v o l . XV I I , 1 9 -62 . Upp sa la .

J en sen ,J .A . 1 973 . B op la s sen My rh0 j . 3h u s tom te rm ed k lokkebxge r -

K o s s ina , G . 1 9 1 1 . D ie h erkunf td er G ermanen . Z ur Me thod e d er S i ed -

k e ram ikk . KUML 1 972 , 6 1 122 . A a rhu s .

l u ngsarchäeo log ie . L e ipz ig .

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 967 . I nnbe re tn ing om f o re lOp ig u nde r soke l se a v

K rade r , L . 1 959 . T he e co logy o f n omad ic p a s to ra l ism . I n terna t iona l

K va r t s i t tb rudd I p äK jo le ska rve t ,B o rgund s . , Lx rda lp gd . ,S ogn

S oc ia lS c ience J ourna lX I , 4 99 -5 10 .

o g F jo rdane .A rkeo log i sk e U nder sOk e l ser 1 967 v ed Larda l svass -

K r is t iansen , K . 1 978 . T he C on sump t ion o f Wea l th i n B ronze Age

d rage t . T opog raph ica l f i les , H is to r isk mu seum , B e rgen .

D enmark . AS tudy i nt h eD ynam ics o fE conom ics i nT r iba lS oc i -

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 968 . I nnbe re tn ing om f o r t sa t tu nde r soke l se a v K va r t -

e t ie s . I nK r is t iansen & P a ludan - Mü l le r ( e d s . ) ,N ew D ir ec t ions i n

s i t tbrudd I p ä K jo leska rve t , Lxrda l k ommune , S ogn o g F jo rda -

S cand ina v ian A rchaeo logy , 1 58 190 . N a t iona l Museum o f D en -

n e . A rk eo log i ske U nd er sok e l ser iLarda l , 1 968 . T opog raph ica l

ma rk . C openhagen .

f i le s , H i s to r isk museum , B e rgen .

K r is t ian sen , K . 1 978 . T he A pp l ica t ion o f S ou r ce C r i t ic ism t o A r -

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 968 . HOyf i e l l sf unn v ed L c erda l sva s sd rage t . B e rgen .

c haeo logy .N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l . 1( 1 ) ,1 -5 . O s -

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 970 . Hoyje l l sf unn v ed L z erda l sva s sd rage t . B e rgen .

l o .

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 973 . I r on P roduc t ion a s aF ac to r i nt h e S e t t lemen t

K r is t ian sen , K . 1 98 1 . E conom ic mode l sf o rB ronze A ge S cand inav ia -

H is to ry o f t h e Moun ta in V a l ley s s u r round ing H a rdangerv idda .

t owa rd s a n i n teg ra ted a pp roach . I n S he r idan & B a i ley ( ed s . ) ,

N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew , v o l . 6( 2 ) , 8 4 10 1 . O s lo .

E conom ic A r chaeo logy . T oward sa nI n tegra t ion o fE co log ica la nd

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 974 . F orho ld e t m e l lom t e or i o g d a ta ia rk eo log i o g

S oc ia lA pproache s . BAR I n te rna t iona l S er ie s 9 6 , 2 39 -303 . O x -

a ndr e e r f ar ing sv i tenskaper A rkeo log iske S k r if te r f r a H is tor isk

f o rd .

mu seum , n o . 1 .B ergen .

K r is t ian sen , K . 1 987 . F rom s t one t ob ronze - t h e e vo lu t ion o fs oc ia l

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 978 . HOyf i e l l sf unn v ed l i erda l sva s sd rage t H . N a tur -

c omp lex i ty i n Nor ther nE u rope , 2 300 - 1 200 BC . I nB rum f ie l &

b ruk o g t r ad i s jons sammmenheng ie ts Or -nor sk v i l lr e inomräde i

E a r le ( ed s . ) , S pec ia l i za t ion , e xchange a nd c omp lex s oc ie t ie s , 3 0 -

s t e ina ld er B e rgen .

5 1 . C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P res s , L ondon .

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 982 . A rkeo log ien s t e or i o g d a ta . S va r t i l Ma t s P .

K r is t iansen , K . 1 987 . C en te ra nd p er iphe ry i nB ronze Age S cand ina -

Ma lme r o g k ommen ta r t i l Axe l C hr is tophe re sen , F rand s H e r -

v i a . I nR ow land s , L a r sen & K r i s t ian sen ( ed s . ) . C en tr ea nd p er ip -

s chend o g S t ig We l inde r . F ornvännen 7 7 , 2 13 -225 . S tockho lm .

h e ry i nt h e a nc ien t w or ld , 7 4 -85 . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss ,

J ohan sen , A .B . 1 99 1 . P rob lem s i nt e s t ing a r chaeo log ica l h ypo the se s

L ondon .

( s umma ry ) .N ord ic T AG . R epor tf rom t h e2 nd NORD IC T AG c on -

K r is tof f e r sen , K .K . 1 990 . B jO rneku l t -e n e t noa rkeo log isk s peku la -

f er ence , Umeä 1 987 . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 , 6 3 .

s j on . A rk eo - N y t tf r a H i s tor i sk Mu seum iB ergen , n r 11 990 ,

Umeä .

2 2 -25 . B e rgen .

J ohan sen , 0 .S . 1 990 . S ynspunk t er p aj erna lderensjordbruk s samf unn i

K r is tof f e r sen , S .E . 1 990 . FV 0 18 A u s t v ik - B r anda sund 1 988 1990 .

N ord -Norge . Un iv . iT rom s0 ,I n s tf o rs am f . v i t . ,A rk . s ek s j . , S t en -

A rkeo log iske R appo r te r 1 3 . B e rgen .

s i l se r ie B n r . 2 9 . T rom s0 .

K r is tof f e r sen , S .E . 1 992 . U tg ravde l oka l i te te rf r aj e rna lde ren . I nB jo r -

J ohan sen , 0 . 1 98 1 . Me ta l lf unnene iO s tnor sk b ronsea ld er U n ive r s i te -

g o , K r is tof f e r sen & P re sco t t ( ed s . ) ,A rk eo log i sk e u nd er sOk e l ser i

t e t s O ld sa l c sam l ings S kr if te rn r . 4 .O s lo .

N y se t -S tegg jeva s sd ragene 1 98 1 1987 , 1 47 -284 . A rkeo log iske r ap -

J ohan sen , 0 . 1 983 . B ronsea lderp rob leme r -e nt e or i om m e l lomhand -

p o r te r 1 6 . B e rgen .

l e rv i rk somhe t . I n Ma r s t rande r( e d . ) , F or ed rag v ed d e t1 .n ord i ske

K r is tof f er sen , S .E . 1 993 . Modvo -e tg ä rd san legg f r af o lkevandr ing s -

b ron sea ld er -sympos ium p ä I s egran 3 . -6 . o k tober 1 977 . V a r ia 9 ,

t i d iH a f s lo ,I nd re S ogn . I nS o lbe rg ( e d . ) ,M inneskr if tE g i lB ak l ca ,

2 4 -47 . O s lo .

A rkeo log i sk e S kr if t er H i s tor i sk Museum s S kr if t er n o . 7 ,1 5 1 -206 .

J ohan sen , 0 . 1 986 . T id l ig Me ta l lku l tur iA gd er . O s lo .

B e rgen .

J ohan sen , 0 . 1 988 . N or sk e d epo unn f ra b ronsea ld er en . Manu scr ip t ,

K ro ssen , D . 1 978 ( e d . ) . B ygd ebok f or Ä rda l . B and 2 . K u l turbande t .

D robak . U n ive r s i ty l i b ra ry , B e rgen .

Ä rda l k ommune , Ä rda l . K rüge r , S .H . 1 988 . B jo rnek lo r f r a v e s t land ske g rave r . A rk eo log i sk e

J ohnson , T . 1 993 . S e in -neo l i t t i sk e t i d iS ogn o g F jordane . B e rgen .

S kr if t er f ra H i s tor isk m u seum n o . 4 ,3 57 -366 . B e rgen .

J ohnson ,T .&P re sco t t 1 993 . L a te N eo l i th ic h ouse sa tS tokk se t ,S ande

1 46

Ma lm e r ,M .P . 1 962 .J ungneo l i t i sche s t ud ien .A c ta A r chaeo log ica L un -

K uhn ,T .1 9 70 . T h eS t ruc tur eo fS c ien t if i cR evo lu t ion s . S e cond e d i t ion . C h icago .

d en s ia , S e r . i n 8°,2 .L und . Ma lme r , M .P . 1 975 . S t r id syx eku l tur en iS ver ige o gN orge . L und .

K vamme ,M .1 988a .L oka le p o l lend iag ram o gb o se tn ing sh i s to r ie .U n d e r sok e l se r a v r e s su r su tny t t e l se o g k u l tu r land skap su tv ik l ing i

Ma lme r , M .P . 1 985 . A rk eo log isk P o s i t iv i sm . F or n vännen 7 9 , 2 60 -

V e s t -No rge g j ennom d e s i d s t e 3 000 ä r . I n N ä sman & L und

2 68 . S to ckho lm . Mand t , G . 1 990 . A skvo l l r i s tn ignene - e n b ron sea lde r s en t ra lhe l l ig -

( e d s . ) ,F o lk evand r ing s t id en iN ord en .E nk r i se t id r n e l l em x ld r eo g

d om iS unn f jo rd? A r k eo -N yn f ra H i s tor i sk m u seum iB ergen n r .

y ng r ej er na ld er , 7 5 1 13 . A a rhu s . K vamme ,M . 1 988b . P o l len A na ly t ica l S tud ie so f Moun ta in S umme r -

1 ,1 3 18 . B e rgen .

F a rm ing i n We s te rn N o rway . I n B i rk s , B i rk s , K a land & Moe

Mand t ,G .1 99 1 . V e s tnor sk er i s tn inger it i do gr om .K r ono log i sk e , k oro -

( ed s . ) , T he C u l tura lL and scape - P a s t , P r e sen ta nd F u tur e , 3 49 -

l o g i sk e o g k on t ek s tu e l l e s t ud ier 1 2 . Manu sc r ip t , U n iv e r s i ty l i -

5 14 . C amb r idge .

b r a ry , B e rgen .

K vamme , M . , B e rge & K a land 1 992 . V ege ta s jon sh i s tor i sk e u nd er s0 -

Ma r s t rande r , S .1 950 . J y l land -L i s ta . V i k ing X IV , 6 3 -86 . O s lo . Ma r s t rande r , S . 1 983 . P o r f y r - o g n a l ck ebOyde O k se r s om i n d ika to r e r

k e l s e r iN y s e t -S t egg jeva s sd rage t . A rk eo log i sk e R appo r t e r 1 7 , B e rg en .

f o r b o se tn ing o g s o s ia le s t ru l c tu r e r iN o rge s y ng r e b ron sea lde r . F or ed rag v ed d e t1 .n ord i sk e b ron sea ld er sympo s ium p ä I s egran

K oe s t le r , A .G . 1 983 : H ur rungane . B erggrunn sgeo log i sk k ar t1 5 17 I V 1 : 50000 ,f o r lOp ig u t g .N o rge sG eo log i ske U nde r sOk e l se r -NGU .

3 . -6 . o k tober 1 977 , 5 2 146 . V a r ia 9 .O s lo .

L a r s son , L . 1 98 1 . R ev iew o f H Oyf j 'e l l s funn v ed Lx rda l sva s sd rage t ,

Ma r ten s ,I .1 973 .D ey ng s te s t e inbruk ende k u l tu r e r iS O r -No rge sf j e l l s t rok .N oen a k tue l le p rob leme rr und tk rono log io gk u l tu r f o rho ld .

b i nd I .N orw eg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 4( 1 ) , 6 5 -70 . L av ik ,P . J . 1 962 .I nnb er e tn ing o mu nd er sök e l se a vs t e ina ld erbop la s sen

I nS imon sen & Munch ( e d s . ) ,B ond e -V e id emann B of a s t -I kk eB o -

V e s l e s t e inen . U npub l .r e po r ti nt opog raph ica lf i l e s ,H i s to r i sk mu -

f a s t iN ord i sk F orh i s tor i e . T r om s0 Mu s .S k rX IV ,8 4 100 .T rom s0 . Me inande r ,C .F . 1 9 54 .D i eB ron z e ze i ti nF inn land .F in ska F o rnm inne -

s eum , B e rgen . L ee , R .B . 1 968 . Wha tH un t e r sD of o r aL iv ing ,o r ,H ow t o Mak eO u t

f ö r en ingen sT id sk r i f t5 4 . H e l s ink i .

o n S ca r ce R e sou r ce s . I nL ee & D evo r e ( e d s . ) , Man t h e H un t er ,

Me l t ze r , D . J . 1 979 . P a rad igm s a nd t h e n a tu r eo fc hange i n Ame r ican a r cha eo logy . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty , v o l . 4 4 ( 4 4 ) , 6 44 -657 .

3 0 -48 . C h icago .

M id t tun , S .D . 1 958 . S t ad namn iÄ rda l iS ogn . Ä rbok n r . 4f r ä Ä rda l

L ee , R .B . &D eVo r e , I( e d s . ) . 1 968 . Man t h eh un t er C h icago .

S oge lag . B e rgen .

L id , G . 1 9 80 . F j e l le t s d y r e l iv . I n V ok so ( e d . ) , N orge s F je l l ve rd en ,

M id t tun ,S .D . 1 97 1 .L andnäme t .I nV e( e d . ) ,B ygd ebok f or Ä rda l , b and

3 48 -38 1 . O s lo .

I ,1 20 126 . B e rgen .

L id , J .1 963 .N or sk o gs v en sk f l ora . O s lo . L ie , R .W . 1 9 92 . O s t eo log i sk m a te r ia le . I n B jo rgo , K r i s tof f e r sen &

M ikk e l sen ,E .1 989 . F ra j eger t i lb ond e . U t v ik l ingen a vjordb ruk s sam -

P r e s co t t ( e d s . ) , A r k eo log i sk e u nd er sOk e l ser iN y se t -S t egg j eva s s -

f unn iT e l emark is t e ina ld er o g b ron sea ld er U n ive r s i te t e t s O ld s a k sam l ing s Sh if t e rn r . 1 . O s lo .

d ragene 1 98 1 -87 , 3 20 -327 . A rkeo log i sk e r a ppo r t e r 1 6 . B e rgen .

M i l i sau ska s , S .1 978 . E uropean P r eh i s tor y . N ew Y o rk .

L ien ,N .1 96 1 .I nnber e tn ing o mr e g i s t r er ing v ed T y in , Ö y e ,s .V ang p gd ,

Mobe rg , C .A . 1 969 . I n t roduk t ion t i l l a rk eo log i . N a tur o ch K u l tur

O pp land , it i da 1 9 / 6 -2 4 / 6 -6 1 . Unpub l . r e po r t i nt o pog r aph ica l

S t ockho lm .

f i l e s ,H i s to r i sk mu seum , B e rgen .

Moe , D . 1 973 . S t ud ie s i nt h e H o locene V ege ta t ion D eve lopmen t o n

L i l lehamme r ,A . 1 97 1 .F unn f r äf o rh i s to r isk t i d .I nV e( e d . ) ,B ygd ebok

H a rdange rv idda , S ou the rn N orway . I .T he o ccu r r ence a nd O r i -

f or Ä rda l , b and I ,1 2 7 148 . B e rgen .

g i n o fP o l len o fP lan t s F avou r ed b y Man ' s A c t iv i ty . N orweg ian

L indb lom , I .1 982 . O ko log i o g o l conom i f o rd e l r a v S O r Jx r en is en -

A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l . 6( 2 ) , 6 7 -73 . O s lo .

n eo l i t ikum . D e l 1 .R ug land -e n s en -neo l i t i sk b op la s s p äJ x r en ,

Mon t e l iu s ,0 . 1 900 . T ypo log i en e l ler u t v eck l ing s lä r en t i l lempadpä d e t

S o r ve s t -No rge . I nL i l lehamme r ( e d . ) , F aggr en ser b r y t e s . AmS -

m ene s l c e l iga a rbe t e t . S tockho lm .

s l c r i f te r9 ,1 5 -32 . S t avange r .

Mon te l iu s ,0 . 1 900 .D ie C hrono log i ed er ä l t e s t en B ron ze ze i ti nN ord -

L indman , G . 1 988 . P owe r a nd i nf luence i nt h e L a t e S tone A ge . A

E uropa u nd S kand inav i en . B raun schwe ig .

d i scu s s ion o ft h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h ef l in td agge rm a t e r ia l . O x -

Mon te l iu s ,0 . 1 903 .D ie ä l t er en K u l tur per iod en i mO r ien tu nd i nE uro -

f ord J ou rna lo fA r chaeo logy v o l . 7( 2 ) , 1 2 1 - 1 38 . O x f o rd .

p a . S tockho lm .

L ombo rg , E .1 960 . F ladehuggede f l in t r ed skabe r ig r av fund f r ax ld r e

Mon te l iu s , 0 . 1 9 17 .M innen f rän v är f or n t id . I .S t enä ld er en o ch b ron -

b ronzea lde r . A arb eer f o r N ord i sk O ld kynd ighed o g H i s tor ie

s ä ld er en . S t ockho lm .

1 959 , 1 46 180 . C openhagen . L ombo rg ,E .1 973 .D ie F l in tdo lche D änema rk s . S tud ien ü be rC h rono -

Mo r ten sen ,M . 1 99 1 .K o se s te ine r ; s p i l l ,s am lem a n ie le rb a r et i l f e ld ig -

l o g ie u nd K u l tu rbez iehungen d e s s üd skand inav i schen S pä tneo -

h e t .A r l c eo -N y t tf r a H i s tor i sk m u seum n r . 1-1 99 1 , 2 9 -30 . B e r g en .

l i th ikum s . N ord . F o r t id sm inne r , S er B ,1 .C openhagen .

Mü l le r , S .1 902 . F l in tdo lkene id en n o rd i sk e S t ena lde r .N ord i sk eF or -

L ombo rg ,E .1 975 .T he F l in tD agge r so fD enma rk .S t ud ie si nC h rono -

t i d sm ind er 1 .C openhagen .

l o gy a nd C u l tu ra lR e la t ion so ft h eS ou th S cand inav ian L a t eN eo -

Mü l le r ,S .1 9 19 .B op la s s fund f r aB ronzea lde r en .A arb eer f or N ord i sk

l i t h ic . S umma ry & R ep ly t ot h eC ommen t s .N orweg ian A r chaeo -

O ld kynd ighed o gH i s to r ie 1 9 19 , 3 5 105 . C openhagen .

l o g i ca lR ev iew v o l . 8( 2 ) , 9 8 10 1 , 1 5 124 . O s lo .

Munch , P .A . 1 8 52 . D e tn or sk ef o lk sh i s tor ie I .C h r i s t ian ia .

L ombo rg ,E .1 975 .K lokk ebxge ro gs ene r eB eak e r ind f lyde l se r iD an m a rk . Ä rboger f or n ord i sk o l dkund ighed o g h i s to r i e , 2 0 -4 1 . C o -

Mu rdo ck , G .P . 1 967 . E thnograph ic A t la s . P i t t sbu rgh .

p enhagen .

Mu rdo ck , G .P . &P rovo s t , C . 1 973 . F a c to r s i nt h e D iv i s ion o fL abo r B y S ex : AC ro s s -Cu l tu ra lA na ly s i s .E thno logy , v o l . X I I( 4 ) , 2 03 -

L u t ro , 0 . 1 98 1 : B orgund . B erggrunn sgeo log i sk k a r t1 5 17 I I . 1 : 50000

2 25 . P i t t sbu rgh .

F o r lop ig u t g . NGU . T rondhe im .

Myh r e ,B . 1 9 78 . A g ra r ian d eve lopmen t , S e t t lemen tH i s to ry a nd S oc i -

L ok en ,T .1 987 .F o r sand : N äo g sä m ed d en f o r s t ek j en te b ron sea lde r -

a lO rgan iza t ion i nS ou thwe s t No rway i nt h eI r on A ge . I nK r i s t i -

l a nd sby iN o rge .f r a h auk o kh e idn in r . 3 .S t avange r .

a n sen & P a ludan - Mü l le r( e d s . ) ,N ew D ir ec t ion s i nS cand inav ian

Mad sen , T . 1 978 . P e r iode r o g p e r iodeove rgange in eo l i t ikum . Om

A r chaeo logy , 2 24 -27 1 . C openhagen .

f o r ske l l ige f und type r se gne thed t i lk rono log i sk eo ppd e l inge r .H i -

Myh r e , B . 1 979 . F unn a vs t e ina ld er l o ka l i t e t1 8 / 7 1979 v ed u t lopo sen ,

k u in 4 ,5 1 -60 . A a rhu s .

T y in . R epo r t i nt h e t o pog raph ica l f i l e s , H i s to r i sk mu seum , B e r -

Mad sen , T . 1 985 . C ommen t s o n E a r ly A g r icu l tu r e i n S cand inav ia .

g en .

N orw eg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l . 1 8( 1 -2 ) , 9 1 -93 . O s lo .

Myh r e , B . 1 99 1 . T heo ry i nS cand inav ian a r cha eo logy s i nce 1 960 : a

Magnu s ,B .1 986 .I r on A ge e xp lo i ta t ion o fh i gh moun ta in r e sou r ce si n

v i ew f r om N orway . I n H odde r ( e d . ) , A r chaeo log ica l t h eor y i n

S ogn .N o rw eg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev i ew v o l .1 9( I ) ,4 4 -50 .O s lo .

E urope . T he l a s tt h r ee d ecad e s , 1 6 1 186 . L ondon .

Magnu s ,B . & Myh re ,B . 1 9 76 .F o rh is to r ien .F ra j e ge rg rupp e rt i lh ov -

N ee rgaa rd , C . 1 908 . H aag funde t . E n a f f a ld sdynge f r a e n m e ta l l s t0 -

d i ng sam funn . I n Myk land ( e d . ) , N orge sH i s tor ie b i nd I .O s lo .

1 47

b e r shy t te , f r a d en y ng re b ronzea lde r . A arboger f or N ord i sk O ld -

P iggo t t , S .1 973 .A nc ien tE urope . E d inbu rgh .

k ynd ighed o g H i s tor ie 1 908 , 2 73 -352 . C openhagen .

P i lo ,L . 1 990 . E a r ly s oaps tone v es se ls i nN orway f r om t h eL a te B ron -

N egaa rd , H . 1 9 1 1 . H a rdangerv idda s e l d s te b ef o lkn ing . B ergen Mu -

z e A ge t ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge .A c ta A rchaeo log ica v o l . 6 0 -1 989 , 8 7 100 . C openhagen .

s eums Ä rbok n r . 4 .B e rgen .

P i lo , L . 1 99 1 . F or rome r sk j e rna lde r -f r a e n a nnen v inke l . V ik ing

N es je , A . & R ye , N . 1 985 . N y se t -S tegg jeva ssd ragene . U t v id e t r egu l e r ing . G eof ag l ige u nd er sok e l ser .G eo log isk I n s t i tu t t ,a vd . B ,r ap -

LW 199 1 , 5 1 -64 . O s lo . P re sco t t ,C . 1 986 . C hrono log ica l , t y po log ica la nd c on tex tua la spec t so f

p o r t . B e rgen . N es je , A . & R ye , N . 1 987 . N y se t -S tegg jevas sd ragene . U t v ide t r egu -

t h e L a te L i th ic P er iod . As t udy b ased o n s i t e s e xcava t ed i n t h e

l e r ing . K onses jonsbe t inge te g eo log i sk e u nd er soke l ser . G eo log isk

N y se t -S tegg je moun ta in v a l ley s , Ä rda l , S ogn , N orway . Manu sc r i p t , U n ive r s i ty l i b ra ry , B e rgen .

I n s t i tu t t , a vd . B , r appo r t . B e rgen . N es je , A . &R ye , N . 1 990 . R ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e moun ta in a r ea

P resco t t , C . 1 988a . S k r iva rhe l le ren iÄ rda l : S pennende n y i n ns ik t ie n

n o r thea s t o f Ä rda l , s ou the rn Norway ; e v idence f o r aP rebo rea l

mo t se tn ing sfy l tt i d . A rk eo -N yn f ra H i s tor i sk Mu seum iB ergen ,

d eg lac ia t ion . NGU B u l le t in 4 18 , 1 7 . T rondhe im .

n r . I ,1 988 , 2 6 -3 1 . B e rgen . P re sco t t , C . 1 988b . S kr iva rhe l le ren iÄ rda l iS ogn .A rk eo log i sk eS kr if -

N ico lay sen , N . 1 857 . Om l e vn inge r a fN o rges u r f o lk . F or en ingen t i l N or sk ef or t id sm inne smerker s B evar ing , a ar sber e tn ing 1 857 , 2 2 -

t e rf ra H i s tor i sk mu seum n o . 4 ,6 8 -78 . B e rgen . P re sco t t , C . 1 99 1a . L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge d eve lopmen t s o n

2 7 . C hr is t ian ia .

t h e p er iphe ry o fs ou thern S cand inav ia . N orweg ian A rchaeo log i -

N ygaa rd , S .E . 1 987 . S oc io -E conom ic D eve lopmen t s a l ong t h e S ou th w e s te rn C oa s to f Norway b e tween 1 0 ,000 a nd 4 ,000 BP .I nR ow -

c a lR ev iew v o l . 2 4 ( 1 ) , 3 5 -48 . O s lo .

l e y -Conwy , Zwe leb i l &B lankho lm ( ed s . ) , Me so l i th ic N or thwes t

P re sco t t , C . 1 99 1b . K u l turh i s tor i sk e u nd er sok e l ser iS kr ivarhe l ler en .

E urope : R ecen t T r end s , 1 47 154 . S hef f ie ld .

A rkeo log i ske r appo r te rn o . 1 4 . B e rgen .

N ygaa rd , S .E . 1 988 . T oo many p eop le , r i tua l p o r r idge e a t ing o r w a s

P re sco t t , C . 1 992 . U tg ravde l o ka l i te te r f r a s e in -neo l i t ikum , b ronsea l -

H insch r i gh t a f te r a l l? A rk eo log i sk e S kr if t er f ra H i s tor i sk Mu -

d e ro gk e l te r t id .I nB jo rgo , K r is tof f e r sen & P re sco t t( ed s . ) ,A rk e -

s eum , n o . 4 ,1 47 155 . B e rgen .

o log iske u nder soke l ser iN y se t -S tegg jeva s sdragene 1 98 1 1987 . A r -

Nygaa rd , S .E . 1 989 .T he S tone Age o fN or thern S cand inav ia : AR ev i -

k eo log isk e r appo r te r 1 6 , 1 03 146 . B e rgen .

e w . J ourna lo fW or ld P r eh i s to ry , v o l . 3( 1 ) , 7 1 1 16 .

P re sco t t , C . 1 993 . R appo r t f r a P er if er ien . N ye r e Unde r soke lse r f r a

N c er ing sm idde l tabe l l 1 96 1 , S ta ten s e rnxr ing s räd , L and s lage tf o rk os t -

S ogn . I nF o r sbe rg & L a r s son ( ed s . ) ,E konom io ch N är ing sf o rmer

h o ld o g h e l se . O s lo .

iN ord i sk B ronsä lder S tud ia A r chaeo log ica U n ive r s i ta t i s Umen -

Nx roy ,A .J .1 987 .R ed skap s trad i s jon iH orda land f ra 5 500 t i l4 000 f or

s i s 3 ,1 5 1 16 1 . Umeä .

n and - e n l o ka lkrono log i sk s t ud ie . Manu sc r ip t , U n ive r s i ty l i b ra -

P re sco t t , C . 1 993 . Omk r ing d en t i d l ige p a s to ra l isme iS ogn . I nS chan -

r y , B e rgen .

c he ( ed . ) , I nn legg v ed d e t n or s i c e a rk eo log imo te iT r om s0 . 1 992 . T ro r r imu ra , k u l tu rh i s tor ie n r . 2 4 . T rom so .

Nx r0y ,A .J . 1 988 .T ekno log iske e ndr inge rv ed o ve rgangen f r ae l d re t i l

P re sco t t , C . i np re ss . P arad igm g a ined , p arad igm l o s t? 1 50 y ear s o f

y ng re s t e ina lde rp äV es t lande t .A r keo log i ske S kr if t erf ra H i s tor i sk Museum , n o . 4 ,2 05 -2 13 . B e rgen .

N orweg ian B ronze A ge r e search . F o r th c om ing i n N orweg ian A r cheo lo ica lR ev iew .

Nx r0y , A .J . 1 993 . C h rono log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l c hange s i nw e s t e rn Norway . 6 000 -3800 b .p .A c ta A rchaeo log ica v o l . 6 3 , 7 7 -95 .

P re sco t t , C . i np r e s s . A spec t s o fe a r ly p a s to ra l ism i n S ogn . No rway . F or thcom ing i nA c ta A r chaeo log ica . C openhagen .

C openhagen .

P re sco t t , C . i np r ep . An eo l i th ic i nN orway? D oc to ra te l e c tu re 1 993 .

Odne r ,K . 1 969 . U l l she l ler en iV a l lda len , R O ldaL E ns t ud ie iO ko log isk e t i l pa sn inger p ag runn lag a ve tf orh i s tor isk , a rk eo log i sk m a ter ia le .

R a f f er ty , J .1 985 . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o n s eden ta r ine s s : r e cog -

Ä rbok f o r U n ive r s i te t iB e rgen , H uman is t isk s e r ie . B e rgen .

n i t ion ,d eve lopmen ta nd i mp l ica t ion s . I nS ch if f e r( ed . ) ,A dvances

Odne r , K . 1 972 . E thno -h is tor ic a nd e co log ica l s e t t ing s f o r e conom ic

i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry 8 ,1 3 156 N ew Y o rk .

a nd s oc ia l mode l s o fa n I r on Age s oc ie ty : V a l lda len , N o rway . I n

R ande r s , K . & K vamme , M . 1 992 . B r ehe imenunder sok e l sene 1 982 -

C la rke ( ed . ) , Mod e l s i nA rchaeo logy , 6 23 -652 . L ondon .

1 984 . A rkeo log iske r appo r te r 1 5 . B e rgen .

O f tedah l ,C . 1 980 .G eo logy o f Norway .N orge sg eo log iske u nd er so l c e l -

R and sbo rg , K . 1 974 . B efo lkn ing o g s oc ia l v a r ia t ion ix ld re b ron -

s en r : 3 56 , b u l le t in 5 4 , 3 1 14 . T rondhe im .

z ea lde r s D anam rk . KUML 1 974 , 1 97 -208 . A a rhu s .

Ohn s tad , A . 1 962 . HOg f je l l o g v e id ing ie l d re t i de r . I nO hn s tad ( ed . ) ,

R a smu s sen , L .W . 1 990 . D o lkp roduk t ion o g d is t r ibu t ion is enneo l i t i -

A ur land b ygd ebok . F ram t i l om lag 1 920 , 3 1 -43 . B e rgen .

k um . H iku in 1 6 , 3 1 -42 . A a rhu s . R e ichborn -K jenne rud ,I .1 92 1 .B us te in .B id rag t i ln or sk f o lk emed i s in I .

Ohn s tad , A . 1 988 . G ard s soga f or A ur land . V as sbygd i o gf e l lgardane . A u r land .

S xr t rykk a v «Maa l o g M inne» 1 92 1 .

O ldebe rg ,A . 1 952 .S tud ien ü ber d i es chwed i sche B oo tax tku l tur S tock -

R e in ton , L . 1 955 . S c e terbruk e t iN or eg . I .I n s t . f o r s am l . k u l tur f o r skn .

h o lm .

O s lo .

O ldebe rg ,A . 1 954 . Hä l lk i s tan f rän I ngemar s to rp . A n t ikva r isk ta rk iv 1 .

R e in ton ,L . 1 96 1 . S c e terbruk e t iN or eg . I l . O pphave tt i ls c e terbruke to g

S tockho lm .

d en e l d s ta t i da . I n s t . f o r s and . k u l tu r f o r skn . O s lo .

O ldebe rg , A . 1 974 . D ie ä l ter e Me ta l l ze i ti nS chwed en I .K ung l iga V i t -

R ing s tad , B . 1 987 . V e s t land e t ss t or s te g ravm inner . E tf or sok p a l o ka l i -

t e rhe t s H is tor ie o ch a n t ikv i te t s A kadem ien . S tockho lm .

s e r ing a vf orh i s tor i sk em ak t sen tra . Manscr ip t , Un ive r s i ty l i b ra ry ,

O ldebe rg , A . 1 976 . D ie ä l ter e Me ta l l ze i t i n S chwed en I . K ung l iga

B e rgen . R ing s tad , B . 1 988 . S te ine r b ruk t s om a mu le t ter if o rh is to r isk t i d -e t

V i t te rhe t s H is to r ie o ch a n t ikv i te t s Akadem ien . S tockho lm .

e k sempe l f r aK vä le iS ognda l .A rk eo log i sk eS kr if ter f ra H i s tor i sk

O lsen , A .B . 1 98 1 . B r i sk a v d iabas iv e smor sk s t e ina lder Manu scr ip t , U n ive r s i ty l i b ra ry , B e rgen .

m useum n o . 4 ,3 25 -34 1 . B e rgen . R ob in son ,M . &H ubbo rd 1 977 . T he T ran spo r to fP o l len i nt h e B rac t s

O l sen , A .B . &A l sake r , S .1 984 . G reen s tone a nd D iaba se U t i l iza t ion i nt h e S tone Age o f We s ter n No rway : T echno log ica l a nd S oc io -

o fH u l led C e rea ls .J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience ,4 ,1 97 199 .

c u l tu ra l A spec t s o fA xe a nd Adze P roduc t ion a nd D is t r ibu t ion .

R o senqv is t ,E . 1 962 . I nnber e tn ing o mr eg i s tr er ing a vf or t id sm inner ved

N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l . 1 7( 2 ) , 7 1 103 . O s lo .

7 3 ) in , O ye s .V ang p gd . , O pp land , it i da 2 7 / 6 -2 7 /7 -62 . U npub l .

O lsen , H . 1 976 . S k ip she l ler en . O s teo log i sk m a t er ia le . S t enc i l , Z oo lo -

r epo r t i nt opog raph ica l f i les , H is to r isk mu seum , B e rgen .

g i sk mu seum . B e rgen .

R u sse l , A .D . 1 990 . Two B eake rB u r ia l s f r om C h i lbo l ton , H amp sh i re .

O l sen , M . 1 94 1 . N orges i n nskr if t er m ed d e y ngr e r une , : f or s te b i nd .

W i th c on t r ibu t ion s b y B o ism ie r , F oxon , G r een , S t i r land , W i l l i -

N o r sk H is tor isk k j e ldesk r if t ins t i tu t t . O s lo .

a m s . P roceed ing s o ft h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 6 , 1 53 172 .

P iggo t t , S . 1 958 . S egmen ted b one b ead s a nd t ogg les i nB r i t ish E a r ly

R yde r , M .L . 1 98 1 . L ives tock . I nP iggo t t ( e d . ) , T he a grar ian h i s to ry o f

a nd M idd le B ronze A ge . P roceed ings o ft h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty :

E ng land a nd W a les . V o lume I .P reh i s tor y , 3 0 1 -4 10 . C ambr idge . S agen , 0 . 1 97 1 . S to lsdr if ta . I n V e ( e d . ) , B ygdebok f or Ä rda l b and I ,

N ew s e r ie s , v o l . XX IV , 1 958 , 2 27 -229 . C amb r idge .

2 65 -289 . B e rgen .

P iggo t t , S . 1 962 . H ead s a nd Hoof s . A n t iqu i t y ; v o l . ) 00 W I , 1 0 1 18 .

1 48

S o lbe rg , B . 1 993 . We s te rn N o rway i nt h e L a t e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly

S agen , 0 . 1 9 7 1 . S kogen o g s kog sd r i f ta . I n V e ( e d . ) , B ygd ebok f o r

B ronze A ge . C an l o o se f i nd s c on t r ibu te t oo u ru nde r s tand ing o f

Ä rda lb and I ,2 90 -3 14 . B e rgen .

d emog raphy a nd s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion . I n S o lb e rg ( e d . ) , M inne -

S agen , 0 . 1 97 1 . F i ske if j o rd , e l v o g v a tn . I nV e ( e d . ) , B ygd ebok f or

s knf tE g i lB akka .A r k eo log i sk es kr i f t er -H i s tor i sk m u seum N o . 7 ,

Ä rda lb and I ,2 53 -264 . B e rgen .

1 8 138 . B e rgen .

S a lzman , P .C . 1 9 7 1 . Mov emen t a nd r e sou r ce e x t r a c t ion a mong p a s -

S o lhe im , S .1 952 .N or sk s e t er t rad i s jon . I n s t i tu t t e tf o rs ammen l ignen -

t o ra ln omad s : t h ec a se o ft h e S hah N owaz i B a luch .A n thropo lo -

d ek u l tu r f o r skn ing , s e r ie B : S k r if te r XLV I I . O s lo .

g i ca lQ uar t er ly 4 4 , 1 85 197 .

S o l tved t , E .C . 1 99 1 . Mak ro f o s s i le r f r a S l c r iva rhe l le ren . I n P r e sco t t

S ande , 0 . 1 887 . F raa S ogn . S egner o ga nna tI .B e rgen .

( e d . ) , K u l turh i s tor i s l c e u nd er sOk e l ser iS k r ivarhe l l er en . A rkeo lo -

S chanche , K . 1 989 . N ye f unn f r ay ng r e s t e ina lde r iV a range r . V i k ing

g i sk e r a ppo r t e r1 4 , 1 3 0 132 . B e rgen .

L I I -1 989 , 5 3 -7 1 . O s lo .

S pec to r , J .D . 1 99 1 . Wha t T h i s Aw l Mean s : T owa rd s aF em in i s t A r c haeo logy . I nG e ro & C onk ey ( e d s . ) , E ngend e r ing A r chaeo logy .

S cheen ,R .1 9 79 .D en or sk ef t in tdo lk er . Manu sc r ip t ,U n ive r s i ty l i b ra ry , O s lo .

W omen a nd P r eh i s to r y , 3 88 -406 . O x f o rd & C amb r idge , U SA .

S che t e l ig , H . 1 908 . N o r sk e K u l tu r f o rho ld iB roncea lde r en . F or en in -

S p ie s s ,A .E . 1 979 .R e ind e e ra nd C ar ibou H un t er s . N ew Y o rk .

g en t i lN or sk eF or t id sm ind e smer k er sb evar ing .A ar sb er em ing f or

S p rockhof f ,E . 1 930 . H üg e lg räbe rb e i V o rwoh lde im K r e i se S u l ingen .

1 907 , 6 3 . a rgang , 1 2 1 . K r i s t ian ia .

P raeh i s to r i sche Z e i t schr if t , XXL B and , 1 93 -236 . B e r l in .

S che t e l ig , H . 1 9 10 . T o b ron sea lde r s g r av ro i se r iH a rdange r . B ergen

S p rockhof f ,E .1 9 37 .J ungbron ze ze i t l iche H o r t f und eN ordd eu t sch land s

Mu s eum sA arbog N r 5 ,1 9 10 , 3 1 1 . B e rgen .

( P er iod eI V ) . Ma inz .

S che t e l ig , H . 1 9 1 1 . Smaa spxnde rf r a f o lk evand r ing s t iden . O ld t id en I

S t enb e rge r , M . 1 9 79 . D e tf or n t id a S ver ige . 3 .e d . L und .

1 9 10 , 5 1 -99 . S t avange r .

S t een ,E .1 968 . S ome r ema rk so nt h em ig ra t ion o fr e indee ri nF enno -

S chm id , E .1 9 8 1 . D ie B ä r r enk ra l len a u sd em L e ichenb rand d e rB ron -

s c and ia .A r k ivf t ir Z oo log i , 2 0 : 175 -1 79 .

z e s i tu la v on D öh r en , S t ad tP e te r shagen , K r e i sM inden -Lübe ck e .

S t enn ing , D . J . 1 9 58 . H ou seho ld v i ab i l i ty a mong t h e p a s to ra l F u lan i .

B od ena l t er tümer W e s tf a l en s1 8 .

I nG oody ( e d . ) , T he d ev e lopmen ta lc yc l ei nd ome s t ic g roup s ,9 2 -

S ege rbe rg , A . 1 978 . D en e nk le s ka f thä l syxan a v s t en . F yndf ö rhä l lan -

1 9 . L ondon . S t env ik , L . 1 988 . S t e inko l le rm ed s ka f t fu r e .A r k eo log i sk e S k r if t er f r a

d en o ch d a te r inga r . T OR 1 975 -1 977 v o l . XV I I ,1 59 -2 18 .U pp sa la . S e rv ice , E .R . 1 962 . P r im i t ive S oc ia lO rgan i za t ion . N ew Y o rk .

H i s tor i sk m u s eum n o . 4 ,2 92 -300 . B e rgen .

S e rv ice , E .R . 1 975 . O r ig in so ft h eS t a t ea nd C i v i l i za t ion . N ew Y o rk .

S t je rnqu i s t , B . 1 969 . B e i t räge z um S t ud ium v on B r on ze i t l ichen S i ed l u ngen . A c ta A r ch . L unden s ia s e r ie si n8 .n o . 8 .L und .

S hank s ,M . &T i l ley ,C . 1 989 .A r cha eo logy i n to t h e1 990 s .N orw eg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l . 2 2 ( 1 ) , 1 1 1 . O s lo . S he r ra t t , A . 1 98 1 . P lough a nd p a s to ra l i sm : a spe c t s o ft h e s e conda ry

S t rahm , C . 1 969 . D ie S pä t en K u l tu r en . I nV og t ( e d . ) , U r - u nd F rüh g e sch i sh t l iche A r chäo log i ed er S chw e iz . B a se l .

p roduc t s r e vo lu t ion . I nH odde r , I s aa c &H ammond ( e d s . ) , P a t -

S t rombe rg , M . 1 9 54 . B ronzeze i t l iche Wohnp lä tze i nS chonen . Med -

t e rn s o ft h e p a s t . S t ud i e s i nh onour o fD av id C lark e , 2 6 1 -305 .

d e land en f r än L und sU n iv er s i t e t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum 1 954 .L und . S t rombe rg , M . 1 975 . C ommen t s o n T he F l in t D agge r s o fD enma rk . N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l . 8( 2 ) , 1 2 1 14 . O s lo .

C amb r idge . S he r r a t t , A . 1 983 . T he s e conda ry e xp lo i ta t ion o fa n ima l s i nt h e O ld

S obo rg , H .C . 1 9 88 . I C n iv ska rp e g r en se rf o r s l c if e rb ruk is t e ina lde r en .

Wo r ld . W or ld A r chaeo logy v o l . 1 5( 1 ) , J une 1 983 , 9 0 104 .

A r k eo log i sk eS k r if t er f r aH i s tor i sk Mu seum , n o . 4 ,2 25 -24 1 . B e r -

S he te l ig , H . 1 9 12 . K a ra v l d ebe r s ten f r aj e rna lde r en . O ld t id en I ,4 9 -

g en .

7 3 . S t avange r .

S o r en sen ,M .L .S .1 992 .G ende rA r cha eo logy a nd S cand inav ian B ron -

S he te l ig , H . 1 922 . P r im i t iv e t i d er iN org e . E n o v er s ig t o v er s t ena l -

z e A ge S t ud ie s . N orw eg ian A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew v o l . 2 4 ( I ) ,

d er en . B e rgen .

3 1 -49 . O s lo .

S he te l ig ,H . 1 925 .N orge sF orh i s tor i e . P rob l emer o gr e su l ta t er in or sk

T hom sen , C . J . 1 8 36 .L ed e t raad t i lN ord i sk O ld kynd ighed . U dg iv en a f

a r keo log i . O s lo .

d e tk onge l ige N o rd i sk e O ld sk r if t -Se l skab . C openhagen .

S he te l ig , H . 1 925 . N o r sk K un s t id e x ld s t eT ide r . I nF e t t&S chn i t le r

T r igge r ,B . 1 978 . T ime a nd T r ad i t ion s . E s say si nA r chaeo log ica lI n t er -

( e d s . ) ,N or sk K un s th i s tor i e ,f or s tb i nd , 1 29 . O s lo .

p r e ta t ion . E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

S he t e l ig ,H . 1 9 30 .F ra O ld t iden t i l Om I c r ing 1 000 e .K r . I nB u l l ,K e i l -

T r igge r , B . 1 989 . AH i s to r yo fA r chaeo log ica lT hough t . C amb r idge .

h au , S he t e l ig & S t e en ( e d s . ) , D e tN or sk e F o lk s L iv o g H i s tor i e .

T r igge r , B . 1 99 1 . P o s t -p ro ce s sua l d eve lopmen t s i nA ng lo -Ame r ican

O s lo .

A r chaeo logy .N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l .2 4( 2 ) ,1 65 .

S k jenneb e rg , S .1 965 . R e in o g r e ind r if t . F j e l lny t t . L e s ja .

O s lo .

S k jo l svo ld , A . 1 9 70 . E t k e l t e r t id s k l ebe r s t e in sb rudd f r a K v ikne . V i -

T y leco t e , R .F . 1 987 . T he e ar ly h i s to ry o fm e ta l lurgy i nE urop e . L on -

k i ng 1 969 , 2 0 1 -240 . O s lo .

d on .

S k jO l svo ld ,A . 1 9 77 . S l e t tabObop la s sen . AmS S k r i f te r2 .S t avange r .

T y lo r , E .B . 1 87 1 . P r im i t iv e C u l tur e . L ondon .

S k jo l svo ld , A . 1 9 80 . B op la s sen p a N ygard p a O gna . AmS V a r ia 6 .

T y lo r , E .B . 1 964 . E ar ly H i s tor y o f Mank ind a nd t h e D eve lopmen t o f

S t avange r .

C iv i l i za t ion . R ep r in te d i ted f r om 3 .e d . 1 878 . L ondon .

S kogen , A . , B e rge & Meye r 1 985 . V ege ta s jon o gf l ora ir e gu l er ing s -

U ndhe im , P .1 985 . O s t eo log i sk m a t er ia le f ra D raggen . E n O ko log i sk

o m r äd ene f o rN y s e t -S t egg j ek raf t . B o tan i sk I n s t i tu t t , R appo r t4 0 .

s t ud ie f ra m idd e la ld er en sB ergen . Manu sc r ip t ,U n ive r s i ty l i b ra ry ,

B e rgen .

B e rgen .

S kog land , T .&J o rdhoy , P .1 987 . K on sekven svu rde r ing f o rv i l l r e in i

V andk i lde , H . 1 990a . V on d e r S t e inze i t b i s z u r B ronzeze i t i nD äne -

f o rb ind e l se m ed p l ane r om e t ab le r ing a v s omme r sk i sen t e r p ä

m a rk .Z e i t schr if tf ir A r chäo log ie v o l . 2 3 ( 2 ) , 1 7 5 -200 . B e r l in .

V a rgeb r een , B u sk erud ,H o rda land o gS ogn o gF jo rdane f y lke r-

V andk i lde ,H . 1 990b .S enneo l i t ikum v ed L im f jo rden : f r ad om inan st i l

H o l , A u r land o g U lv ik k ommune r . D i r ek tora t e tf or n a t taf or va l t -

a nonym i t e t . I nR ing tv ed ( e d . ) ,L imjord segnen sk u l tur -o gn a tur -

n i ng . R egu l e r ing sund er sok e l ser n r . 1 2 1987 . T rondhe im .

h i s tor ie . L im f jo rd sp ro s jek te t , r a ppo r tn r . 1 , 1 09 122 . A rhu s . V andk i lde , H . 1 990 c . AL a t e N eo l i th ic H oa rd f r om V ige r s lev , N o r th

S o lbe rg , B . 1 984a . F rä f unn f a t t igdom t i lh og s ta tu sg rave r . I nI nd r e l id & L a r s en ( e d s . ) , f ra d ef Or s t ef o t ef ar , 8 0 -87 . S unnmo r spo s t en

S ea la nd -A n A r cha eo log ica l a nd Me ta l C la s s if i ca t ion . J ou rna l

F o r lag ,Ä le sund .

o fD an i sh A r chaeo logy v o l . 9 ,1 03 1 13 . C openhagen .

S o lbe rg ,B . 1 9 84b . S e t t lemen ta nd e xp lo i ta t ion o fn a tu ra lr e sou r ce si n

V andk i lde , H . 1 993 . T he e a r l ie s t m e ta lwo rk . I n H va s s & S t o rgaa rd

N o r ther n S unnmo r e A .D . 2 00 1050 . I n K r i s t ian sen ( e d . ) , S e t t -

( e d s . ) , D igg ing i n to t h e P a s t . 2 5 Y e ar s o fA r chaeo logy i nD en -

l em en ta nd E conomy i nL a t er S cand inav ian P r eh i s to ry . BAR I n -

m ark A a rhu s . V a s shaug ,0 . 1 9 74 . F i sk e r ib i o log i ske g r an s l c inga r iN y se t -va s sd rage t

t e rna t iona l S e r ie s 2 1 1 , 1 5 5 179 . O x fo rd .

o g S t egg jee lva .

S o lbe rg , B . 1 988 . S t e inok se r m ed s ka f t fu r e f r a S yd -No rge . A r k eo lo -

AS V :

K on se s jon s sok nad f or u t bygg ing a vN y se t -

S t egg j eva s sd r agene . S t enc i l .

g i sk e S k r if t er f ra H i s tor i sk m u seum n o . 4 ,2 77 -29 1 . B e rgen .

1 49

f o r ap roce s sua l a r chaeo logy . N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew

V e , S .1 930 . S l cog tn erene sf or ekom s to g h Oyd egr en ser iÄ rda l . Medd l .

v o l . 2 5 ( 1 ) , 5 1 -68 . O s lo .

V e s t l . f o r s t l . F o r sok s s t . 1 3 , 1-9 4 . V e , S .1 940 . S kog o g t r e s lag iI ndr eS ogn f rä L c erda lt i lF u l le j Je l l . Med

Wo r saae , J . J .A . 1 843 . Om N og le iNo rge f undne O ldsage r f r a B ron -

e iu t gr e i ing o mg ran iS ogn . Medd l . V es t l . f o r s t l . F o r sok ss t . 2 3 , 1

c ea lde ren . U rda I I , 8 9 -93 . B e rgen .

-2 24 .

Wo r saae , J . J .A . 1 88 1 . N ord ens F orh i s tor ie . E t t er s am t id ige M ind e s -

V e , S .1 97 1 . J ak tf r ä s t e ina lde ren t ulv ä re d aga r . I nV e ( e d . ) , B ygd ebok

m c erk er C openhagen . Z ve leb i l , M . 1 980 . Nor the rn f o re s t c u l tu re s a nd t h e A r c t ic f r inge . I n

f or Ä rda l , b and I ,1 79 -252 . B e rgen .

S her ra t t ( e d . ) , T he C ambr idge E ncyc loped ia o f A rchaeo logy ,

V e , S .1 97 1 . V a tn ing . I nV e( ed . ) ,B ygd ebok f or Ä rda l , b and I ,3 15 -340 .

3 20 -323 . C ambr idge .

B e rgen . V e , S . 1 97 1 . F rä d y re l ive t . I n V e ( e d . ) , B ygdebok f or Ä rda l , b and I ,

Z ve leb i l , M . & R ow ley -Conwy , P . 1 984 . T ran s i t ion t o F a rm ing i n N or thern E u rope : A H un te r -Ga the r e r P e r spec t ive . N orweg ian

1 03 1 13 . B e rgen .

A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew v o l .17 ( 2 ) , 1 04 128 . O s lo .

V e , S .&V ende lboe , P .1 97 1 . F rä p l an te l ive t . I n V e ( e d . ) , B ygd eboka

O s tmo ,E .1 977 . S cha f t lochäx te u nd l a ndw ir t scha f t l iche S i ed lung . E i -

f or Ä rda l , b and I ,7 8 102 . B e rgen . V in srygg , S .1 979 . R e iskapa rt uls ank ing /pr im i t iv tj o rdbruk? Ana lyse

n eF a l l s tud ie ü be rK u l turve rhä l tn is se i ms üdö s t l ichen N orwegen

a vs t e inko l le rm ed b o ra h o lf r äR oga land . V ik ing 4 2 , 1 978 ,2 7 -68 .

i mS pä tneo l i th ikum u nd i nd e rä l te ren B ronzeze i t .A c ta A rchaeo l o g ica v o l . 4 8 , 1 55 -206 . C openhagen .

O s lo .

O s tmo , E . 1 988 . E tab ler ingen a vj ordbruk sku l tur en i( he ld is t e ina l -

V o ld , S .L . 1 955 . F ang s ta v o r r fug l o g r j upe rm ed k a s tene t t . T id s sknf t u t g jeve a vH i s tor ie lage tf or S ogn , n ummer 1 7 , 4 0 -44 . L e ikange r .

d er en . U n ive r s i te te t s O ld sak sam l ing s S l cr if te rn r . 1 0 . O s lo .

Wa tk in s , T . 1 973 . D a lge ty . C ur r en tA rchaeo logy . N o . 4 0 , v o l . I V (5 ) ,

O ve r land ,O .A . 1 887 .I lus t r er e tN orge sH i s tor ie , F o lkeudgaven , 1 .h ef -

1 33 135 . L ondon .

t e . K r is t ian ia . A go tnes , A . 1 986 . N o rdve s tno r sk a sbe s tke ram ikk . K a i-f o rm , g od s -

Wenke , R .J . P a t te rns i n P reh i s to ry . H umank ind ' sf i r s t t h r ee m i l l ion

s t ruk tu r , u t b rede l se o g d a te r ing . A rkeo log i sk e s k r if ter f ra H i s to -

y ear s . N ew Y o rk . Wy l ie , A . 1 992 .F em in is tt h eor ie so fs oc ia lp owe r : S ome i mp l ica t ion s

r i sk Mu seum n o . 3 ,8 6 1 18 . B e rgen .

1 50