Financial and Administrative Organization and Development 9781400877461

Table of contents :
Preface
Table of Contents
Note on Transliteration
Note on Abbreviations
Note on Egyptian Coins and Units of Account
List of Tables
Concordance of Dates
Introduction. The Political Structure and Development of Ottoman Egypt (1517– 1798)
Part I. The Wealth of Egypt and The Revenues of The Imperial Treasury of Egypt
Chapter I. The Landed Wealth of Ottoman Egypt
Chapter II. The Urban Wealth of Ottoman Egypt
Chapter III. Miscellaneous Revenues Op The Imperial Treasury of Egypt
Summary: The Revenues Op The Imperial Treasury of Egypt
Part II. The Expenditures of The Imperial Treasury of Egypt
Chapter I. Expenditures for Egypt
Chapter II. Expenditures for The Pilgrimage and The Holy Cities
Chapter III. Expenditures for The Porte
Summary: The Expenditures of The Imperial Treasury of Egypt
Part III. The Surplus of Revenues Over Expenditures of The Imperial Treasury of Egypt: The Revenues of The Porte from Ottoman Egypt
Chapter I. The Irsâliyye-I Hazîne Remittance
Chapter II. The Hulvân Revenues of The Porte in Egypt
Part IV. The Financial Position of The Vâlî of Egypt
Chapter I. The Revenues Of The Vâlîs of Egypt
Chapter II. The Expenditures Op The Vâlîs of Egypt
Part V. The Imperial Treasury of Egypt
Chapter I. The Dîvân UL-Rûznâme
Chapter II. The Hazîne-I Âmire and The Anbâr-I ’ Âmire
Appendix
I. Land tax revenues of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt
II. Mâl-i Harâj tax revenues of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from Urban Muqâța'ât
III. Salaries, Wages and Pensions paid by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt
IV. Total revenues and expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt
V. Irsâliyye-i Hazîne payments delivered to the Porte from Egypt
VI. Jâ'ize-i Humâyûn and related payments to the Porte due annually from the Vâlîs of Egypt
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

The Financial and Administrative Organization and Development of

Ottoman Egypt 1517-1798

Princeton Oriental Studies Number 19

The Financial and Administrative Organization and Development of

Ottoman Egypt 1517-1798 BY STANFORD J. SHAW

1962 PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

Copyright © 1958 by Stanford J. Shaw ALL MGHTS RESERVED

L.C. Card: 61-7412

• Stanford J. Shaw, after receiving degrees in history at Stanford University and an M-A. in Oriental Studies at Princeton, studied at the Universities of London, Cairo, and Istanbul as a Fellow of the Ford Foundation. After returning to Princeton for his Ph.D. in Oriental Studies, he has been a Research Fellow at the Center for Middle Eastern Studies of Harvard University and since 1960 an Assistant Professor of Turkish there. indicating 175> dated on the 15th of

V , 3Oa:175

(15

volume V , folio 30a, item number in the year 1171 of the

In addition, reference is made to documents and statistical registers contained in various other collections In the

1) collection. Documents and registers are arranged according to the Sultan in whose reign they were issued, and so the citations give the name of the Sultan and then the number of the document or register. 2) collection. Materials are arranged in subject classifications according to their contents. Those cited in this study are (Interior affairs), (Mint and coinage), and (Financial affairs). 3) collection. Materials are arranged according to the department from which they were issued but are numbered consecutively

throughout the collection, and so their departmental references are not cited here. 4) Mallyyeden Mtldewere. Materials are arranged according to the order in which they were catalogued and are numbered consecutively. Docianents are cited in the footnotes only when they are not exact duplicates of the decrees contained in the registers. A detailed description of the collections in the various ar­ chives of Turkey will he found in Stanford J. Shaw, "Archival Sources for Ottoman History: The Archives of Turkey," Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 80(1960), pp. 1-12.

XXi

NOTE ON EGYPTIAN COINS A M ) UNITS OF ACCOUNT The basic coin in circulation in Ottoman Egypt was it's own silver rather than the silver used elsewhere in the Empire, so all the figures and tables in this work are expressed in Some sources indicate that the was coined for the first time only in 1045/1635-6 (as for example Gibb and Bowen, Islamic Society and the W e s t , v o l . I, part 2, 53n; Ismfiil Gfilib Bey, p . 199; and Mugtaffi Na'imfi, III, 2 3 9 ) . However, in fact the coin appears in the earliest Turkish source materials concerning Ottoman Egypt as, for example, the of 1524, M S 2063 in the Emfinet Hazine collection of the Top Kapi Saray, Istanbul, f o l . 23a, 25b, 26a, and in Muhimme 2 1 , 1 6 3 : 3 1 9 (981/1573)It was a direct descendent of the silver coin used in the Mamlflk Empire in Egypt since Sultan Mu'ayyad and first minted in 8 1 8 / 1 U 1 5 - 6 , and it was therefore called colloquially and by Europeans throughout the Ottoman period. Its actual value and relation to the aqpe varied widely throughout the centuries, and must be the subject of a special study. In the sixteenth century, the weighed twofifths of a dlrhem and equalled two In the seventeenth century it weighed sixteen grains and equalled four aqces. After that time its value was continually deflated by debasing in the Mint of Cairo. 'Abbfis al- 'AzzSwi, Baghdad, 1958, p p . 1 U 5 - U 8 ; Ismail Hakki Ankara, 19^8, p p . 353-^; Mehmed Zeki P a k a l m , 3 vol., Istanbul, 1946-1955, II, 281*. The was the principal coin of account in all Ottoman financial registers originating in Egypt, although occasionally a few such registers intended for the authorities In Istanbul were translated into aqges for their convenience. were also grouped into "purses" a larger unit of account introduced first in the seventeenth century. The ("Egyptian Purse") equalled twenty-five thousand pfirfis• The "purse" was also used for aqces elsewhere in the Empire, with the ("European Purse") equalling 50,000 aqges and the of 25,000 equalling 60,000 aqpea regardless of the real values of the coins concerned.

xxii

LIST OF TABLES I.

II.

Land taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the provinces of the department of the Treasury from l ooit/i 5 9 5 - 6 to i 21 2 / 1 797-8

69

Land taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the provinces of the department of the Treasury from 1 0 0 ^ / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to i 2i 2 / 1 797-8

70

III.

Land taxes demanded from the Qalem-1 Jlze department

71

IV.

Land taxes demanded from the Q,alem-i Garblyye department

71

V. VI.

Components of the increase in the land tax from 1oot/i595-6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

71

land tax demanded in wheat and "barley from the provinces of Upper Egypt in 1 0 8 1 / 1 6 7 0 - 1 and 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6

80

VII.' received in cash by the Galfil of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt as the equivalent of certain land tax obligations originally owed in kind

85

VIII. Charges demanded as from 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 to 1 1 8 2 / 1 7 6 8 - 9

from villages in Lower Egypt 91

IX.

of the lands of Egypt in the

Distribution of the year 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 8

Revenues of the customs house at Suez from 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 to 1212/1797-8

X. XI. XII.

95 107

Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the of the customs of Suez and from other joined to it. 108 Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the of the customs of Alexandria and Rosetta and other joined to it

Xllla. Table of total customs revenues at the customs of Damietta from 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

110 111

XIII.

Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the of the customs of Damietta and other joined to it.. 112

XIV.

Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the of the customs of Burullos demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the of the customs of Old Cairo and BQlSq and other joined to it

115

X V . T a x e s

XVI. Summary of t h e t o t a l annual revenue of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the of customs and other attached to them, from 1 0 0 ^ / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 xxiii

115

1 17

XVTI • Summary of the total Treasury of Egypt from the attached to them XVIIIXIX. XX. the XXI.

revenue of the Imperial of customs and other 117

Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the of the of Cairo and its environs

121

Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the and the attached to it

123

Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the the and attached to them

125

Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the in the port of Damietta

126

XXII. Taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from miscellaneous minor Urban owing only from 100^/ 1595-6 to 1212/1 797-8

127

XXIIITaxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from the Urban excluding those of customs, from 1004/1595-6 to 1212/1797-8

131

XXIV. Summary of the total Treasury of Egypt from the Urban XXV.

Total and other Urban

demanded for the Imperial excluding those of customs• 131

taxes demanded from the of customs from 1 0 0 ^ / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 .

133

XXVI. charges demended annually f o r t h e Imperial Treasury of Egypt from holders of positions distributed by the of Egypt, as shown in lists from 1 0 5 7 / 1 61+7 and 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

1^5

XXVII. Total charges demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

150

XXVIII- Jlzye revenues and and 978/1 570-1

pensions paid In 96^/1556-7, 9 6 5 / 1 5 5 7 - 8 151

XXIX. Jlzye taxes demanded from 1 Jlzye reform of 11 4-9/i 737 XXX-

in Egypt according to the 155

Authorized deductions from the Jlzye collections for and salaries to the the Jizye reform of 11^9/1 737

and others in Egypt, as established In 155

XXXICost of collection charges levied on in addition to Jlzye taxes as authorized in the Jizye re-form of 1 1 ^ 9 / 1 7 3 7

156

XXXIIJizye taxes demanded from reform of 1 1 5 3 / 1 7^0

in Egypt according to the Jlzye 158

XXXIII. Jlzye taxes demanded from reform of 1155/1 7^2

in Egypt according to the Jlzye

XXXIV. Jizye taxes demanded from reform of 1163/1 7^9-50

in Egypt according to the Jlzye

159 160 xxiv

XXXVJizye taxes demanded from reform of 1174/1760-1

in Egypt according to the Jizye

XXXVI. Jizye taxes demanded from reform of 1188/1774-5

in Egypt according to the Jizye

160 162

XXXVII.

Authorized deductions from the Jizye collections for and salaries to the and others in Egypt, as established in the Jizye reform of 1188/1774-5 162

XXXVIII- Jizye taxes and supplementary charges collected from Egypt from 1 2 0 5 / 1 7 9 0 - 1 through 1209/1794-5 XXXIX. Jizye taxes demanded from reform of 121 0 / 1 795-6 XL.

XLI.

in 164

in Egypt according to the Jizye 1 64

Jizye taxes demanded from the according to the Jizye reforms of 1 1 4 9 / 1 7 3 7 , 1 153/1 7^0, 1155/1 742, 1 1 6 3 / 1 7 ^ 9 - 5 0 , 1 1 7 ^ / 1 7 6 0 - 1 , 1188/1774, and 1 2 1 0 / 1 7 9 5 - 6

166

The distribution of the Jizye collections in Egypt from 1 004/ 1596 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

167

XLII. demanded from the Egypt, 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

for the Imperial Treasury of 168

XLIIIFixed miscellaneous revenues demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

169

XLIVVariable, non-fixed miscellaneous tax revenues riqa) received by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt in selected years from 1 004/1595-6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

180

XLV-

Total tax revenues demanded for the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from 1 004/1595-6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

XLVI.

(Salaries) paid by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt to and others from 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

183 188

XLVII• (Wages ) paid by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1209/1794-5

210

XLVIII. Salaries Wages and Pensions paid by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1 2 0 9 / 1794-5: Totals

215

XLIX. Salaries and wages in kind demanded from the Imperial Treasury of Egypt

222

L.

Established deductions from Treasury revenues in the provinces which were made by the provincial governors to provide for the repair and maintenance of the imperial canals in their provinces 228

LI.

Expenditures of the Imperial Treasury for purposes in Egypt in the years 1 0 0 5 / 1 5 9 6 - 7 , 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 , 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 , 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6 , 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 5 - 6 , and 1 2 1 3 / 1 7 9 8 - 9 xxv

232

LII. Total expenditures of the Imperial Treasury for purposes In Egypt from 1004/1595-6 to 1 2 0 9 / 1 7 9 4 - 5

238

LIII. Revenues of the of Egypt from the expenditures of the Treasury of Egypt and from the revenues sent annually by the Treasury of Egypt to the Porte

246

LIV". The contributions in cash sent annually by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt to the Holy Cities from 1 1 1 8 / 1 7 0 6 - 7 to 1212/1797-8. 255 LV.

LVI-

Summary of the total contributions in cash sent annually by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt to the Holy Cities from 9 ^ 0 / 1 5 3 3 - 4 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

258

Expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt for the Pilgrimage and the Holy Cities, 1 0 0 5 / 1 5 9 6 - 7 to 1 2 1 3 / 1 7 9 8 - 9

264

LVIITotal expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt for the Pilgrimage and the Holy Cities from 1005/1596-7 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

268

LVIII. Expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt for the Porte from 1 0 0 5 / 1 5 9 6 - 7 to 1 2 1 3 / 1 7 9 8 - 9

279

LIX-

Total expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt for the Porte from 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1 2 1 3 / 1 7 9 8 - 9

LX-

281

Summary of the total expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1209/179^-5 and 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

282

The budget of the Treasury of Egypt as established in the of 13 1180/12 February, 1767

299

LXII. The budget of the Treasury of Egypt as established in the of 7 1 2 0 1 / 3 0 November 1786

303

LXIII. Summary of the surplus of revenues over expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt from 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

305

LXIV. Summary of the surplus of revenues over expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt as contemplated in the reforms of 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 , 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 , 1 1 7 9 - 8 0 / 1 7 6 5 - 6 , 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 5 - 6 and 1 2 0 9 / 1 7 9 ^ - 5

305

LXI-

LXVthe

Summary of the relatively fixed and customary expenditures from during the 1 2 / 1 8th Century

310

LXVI• revenues of the Porte from Ottoman Egypt in selected years from 1058/1648 to 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 9 5 - 6

315

LXVII. Revenues of the Vfilis of Egypt from the 1 0 8 6 / 1 6 7 5 - 6 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

319

LXVIII. revenues of the Egypt during the 12/1 8th Century

villages from from office holders in 321

LXIX. Debts of the of Egypt to the Porte for selected years from 1 0 4 1 / 1 6 3 1 - 2 to 1208/1793- 1 * 336 See also pages 3 5 1 - 3 5 2 for the index to the tables in the Appendix. xxvl

CONCORDANCE OF DATES I . A l l years given In the statistical tables represent the Ottoman financial year in Egypt, which followed the Coptic solar calendar rather than the Muslim lunar one (see p p . 2 1 6 - 2 1 7 , 2 3 0 - 2 5 1 , 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 ) . DATE OP ITS FIRST DAY CHRISTIAN MUSLIM FINANCIAL CALENDAR YEAR CALENDAR 1 004 1004 4 Mutiarrem 9 Sept. 1595 1 005 8 Sept. 1596 1 005 15 Mutiarrem 1006 1 006 8 Sept. 1597 26 MuJjarrem 1 007 8 Sept. 1598 6 §afar 1007 18 §afar 1 008 1008 9 Sept. 1599 28 §afar 1 009 1 009 8 Sept. 1600 1 01 0 8 Sept- 1601 10 Rebi I 1 01 0 21 R e b i I 1 011 8 Sept. 1602 1 011 Sept. 1603 2 Rebi II 1012 1012 9 1 013 8 Sept. 1604 1 01 3 13 Rebi II Sept. 1605 24 R e b i II 1014 1 014 8 8 Sept. 1606 5 Jumfida I 1015 1015 Sept. 1607 1016 1 016 17 Jumfida I 9 8 Sept- 1608 1 01 7 27 Jumfida I 1017 Sept. 1609 8 1018 8 1018 Jumfida II 1019 8 Sept- 1 6 1 0 19 Jumfida II 1019 Sept. 1611 1 Rejeb 1 020 1 020 9 12 Rejeb 8 Sept. 1 6 1 2 1 021 1 021 1 022 1 022 8 Sept. 1 6 1 3 23 Rejeb 8 Sept• 1614 1 023 1 023 3 Sa'bfin Sept. 1 6 1 5 1024 1 024 15 §a'bfin 9 Sept. 1 6 1 6 26 §a'bfin 8 1 025 1025 Sept. 1 6 1 7 1 026 8 1 026 7 Ramacjfin 18 Ramacjfin 1 027 8 Sept. 1618 1 027 Sept. 1 6 1 9 1028 1028 9 Sept- 1620 29 Ramatjfin 10 §evvfil 1 029 8 Sept. 1621 1029 1030 8 Sept. 1622 21 §evvfil 1 030 2 ZQ ul-Qa'da 1 031 1 031 8 Sept. 1623 1032 14 Za ul-Qa'da 1032 9 Sept. 1624 8 Sept- 1625 25 ZH ul-Qa'da 1033 1-033 ul-Sijje 1 034 1034 8 Sept- 1626 5 16 gfl ul-yijje 1035 8 Sept. 1627 1035 28 ZtL ul-tfijje 1 036 1036 9 1037 (Year of Intercalation — see p . 3 0 8 ) . 1038 8 Sept. 1628 1038 9 MuJjarrem 8 Sept. 1629 1039 19 Mutiarrem 1039 1 040 30 8 Sept- 1630 Mutiarrem 1 040 12 Sept. 1631 1041 Safar 1041 9 1 042 8 Sept. 1632 22 Safar 1042 1043 8 Sept• 1633 4 Rebi I 1043 1 044 1044 8 Sept. 1634 15 R e b i I 26 R e b i I 1045 1045 9 Sept. 1635 1 046 1046 8 Sept• 1636 7 R e b i II 8 Sept. 1637 1047 17 R e b i II 1047 28 R e b i II 1048 8 Sept. 1638 1048 1 049 11 Jumfida I 1 049 9 Sept. 1639 1 050 8 Sept. 1640 1050 21 Jumfida I 1 051 8 Sept. 1641 2 Jumfida II 1051 1052 8 Sept. 1642 1052 13 Jumfida II Sept. 1643 24 Jumfida II 1053 9 1053 6 Rejeb 1054 8 Sept. 1644 1054 Sept. 1645 8 1055 1055 17 Rejeb 1 056 8 Sept. 1646 1 056 27 Rejeb Sept1647 1057 9 1057 9 Sa'bfin 1058 8 Sept. 1648 1058 19 §a'bfin xxviii

FINANCIAL YEAR 1059 1 060 1061 1 062 1 063 1 064 1 065 1 066 1 067 1 068 1 069 1070 1 071 1 072 1075 1 074 1075 1 076 1077 1 078 1079 1 080 1 081 1 082 1083 1084 1 085 1 086 1 087 1 088 1089 1 090 1 091 1 092 1093 1 094 1095 1 096 1097 1 098 1099 11 00 11 01 11 02 11 03 1104 11 05 11 06 11 0 7 11 08 11 09 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1 121

DATE OF ITS FIRST DAY MUSLIM CHRISTIAN CALENDAR CALENDAR 1 Ramadfin 8 Sept. 1649 8 Sept. 1650 1 2 Ramacjfin 23 RamaxJ&n 9 S e p t . 1651 8 Sept. 1652 4 §evvfil 8 Sept. 1653 15 §evvfil 8 Sept. 1654 25 §evvfil 8 ZQ. ul-Qa'da 9 Sept. 1655 8 Sept. 1656 19 Zfi ul-Qa'da 8 Sept. 1657 29 ZQ ul-Qa'da 8 Sept. 1658 10 Zd ul-itijje Sept. 1659 21 Z11 ul-gij je 9 (Year of Intercalation) 8 Sept. 1660 3 Muljarrem 13 MuJjarrem 8 Sept. 1661 8 Sept. 1662 24 Muljarrem 6 §afar 9 Sept. 1663 Sept. 1664 16 fjafar 8 Sept. 1665 8 27 §afar 8 Sept. 1666 8 Rebi I Sept. 1667 20 R e b i I 9 8 Sept. 1668 1 R e b i II 8 Sept. 1669 11 R e b i II 8 Sept. 1670 22 R e b i II 5 Jumfida I 9 Sept. 1671 8 Sept. 1672 15 Jumfida I 26 Jum&da I 8 Sept. 1 6 7 3 8 Sept. 1674 7 Jumfida II 18 Jumfida II 9 Sept. 1675 8 Sept. 1676 29 Jumfida II 10 Rejeb 8 Sept. 1677 Sept. 1678 8 21 Rejeb Sept. 1679 3 §a'bfin 9 8 Sept. 1680 13 §a'bfin Sept. 1681 8 24 §a'bfin 8 Sept. 1682 6 Ramatjfin Sept. 1683 1 7 Ramaqlfin 9 Sept. 1684 28 Ramacjfin 8 1685 8 Sept. 9 §evvfil Sept. 1686 8 Sept. 1687 19 §evvfil 2 Zd ul-Qa'da 9 Sept. 1688 8 Sept. 1689 12 ZCL ul-Qa'da 8 Sept. 1690 23 Zfi ul-Qa'da 8 Sept. 1691 4 ZQ ul-yijje 15 ZH ul-tlijje 9 Sept. 1692 26 ZH ul-Sijje 8 (Year of Intercalation) 8 Sept. 1693 7 Mubarrem 8 Sept. 1694 18 Muljarrem 29 Muljarrem 9 Sept. 1695 10 §afar 8 Sept. 1696 8 Sept. 1697 21 §afar 8 Sept. 1698 2 Rebi I 14 R e b i I 9 Sept. 1699 25 R e b i I 9 Sept. 1700 5 R e b i II 9 Sept. 1701 16 R e b i II 9 Sept. 170a 10 Sept. 1703 28 R e b i II 9 Jumfida I 9 Sept. 1704 20 Jumfida I 9 Sept. 1705 Sept. 1706 30 Jumfida I 9 10 Sept. 1707 12 Jumfida II Sept. 1708 9 23 Jumfida II Sept. 1709 4 Rejeb 9 xxviii

1059 1 060 1061 1 062 1 063 1 064 1 065 1 066 1 067 1068 1 069 1 071 1 072 1073 1 074 1075 1 076 1077 1 078 1079 1 080 1081 1 082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1 087 1088 1 089 1 090 1 091 1 092 1093 1 094 1095 1 096 1097 1 098 1099 11 00 1 1 01 1 1 02 1 1 03 1 1 05 1 1 06 11 07 1108 1 1 09 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1 1 20 1 121

FINANCIAL YEAR 11 22 1123 11 24 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 11 31 1132 1133 11 34 1135 11 36 1137 1138 1139 1 140 1 Hi 1 H2 1 H3 1144 1 H5 1H6 1 H7 1148 1 H9 1150 1151 1152 1155 11 54 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 11 60 11 61 11 62 1163 1164 11 65 1166 1167 1168 1169 11 70 1171 11 72 1173 11 74 1175 11 76 1177 11 78 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184

DATE OF ITS FIRST DAY MUSLIM CHRISTIAN CALENDAR CALENDAR Rejeb Sept. 1 7 1 0 15 9 10 Sept. 1711 27 Re jet) Sept. 1 7 1 2 7 §a'bfin 9 18 §a'bfin 9 Sept. 1 7 1 3 29 §a'bfin 9 Sept. 1714 11 Ramatjfin 1 0 Sept. 1715 22 Ramacjfin 9 Sept. 1 7 1 6 2 §evvfil 9 Sept. 1717 13 §evvfil 9 Sept. 1 7 1 8 1 0 Sept. 1719 25 §evvfil 6 Zfl ul-Qa'da 9 Sept. 1 7 2 0 17 Zfl ul-Qa'da 9 Sept. 1 7 2 1 28 Zfl ul-Qa'da 9 Sept. 1 7 2 2 1 0 Sept. 1 7 2 3 9 Zfl ul-tfijje 20 Zfl ul-gijje 9 Sept. 1724 (Year of Intercalation) 1 Muljarrem 9 Sept. 1725 12 Muljarrem 9 Sept. 1726 1 0 Sept. 1 7 2 7 23 Mufarrem 4 JJafar 9 Sept. 1728 15 Safar 9 Sept. 1729 Sept. 1730 25 EJafar 9 8 Rebi I 1 0 Sept. 1731 Sept. 1732 19 R e b i I 9 Sept. 1733 29 R e b i I 9 1 0 R e b i II 9 Sept. 1734 Sept. 1735 21 R e b i II 10 9 Sept. 1 7 3 6 3 Jumfida I 14 Jumfida I 9 Sept. 1737 24 Jumfida I 9 Sept. 1738 6 Jumfida I I 1 0 Sept. 1739 17 Jumfida II 9 Sept. 1740 1741 27 Jumfida II 9 Sept. Sept. 1742 9 Rejeb 9 Sept. 1743 21 Rejeb 10 Sept. 1744 1 §a'bfin 9 Sept. 1745 12 §a'bfin 9 Sept. 1746 22 §a'bfin 9 Sept. 1747 1 0 Sept. 1748 5 Ramacjfin 16 Ramacjfin 9 Sept. 1749 26 Ramacjfin 9 Sept. 1750 7 §evvfil 9 Sept. 1751 1 0 Sept. 1 7 5 2 19 §evvfil 29 §evvfil 9 Sept. 1753 11 Zfl ul-Qa'da 9 Sept. 1754 21 Zfl ul-Qa'da 9 Sept. 1755 10 Sept. 1756 3 Zfl ul-ELjje 14 Zfl ul-tJijje 9 Sept. 1757 24 Zfl ul-Bijje 9 (Year of Intercalation) 6 Mufciarrem 9 Sept. 1758 10 Sept. 1759 17 Mufcarrem 28 Mu]jarrem 9 Sept. 1760 9 Safar 9 Sept. 1761 Sept. 1762 19 §afar 9 Sept. 1763 2 Rebi I 10 1 2 Rebi I 9 Sept. 1764 9 Sept. 1765 23 R e b i I 4 R e b i II 9 Sept. 1766 1 0 Sept. 1 7 6 7 15 R e b i II 26 R e b i II 9 Sept. 1768 8 Jumfida I 9 Sept. 1 7 6 9 18 Jumfida I 9 Sept. 1770 xx ix

1122 1123 11 24 11 25 1126 11 27 1128 1129 1130 1131 1 132 1 133 11 34 1135 1136 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 11 49 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 11 70 1172 1173 11 74 1175 11 76 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184

FINANCIAL YEAR

1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 11 90 11 91 11 92 1193 11 94 1195 11 96 1197 11 98 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1 20U

1205 1206 1207 1208 1209 1210

1211

1212 1213

D A T E OF ITS F I R S T D A Y CHRISTIAN MUSLIM CALENDAR CALENDAR 1 0 S e p t . 1771 30 J u m S d a I 11 R e jeb 9 Sept. 1772 21 R e jet> 9 Sept- 1 7 7 3 9 Sept- 177^ 3 R e jeb 14 J u m S d a II 10 S e p t . 1 7 7 5 25 R e jeb 9 Sept. 1776 6 §a*b&i 9 Sept. 1777 16 §a'bfin 9 Sept. 1778 28 §a'b§n 1 0 Sept. 1779 10 §evvfil 9 Sept. 1780 20 R a m a 4 & n 1 0 Sept. 1781 S e p t . 1 7 8 2 1 §evvfil 9 12 §ewfil 10 S e p t . 1 7 8 3 S e p t . 1 7 8 4 9 Sept. 1785 23 §ewfil 5 Z

1

Pi

See p .

72.

QtoQnn§me-i Migir, Top Kapi Saray Museum Library (Istanbulj, Emanet Hazine collection. MS 2065. f o l . 56a-57a: see also Evllyt Qelebi, 7T, 1 0 2 5 - 6 ; 'Abd ul-Ker£m, T£lrili-i Migir, fol. I0a-b; el-0all&q, Tftrih-i Migir, f o l . 7b.

18

THE LAUDED "WEALTH OF EGYPT

a special cash tax on each locality surveyed b y its agents. The registers compiled were to contain for each village a statement of the number of normally watered in years when the Nile was high, medium, or low in flow, and the degree of fertility of those lands in each instance. In addition, they were to include Information concerning the type of taxes 1Q due from each village and locality. These provisions were carried out and a cadastral survey commenced in 933/1527 under the direction of , who subsequently was to w i n renown for his expeditions in India, Yemen, and 20 Upper Egypt. In the meantime, while these efforts went forward to compile a new Ottoman cadaster, those of times were not forgotten, and the search for them continued throughout the rule of B e y . By the end of his reign, it became known to Ottoman officials that the registers had not in fact been scattered or burned, but that they had been concealed amongst less-important registers in the treasury, and many of them had been carried to the homes of the scribes still in the employ of the Ottoman treasury. On April ioth, 9 2 9 / 1 5 2 3 , Bey's successor as of Egypt, ordered that these scribes return these registers, and that a search be made in the treasury for the rest 1 of them. During the short revolt of Ahmed Paga which occurred in the following y e a r , many of these scribes joined him, and the registers which they had previously withheld were now produced to assist him in 22 collecting the taxes needed to support his independent reign. Following the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty, these remained in the possession of the Imperial Treasury and served thereafter as the principal basis and guide for compilation of the new Ottoman cadastral registers and for the distribution and collection of taxes until the new registers were completed. 1 9 -

Q&nQnn&ne-i Migir, f o l . 44a.

al-Is]jfiq£, Lat&'lf ul-afrb&r ul-awwal f£ m a n tasarrafa f£ Migir m l n erbfib ud-duwal. Suleymaniyye Library, Istanbul, Reis ul-Kuttab collection MS 6 9 7 / 1 , f o l . 2 1 3 b ; el-Hall&q, fol. 10b; 'Abd ul-Ker£m, T & r £ h - i Migir, f o l . 8a; Mufcammed ibn ab£ us-SurQr, el-Kawfikib us-Sfi'lre f£ ahbar Misir wal-Q&hlre, British Museum (London), MS Add 7324, f o l . 15b; iBratfim Pegev£, T&riifl-i Pepevi (2 vol., Istanbul, 1 2 8 3 / 1 8 6 6 - 7 ) , I, p p . 8 2 - 8 3 . 2 1

• 'Abd ul-§amad b . Seyyid 'Ali b . D&'tid al-Diyfirbekr£, Zikir ulBulefa vel-MulOk ul-Migrlyye, Millet Library (Istanbul), All Hnlrl Tarlh collection, MS n o . 596, f o l . 426b. PP 'Abd ul-§amad, Zikir ul-Hulef&, f o l . 375b-376a. 2 3

' See the "Ottoman Land L a w " , p . 3 and passim. Ibn ab£ is-Surflr. Kaw&cib us-Sfi'lre, f o l . 15b; el-Isfc&qS, Lata'if ul-Ahb&r, fol. 2i3b-2i4a.

CONQUEST, ORGANIZATION AND SURVEY OF EGYPT

19

During the next half century, as more and more of the lands of Egypt were restored to cultivation or increased in fertility because of the restoration and extension of the Irrigation system and of security, new cadastral surveys were made and the old ones were correoted. In 9 8 4 / 1 5 7 6 , the cadastral survey for Lower Egypt was completed, and a final 24 revision and confirmation of all its registers was carried out. In Upper Egypt, however, the strength and independence of the Arab tribes prevented a rapid extension of the survey to their lands and, as a result, this part was not at all complete until the start of the eleventh century.2^ It was not until 1017/1608-9 that the Ottoman cadastral survey of the rural wealth of all of Egypt was completed, and it served as the basis for a general reorganization of the tax system in the same year. Thereafter, the use of the old MamlQk registers in tax matters was pro­ hibited, but they were allowed to remain in use for reference in questions of land ownership.2^ This was the last complete revision made of the cadastral registers of Ottoman Egypt and of the tax structure based upon them until the rule of Mubammed *A1£ in the 15/19th century. During the next two centuries taxes continued to be apportioned in accordance with the in­ formation in these registers, although for many cultivated lands the state of fertility and cultivation changed considerably over the centuries. In Individual cases, however, and upon special order of the Vfili, ad­ justments were made in the registers, and lands subsequently brought into 27 cultivation were set down. II.

THE USUFRUCT OF THE LAND AND RIGHT TO ITS ENJOYMENT

In Ottoman Egypt, the right to enjoy the fruits of the land, or usufruct, was not coincident with that of cultivation. The peasants held the primary right to cultivate the land and to withhold a portion of the produce for their own benefit. However, a secondary right to consume the bulk of the usufruct was distributed to other individuals and institutions whose role in the process of cultivation was chiefly of a supervisory nature. In this section we will examine the means by which the exploitation Muh. 2 9 , 7 7 : 1 8 ; (24 Sewal 984), Muh. 2 8 , 6 7 : 1 8 1 ( 1 6 Rebl I 984). 25. Muh. 26, 229:655 (7 JumSda II 982); Muh. 2 9 , 226:517 (1¾- Q.a'da 984). 2^·

parts of the MamlOk and Ottoman cadastral registers survive in the Museum of the Egyptian State Archives, Cairo. The full text of the tax decree of 1017 has not yet been uncovered. However summaries of it are found in Muh. 95, fol. 15b (Jumfida I 1069) and el-Hallfiq, TSriia-I Migir1 fol. 50b. 2^'

See p. 6 7 .

20

THE LAUDED WEALTH OP EGYPT

of the land was organized and its usufruct divided. 1. The Right of Cultivation- The cultivators of the lands of Egypt from early times were called Fellabin ( plural of FellSh). Their right to cultivate and to consume in return a portion of the produce was called their Asfir. The nature of that right changed considerably during the course of Ottoman rule, and was reflected in changing regulations con­ cerning the duty of the cultivator to remain on his land, his obligation to perform labor on lands not in his Asfir, and in his right to transmit it to his progeny or to others of his choosing. During the first century of Ottoman rule in Egypt, it was con­ sidered to be the duty of the Fellfib to remain on the land in his Agfir and to cultivate it. Ibrfihim Faga and his immediate successors 3trove actively to restore and repopulate the large areas of the Delta which had been ravaged during the Ottoman conquest and subsequent decade by Mamltllc, Ottoman, and nomadic Arab bands. The Fellfibin who had fled from the land during and after the Ottoman invasion were compelled to return, and only those who left their lands before the entry of Sultan Selim 2Q were allowed to remain where they had settled. Many peasants took ad­ vantage of their newly-established inclusion in a wider empire to flee by ship to its principal cities. Now they were ordered returned to Egypt, and the directors of its sea ports were required to take active steps to prevent further emigration of this kind. Those peasants who re­ fused to return were to be "taken by force and settled in their it 2 Q places. Those who did not cultivate the Iemd in their Aafir were to be beaten and, if this was of no avail, were to be removed and a substitute provided. The right to cultivate thus became a duty in an age in which lands had to be restored to cultivation, and the government had the authority necessary to enforce their restoration. To induce the peasants to return to their lands and to cultivate them as was their right and duty, efforts were made to eliminate vexatious taxation and illegal oppression. It was decreed that the peasants should not be required to labor on lands other than those in their own Asfir, and that when their labor was needed for matters of common interest, such as the repair of local irrigation canals and roads, forced labor should not be imposed, but only those voluntarily offering their service were to be re­ cruited, and they were to be paid for their work. Finally, severe punish­ ment was provided for those found indulging in the oppression and killing g'B I . ' QfinQnnfime-I Migir, fol. 6ob; Gibb and Bowen, Islamic Society, I, 26o. 2^' OfinQnnfime-I Miair, fol. 6ob; Muh. 26, 396:9^7 (8 Qa'da 9 8 3 ) . general restrictions on movements within the Ottoman Empire, see Mouradgea d'Ohsson, Tableau gSnSral de !'empire othoman. 2nd ed. Paris, 1788-18210, VII, 2 9 7 .

For (7

vol.,

THE USUFRUCT OF THE L A U D A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

21

^50 of peasants. The peasants were also warned that they would be held responsible for all land taxes owed for lands which remained uncultivated due to their own neglect but not for those taxes which remained unpaid due to factors beyond their control, such as the failure of the Nile properly to water their lands or of village officials to maintain the irrigation canals or 1 to fully divert the water flowing in them.' A l s o , during the lo/i6th century, peasant holders of rights were allowed to transmit those rights to heirs, and in addition those of their progeny found capable of further cultivation were granted additional l a n d . S o in times when the amount of land restored to cultivation b y energetic Ottoman governors exceeded the supply of available cultivators, inducement as well as force had to be used to secure those who could cultivate them. Until the start of the 11/17th century, the exploitation of the land was supervised and taxes collected b y paid agents of the central government. These agents, called were given fixed annual salaries from the Treasury regardless of the amount of taxes which they collected, and so for them the collection of oppressive taxes could not be directly profitable. In addition, they were supervised closely b y the provincial governors and other agents sent from Cairo especially for that p u r p o s e . " As a result of the order and security which prevailed, the peasants benefited and returned to the lands, and by the start of the u / l 7 t h century, much of the land of the Delta and of Upper Egypt was restored to cultivation. The rise of cultivation and prosperity, however, in itself engendered conditions which were to alter considerably the position of the cultivator in the two centuries which followed. The weakening of the 3

°" Qanflnn£ime-i Mi air, f o l . 7lbj M u h . 2 1 , 184:35^ (23 Rebl I 9 8 1 ) ; Silvestre de Sacy, MSmoir§ sur la nature et les revolutions d u Droit d u PropriStS territoriale en Egypt, depuis la conqu§te de ce pays par les Musulmans, jusqu'3, 1'expSdition des Fran^ais", Bibllothgque des Agablsants Frangals, e d . G- Foucard, PremiSre Serle; Sllvestre~de Sacy (Cairo, 1 9 2 3 ) , II, 56. 31

" ftltaQnnlime-1 Migir, f o l . 59b-6la.

3 2

' Mafrkeme ug-Sar'iyye (Archives of the Religious Courts), Cairo. Registers from the Court of Old Cairo, Reg. dated 93^/1527, fol. 55a (27 Jumfida, II 93IO. Registers from the court of the Jfimi' (mosque) of e l -pikim.7 R e g . dated 957 /1550, f o l . I78a-l82a (3 Qa'Ha~957 )• 33

"

See p . 62.

^ ' D&r ul-Mabfuzfit (Egyptian State Archives), Cairo, R e g . 591, fol. 57a (b Ramadan 1003); R e g . 6 0 1 , fol. 6 1 a ( g e r a l 1 0 0 5 ) .

THE LANDED WEALTH OF EGYPT

22

position of the Ottoman Vfilis and the rise of that of the local military elements was encouraged and manifested by the replacement of the system of administration through salaried agents by one in which most of the imperial lands were farmed out to Multzims, who were required to pay to the Imperial Treasury a fixed amount of land tax in return for their right, and who could keep the balance of the annual collection as profit for themselves. Since the surplus which remained after taxes went to these Multezims, they were encouraged by the motive of self-profit to extort as much as possible from the peasants. Since the central govern­ ment at the same time lost much of its ability to supervise their ac­ tivities, they were left to extort as they wished. At the same time, however, it lost the ability and incentive to use its central position and organization to ferret out those of the cultivators who fled the in­ crease in tyranny and to return them from whence they had come. Also, the weakening of the VSlis led to a cessation of their efforts to restore lands to cultivation, especially during and after the disorders which arose in the middle of the 11/17th century, so that thereafter there re­ mained to the peasants less inducement than before to evade oppression by flight to new lands. So during this century, while the rise of the tax farm system led to an increase in vexatious taxation, the lands on the whole remained populous and In cultivation, the peasants fled from their holdings only in exceptional crises such as famines and plagues, and little special force or inducement had to be offered to secure their return. In addition, a small portion of the lands of each village came to be joined to the personal holding of its Multezlm as Vaglyye, or "bequeathed" land. These were cultivable lands which, for some reason, had been abandoned and fallen into disuse, and which originally were given to the Multezlma so that they would personally see to their restora­ tion. Since none of the peasants of the village had an Asar right to these lands, the burden of their cultivation fell directly on the Multezlm. During the previous century, as we have seen, payment had to be made to peasants for labor on such lands outside their own Agfirs.^ But in the n/l7th century and thereafter, the rise of the power of the Multezlm in relation to that of the cultivator and the government enabled him to 35-

See p.27.

Mahkama ug-Sar'Iyye (Archives of the Religious courts), Cairo; Collection of miscellaneous papers and registers. Reg. dated 1 0 5 8 - 1 0 6 0 / 1 6 ^ 8 - 1 6 5 0 , f o l . 15b ( 2 7 Q a ' d a 1 0 5 8 ) , 1 9 a ( 5 S e w f i l 1 0 5 9 ) , 56b (5 Hi.i.ie 1059); Reg. from the Court of Old Cairo (Mahkama Misir ul-Qadim), dated 1 075/1664-5, fol. 99a-b (1 9 Sewfil 1 075), 11 2a H Qa'da 1 0 7 5 ) . "

See p. 2 0 .

THE USUFRUCT OF THE L A U D A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

23

impose as an involuntary and uncompensated obligation on each cultivator in the village a certain amount of labor on the as well as on public dams, roads, and canals. Only in special circumstances were the cultivators paid for such w o r k , even though it diverted them from the work required to cultivate the lands in their own While in the 1l/l7th and 12/18th centuries the cultivators retained the right to transmit their to heirs, they came to be subjected to a tax b y the Multezim for permission to exercise that right, and could be despoiled of it for one of a number of misdeeds of which the Multezim could accuse the dead cultivator. The Multezim could then transfer the to whomever he felt could meet the obligation incumbent on

39

its h o l d e r . The obligation to cultivate the land and to hand over in taxes the bulk of its produce remained the principal duty of the peasant. But he was no longer excused from it, nor was the burden upon him lessened w h e n cultivation decreased due to Arab raids, the flight of his neighbors, or inadequate water from the Nile. When such conditions made impossible the full payment of the tax burden for a given year, it was not excused, but only postponed until years of more bountiful harvests. In the half-century subsequent to the rise of the hold of the central government continued to weaken, and the development of two centuries culminated In conditions strikingly similar to those which prevailed in the years immediately after the Ottoman conquest. Once again, local tax collectors imposed what they wished on the cultivators, Arabs raided with impunity in all parts of the land, and cultivators fled to the cities. The central government lacked the power or impetus to forcekn them to return, although sporadic gestures were made to accomplish this. As a result, depopulation of the land became such a n acute problem that the Multezlms themselves lost the hold which they had built u p over the — — — — — — 3 — ' Mafrkama us-Sar'iyye (Archives of the Religious Courts), Cairo, Register from Mabkama J g m l ' ul-B&kim dated 1 1 6 8 - 1 1 7 5 / 1 7 5 ^ - 1 7 6 2 , fol. 78a (21 Q.a'da 1 1 6 9 ) , i i i a - H 3 a (7 5a'ban 1 1 7 0 ) , 1 9 1 a (3 Qa'da 1173); JabartS, 'AiS*lb ul-As&r, IV, 207; Mlchel-Ange Lancret, "MSmoire sur le systSme d'Imposition Territorlale et sur 1'Administration des Provinces de l'figypte dans les DerniSres Annees du Gouvernement des Mamlouks", Description de l'Egypte, 2nd ed., X I , 466-467, 512; M . de Chabrol, "Essai sur les Moeurs des Habltans Modernes de l'figypte", Descr. de 1 'Eg., 2nd ed., XVTII, part 1, p p . 245-246. Mafrkama ug-gar'lyye (Archives of the Religious Courts), Cairo; Register from the Court of MaJjallet ul-Kubr&, dated 1190-1195/1776-81, f o l . 101 a-b (1 Sa'b&n 1 1 9 1 ), I 3 5 a - I 3 7 a (1 Rebl I 1 1 9 2 ) ; Lancret, "MSmoire sur 1'Imposition Territorlale", p . 488-4894o. Jabarti, 'Aia'ib ul-Aa&r, II, 83; IV, 109, 207; Glbb and Bowen, "islamic Society , part 1, p p . 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 .

24

THE L A U D E D " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

cultivators during the previous two centuries.

The

gained the

right to return if they wished to lands which they had abandoned, or from which they had b e e n ejected due to inability or failure to cultivate them properly, even though the Multezim m a y have b e e n able to replace them w i t h m o r e suitable cultivators. They now could leave their holdings to heirs without the latter being required to pay a tax to the Multezim before their right could b e assumed. The cultivators always lacked the authority to alienate b y sale any part of their holdings, for "the land is the estate of the Multezim, w h o Is the representative of the Sultan over ..k 2 i t , while the Is the laborer and the cultivator of the l a n d . In the 12/I8th century, however, they became able to alienate it temporarily to others in return for payments in cash or k i n d . In particular, those cultivators w h o found it impossible for some reason to cultivate all the lands of their b e g a n to turn over all or part of them to another, w h o would himself cultivate that portion, providing the cost and labor needed, and paying the taxes due on it. This enabled the original holder to retain for his descendents lands which might otherwise have b e e n seized by the 1 Multezim if they had not b e e n properly cultivated. *'' But i n the late 12/I8th century exploitation of the peasants came less from the Multezlms than it did from roving bands of soldiers and Arabs w h o , because of the rising administrative disorder in E g y p t , lacked the means to sustain themselves b y means other than the forceable Imposition of their support on Multezlms and a l i k e . Thus the peasant's right to cultivation varied not only In relation to the strength of those officially assigned the enjoyment of the usufruct of their land and the central government's ability to control them, but also in relation to Its ability to provide for and control those whose support was supposed to come from means other than holdings of the rural wealth of EgyptThe rights and conditions of cultivators described above applied in particular to those of L o w e r E g y p t . In those parts of Upper Egypt where Ottoman suzerainty rested lightly upon Arab tribes w h o controlled Mabkama us-Sar'lyye (Archives of the Religious C o u r t s ) C a i r o , Register from the Court of MaJjallet ul-Kubra, dated 11 90-11 95/i 7 7 6 - 1 7 8 1 , f o l . 170 (19 Sa'bSn 1195 ), 192a-b (1 Q.a'da 1195); Huseyn E f e n d i , "Administration of Egypt in the 18th century , p . 62; L a n c r e t , "Memoire sur 1'Imposition Terrltorlale", p . 4685 Anonymous, "Notes recuellliers d'Huasen E f e n d i , mallem Laudfallah et mallem Jacoub concernant le mode de possession des terre3. Archives de l a Guerre (Paris), M S 361. p p . 1 - 2 . Huseyn E f e n d i , "Administration of Egypt in the 18th Century", p . 68. Chabrol, "Essai sur les moeurs de l'Egypte". p . 240; E s t S v e , "Memoire sur les finances de l'Egypte", p . 304; L a n c r e t , Memoire sur 1'Imposition Terrltorlale", p p . 466-467-

THE USUFRUCT OF THE LAMD AKD RIGHT TO ITS ENJOYMENT

25

the cultivated areas as well as the deserts beyond them, the condition of the FellSb was much different. First of all, in places controlled by Arab tribes, many of those who cultivated the land were themselves from the same tribes, and their relations with those who collected the bulk of the produce and paid taxes to the Imperial Treasury were regulated by tribal custom, rather than by the patterns which prevailed between cultivator and Multezim in Lower Egypt. Some of these maintained a seminomadic existence, settling on and exploiting their Asfir lands in seasons of irrigation and spending the rest of the year with their brethren searching for sustenance in the more traditional nomadic ways. Even in areas where the cultivators were not of the tribe of those who held the usufruct, their lot was never as hard as that of the cultivators in Lower Egypt, for their Arab masters were much better able to protect them from raids of other Arab tribes than was the central government. Furthermore, even in those areas of Upper Egypt which were not under Arab control, the number of cultivators available never equalled or exceeded the lands available for them. Their duty to stay on the land and to cultivate remained much less all-embracing in nature than in Lower Egypt. They were exempted from many of the extra-legal impositions which the Multezlm and others were able to collect in the Delta, and they were required to remain on the land only during the actual times of flooding and harvest. During the rest of the year, these peasants were able to secure an income Independent of the land by engaging in artisan or menial pursuits in the cities of their locality or in Cairo itself. Finally, the Mtiltezlms of Upper Egypt held no land in their personal possession as Vaaiyye. All cultivable lands were apportioned amongst the Asfir of the cultivators, and so the motive as well as the power to require the forced 111). labor of the cultivators was absent. During and after the revolt of 'Ali Bey, however, the power of the Arab tribes in Upper Egypt was destroyed and their lands were apportioned among Multezlms from Cairo and Jirje. As a result, these areas fell subject to the same conditions which were disturbing the cultivation of the lands and causing the oppression of the peasants of Lower Egypt. 2. The Right to Enjoyment of the Usufruct of the Land. By Ottoman theory the principal mark of sovereignty was that all wealth and the enjoyment of its usufruct lay in the ultimate possession of the Sultan. He could alienate it in perpetuity as private property (Mulk)

E. Jomard, "Observations sur Ies Arabes de 1'Egypte moyenne", Descr. de l'Eg., 2nd ed., XII, 267-3275 Esteve, nMSmoire sur Ies Finances d6 l'Egypte", p. 92; Lancret, "MSmolre sur 1'Imposition Terrltoriale", p. k8j.

26

THE LAKDED WEALTH OF EGOTT

or as trust (Vaqf or Rlzqa), or could retain the enjoyment of its usufruct as part of the Imperial Possessions (HavSg3-1 HUmItyQn) and distribute it, temporarily and to a limited extent, in order to secure its exploitation for the profit of the Imperial Treasury and to reward those who received possession of it in this way in return for this or other services to the Sultan. a. The Imperial Possessions (HavSss-i HtImSyOn) and their Distribution· The land was the principal source of wealth in Egypt, and so it was to the land that the Imperial Treasury had to look for the bulk of its revenue. Its most important task was to organize and encourage the exploitation of the lands held in the possession of the Sovereign, and to assure that there would flow from them revenues which would pro­ vide it with means sufficient to meet the expenditures which were re­ quired of it. In Ottoman times, as in MamlOk times before, this problem was resolved by the delegation to an intermediary, or agent, of the authority to direct the exploitation and collect the fruits of landed and non-landed sources of wealth in the Imperial Possessions, through the in­ stitution known as Iatfi' in pre-Ottoman Isllim and as MuqSta'a (plural MuqSta'St) under the Ottomans.^ Authority in the MuqSta'a was delegated in three ways, the TimSr (fief), the EmSnet (agency), and the IltlzSm (tax farm). The TSmSr involved absolute delegation to an agent (TSmSrli) of the full usufruct of the land for his own exploitation and profit, in return for services performed for the Sultan which were independent of those connected with the TimSr and which were usually military or govern­ mental in nature. The TimSr thus was a form of salary, and was in theory alienated only so long as the desired services were performed in return. The complete antithesis to this method was the EmSnet, or dele­ gation "in trust" to a salaried officer called Emin of the task of ex­ ploiting a source of imperial revenue and of collecting and delivering its proceeds in full to the Imperial Treasury. Like the government officer of modern times, the Emin served in return for a fixed salary from the Treasury and did not share directly in the proceeds of his efforts. The usufruct of the Imperial Possession was, in this case, alienated to the Emin only to the limited extent necessary for him to carry out his duties. Its surplus was in no way alienated and went in full into the revenues of the Imperial Treasury. On the IqtS' in pre-Ottoman Islfim, see Ann K. S. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia (London, 1953), PP- 10-77; P. L^kkegaard Isimniη Taxation in the Classic Period (Copenhagen, 1950). Max van Berchem, La ProprigtS territorlale et l'impot foncler (Geneva, 1886); A. N. Poliak, feudalism in Egrpt, Syria, Palestine and the Lebanon, 1250-19QQ (London, 1959 )· See also Gibb and Bowen, "islamic Society", I, 1 3 2 .

THE USUFRUCT OF THE LAltD AND RIGHT TO ITS ENJOYMENT

27

The Iltlzto combined elements of both the TimSr and the EmSnetLike the Timfir, enjoyment of the usufruct of an Imperial Possession was alientated to the holder, in this case the Multezlm, in return for his service. Unlike the Timllr, his service was primarily that of administering the exploitation of the source of revenue of his holding. So only a portion of its produce was alienated to the Multezlm, and he obligated him­ self to deliver a fixed amount from it annually to the Imperial Treasury. In this his duty was like that of the Emin but, unlike the Emin1 his compensation came out of and was related to the amount which he collected, rather than from an independent salary from the Treasury. In sum, the Sultan delegated in Muq&ta'fit to agents the right and duty to organize and administer the exploitation of the Imperial Possessions and to deliver to the Imperial Treasury all or part of the revenues which they produced, or to perform the equivalent in other service. The Timfir involved the full but temporary alienation of the usufruct of an Imperial Possession in return for administrative or military service which was essentially independent of it. The Emfinet involved the delegation only of the authority inherent in the enjoyment of usufruct, but not of the proceeds of the collections. The Iltlzam Involved a partial alienation of the proceeds to the agent in return for his service of arranging for the collection and delivery of the balance to the Imperial Treasury. In the case of the Timfir, the entire product went to the agent; in the case of the Emfinet, the entire product went to the Imperial Treasury; in the case of the Iltlzfim1 the product was divided between the agent and the Treasury. In all cases, the Muqfita'a was alientated only so long as its holder performed the services expected of him. The Sultan always retained the right to reassign it to another if this was considered more useful or profitable for the Treasviry. The authority delegated to the holder of a Muqfita'a was limited to that nec­ essary for him to perform the service demanded of him and, in the case of landed wealth, did not supersede or replace the right of the cultivator to his Aafir holding, so long as the cultivator performed the duties ex­ pected of him in return for that right. In arranging for the exploitation of the lands which fell to them in Egypt, the Ottoman conquerors had two sets of experience on which they could rely for guidance, that of their immediate predecessors in Egypt, the MamlQks1 and their own experience in organizing the lsmds else­ where in the empire. In Mamltlk times the exploitation and administration of the lands of the MamlQk Sultan had evolved from a system of assignment in Bnfinet to one of Iltizfim by the early 8/i4th century and finally, In the last century

28

THE LAUDED " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

and a half of mile, to one in which there prevailed the which was the predominant system at the time of the Ottoman conquest. The to which the more general term was applied in usage, was held by a property-deed received for large areas from the Sultan by principal officers of the army, and divided by them into smaller holdings which they gave to their subordinates in the MamlQk military hierarchy.^ After Sultan Selim smashed the army of the sultan, many of its soldiers and officers were killed or fled abroad. However, a good number of them remained in Cairo, as did the families and followers of those who fled. Sel£m and his successors found themselves faced with the problem of maintaining Ottoman rule in a land distant from the Imperial capital, with a small and not entirely reliable group of Ottoman soldiers in the midst of a much larger numerical group of disorganized but potentially dangerous Mamlflk soldiers. As we have seen, the path chosen in solution of this problem was at the start to enlist as many as possible of these remnants in the service of the Ottoman as soldiers and administrators, until the position of the Ottoman elements could be more firmly established. This policy required that financial support and sustenance be provided for those dependents who remained in the areas under Ottoman jurisdiction. They appealed to Sultan Selim and to Bey for confirmation in their rights to the and wages which they had previously held, and Sultan Selim himself decreed that I17 their rights to possession of these should not be violated. To however, this seemed far too likely to restore their desire and ability to secure independent power, so he ordered that their be abolished, their lands be joined to the Imperial Possessions, and thatJ. Qin their place wages and pensions be provided from the Imperial Treasury. Bey WE

On the Iqtfi' system in MamlQk Egypt, see Taqi u d - M n b . Muljammed alMaqrlzJ, el-MawS'ig wel-I'tlbSr be zikir Hltat wal-Asfir (Cairo, 1 3 2 3 / 1 9 0 5 ) , I, p p . 1 2 0 - 1 7 9 ; geref ud-Dl'n YafryS lbn u l - J a y ' a n , et-Tufrfet us-Sinniyye be asmfi' il-bilgd il-Misrivye (Cairo, 1 3 1 6 / 1 8 9 8 - 9 ) ; Abu el -'AbbHs A(jmed el-Qalqagandl, Sublj e l - ' A g a T C a i r o , 14 vol., 1913-1919)- Belin, "Etude sur la propriete fonci§re en Pays Musulmans et specialement en Turquie", Journal Aslatique, 5eme Serie, XVIII, p p . 390-431, 477-517, XIX, pp. 1 5 6 - 2 1 2 , 257-350; Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes, L a Syrle a l'Spoque des Mamelouks (Paris, 1 9 2 3 ) ; Poliak, Feudalism in Egypt: Sobernhelm, "IktS ", Encyclopedia of Islam, 1st ed., II, 4bi-3; Becker, Egypt", Encyclopedia of Islain, 1st ed., II, 14; Mulpammed Ramz£, el-QSnrQs ul-Jugrafi: 111b l i a d ll-Mlgriyye (Cairo, 1 9 5 3 - 1 9 5 5 ), I, pp. 3-40. Neh&ri, Tarifa-i 'Osmani, Istanbul University Library. M S T . Y . 6053, f o l . 145b. J, Q lbn Iyfis, V , 159, 189, 24o, 249, 287; *Abd ul-§amad, Zikir ul-Halef&' f o l . 164b, 33la; Neh&r£, TSriti-a 'Osm&ni:, f o l . 45b; "Ottoman Land L a w " , p p . 1, 2.

THE USUFRUCT OF THE LAND AND RIGHT TO ITS ENJOYMENT

29

siezed all the lands registered as Iqtfi'fit in the old Mamlflk cadastral registers, including those which had been changed subsequent to their registration into foundations (Vagf) or private property (Mulk)· As a result, there were joined to the Imperial Possessions not only lands held as Iqta'fit, but also many lands which were held as Vaqfs and private property at the time of the Ottoman conquest, but which had been registered as Iqtfi'at in the older Mamlflk registers, or whose owners lacked proper I^O title deeds to prove the contrary. The next step was to determine the means by which the fund of lands held in the possession of the Ottoman rulers could best be exploited and administered for the benefit of the Imperial Treasury. During the first few years after the conquest, many of them were sold to be private property, in order to provide for current expenditures. However, this was done only to the limited extent necessary to meet the immediate demands for salary by both the Ottoman and Mamlflk soldiers. It was realized that, in the long run, the Imperial Treasury could be assured of a steady annual revenue from the lands of Egypt only if their usufruct was kept in its control so that their produce could be collected as land tax for its profit. To assure this, it was decided to alienate the bulk of the laxids in the Imperial Possessions as Muqfita'fit, with the boundaries of each MuqSta'a including the same villages, lands, and tax obligations set down for it in the Mamlflk cadastral registers.^0 It was only to this limited technical extent that the Mamlflk example was followed, however. For these Muqfita'fit were alienated not as Timfir3 to the members of the victorious army, as had been done in Mamlflk Egypt and in the lands previously conquered by the Ottoman armies, but rather in Emfinet. "Why did the Ottomans adapt a system of land exploitation in Egypt which was quite different than that used elsewhere in the Empire and that inherited from their predecessors? First of all, in the Ottoman lands themselves, the feudal cavalry lords supported by TSmfir holdings which had been maintained since the time of Murad I (1559-1389) were gradually replaced by salaried infantry corps after Meljmed II (11»·51 — 1 1 ). New European developments in firearms and tactics had made obsolete the old feudal cavalry. And so there was established in their place new corps of infantry supported by salary alone, to provide a more united, trained, obedient and available military force than that which could be maintained ^9· Ibn Iyfis, V, 189; "Ottoman Land Law", pp. 28, 2 9 . ^0' Dfir Ul-Maljfflgfit (Egyptian State Archives), Cairo. Collection of Hu.i.ies dated 9 JumSda II 927/1521 and 15 Qfi'da 929/1523. Ibn ab£ us-Surflr, Kawakib us-Sfi'ire, fol. 15b.

30

THE LAUDED " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

by the system. This was the Janissary corps, which played a major role in Ottoman conquests after the time of Meljtned II. At the same time, in many Ottoman lands the fiefs alienated in return for service were allowed to fall into a state of hereditary ownership similar to private property, from which no service and less and less R1 revenue came to the Imperial Ottoman Treasury in Istanbul. Secondly, since the Ottoman troops were in a numerical minority in Egypt, it was necessary to keep them united and militarily ready. Since the service of Ottoman and soldiers alike was needed to suppress threatening Mamlflk and Arab bands, they could not be spared to direct the agricultural process in the as would be required by Since Egypt was so distant from the imperial center, the relative independence which a feudal revenue would give them would inevitably lead to revolt. In addition, and even more important, Egypt filled a special role in the Ottoman Empire, unique amongst the conquered Arab lands. It was the granary of the revivified Islamic empire of the Ottomans as it had been for the empires which previously had ruled the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean, and it was the base for the soldiers and supplies used to conquer and occupy for the Ottoman Empire the lands extending south to the Persian Gulf. The establishment of a system would have alienated from the Sultan the very usufruct of grains and provisions which he needed from Egypt, and it would have tied closely to the land the soldiers needed for military service in Egypt and elsewhere. And so the system which had developed in Qk Egypt came to an end with the Ottoman ST

On the general Ottoman fief system see Mustafa Nflri Pfigfi, Tfirlh-i NetS'ij il-Vuqft'&t (4 v o l . Istanbul, 1294-1327/1877-1 909"77in particular 1 , U 1 - 1 7 5 ; II, 1 0 6 - 1 1 2 ; i n , 84-125; XV, 1 0 6 - 1 1 9 ; 'Abd ur-Rafcmln Veffq, Tek&l£f Qavfi'idi (Istanbul, 1 3 2 8 / 1 9 1 0 ) , I, 51-53, 6 1 - 6 6 , 210-255; 'Aynf •All ETendl'. Qav&nin-l 'A^-i'Osm&n and Va?lfe-i H8r£n (Istanbul, 1 2 8 0 / 1 8 6 3 - 4 ) , translated b y Belin, "Du Rgglme des Fiefs Mllitaires dans l'Islamisme et Principalement en Turqule", Journal Aalatlque, 6eme s§rie, X V , p . 239-288 and B . A . Tischendorf, Das Lehnwesen in d e n Moslemischen Staten (Leipzig, 1 8 7 2 ) , p p . 5 6 - 1 0 3 ; Belin, ''Essals sur 1 'Hlstolre iiconomique de la Turquie, d'apres les ecrivains originator", Journal Asiatique, 6eme SSrie, III, 416-489; IV, 242-390; 477-530; d'Ohsson, Tableau ggn6ral de 1'Empire Ottoman (1st e d . 3 vol., Paris, 1787-1820; gnd ed., 7 vol., Paris, 1 7 8 8 - 1 8 2 4 ) , in particular volume III of first ed., and V I I of the second edition. Josef von Hammer, Das 0smani3chen Relches Staatsverfas3ung und Staatsverwaltung (Wien, 1 8 1 5 ) ; K&tib ^elebi (Hajji! BallTej Dtlattir ul-^amel ll-iglfcU? T p h a l e l (Istanbul, 1280/1863-4); DefterdSr g&ri Mefamed Pag&t, KegS'lb x-L-VUzera' vel- 'timerS* , e d . and t r . b y Walter Livingston Wright, Jr. as Ottoman statecraft (Princeton, 1935); Meljmet Zek£ Pakalin, Osmanli Tarih l3eyimlerl ve Terimlerl SBzltlgii (3 vol., Istanbul, 1946-195b;, II, 578-579, articles Mukataa", "Mukataaci", III, 497-507, "T£m£tr". IsmS'll flakki Uzuncar53.l1, Osmanli Devletl tegkll&tindan Kapukulu Ocaklari (2 V o l . , Istanbul, 1 9 4 3 - 1 945 J; for a more detailed bibliography see p p . 7 0 7 - 7 1 2 of the latter w o r k , v o l . I . See also Gibb and Bowen, Islamic Society", I, 39-200, 31^-364, II, 1 - 3 7 , 2 6 3 - 2 7 1 .

THE USUFRUCT OF THE L A U D A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

31

conquest, and two centuries later was nowhere to be seen: "There is nothing like the T£mllr and Ze'graet in E g y p t . For in the province of E g y p t , at the time of the cadaster, all the villages w e r e registered to the Imperial Treasury, and the holders of Tftn&rs and Ze'Smeta, and Cerib&gis and Al&y Beys are not heard of."52 As a result of all this, most of the Imperial possessions in Egypt in the first half of the 16th century were parcelled out in to civilian to whom there was applied the older Qk title for district supervisors, if they were assigned to a number of adjacent These m e n w e r e chosen from amongst the servants of the Porte in Istanbul and Egypt and from administrative officers left from the administration. They were paid fixed annual salaries from the Imperial Treasury of E g y p t , and they turned over to it the entire product of their tax collections, in b o t h cash and k i n d . In areas still •under Arab domination, the control of their Seyfas was formalized as alienated to them in In other w o r d s , the Arab recognized Ottoman suzerainty and acknowledged the duty to pay a fixed tax every y e a r in return for Ottoman confirmation of their p o s i t i o n . ^ ' It was the duty of each or or Seyfa to m a k e sure that a l l the Irrigation canals and dams in his w e r e kept in repair, ready to carry their full share of the Nile f l o w , that the peasants were ready to seed the land w h e n it was flooded and harvest it w h e n the crops w e r e r e a d y , and that they w e r e protected against Arab raids and other disturbances. W h e n necessary, seed and labor needed to exploit lands whose cultivators had fled or were no longer able to fulfill their obligations had to b e provided b y those in charge of supervising the process of cultivation. They had to assure that all cultivable lands w e r e exp l o i t e d , that no lands were left uncultivated due to n e g l e c t , that the crops were harvested at the proper time, and that the land tax w a s collected and delivered to the Imperial Treasury or to its a g e n t s . ^ In the MamlQk administration, officers called had served as local agents of the h o l d e r s . Now under the Ottomans, were used to carry out the duties of the in the During the ^ E v l i y S

QelebS, X , 138.

5 5

' Ibn Iyfis, V , 332; QgnOnngme-l M i g i r , f o l . 39a-42bj M u h . 14, 720:1040 (10 Sa'b&n 978), M u h . 21, 2 2 4 : 337 (2i Qa'da 980); M u h . 2 5 7 184:355 (23 R e b i , I , 981 ). 5 4

• Q&nflnnSme-i M i g £ r , f o l . 44a, 5 3 a , 58b-6oa; Ibn Iyfis, V , 3 6 1 , 487; M u h . 6, 2 i a : 4 b 7 (year 972)-

444,

32

THE LAUDED " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

first decade of Ottoman rule, the were taken from those who had served in the same or similar positions under the and they were paid fixed salaries for their service. But most of them joined the rebellion of AJjmed Paga, and were killed or dispersed upon its defeat. Thereafter, the posts of had to be given to soldiers, first chiefly from amongst the MamlQks loyal to the Sultan, later to the members of the — — — 55 Ottoman military corps as v e i l . So long as the and were drawn from sources other than the Ottoman military corps, the Treasury was able to employ them o n a salaried basis, in Once the revolt of 930/1524 deprived it of the bulk of this source and had to be taken from the soldiery, these posts had to be assigned in Each was required to pay a purchase price equal to nine and one-half times the anticipated annual surplus which would be left to him after the fixed tax 56 was delivered to the Treasury. To make certain that each soldier would b e diverted from his military pursuits for only a small time each y e a r , the of each was limited to all or part of a single harvest. To direct and supervise the work of the and to limit their power, the as whole •units remained in the hands of the In addition, each had to appoint a guarantor in Cairo, usually a superior officer of his corps, vho would be responsible for him and to the 571 to the Treasury should he neglect his obligations.' The system thus was first introduced to Egypt on a limited and controlled basis, due to an inability to secure rural administrators from non-military sources. Since these were so limited in time and revenue, the bulk of the revenues and obligations of each continued to come from his membership and duties in the military corps to which he belonged, rather than from this position which w a s , thus, principally a means of administration rather than one of compensation. For those soldiers whom the Porte wished to compensate more bountifully than could be done in Egypt under this system, elsewhere in the Empire were assigned, and they were transferred out of the military corps 58 of E g y p t . But in the late 10/16th century, more and more individual M u h . 6, 22T.k7k (Qa'da 972); M u h . 22, 18^:35^ (23 Rebi 5 6 ,

5 7

'

5 8 -

I, 9 8 1 ) .

Q&nQnnSme-l Migir, f o l . ^3a; M u h . 23, 1 1 : 7 5 (Qa'da 9 8 1 ) . QfaQnn&ne-l Migir, f o l . ^2a, W a j M u h . 37, 2 7 5 : 3 2 6 (7 Jumfida

I, 987)-

M u h . 37, 1 3 8 : 1 6 2 3 (17 Sa'bSn 987), 13^:1569 (15 Sa'bto. 987); M u h . 1, 5 6 : 3 9 3 (year 963); Mafrkeme ug-Sar'iyye (Archives of the Religious Courts), Cairo, Registers of the Qj.gim ul-'Asker£ (military section), R e g . dated 961/1553, f o l . 17a (Jumfida II, 9b] ), f o l . 1 6 1 a (qa'da 9 6 1 ) .

THE USUFRUCT OF THE L A U D A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

33

came to be held as units b y single whose power in relation to the treasury and its increased in direct relation to the increase of strength of their military corps in relation to the and the Porte. came to hold Individual or joint control of in conditions of unchecked b y the w h o were absorbed into the bureaucracy of the Treasury and who lost their direct identification with the individual The Treasury tried to end or at least to curb this development by limiting the assignment of to persons capable of exploiting and administering the lands efficiently without imposing undue burden on the peasants and without lessening the revenue of the Treasury. They were not to b e given to common soldiers, but only to officers of the regiments, and Beys or known to be upright, able, and prosperous. However, these barriers were of little use against members of an ever more assertive, powerful, and independent hierarchy. The shift of control of the from the salaried in the service of the Treasury to Multezlm members of the military corps manifested and strengthened the rise of the hierarchy to a position of control in Ottoman Egypt. By the end of the first quarter of the 11/17th century, the was the predominant form in which the of rural wealth were alienated and almost all these were held b y soldiers and o f f i c e r s . ^ So it was that the became the principal means by which Imperial Lands in Egypt were alienated, not because of any plan or desire of the founders of Ottoman rule in Egypt, but because first of administrative and later political necessity. And the Multezlm arose not out of the and to whom the were originally and basically assigned, but from their administrative assistants, the in detail the conditions under which the century and thereafter.

Now let us examine were held in the 11/17th

The tenure of the was indefinite in length- The price of its purchase had to be paid only once, and then it could be held so long as the Multezlm fulfilled his duties and obligations in respect to it. Hi3 financial obligation was included in the legal category known as that is, the holder of the obligated himself to pay a certain sum, only so long as the source of revenue alienated to him was M u h . 5, "120:421 (4 §a*b&n 973); M u h . 14, 7 0 6 : 1 1 0 1 (3 Ramad&n 978); M u h . 2 7 7 102:249 (18 ga'bSn 9»3); MuhT~?9, 5:9 (1 Ramadte 9^4 )J M u h . 2 1 , •227:537 (21 Qa'da 980); M u h . 3 5 , 2FTT8 (18 Rebi I T , 986); M u h . F 0 7 2 7 3 : 5 0 9 (29 Sa'bSn 988 );~Muh. 48, 1 7 9 : 5 0 0 {WTfevvJO. 990); MuES. 69, 1 3 8 : 2 6 9 ( 1 1 Jumfida II, 1 0 0 1 ) ; M u h . 73, 580:1081 (20 gi.i.je 1 0 0 3 ) ; Jabart£, 'AJS'lb ul-As&r, I, 26: Silvestre de Sacy, "MSmoire sur le PropriStS Territoriale en figypte , p p . 8 6 - 9 2 , 1 0 7 - 1 0 9 .

34

THE LAUDED " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

produced In Its normal amount. In the case of lands held in it assumed a normal flow of the Nile. If the Kile was deficient, and all or part of his lands became Idle, due not to his own negligence but to natural causes, his lands could be declared (temporarily Idle), and he could make a plea to the that the amount of tax which he was obliged to pay0 b e lowered or abolished.^ If the Multezlm failed to fulfill his obligations to assure the cultivation of the land and to deliver the taxes required of him to the Treasury, he could be seized, tortured, and imprisoned, and his and all his other properties could b e taken into the possession of the Treasury and sold. If he resigned or died, his and, If he was In debt to the Treasury, his other possessions as w e l l , were seized. No matter in what circumstances his possessions were seized and sold, after his full debt to the Treasury was paid out of the proceeds, the balance went not to the Treasury or to the heirs of the deceased, but to the 1 personal treasury of the Sultan in Istanbul.^ During the time in which the held in were vacant and until they were resold, they were administered by an agent sent from the Sultfin called who personally or through subordinates performed the duties normally expected of the Multezlm, paid the required taxes to the Treasury, and sent to the Sultan the profit normally accruing to the Multezlm. The Sultan, In this m a n n e r , manifested and benefited from his residual right to the Imperial Possessions. W h e n the were held by salaried agents of the Treasury, they assigned them in Iltlz&n to the When the replaced the in possession and control of the the authority to distribute them. In was given to the provincial governors, who were themselves of the of provincial ad2 ministration.^ However, by the end of the first quarter of the 1l/l7th century, these of provincial revenue and administration likewise fell to the Manfl.Qk Beys In To keep control and supervision of the rural out of their hands, the distribution and supervision of all was transferred to the of Cairo In 1017/1608, and it M u h . Mi§ir r I, 39b: 170 (mid §afar 1 1 2 3 ) .

^ 6 l -

M u h . Migir, I, 3 V b : U 6 (mid §a'b&n 1122), III, 95b:^39 (end R e b l II, 1 137), V , 127:31 6 (end Qa'da 1149), V I I , 172:370 (mid Qa'da 11 70 >T"Evliy6 (Jelebi, X , 133-3^j 3^0; Anonymous History of Ottoman Egypt, British Museum (London), MS A d d . 9 9 7 2 , f o l . 32b; Aljmed Kethodfi el-DemirdS§£, Kitfib id-Durret U.-MusSne f£ Afabfir ll-Kan&ie (History of Egypt from 1099/16BB to 1169/1755), British Museum, M S Or. 1 0 7 3 - 1 ( t w o volumes consecutively numbered), p . 243. 6 2

'

See p p . 6 0 - 6 1 .

THE USUFRUCT OF THE L A U D A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT remained there thereafter.

35

6*J

Once control of the distribution of passed to the a system of auction was adopted for their sale. When sufficient vacant accrued, they were resold at auctions held in the great chamber of the K r S n . The auctions were conducted by the agent of the Sultan, the who sold the to the highest bidder (Talebe) from amongst those seeking them. Completion of the sale was not permitted unless the bidding pushed the sale price to or above a point called the "value price" an ill-defined concept which varied according to the fertility and produce of the holding, the taxes upon it, and the consequent profits of the Multezlm who had previously held it. The for all sold at a given auction was supposed to equal eight times the average annual anticipated profit of their Multezlms. The price collected was known as the or and formed a part of the personal revenues of the Sultan rather than of the Imperial Treasury, thus reflecting his residual possession of the right to enjoyment of its usufruct. Since the price paid in the auction was supposed to reflect the "value" of the that is the profit left to its previous Multezlm after taxes were paid, it might be assumed that in this was provided a device to enable the Sultan, even more than the Treasury of EJgypt, to share with the Multezlms the residue of the wealth of the land which, as w e will see later, came to be much greater than that paid to the Treasury in t a x e s . ^ In fact, this was not the case. The actual profits of the Multezlms were set down only in the local village registers and in those of the Multezlms themselves. The registers kept in the Treasury of Cairo indicated only the taxes due to it, not the actual produce or profit. In practice, the actual profit and consequent "value" of each was not known b y those who conducted the auctions. It was accepted that those who knew the true profit would, b y competitive bidding, drive the price u p '' Mahkama ug-gar'lyye (Archives of the Religious Courts ), Cairo, Collection of miscellaneous registers; R e g . dated 1 0 2 1 - 1 0 2 5 / 1 6 1 2 - 1 6 1 6 , f o l . 151a (20 Qs'da 1 0 2 2 ) , f o l . 175b (15 §a«bgtn 1 0 2 3 ) ; 'Abd ul-Ker£m, Ttoih-i Migir, f o l . 29a. 64 A vivid description of such an auction is given in EvliyS, Celebl, X , 13^- JabartS, 'Aj&'lb ul-Aa&r, II, 1 5 1 , refers to it as a m i z M , but it is called muzllyeae in all tne official sources. It Is interesting to note that of all the Ottoman officials In Egypt, only the dellfil b&gi and his assistants were forbidden to hold property In Iltlzto, due to their key position in its distribution. M u h . Misir, I, 673:296 (mid Sevyg.1 1125). See also M u h . Mi sir, IV, 36b: 164 (.mid Re.jeb 1141,) guseyn Efendi, "Administration of 15th Century Egypt", 43, bj, 68; MlzBmn&ne-i Misir, f o l . 1 2la; Lancret, "MSmoire sur le systeme d I m p o s i t i o n Territorlale , p . 466; Esteve, "MSmolre sur les Finances de l'Egypte," p . 109. 65

"

See p . 95-

36

THE LAUDED "WEALTH OF EGYPT

until It reflected that profit, which was accepted as being one eighth of whatever price was paid in the auction* Wo sale was ever voided on the 66 grounds that the had not been r e a c h e d . However, as the authority of the Sultan in Egypt declined, and as that of the Mamlttk hierarchy rose to a point where its leaders were the de facto rulers of Egypt, this was reflected in the revenues from the profits of vacant and from the proceeds of their sale, revenues which were a principal manifestation of that authority in the realm of administration and finance. First of all, revenues were considered to be of two types, according to the manner in which the from which they had come were vacated. After 994/1586, that portion of the revenues which came from villages vacated by resignation or the natural death (mevt) of their holders was turned over to the as the Sultan's con67 tribution to his r e v e n u e s . When, after 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 , the was required to pay an annual tax to the Sultan in return for this revenue, that tax was turned over to the Imperial Treasury of Egypt as the Sultan's 6 contribution to Its revenues. ® The revenue which remained in the personal revenue of the Sultan was that type which came from villages seized due to the aberration, flight, or execution (qatl) of the holder, or his death in w a r . And since the had no direct financial Interest In the profits secured from this kind of tax, they were not active in securing for the villages in this category a proper price in the auction; and as their authority in Egypt decreased, so did their power to enforce a proper price. Through the connivance of bidders amongst themselves, and sometimes with the cooperation of the the true profit was seldom revealed, nor was a price equal to more than three years of 69 the revealed profit secured for its sale. In addition, during the 12/18th century, there arose a custom of paying only a deposit at the time of purchase and delivering the balance of the purchase price in installments paid out of subsequent 70 profits. As the power of the decreased, it became more and more difficult to collect the remainder of the purchase price from those who iJL ' ' M u h . Migir, III, 133a: 629 (start Qa'da 1 1 3 8 ) . 6 7

' 68.

el-BallSq, Tarffr-i Migir, f o l . 17a; M u h . Migir, V I I , 3^9:758 year 1173). a See p . 165.

6 9 >

M u h . Migir, V , 84:198 (start Bl.i.je 111*7), V , 108:261 (mid §a'b&n 1148), V I I , 334:740 (mid ga'b&i 1 1 7 M ; 'All EmSrS, III AJjmed 1801 (end gafar 1139); el Jabarti, 'Ajlii'lb ul-AaSr, II, 250. 7

°"

Mfillyyeden M U d e w e r e 7278, f o l . 26b (20 JumSda II, 1153)-

THE USUFRUCT OF THE LAUD A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

37

owed it, and large balances accrued of u n c o l l e c t a b l e t a x owed to 71 the Sultan. Furthermore, out of the money which was finally collected, the Porte was forced to accept the subsequent deduction of the capital — of loans owed by the dead Multezlms to7 private ~ 2 persons to whom the may or may not have been given in pawn, as well as the full 73 amount of their remaining tax debt to the T r e a s u r y . These practices continually reduced the product left to the Sultans, who strove without success to curb them. In particular, they ordered that a general annual register of the profits of each be compiled, that the sale price be restored to eight times the annual profit, and that debt deductions be limited only to the of whose holders had actually assigned them in pawn to their 74 creditors. In addition, an effort was made to limit the deductions for private debts to those portions of the revenues which came from the sale of the private property and belongings of the debtor, rather than that secured from the sale of his of Imperial Possessions. How7

ever, these efforts had little s u c c e s s . ' The increasing lack of balance between Ottoman authority and that of the Mamlflk hierarchy in Egypt also was manifested in the other principal expression of the residual rights of the Sultan in the realm of finance, his power to repossess and sell vacant In order to preserve the financial basis of the great houses which were built u p in Ottoman Egypt, the leaders came to desire that the holdings of their members should pass directly to their descendants or followers in the same house. To accomplish this, Multezlms before their deaths secretly ceded their right to those whom they wished 71 " See p p . 536-7. 7 2 ,

M u h . Migir I, 42a: 182 (mid Qa'da 1 1 2 3 ) , 86b:379 (mid Safar 1 1 2 7 ) , III, 120b:609 (mid S e w & l 1 1 3 8 ) , 128b:603 (mid Ramad&n 1 1 3 8 ) , 129b:609 (end Sewfil 1 1 3 8 ) , 1 3 2 a : 621 (start Qa'da 1 1 3 8 ) , IV, 15b: 63 (start gafar 11 Uo), V , 2 1 7 : 5 5 6 (start Mubarrem 1154), V I I , 2 1 8 : 4 7 6 (start MuJjarrem 11 ?2), rx, 38b:119 (end JumSda II, 1 1 9 0 ) . 7 3 -

M u h . Migir, I, 128b: 603 (mid RaoadSn 1 1 3 8 ) , III, 1 3 2 a : 6 2 i (start Qa'da 1 1 3« )i IV, 34b: 152 (end Rebi I, 114i); V I I , 172:370 (mid Qa'da 1172), 185:503 (start J u m M a I, 11727717111, l4ib:526 (end Re.jeb 1181 ), IX, 6b: 18 (end Jum&ia IT, 1 1 8 9 ) , f o l . 81b (start Qa'da 1191 ), f o l . 99a (mid Jum&da II, 1193 ), Demird&ji, Durret ll-Mug&ne, p . 427; Nlg&mn&me-i Migir, f o l . 2laj Jabarti, 'AJfi'ib ul-AsSr, I, 509; Cevdet, MSliyye (l&g Vekaiet" Arglvi, Turkish State Archives,"Istanbul), 3417 (25 JumSda 1 1 , 1 2 1 0 ; . ^ M u h . Migir, IV, 36b: 164 (mid Re.jeb 1141 ), 34b:152 (end Rebi 1. 1141), V I I , 251 :547 (end Jum&da I, 1172). 7 5

' M u h . Migir, IV, 36b:l64 (mid Re.jeb 1141), III, I34a:633 (start Qa'da 1138 ), Top Kapi Saray Museum archives (Istanbul), E . 3218 (date 1190-1 ).

38

THE L A U D E D " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

to succeed them, and then w h e n they died and the Treasury tried to seize their holdings, the new holders displayed their deeds and these 76 w e r e withheld from s a l e . In other cases, w h e n the Multezlm died unexpectedly o r , in any case, without such advance arrangements having b e e n m a d e , his heirs w e r e able to force the to withhold their from public auction and to agree to leave them in their possession in return f o r their payment of a price directly to h i m . This "arrangement" b e t w e e n and heirs or followers of a dead Multezlm for their succession to holdings without the formality of an auction was known as and the price which the Vfilt received from them was called in contrast to the p r i c e , w h i c h officially remained in use only for those revenues w h i c h came from sale through a u c t i o n . In actual u s a g e , h o w e v e r , the term was m i s t a k e n l y applied both to the proceeds of the prices paid at 771 auctions and to those coming from arrangements.' The Porte did attempt to Impose limitations o n the right of persons to obtain It could b e extended only to the whose Multezlms had died n a t u r a l l y , not b y execution, flight, or in w a r , and only to persons for whom the right of had specifically b e e n requested in the w i l l of the deceased Multezlm and w h o w e r e qualified financially and physically to fulfill the obligations required of M u l t e z l m s . O n l y If these conditions w e r e entirely met could the of a deceased Multezlm b e transferred b y to those whom h e chose. The was set at three times the average annual profit of the concerned. If any of the conditions w e r e not m e t , the vacated) had to be sold at auction as before at a price equal to seven times the average annual p r o f i t . In p r a c t i c e , the price received from auction and alike came to no m o r e than three times the declared annual profit of the and powerful Beys w e r e usually able to secure the holdings of their masters and others b y whether or not the conditions established b y the

M u h . 99, P- 121 (end R e b l II, 1102 )j M u h . 111, p . 3 (mid Qa'da 1110); M u h . M T j T r , I , I2ib:56l (mlcTEejeb 1138); JaEarti, 'A.jg'ib u l - A j a r , I , 5 4 , 1 5 6 , 179, 192, 193; L a n c r e t , MSmolre sur 1 I m p o s i t i o n T e r r i t o r l a l e , p p . 4 7 0 , 511-512; Tallien, "MSmoire sur 1'Administration d e 1'Egypte ", MSmolrea aur 1'Egypte, m , 1 9 9 . 7 7

' M u h . M i g i r , V , 172:438 (start Jumfida II, 1152), V I I , 9^a:379 (mid Sa'b&n 1179); D e m l r d a g l , Duiret 11-Mugane, p . 4 o . 7 8

' M u h . M i g i r , I , 90b:402 (mid Ramadan 1127), m , 43a:2i7 (end Q»'da 1 133), 124b:57« (start Sa'bfin 1139), V T I , 9^a:379 (mid S a ' b & i 1 1 7 9 T

THE USUFRUCT OF THE LAUD A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT Porte were f u l f i l l e d .

39

79

The Porte accepted the situation, and the collected what they could for themselves and for the Sultan b y playing off the conflicting lyinmlfiv houses against each other and throwing the cloak of legitimacy over the victors' seizures of the properties of the vanquished in return for substantial financial concessions. By the end of the l2/i8th century, then, lands which were in theory Imperial Possessions were in fact held as private property. To make the legal theory correspond with the fact, there was developed a fourth means by which a could b e held, the The remained in theory a holding which had to be vacated and sold at auction upon the death of its holder, while the was a holding whose possessor held the same obligations and duties as the but who had the right to pass it on to heirs through the formality of the arrangement with the In essence, then, the In Egypt was an which could be Inherited. After 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6 , the of most of the Imperial Possessions in Ottoman Egypt were conO p. sidered to be held not in but in In the course of three centuries, therefore, most of the Imperial Possessions In Egypt were alienated in three successive types of tenure, first in t h e n a n d finally in the half-century before the French occupation, in Each manifested a further stage in the progressive weakening of Ottoman power in Egypt. We will examine In a later chapter the effect of this development on the objectives for which the Imperial Possessions were alienated, that Is, on the exploitation of 81 the wealth of Egypt for the benefit of the S u l t a n . Not all the Imperial Possessions in Egypt were alienated as to Multezlms. By general Ottoman administrative usage, those 7 9 >

M u h . MJ.sir, I, 42a: 182 (mid qa'da 1 1 2 3 ) , 9 3 b : 4 i 4 (start Safar 1 1 2 8 ) , 92b:^oa (end Qa'da 1 1 2 7 ) , I20b:5^3 (start Sa'bSn 1 1 3 8 ) , 1 2 3 b : 5 5 9 (mid Qa'da 1 1 3 8 ) , III, 8 a : 3 2 (start Rejeb 1 1 3 1 ), 2ita:i2lt (end Safar 1 1 3 3 ) , 129a: 1 ^5 (mid Rebl II, 1133), IV, 2 1 b : 9 0 (mid Jum&da II, m o ) , V , 1 2 0 : 3 0 5 (end Ra5a5&n 1 1 4 9 ) , 137:3^5 (mid Jum&da TTr~ll5o), V I , 2 1 8 : ^ 7 6 (start Muharrem 1 1 7 2 ) , I95b:459 (mid Rebi I7~Tl72), V I I , 59b:243 (end Safar 1178), 95a:2o6 (mid Rejeb 1181 )7~E3b: 1 76 (mid Jum&da II, 1177), l59a:J+78 (start Safar 1182); IX, 6 b : l 8 (end Jumfida II, 1 1 8 9 ) , 3 8 b : 1 l 9 (end Jumfida II, 1 1 9 0 ) , 8lb:36l (start Qa'da 1191 ). JabartS, 'A.1&'lb ul-AgSr, I, 56, 5^, 309; el flallfiq, Tfirih-i Migir, fol. 153b. fto M u h . fcgir, X , 2b (year 1 2 0 0 ) ; M & l l w e d e n Mtidevvere, 3793, f o l . 3a (year 1179). For the parallel development or the MSlikgne as a form of property possession elsewhere in the Ottoman empire, aee Wright, Ottoman Statecraft, p . 158; d'Ohsson, Tableau G S n S r a l d e 1'Empire Othomane, V I I , 265-269, 272, 281, 2%3, 350; P & k A i m , 03ta&hil T&Elh JJeyltalerl, 11, 397; Gibb and Bowen, "islamic Society", I, 255-256, 25$. 8 1

•

See p . 95-

40

THE L A U D E D " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

w i t h the rank of w e r e entitled to remuneration from Imperial Properties set aside for them as The of E g y p t , since they held the rank of were entitled to receive revenues of this k i n d , and to provide t h e m , the usufruct of certain villages was perpetually diverted from the revenues of the Imperial Treasury for this p u r p o s e . The taxes collected from the peasants cultivating these lands w e n t in full to the rather than to the T r e a s u r y . Their exploitation w a s placed in the care of provincial governors, most of whom w e r e k n o w n 82 as They administered these villages through m e n of their p e r s o n a l entourage to whom the term likewise was applied, since their positions and duties approximated those of the of the 10/i6th century, w h o had disappeared elsewhere as the other Imperial Possessions fell into h o l d i n g s . These villages of the therefore w e r e called villages and the revenues from 8 5 them W h e n the provincial governorships were held in In the 10/16th century, their holders received annual salaries from the Treasury, and they were obliged to deliver these revenues in full to the W h e n the governorships came to be held In h o w e v e r , the salaries which had b e e n allotted to them as were abolished a n d , in their p l a c e , these villages w e r e Included in the revenue of their provincial IltlzHm. In theory, the w h o held the right to their full p r o d u c e , alienated a portion of it to the provincial governors in return for their administration of the exploitation of his l a n d s . In other w o r d s , in the case of the villages, the provincial governors acted as Multezims for the rather than for the Treasury. They guaranteed to deliver annually to the personal treasury of the a fixed amount of and In return w e r e entitled to keep the surplus as p r o f i t . These villages came to include the residue of a l l the Imperial Possessions not alienated temporarily as or permanently as foundations and so to them were added any cultivable lands not alienated in any other w a y , either lands which were previously held as or as and which for some reason had fallen into idleness and had b e e n abandoned, and for which no Multezims could b e found w h o would expend the money and labor necessary to restore them to cultivat i o n , or lands newly created through the natural action of the Nile f l o w . Such lands were joined to the villages so that the provincial governors would be directly responsible for their restoration. yA 8 3

'

Once the

See p . 6o.

" Evliyft Qeleb£, X , 127, 200j el-Ballfiq. Tfirffa-i M i s i r , f o l . 96b; Q&nQnn&me-i M i g i r , f o l . 3^a, 60b, 69a.

THE USUFRUCT OF THE L A U D A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

41

fertility of such lands reached a point where they were desired b y others in the was required to alienate from his possessions all such cultivable land in excess of the area originally assigned to him, to assign it as and, thus, to join its taxes to the revenues of 84 the Imperial Treasury. b . Endowment of Property in Perpetuity to Foundations. In addition to lands preserved in the Imperial Possessions and alienated in order to secure their exploitation for the benefit of the Imperial Treasury or to reward service, there were lands and other property alienated in perpetuity from the Imperial Possessions and the revenue of the Treasury and established in trust to support religious or civil institutions or individuals. The foundations in which their property was established and maintained were of two kinds in Egypt, Vaqf and Rlzqe (plural Rlzaq or 1. Upon his arrival in Egypt, Sultan Selim found a number of lands, houses, shops, and special taxes and rents whose produce had been set aside in perpetuity for the benefit of mosques, hospitals, other charitable and religious Institutions and objectives, and for the support of individuals in Egypt and the Holy Cities. Gradually multiplying since times, by the time of the Ottoman conquest these endowments had come to embrace a considerable portion of the rural and urban 85 wealth of Egypt. The largest of these were the great public established and enriched b y various sultans, especially for establishments and pensions in the Holy Cities. These were called the the "Foundations of the Sultans". In their role as upholders and defenders of the Faith, it was an established policy of the Ottoman sultans to maintain and enrich the religious endowments found in conquered areas and to establish new ones Q/T of even greater extent and revenue. During Sultan Selim's short stay in Egypt, therefore, he maintained the inherited from the and prohibited any harm to them or to their sources of revenue.®"^ Similar protestations were made b y Bey and his successors, but in practice U],

M u h . 51, fol. 50a (1 Re jeb 991); M u h . 92, (15 Sa'bfin 1068), f o l . 15b; M u h . Migir, V T I , 80a:205 (Muparrem 1172). See also pages 3 1 8 - 9 . 8 5 1

86

Gibb and Bowen, "Islamic Society", II, 172.

• Gibb and Bowen, "islamic Society", I, 188 and n . 6, p . 237, II, 1 6 5 - 1 7 8 ; Ismail Hakki Uzunsar^ili, Osmanli Devletlnin Saray Teskllfiti (Ankara, 1945), p . 1 7 8 ; P a k a l m , Tarlh Deylmleri ve Terlmleri. I I l T ~ 5 7 7 - 5 8 0 . 8 7 " SUheylS Efend£, Tfirfb-i Migir-i Jedid, Bibllotheque Natlonale (Paris). f M S Arabe N o . 26, f o l . 46b; Tbn IySs, V , 188; Nehfiri, Tarfh-i 03tn4ni f o l . 46a.

42

THE LANDED WEALTH OF EGFXPT

many Evqilf found their way Into the Imperial Possesaiona in the yeara which followed Selini's departure. During the rule of HSyr Bey, all those who enjoyed the usufruct of revenues established in Vaqf were ordered to present documentary proof of their deeds to the VSli so that he could record and confirm them. Since the MamlOk cadastral registers were not yet available, the VSli's officers had to rely entirely on the documents presented to them. Their holders were subjected to heavy taxes before their documents were con­ firmed, and the EvqSf of those who lacked adequate documents or who could not pay the tax were seized for the Treasury. Those whose documents were confirmed were excluded from the cadastral survey then in progress, since their produce was to κο entirely to the Vaqf revenues rather than to the Treastiry.8 9 In 924/1518, 9 2 6 / 1 5 2 0 , and again In 9 2 9 / 1 5 2 3 , however, shortness in the Nile flow and consequent deficiency in Treasiiry revenues caused the sigents of the VSli to collect taxes from many of the Vaqf lands as well as from Imperial Possessions owing taxes to the Treasury. Vaqf lands which were surveyed In the years when they were forced to pay the land tax were frequently Included in the registers as Imperial Possessions, and their Vaqf status was thus invalidated.90 In the QSntInnSme of 931/1524-5, IbrShim Pasa tried to return to the Vaqf policy which had been proclaimed by Sultan Selim, and he es­ tablished the principles according to which the EvqSf of Egypt were sub­ sequently confirmed, supervised, and administered. Vaqf lands were not to be Included In the new Ottoman cadastral surveys which were ordered for Imperial Possessions unless they were intermixed with them. Instead, separate registers were to be made of the Vaqf lands in each village, and from this Information a new general Vaqf register was to be compiled in the Treasury. All EvqSf were to be confirmed in their revenues If proof could be found of their Vaqf status in the Mnmifiv registers or in Bujjes Issued by the local judges, even though they may have been joined to the Imperial Possessions after the Ottoman conquest and registered as such in the new Ottoman cadasters. Gfeneraa supervision of all EvqSf in Egypt ' Ibn IySs, V, 89-

281;

'Abd ul-§amad, p. 398a.

Ibn IySs, V, 421.

90· Ibn IySs, V, 1 8 8 , 2 2 8 , 2 5 8 , 2 8 7 ; Beledlyre Ktlttlphanesl (Municipal Library), Istanbul, Cevdet Yazmalar collection, MS O 37 is a register of the EvqSf inherited by the Ottomans from Mamlflk times and of their fate In the first decade of Ottoman rule. This register is Incomplete at its beginning and end. 91·

QSnQnnSme-I Miair, fol 44b, 57b; Muh.

36,

fol 15a (JumSda I,

986).

THE USUFRUCT OP THE LAMD AND RIGHT TO ITS ENJOYMENT was placed In the hands of the chief QlSdi of Egypt, who was to carry out this duty through a subordinate known as the Nfizir un-NuzzSr (Supervisor of the Supervisors).92 This officer was given the task of making certain that the supervisors (NflzzSr, pi. of NSzir) of each Vaqf were collecting and expending its revenues In the manner prescribed by Its founder, that the sources of Its revenues were being maintained, and that the EvqSf were not subjected to vexatious taxation such as that which had burdened them during the previous decade. The NSzir3 of the great public EvqSf were to be sent from the Porte, while those of the other EvqSf were to be appointed from amongst the men of Egypt. In the years which followed, the EvqSf of Egypt were administered and regularized along the general pattern which the IbrShim Pasa laid down. Every holder was required to submit to the DivSn documents proving the validity of his claim. These documents were checked and supplemented with the information found in the MamlQk cadastral registers. Those whose claim was found to be legitimate were given a document of confirmation, called IfrS.i. Those lands for which the claims as Vaqf could not be substantiated were left In the hands of the claimants with a document known as Temkin so long as they paid the regular land tax for them. Such persons were, in essence, Multezlms of the Vaqf lands, but their profits went to the objects of the EvqSf rather than for personal gain. It was the firm in­ tention of the Ottomans to join to the Imperial Possessions all properties which had been held as IqtS' (i.e. TimSr) in Mamlflk times, and those lands which were listed as IqtS' in the MamlQk registers but which had sub­ sequently been changed to Vaqf or to other forms of holding, were seized except when It could be proved that they had in fact reverted to the Public Treasury and then had been purchased from it and legally turned Q|i into Vaqf. In addition, many Vaqf lands fell into idleness and were abandoned, and these too were joined to the Imperial Possessions. To those which survived from Mamlflk times were joined a myriad of new EvqSf created In the Ottoman period as gifts from Sultans, VSli3, Beys, pilgrims, and others in Egypt, in the Porte, and on their way to and from the Holy Cities. Lands made Into Vaqf were usually taken from amongst the vacant MuqSta'St held in the temporary possession of the S\iltan. If the donation was made by the Sultan, the purchase price was waived and the lands were removed from the rolls of those subject to taxation by the Treasury and joined to those alienated in full to Vaqf 92.

On the Chief QSdi of Egypt, see p. 5 9 .

93-

QSnflnnSme-i MiSir, fol.

9b.

"Ottoman Land Law", pp. 17,

72b,

7li-a-b. 18.

44

THE LAUDED "WEALTH OF EGYPT

revenues. If the donation was made by persons other than the Sultfin and the members of his immediate family, the donors had to provide the money needed to pay the price of the and then these were converted into V a q f . Such lands donated by persons other than the Sultan and his immediate family were supposed to remain subject to the land tax, so that the Treasury would not lose its revenues. In this case, the Vaqf itself was simply made the Multezlm of the in question, and it received for its own revenues the profits usually reserved for the Multezlms after the fixed taxes to the Treasury were paid. However, such lands were frequently exempted from the land tax b y special order of t h e e s q's peclally when their donors were persons of political power. Our consideration here is limited to those of the Imperial Possessions which were converted into Vaqf holdings, not Vaqfs coming from private property, which consisted entirely of non-landed revenues. Each Vaqf was established by a founder who vacated his and ceded it in perpetual trust for the benefit of some charitable or religious object or for the support of his descendants. The object of the Vaqf was named in the founding document drawn u p by the founder, and the persons and/or Institutions so named were the possessors of the right to all or part of the revenues established for the Vaqf• These possessors either personally exploited the Vaqf revenues which they held or, more often, administered them through an administrator who was In charge of all the Vaqf revenues of an Individual institution or person, and through supervisors sing. one of whom was placed in charge of exploiting and disbursing the revenues of each particulular V a q f . Since the was entitled to name the administrators and supervisors, as well as the beneficiaries, of the Vaqf which he was founding, it was not at all unusual for him to leave these positions, as well as the Vaqf revenues, in full or in part, to his heirs and descendants. The donation of Imperial Possessions as Vaqf was thus another means of assuring the retention of in or other houses after the deaths of their Multezlms. The beneficiaries of the great public Vaqfs established b y and Ottoman and high officials were pious, charitable, and religious institutions and individuals in Egypt and the Holy Cities. Their Mtltevelli, or general administrator, was first the chief of Egypt and, after 1001/1593, the Chief Eunuch of the Porte, the ^ M u h . 33, 327:83^ (1 Ramafl&n 986), 16:47 (7 Qa'da 986); M u h . 39, 5 2 : 1 2 3 ("27 SevvSl 987), M u h . 4B, 3 1 8 : 9 3 8 (11 Sa'bSn 991 ); MuETltigir, I, 49a:2l8 (mid Rebl II, iTSF), 93a:4i3 (start §afar~l128), i04a:462 (start Ramadfin 1128 )7~T\F, 83a:372 (start Reieb 1143), III, 78a:368 (end ReblII, 1136); Evlliyfi geleb£, X , 458 Jabarti, 'Aj&'lb ul-Asfir, I, 28, IV7~209; el-Sall&q, T&r£h-i Migir, f o l . 10b. For Treasury revenues on land tax from Vaqf lands7 see p p . 64, 95•

THE USUFRUCT OF THE L A U D A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

45

The who supervised each of the public Vaqfs were chosen by him from amongst the scribes of the Imperial Treasury and were supervised by a general supervisor who was appointed from amongst the Ottoman in the entourage of the After 1 0 8 1 / 1 6 7 0 - 1 , however, the were able to secure for themselves and their followers the posts of for most of the public Vaqfs, and they managed to derive from them great profits for themselves, usually at the expense 98 of the legal beneficiaries. Vaqf holdings in land were exploited either directly by the or his agents or by a Multezlm, often the Multezim of a neighboring who obligated himself to assure its cultivation and to deliver to the Vaqf a fixed amount of revenue each y e a r . During the 12/18th century, however, these Multezlms often withheld much of the sums which they owed to the Vaqfs, usually with the tacit approval of the QQ7 with whom the extra profits were shared. These Multezlms also imposed additional illegal taxes on the cultivators of the Vaqf lands in their and paid part of the proceeds to the Vfilia as protection tax in return for their acquiescence in the imposition of these illegal taxes. In 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 , This tax on the Multezlms of Vaqf lands was transferred from 100 the revenues of the Vfilis to those of the Imperial T r e a s u r y . In addition to the diversion of Vaqf revenues by the Multezlms who exploited their sources, the as well diverted for their own profit and for other purposes not intended by the founders the Vaqf revenues which reached 101 them. These abuses in the administration and exploitation of Vaqf revenues do not, however, alter the fact that large and increasing amounts of Imperial Possessions were in this way diverted from the revenues of the Ottoman Imperial Treasury in Egypt. 2 . Rizaq. The least-known of the principal means by which a right was secured to enjoyment of a portion of the fruits of the land of M u h . 71, fol- 191a (21 JumSda II, 1001 ).

^ 9 7 -

M u h . Migir, I, 42a: 184 (mid Q.a'da 1 1 2 3 ) , V I , 1 3 1 a : 5 9 6 (start JumSda II, 116J). 98

" M u h . Mi sir, I, 55a: 234 (mid Sa'bto. 1124), III, 38a:l92 (mid §a'b§n 1153), 77a:565 (mid Rebi I, 1 1 5 6 ) . 'Abd ul-Ker£m, Tfirifa-i Migir, fol. 98a; Jabart£, 'A.ja* iTTuI-AaSr, I, 25, 54-. 9 9

• M u h . Migir, I, 5 5 b : 2 4 5 (Safar 1 1 2 5 ) , i v , 8 : 1 7 (end Safar 1 1 4 6 ) ; Jabarti, 'Ajg/ib ul-Aa&r, I, 'SSI 1

°

1 0 1

0,

See p p . 288,

291.

' M u h . 26, 2 5 7 : 7 3 8 (22 Jumfida II, 982); M u h . 35, 150:332 (5 Jumfida II, 983T~Muh. 29, 162:394 (25 Qa'da 984); MuhT~Higir, III, 127a:592 (start Ramad&n 1 1 3 8 ). Lancret, "MSmoire Sur 1'Imposition Territoriale", p p . 483-485-

46

THE LANDED WEALTH OP EGfYPT

Egypt was that known as Rlzqe (plural Rlzaq or ErzSq ). The Rlzqes were similar to military salaries and foundations, to which they were supple­ mentary, but they had a legal distinction which must he understood. In Ffttimid Egypt, the rulers for the most part discouraged the alienation of land as Vaqf for the support of institutions and individuals since this would divert from the public treasury the tax revenues of such 102 land. Since land was the principal source of wealth and revenue, how­ ever, pious institutions could not exist without some portion of Its revenues. So the Rizqe-i HjbSslyye ("Rizqe In trust") was developed as a means by which a portion of certain landed revenues could be diverted to pious and charitable institutions and individuals without the treasury of the ruler being forced to suffer any loss in revenue.1°' This Rlzqe was the imposition by the ruler on those IqtS' holders who exploited and ad­ ministered the land of a fixed annual rent in addition to whatever land tax they might previously have owed. The Rlzqe Involved no concession of the usufruct or of the right or obligation of the holder of the Muqfeta'a to administer the exploitation of the source of revenue. It just re­ quired him to pay part of his profit as rent to the beneficiary of the Rizqe. In the centuries which followed, the early effort to restrict the alienation of land In Vaqf failed, as we have seen. In MamlQk Egypt Vaqfs became the principal sources of revenue for pious and charitable institutions. However, the Rizqe also survived as an addition source of revenue for them, and its principle was extended to non-landed MuqUta'&t to provide a special source of revenues for members of the MamlQk corps. Such Rlzqes were known as military Rizqes (Rizaq-i Jev^Iwe)• Unlike the Iq.t&'s and salaries also distributed to officers and soldiers, these military Rlzqes were given less as a means of support for those occupying certain positions than they were as rewards to individuals for special services and heroism. In addition, the military Rlzqes were not limited to the duration or tenure of the Individual holder in his office or service but were attached to him personally, virtually as private property which could be bought and sold, left in inheritance, or established In Vaqf to support religious or civil objectives, unlike the pious Rlzqes, which could not be alienated legally from their original possessors.1In MamlQk times, the Rlzaq-i Jeysiyye rents were imposed, collected, and paid out by the Ρίν&η ul-Jeyg, the central ministry of military affairs, and they were held with title deeds 10 ' Silvestre de Sacy. "MSmoire sur Ie droit de propriStS terrltoriale", p. 65; Heffening, "Waqf , Encyclopedia of Islam1, IV, 1 0 9 6 .

^' Jabarti, 'AjS'lb ul-AsItr, IV, 93·

10

10lt'

"ottoman Land Law", pp. 1 0 , 2 5 , 1 7 , 1 8 ; Ibn Iy&s, V, 2 1 8 .

THE USUFRUCT OF THE LAUD A N D RIGHT TO ITS ETJJOXMENT

47

called

which were Issued b y that and signed by the Sultan. Pious Rizqes, on the other hand, were obtained b y the sanction of the treasury and permission of the religious courts and were held by title deeds called which were issued by the 1 T h e r e was In the treasury a subordinate bureau called the but, unlike the duties In connection with the military Rlzqes, its role was limited to collecting the Rizqe rents and 10 paying them to those entitled to t h e m . ^ During the first decade of Ottoman rule In Egypt, policy In regard to the Rlzqes varied according to the needs of the moment. Immediately after the conquest, Sultan Sel£m ordered that pious and military Rlzqes 1 07 1 alike be left in the hands of their possessors, but later in the same year their revenues were seized to meet the wage requirements of the 108 Ottoman t r o o p s . In 924/1518, Bey restored to their possessors the 10 right to their Rlzqe revenues, ^" but again in 9 2 6 / 1 5 2 0 they were seized 110 to meet current e x p e n s e s . Finally in 9 2 7 / 1 5 2 1 , a general Inspector (Mufettlg ul-Rlzaq) was appointed to examine the titles of all Rlzqes, and he seized all he could for the Imperial Treasury. "The possessors came to his house with their papers and and when they read them, he pointed out holes In them, and demanded to know their origin and the origin of the origin, and, If they failed to produce them, he went to the and he said that they have no legal right to these papers. So he took their papers and from them and brought them to Bey; and he acted in this way with many of the notables of soldiers and leading women and prominent people of the followers."111 These were all military Rlzqes, but i n 9 2 8 / 1 5 2 2 ,

pious Rizqes were

1 1 2

also seized in the same w a y . Two months later, however, fell Into a fatal illness and, in apparent remorse, or perhaps to prepare his case for the final judgement, he granted liberal bounties to pious and Indigent persons and ordered the return to their owners of all the military 1 0 5

'

Ibn Iyfis, V , 2 1 8 .

1 o 6 -

Ibn ab£ us-Surflr, KawSkib us-Sa'Ire, fol. 66b; "Ottoman Land L a w " , p . 20; Karl Becker, "Egypt", Encyclopedia of Islam, I, 97; E . Combe, L'Egypte Ottomane, p . 28; Jabartl, 'A.ja'lb ul-Agar, IV, 9310

^ ' Order dated 24 Rebl II, 923. Found on a document in collection of miscellaneous papers, Par ul-MafrfQgfit (Egyptian State Archives), Cairo. 1 0 8

'

1 0 9 -

112

'Abd ul-§amad, fol. 164b.

Ibn Iyfis, V , 249.

1 1 0 ,

1 1 1

Ibn Iyfis, V , 2 1 8 ;

" "

Ibn Iyfis, V , 326. Ibn Iyfis, V , M 6 ; see also 'Abd ul-§amad, f o l . 336b. Ibn Iyfis, V , ^60.

48

THE LAUDED " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

and pious Rlzqes which had been seized. During the next two months, over J two thousand Rlzqes were returned to those entitled to them. 1 1 During the year which followed, however, all the military Rlzqes were again 1 14 seized by his successor. It was only in the issued a3 part of the reforms of 9 3 1 / 1 5 2 5 that Ottoman policy in regard to the Rizqes was defined and set down. Pious Rlzqes were defined as being "those Rlzqes which have been held as pious gifts and alms...for monasteries, mosques and convents..." whether they were the original pious Rlzqes established from landed revenues, or military Rlzqes on non-landed revenues which had been en1 15 dowed subsequently for pious objectives. Those of the pious Rizqes which continued to fulfill their original intent were to be left as they were so long as the object of the expenditure continued to exist. If the institutions for which they were to be expended had fallen into decay, the chief and were to try to find a similar place In the vicinity on which the revenues could b e spent, and a "safe and pious person" was to be named to supervise the expenditure. If such a place could not b e found, the pious Rizqes set aside for institutions were to be made into 116 pensions for suitable p e r s o n s . On the other hand, military Rizqes were considered to be in the same class as and, therefore, they were to be seized for the Imperial Possessions. Those whose current possessors had secured them b y means of inheritance, purchase, or gift were to be seized at once. Those in the possession of the persons for whom they had been created were to b e left in their hands until their deaths, and then seized for the 1 117 Treasury. During the century which followed, the title deeds to all Rlzqes were reviewed in the same manner as were those of Vaqfs, and for those which were found to be valid a title of confirmation was issued by the In the process, the principles set down in the in regard to Rizqes were carried out, but in some cases they were altered because of subsequent financial difficulties of the Imperial Treasury. Those Rizqe3 which were registered as military Rizqes in the cadasters were seized even though they might have been set aside subsequently for pious purposes. However, exemptions were made for Rlzqes of this kind 1 1 3

1 1 4

' I b n Iyfis, V , 471, 475'

1 1 5


M u h . Misir, V I I , 336:744 (end Sa'bfin 1174).

1 3 6 -

Q&nQnngffle-l Misir, f o l . 45a-b, 60a, 62a; M u h . Misir, III, 1 3 3 a : 6 2 9 (start ga'da 11 gB), 153b:650 (start Sj-j.je 1 1 3 8 ) , V , 175:438 (start Jum&da II, 1152). Esteve, "MSmoire sur les Finances de l'Egypte , p p . 5 1 , 65; Lancret, "Memolre sur l'Impositlon Territorlale", p p . 480, 485; tfuseyn E f e n d l , "Administration of Egypt in the 18th Century", p p . 50, 51. 1 3 7

'

Evliyfi geleb£, X , 640; M u h . Migir, III, 1 3 3 b : 6 3 0 (start Bi.1.1e 1138).

56

THE LANDED WEALTH OP EGFYPT

they were disposed of.

1 ,Q

Until the third quarter of the 11 /17th century, the SShid, supervised by the Q.S' ImmaqSm and the Seyh ul-Beled, received these payments, checked off the cultivators1 obligations in his register, and arranged for the distribution of the tax revenues to those entitled to them. The SerrSf's duties were limited to evaluating the coins which were received 1 59 and paid out. ^ After that time, however, the multiplication of the various obligations in cash and kind imposed on the villages required a more expert knowledge of the intricacies of finance and accounting than that, which was possessed by the Qg'imtnaqSm, who usually was a MamlHk from the house of the Multezim, or by the SShid, who was an uneducated local cultivator. So their share of the administration of collections and pay­ ments fell to the SerrSfs, who were appointed by the Multezlms from the corporation of SerrSfs, and who were experts in all aspects of business and finance. By the end of the l2/i8th century, therefore, the SerrSf in each village became principally responsible for apportioning the tax burden among the cultivators, collecting the tax revenues, and distributing 1 40 them to those entitled to them. So in the tasks involved in the collection and distribution of the tax revenues, it was the agents of the Multezlms, rather than the local officers, who bore the active burden. There was a third principal role In the agricultural process, the financial one, and this fell almost entirely to the agents sent by the Multezlms. The cultivators received from the product of the land little more than that necessary to provide for the current needs of themselves and their families. The share of the product which went to the Imperial Treasury was sent away from the villages for use in matters of imperial interest. Thus, of those who had a share in the produce of the land it was only the Multezlms who could provide the accumulated advance capital needed to purchase seed for new plantings, to pay for needed repairs to the Instruments and channels of irrigation, to maintain and replace the animals used by the cultivators In seeding and cultivating the land — expenditures which had to be made in anticipation of subsequent rewsird in the harvest; and it was the Multezlm who supplied the money needed to pay the salaries and expenses of the village officers and the costs of collection in the time before the taxes levied to provide for them could be collected. The Multezlm - through his SerrSf - occupied the position 5

' For details on the system of tax payment, see pp. 7^-8.

'59* 1^0'

EvliyS Qelebi, X, 1 3 ¾ - ; Muh. Migir, I, 1 1 9 a : 5 ^ 6 ( 1 JumSda II 1 1 2 1 ) .

Lancret, "Memoire sur !'Imposition Territoriale", pp. 1)-79, ^85, 5 0 6 . Glrard, "MSmolre sur I1Agriculture de 1'figypte", p. 589; Marcel, Egypte, p. 212; Jabarti, 'A.jS'lb ul-AsSr, IV, 109; Gibb and Bowen, "islamic Society", 1:1, 2 6 5 - 6 .

THE EXPLOITATION OF THE L A N D

54

of an agricultural bank In the villages of Ottoman Egypt, and It was in this financial role that they were able to secure their great hold over the cultivators, who usually fell Into such debt that, even In the years of the most bountiful harvests, all the surpluses remaining to them after their tax obligations were met had to be turned over to t h e t o 141 p a y for the arrears which had accumulated. 1 42 The Vaglyye lands of the Multezlms were either exploited directly b y their agents or farmed out to one of the local inhabitants, usually the 143 Seyfa who represented the interests of the Multezim in that locality. In the former case, its exploitation was supervised b y the and undertaken b y the in addition to his regular duties in the village. The assigned to each peasant possessing a n in the village an obligation to spend a certain amount of time each month seeding, cultivating, and harvesting the produce of the lands of the Multezim. If the cultivator brought with him the implements or animals needed for his task, he usually was paid a small salary for his w o r k . If he did not, he was expected to work without compensation, and the necessary implements and animals were supplied at the expense of the Multezim. If the Vaglyye was farmed out, the costs 144 of labor and tools had to be borne b y the person to whom It was given. In both cases, the share accruing to the Multezim was delivered by the to the who disposed of it with the other assets of the Multezim, and who exercised general supervision in his i n t e r e s t . ^ The land, like the village in which it was located, was divided into twenty-four equal W h e n the village was held by more than one Multezim, his share in the revenues of the land was equal 1

1

" Esteve, "Metnoire sur les Finances de l'figypte", p p . 319-320; Girard, "Memoire sur 1'Agriculture de l'figypte", 1p . 589; Jabarti, 'Ajfi'lb ul-AsUr, I V , 207; Gibb and Bowen, "Islamic Society ', 1:1, 2 6 5 - 6 , 1:2, 47. " 1 k2 " See p . 22. 1

1

5

''' 144.

Midi. Migir, V I I I , 105b, 412 (mid MuJjarrem 1 1 8 0 ) .

Maljkama ug-Sar'lyye j[Archives of the Religious Courts), Cairo, Registers of the DEvan-i 'All, R e g . dated 1 1 7 5 / 1 7 6 1 - 2 , f o l . la-b (15 Jumfida I 1175 ). Jabarti, 'AjS'lb ul-AsSr, I, 51, 184, 347, II, 151, III, 173, 175, I V , 93, 95, 96, 97, 207; Andre Peyrousse, M&nolres et lettres sur l'figypte Municipal Library of Carcassonne (France), M S n o . 869, f o l . 1-8; A . Dolomieu, Notes et MSmoires, Archives 1 de la Guerre (Paris), M S n o . 509, f o l . 22a-25b; Lancret" "MSmoire sur l I m p o s i t i o n Terrltoriale", p p . 481-2, 490; £uaeyn EfendS, "Administration of Egypte in the 1 8 t h Century , p . 52; A . N . Poliak, Feudalism in Egypt, Syria, Palestine and the Lebanon 2 (London, 1939), p . 7 ; Esteve, ''MSmoire sur les Finances de l'Egypt", p . 86.

55

THE L A U D E D " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

to his share in the village. He was allowed to retain it only so long as he held his However, the cultivation of the was directed as a single unit by the of the village, w h o then divided the product amongst the agents of the various M u l t e z l m s . The village structure which has b e e n outlined above was the preponderant n o r m , and it varied from place to place according to local traditions and conditions. It characterized principally the villages of L o w e r E g y p t . In Upper E g y p t , those villages cultivated by peasants who were affiliated w i t h neighboring Arab tribes were organized according to tribal customs, w i t h their tribal assuming the position and functions of the M u l t e z i m . Villages in the Iltlzfims of Arab were grouped together in district for purposes of tax collection. These were administered b y appointed in b y the provincial governors, and so the villages in them w e r e called villages. 146 W h e r e villages w e r e held in by m e n from Cairo or J i r j e , village organization in Upper Egypt was very similar to that In 147 Lower Egypt. In sum, the principal role in carrying out the exploitation of the land was assumed b y village officers, stimulated and directed by agents sent from the Multezim; that of the collection and distribution of the tax revenues from the village was carried out primarily b y the agents sent from the Multezlms with the assistance of the local village officers. Neither element could act without the other. A system of m u t u a l surveillance thus was maintained to assure that neither the agents sent b y the Multezlms nor the local village officers would act in violation of the interests of the locality and of the Multezim. In addition, the interests of the Imperial Treasury were represented by district who maintained their courts in all the principal towns and villages of the country, and whose jurisdiction extended to financial and administrative as well as judicial m a t t e r s . The were appointed to their posts in Egypt b y the chief of the Porte out of the Turkish-speaking serving in similar positions elsewhere In the E m p i r e . It was rare that any of them spoke A r a b i c , and their interpreters 1

' These should not be confused w i t h the Bfigg villages held by the Vfills, which w e r e also administered b y K&gifs and called Kugflflyye v i l l a g e s . Their revenues were entirely in cash and went to the V5l£s; the revenues of the Arab Kugflflyye villages were chiefly in grains and w e n t to the Imperial Treasury. See p . 318. llt7-

Evliyfi Qeleb£, X , 754-755, 7 2 5 , 791, 797, 798, 778, 785, 762, 800, 8 0 1 , 8 1 4 , 8 1 6 , 8 1 8 , 819, 822, 84o, 814, 8 1 6 , 978, 980, 974, 977, 985, 994, 1 0 3 4 ; E s t e v e , "Memolre sur les Finances de l'figypte", p p . 19, 91; L a n c r e t , "Mlmoire sur l'Imposltion Territoriale", p . 490; Glrard, "Memoire sur 1"Agriculture de l'figypte", p . 193-

THE EXPLOITATION OF THE LAND

59

(Terjumfin) performed the key role in carrying out their functions and communicating for them with the Arab-speaking people who came to their courts. Egypt was divided into over eighty judicial districts (nfiblye), in each of which was located a district court (mabkeme) headed by one of these Q.fidis and his assistant, the NS'lb, who was usually appointed from amongst the 'Dlemfi' of Cairo. All legal questions which arose concerning the possession of Asfir by the cultivators and Muqfita*fit by Multezlms and the mutual rights and obligations of cultivators, local officials, Multezlms, and provincial and national officers and soldiers were re­ ferred to these courts for decision. The decisions of the QfidS3 were ex­ ecuted by their Hfi'lbs and by the Mugidds of the villages whose inhabitants were affected. Many of the orders sent to the villages from the Divfin and the Imperial Treasury of Egypt, including the annual lists of taxes due, were set down in their registers.1The district Qfidis and their Nfi'lbs served to witness all acts of purchase, sale, and inheritance of rights to Asfirs and Muqfita'fit. When special claims were made for the remission of tax obligations to the Imperial Treasury or for expenditures from its tax revenues for village or provincial needs, all statements of fact had to be authenticated by the local QfixjSa before they could be accepted. The Qfidis were authorized to receive complaints from local inhabitants concerning the activities of the Multezims, their agents, and others, and to communicate them, together with recommendations for action, to the Vfili.1^9 In essence, then, the district Qfidis represented in village ad­ ministration the interests of the Porte and of the Imperial Treasury which, on the national level, were represented by the Vfili. The primary judge of Egypt was called Qfidi 'Aaker, or "military judge", because the first man appointed as chief judge by Sultan Selim occupied that post in the conquering Ottoman army. The jurisdiction of his court was in fact limited to cases arising in Cairo, Old Cairo, and BGlfiq, in each of the district courts of which he delegated a Nfi'ib to represent him. The district Qficjlis in the provinces were not dependent on him, but were appointed by and responsible to the chief Qfidi of the eastern part of the Empire, whose seat was in Istanbul. However, their decisions could be appealed to the Divfin of Cairo in administrative matters and to the Qfidi 'Asker in judicial affairs. The revenues of each Qfidi came chiefly from the fees imposed for each case judged or document 1 ' The term 311111 was applied only to the registers of the Courts; all other registers, including those of the Imperial Treasury, were called defter. lit^' Mabkama ug-Sar'lyye j(Archives of the Religious Courts), Cairo, Registers of the Lffvan-i 'Ali, Reg. dated 1 1 7 5 / 1 7 6 1 - 2 , fol. 15b (Qa'da 1175)·

60

THE LAUDED "WEALTH OF EGYPT

certified, in particular from charges imposed for his registering the changes in possession of by purchase, gift, or inheritance. The were also in charge of administering or supervising the properties in their vicinity, and they received large revenues from these 150 as w e l l . 3- Provincial Administration. In administration in Egypt, the tenn ("investigator") was applied to various judicial and military officers and, in particular, to those who were in charge of 51 district and provincial irrigation systems.' Subsequent to the Ottoman conquest of Egypt, the term was applied to those who administered more than one rural in the same area and to those who were made governors of the provinces under Ottoman jurisdiction. As we have seen, after the start of the 11/17th century, the local were supplanted b y Multezims in control of the of Imperial Possessions, and the term was used on the local and district level after that time only for those officers placed in charge 1 5 2 of the villages of the and the Arab A3 the provincial governorships fell into during the first quarter of the 11/17th century, their holders came to be called and Multezim" 155 of the province c o n c e r n e d . By the end of the century, however, the latter term was discarded in the official documents. During the 11/17th and 12/18th centuries, the provincial governors were of two ranks. The more important provinces were ruled b y governors called vho were chosen on a rotating (nevbet) basis from amongst ^ 50

1

— — — — — — A detailed account of the administrative role of the Qfidis in Ottoman Egypt is found in the Jomard collection of notes on Egypt in the Blbllotheque Rationale (Paris, n.a. F r . 2 3 8 1 7 ) , f o l . 220-241. See also Pakalin, Osmanli T/arlfi Deylmlerl ye Terimleri. II, 119-125; Chabrol, T2ssai sur les moeurs des habitans de l'Egypte", p p . 2 2 0 - 2 4 9 ; C . A . 1 Bachatly, "L administration de la justice en Egypte a la vellle des reformes de l'an IX, d'apres un document arabe inedit", (Arab text and tr.) Bulletin de l'In3tltut de l'Egypte, XVIII, Fasc. 1 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 1 - 1 8 ; Gibb and Bowen, "islamic Society", 1 : 2 , 1 2 1 - 1 3 3 . Uzun§ar§ili, Merkez ve Bahrlye T e s k l i a t i , p p . 3 2 , 134, 139, 228-241. For an account of the Q&dis 1 court archives of the Mafrkama us-Sar'lyye in Cairo, see S . J . Shaw, "Cairo s Archives and the History of Ottoman Egypt", Report on Current Research, Spring, 1956 (The Middle East Institute, Washington, 1956), p p . 66-67; JabartS, 'AjS'lb ul-AaSr, IV, 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 . 1 5 1 ' Quatrem&re, Hlstoire des Sultans M«m1ouk3, I, 179, n . 61; GaudefroyDemombyiies, L a Syrle a l'Epoque des M a m e l o u k s T P a r l s , 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . ixiiiixiv, 1 7 6 , ifB, 180, 183, 234152. 1 53

o See pp. 318-9.

^ For example, see Mallyyeden Mtldewere 677k, p- 20, 2 1 , 2 2 , 25 (year 105*0, Mallyyeden Mtldewere lt5m , p p . 1, 2 , and passim (year 1015); M u h . 3, 11:3^3 (3 h?a'bfln $83 T-

THE EXPLOITATION OF THE L A N D

61

the chief Beys of E g y p t . Invariably governed the rich provinces of Jirje, Garbiyye, §arqiyye, and Menflfiyye, and they occasionally w e r e placed in charge of the province of Bufceyre w h e n military action was needed against the powerful Arab tribes which dominated it. The governors of the lesser provinces w e r e still called and w e r e appointed from amongst the officers of second rank in t h e h i e r a r c h y , a rank which was the 115k principal source of those w h o rose to b e and B e y s . In the 12/18th century, were sometimes made Beys of one during the course of their provincial service in order to add to their prestige and authority, and the Porte considered the duties and responsibilities of these as being the most preferable training and prerequisite for advancement to 1 the rank of Bey of two in the Ottoman h i e r a r c h y . ^ The duties of the provincial governors In Ottoman Egypt w e r e , in origin, of three principal kinds: (a)

The maintenance of security and order.

(b) The supervision of the exploitation of Imperial Lands and the collection from them of revenues for the Imperial Treasury of E g y p t . (c) The performance of Imperial obligations and services in the provinces and the purchase of supplies needed for t h e o f Cairo, the P o r t e , and Holy Cities. a . Order and Security. From earliest times the primary duty of the provincial governors In Ottoman Egypt was to expand the area of direct Ottoman control at the expense of the Arab tribes and to protect the security of the lands under cultivation and of the routes of communication against raids b y Arabs and o t h e r s . They had to m a i n t a i n patrols and village garrisons to guard against Arab raids, send expeditions to punish Arab tribes w h i c h violated the cultivated areas, suppress clashes of rival groups w i t h i n and between the villages, and guard against the efforts of rebellious bands of soldiers and others to collect the fruits of the land for their own b e n e f i t . The Multezlms, local officers, and others looked to the provincial governors for the military force sometimes nec1 *56 essary for them to enforce their rights and d u t i e s . b . Exploitation of the Sources of Imperial R e v e n u e s . The provincial governors had to d o all in their power to restore to cultivation 1 5 4

' N i z a m n & n e - i M i g i r , f o l . 14a; EvliyS Qelebi, X , 6ooj JabartS, 'AjS'lb u l - A a a r , I, 5 B . See also page 3 .

1 5 5 -

M u h . M i s i r , I, 119a:5^6 (1 JumSda II, 1121), III, I5ja:3$5 (start „ Re.jeb 113»), JabartS:, 'A.i&'lb u l - A s & r , II, 115. On the T O g or "horse tail" see p . 1 5 6

'

Q&nflnn&ne-l M i s i r , f o l . i n a - b .

62

THE LAUDED "WEALTH OF EGYPT

lands which fell idle due to oppression, insecurity, neglect, or other reasons, and to prevent other lands from falling Into idleness from similar causes. During the first century of Ottoman rule in Egypt, so long as the provincial governors were Bm£ns appointed from the Treasury, they had the tasks of assigning the into which the Imperial Lands were divided to and Arab , of supervising their exploitation of the lands In them, and of collecting from them the taxes Intended 157 for the Imperial Treasury• When the and MamlQks gained possession in of the provincial governorships, the power to distribute the of the Imperial Possessions was transferred to the of Cairo so that at least in their distribution the Imperial 1Possessions would be 58 independent of the control of the MamlQk hierarchy. At the same time, the political associations and preoccupations of those who acted as and in the two centuries which followed diverted them from the duties of supervising the holders of the So after the start of the 12/18th century, the role of the provincial governors in the process of exploitation was limited principally to the organization and maintenance of the irrigation systems in the provinces, in particular of those main Irrigation canals and dams which were considered to be an Imperial rather than a local obligation, and to the collection of the taxes paid for the Imperial Treasury by the holders of the and the delivery of 1 5Q those tax collections to the agents sent from the Treasury. c . Performance of Imperial Services. The governors were responsible for deducting from the tax revenues which they collected for the Imperial Treasury the sums necessary to pay the wages of the garrisons of the fortresses located in their provinces and to provide other services and purchases needed for the of Cairo, the Porte, and the Holy Cities 160 of Mecca and M e d i n a . Each governor was assigned from five hundred to one thousand m e n from the military corps of Cairo to enable him to fulfill his duties and obligations. These soldiers were supported by the wages which they received as members of their corps and b y special taxes which they were authorized to levy on the localities in which they served, so they were In 1 5 7 >

1

Ibn Iy&s, V , 228. See page

35.

Qtotinn&me-l Migir, f o l . 34a-b, 35a, 44a, §6b, 69a; E . Combe, L'Egyrite Ottomane, p p . 70-1; Volney, Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie, 1 7 8 3 - 5 (2 vol., Paris, 1 7 9 8 ) , I, 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 ; C . Savary, Let-fares sur l'jjfcypte (5"vol., Paris, 1 7 8 5 - 6 ) , I, 520, 540, II, 1 2 9 ; W . C . Browne, Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria (London, 1799), PP- 12, 84. Silvestre de Sacy, "Memolres sur la Mature d u Droit de PropriSte", I, 1 1 9 - 1 2 2 . 16

°"

See p p . 2 1 8 ,

225-80.

THE EXPLOITATION OF THE LAND

63

1 6T no way a burden on the governors. However, In later times the governors supplemented these men with groups of their own Mamlflks, who were supported at the expense of the governors as well as that of the areas in which they I62 were stationed. During the 12/18th century in particular, the governors' positions in the MamlQk houses came to involve them, their personal forces, and the provinces which they ruled in the clashes which arose for control of the Mamlflk hierarchy. The governors were preoccupied with political affairs and governed for the most part through subordinates, themselves coming to the provinces only once or twice a year in order to make the tax collections. In many cases, these expeditions were little more than raiding parties which collected from Multezims and cultivators alike all which could be gathered to support the political aspirations of their Mamlflk houses. In addition, the governors frequently withheld from the Arab tribes the traditional subsidies which were provided for them and, as a result, there was a great increase of Arab raids also on the relatively defenseless villagers. Much of the money provided by the Imperial Treasury for the maintenance and repair of the provincial irrigation systems was also diverted to the political needs of the Mamlflk houses and, in conse­ quence, the provinces were more frequently exposed to dryness, and the Villis were forced to send special expeditions to repair the more important canals and dams in the provinces, paying for their expenses out of their own revenues and those usually reserved for the Ottoman Sultans.1 By the end of the century, then, the provincial governorships were less administrative positions than they were means to provide revenues and prestige to members of the predominant Mamlflk house. The provincial garrisons and the soldiers of the permanent military corps who were assigned to assist the governors became instead an instrument to check and control the governors and their personal Mamlflk armies and to assist the special agents who had to be sent by the VSli or by the Divfin to perform the duties which, in previous centuries, had been undertaken by the governors.1^ The chief function of the provincial administration thus provided for was to reconcile the needs of the Imperial Treasury, the Multezims, and the cultivators with those of the Mamlflk houses. 161'

See pp. 86-9¾.

1^2'

Muh- 3 3 , 29^:7^5 ( 2 7 Rejeb 9 8 6 ) ; -JJuseyn Efendi, "Administration of 18th Century Egypt , p. 1 6 ; Muh. Migir, IV, 70b:305 (start fta'da 1 1 U 2 ) ; Jabarti, 'AjS'lb Ul -Agfir, I, 34; Browne, Travels in Africa, pp. 1 0 - 1 2 . ,65'

See pp. 3 0 7 , 332.

JJuseyn Efendi, "Administration of Egypt In the 18th Centviry", p. 16; Pere Sicard, "Discours sur l'Egipte", Cholx des Lettres Sdlflantes Ecrlts des Missions Etrangeres (2nd ed., Parish 172b), xvi 111ts J, Γ55"!

64

T H E L A U D E D " W E A L T H OF E G Y P T

IV.

THE P R O D U C T OF THE L A N D A N D ITS D I S T R I B U T I O N

In E g y p t that p o r t i o n of the f r u i t of the land w h i c h w a s n o t kept b y its cultivator b u t w a s turned over to others in consequence of the oblig a t i o n Incumbent on him from h i s or "pure t a x " .

right to c u l t i v a t i o n w a s k n o w n as the

That p o r t i o n of the

livered to those w h o w e r e the p o s s e s s o r s

w h i c h w a s de-

(Mutagarrif) of the

rights to a l l or p a r t of its p r o d u c t w a s called the or "land t a x " , of w h i c h the share of the b e n e f i c i a r i e s of V a q f s and R i z q e s w a s called r e s p e c t i v e l y the R i z a q , that turned over to the Vfili as h o l d e r of the w a s called

villages

and that delivered to the Imperial

T r e a s u r y of E g y p t w a s called the these shares i n the

Colloquially, w e r e k n o w n r e s p e c t i v e l y as M g l - i 1 6 5

That p o r t i o n of

the collections w h i c h w a s retained l o c a l l y and distributed to p r o v i n c i a l a n d local authorities as p a y m e n t s of l o c a l expenses and w a g e s , costs of coll e c t i o n , and o t h e r obligations w a s called p o r t i o n of the p r o d u c t of a

or " d e d u c t i o n s " .

If a n y

to w h i c h a M u t a s a r r i f had r i g h t w a s

alienated to a M u l t e z l m i n r e t u r n f o r the latter's service in the exp l o i t a t i o n of the source of w e a l t h and c o l l e c t i o n of Its r e v e n u e s , the M u l t e z l m ' s share of the Mill-ul-Burr w a s k n o w n as the

or

1

"surplus". ^

6

D u r i n g t h e f i r s t century of O t t o m a n r u l e i n E g y p t , w h e n taxes w e r e collected b y salaried w h o turned over virtually the e n t i r e p r o d u c t of the land to the Imperial T r e a s u r y , the terms w e r e almost s y n o n y m o u s . I n l a t e r t i m e s , the came t o a b s o r b a g r e a t e r and g r e a t e r share of the t o t a l b u t the confusion of the l a t t e r term w i t h remained long a f t e r t h e i r Identity e n d e d . In this s e c t i o n , w e w i l l examine the n a t u r e and d e v e l o p m e n t of these component p a r t s of the 1• 755

a.

or the L a n d T a x . The Imposition of L a n d Taxes paid in C a s h .

Since n o cadastral

In c o l l o q u i a l u s a g e , the term M l r i w a s applied i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y , as b o t h n o u n and a d j e c t i v e , to a l l p o s s e s s i o n s and revenues of the Imperial T r e a s u r y . H o w e v e r , it w a s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y used f o r the imperial lands and the land tax revenues of the T r e a s u r y . 1

T h e s e definitions h a v e b e e n derived p r i n c i p a l l y from analysis of the land tax registers preserved In the Dfir ul-Mahfugfit (Egyptian State A r c h i v e s , Cairo); see also J a b a r t i , 'A.I a'lb u l - A a a r , I , 26; ibn ab£ u s - S u r O r , Kawfikib u s - S i / i r e , f o l . 28b; L a n c r e t , % S m o i r e sur 1 ' I m p o s i t i o n T e r r i t o r i a l e " , p . 460; E s t e v e , "MSmoire sur les F i n a n c e s de l ' E g y p t e " , p . 5^; tfuseyn E f e n d i , "Administration of 1 8 t h Century E g y p t " , p p . 49, 6 7 ; E . J o m a r d , M i s c e l l a n e o u s Notes o n E g y p t , B l b l l o t h e q u e N a t l o n a l e (Paris), MS Fr. 23818, fol. 59a-6ob.

THE PRODUCT OF THE L A U D A N D ITS DISTRIBUTION

65

registers were available during the first decade of Ottoman rule in Egypt, the early tax collectors had to rely at best on the information and assistance supplied b y village officers and at the worst on their ability to seize whatever they could find. In general, Sultan Sel£m tried to impose on the lands under his jurisdiction an average land tax of four or five paras per in cash or its equivalent in kind, aside from the local collection costs which were paid directly by the cultivators to the collectors and local officers. Where the tax was levied in kind, one-tenth of the produce was taken from the poorest lands and u p to one 1 7 half from those which were most f e r t i l e . ^ Bey continued to impose land taxes at the rates established by the Conquerer. However, these regulations were for the most part subordinated to the demands of rebellious Arab, Ottoman, and bands and to the rapacity of the Imperial surveyors and collectors who 1 collected far beyond the legal taxes for their own profit. At the time of the Ottoman conquest, tax payments made in cash were evaluated in the 1 gold coins at the rate of twenty-five silver p a r a s ^ for each Under Bey, however, new silver paras were struck at at the same value as the contemporary Ottoman less than half that of the old which came to be worth two and one-half of the new Ottoman paras. The old gold coin was officially worth twentyfive of the old paras or sixty-five of the n e w . At the same time, a new Ottoman gold p i e c e w a 3 struck with a value of ninety of the new 170 paras and fifty of the old. Imperial taxes were levied in term3 of the new coins but were usually paid in the more valuable coins, which remained the bulk of the coinage in circulation. W h e n the taxes were first collected from the cultivators under Bey's reign, they were demanded at the official rate of one para for every two and onefourth paras tax assigned in terms of the new coins. However, by the end of his reign, and especially during the revolt which followed his death, the market value of the Ottoman coins fell to eight or nine paras for each of the old silver coins. When collectors began to demand taxes in accordance with the market rate of exchange, the peasants, already burdened by the raids of soldiers and Arab tribes, felt unable to 1 6 7

' Feridfln, Mtinsa'at us-Salfitin, I, 490; lbn Iyfis, V , 128, 1 2 9 , 1 5 9 , 1 8 3 , 295, 403, K.52; "Ottoman Land L a w " , p . 37; M u h . 2 1 , 1 6 3 : 3 1 9 (26 R e b i I; 981). See also d'Ohsson, Tableau general d e l ' E m p i r e Othomane, V , 1 8 - 1 9 . l 6 8

' lbn Iyfis, V , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 327, 332, 403, 4 2 1 , 46i; «Abd ul-§amad, fol. 164b. 1 69 The silver coin in common use during Mamlttk and Ottoman times in Egypt was called nisf fldde colloquially and para officially. For the sake of consistency, we will use the latter term alone. 17 °" lbn Iyfis, V , 326, 3 6 1 , 452, 453, 487-

66

THE LAUDED WEALTH OF EGFYPT

bear the further Imposition and fled in large numbers to the cities, 171 leaving great areas of land idle and without cultivation. Trade and commerce as well were disrupted by the imposition of the new coins and by political disorders which occurred during the first decade of Ottoman rule. When Ibrfihim Faga arrived in 931/1525 to suppress the rebellion and restore order, "people came from all over Egypt, from all classes, and complained of the Harfi.j taxes which were being taken and of the making of gold and silver coins, in all of which innovations had been made."172 As a result, Ibrfihim Paga attempted to restore to the basis ex­ isting at the time of Sultan Selini the value of the gold and silver in the new Ottoman coins, the collection of the land tax, and the rate at which cash payments were evaluated. Gold and silver coins were to be struck with the values they had before the changes introduced by Hfiyr Bey, and the new coins which he had struck were to be withdrawn from circula­ tion. Taxes were to be imposed in terms of gold pieces of account (altQn), for each of which twenty five of the old MamlOk and new Ottoman paras were to be accepted without difference, as well as in all commercial and trade dealings. If, in the future, certain lands became unable to pay the full tax levied on them, the tax as expressed in gold pieces was to be lowered rather than the exchange rate between gold pieces and paras. Finally, the basic land tax was established at the level imposed by Sultan Selim, four or five paras per feddfin of land according to its fertility, and the 1 70 taxes added in the subsequent decade were abolished. 1 -> This basic land tax of Ottoman Egypt, as evaluated in gold coins of account at the rate of twenty-five paras per gold piece, was known in later times as Mfil-i Qadim, or "the old tax". Since the exact number of feddfins which could be cultivated in a given village or Muqfita'a varied according to the movements and strength of the Nile flow and the efficiency by which its waters were diverted by irrigation and utilized in cultivation, so the Mal-i Qadim was established as a rate per feddfin cultivated rather than as a fixed amount per village or other unit of administrative organization. Once the Mfil-1 Qadim rate for each Muqfita'a was set down in the Ottoman cadastral registers, which were fully completed by the start of •j "TJ. the 11/17th century, the rate was changed or supplemented and the land tax revenues of the Imperial Treasury were increased by a number of de­ vices. An increase coming from the application of the Mfil-i Qadim rate 171'

Ibn Iyfis, V, 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 4035 «Abd ul-§amad, fol. 1 6 5 b .

1 72'

Ibrfihim Pegevi, T&rih-i 'Osmfini (2 vol., Istanbul, 1 2 8 1 - 3 / 1 8 6 4 - 6 ) , I, 84. " " 1 7^'

QfinQnnfime-i Misir, fol. Ma, 5Vb, 55a.

17%·

See p. 18·

THE PRODUCT OP THE LAND AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

67

to new lands brought into cultivation for the first time or from an in­ crease above the MSl-i Qadim rate imposed on lands previously cultivated and taxed, but whose fertility and produce had increased, was known as zlyfide• An increase resulting from the establishment of a general new tax above that of the MSl-i Qadim, independent of any change in fertility or cultivation, was known as mudSf· A decrease in the land tax rate for lands whose lowered fertility and produce required it was known as tenzil, and the total abolition of the tax on land previously subject to it, but which had fallen into complete idleness ('Stil), was called furOnhSde. Finally, an increase of taxes previously lowered or abolished on a piece of land was known as murta.ja'a, or "restoration". The VSli had the authority to raise or lower the tax rate on a unit of cultivation already taxed if he received from the holder of the Muqata'a in which it was included a petition ('Arg-i HSl) requesting the change and a certificate (Bu.1.i et)from the QSdi in whose district the land was located attesting to the facts of the case. During the lo/i6th and early 11/17th centuries, Multezlms frequently requested ζIySde increases in the MSl-i Qadim imposed on the lands in their own MuqSta'St in order to secure the favor of the VSlis• In most cases, however, zlySde in­ creases resulted from the bringing into cultivation of lands previously barren and untaxed. In addition, the VSlis were required to impose such an increase on the tax burden of some MuqSta'a whenever the Imperial Treasury was required to increase its expenditures or whenever tenzil or furQnhSde decreases were granted to the holders of other MuqSta'St. Decreases or abolition of existing taxes could not be granted unless they were made up by corresponding ziySde tax increases. On the other hand, mudSf increases came only as a result of periodic reforms introduced by VSlis sent from the Porte with special authority to increase the revenues of the Imperial Treasury by additional impositions on existing sources. Within the Imperial Treasury, the assessment of land taxes and the recording of their collection was divided amongst four bureaux (sing. qalem, pi. aqlSm). Qalem-I Sarqlyye cared for those of the provinces of §arqiyye, Man§Qre, Qalyiib, FfireskQr, Menzele, Bufceyre, Jerrfine, QStiyye, and el-VSljSt. Qalem-I Sehlr cared for the land tax revenues secured in cash only from the provinces of Upper Egypt, that is, Jirje, AsyQt> BehnasS, A§muneyn, and Ibr£m, and also revenues from the province of FayyHn, various cultivated areas in Upper Egypt not Incl-Uded in any province (AqlSm-ι Muteferrlqa), and an area of rice-producing lands in the vicinity of Damietta which were brought into cultivation during the time of HSyr Bey and which also were not included In any particular province (ArSdi-f Musta.jidde). Qalem-I Garblyye cared for the land tax revenues from the provinces of Garbiyye and Menilfiyye, and Qalem-I Jize

68

THE LANDED WEALTH OP EGYPT

for those of the provinces of Jize and Manfalittiyye.1^ The most bountiful individual provinces were Garbiyye, Bulpeyre, MenQfiyye, and §arqiyye, so Qalem-I Garblyye and Qalem-I Sarqiyye shared the bulk of the land tax revenues in cash between themselves in about equal amounts, with the other two departments sharing the balance. It should be remembered, however, that the bulk of the land tax paid by the provinces of Upper Egypt was levied and paid in kind, and these revenues were accounted separately. We will consider these grain revenues later in this section. The total land tax revenue received by these four departments of the Imperial Treasury rose from 44,478,312 paras in 1004/1595-6, the first year for which we have adequate records of the Treasury's revenues, to 75,212,389 paras in 1212/1798, an increase of 30,734,077 paras, or approximately sixty-seven per cent of the original amount. Of this in­ crease, 18,614,800 paras, or sixty per cent, came in the seventy five years from 1004 to 1082/1671-1672, while only 12,119,177 paras, or forty per cent, came in the century and a half from that date until the time of the French expedition in 1212/1798.1^ Let us now examine the factors which contributed to this increase and to its relatively unequal apportionment over the two centuries which followed 1004. The great 11/17th century increase of land tax revenues was the fruition of the efforts of the strong VSlis of the middle and late 10/16th century and early 11/17th century to restore to cultivation the lands which had been devastated during and immediately after the Ottoman conquest. This activity, for the most part, ceased because of the rise of political anarchy and weakness of the Vitli3 after 1040/1630-1, but its benefits continued to appear in the half century which followed. These Increases, then, were entirely of the type known as ζlyfide, that is, tax increases resulting from increases in fertility and cultivation. In the century and a half which followed until the French ex­ pedition, periods of political crisis and an increase in Insecurity caused some lands to be left temporarily idle and others to be permanently abandoned. In such cases, the Villi3 were sometimes compelled to grant permanent reductions or abolitions of the tax burden on those lands but, in most cases, other means were found to balance the loss. Vlllis threw their support to Mamltlk Multezlms who agreed to assume the MuqfitatSt and pay the taxes owed for lands become barren or less fertile out of their profits from more fertile lsinds and from other sources.1^ However, most ι 75

For a complete discussion of the organization of the Imperial Treasury o f Egypt and the work o f i t s bureaux, see p p . 5 3 8 - 5 0 . 1 76 All the numerical data presented in this section are given in detail i n the Appendix, and i n summary form i n Table I-V, p p . 6 9 - 7 1 . Muh. Misir, I, 45a:200 (mid Sa'bfin 1 1 2 4 ) , VI, I05a: 4 8 6 (end Safar 1 1 6 1 ) , VIII, I04a:4i0 (start Muharrem 1180).

THE EXPLOITATION OF THE L A N D

TABLE I. L A N D TAXES DEMANDED FOR THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OP EGYPT FROM THE PROVINCES OF THE DEPARTMENT OP THE TREASURY, FROM 1004/1595-6 TO 1212/1797-8. (ALL FIGURES ARE IN EGYPTIAN PARAS)

NOTES: (a) In the register for the year loolt, the figures for the provinces of Mangflre, QalyQb, and FSresktlr were Included with those of §arqlyye(b) The province of Q&tiyye was abolished In 1118 and its revenues were joined to the Muqftta'a of the customs of BOiaq-Old Cairo (see pages 15, 114). (c) In the reform of 1200, the provinces of FfireskOr and el-V&ljSt were joined to the province of Man^flre (see page 15)REFERENCES: The detailed annual figures from which this summary has been prepared are given In full in the Appendix, pp.355 -357, together with the references to the registers from which they have been secured. For further Information on the reforms of 1082, 1107, 1155, 117», and 1200, see pp.285 -305-

69

70

T H E L A U D E D " W E A L T H OF E G Y P T

T A B L E I I . L A U D T A X E S D E M A N D E D F O R T H E I M P E R I A L T R E A S U R Y OF E G Y P T F R O M T H E P R O V I N C E S OF T H E D E P A R T M E N T OF T H E T R E A S U R Y , F R O M 1004/1595-6 TO

1212/1797-8

NOTES: (a) AqlSm-i Muteferrlqa. Mlaoellaneoua cultivated areas In Upper Egypt not Included In any province. (b) Barft.1-i Aj8di-i Muatajldda. Newly-established (In 932) land tax on rice lands In the vicinity of Demletta, not Included in any other province. (c) Mftl-i Himaye-1 Evqfif. Protection tax on Vaqfs In Upper Egypt (see page 45). (d) Jlrje province Included the provinces of AsyQt, Ibrim and ftena. (e) Of this sum, 100,000 para3 was mud&f and the balance of the Increase resulted from the transfer of Kuaflflwe villages or the VSJS In Jlrje province to the Harai-paying lands (see page 3 J y) aid the application of MudSf cash taxes on Mugflta'&t which previously paid them only in grains. (f) In the reform of 1200, these two Items were abolished and joined to the province of Jlrje. HEJHJEHCE51 The detailed annual figures from which this summary has been prepared are given in full In the Appendix, pp. 358-362, together with the references to the registers from which they have been secured. For further Information on the reforms of 1082, 1107, 1155, 1174, and 1200, see pp. 285-305.

THE PRODUCT OF THE LAUD A N D ITS DISTRIBUTION

71

TABLE III. QALEM-I JIZE YEAR 1 004 1179 1212 TOTAL INCREASE 1004-1212

JIZE PROVINCE 2,617,604 4,128,225

1179 1212 TOTAL INCREASE 1004-1212 TABLE V .

92,448

4,443,207

394,454 828,532

+1,826,603

+736,084

TABLE IV. YEAR 1 004

MANFALUT

QALEM-I GARBIYYE

GARBIYYE 9,599,010 16,484,825 15,786,194

MENUFIYYE 8,163,528 13,286,430 12,744,840

+ 6,187,093

+4,581,312

COMPONENTS OF THE INCREASE IN THE L A N D TAX FROM 1004/1595-6 TO 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

YEAR 1 004 1 082 ZIYADE FROM 1 0o4 TO 1082 1 082 1212 INCREASE FROM 1 082 TO 1212 of which

QALEM-I SARQIYYE 18,965,301 26,351,659

QALEM-I GARBIYYE 17,762,538 25,335,733

QALEM-I SEHIR 5, 040,421 7,230,145

QALEM-I JIZE 2,710,052 4,175,675

TOTAL PARAS 44,478,312 63,093,212

+7,386,358

+ 7,573,195

+ 2, 189,724 + 1 , 4 6 5 , 6 2 3

+ 1 8 , 6 1 4 , 900

26,351,659 30,851,844

25,335,733 28,531,034

7,230,145 10,557,772

4,175,675 5,271,739

63,093,212 75,212,389

+4,500,185

+ 3, 1 95,301

+ 3 , 3 2 7 , 6 2 7 + 1,096,064

+ 12,119,177

+2,390,111 + 805,190

+ 2, 1 1 0,214+ 1 , 0 5 0 , 7 2 0 + 1,217,413 + 45,344

+ 10,833,667 + 1,285,510

+5,282,618 A S F L E / T E N Z I L - 782,437

17,762,538 1 004 18,965,301 1212 30,851,844 28,531 ,034 TOTAL INCREASE FROM 1004 to 1 2 1 2 H 1 , 8 8 6 , 5 4 3 + 10,768,496 of which MUI&F +5,282,618 +2,390,111 ZI?AUE +6,603,925 +8,378,385

5,040,421 10,557,772

2,710,052 5,271,739

44,478,312 75,212,389

+5,517,351 + 2 , 5 6 1 , 6 8 7

+ 30,734,077

+2,110,214 + 1 , 0 5 0 , 7 2 0 +3,407,137 + 1,510,967

+ 10,833,663 + 19,900,414

72

THE LANDED WEALTH OF EGYPT

of the burden was imposed on the peasants who held the Agar rights to the lands remaining in cultivation, by altering the standards by which their tax payments were measured. As we have seen, after the annual Nile flow was complete, the cultivable lands in each village were measured by the Mess&b, or surveyor, to determine the number of fedd&ns of land which had been watered and the proportion of the tax burden which should be imposed on each·1"'® The unit used in Egypt for agrarian measurements of this kind was the feddfin, which itself was composed of smaller units called qassaba. Each qassaba was 1 rJ Q evaluated at six and three quarter zlrfi'-i beledi in private business transactions and dealings amongst the cultivators but at only six and onehalf zirfi*-i beledi when the cultivated lands were measured for tax pur­ poses, thus resulting in a slightly smaller feddfin and producing a measure of more feddfoi3 per unit of cultivation from the Ottoman standards than was produced by the native ones. This was the result of the imposition by Sultan Selim of the zlrfi'-i '03mfini measure for official use in Egypt, a measure which was one quarter of a zlrfi' greater than that in use in MamlOk Egypt.1®0 However, even more important than this variation in the size of the qaggaba were variations in the number of qaggabas considered to comprise a single feddfin. The basic fedd&n inherited from MamlQk times and used in all private transactions and measures was composed of four hundred qaggabas, but that used officially came to reflect a concept of type and quantity of produce as well as area, and so varied in size in rich and poor lands. As a result, as the amount of cultivated land became smaller and smaller after the middle of the 11/17th century, the size of the feddfin was shrunken by reducing the number of qassabas in it, so that in a given area the same number of feddtoa were counted in a smaller area of cultivated land and the land tax, which remained the same regardless of the size of the feddfin on which it was imposed, remained constant. By the time of the French expedition, 333 qassabas were counted as one feddfin of less fertile lands and/or those far from the Nile and 3 0 0 to 2 6 7 qassabas as one fedd&n of more fertile and watered lands. As a result, the average feddfin, which had measured 6209 square meters at the time of the Arab conquest and 603¾. square meters in late MamlQk times, measured from 4200 meters for the best lands to 5929 meters for the worst at the

1

See p. 54· "Native cubit," zlrfi' and pik were used synonymously in Ottoman Egypt, but the former is used exclusively here for consistency. It's length varied from 58 to 68 cm. W. Hinz, Islamlscbe Masse und Gewichte, Leiden, 1955, p. 56; The qagsaba measured between 3 1 / 2 and 4 meters. Hinz, Ibid., p. 6 3 . l80· Ibn IySs, V, 3 6 7 , 420. 1^'

THE PRODUCT OF THE LAUD A N D ITS DISTRIBUTION

time of the French Invasion.

73

181

In addition, the often refused to grant reductions for the tax obligations of villages made only temporarily less fertile due to deficient Nile flows. In such cases, the tax which was not paid during the year was registered as arrears to be paid in addition to the regular taxes In more bountiful years. As a result, although and reductions totaling 8 , 3 6 1 , 5 7 4 paras were granted from 1082 to 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 , many other such requests which should have been granted were countered by such means. And those which were granted were more than balanced by increases on the taxes owed by whose holders agreed to such increases in return for the support against their rivals in the struggles for power. So In the years from 1082 to 1212, there was a net surplus of over of 1 , 2 8 5 , 5 1 0 paras, or five per cent of the total in1 crease of the Treasury s revenues from land taxes in the years from 1004 to 1212. In addition, the expenditures required from the Imperial Treasury 1 ft? increased so rapidly after the middle of the 11/17th century that, at periodic intervals, general flat percentage increases had to be applied to all the taxes previously demanded. Applied to the land tax, these resulted in increases of 2000 paras for every 25,000 paras previously paid as Imposed in the reform of 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 , and of 1 , 0 0 0 paras for every 25,000 paras of imposed in each of 183 the reforms of 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 , 1 1 5 5 / 1 7 4 2 , and 1 1 7 4 / 1 7 6 0 - 1 , making a total of five thousand paras of added to every 25,000 paras of of the land tax, or approximately twenty-five per cent, increasing the tax per from the four to five para average established in the time of Sultan Sel£m to an average of seven to eight paras per feddfin which was 184 collected by the time of the arrival of the French expedition to Egypt. TTT7

When the fedd&n was valued at 4oo qaggabaa, It was considered to be full and composed of 24 qirfitg• When it was valued at 333 qaggabas it was considered to be a feddfin of 20 g£rS£s; when valued at 300 qajsabas", it was considered to be a feddfin of 18 ql'rSts, and. so forth. See MuljaSmed Ramz£, el QSmfis ul-Jugrat'i 111 Bil&d 11-Migrlyye (2 vol., Cairo, 1953-1955), I, 9; B- Jomard, Miscellaneous notes on Egypt, Bibllotheque Natlonale (Paris) M S F r . 1 1 2 7 5 , fol. 1 0 0 - 1 0 2 ; Glrard, "Memoire sur 1'agriculture de l'Egypte", p p . 2 9 - 3 7 ; W . Hinz, Islamlsche Ma33e, p . 65. 1 A2

See page 2 8 1 . ' The reform of 1 1 7 4 / 1 7 6 0 - 1 was not completely consumated until 1 1 8 2 / 1 7 6 8 - 9 ; for complete information on these reforms, see p p . 2 9 5 - 7 . 1 flii ' This 13 an average figure. Taxes in the time of the French varied from two to twenty paras per fedd&n• For details concerning the tax rate in 1213/1798-9j see Lancret^ "Memoire sur le Systeme d'Imposition Territoriale", p . 469; Esteve, "Memoire1 sur les Finances de l'figypte", p p . 314-7, 73, 90; Tallien, "Memoire sur 1 Administration de l'figypte , p . 208; Nlzltmn&ne-i Misir, fol 15b, 16a; Mure, Memoire politique sur l'Egypte par le cen Mure ain§, ancien Consul G§ngral de la Kepublique en flgypte. Archives de la Guerre (Paris;, MS 1677, fol- 15a-16a. l 8 3

THE LANDED WEALTH OF EGFYPT These four mudfifs applied to the land tax, all In the century after 1082/1671-2, resulted In a total Increase of Treasury revenues by 10,833,667 paras, or thirty five per cent of the total increase. In sum, out of a total increase of 30,73^,077 paras land tax de­ manded for the Imperial Treasury which occurred in the years from 1004/1595-6 to 1212/1797-8, a total of I9,900,inl· paras, or sljxty five per cent, came from the surplus of ζlyfide over tenzil, resulting from in­ creases made in the fertility and cultivation of lands already taxed and from the bringing of new lands into cultivation, and 10,833,663 paras, or thirty five per cent, came from mudfifa, general increases on all land taxes made regardless of changes in cultivation and fertility. So in these two centuries taken as a whole, by far the most important factor in the increase of Treasury revenues from this source was the bringing of new lands into cultivation and the increasing of the fertility and cultivation of lands previously taxed. However, if we consider only the century and a half after 1080/1671-72, we find that there was an increase of the land tax from 63,093,212 paras to 75,212,389 para3, a rise of 12,119,177 paras, or forty per cent of the total increase; and of this only 1,285,510 paras or nine per cent, came from the surplus of ζIySde increases over tenzil de­ creases of the land tax while 10,833,667 paras, or ninety one per cent, came from the mudfif increases. So the application of general tax in­ creases produced the bulk of the increase which occurred in the last century and a half before the French occupation, but it did not equal in rate or amount the much greater increase which was achieved in a shorter time in the 11/17th century by increased fertility and cultivation. Thus the rise of political instability and MamlOk control in late Ottoman Egypt did not cause a decrease in Treasury revenues from the land taxes, but did slow down considerably the increases which could be made to meet rising costs. b.

Collection of the Land Taxes Paid In Cash.

The rural wealth of Egypt was, by definition, produced entirely in kind yet, as we have seen, the land taxes of Lower Egypt were for the most part levied and collected in cash from the Multezims. The culti­ vators had to deliver their tax payments to the Mixltezlms in both cash and kind. To secure the necessary cash, they sold the produce remaining to them at the district market or to the Multezlma• The Multezlm3 sold the taxes which they received in kind either in the district markets or in the great markets of Cairo. Only in a few cases were certain Muqfita'fit in Lower Egypt allowed to make their land tax payments directly to the Imperial Treasury in cotton, rice, and sugar,1 ^ but their cash equivalents 1 Evliyfi Qelebi, X, 3 1 3 , 3 6 5 ; JJuseyn Efendi, "Administration of 18th Century Egypt", pp. 19, 3 8 .

THE PRODUCT OF THE LAKD AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

75

were credited as part of the cash revenues of the Imperial Treasury and they were not considered part of its revenues in kind. In some cases, the cultivators also entrusted the grains left to them to an agent of the Multezlm for shipment to and sale in the more profitable Cairo markets. However, in the collection of the cultivators' cash payments to the Multezlms, as in the distribution of their tax obligations, variations were made in the unit of measure to the profit of the collectors. From the very start of Ottoman rule in Egypt, it was the practice of the collectors to keep for themselves some of the taxes paid by the cultivators for the Imperial Treasury by altering the registers of the gfihids so that the cultivators were required to pay more as land tax than the collectors were obliged to turn over to the Imperial Treasury, although, as salaried Emins, they were supposed to deliver the full product of their collections.1Bb These practices continued after Multezlms took over con­ trol of the MuqSta'St from the Emins. When the FellSb made a payment, the Multezlm would credit him with paying a smaller amount and would keep the extra premium for his own profit. Usually this was done for the Multezlm by his SerrSf in the village who then cheated the Multezlm by similar manipulations of the sums paid to him.1As a result of such practices, more money was paid by the FellSbs as land tax than was actually credited to them or paid to the Imperial Treasury. At the time of the French expedition, it was estimated that fully twenty five per cent of the land tax revenues which should have gone to the Imperial Treasury were 186 dissipated by such means. In the end, the peasants were compelled to surrender all the product of their labor except that needed for bare sub­ sistence. In some cases, the wealthier peasants were required to give their sons into the bonded service of the Multezlms to guarantee their ΠΤο loyalty and fulfillment of their obligations.' For the most part, the FellSbin submitted to such vexations whose nature and limits were established by custom. If, however, the Multezlms went beyond the usage of custom it was not at all unusual for the FellSbin to send messages of complaint to the local ftfidis, who trans­ mitted them to the VSli and sometimes even directly to the Porte, and, if this was of no avail, to refuse to do any work or explode into violence 1

' 'Abd ul-§amad, fol. l4-5a.

1 E s t S v e , "Memoire sur Ies Finances de l'Egypte", p. 85; Lancret, "MSmoire sur l'Imposltlon Territoriale", p. 485. 1 QQ

• Girard, "MSmoire sur I1Agriculture de I1ISgypte", p. 193

Jabarti, 'A.iS' lb ul-AsSr, I, 190, II, 83; Dolomieu, Notes sur Ie Finance de l'lfeypte, Archives de la Guerre (Paris), MS 509, fol. Iba-I9a. Anonymous, Note3 recuellllers d'Hussen KtTendl, Archives de la Guerre, MS B°—3 (Juillet 1 tSOO/Messidor an VIII), p. 2.

76

T H E L A U D E D " W E A L T H OF E G Y P T

and d e s t r o y i r r i g a t i o n w o r k s and m a c h i n e r y and k i l l the M u l t e z i m or h i s

.

agents.

7 190

The tax o b l i g a t i o n to the T r e a s u r y of e a c h

w a s set d o w n

o n a tezkere ("ticket") b y a scribe of the a p p r o p r i a t e d e p a r t m e n t of the T r e a s u r y a f t e r h e received the report of the n u m b e r of its f e d d & n s w h i c h w e r e w a t e r e d and cultivated that y e a r .

The tezkeres f o r each p r o v i n c e

w e r e turned over to a g r o u p of soldiers from the M u t e f e r r l q a corps of Cairo (see p .

193) w h o w e r e a s s i g n e d to collect the r e q u i r e d sums from

the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s and b r i n g them b a c k to C a i r o .

In some a r e a s ,

these soldiers collected the taxes d i r e c t l y from the villages; i n other a r e a s , these d i r e c t collections from the M u l t e z l m s w e r e m a d e b y the soldiers of the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s , w h o t h e n turned the m o n e y s over to the M u t e f e r r l q a

corps c o l l e c t o r s .

In some c a s e s , the tezkeres w e r e de-

livered to the M u l t e z l m s or t h e i r agents in C a i r o , w h o paid t h e i r taxes d i r e c t l y to the I m p e r i a l T r e a s u r y , u s u a l l y out of the proceeds from the sale of g r a i n in C a i r o , and t h e n sent the r e c e i p t to t h e i r

so

t h a t , w h e n the collectors came to d e m a n d the p a y m e n t , it could b e p r o v e d that the o b l i g a t i o n had b e e n f u l f i l l e d . The tax obligations owed to the I m p e r i a l T r e a s u r y b y the M u l t e z l m s w e r e levied in q u a r t e r l y a m o u n t s , the

or w i n t e r t a x ,

composed of three quarters e a c h of t h r e e m o n t h s and the t a x , f o r the r e m a i n i n g q u a r t e r of the y e a r .

or summer

T e z k e r e s w e r e issued and

c o l l e c t o r s w e r e sent f o r each q u a r t e r l y tax o b l i g a t i o n .

The

tax

w a s the p r i n c i p a l tax of the y e a r , and its p r o c e e d s w e r e used to m e e t int e r n a l e x p e n s e s and salaries and the o b l i g a t i o n s of E g y p t to the H o l y Cities.

The s m a l l e r

tax w a s o r i g i n a l l y reserved e n t i r e l y to provide

the m o n e y and supplies sent a n n u a l l y to the P o r t e .

191

In the

12/18th

c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r , it a l s o w a s u s e d to p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l funds f o r E g y p t ' s obligations to the H o l y C i t i e s .

The

collections b e g a n as

s o o n as the flood w a t e r s rolled b a c k , that is, i n the third m o n t h a f t e r the N i l e reached its p e a k and the dams w e r e b r o k e n .

The

collections

b e g a n in J u l y and w e r e supposed to b e completed b y the start of the m o n t h of

September so that the m o n e y and supplies f o r the Porte w o u l d b e

ready f o r shipment b y the start of K e y h e k / D e c e m b e r .

192

W h e n the M u l t e z l m s w e r e u n a b l e to p a y the f u l l amount of the q u a r t e r l y teakeres handed to them by the c o l l e c t o r s , the m o n e y w h i c h rem a i n e d in t h e i r debt w e r e d e c l a r e d to b e in arrears and its 19

°- M u h . 115, p- 130 (start.Jumfida II, 11 1 1 8 ) ; M u h . M i g x r , I I , 13a:45 ( 1 5 fta'da 1 1 2 3 ) ; L a n c r e t , "Memoire sur l I m p o s i t i o n T e r r i t o r i a l e " , p . 491; el-tJall&q, T&rifa-i M i g i r , f o l . 73a; C e v d e t , M S l l y y e 5162 (year 1162). '

9 K

1 9 2 -

See

p a g e s 272-9-

M u h . 112, p . 85 (mid Q.a'da 1114), M u h . M i g i r , I , 17b:71 (start Mufrarrem 1 1 2 1 ). g u s e y n Efendi', "Administration of E g y p t in the 18th C e n t u r y " , p . 62; Evliyfi Q e l e b £ , X , 3 4 0 .

THE PRODUCT OF THE LAND AUD ITS DISTRIBUTION

77

collection was turned over to special parties sent out by the C&vtig corps (see p. 195). During the times of the year when the harvests were being collected, there were occasional clashes between the Muteferriqa soldiers seeking to collect taxes which were currently due and the CS.vO-3 soldiers seeking to collect the arrears. In general, only the surplus of current produce over current obligations was supposed to be applied to the payment of arrears, but this rule was not always followed, and its appli­ cation frequently depended on the relative strength of the collecting parties. When the Multezlms were unable to pay the full amount which they owed due to the failure of the cultivators to pay them in full, these military collectors were usually authorized to use force to collect what was due directly from the cultivators, and so they came to be known as the ErbSb ul-'Akfikiz1 or "possessors of sticks". In general, land taxes could not be and were not demanded before the completion of the harvest from which they were due. Occasionally, however, the press of military obligations in and out of Egypt and, in the 12/18th century, of MamlQk political conflicts and of the demands of the members of the military corps for the payment of back wages due them from the Treasury caused such efforts to be made, and the last remnants of produce from previous years were collected, to the detriment of seeding 1 gk in those areas during subsequent years. The land taxes owed to the Imperial Treasury were supposed to be collected during the quarter in which they were due. However, the process of collection and delivery was often delayed by slowness, inefficiency, and corruption on the part of Fellfifrin, Mxiltezims, village officials, and collectors. In addition, the provincial governors were authorized to make deductions (IhrS.iSt)from the land tax collections of their provinces to provide for expenditures which the Imperial Treasury was obliged to 1 Q«5 make locally, and they were able to find various means of diverting to their own profit many of the funds which were thus placed at their dis­ posal. As a result, in years of good harvests as much as one eighth of the land tax due in cash was not paid when due, and it took as many as two or three years before these arrears (bevSqi) could be fully collected. In years of bad harvests, as much as fifty or sixty per cent of the tax 1^3' B. Chanaleiller (Agent franQais de la province de Damiette), Essai sur la theorle de l'lmpot d'figypte, Archives de la Guerre (Paris ), MS BO—30 (1799). JabartiL, 'AcS'lb uI-Aasr, 1, 32b. 1^" 'Abd ul-Kerim, TSrih-i Migir, fol. 101b; Ibn Iy&s, V, l>03; Muh. Migir, VII, 335:7M (mld~ija'ban 117Ό·

^" See p.

1

22k.

78

THE LANDED WEALTH OP EGYPT

could not be paid, and it took as long as ten years before such arrears could be collected out of the produce of more fruitful harvests. After 1183/1769-1770, the MsnilClk houses gained almost complete control over the Muqltta'St and the land tax collections. Land taxes then were paid to the Imperial Treasury chiefly as the result of direct negotiations between the Vali and the Seyh ul-Beled of the time rather than by the system of imposition and collection described above. There­ after, assessment and collection of the taxes from the cultivators was controlled and executed entirely by the Seyh ul-Beled and his MamlQks, who delivered to the Imperial Treasury the amounts agreed on in the negotiations. In the Appendix are lists showing the land taxes owed to the Imperial Treasury by most of the provinces, the IhrS.iSt deductions from collections which were made by the governors to provide for Imperial ex­ penditures in their provinces, the remaining amounts which had to be sent to the Treasury, the amounts which were actually sent each year, and the last date on which payments were made to provide for the arrears of a given year. These lists cover the years up to 1183/1769-1770, after which the registers no longer contained this information. c. Land Tax Revenues in Kind. The previous section was devoted to the total land tax revenues of the Treasury from lower Egypt, whether the payments were actually made in cash or kind, and those land taxes from Upper Egypt which were paid for MuqSta'St whose basic obligation was, in part or in full, levied and paid in cash. However, most of the MuqSta'St of Upper Egypt were obliged to deliver their land taxes entirely in grain, and it was these grain payments which provided the entire supply used by Imperial Treasury to maintain those depending on it for their sustenance.1^ Most of the MuqSta'St of Upper Egypt were held in IltlzSm by nomadic Arab tribes which were required to deliver a fixed amount of produce each year regardless of the number of feddSns which were cultivated and, thus, without measure of the actual amount of land in cultivation. Such levy of land taxes in bulk and without measure was called in Egypt kelflle, as opposed to the levy by measure of feddSns, called feddSne. Supervision of these Arab-held MuqSta'St was assigned by the provincial governors to district KSgifs, and so these villages were usually called KusQfiyye villages although they were in no way related to the KugQflyye villages of the VSl£s, from which only payments In cash were made.1^ Approximately 1 96·

EvliyS Qelebi, X, 313.

1

See pp. 51 8-9.

THE PRODUCT OF THE L A U D A N D ITS DISTRIBUTION

79

three-quarters of the land tax collections of grains from Upper Egypt came from the Arab-held villages and only one-fourth came from villages held in by Multezims from Cairo and Jirje. In Egypt, grains and other dry produce were weighed according to the unit known as ardeb, whose exact size varied according to the place at which the measurement was being made and the grain which was being measured. In the fifteenth century, the usual ardeb came to approximately ninety liters; in 1665 it was seventy five liters, but during the next two centuries its value was doubled and at the end of the eighteenth century it equalled 184 liters, or one half a

1 98

bushel, In Cairo, and 280 liters at Rosetta. Approximately fifteen different kinds of produce went Into the taxes paid In kind from Upper Egypt. For convenience, all were reduced by various formulas to ardebs of wheat and barley for purposes of tax assessment and collection. In the final totals, the ardeb of barley was reduced to that of wheat at the ratio of 1 1 / 2 to I, 30 the final totals of tax collections, as well as treasury expenditures, in kind were always expressed in terms of the ardeb of w h e a t . In 9 2 7 / 1 5 2 1 , Bey is said to have collected 300,000 ardebs 1 of wheat and an equal amount of barley for the Imperial G r a n a r y . " However, at the end of the same century, only 200,000 ardebs of grain were 0 0 collected annually from the provinces of Upper Egypt. EvliyS (Jelebl wrote that in 1 0 8 1 / 1 6 7 0 - 1 250,000 ardebs were collected every year from 201 the villages alone in Upper Egypt. The earliest available archival register of grain revenues shows that the Imperial Treasury re202

ceived a total of 401,443 ardebs of grain In the same year, thus indicating that, at that time, the Arab tribes controlled approximately sixty five per cent of the grain-paying villages as villages, while thirty five per cent remained as villages under the control of Multezims from Cairo and Jirje. In 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6 , the total collected 203 was 364,833 ardebs, a slight drop over that collected a century e a r l i e r . On the whole, however, the grain taxes collected seem to have been much W . Hinz, Islamlsche Masse und1 Gewlchte, Leiden, 1955, p . 39; Marcel, Egrpte, p.99, n.1; Tallien, "Memoire sur ± Administration de l'Egypte", p . 197 says that the ardeb of wheat was 260 French "llvres poid de marc". Browne, Travels in Africa, X X I V , says the Cairo ardeb equalled 14 1 / 6 bushels or 11,268 English cubic Inches and adds that the ardeb of the FayyOm was fifty pier-cent larger than that of Cairo. The ardeb was divided into twenty four parts called rlbve and into 130 okkes (vaqiyye) according to the NlzgrnnSme-i Mlair, f o l . 19b; In the early eighteenth century, each ardeb equalled six kile of Istanbul. M u h . Misir, I V , 7^a: 320 (raid Mubarrem 1143). See also Glbb and Bowen, "Islamic Society", 1:1, 275 n.1 and E . W . L a n e , A n Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 2 vol., London, 1836, II, 3 1 7 . 1

" • Ibn Iy&s, V , 401 . °- M u h . 24, 119:327 (20 Qa'da 981 )• 2 0 1 • Evliyfi Qeleb£, X , 1 3 2 . 20

202

• Bag Vek&let Arglvl (Turkish State Archives), Istanbul, Kepecl R e g . 2304 (year 10b1-2). See Table V I . 2

3

° - Bfig Vekfilet Arglvi (Turkish State Archives), Istanbul, Mallyyeden Mtldewere K e g . 26K9. See Table V I .

67

THE LAUDED "WEALTH OF EGYPT

more constant In amount than that collected in cash. The land taxes paid in grains by the provinces of Upper Egypt in the years 1 0 8 1 / 1 6 7 0 - 1 and 1179/1765-6 are presented in Table V I . These are the only years for which such detailed information has so far been uncovered in the archives. TABLE V I . L A N D TAX DEMANDED IN WHEAT A N D BARLEY PROM THE PROVINCES OP UPPER EGYPT IN 1 0 8 1 / 1 6 7 0 - 1 A N D 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6

PROVINCE FAYYOM BEHNASi A§MUNEYN MANFALUT ATFIE5 JIRJE

1081 1179 ARDEBS~H!MANDED NUMBER OF MUQATA'AT SUBJECT TO TAX IN (in terms of KIND ardebs of wheat) 9678 80974 95241 8001 0 4000 151611 421514

9 85 55 36 5 76

ARDEBS DEMANDED 7280 57019 65409 611 72 3211 170742 364833

THE INFORMATION CONCERNING THE YEAR 1081 IS FOUND IN REGISTER KEPECI 2304; THAT FOR 1179 IS IN MALIYYEBEN MttCEWERE 2689; BOTH IN THE BA§ VEKALET ARCHIVES, ISTANBUL d.

The Collection of Land Taxes Paid in Kind.

The grains of Upper Egypt were collected and made ready for shipment to the Imperial Granaries in Old Cairo under the direction of the governor of Jlrje and by soldiers of his retinue and others sent from Cairo. Teakeres indicating the quarterly obligation of each were prepared in the Treasury by a special "Department of Grain Revenues", To transport the grains from Upper Egypt a fleet of six thousand Nile boats was required each y e a r . Some of these were provided from an Imperial river fleet In the service of the Treasury but, for the most part, they came from the privately-owned boats which navigated the Nile, each of which was required, as a condition of its sailing license, to maJce at least one trip a year to Upper Egypt to aid the transport of 20 1 imperial grains. ' '

Q&nflnnfime-i Migir, f o l . 46a; M u h . Migir, I, 55b:245 (Mubarrem 1125), I, 80a:354 (end Rama4Sn 1 1 2 6 ) , III, 59b:2§i (mid Sa'b&i 115^5, V I I , 345:758 (20 R e b i I I , 1173); Evllyfi (Jelebi, X , 805": TEe average Nile boat had a capacity of approximately six thousand ardebs of grain.

THE PRODUCT OF THE L A U D A N D ITS DISTRIBUTION

81

While the harvests and collections were In progress, or "delivery were sent to various places in Upper Egypt to supervise and speed the work of delivering the imperial grains to the boats in their proper quantity and quality and at the proper time. To each was given the tezkeres indicating the grains owed b y the for whose collections he was sent. In areas where Arab Iltlzfim3 were supervised b y these tezkeres were given to them, since it was their responsibility to handle all relations with the Arab

205

The duty of assembling, dispatching, and receiving the boats sent to transport the imperial grain collections was farmed out as an ^06 ' • 207 1 urban " to a Multezlm called the Mu'arrif. He was supervised and assisted in this work by t h e a n officer of the 208 Imperial Granary. The Mu'arrif and the Mustaufi kept a register of all boats navigating the waters of the Nile and licensed them to continue navigation only after they performed their annual obligation of delivering a portion of the imperial grains from Upper Egypt. To each captain was handed a tezkere indicating the place to which he should go and the amount of grains he should pick u p and deliver. W h e n he arrived there, the tezkere was taken by the as his receipt for his delivery to the captain of that amount of grains and to make sure that the captain had in fact been authorized to pick them u p . He then gave his own receipt to the captain, indicating the amount and quality of grains which had been loaded on his b o a t . When the captain returned to the Imperial Granary, the Mu'arrif and Mustaufi checked the grains which were delivered to make sure that they corresponded in quality and quantity with those set down in the receipt given to the captain by the Protection for the grains during the time of their collection, storage, and delivery on the Nile was provided by members of the Muteferrlqa corps, who were assigned to accompany the and delivery boats, and by members of the corps, who were sent to gather and protect 209 collections of tax a r r e a r s . 205

"

2 o 6

Evlly& Qelebi, X , 759, 783, 778, 786, 789, 797, 800, 805.

' See p p . 98-99-

His Muq&ta'a was that of Ta'rif ul-MarHkib ("making known the boats"); see page 123. 2 0 8

2 0 9

' DemirdS§£, Durret il-Muggne, p p . 63, 68, 1 2 7 ,

505.

' M u h . 2k, 3 1 8 : 8 6 6 (3 §a'ban 982); M u h . 4o, 55:265 (16 JumSda II, 989). Evliyinjelebi, X , 136.

82

THE LAUDED " W E A L T H OF EGYPT

Despite all these safeguards and precautions, however, various means were used to drain away a good part of the grains which were supposed to be delivered to the Imperial Granary. First of all, deliveries of the and collections were supposed to be made within three or four months after the Nile flood, for after that time navigation became very difficult. However, the grain deliveries to the seldom were made on time and those which were delivered late could not all be shipped during the limited time in which the Nile still was suitable for navigation. As a result, most of the grains had to be left in storage beside the Nile until the next flood, and these stores were subject to raids by Arab tribes and cultivators alike as well as to dis21 0 persion by winds, since few of them were enclosed or roofed. The often indicated on the receipts given to the captains a smaller quantity and poorer quality of grains than that which was actually delivered, in return for a payment usually called geker or "sugar price". This enabled the captains to dispose of the 21 1

balance along the route of their journey for their own profit. The soldiers who were sent along to guard the boat and its cargo usually connived with the captains in this, and they frequently forced them to pay protection money and to sell some of the grains in order to p a y . The captains substituted dirt and straw for much of the grains which had been entrusted to them. When their shipments were delivered and inspected at the Imperial Granary, the foreign materials were detected and thrown aside and only the good grains which remained were credited to the accounts of the Multezlms. However, the balance due could not be collected from the captains, who were poor m e n , or from the soldiers, who were able to resist such an effort with force. It remained in the debt of the holders of the but since most of these were Arab tribes, they could not be coerced into making u p the balance. As a result, in most cases212 of this kind it was the Imperial Treasury which had to bear the loss. In later times, the members of the MamlQk houses frequently assumed ownership of the Nile boats and deducted a portion of every ship21 ^ J

ment for their own profit. Some of them evaded their obligations to deliver the imperial grains from Upper Egypt so that they might engage in 10 ' M u h . 104, p . 131 (mid Jumfida I, 1104); M u h . Migir, VII, 345:758 (20 Re5T II, 1173); Demlrdagl, Durret il-Mugane, p . 1752 1 1

' M u h . Migir, I, 55b: 245 (mid MuJjarrem 1 1 2 5 ) , 80a:354 (mid Ramadan 1126).

2 l 2

' M u h . 2 1 , 1 8 3 : 3 5 3 (28 Rebi I, 9 8 1 ) ; M u h . Migir, I, 55b:2^5 (mid Muljarrem 1 1 2 5 ) , 1, 1 3 5 b : 6 o T T e n d Rebi II, 11 31 ). 2 1 3 >

M u h . Migir, I, 55b:245 (mid Mufcarrem 1 1 2 5 ) , 8oa:354 (end Ramad§n 1 1 2 6 ) , i 8 b : 7 4 (mid Rebi I , 1 1 2 1 ),' V , 144:368 (end Hlj.je 1150),' V I , 39b: 188 (end Muljarrem 1 1 5 8 ) ; Jabarti, 'Ajfi'lb ul-Asar, I, 34, 36.

THE PRODUCT OF THE L A U D AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

83

the far more profitable transport of the goods of private merchants between Cairo and the ports of the Mediterranean. When the sent soldiers to seek out such boats in the ports of Damietta, Rosetta, and Alexandria, their officers usually were willing to release them upon receipt of bribes from the owners. As a result, during much of the 12/18th century, the Imperial Granary was usually unable to gather boats sufficient 211 to transport all the grains paid as land tax during the year * and much of this grain rotted away or was stolen while awaiting transportation. Navigation of the Nile at any time of the year was difficult, and boats were frequently lost by accidental sinkings. Also captains tried to earn extra money for themselves by loading private goods and passengers onto the boats in addition to their loads of Imperial grains. In this way they often overburdened the boats, causing the loss of 215 passengers and grains alike. W h e n any grain boat sank, the captain was required to state the circumstances to the of the nearest district. The captains and Multezlms were absolved of responsibility for the grains if it was certified that the loss of the boat and its cargo was due to natural causes. Since it was Impossible in most cases for the to determine the real cause of the sinking, the captains were seldom punished and the Multezlms were not required to pay again. Once again, it was the ~ ~ 2 1 6 Imperial Treasury which suffered the loss. Even when the grains were delivered to the Imperial Granary, its officials and employees managed to divert a portion of the deliveries to their own profit. The Granary as a whole was a held In b y an usually appointed from the military corps. During the 12/18th century, most of the subordinate positions in the Granary came to be filled by members of the houses, who used their positions to favor the members of their own party in the receipt of collections and 217 issuance of rations and to provide addition revenue for t h e m s e l v e s . All of the factors which have been mentioned contributed to a significant drop in the grain revenues of the Imperial Treasury, especially in the half-century following the rise of 'Al£ B e ^ in 1 1 8 3 / 1 7 6 9 - 7 0 . However, the most basic threat to these revenues came not from these, but from the conversion into cash of the land tax obligation in kind and from the activities in Upper Egypt of Arab tribes and rebels. 2 U -

M u h . Misir, V I I , 336:744 (end §a'b&n 1174).

2 1 5 ,

M u h . 31:128 (4 Jumada II, 985), M u h . Migir, IV, 94a:409 (start Mufrarrem 1144). 216 • Evllyfi Qeleb£, X , 812; NigSmnfime-i Misir, 19b estimates that 16,000 ardebs of imperial grains were lost every year in this w a y . 2 1 7

' M u h . Mi sir, I, 18b: 74 (mid Rebi I, 1 1 2 1 ) , 94a:4l9 (end Safar 1128), IV, 94a:51 2 (start Muharrem 114477~el-Is]3§.q£, Lat&* if ul-Ahbfir, fol. 225b; Jabart£, 'Ajfi'lb ul-Aaar, I, 34.

84

THE LAUDED "WEALTH OF EGYPT

During the late lo/i6th and early Il/l7th centuries, the Treasury's revenues in grains exceeded Its expenditures, and the balance was sold in the open market for its own profit. The revenues which were collected from these sales were considered to be a part of the Miscellaneous Revenues of the Treasury, and will be considered in 218 the section devoted to those revenues. Many of these grains were sold to European traders for shipment out of the Ottoman Empire. After the middle of the Ii/i7th century, however, the practices which have been 1 described above, combined with an increase in Istanbul 3 demands for grains, turned the surplus Into a deficit. As a result, the sales of Treasury grains were ended, and the shipment of grains outside the Empire was prohibited. In addition, while the established a fixed price for the sale of grains in Egypt, the market price gradually rose above It 219 as the value of the para slowly depreciated over the c e n t u r i e s . Multezlms of grain-paying found that they could secure a great profit by forcing the Treasury to accept the official fixed cash equivalent of the grain taxes which they owed and by selling on the open market the extra grains which remained to them. So Treasury cash revenue from this source rose rapidly, from 5 1 7 , 7 2 8 paras in 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 to 2 , 7 2 8 , 1 8 9 220 paras in 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 . Since the price at which grain taxes were valued in cash always remained set at twenty five paras per ardeb, this indicates that by the close of the 12/18th century over 100,000 ardebs, or twenty five percent, of the assigned grain obligations were converted in this way- It should be noted that such cash revenues from the provinces of Upper Egypt were handled in the Treasury by the "Bureau of Grain Revenues" rather than by the which continued to deal only with those land tax revenues which were originally assigned in cash to certain in the same provinces of Upper 221 Egypt. In addition, during the 12/18th century parts of Upper Egypt frequently fell into the hands of members of the hierarchy who were 2 1 B

2 l 9

2 2 0

" See p . 171 • ' See M u h . Migir, VIII, 2 9 3 : 1 1 6 (start JumSda II, 1176)-

' See Table V I I . 221 M u h . 115, p . 130 (start Jumada II, 1 1 1 8 ) ; M u h . Migir, I, 72b:3l8 2 end ReET II, 1 1 2 6 ) , V I , 7 b : 3 3 3 (end Ramadto 1159;- In the reforms of 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 and 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 , mudfif additions in cash were imposed on the grain-paying Muq&ta'St at the rate of 1000 paras for every 2000 ardebs paid• The sources do not indicate whether this cash revenue was handled by the Qalem-1 Irfld-i Gal&l or the Qalem-i Sehlr. These mufl&fs were not applied in the later reforms. See p . 2H9.

THE PRODUCT OF THE LAND AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

85

TABLE VII. MAL-I HARAJ-I ilRApI RECEIVED IN CASH BY THE QALEM-I IRAn-I GALAL OF THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT AS THE EQUIVALENT OF CERTAIN LAND TAX OBLIGATIONS ORIGINALLY OWED IN KIND. (Figures are in paras) YEAR

1082 1094 1101 1119 1200

ATFIEij FAYYllM

13,886 13,886

230,268 23 0,268

BEflNASA

536,5 24 596,646

~MUNEYN

116,900 185,415

MANFALUr

213,295 414,398

JIRJE

2,209,8 21 2,221,516

TOTAL 511,128 644,650 114,190 3,440,100 3,1 28,189

forced to flee from the faction in control of Cairo. These "rebels" usually seized for their own sustenance the grain and cash payments which were intended for the Imperial Treasury from the areas under their control. In addition, they interrupted the transport of grain payments from lands further up the Nile which were not under their direct control. 222 The Arab tribes which controlled large areas of Upper Egypt, and especially the Hav&re confederation, managed to keep security in the land and to protect their lands from the depredations of rebel Beys and Mamlftks and of other Arab tribes. However, when they did not receive their subsidies from the governor of Jirje, they too withheld portions of their grain payments to the Imperial Treasury.22 3 During the independent rule of 'Alf ~ from 1183 to 1181/1169-1113, military expeditions sent to Upper Egypt destroyed almost completely the power of these Arab tribes. In the years which followed, the grain-producing lands of Upper Egypt were held by Multezims from the predominant Mamlftk houses, who diverted the bulk of the produce for their own benefit. In addition, their own grains, as well as those intended for the Treasury,were exposed more and more to the raids of the rebel Beys and of Arab tribes no longer restrained by their more powerful brethren. As a result, less than one half of the grain taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury actually reached their destination during the last twenty five years before the French occupation of Egypt. 224 222Muh . Ml.rpr, VI, 10b..i.305 (start Jum§,da sur les Finances de l' .l!:gypte", p. ~

II, 1159); Esteve, "Memo ire

223 Muh. Ml.rpr, VII, 35:116 (1 Rama.d.&n 1161); Jabarti, 'Aj§.'ib ul-As&r,

I, 344.

224 Muh. Ml.fJ~r, VIII, 244:528 (end JumMa I, 119 2 ), X, fol.19b (1 Reiib 1211 ); Jabart£, Ibid.; Combe, L~~pue, p. 38; Dolomieu, Collec on of Notes on Egyp~chives de la uerre ( aris), MS 509, p. 18.

86

THE LANDED WEALTH OF EGfYPT

2.

Special Taxes (MuhrIjfit).

In this section and the next, we will consider that portion of the total Mfil ul-Burr tax collected from the cultivators of Imperial Lands which was not sent as land tax to the Imperial Treasury, but which was retained in the form of "deductions" (MuhrijSt) by those who ad­ ministered the provinces, directed the exploitation of the land tax, and collected the land taxes for the Treasury. From the very start of Ottoman rule in Egypt, the Mfil-i HarS.1 land tax was never fully coincident with the Mfil ul-Hurr. In the ftfinQnnfime of 9 3 1 / 1 5 2 ^ - 5 , the provincial governors and their subordinates sent to the villages were authorized to collect their costs and subsistence by the imposition of fees In addition to the land taxes owed by the villages in which they worked, and the cultivators were always subjected to 11225 legal impositions in addition to these. During the centuries which followed, the value of the Egyptian silver para slowly depreciated, and its falling value was reflected in an increase of the number of paras required to purchase gold coins and rural commodities in the free market.22^ As a result, the prices received by the cultivators for the grains which they sold on the free market rose far more in terms of paraa than did the relatively fixed land tax per feddfin imposed on them for the Imperial Treasury. However, the increased surplus left to the cultivators as a result was quickly absorbed by a multitude of new taxes imposed on them as Muhrijfit and by the Ffi'12 227 profit left to the Multezims. Most of the Mvihrljfit charges were levied on the cultivators as costs of collection by military and civil agents of the provincial governors. Over the centuries, many of the older charges were appropri­ ated by the governors for their own revenues and new ones were established for the benefit of their subordinates. Since the provincial governors 228 were usually called Kfiaif, those Muhrijfit charges which went for their benefit and that of their subordinates were called KugQflyye charges; those which went for the benefit of the village Multezims and their agents were known as Barrfini charges. Those KugQflyye charges which were established during the first century of Ottoman rule in Egypt were called KugQflyye-I Q.aditn, or Old KugQflyye, by the 12/18th century, while those established in more recent times were called KugQflyye-I Jedid, or New QfinQnnfime-I Migir, fol. 3 6 a ; 'Abd ul-§amad, fol. 1 7 6 . 22i

- M u h . Migir, V I I , 1 1 1 : 2 4 0 (mid Safar 1 1 6 9 ) , V I I I , 86a:346 (start Hljje 1178):

1 06

THE URBAN W E A L T H OF EGYPT

the transport of goods from Suez t o Cairo, was authorized to levy a n additional charge o f ten paras per ferde t o compensate him for his ex~~~~~ 25 p e n s e s , and this charge was later raised to twenty-five paras per ferde. ' The scribes of the customs also b e g a n to take twenty paras per ferde from the merchants and thirty paras per boat from the captains, raising approximately two million paras a year in this manner in addition to their regular salaries from the holder of the M u q & t a ' a . I n 1162/174.9, the w a s authorized to provide the military protection needed b y the coffee and spice caravans going between Suez and Cairo and to levy in return a n extra charge of forty paras per f e r d e . H o w e v e r , h e farmed out his rights to others w h o added new impositions for their own profit 26 u n t i l the total charge per ferde reached four hundred p a r a s . A s a result of these rising Impositions, shipments o f coffee and spices through S u e z , which previously had averaged between twenty and thirty thousand e a r , fell to eighteen thousand ferdesy -annually, and they remained —ferdes — a ythis at — about level for the next twenty y e a r s . During the time of 'All Bey ul-Keb£r (1183-1187/1769-1773), the total customs and other charges levied in this manner came t o six hundred paras per ferde, but the amount shipped through Suez rose to twenty four thousand ferdes a year due to his energetic promotion of trade relations 28 between Egypt and the nations of western E u r o p e . Under MurSd Bey and Ibrahim B e y (1193-1199)/i779-1785 ), the total collected reached two thousand paras per ferde and the amount of coffee and spices passing through annually fell t o ten thousand ferdes• A t the same time at Quseyr, 7 29 * w h o s e customs w e r e held In b y the V & l l , the total of customs and charges was o n l y f o u r

hundred and f i f t y

para3 p e r

ferde,

and

in

1197/1783 over nine thousand ferdes o f coffee passed through it on the way 30 to C a i r o , compared to less t h a n one thousand ferdes a century b e f o r e . In addition, after 1193/1779 the ruling Emirs of Egypt seized the customs of Suez as a n from the and thus deprived him of whatever profits still remained to him from it. When

drove the ruling

and their followers

out of Cairo i n 1201/1786-7, h e restored the customs of Suez to the 2 5

26

' JJuseyn E f e n d l , "Administration of 18th Century E g y p t " , p . 7 8 . " M u h . Migir," V I I , 288:639 (start §evval 1173)-

2 7

' M u h . M i g i r , V I , 113b:519 (start Jumada II, 1162), V I I , 161:346 (mid Jufflgga II, 1170), V I I , 342:754 (mid Sevval 1174); E s t S v e , "Memoire sur les Finances d e l'Egypte , p p . 181-182: 2 8

2 9

3

• See p . 8 . ' See p . 325-

°" M u h . M i g i r , X , 21a (Jumada II, 1200).

URBAN

WITHIN THE IMPERIAL POSSESSIONS

and established the total customs duties and charges at 1880 paras per ferde, of which 546 paras were to be kept by the 900 paras were to be delivered to the for the expenses of the pilgrimage, and the balance was to be set aside for local merchants w h o needed capital to engage in the coffee trade. After and returned to power in 1 2 0 3 / 1 7 8 8 - 9 , the customs duties and charges slowly rose and the trade and total customs revenues declined until the arrival of the French ex31 pedition a decade later. Available statistics showing the total customs revenues at Suez are limited to those gathered by the French for the years from 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 to 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 and reflect this trade long sifter it had been partially stifled by the disruptive influences which have been mentioned. Nevertheless, during those twelve years an average of 3 6 , 8 4 2 , 8 7 6 paras was collected 32 annually in customs. Out of this, and taxes totaling 6 , 0 7 1 , 0 5 6 paras, or sixteen per cent, were demanded by the Imperial 33 Treasury for the customs and the small joined to i t , leaving the bulk of the revenues to the Emirs who were in control of Egypt and the customs. In addition to the Muq&ta'&t already mentioned, the V£l£ also held in the Muqata'a of the purchase of gold and silver for the needs of the Mint of Cairo and for purposes of accounting, his tax obligation for this was joined to that of the customs of Suez. TABLE X .

REVENUES OF THE CUSTOMS HOUSE AT SUEZ FROM 1201 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 TO 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 . - 8 YEAR 1 201 1 202 1203 1 20k 1205 1206 1207 1208 1 209 1 21 0 1 21 1 1212 TOTAL AVERAGE

PARAS 41 ,657,527 43,375,$43 50,096,682 28,484,358 35,176,899 39,526,492 43,783,292 27,357,286 17,254,985 44,310,858 36,594,612 34,495,575 442,114,509 36,842,876

(These figures have been taken from Esteve, "Memoire sur les Finances de l'figypte", Description de l'figypte, XII, 179-) , ' In addition to the references noted in the footnotes, the information used in this discussion of the customs of Suez was derived principally from an untitled report to Napoleon by his Financial Director of Egypt, Poussielgue, dated 14 Vendemiare, a n VII/5 October 1798 — Archives de la Guerre (Paris), MS B6 — 9; see also Esteve, "MSmoire sur les Finances de l'figypte", p . 150; Girard, "MSmoire sur 1'Agriculture de l'figypte", p . 3273 2

3 3

• See Table X . " See Table X I .

1 08

T H E URBAN W E A L T H OF EGYPT TABLE X I . TAXES D E M A N D E D FOR THE! IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT F R O M THE! ' OF THE CUSTOMS OF SUEZ A N D F R O M OTHER JOINED TO IT

YEARS E3H|F-I nte UL- simsAriyye QA'A-I GtJMRt)K-U CARB bahSr IERAHJ a u s m BAHAR u>; (o) (d) (e) (a) 29500 30000 1004-1082 4711652 B3333 18333 Kerorm or 1082 +31667 -489956 +600000 28i 5? 30000 1682-ii67 2221696 683333 50000 rauoai' or 1107 1107-1129 222l6$6 683333 50000 30000 28167 ziyade or +836800 '1I29(R) 50000 30000 28167 H2$-ti55 30?84§6 683333 muijar or 1155 56660 30000 28167 1i55-i174 30584$6 683333 mucar or 1 50000 30000 1174-1200 3658496 083333 28167 ziyade or +6000000 1200-1io7 905B496 683333 50000 30000 28167 tern 11 of lib" -6000000 126' -1212 3658496 50000 30000 28167

MAL-I KU§UFIYYE-I GRAND modXfs HARAJ KEBIR TOTAL w) 2872810 1050000 3922818 +140378 3013196 1056666

+140378 4063196

+230000 230000

+230000 +230000 3243196 1286606

+460000 4523196

230000

+836800 4079996 1280000

+836800 5359996

+163200 393200

+163200 +378132 4243196 1658132

+541332 5961328

+169727 562927

+169727 44l2$23 I658l32

+169727 6671655

+6000000 562927 16412^23 1658132

+6000000 12671655

-6000000 4412923 1658132

-6000000 6671655

562927

FOR DETAILED FIGURES AND REFERENCES, SEE APPENDIX II, pp. 364-390. NOTES: a) See page 104. b) See page 523. 0) See page 104. d) See page 104. e) See page 103. f) Mud&f Increases were credited to the whole MuqSta'&t rather than to the parts of which they were composed and were accounted separately, as Is don® here. g) The zlyflde increase of 1129/1717-8. In 1129, the V&li agreed to increase the BarH.1 tax paid by him for the spice customs by 836,800 paras. This revenue was to be used to provide new salaries. Divided by 355 days, it provided 2290 paras of dally salary, which was sold at 4000 paras per para of dally salary, bringing a total sale price of 9,160,000 paras, which was sent direct to the treasury of the Sultan. Muh. Misir, I, 128b:574 (end Qa'da 1130). To aid the V<, In 1147/1734-5, this tax and the salaries for which it was used were ordered abolished (Huh. Misir, V, 87:210 (start Bl.1.1e 1147), but the Beys refused to obey this and it was not done. 1 h) In the reform of 1200/1786, the MSl-i HarS.1 tax on the spice customs was raised by six million paras in return for recognition of the Etalra right to the Iltlzfim. But the raise was never paid, and it was abolished by agreement in 1207/1792-3. See page 302.

URBAN

W I T H I N THE IMPERIAL POSSESSIONS

109

b . The Customs of Alexandria and Rosetta. These customs houses were joined in a single from the middle of the 10/16th century. In addition, there was joined to it the right to regulate navigation in the harbors and that of regulating and taxing non-resident merchants w h o wished to m a k e use of the markets in the two ports In 1123/1711, the previously independent of the regulation of the comestible markets and public scales in Alexandria and Rosetta was joined to it, as was that of the regulation and control of navigation of the mouths of the Nile near Rosetta

During the 12/18th century, this was held in from the by officers of the Janissary corps, w h o administered it through two Mu'allems, one for Alexandria and one for Rosetta. From 1201/1786-7 to 1212/1797-8, the total produce of the 35 customs of Alexandria and Rosetta averaged 12,884,882 paras a y e a r . During the same period, the total and taxes demanded annually b y the Imperial Treasury for the customs portions of this came to approximately 5,500,000 p a r a s , or approximately fortyfive p e r cent of the customs revenue, with the balance remaining to the Multezlms

3

On the trade and customs of Alexandria and Rosetta, see M u h . 2 8 , 142:335 (25 Rejeb 984); M u h . 29, 317:733 (8 R e b i II, 985); Muh- 56, 90:255 (17 Jumfida I, 993 );~Muh. M i g i r , I, 72b :TTB~"(end R e b i II, 1126), V , 50:119 (start R e b i I, 1147;, 164:413 (end Hlj.je 115T77~VII, 224:103 (end ga'bSn 1168), V I I , 3291732 (mid $a'b&n 11 74), V I I I , 142a:527 (mid Rejeb 11BTT3 X , 62b (start R e b i I, 1202;; tfuseyn Efendi, "Administration of 18th Century E g y p t " , p p . 39-40, 70; Jabarti, 'Ajfl' lb ul-As&r, I, 309- See also L e Pere, "M§moire sur la Communication de la Mer des Indes", D e s c r . de l'fig-, 2nd ed., X I , p p . 222-280; E s t e v e , "MSmoire sur les Finances de l'figypte", pip. 120-135, 139-143; G i r a r d , "Memoire sur 1'Agriculture de l'figypte", p p . 341-374. Girard, "Memoire sur 1'Agriculture de l'Egypte", p p . 395-6; Anonymous, 6 Tableau de la ville de Rosette, Archives de la Guerre (Paris), M S B — 5 3 ; compare E s t S v e , "MSmoire sur les Finances de l'figypte", p . 180. See Table X I I . The figures for customs revenues include only the revenues of the customs houses, not those of the other revenues joined to them in the MuqSta'&t• So that w e can compare these revenue figures with the taxes, w e have here extracted that portion of the taxes of the customs which w e r e paid for its customs revenues a l o n e . In addition, w e are evaluating here only the taxes paid to the Treasury b y the holders of the Muqg.ta'&t of customs; for those paid as Rugftflyye-i Saglr to the V a i l , see p p . 321-2.

11 o

THE URBAN WEALTH OF EGYPT TABLE X I I . TAXES DEMANDED FOR THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT FROM THE OF THE CUSTOMS OF ALEXANDRIA A N D ROSETTA A N D OTHER JOINED TO IT

TOTAL MUOATA'AT JJEUbME CfOMRtK-H RA'S-I IUTISAB KU§GFTA'RIF ISKENEERB&SJTZ-I 11 VE sp-i MSL-I IYYE-I GRAND IYYE VE RESLD DAYS MODAF TOTAL QABBSNI HARAJ KEBJR M A ^ K H > BAZARFIN RESID (a) (e) (c) (f) (b) (d) 4645000 1331249 5976249 1 00000 (14000) 1004-1082 4500000 45000 Siyade or +10193 1082 +333334 +3000 +346527 +346527 1082-112S 4833334 (14660) 110193 48000 4991527 1331249 6322776 ziyHde or +3192 1123(d) + 3192 +3192 110193 (14000) 3192 1123-1130 4833334 486oo 4994719 1331249 6325968 zlyade of +2200 +2200 + 2200 1130(e) 2200 110193 48000 (14000) 3192 4996919 1331249 6328168 1130-1155 4833334 mudSf of +199877 + 199877 (+ 560) +199877 1155 2200 110193 199877 5196796 1331249 6528645 (14560) 3192 1155-1162 4835534 48000 zlyade or +14560 +14560 +14560 1162(c) 2200 110193 199877 5211356 1331249 6542665 1162-1174 4833334 486oo ' 14560 3192 mugar or +209494 +209494 +209494 1174 (+585) ' ' 22oo 110193 409371 5426856 1331249 6752699 14566 48000 1174-1175 4833334 3192 tenzi'l or -14560 -15145 1175(c) -585 -15145 1175-1212 4833334 2266 110193 468786 5405765 1331249 6736954 (14J66) 3192 486o6 FOR DETAILED FIGURES AND REFERENCES, SEE APPENDIX II, pp. 364-390. NOTES: a) Customs of Alexandria and Rosetta. b) Control of navigation in the harbors of Alexandria and Rosetta. 0) Tax on non-resident merchants In the markets of Rosetta. Before 1162/1749-50, the MuqSta'S-1 Ser-1 BSzSrSn, while a part of the general Muqjtta'a of customs or Alexandria and Rosetta, was farmed out to the Mu' allem or Rosetta to give him a separate IltlzSm revenue In addition to the salary he received from the Janissary corps formanaging the entire customs MuqSta'a In Em&net for them. As result, he paid the taxes for the Ser-1 B&z&ran farm directly to the Treasury, and it was not Included with the totals or the tax payments of the customs MuqSta'a as a whole. Rather it was included in the totals of tax payments for MuqtfEa 'St other than customs (3ee p. 127)- From 1162 to 1175/1761-2, it was taken from the IltlzSm of the Mu'allem and joined to the general Muqftta'a of the customs of Alexandria and Rosetta, and so its totals were Included 1'or those years. Whereas the muflSf of 1155 was credited to it separately since it was In a different IltlzSm at the time (560 paras), that of 1174 was not, since it at that time was united with the customs of Alexandria and Rosetta; when it was separated from it In 1175, Its portion of that mud&f (585 paras) was subtracted and joined to It. After that time, it again was held in IltlzSm by the Mu'allem of Rosetta. d) Control of navigation In the Nile delta near Rosetta. e) Regulation of the comestible markets and public scales In Alexandria and Rosetta. See p. 128. f) Before 1082/1671-2, the eleven day difference between the Muslim lunar year and the financial and agricultural 30lar years were accounted separately In this way for some urban MuqSta'St, so this item was kept separately thereafter. See p. 308.

URBAN

WITHIN THE IMPERIAL POSSESSIONS

111

o . The Customs of Damietta. The Muqata'a of the customs of Damletta included the right to regulate and control the comestible markets 37 and public scales in that city It also included the Muq§.ta'§.t of certain rice-producing lands In the vicinity whose was shipped in kind directly to the Porte as part of the obligations to it of the Imperial 38 Treasury of E g y p t . Since the Janissary corps also held in the of the customs of Burullos,'^ a large portion of the annual Harfi.i tax due for it was transferred to the obligation of the customs MuqSta'a ilQ of Damietta in 1119/1707-8, due to the greater profits of the latter. Prom 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 through 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 , the total revenues of the 1 1 customs of Damietta averaged 11,548,104 paras a year.' ' During the same period, the taxes demanded for the Imperial Treasury for the customs portion of t h i s c a m e to approximately 1,100,000 paras a y e a r , 42 approximately ten per cent of the total produce. TABLE X H I a .

TABLE OF TOTAL CUSTOMS REVENUES AT THE CUSTOMS OF DAMIETTA FROM 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 8 6 - 7 TO 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 (Figures are in paras)

YEAR 1 201 1 202 1 203 1 204 1205(a) 1 206 1 207 1 208 1 209 1 21 0 1 21 1 1212

CUSTOMS ON IMPORTS 8427907 8907540 8006920 7383085

1 0758984 12028177 9635405 1 1895108 13802745 14633728 10737488 TOTALS 1 1 6 2 1 7 0 8 7 AVERAGE 10565190

CUSTOMS ON EXPORTS 532005 845244 688721 1309113 3024101 466302 31 2882 83688 873317 2031456 645232 10812059 982914

TOTAL 8959910 9752784 8695641 8692198 13783085 12494479 9948287 11978796 14676062 16665184 11382720 127029146 11548104

(The figures in this table are taken from Esteve, "Memoire sur les Finances de l'figypte", Description de l'figypte, 2nd ed., XII, p . 179-) Note a58

See page 509.

See Table XII, note c and page 128.

• See page 1 2 7 . On the port and customs of Damietta, see M u h . 29, 317:733 (8 Rebl I, 985); M u h . Migir, V , 164:413 (end Hi.j.je TT51 ); Huseyn Efendi, "AdmTnTstratlon of IBth Century Egypt", p . 40; Evliyfi Qelebi, X , 457; EstSve, "MSmoire sur les Finances de l'figypte", p . 11739

• See page 113. 4o . _ See page 11,1

4 2

113.

' EstSve, "MSmoire sur les Finances de l'Egypte", p . 1 7 9 . ' See Table XIII.

112

T H E U R B A N W E A L T H OF E G Y P T

TABLE XIII.

T A X E S D E M A N D E D F O R THE I M P E R I A L T R E A S U R Y OF E G Y P T

FROM THE

OF THE C U S T O M S OF D A M I E T T A A N D OTHER

YEARS

J O I N E D TO IT

MUQATA'AT GUWRUK GtlMROK HJTISAB D „ U I URZ-U D B K A T BURULLOS DIMYAT MIRI (a)

1004-1107 704690 mudaf of 1107 i167-11l9 7o469b Reform of 1119(a) 1 1 1 9 - 1 1 2 6 704690 tenzll of 1126(c) 1126-1131 704690 zlv&de of TTTTTc) 1131-1155 704690 muaaf of TT55~ 1155.1174 704690 muaaf of 1174 i 174-1 Si'S'76469b

(b) 425000 66666 425000 66666

+200486 200486 200486

425000 66666 -425000

66666

MUBSF

TOTAL MSL-I harAj

KUSJJFKEBIR

GRAND TOTAL

FROM TOTAL TO TO CAIRO PORTE TREASURY

500000 1696356 1629690

(a) 66666

+47854 +47854 +118331 +166185 +166185 47854 1244210 618331 1862541 1795875

66666

+200486 47854 1444696

+200486 +107152 618331 2063027 1903027

+93334 160000

-425000 47854 1019696

-425000 -425000 618331 1638027 1478027

160000

1196356

266486

+425000 425606 66666

+425000 +425000 +425000 47854' 1444696 ' 618331 2663027 1 903027

160000

200486

425606 66666

+59660 +59660 +103103 +162763 +162763 107514 1504356 721434 2225790 2065790

1 66660

2oo486

425oo6 66666

+60174 +60174 +49813 +109987 +109987 167688 1564536 " ?7i247 2335777 2175777

166666

FOR DETAILED FIGURES AND REFERENCES, SEE APPENDIX II, pp. 364-390 NOTES: a) After 1 1 1 9 , 200,486 paraa of the tax obligation of the customs at Burullos was transferred to that of Damietta, since the latter was better able to bear the tax. b ) From rice-producing lands In this Muq&ta'a, rice worth 66,666 paraa had to be sent in kind to the Porte, as part of the MSl-x HarltJ obligation of this mugSta'a to the Treasury In Egypt, and the latter's obligation to the Porte. After 1119, an additional 93,334 paras was taken from the M&l-i Har&.i previously paid by this customs Muqata'a In cash to the Treasury, and thereafter thl3 sum was used to purchase additional rice to serai to the Porte, making a total of 160,000 paras worth of rice delivered annually by this Muqata'a. c) From 1126 to 1 1 3 1 , the Muqata'a-i JLitlsSb ve Blgmet-1 Qabbanl was farmed to the Mu'allem of Damietta, who himself paid Its taxes to the Treasury; so during those years, its Bara.1 was not included in that of the Muqata'a.

WITHIN THE IMPERIAL POSSESSIONS

URBAN

d.

T h e Customs of B u r u l l o s .

113

The r e v e n u e s of the customs h o u s e

a t B u r u l l o s came chiefly from i n t e r n a l trade and from the trade c a r a v a n s coming "by land from N o r t h A f r i c a , and it w a s the l e a s t l u c r a t i v e of a l l the customs h o u s e s .

A l t h o u g h its

it w a s a l w a y s g i v e n in

was financially

independent,

to the M u l t e z l m of the customs of D a m i e t t a

and a d m i n i s t e r e d b y t h e M u ' a l l e m of the l a t t e r .

In 1107/1695-6 the

tax owed b y its M u l t e z i m w a s t r a n s f e r r e d to that of D a m i e t t a , and in 1119/1707 a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e

t a x e s d u e f o r it

a l s o w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o D a m i e t t a , i n b o t h cases to a s s u r e t h e i r p a y m e n t , since the r e v e n u e s of B u r u l l o s f l u c t u a t e d g r e a t l y and w e r e u s u a l l y insufficient.

In the y e a r s w h i c h f o l l o w e d , the t a x e s owed f o r the customs

at B u r u l l o s w e r e p e r i o d i c a l l y r a i s e d and lowered i n r e s p o n s e to v a r i a t i o n s w h i c h o c c u r r e d in the flow of t r a d e c a r a v a n s f r o m N o r t h A f r i c a . e.

T h e s e two N i l e p o r t s of

Cairo w e r e u n i t e d In a single

from e a r l y in the 10/16th c e n t u r y .

A f t e r 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 , t h e r e w a s joined to it t h e f a r m of the t a n n i n g h o u s e

TABLE XIV.

T A X E S D E M A N D E D F O R T H E I M P E R I A L T R E A S U R Y OF E G Y P T F R O M THE OF T H E C U S T O M S OF B U R U L L O S

YEARS 1004-1107 tenzll 1107(a) mu

M u h . Migir, IV, 70a:303 (start Hl.l.le 1142), v , 57:134 (mid Rebi I, 1 147), 83:197 (start Bljje 1147)127. ' See page 44.

WAGES A N D PENSIONS

209

during their .lifetimes or by the Treasury or their own corps after their deaths. Such were established for the benefit of relatives, descendants, or specified institutions. The transfer of into caused the corps in which they had been held to suffer the loss of the revenues and the Treasury, representing the Sultan, to suffer the loss of the services for which the revenues had been set aside as w a g e s . During the life of the founder, the were retained on the rolls of his corps under the name of the persons or institutions to which he had given them. After his death, they were transferred entirely out of the corps and were paid as part of the general expenditures of the 1 2 8 Treasury as pensions called made Into became perpetual burdens on the Treasury, and while orders were frequently issued by the Porte prohibiting further transfers of this kind and ordering the abolition of those already m a d e , in fact nothing of this 1 29 kind was ever done. From early times, in the active or Inactive corps of Egypt were assigned directly by the Porte to persons In its service elsewhere in the Hnplre or to those of its retired servants whom It wished to 130 J support in their retirement. and in Egypt likewise were able to secure the assignment of In the active as well as the inactive corps to persons who were unable to perform the service required of them in return — to women, children, slaves, and followers — prin131 cipally to strengthen their houses and reward their f o l l o w e r s . Finally, in order to preserve for the members of each corps the wages of its deceased members, Its officers did not report the deaths, and the funds paid for their wages continued to be received and distributed among the surviving members. So by the end of the 12/18th century, there were many more persons listed as being members of the corps or of the garrisons of fortresses than there were in fact; and even of these, only a small proportion could actually perform the military services required of them. In many cases, these wage papers became negotiable Instruments, just another form of property, and they were bought and sold in the open market, 1 2 8

' See p p . 2 3 0 - 2 .

1 2 9

' M u h . Misir, I, 2 5 a : 1 0 4 (start Safar 1 1 2 2 ) , 29a:l29 (end Jumfida I, 1 1 2 2 ) , 3 7 a : 135 (end Rebi 1 , 1 1 2 2 ) , iv, 104:446 (mid Jum&da II, 1 1 4 2 ) , V , 57:134 (mid Rebi I, TT5T), 2 5 1 : 6 4 9 (end Muharrem 1155), III, 1l9b:551 (start Re.jeb 1138), Jabarti, 'A.jfi'lb ul-Asfir, I, 37, M u h . Migir, V I I I , 3:110 start Bl.jje 11 T I T 1 3 0

M u h . 35, 24:43 (19 Rebi I I , 986); M u h . Mi3ir, I , I7a:70 (mid Muharrem 1 1 2 1 ) , V I I I , 28a: 114 (start Jumfida II, 1176), M u E . 4, 1 1 9 : 1 2 1 2 (27 Qa'da 967); M u h . 5, 2 3 5 : 6 0 7 (4 Jum&da I, 973)1 3 1

M u h . 2, 26:225 (4 Rebi II, 963); Muh- 69, 1 9 6 : 3 8 7 (19 Jumfida II, 1 0 0 1 ) ; M u h . Mi sir, IV, "SBbT296 (1 Qa'da 1123).

210

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT

so that it was very seldom that the persons in whose names they were registered in the Treasury actually held them, received their or per1 2 formed their o b l i g a t i o n s . ? When soldiers were needed, the could obtain them only b y negotiations with the leaders of the predominant houses, who would send their own or hire peasants or m e n from the 1 rabble of Cairo especially for the o c c a s i o n . " TABLE X L V I I .

(WAGES) P A I D BY THE IMPERIAL TREASURY

OF EGYPT FROM 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 TO 1209/1794-5 (Figures are i n I.

paras)

WAGES P A I D TO THE ACTIVE M I L I T A R Y CORPS

YEARS MUTXFEKK1QAGAN MEMBERS WAGES 7424876 1004 1410 1 0 0 4 - 1 0 8 2 +613 +2702915 1082 2023 10127791 1082-1121 -538 -5597782 1121 U85 4530009 1121-1209 +125 -777651 3752358 1209 1610 Change from 1004-1209 +200 -3672518

YEARS

JEMA'AT CAV&SAN MUSTAHFEZAN WAGES MEMBERS WAGES MEMBERS 940 1026 3792840 2341859 +5521 +8150321 +409 + 1261663 10492180 6461 5054503 1435 +206 -708640 -2067250 -1198 1641 8424930 4345863 5263 +7484614 +967 +6305941 + 1767 2608 7030 10651804 15909544 + 1582

+6858964

+ 6090

+ 13567685

'AZABAN MEMBERS WAGES 498 1147300 +2205 + 909183 2703 2056483 +582 +4686527 6743010 3285 +8 -4460720 2282290 3293 +2795

+1134990

JEMA'AT-1 S I P & H Y A N

GONflLLUYAN MEMBERS WAGES 1004 724 2568318 1004-1082 +520 -219374 1082 1244 2348944 1082-1121 -8 -787293 1121 1236 1561651 1121-1209 +850 +5063645 1209 2086 66S5296 Change from 1004-1209 +1362 +4056978

1 3 2 ,

TUFENKCIYAN MEMBERS WAGES 1446293 1080 -56 +380435 1826728 1 024 +6 -1092167 1030 734561 + 110 +727047 1140 1461608 +60

-15315

M u h . 99, p- 58 (end Rebi I I , 1 1 0 1 ); 1147); V , 251:648 (end Muharrem 1 1 5 5 ) . 1 3 3 >

CERAKISE MEMBERS WAGES 1427646 490 +536 +252264 1026 1679910 -541659 -45 1138251 981 -27443 + 99 1 080 1110808 +590

-316838

TOTALS MEMBERS WAGES 6168 20149132 + 9748 +13437407 15916 33586539 -6108244 -995 27478295 14921 + 3926 +14315433 41793728 18847 +6168

+21644556

M u h . Migir, V , 70:170 (end Re.leb

M u h . Misir, I, 67a:296 (mid Sevvfil 1 1 2 5 ) , 9 3 a : 4 l 2 (start Muharrem 1 1 2 8 ) , III, 75b:359 (end HU.Ie 1135), IV, 5a: 16 (start Sa'bfin 1139), 12ib:517 (end Rebi I, 1145). During the last years of the century, the Porte con7 tinually "complained about the low quality of the Egyptian soldiers sent to the Imperial a r m y . M u h . Migir, V I I I , 28a:114 (start Jumfida II, 1 1 7 6 ) .

WAGES AND PENSIONS

TABLE X L V I I II:

211

(Continued)

WAGES P A I D TO THE MEN OP THE PORTRESSES PORTRESSES

YEARS

1 004 1004-1082 1082 1 082-1 121 1 121 1121-1209 1 209 Change from 1004-1209

TERSANE-I ISKENDERIYYE

MEN

WAGES

MEN

WAGES

MEN

WAGES

MEN

410 + 94 504 + 3p 534 -90 444

316279 +46681 362960 -1063 361897 +20623 382520

310

325

133467 +130793 264260 +5103 269363 +72030 341393

51 + 61 112 +1 113 -16 97

50491 +15529 66020 -10760 55260 -5803 .49457

176 +52 228 +4 232 -15 217

134560 +28595 163155

+ 3*

+66241

+ 15

+207926

+46

-1034 +41

+6J227

+ 15

32? + ^6 361 -36

MEN

WAGES MEN

87588

1 00

41162 +28574 69736

WAGES

166

98588

+

-9347 89241

130 -5 12*

199

88512

121

58576 +25943 84519

126 -10

116

+49

+ 924

+ 21

+43357

+25

-8308

+ 16 32 198

+1

+11000

-729

+ 30

-k

-11160

91

+6 97 +29

ABU Q i R

WAGES MEN

95928 +42308 138236 -3676

WAGES

9 +62 153

124147 -5911 118236

177 146

120802 -1812 118990

+55

-5157

1

+24

+2566

BURJ 'ABD UL-SAMAD

TANIYYE

WAGES

MEN

WAGES

+ 98764 98764

+ 115 115

+ 129916

-10

12991 6 +2559 132475 -457^6

86

66244 -4527 61717

166 -44

+86

+61717

+ 122

+86729

MEN

_ +93

93 +3

96

-32520

122

86729

PORTRESSES HAN Y&NUS

BURULLOS

1004-1209

WAGES MEN

83919 -§343 7557& +2534 7811 0 -2499 7561 1

15?

YEARS

1 004 1004-1082 1082 1082-1121 1121 1121-1209 1209 Change from

DIMYAT

SARU AHMED

RESID

1004-1209

RUQN

FORTRESSES

YEARS

1 004 1004-1082 1082 1082-1121 1 121 1121-1209 1 209 Change from

BURJ MUSTAFA PASA

ISKENDERIYYE

MEN 146

+23 169 +29

WAGES METf 71377

+15883

75

WAGES MEN 132686 210

+77942 - 8 3

SUVEYS

'ARI3 WAGES

362583

MEN 1 00

WAGES 82686 -34206 48480

-143257 2 1 9326 -17941 201295 + 31293 232588

-45

-66 137

210628 1 2 7 +9465 +4B 220093 175 -6985 -5 213108 170

53

-5229 43251 -1 3163 3008&

+62

+80422 -40

-129995

-47

-52595

+83

198 -98 1 00

87260 -3493 83767 -43147 40620

203

-46

-30757

158 +45

55 -2

53

Q.OREYN MEN

WAGES

+61 61 -19 42 -6 3b

+70044 70044

+?6

+31328

38690

-7362 31328

212

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT TABLE X L V T I

II.

(Continued)

WAGES PAIt) TO THE MEN OF THE FORTRESSES FORTRESSES MUWEYLHJ WAJH TOR •ajrOd WAGES HEN WACfflS WAGES MEN WAGES MEN MEN 7 2 0 6 9 150 164181 25 10000 58 ks 71537

YEARS

1004 1 0 0 4 - 1 082 1 082 1082-1121 1 121 1121-1209 1209 Change from 1004-1209 - ? 8

-7757 63780 -63780

-71537

-106129

+26

+13184

-45681

—

+61 61 67

68144

641

172575

56

+67 + 1 0 6 5 5 2 +641

+ 172575

+56

106552

(a) (U)

WAGES 131109 +171735 3028ft

-SYSYVo

-439

24104 -20920

77 -72 5

318k

-144

-127925

FORTRESSES SAr ASWAN TOTALS IBRSM WAGES MEN MEN WAGES MEN WAGES MEN WAGES +189704 189704 -189704

(c) (d)

III.

-?7

-21

+£

+ 1 2 8 1 9 4 5 +383 383 1281945 +99165 - 7 7 * -1042176 -383 9 9 1 6 5 119 239769

NOTES:

YEARS

+39560 S956O -16166 33394 -10210 £3184

-77 1? -24 49

JIRJE (d) ftUSEYR WAGES MEN WAGES MEN —

+24 49 +1 53 -2 51

-41981 30088 -2914 27174 -786 26388

YEARS 1004 (t>J 1004-1082 1082 1082-1121 1 121 1121-1209 1209 Change from 1004-1209

53

-65U17 98764 -38904 59860 -1808 58052

-20 22 +1 23 -2 21

JEHEJIYAN ( a )

MEN ill? +567 7l6

(c)

(0;

co J 98

+68144 +98

118944

2304 2031209 +2383 +2040516 (CJ 4587 4071725 -1686 -1636635 — ( C ) 3001 2435090 +460 +379866 100 137588 3461 2BU936

+118944+100

+137588+1157

Jebeliy&n, or armorers of the Citadel of Claro. See page I n the e a r l y 11/17th c e n t u r y , t h e s e f o r t s were maintained b y t h e g o v e r n o r o f J l r j e o u t o f h i s own r e v e n u e s . These f i g u r e s a r e included with those o f J l r j e . F o r more d e t a i l e d f i g u r e s o n t h e F o r t s o f J l r j e , s e e A p p e n d i x ( p . 395 ) .

PENSIONS PAID TO MEMBERS OF THE INACTIVE CORPS

200.

(JEMA'AT-I MDTEQA'IDIN)

jemS'St KE§iDE-I DfVAN MUTEQA'IDlN-I DivSN EYTAM YE 'AYAL JEVfiLI MEMBERS PENSIONS MEMBER3 PENSIONS MEMHER3 PENSIONS MEMBERS PENSIONS

1004 1004-1082 +730 1 o8£ 730 1082-1121 +641 1 121 1371 1121-1209 -1090 2§1 1209 Change 1 0 0 4 - 1 2 0 9 +281

+4166460 4166460 +3712430 7878890 -7054538 824352 +824352

+1422 1444 +456 1878 -1073 805 +805

+1754640 +5448 1754640 5448 +10834122 +8697 12588762 14145 -10781770 -12817 1806992 1328 +1806992

+1328

+4449060 +1107 4449060 2112 + 1 0 9 2 6 7 4 ! +1746 15 3 7 5 8 0 7 3(i52 -12450635 -2351 2925172 1501

1367430 +1574334 £64l76lt + 1963U71 4605235 -30958*3 1509395

+ 2925172

+141962

+496

+783747

WAGES AND PENSIONS

TABLE XLVII III.

213

(Continued)

PENSIONS PAID TO MEMBERS OF THE INACTIVE CORPS (Continued) YEARS

1004 1004-1082 1082 1082-1121 1121 1121-1209 1209 Change 1004-1209

KESEDE-I JEVSLI PENSIONS MEMBERS + 122 122 + L44 266 +34 300

+246324 246324 +209816 456140 +191308 647*48

+300

+647448

ERBSB-I HADTS PENSIONS MEMBERS 100 76945 +50 +356O0 150 112553 150 150

112553 +7207 119760

+50

+42815

TOTAL MEMBERS PENSIONS 11 05 1444375 +11926*26 +887? 13370801 9964 +11678 +27646586 21662 41017387 -17297 -33184271 7833116 4365 +3260

+6388741

IV. WAGES PAID TO MEMBERS OF OTHER GROUPS GROUPS TOTAL G U M H - I DERGAH-'ALI BMERA' -•1 CERAKISE WAGES MEMBERS MEMBEIRS WAGES MEMBERS WAGES 423058 114 40 1004 74 806935 383877 -209065 -592942 1004-1082 -74 -74 -383877 40 1082 4o 213993 213993 -26 -210761 -26 -210761 1082-1121 14 1 121 14 3232 3232 -1225 1121-1209 -1225 -3 -3 11 11 2007 2007 1209 Change 1004-1209 -804928 -74 -421051 -103 -383877 -29

YEARS

V.

TOTAL WAGES AND PENSIONS PAID TO MEMBERS OF ACTIVE AND INACTIVE CORPS

YEARS

1004 1004-1082 1082 1082-1121 1121 1121-1209 1209 Change 1004-1209

ACTIVE CORPS WAGES MEMBERS 6168 20149132 + 9748 +13437407 15917 33586539 -6L08244 -995 27478295 14921 +3926 +14315433 41793728 18847 +6168

+21644596

CORPS GARRISONS OF FORTS MEMBERS WAGES 2304 2031209 +20*0516 +2383 4687 4071725 -1686 -1636635 3001 2435090 +379866 +460 3461 2814956 + 1157

+783747

INACTIVE; CORPS MEMBERS PENSIONS 1105 1444375 +11926426 +8879 13370801 998* +11678 +27646586 21662 41017387 -17297 -33184271 7833116 4365 +3260

+6388741

OTHERS MEMBERS WAGES 114 806935 -592942 -74 213993 40 -26 -210761 3232 14 "3 -1225 11 2007 -103

-804928

214

EXPENDITURES F O R EGYPT

YEARS 1 004 1 004-1082 1082 1082-1121 1 1 21 1121-1 200 1200 (a) 1200-1209 1209 Change 1004-1209

MEN

TOTAL W A G E S A N D PENSIONS

9691 +20936 30627 +8971 39598 -12831 26767 -83

24,431 ,651 +26,81 1,407 51.243,058 + 1 9,690,946 70,934,004 -13,492,103 57,441,901 -4,998,094 52,443,807

+16993

+28,012,156

26684

NOTES: (a) Only the totals, not the corps by corps details, are available for the year 1 2 0 0 . REFERENCE: These figures have b e e n derived from the detailed tables of wages and salaries which are found in the Appendix, together with the references to the registers from which they have b e e n taken (pp.591 - 3 9 8 ) . In sum, there was a continuing process in which wages created to provide for the members of the active military corps were Increased by a pyramiding of and and were transferred into the Inactive corps or converted into so that new wages had to be created out of the Increasing revenues of the Treasury In order to provide for the support of newly-purchased MamlQks w h o were enrolled in each corps to perform the military services promised to the by the leaders of the h o u s e s . As a result, the total amount paid by the Imperial Treasury for wages and pensions to the active and inactive corps rose from 2 4 , 4 3 1 , 6 5 1 paras in 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 5 1 , 2 4 3 , 0 5 8 paras in 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 , an increase of 2 6 , 8 1 1 , 4 0 7 p a r a s , or 109 per cent, in less than a century. This increase continued during the next forty y e a r s , although at a reduced r a t e , and reached 7 0 , 9 3 4 , 0 0 4 paras in 1 1 2 1 / 1 7 0 9 - 1 0 , an increase of 1 9 , 6 9 0 , 9 4 6 p a r a s , or thirty-eight per cent, over the amount in 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 . After that, however, the process b y which these wages were converted into reached Its p e a k , and so while the Treasury's obligations In that respect 1 34 J Its obligations in wages and pensions fell from rose enormously, 70,934,004 paras in 1 1 2 1 / 1 7 0 9 - 1 0 to 5 2 , 4 4 3 , 8 0 7 paras In 1 2 0 9 / 1 7 9 4 - 5 , a de135 crease of 1 8 , 4 9 0 , 1 9 7 p a r a s , or twenty-six per c e n t . However, from 1004/1595-6 to 1 2 0 9 / 1 7 9 4 - 5 the total of wages and pensions paid out by the Imperial Treasury still rose from 2 4 , 4 3 1 , 6 5 1 paras to 5 2 , 4 4 3 , 8 0 7 p a r a s , a n 136 increase of 2 8 , 0 1 2 , 1 5 6 paras, or 1 1 4 per cent over the original a m o u n t . -

See page

212.

1 35

See Table X L V I I I . The archives lack registers of salaries and wages paid after the year 1 2 0 9 / 1 7 9 4 - 5 . The French expedition to Egypt found that wages were only 2 6 , 2 5 8 , 0 2 6 paras in the ! last year before the Invasion M (Esteve, Memoire SUP les Finances de l lilgypte , p . 202). 1 3 6

- See Table X L V I I .

W A G E S A N D PENSIONS

215

1 07 If w e consider together the salaries as w e l l as the wages and pensions paid b y the Treasury during the same p e r i o d , w e find that the total rose from 31,636,672 paras in 1004/1595-6 to 5 3 , m > i i 7 paras in 1209/1794-5, an increase of 21,474,445 paras, or sixty-nine per cent. Thus the great decrease which was made in the during the course of the 12/18th century only partially compensated for the Increases which were 13 being made in wages and pensions during the same y e a r s . ® TABLE X L V I I I . SALARIES WAGES AND PENSIONS PAID B Y THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT FROM 1004/1595-6 TO 1209/1794-5: TOTALS YEARS 1 004 tenzIl-ziySde 1004-1082 1 082 tenzll of 1082 (0) 1082 tenzll-zlygde 1082-1200 1200 (d) tenzll 1200-1209 1 209 NOTES: (a) See (b) See (c) See (d) See

SALARIES (SftLIYtoAT) (a) 7205021

P G E § A N D PENSIONS (MEVAJIBAT V E V A Z & " I F A T ) (b)

TOTAL PARAS

24431651

31636672

-2010341 5194680 -4480273 714407

+26811407 51243058 -147009 51096049

+24801066 56437738 -4627282 51810456

-1 9345 695062

+6345852 57441 901

+6326507 58136963

-27752 667310

-4998094 52443807

-5025846 53111117

Table X L V I . Table X L V I I . pages 289, 291. page 305.

C.

The Distribution of Salaries, W a g e s , and P e n s i o n s .

During the first quarter-century of Ottoman rule in E g y p t , the collection of land tax revenues Intended for salaries and wages was Imposed on the recipients themselves or their agents: "it is necessary that w h e n the wages of the mounted or foot soldiers of the corps or of the (i.e., the and San.i&q Beys are p a i d , that cash b e not given from the Treasury but that It be transferred from the land tax paid in the provinces, so that each corps w i l l send its own m e n who w i l l collect It and bring it b a c k . W h e n they return It and are ready to distribute it, let their registers first be 1checked under the supervision of the 3 9 and the 13 7

1 3 8

1

' See page 188. ' See Table XLVIII-

3 9 - The Treasurer of the Imperial T r e a s u r y .

See page

338-

21 6

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT i kn Sehlr , and then let the cause the sialaries and wages to be distributed to their and and everyone else

W h e n the collections were brought b a c k , they were handed over to the scribes of the Treasury who distributed them to the members of the corps in the 1 42 open R u m e l i square, located at the foot of the Citadel. However, the soldiers Invariably took more than they were legally entitled to when collecting taxes for their own profit, so after 940/1533 this task was en1 trusted first to the corps and later to the M u t e f e r r i q a . ^ The ceremony in which wages were distributed continued to b e performed in the R u m e l i square during the rest of the 10/16th century. After 1 0 0 5 / 1 5 9 6 - 7 , it was transferred into the chambers in the Citadel, 1 44 Wages were due monthly for the where it remained thereafter. and corps and quarterly for the Janissaries, and m e n of the provincial fortresses. Monthly wages were indicated in the financial registers and on the tickets b y the first or last letter of the appropriate lunar month:

Quarterly wages were indicated b y four w o r d s , each composed of the first or last letters of each of the three lunar months included in it:

These words were used to indicate salaries and wages all over the Ottoman 145 Empire. These payments were thus arranged according to the Muslim lunar y e a r , which was approximately eleven days shorter than the solar y e a r , according to which the agricultural and financial years were calculated and taxes were collected. The salaries and wages for the extra eleven days were called or the "differential of the first month of the Coptic solar y e a r , and w e r e accounted for and provided separately from 114,0

'One of the Efendis, or departmental chiefs, of the Treasury. See p p . 359,344.

1 4 1

f o l . 68b-69a.

l42

' I b n Iyfis, V , 233, 240, 24l, 266, 2 7 3 , 1 43See pages 7 6 - 7 , 193-4. 144. f o l . 71a.

^

See d'Ohsson,

362, 348-349, 402, 424-5, 452, 483-

VII, 266-7.

WAGES AND PENSIONS the regular quarterly and monthly p a y m e n t s .

217

146

W h e n the wages were distributed in the the ceremony was presided over b y the o r , In his absence, the and was carried out b y the scribes of the Treasury. The wages of the , were registered and paid by the department of the Treasury out of the revenues of the and the land taxes from the provinces of J£ze and Manfaldtiyye, the registration and reception of which was also an obligation of that de147 partment. The wages of the seven active military corps were registered and paid b y the department out of the collections of the 1 ]i H land t a x . The wages of the and the garrisons of the forts located in A r a b i a , along the road of the pilgrimage, and at Suez were provided b y the out of the revenues from grain tax obligations which w e r e converted into cash. These funds were used to purchase food for the m e n of the garrisons, 1 kgand this was shipped to them b y caravan to Suez and from there b y s e a . The pensions of the Jev&li corps were paid b y t h e d e p a r t m e n t out of the IRQ revenues, for whose registration and reception it was responsible. All these payments were m a d e in cash in the out of the revenues which reached the Treasury in C a i r o , and so they w e r e k n o w n as ("from cash"). The wages of all those serving in the fortresses in the provinces, aside from those mentioned a b o v e , w e r e paid directly as or deductions for the account of the Treasury, out of the collections from rural and urban in those provinces. In the the scribes of the issued to agents sent from the of each fort tickets (tezkere) which authorized the provincial governors to deduct the amounts of the wages from the sums which they owed to the Treasury and to deliver them to the f o r t s . Since these wages were paid from the or d e d u c t i o n s , from the provincial tax collections, they w e r e k n o w n as ("from the deductions"). A l l wages w e r e sub-

ject to the deduction of one para out of every forty-one paras paid as 151 or revenue paid of theto Imperial T r e a s u r y . and other chief Thedifferential, salaries the officers w e r e credited to them quarterly, but their receipients were allowed For a full discussion of this p r o b l e m , see pages 1

1

l 4 9

1 5 0

1 5 1

' See page

344.

' See page

345 •

' M u h . M i s i r , V I , 47b:222 ' See page

345-

' See page

169.

I, 1158).

308-9.

218

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT

to collect them direct from the Treasury whenever they wished, usually every other week or once a month. The entire sum was seldom paid at once since the Treasury never had that much money available at a single time. Unlike wages and pensions, salaries were not subject to the deduction of Tefavut for the benefit of the Treasiiry. In addition, the recipients were allowed to collect their salaries in advance of the quarters in which they were due as loans (QarS) from the Treasury. The recipients of salaries usually used them to pay those in their private service who did not receive regular salaries or wages of their own from the Treasury. To each of these the holder of a salary would issue a ticket indicating the transfer (tahvil) of a portion of his right, and the names of these persons were also set down in the salary registers of the Treasury beside those of the original recipients of the salaries. In essence, then, these salaries became regular wages paid by the Treasury to the persons in the personal service of the salary holders rather than to persons in the service of the Sultan, while the Treasury became in many respects a bank, making loans and accepting checks drawn on it by persons who had a right to a portion of its assets. The ceremonies at which wages and salaries were distributed were known as UlQfe DivSni, or "salary Div&n". The required sums were taken from the Treasury by the CSvIls and Havale AS&s, who were in charge of distributing them in the DivSn• During most of the 10/16th and early 11/17th centuries, each recipient came to the DivSn to receive what was due to him. Thereafter, as the number of recipients and the diversity of their occupa­ tions and residences increased, personal attendance no longer was required. The sums due to each corps were delivered in bulk to its own scribes who would take them to the caserne (BSb) of the corps and distribute them there. For the members of the inactive corps, whose corporative unity was little more than a financial fiction, salary distributions were handled by subordi­ nate scribes of the Treasury, usually appointed from amongst its apprentices (SSklrdSn).1^2 For members of the corps who were absent from Cairo when the distributions were made, whether they were in residence in the provinces or outside of the country, the sums due to them were withheld from those delivered to their corps and tickets were issued entitling them to draw the appropriate amount directly from the Treasury when they returned. For those who were in the service of the Porte elsewhere in the Empire, these wage tickets were directed to the Imperial Treasiiry of the province in which they were serving and the sums were paid to them there, with the appropriate amounts being added to the obligation of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt to 1

' See page 5^7·

WAGES AND PENSIONS

that of the Porte. Thus until the middle of the l2/i8th century, wage tickets were issued by the Treasury only for persona who were absent from Cairo when the wage distributions were made. However, after that time the Treasury frequently lacked sufficient revenues to meet its current cash obligations. Out of the money which it did receive, it was required to meet in full its pension and salary obli­ gations before it delivered the wages in cash to the members of the corps 154 who were entitled to them. As a result, it was seldom able to deliver in cash more than eighty per cent of the wages which it owed, and for the balance tickets (Tevjihat) were issued which entitled their holders to collect the balance of their wages directly from persons owing taxes to the Treasviry. Usually these Tev.IihSt were levied on arrears owed to the Treasury, but on occasion they were also assigned to current revenues. They were delivered in the DivSn to the scribe of each corps together with the wages which were paid in cash. Generally, it was arranged to issue the Tev.iihat authorizing collections from a single source or location of revenue to the men of the same corps so that it could send a party of its members to collect as much as possible of the money which was due. In the years following the rise of 'Ali Bey, however, the corps were too disorganized to do this and only the predominant MamlHk houses were able to arrange expeditions of this kind to collect the balance of the wages owed to their members. For those who lacked the means or association necessary to enforce the collection of the sums due for the Tev.iihat or for those members of the corps or houses who could not wait until the collections were made, SerrSfs arranged to purchase the Tev.iihSt at large discounts below their face value and then they attempted to collect the sume due for their own profit. The losses suffered in the sale at dis­ count of Tev.iihSt fell most heavily on the aged, women and children, and re­ ligious persons whose positions made them more dependent on their wages or pensions than were the members of the MamlQk houses and corps, who had other sources of revenue. Since the Tev.iihSt were not calculated with reference to the current year's production of the sources of revenue to which they were assigned, they were in essence extra Impositions on already over­ burdened localities and they frequently could not be collected. When thi3 occurred, the soldiers would riot, depose the VSli, and take by force what they wished from the rooms of the Villi, the Treasury, and others and from see page 15V

283.

Muh- Misir, VI,

47b:222

(mid JumSda I, 1158).

1^5· Mi§ir, III, l40b:660 (end Safar 1139), V, 86a:2o4 (start Qa'da 11^7), VI, 1 09b:502 (end Safar 11 62), VII, 244:528 (end JumSda 1,1172), VIII, 3:io (start Hi.i.ie 1174).

220

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT

the city of Cairo Itself. Most of the holders of Mugata'St, who owed taxes to the Treasury, were also recipients of salaries or wages from it. In the early 12/18th century, an effort was made to apply these salaries and wages directly to the tax obligations of their recipients. In return for payments made in this way, a receipt (Ru.i'a) was issued in place of the wage ticket. If a balance remained after the payment was made, it was paid to the recipient or kept as a deposit (Vadi'a) to meet subsequent obligations. After the middle of the century, however, this system broke down because of the in­ crease of salaries, wages, and MuqSta'St held by persons other than those in whose names they were registered in the Treasury, the distribution of wages in bulk to the scribes of the corps without regard to the individual wages of each of their members, and the tendency of the soldiers to riot when­ ever this was attempted on a large scale. GSzi JJasan Paga attempted to restore this system in the reform of 1200/1785-6, but it had to be abandoned after his departure, and the Treasury continued to pay salaries and wages to those who owed it large amounts in taxes. D.

Wages, Salaries, and Pensions in Kind.

Payments in kind were made out of the Imperial Granary (Anbar-i 'Amire) in Old Cairo in accordance with tickets issued by the Treasury to those entitled to subsistence at its expense. Rations were measured and distributed in units called: (a) JerSye, equal to an ardeb of wheat or its equivalent in grains, used for the subsistence of human beings; (b) 'Aliq, equal to an ardeb of barley or its equivalent in grains used for the sub­ sistence of animals; and (c) FeddSns, equal to an ardeb of wheat for a human or barley for an animal, which were given to holders of JerSyes and 'Aliqs so that they could collect subsistence from local sources while they were travelling in the provinces and could not collect their rations from the Granary itself. The exact amount of grain included in each JerSye was paid out varied according to the state of the stores of Granary and the rank and authority of the person collecting ments were subject to the use of measures of a smaller size in collections, to provide the revenue of Tefavut-u Kil for

and 'Aliq which the Imperial it. All pay­ than those used the Treasury.1^0

" el-JJallSq, TSrih-1 Migir, 17b, 20a; Ibn abi us-Surilr, KawSkib us-SS'ire, f o l . k 3 a ; Miih. M i s i r . . V I I I . 5 1 : 2 1 0 ( 1 5 g a ' b S n 1 1 7 4 ) . 157"

Muh. Misir, IV, 85a:389 (start Q.a'da 1 1 W ) .

See also pages 2 0 7 - 8 .

Jabarti, 'A.IS'ib ul-AsSr, II, 145. ' ' O n the measurement of grains, see pages 7 2 , 7 9 . 1

' See page 1 7 0 .

W A G E S A N D PENSIONS

221

In theory, one and one w e r e provided daily to each wage or salary holder regardless of rank to provide for the subsistence of himself and his animals. In p r a c t i c e , the and great were given as m u c h as three hundred to five hundred per day so that they could provide f o r their followers, and soldiers o f lesser rank were given extra and b o n u s e s , so that the number held b y each individual varied considerably and had no direct relation to his cash salaries and wages or to his rank in the corps. Recipients w h o were in Cairo usually collected their rations once a w e e k at the Granary, either personally or through a g e n t s . For those w h o w e r e stationed in the provinces, whether in the provincial forts or in the guards of the governors, rations w e r e shipped in bulk to provincial centers where they could b e collected b y those entitled to them. Those w h o w e r e in the service of the governors also were entitled to collect rations directly from the land b y the levy of Kulfe taxes on the villages through which they 161 passed. For those who were sent in imperial expeditions or in the guard accompanying the pilgrimage to the Holy Cities, rations were issued at the time of their departure for six months or one y e a r in advance, depending on the expected duration of their m i s s i o n . Usually these were given in bulk to their officers, w h o distributed them as needed along the w a y . Surpluses accruing to members of the Egyptian corps w h o w e r e serving outside of the country were credited to their account and could be collected b y persons to whom they sold or gave their right, b y agents, or in bulk u p o n their re1 62 turn. The number of and to w h i c h the chief officers, 1 and corps were entitled remained relatively unchanged over the centuries. H o w e v e r , w h e n the Imperial Granary lacked enough grains to p a y the rations in f u l l , it met the balance of its obligation b y delivering part of it in cash, evaluated at the official p r i c e , which wa3 far below that at which grains could be purchased on the open m a r k e t , and the rest was given out in tickets called which entitled their holders to collect the grains due them from holders of

owing grain taxes to the Treasury.

These

had the same nature and fate as the tickets g i v e n in a 16 1 similar w a y to meet the Treasury's obligations in cash. ' ' l 6 1

'

1

See pages 89-93•

M u h . 119, p- 204 (mid Sevval 11 24); M u h . 120, p . 167 (end R e b l L 1126); Muh- M i g i r , I, 52b:232 (mid Rejeb 1124); I0ia:499 (start Muharrem 1130), IV, lb:2 (end JumSda I, 1139), I34a:570 (start Re.ieb 1145), V , 21:151 (start Q.a'da 1146); 'Abd ul-Ker£m, Tarfh-i M i g i r , 103b; el-Hallfiq, TSrlh-i M i g i r , 29b; Ibn IySs, V , 458. l 6 3

-

See Table X L I X .

'Abd ul-Kerim, TSrib-x M i g i r , f o l . 66b; Jabartl, 'Ajfi' lb ul-Aaar, I, 28; M u h . M i g i r , III, l20a:552 (start Re.ieb 1138), V I , 109b:502 (end Safar 1162), V I I , 244:528 (end Jumfida 1,1172). See also page 219-

222

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT TABLE XLIX. SALARIES A N D WAGES IN K I N D DEMANDED FROM THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT I:

SALARIES IN KIND GIVEN TO THE PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF EGYPT WHEAT (JERAYE) Ardebs per day

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

The Vfili YEARS 1066 to 11 06 1106 to 1135 1135 to 1200 1200 to 1 2 1 2 Q M S 'Asker Efendi YEARS 1066-1212 Defterdfir Efendi YEARS 1066-11 1144-1200 1 200-1212 Emirs YEARS 1066-1200 1200-1212

YEARS 1066-1200 1200-1212 A^fis of the corps YEARS 1066-1200

1 000 833 814 ardebs and 14 qirfits 651 ardebs and 20 qirfits

20

20

4i ardebs and 16 qirfits 40 ardebs and 16 qirfits 40 ardebs and 16 qirfits

4i ardebs and 16 qirfits 4o ardebs and 16 qirfits 33 ardebs and 10 qirfits

40 each 32 each

20 each 20 each

Umerfi'-1 Cerfikise YEARS 1066-1212 2 each Kuttab (the eighteen chief scribes of the Treasury; see page

1200-1212 8)

500 250 231 231

BARLEY ('ALIO.) Ardebs per day

123 for all 98 for all

2 each

53 for all 53 for all

9 for all

26 ardebs and 12 qirfits for all 20 for all

9 for all 8 for all

26 ardebs and 12 qirfits 15 for all

10 for all

Kethodfis of the military corps excluding the Janissaries and •Azabs YEARS 1066-1200 1200-1212

223

WAGES AND PENSIONS TABLE XLIX (Continued)

REFERENCE (continued): 5412 ( 1 1 3 6 ) , 5432 ( n 4 o ) , 5435-6 ( 1 U 1 ) , 5443 (1143), 5 W 5 (1144), 5448 (1144), 5456 (1 145), 5458 (1145), 5463-6 ( 1 1 4 7 - 8 ) , 5468 (1147), 5481 (1151), 5487 (1152), 5495 (1154), 5498 ( H 5 5 ) , 5502-4 ( 1 1 5 6 - 7 ) , 5511-2 ( 1 1 5 8 ) , 5515 ( 1 1 5 8 ) , 5523 ( 1 1 6 0 ) , 5525 ( 1 1 6 0 ) , 5544-5 (1164), 5561 (1 167), 5563 ( 1 1 6 7 - 8 ) , 5566-7 (1 1 6 8 ) , 5609 (1174), 5620 ( 1 1 7 6 ) , 5643-6 (11 79), 5656 ( 1 1 8 0 ) , 5684 ( 1 1 8 6 ) , 5687 ( 1 1 8 7 ) , 5690 ( 1 1 8 9 ) , 5 6 9 1 - 2 (1189-90), 5697 (1191 ), 5711 (1194), 5715 (1 194), 5723 (1 195), 5725 (1 195), 5732 ( 1 1 9 6 ) , 5735 ( 1 1 9 6 ) , 5746 ( 1 1 9 6 ) , 5741 (1 197), 5743 (1 197), 5748 (1 197), 5753 ( 1 1 9 8 ) , 5755 (1198), 5764 (1199), 5767 (1199), 5774 ( 1 2 0 0 ) , 5778 ( 1 2 0 0 ) , 5782 ( 1 2 0 0 ) , 5784-5 ( 1 2 0 0 ) 5799 ( 1 2 0 1 - 2 ) , 5808 ( 1 2 0 1 ) , 5 8 1 2 ( 1 2 0 2 - 3 ) , 5821 (1203-4), 5823 (1203-4), 5827 ( 1 2 0 3 ) , 5828 ( 1 2 0 3 ) , 5835 (1205), 5839 (1205), 5843 ( 1 2 0 4 - 5 ) , 5847 ( 1 2 0 6 ) , 5851 ( 1 2 0 6 ) , 5856 ( 1 2 0 7 ) , 5865 ( 1 2 0 8 ) , 5866 ( 1 2 0 8 ) , 5882 ( 1 2 0 9 ) , 5890 ( 1 2 0 9 ) , 5894 ( 1 2 1 0 ) , 5896 ( 1 2 1 0 ) , 5897-9 ( 1 2 1 0 - 1 ) , 5909 ( 1 2 1 0 ) , 5 9 1 3 ( 1 2 1 0 ) , 5915 ( 1 2 1 0 ) , 5921 ( 1 2 1 1 -), 5924 ( 1 2 1 2 ) , 5933 ( 1 2 1 1 - 2 ) , 5934 ( 1 2 1 1 ) , 5937 ( 1 2 1 1 ) , 5943 ( 1 2 1 2 ) , 5948 ( 1 2 1 2 ) , 5953 ( 1 2 1 2 ) . II: TOTAL SALARIES IN KIND GIVEN TO THE OFFICERS A N D M E N OF EGYPT IN THE YEARS 1 0 8 1 / 1 6 7 0 - 1 A N D 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6 WHEAT ardebs GRAIN REVENUES (b) GRAIN EXPENDITURES 1 ) v a i £ , Emirs, Agas, Defterd&r, Qgd£ 'Asker (group listed in Part I of this table) 2) Jem&'at-i MuteferriqaRan, MuteqS'idln, and others 3) Jema'at-1 Cavtigan and others 4 ) Jem&'at-i Muteafi'id£n-i K.e§lde and others 5 ) Jema'at-1 Mes&yih-i 'Iz&n (Religious leaders of E g y p t )

BARLEY ardebs 1081

A. B.

6)

TOTAL ardebs(a)

WHEAT ardebs

BARLEY ardebs 1179

353847

TOTAL ardebs(a) 364833

26744

29965

56709

19995

29536

49531

15868

50697

66565

4212

11245

15457

1 3225

26340

39565

7315

15265

22580

24123

2066

26189

27288

8620

35908

221 07

336

22%43

39828

9932

49760

7097

1 0941

3892

7097

1 0989

5935

9708

4447

5295

9742

33580

33580

32408

32408

For pilgrims to Holy Cities and their camels 3844 7) Merd&n-i QalS.' (men of the forts of Egypt) 3773 8) Merd&n-i O.l&q&t (men of five active military corps except Muteferriqa and CfivHsfin) 9) Ahall-yi Harameyn (people of Holy Cities) 4 1 2 2 7 366 1 0 ) QjSdi of Mecca 200 11 ) Q M S of Medina

4i 227 3 66 200

42407 366 200

42%07 366 200

224

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT TABLE X L I X

(Continued) 1 081

WHEAT 1 2)

Servants of imperial s h i p s a t Suez

1 3)

Captains of i m p e r i a l s h i p s a t A l e x a n d r i a and Damietta. (including Qaptid&ns o f t h o s e ports)

14 )

For soldiers at f o r t s along the road of the pilgrimage

15)

For oxen o f w a t e r wheels o f w e l l s along road o f t h e p i l g r i m a g e and f o r animals b e a r i n g p i l g r i m s

TOTAL EXPENDITURES:

1179

BARLEY

528

BARLEY

TOTAL

906

906

528

154-5

1545

1545

681

201371*

WHEAT

TOTAL

1545

681

681

681

4399

4399

48i 0

481 0

115292

316666

125795

277290

151495

NOTES: ( a ) The t o t a l s a r e g i v e n i n terms o f ardebs o f wheat. For t h i s purpose e a c h a r d e b o f b a r l e y was c o n v e r t e d i n t o a n a r d e b o f w h e a t a t t h e r a t i o o f 1 1/2 t o 1. See page 79(b)

T r e a s u r y r e v e n u e s i n g r a i n a r e d i s c u s s e d on pages

78-80.

REFERENCE: The f i g u r e s i n P a r t I I o f t h i s T a b l e w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m two r e g i s t e r s i n t h e Bag V e k a l e t A r g l v l ( T u r k i s h S t a t e A r c h i v e s ) , I s t a n b u l ; t h a t f o r t h e y e a r 1 0 8 1 i s Bag Muhasebe 2 3 0 4 ; t h a t f o r 1179 i s M a l l y y e d e n M u d e w e r e 2689I n t h e D & r u l - M a h f f l z S t ( E g y p t i a n S t a t e A r c h i v e s ) , C a i r o t h e r e a r e det a i l e d r e g i s t e r s o f r a t i o n s t o each o f t h e s e g r o u p s , y e a r b y y e a r . But most o f t h e s e l a c k t o t a l s s u c h as h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s t a b l e ; t h e y o n l y have t h e day by day d a t a from w h i c h t h e d e t a i l s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n h a v e f o r t h e most p a r t b e e n d e r i v e d . See a l s o E s t e v e , " M e m o l r e s u r l e s F i n a n c e s " , p . 103.

III.

OTHER EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT I n a d d i t i o n t o wages, s a l a r i e s ,

and p e n s i o n s ,

t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s o f t h e T r e a s u r y went t o p r o v i d e o t h e r pensions f o r the Egypt.

or

"deliveries"

B.

or

or I t s

o r p u r c h a s i n g commodities

"

See page

77-

in

special or

agents.

them, i n o r d e r t o p e r f o r m

s e r v i c e s o r make p u r c h a s e s w h i c h w e r e i n i t s l65

and o t h e r s

" d e d u c t i o n s " made d i r e c t l y f r o m T r e a s u r y

b y t h o s e who w e r e i n c h a r g e o f c o l l e c t i n g

of

and

types:

i n cash b y t h e T r e a s u r y t o

charged w i t h p e r f o r m i n g s e r v i c e s

o t h e r m a t e r i a l s needed b y t h e

supplies,

and men o f t h e c o r p s ,

These e x p e n d i t u r e s were o f t h r e e p r i n c i p a l A.

officers

officers

a small p o r t i o n

services,

1 6 "5

obligation.

y

revenues local

EXPENDITURES F O R EGYPT

225

or "customary pensions" paid b y the Treasury to the holders of M u r a t t a M t , or salary, w a g e , and pension obligations of the Treasury w h i c h were established In V a q f b y their holders to provide for the 1 support of their descendents or specified religious or other Institutions.

1. W a t e r for the Port of S u e z . Fresh w a t e r for the port of Suez was provided principally b y Arab w a t e r carriers, w h o brought it in leather sacks from the N i l e , and w h o sold It for high prices in the streets of the c i t y . In addition, the Treasury provided the of Suez w i t h annual sums to hire Arabs to secure water from the Nile and from distant springs and to distribute it free to those in Suez unable to purchase it: YEARS 1020-1082 tenzil of 1082 1082-1212

PARAS 23,1*00 -1 ,200 22,200

2. Maintenance of W a t e r Wheels of Old Cairo and the Aqueduct of the Citadel. The Citadel of Cairo was distant from the N i l e , and those w h o lived or worked in it w e r e dependent for water on a system of water w h e e l s , w h i c h drew the water from the river at Old Cairo, and an aqueduct which transported it to the Citadel. The maintenance of the water wheels and the aqueduct and the supervision of their operation was in the charge of the w h o received from the Treasury the following sums: YEARS 1 004 tenzil iooi*-1082 1 082-11 07 tenzJl of 11 07 1 1 07-1212

PARAS 57145 -11545 45600 -60 1*5540

b . To provide white hay for the oxen used to move the water wheels and other materials needed to m a i n t a i n them and the aqueduct: YEARS 1 021* ziySde 1021*-1082 1082-1107 tenz£l of 11 07 11 07-1212

PARAS 37633 +39365 76998 -11276 65722

After 1107/1695-6, an additional four thousand paras a y e a r was 1 6 5 a

See page 209.

226

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT

provided for the same purpose out of the 1 sent annually b y the Treasury of Egypt to the Porte.

or revenues

3 . Maintenance of the Canal of Cairo. The canal of Cairo carried the waters of the Nile to all parts of the city and was the principal source of fresh water for Its inhabitants. Its maintenance was a duty of the for which he was given 11,313 paras annually b y the Treasury after 102i«./i 615- In addition, after 1179/1765-6 a special annual sum of 309,000 paras was also given him by the Treasury to assist him in his work and to relieve the people of Cairo of his claims for compensation. Maintenance of the Cisterns and Canal of Dsmletta. a . The Treasury provided the of Dsmletta with money for the maintenance of the ancient cisterns of that city which stored the fresh water supply received during the peak of the Nile flow: YEARS 1020-1082 tenzil of 1082 1 082-1 101 ziySde of 1101 1101-1212

PARAS 18450 -18450 +21326 21326

b . The Treasury also provided for the wood, workers, animals, hay, and other materials needed to maintain the which brought the waters of the Nile to Damietta and circulated them through the city: YEARS 1 065-1082 tenzil of 1082 1 082-1 101 ziy&de of 11 01 11 01-1212

PARAS 8364 -8364 + 11317 11317

5 . Provision of Robes of Honor. Whenever the of Cairo appointed anyone to an Important office, he was invested by the in a robe of honor whose kind and value varied according to the importance of the office. Robes of honor were also distributed on the accession of a new Sultan or arrival of a new at the departure and arrival of military expeditions, and on other special occasions. During the 10/16th and early 11/17th centuries, the was obliged to pay the entire cost of these robes. After 1024/1615, however, the Treasury assumed most of the burden. There were three kinds of robes of honor: a. 1 6 6

' See page

the finest robes, having jewels and a sash, for which 1620 paras was provided for each of 278 robes, or a total of 450,360 paras. 312(24).

EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT

227

or a grand total of 801,060 paras> of w h i c h 59,060 paras continued to b e paid b y the V&li and 742,000 paras w e r e provided annually b y the T r e a s u r y . During the rest of the century, the were able to force the Vfili t o give them m o r e expensive robes u n t i l the cost reached 1,4-92,000 pft^s b y 1082/1671-2. In the reform of that y e a r , the Treasury w a s ordered to spend no m o r e t h a n 742,000 paras annually on robes, and i n the century which followed additional costs w e r e borne b y the VfilS and by the 167 Hazine funds of the S u l t a n . As w e have seen, In 1189/1775 the Treasury assumed the obligation to collect the taxes owed to its military tax collectors and to p a y them the corresponding sums 16 as part of its e x p e n d i t u r e s . ® B y 1200/1785-6, the amounts paid as for this purpose were:

Whenever the Treasury was forced to p a y in cash a portion of the rations in kind which it o w e d , these payments w e r e accounted as part of the Teslim&t expenditures rather than w i t h the cash w a g e s . These rations were converted into cash at the rate of twenty-five paras for every ardeb of grain o w e d . In 1107/1695-6, 137,300 paras were paid out in place of 5492 ardebs of rations. In 1179/1765-6, 348,255 paras w e r e paid out in place of 13930 ardebs of rations. And in 1200/1785-6, 723,875 paras were paid for 28,955 a r d e b s , an almost sixfold rise in less 16 than a century.

1• The Maintenance of the Imperial Canals and D a m s . d a m s , and bridges which composed the irrigation system of Egypt constant attention to preserve them from the effects of flowing accruing silt, and attacks by Arab tribes and others hostile to 16 7

" See pages 310, 331•

l 6 8 .

l 6 9
aras a d a y d o n a t e d b y H u s e y n Efendi', f o r m e r Defterdfir i n the Porte.

48,240

48,240

8.

M u r a t t a b - i M e k t e b ve qira'fit-i Eizfi'-i S e r i f e , or "Murattab of t h e s c h o o l and f o r t h e r e a d i n g of t h e H o l y F r a g m e n t s " . 190 paras a day.

34,200

34,200

9-

M u r a t t a b - i S e y b ul-Qurrfi berfiye t a ' l l m - i Te.ivld-i Qur'fin-i *Az£m-i Sfi'n v e t a ' l i m - i Sibyfin, o r "Murattab of the S e y b of R e a d e r s f o r t h e t e a c h i n g of c h a n t i n g of the Qur'fin, g r e a t of i m p o r t a n c e , and f o r the t e a c h i n g of c h i l d r e n " . 78 p a r a s a d a y .

14,040

1 4, 040

703,471

703,471 3 2 , 000

Jemfi'at-i Jevfil£-yi Mekke-i Mukerreme, of the g r o u p of Jevfill of M e c c a the (see p . 1 5 1 ) .

227,329

32,000

+676,384

4,320

554,066

903,713

4,320

+843,663

1,397,729

256

E X P E N D I T U R E S F O R THE P I L G R I M A G E A N D T H E H O L Y C I T I E S TABLE L I V

COMPONENT P A R T S OF T H E S U R R E I.

(Continued) A M O U N T SENT IN 1 1 1 8 PARAS

INCREASE F R O M 1 1 1 8 TO 1 2 1 2 PARAS

A M O U N T SENT IN 1 2 1 2 PARAS

+1,520,0*7

3,248,9*3

T H E SURRE SENT TO M E C C A .

10. M u r a t t a b - i B e d e m e - i SQlu.iuy&n d e r b e n d e r - i J i d d e - i Ma'mtlre, or "Murattab f o r the watercarriers of the p o r t of Jidde 89,630

the Flourishing".

T O T A L $URRE TO M E C C A II. 1.

2.

*.

5.

6.

89,630

THE SURRE SENT TO M E D I N A S u r r e - i R a v S a - i Ahfili-yi M e d i n a t - i M u n e v v e r e , or "purse of the g a r d e n of the p e o p l e of M e d i n a the Illuminated". Ta3adduqfit-i S u l t & n Suleymfin, or

3.

1,728,896

"alms of Sultan S u l e y m a n " .

Mevfi.iib-i Jevfili-yi Havfirfin-i M e d i n a t - i M u n e v e r r e , or "wages of the d e s t i t u t e Jevfili of M e d i n a the I l l u m i n a t e d " . Mevfi.ilb-i Jemfi'at-i Muteferrlqagfin-i M e d i n a t - i M u n e w e r e , or "wages of the g r o u p of M u t e f e r r i q a s of M e d i n a the I l l u m i n a t e d " .

59*,630

59*,630

28,800

28,800

289,159

+6,179,756

6,*68,915

9,570

-7,765

1,805

+3,381,579

5,553,607

Mevfi.iib-i Jemfi'at-i Muteq&'idin-i Medinat-i M u n e w e r e , or "wages of the g r o u p of retired p e r s o n s of M e d i n a the I l l u m i n a t e d " . 2,172,028 Mevfi.iib-i H e d e m e - i sebil ve m e k t e b - I S u l t & n Ahmed Hfin, or "wages of the servants of the f o u n t a i n and school of S u l t a n Ahmed Hfin". 1 * p e r s o n s , 98 p a r a s a d a y .

7.

M u r a t t a b - i Ferrfigin-i H a r e m - 1 S e r i f - I N a b a v l , or "Murattab of the servants of the illustrious tomb of the P r o p h e t " . 13 p e r s o n s , 92 p a r a s a d a y , established b y M e h m e d Paga

8.

M u r a t t a b berfiye qira'fit-i E.izfi'-i Serife fi R a v z a - i M u t a h h a r a - i Nabavi b a ' d Salfit lS-Subh "Murattab f o r the reading of the H o l y V e r s e s In the tomb of the Prophet a f t e r the m o r n i n g p r a y e r " . 31 p e r s o n s ,

f o r m e r Vfili o f E g y p t .

51

paras

a day.

17,6*0

17,6*0

16,09*

16,09*

9,270

9,270

257

EXPENDITURES FOR THE HOLY CITIES TABLE L T V (Continued)

COMPONENT PARTS OF THE SURRE II. THE SURRE SENT TO MEDINA

AMOUNT SENT IN 1 1 1 8 PARAS

Murattab berfiye qira'fit-i E.izfi' - 1 Serife fi Rav2a-i Mutahhara, or "Murattab for the reading of the Holy Verses in the Tomb of the Prophet". 10 persons, 20 paras a d a y . 3,600 10. Murattab-i Qfin&dil-i Medinat-i M u n e w e r e , or "Murattab for the lamps of Medina the Illuminated". 5,400 1 1 . Murattab-i Qira'fit-i E.izfi'-1 Serife fi Y e v m - 1 Jum'a, or "Murattab for the reading of the Holy Verses on Friday". 15 persons, 80 paras a d a y . i4,4oo 12. 'Adet-i Egrfif-i Beni Huseyn ve gayruh fi Medinat-i M u n e w e r e ve 'Adfit berfiye Esljfib-i Edrfik fi rab-i Ha.i .1, or "pensions for the Serifs of Beni Huseyn and others in Medina the Illuminated and pensions for the Arab guards of the posts on the road of the Pilgrimage". Of this sum, 86,o4o paras were for the Serifs of Medina and 1 4 2 , 1 0 2 paras were for the Arabs in its environs. 228,142 13. Murattab-berfiye qira'fit-i E.izfi' -1 Serife fi Rav2a-i Mutahhara-i Nabavi, or "Murattab for the reading of the Holy Verses In the Tomb of the Prophet" during the 30 days of the month of Reieb. Established in 1129/1717 b y 'Ali Pa^a, Vfili of Egypt. 14. Murattab berfiye qira'fit-i E.izS-i Serife fi Rav2a-i Mutahhara-i Nabavi, or "Murattab for the reading of the Holy Verses In the Tomb of the Prophet", ten verses a night for 20 persons, 4o paras a d a y . Established in 1 1 3 1 / 1 7 1 9

INCREASE FROM 1 1 1 8 TO 1212 PARAS

AMOUNT SENT IN 1212 PARAS

9-

by 'Ali Pa^a.

3,600

5,400

14,400

228,1*2

+6,120

6,120

+7,200

7,200

TOTAL SURRE TO MEDINA

3,588,833+9,566,890

12,955,723

TOTAL 5URRE TO MECCA A N D MEDINA

5,117,729+11,086,937

16,20*,666

258

EXPENDITURES FOR THE PILGRIMAGE A N D THE HOLY CITIES TABLE L I V (Continued)

TABLE L V . SUMMARY OF THE TOTAL SURRE CONTRIBUTIONS IN CASH SENT ANNUALLY B Y THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT TO THE HOIY CITIES FROM 9*0/1533-4 TO 1 21 2/1797-8 YEARS 940 zlyfide 1 004 zlyfide 1 082 tenzil 1082 zlyfide 1107 zlyfide 1179 zlyfide 1200 zlyfide 1212 NOTES: (a)

9*0-1004 1004-1082 of 1082 (a) 1082-1107 1107-1179 1179-1200 1200-1212

PARAS 560, 000 +767,040 1,327,040 4,806,978 -453,259 +77o,351 5,132,070 +4,919,709 10,051,779 +*,194,966 14,246,745 + 1,957,921 16,204,666

See p p . 288, 291-

B . Contributions in Kind Provided by the Imperial Treasury of Egypt. In addition to the contributions in cash, the Treasury also provided annual sums of money for the purchase of rations and other supplies needed in the Holy Cities. These were for the most part sent by sea rather than with the pilgrimage. or "allotments" of the ggrifs of the Holy Cities. From 1004/1595-6 to 1082/1671-2, the sums provided b y the Treasury for the purchase of rations for the or descendents of the Prophet, who lived In the Holy Cities increased from 95,616 to 158,170 paras a y e a r . In the reform of 1082, this sum was raised to 170,000 paras for the purchase and shipment of 800 ardebs of white rice, and an additional 63,800 paras a year was provided for the shipment to them of rations purchased b y the Muljamadiyye Vaqf, one of the principal public Vaqfs of 77 EgyptIn addition, a new protection tax was Imposed 7 7 -

See p .

269.

EXPENDITURES FOR THE HOLY C I T I E S

259

o n v a r i o u s V a q f s and R l z q e s t o p r o v i d e a n a n n u a l c a s h r e v e n u e o f p a r a s , w h i c h a l s o was t o b e s e n t t o t h e s e S e r i f s e a c h y e a r , 7 8 the grand t o t a l

t o 752,800 para3 a y e a r . 7 9

of

t h i s was s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a n a d d i t i o n a l

In

1107/1695-6,

200,000 p a r a s a y e a r f o r

s u p p l i e s and p e n s i o n s s e n t t o t h e

519,000

bringing the

o r Seyh o f

t h e Tomb o f t h e P r o p h e t i n M e d i n a , a n d 180,000 p a r a 3 a y e a r f o r t h e o f t h e Red Sea P o r t o f Y a r i b o ' , b o t h l e a d i n g S e r i f s

of the Holy

Cities.

H o w e v e r , b o t h t h e s e sums w e r e p r o v i d e d o u t o f t h e tended f o r as such.

80

In-

the Porte r a t h e r than out o f the expenditures o f the Finally,

after

were provided from the The p o s i t i o n s o f a n

d

1180/1766-7 a n a d d i t i o n a l

by the

800,000 p a r a s a y e a r

f o r the of the a t t a c h e d t o each were passed by

the

82

h e r e d i t y f r o m f a t h e r t o son-

Treasury

Those p o r t i o n s

sent i n cash were

Q1

delivered

w h i l e t h e payments i n k i n d w e r e s e n t b y s p e c i a l

ships

set aside by the The Ottoman c o n q u e r o r s i n h e r i t e d t i m e s t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o send a c u r t a i n

from

( k i s v e ) t o be hung o v e r

i n Mecca, f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f w h i c h r e v e n u e s provided by added

l e f t by the

Sultans.

I n addition,

Sultan Selim

t o p r o v i d e g o l d - c o v e r e d s a s h e s and o t h e r s i l v e r a n d

encrusted embellishments f o r the k i s v e . p r o v i d e d r e v e n u e s f o r a new g r e e n ,

S u l t a n Suleyman t h e

Magnificent

a n d t h e tomb o f t h e

was r e s t o r e d and a k i s v e p r o v i d e d f o r i t

I

jewel-

j e w e l - c o v e r e d c u r t a i n t o be hung

y e a r over the door o f the Ka'ba

the were

i n the time o f S u l t a n

every Prophet

Ibrahim

(1 0*9-1 058/1 639-1 6*8 ) . 8 3 The o r i g i n a l

together w i t h those e s t a b l i s h e d by

S e l i m p r o v i d e d t h e T r e a s u r y w i t h revenues which averaged about paras a y e a r .

T h e i n c r e a s e s added b y l a t e r

r e v e n u e s t o 565,000 paras a y e a r b y w e r e added t o t h e

Sultan

300,000

S u l t a n s and o t h e r s r a i s e d

1082/1671-2.

in

1 1 5 7 / 1 7 * * , new

b r i n g i n g the t o t a l annual revenue t o

these

villages

634,902

~lB ' T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n was t o b e s e n t i n t h e f o r m o f g o l d p i e c e s , w i t h 6100 o l d p i e c e s t o b e s e n t a t t h e v a l u e o f 85 p a r a s e a c h . Muh- 108, p . 202 s t a r t Jumfida I I , 11 0 9 ) . 7 9 " On t h e r e f o r m s I n 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 , s e e p . 2 9 3 .

f

80

' See page 3 0 9 and Muh. M i g i r , I , 2 0 a : 8 0 (end R e b l I I ( s t a r t M u h a r r e m 1 1 * * ) , I X , 5 b : 13 (mid Jumada I I 1 1 8 9 ) .

81

82

' Muh. M i g i r ,

IX,

• Muh. M i g i r , I , Muharrem 11**).

5 b : 13 (mid Jum&da I I 89a:396

(end JumSda I I

1121 ) , i v ,

93b:*o6

1189)1127),

iv,

93b:*06

(start

85 • E v l i y S g e l e b i , X , *19~*22; i b n I y f i s , V , 198, 3 2 6 ; J a b a r t i , ' A j f i ' l b u l A a & r , I I , 111; Nlzfimname-1 M i g i r , 9b-10a; Muh. 16, 2 1 1 : * 0 7 ( y e a r 9 7 9 ) ; Muh. 2 7 , 7*: 18* (% Sa b S n 983) 760293

120223

10728

10728

10728

16667

54000

53756

53756

52683 133882

757827 757827 10728

FOR TOTALS SEE TAHLE LVII NOTES: (a) Esteve, p. 220 says that 12,587,107 came from Treasury. See p. 246. (b) The burden of this expenditure vas assumed by the Forte for the in 1200. See p. 302. .REFERENCES YEAR 1005 1082 1107 1179 1200 1213

ARCHIVES Bag Vekfilet Arslvl (Istanbul), Bas Vekalet Arslvl (Istanbul), Dftr ul-MahfOzSt (Cairo), 5176 Bas Vekalet A r s l v l (Istanbul) Bas Vekalet Arslvl (Istanbul)

Kepeci 2302.

Kepeci 1663. Kepeci 1663 and Mallyyeden Mudewere 3793* Muhinme-i Misir, x. 2a-;a Bas Vekalet Arslvl (Istanbul) T8p Kapi Saray archives (Istanbul) b 5889 All Bniri, I Abd ul- Hamid 10161 Bas Vekalet Arslvl (Istanbul) M.R.X. Esteve, "MSmolre sur les Finances de 1'foyDte", Description de l'ERTPte, 2nd ed., XII, pp. 2U-233

1136 1209

KISGtlSTER NUMBER Maltyyeden Mudewere 5671.

Bas Vekalet Argivi (Istanbul), Dfir ul-MabfCtz&t (Cairo), 5191

Kepeci 2336 (Incomplete). (Incomplete, only totals).

For reference to Information for other yews, see Appendix, p. 352.

268

EXPENDITURES FOR THE PILGRIMAGE A M D THE HOLY CITIES

In sum, the total expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt for the Pilgrimage and for the Holy Cities rose from 4 , 3 5 8 , 0 2 5 paras In 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 to 2 9 , 9 5 6 , 0 1 7 paras In 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 , an Increase of 2 5 , 5 9 7 , 9 9 2 paras, or 587 per cent. Of this Increase, only 1 7 7 , 4 4 6 paras, or one per cent, came In the various minor expenditures for supplies for the pilgrims and the people of the Holy Cities, while 1 0 , 5 * 2 , 9 2 0 paras, or forty-one per cent, went for Increases paid to the and 1 4 , 8 7 7 , 6 2 6 paras, or fifty-eight per cent, went for Increases In the pensions Included In the Surre of the Holy Cities. However, In both cases, as we have seen, the bulk of these Increases went not for the ostensible purposes for which they were expended but for the profit of the In Egypt. TABLE L V I I . TOTAL EXPENDITURES OF THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT FOR THE PILGRIMAGE A M D THE HOLY CITIES FROM 1005/1596-7 TO 1212/1797-8 YEARS

TO EMfR UL-H&TJ (a) 400,000 +542,920 942,920

1 004-5 (d) zlyfide 1005-1082 1082 tenzil of 1082 942,920 1082 zlyfide 1082-1107 942,920 11 07 zlyfide of 1107 +2,587,107 3,530,027 11 07 zlyfide 1 1 0 7 - 1 1 7 9 + 7,412,893 10,9*2,920 1179 zlyfide 1 1 7 9 - 1 2 0 0 10,942,920 1 200 tenzil of 1200 10,942,920 1 200 tenzil-zlyfide 1200-1212 1212 10,942,920 1 2 1 3 (e) 7,412,893 Change from +10^542,920 1004 to 1212

SURRE FOR HOLY CITIES (b) 1,327,040 +3,479,938 4,806,978 -453,259 4,353,719 +778,351 5,132,070

OTHER EXPENDITURES (c) 2,630,985 +1,177,338 3,808,323 -876,960 2,931,363 +1,311,873 4,243,236

TOTAL PARAS

14,246,745

4,358,025 +5,200,196 9,558,221 -1 ,330,21 9 8,228,002 +2,090,224 10,318,226 +2,587,107 4,243,236 12,905,333 +1,731,459 +14,064,061 5,974,695 26,969,39* +4,244,125 +49,159 6,023,854 31,213,519 -1,835,293 -1,835,293 4,188,561 29,378,226

+1 ,957,921 16,204,666 15,981,220

-1,380,130 2,808,431 3,751,356

5,132,070 +4,919,709 10,051,779 +4,194,966 14,246,745

+14,877,626

+577,791 29, 956, 017(f) 27, 145,469

+ 1 77,446 + 25,597,992

NOTES: (a) See Table L I I I . (b) See Table L V . (c) See Table L V I . (d) The details given In the previous tables of the expenditures for the and Surre came from the Budget of 1oo4 (see p . 256); however, this budget lacked the details of the "other expenditures for the pilgrimage and Holy Cities for that y e a r , so the details In Table L V I were drawn from the Budget of 1005 (see p . 264). However, for the sake of consistency here, the total for the other expenditures" has been taken from the Budget of 1004. (e) These totals for the y e a r , 1 2 1 5 have been derived from Esteve, "Memolre sur les Finances de l'Egypte", p p . 2 1 4 - 3 3 ; they disagree In detail with the totals for the year 1212 found in the (Egyptian State Archives, Cairo) R e g . 4131, fol. 4b, but these are given here for purposes of illustration and to complete Table LVII. (f) These totals d o n o t Include the expenditures made for the same object out of the of the Porte, which are discussed on page 309.

269

EXPENDITURES FOR THE HOLY C I T I E S

C. Egypt.

Contributions

to the Holy C i t i e s by the Public

of

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e shipments sent t o t h e H o l y C i t i e s a t t h e

o f t h e T r e a s u r y o f E g y p t and t h e

of the Porte,

c o n t r i b u t i o n s were sent by t h e g r e a t p u b l i c Vaqfs which were i n Egypt p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e i r

the b e n e f i t

r e v e n u e b y t h e Ottoman S u l t a n s S e l i m I t h a t by 9 9 1 / 1 5 8 3

it

inherited To i t

v i d i n g an a d d i t i o n a l

i n that year,

the

Sultans

w e r e added new s o u r c e s

and S u l e y m a n t h e M a g n i f i c e n t ,

was a b l e t o s e n d t o t h e H o l y C i t i e s

of grain every y e a r . 1 0 5 a

all

o f the Holy C i t i e s by the

and H n S r s Temem and JJavend.

and

established

benefit. This

established f o r

expense

large

S u l t a n Murfid I I I

of

so

t e n thousand added

pro-

s i x t h o u s a n d a r d e b s o f g r a i n and c o n s i d e r a b l e

cash

revenues a n n u a l l y . 1 0 6 B y 1 1 0 5 / 1 6 9 3 - 4 , i t was s e n d i n g 1 7 , 1 0 0 a r d e b s o f 107 ———— grain every year. D u r i n g t h e 1 2 / 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , l a r g e d o n a t i o n s w e r e made to I t

by the

pedition,

it

o f E g y p t so t h a t b y t h e t i m e o f t h e F r e n c h e x was a b l e t o send a n n u a l l y

33,333

In e s t a b l i s h e d an e n t i r e l y primarily

1 / 3 a r d e b s o f g r a i n and

108

1 , 9 0 7 , 7 6 5 p a r a s i n c a s h t o Mecca and

new V a q f f o r

991/1583,

S u l t a n Murfid I I I

also

t h e H o l y C i t i e s w h i c h was d e s i g n e d

t o produce cash r e v e n u e s f o r

them, a l t h o u g h some r e v e n u e s I n

w e r e a l s o i n c l u d e d , a n d t h i s V a q f was c a l l e d "small of i t s

the

1 oq founder.

Originally

and 2 0 0 0 a r d e b s o f g r a i n ,

"Vaqf o f Murfid",

In

honor

endowed w i t h a n n u a l r e v e n u e s o f 4 2 5 , 0 0 0

by the time of t h e French e x p e d i t i o n i t 9 6 9 , 8 5 7 p a r a s and 3 8 4 0 a r d e b s

t o send a n n u a l l y t o t h e H o l y C i t i e s

kind

the

paras

was a b l e of

grain.110 or the b y S u l t a n Muhammed I V

f-1 0 5 8 - 1 0 9 9 / 1 6 4 8 - 1 6 8 7 ) ,

Established t h i s V a q f had a n

a n n u a l endowment o f 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 p a r a s and 1 0 , 0 0 0 a r d e b s o f g r a i n , time o f the French e x p e d i t i o n ,

it

was a b l e t o s e n d t o t h e H o l y

105a Muh. 3 , 5 3 3 : 1 5 7 2 (7 M u h a r r e m 9 6 8 ) ; Muh. Top K a p i S a r a y a r c h i v e s , D . 3 8 8 7 ( y e a r 9 9 1 ) • 106-

1

Muh. 48, p .

318

(11

Safar

original and b y

the

Cities

14, 7 6 4 : 1 1 0 1 ( 3 Ramadan 9 7 8 ) ; T h e t e r m D e g i g e means " p o r r i d g e "

991)-

07

Mallyyeden Mudewere 108109

Esteve,

- Muh. 4 8 , ° - Muh. 75, Sa'bfin 1133); de l ' E g y p t e " , 11

3364,

p.

12

(Bag V e k f i l e t A r g i v i ,

"MSmolre s u r l e s F i n a n c e s de_ l ' E g y p t e " ,

p.

Istanbul).

106.

p . 3 1 8 (11 S a f a r 9 9 1 ) . n o . 2 0 0 (19 S e w f i l 1 0 1 3 ) ; Muh. M i g i r , I I I , 3 8 a : 1 9 2 (mid E v l l y f i ( J e l e b f , X , 1 2 9 ; E s t e v e , "MSmolre s u r l e s F i n a n c e s p. 106.

270

EXPENDITURES FOR THE PILGRIMAGE AND THE HOLY CITIES

every year 1 , 2 0 6 , 2 7 * paras and 20,789 1 / 2 ardebs of g r a i n . 1 1 1 or the "Vaqf of Ahmed". T h i s Vaqf was e s t a b l i s h e d by S u l t a n Ahmed I I ( 1 1 0 2 - 6 / 1 6 9 1 - 5 ) with an endowment y i e l d i n g annual cash revenues of 300,000 paras. By 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 5 - 6 , i t s revenues rose to 575,000 paras a year and by the time of the French expedition, 581,033 112 paras a n n u a l l y . I t had no revenues i n k i n d . or the "Vaqf of the Holy C i t i e s " . This Vaqf was e s t a b l i s h e d I n Ottoman times by j o i n i n g the with v a r i o u s other minor Vaqfs e s t a b l i s h e d i n and Ottoman times. By the time of the French expedition, these had a combined revenue of 938,670 paras a y e a r , together with some g r a i n s . 1 1 ^

J

Each Vaqf maintained I t s own Red Sea f l e e t to c a r r y I t s cont r i b u t i o n s to the Holy C i t i e s and u s u a l l y provided the sums needed f o r t h e i r maintenance out of i t s own revenues. I n the middle and l a t e 1 2 / 1 8 t h century, however, the assumed an I n c r e a s i n g p o r t i o n of t h i s burden so that the maximum amount of money and g r a i n s would be sent 115 by the to the Holy C i t i e s . The f u l l revenues of the were supposed to be sent to the Holy C i t i e s except f o r the small amounts of authorized deductions f o r the s a l a r i e s and r a t i o n s of the ("superv i s o r " ) and other employees of each. I n f a c t , they managed to d i v e r t an i n c r e a s i n g proportion of the revenues f o r themselves, so I n 1 1 7 4 / 1 7 6 0 - 1 , 263,200 of g r a i n were owed by the of the to the Holy C i t i e s . 1 ^ From that time u n t i l the r e v o l t of *A1£ Bey i n 1 1 8 3 / 1 7 6 9 - 7 0 , these payments were l a r g e l y resumed. However, I n the years which followed, and e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r 1 1 9 3 / 1 7 7 9 , a l a r g e proportion of the g r a i n s and cash of the were withheld from shipment to the Holy C i t i e s , and by 1 2 0 3 / 1 7 8 8 - 9 the following sums were I n a r r e a r s : 111 • Esteve, "Memolre sur l e s Finances de .l'EgypteJ 1 p. 106; E v l i y a g e l e b i , X, 129, 433; Muh. M i g i r , I I I , 77a:365 (mid Rebl I I 1 1 3 6 ) . 112 " tJuseyn E f e n d i , "Administration of 18th Century Egypt", p. 58; Esteve, "MSmoire sur l e s Finances de l'figypte", p. 106. 113 • I t Included the following Vaqfs: V f i l l d e - 1 S u l t & n - 1 Sultfin Mehmed Hfin, Mustafa Agfi, former Agfi-yi Par us-Sa'fide, or c h i e f eunuch of the Porte, Janberdl flfitfln, V a q f - i Agraflyye, V a q f - i GUrlyye and others. m > Top Kapi Saray a r c h i v e s , D 3887, D 1943, D 1228, D 1 5 1 7 Kutupbfinesi ( I s t a n b u l Municipal L i b r a r y ) , MS 0 . 8 3 . 115

' See p.

309.

Top Kapi Saray a r c h i v e s E 1 0 0 1 1 .

Beledlyye

E X P E N D I T U R E S FOR T H E HOLY C I T I E S VAQF a. b. c.

D e § £ s e - i Kubrfi Muhammadlyye Muradlyye

PARAS 481,566 2,528,7** 3*1,787 3,352,097

117.

Ba§ Vekalet A r s 3 e e a l s o Muh- M i s i r , (start Sa'ban 1178, X , p . 13 (end S a f a r

271

ARDEBS 96,2*8 26,324 5 °'011 172,583

117

l v l , C e v d e t , D a h i l l y y e , 2040 ( 2 8 Jumfida I I 1205); V I I , 2 3 7 : 5 1 3 (end Jumfida I I 1 1 7 2 ) , V I I I , 76b:311 i 4 l b : 5 2 6 (end Re.jeb 1 1 8 1 . J , I 7 2 b : 6 3 7 (end Ramadan 1 1 8 3 ) , 1199)-

CHAPTER III.

EXPENDITURES FOR THE PORTE

Ottoman suzerainty In Egypt entitled the Sultan to claim from it payments in cash and kind. Annual shipments of cash were made from the money left in the Treasury each year after the annual expenditures were made, and these shipments will be considered in the chapter on the IrsSllyye-I Hazine.1 In addition, the Imperial Treasury of Egypt was re­ quired to devote a portion of its regular expenditures to the purchase and dispatch of two principal kinds of provisions for the Porte: I· Edibles for the Imperial Kitchen (Matbah-i 'Amlre) and the Imperial Pantry (Kil&r-i 'Amire) in Istanbul. II. Ammunition and other supplies for the Imperial Dockyard (TersSne-1 'Amlre) in Istanbul. I· Edibles for the Imperial Kitchen and the Imperial Pantry. From early in the lo/i6th century, a Vekil-I Har.i-i HSsaa, or "Steward of the Imperial Rations", was sent from the Porte to gather and dispatch the various edibles required from Egypt for the Imperial Kitchen and the Imperial Pantry in Istanbul, whether those edibles were purchased with the expenditure funds of the Treasury of Egypt or those of the 2 Irs&lIwe-I Hazine funds of the Sultan. During the 12/18th century, this position was usually assigned to one of the Bey3 of Egypt, generally to the person filling the position of DefterdSr. It was his duty to lead an expedition of approximately five hundred men to the various places in Sgypt where the commodities intended for the Porte were produced, to collect or purchase them, and ship them to special imperial warehouses In the port of Rosetta. From there they were transported to the Porte by a fleet of fifteen to twenty Imperial galleons during the 10/16th and 11/17th centuries, and thereafter by private trade ships o n which space w a s hired b y t h e Vekil-I Har.j. From 9 8 0 / 1 5 7 2 - 3 , t h e earliest d a t e f o r which exact figures a r e available, until 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 , 1

' See pp. 3 0 5 - 7 .

2 .

See p.

1 76.

EXPENDITURES FOR THE IMPERIAL KITCHEN

273

the commodities required f o r the Porte, the q u a n t i t i e s of each, and the sums provided from the Treasury f o r t h e i r purchase, packing, and t r a n s port remained v i r t u a l l y unchanged although, as we w i l l see, a l t e r a t i o n s d i d occur i n the manner by which money was provided f o r them. 3 1 . Sugar. Sugar f o r the Porte was produced i n Upper Egypt, e s p e c i a l l y I n the provinces of Menfifiyye, Garbiyye, and J i z e . I t was p r e pared and processed I n BOlfiq under the s u p e r v i s i o n of the a subordinate of the who gathered the sugar from the areas I n which i t was grown as the land tax which they owed, and who c r e d i t e d to the cash revenues of the Treasury any p r o f i t s secured from the s a l e of surplus sugar which was l e f t a f t e r the requirements of the Porte were met.1* From 9 8 0 / 1 5 7 2 to 9 9 4 / 1 5 8 6 , eight hundred of sugar, equal to 28,000 okkes of I s t a n b u l , were required each y e a r . 5 I n 99*, t h i s was r a i s e d to l4oo or 4 2 , 6 0 0 o k k e s , 6 and i n 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 5 - 6 i t was r a i s e d a g a i n to 68,680 okkes a y e a r . From 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 through 1 0 2 4 / 1 6 1 5 , the was allowed to spend from the Treasury whatever he needed to purchase and ship the required amount of sugar, and the sums expended f o r t h i s purpose v a r i e d between 5 6 5 , 8 3 5 p a r a s i n 1 0 1 0 / 1 6 0 1 - 2 and 1 , 5 6 3 , 3 8 1 p a r a s i n

1004/1595-6.

From 1025 to 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 a f i x e d annual sum of 792,000 paras was provided f o r the purchase of the sugar, and from 65,000 paras to 110,000 paras were provided a n n u a l l y f o r I t s packaging and t r a n s p o r t . I n the reform of 1082, the annual sum set a s i d e f o r the purchase of sugar was reduced to 780,945 p a r a s , with a d d i t i o n a l sums of 45,016 paras a year f o r the transport of 3 8 8 b a r r e l s of sugar from Rosetta to I s t a n b u l , 7 6 , 0 0 0 paras f o r the p u r chase of the l e a t h e r bags and the boxes I n which the sugar was packed f o r I t s transport from Btilfiq to Rosetta, and 5 0 , 0 3 4 paras f o r the payment of the customs duty owed f o r the sugar to the customs house of A l e x a n d r i a . 7 Q The l a t t e r expenditure was abolished I n the reform of 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 , but i t 3 " The e a r l i e s t complete l i s t of commodities sent to the Porte i s found i n Muh. 70, 2 : 5 (1* Rebl I 1001 ). Complete l a t e r l i s t s are found I n Muh. 9 8 , p. 3 1 ( m i d Zrumgda I 1 1 0 0 ) ; Muh. 1 0 8 , p. 1 6 8 (mid Jumfida I 1 1 0 9 ) ; Muh. M i s i r , I 2b:5 (mid Re.jeb 1 1 1 9 ) , 2ob:8l (mid Rebl I I 1 1 2 1 ) . See a l s o references i n notes 4 - 2 9 of t h i s chapter.

f o l . 79a. 5

See a l s o p.

' The r e l a t i o n between the okke and the

176. and the exact value of each

v a r i e d over the c e n t u r i e s and deserves a s e p a r a t e d e t a i l e d study. From the 1 0 / 1 6 t h through the 1 2 / 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s , the equalled from twentyf i v e to f o r t y - f o u r vaqiyyes, and i n 1798 i t equalled about 120 pounds 6 avoirdupois. Hinz, ' Muh. 6 4 , 2 0 9 : 5 2 7 I( sy leaam r l s9c9h4e) . Masse, pp. 34-57. See p . 2 9 0 . o See Table L V I I I and p. 296.

27*

EXPENDITURES F O R THE PORTE

w a s restored a g a i n in 1155/17*2 due to the insistence of the Janissary n

Multezlms of the Alexandria and R o s e t t a customs h o u s e s .

2 . W h i t e R i c e . R i c e f o r shipment to the Porte w a s grown entirely In L o w e r E g y p t , From 980/1572-3 u n t i l 99*/1586, the Porte demanded from Egypt two thousand ardebs of rice each y e a r , of which 1500 ardebs came from the a r e a of and five hundred ardebs from the area of D a m i e t t a . A f t e r 99*, the amount demanded w a s set a t three thousand ardebs of rice a y e a r , of which two thousand ardebs came from Ffiresktlr and one 10 thousand ardebs from D a m i e t t a , and these amounts remained unaltered unt i l the French Invasion of E g y p t . From 99*/l586 to 1107/1695-6, the provision of this rice w a s evalued as an expenditure of *92,ooo paras a y e a r b y the Treasury, of which 16*,000 paras w a s for the rice of Damietta and 328,000 paras for that of FfireskGr. In the reform of 1107, the set price w a s lowered to 160 paras p e r a r d e b , or a total of 160,000 paras worth of rice from D a m i e t t a and 320,000 paras worth from Faresktir. In addition a n n u a l sums of *8 paras p e r a r d e b , or l**,ooo p a r a s , were provided for the hire of boats to transport the rice from Rosetta to Istanbul, 24,000 paras f o r the hire of servants and boats to transport it from Cairo to R o s e t t a , and 21,000 paras for the 11 price of baskets and vases needed to hold the rice during s h i p m e n t . 3- L e n t l i e s . From the time of B e x u n t i l 1212/1797-8, a n a n n u a l shipment of 500 ardebs of lentlles ('ads, mercimenk), equal to 2500 kile of Istanbul, w e r e demanded from Egypt for the Porte- F o r Its p u r c h a s e , a set price of thirty paras p e r a r d e b , or 15,000 paras was provided, and 12 10,976 paras were added every year for the cost of packaging and s h i p p i n g . *• Imperial beverages From early in the 10/16th century, or "Beverage Chief" was sent annually to gather sugar, raw amber, and pure m u s k In order to prepare a special beverage f o r the Sultan and his court. To provide for the cost of purchasing these materials and of preparing the b e v e r a g e , the Treasury provided a n annual sum of 21,575 p a r a s . In addition, the of Egypt donated out of his own revenues 10,200 paras to add rose-scented water to 9

"

See Table L V I I I and p . 103.

" M u h . 73, n o . 896 (23 SewfcL 1003); M u h . M i g i r , I , 280:122; E v l l y S Q e l e b i , X , *52-3, 7*3, 7 5 0 . See also note 3 of this chapter and p . These three thousand ardebs of rice equalled 36, 000 Kile of Istanbul (Muh. 6 4 , p . 209 (year 99*)- On the K i l e , see H l n z , l3lamische M a s s e , p p . 4i-2. 11

" See Table L V I I I . Also M u h . 73, 55:128 (Hl.i.ie 1003), M u h . M i g i r , V I , 63b:289 (end R e b l I 1159), E s t S v e , "Memolre sur les Finances de l'Egypte", p . 211 .

12

See note 3 of this chapter and Table L V I I I . les Finances de l'Egypte", p . 211.

Also

sur

EXPENDITURES FOR THE IMPERIAL KITCHEN

275

the beverage and 00 para3 as a n annual gift to the In 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 , the Vali assumed the entire cost of a n additional twenty jars of this beverage for the Sultan, and in 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 h e assumed the b u r d e n of 3 7 9 2 paras for the sum previously paid b y the Treasury of E g y p t , lowering Its b u r d e n to 1 7 , 7 8 3 paras a y e a r . However, In 1 1 3 1 / 1 7 1 8 - 9 a n additional twenty jars a y e a r was Imposed on the Treasury, raising its annual expenditures for this purpose to 3 5 , 5 6 6 p a r a s . Additional beverages costing 7 1 , 1 2 4 paras a year were also provided out of the funds of the P o r t e .

13

5 . Coffee. Coffee was sent to the Porte every y e a r b y the Ottoman governors of Jidde and Y e m e n and w a s not ordinarily a b u r d e n of the Imperial Treasury of E g y p t . H o w e v e r , coffee intended for the Sultan was exempted from Egyptian customs w h e n it was transshipped from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, and in years w h e n the normal supply was inadequate supplementary purchases of coffee in Egypt for shipment to the 1 Porte were m a d e at the expense of its funds. ^ 6 . Imperial Falcons From early In the 10/16th century, a or "Chief Falconer", w a s sent to Egypt every y e a r to hunt out fine falcons and bring them back to t h e P o r t e . Every spring, h e led s e v e n h u n d r e d m e n from the corps of Cairo to hunt the peregrine falcons hunting falcons (zaganos), and goshawks which w e r e found In the steep cliffs and hills of the Muqattjam range behind 15 C a i r o . These m e n were given bonuses In return for this s e r v i c e , and they usually managed to ship between eight hundred and one thousand 16 falcons to the Porte every y e a r . The Imperial Treasury of Egypt provided 1 3 , 7 4 8 paras a y e a r for their storage and transport and 6 , 2 5 7 p a r a s a year for their food until 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 , w h e n this expenditure was en1 7 tirely abolished. ' 7- Other Commodities. During the 10/16th and early 11/17th century, the Treasury also provided various sum3 to purchase and send to the Porte: a.

500 ardebs of chick peas

at 54,000 paras a y e a r .

1 3

' Ibn Iy&s, V , 325; M u h . M i g i r , I, I5a:64 (start Muharrem 1 1 2 1 ) , 1, 27b: 114 (end R e b l I 1 1 2 2 ; , III, ioa:47 (end Hl.i.ie 1 1 3 1 ; , III, i4b:69 (start Jumlida I 1 1 3 2 ) , E s t S v e , "Memolre sur les Finances de l'Egypte", p . 2 1 0 ; M u h . 108, p . 251 (mid Sevvfi.1 1 1 0 7 ) . See also note 3 of this chapter and TaEle L X V . U

I

"

15

l 6

1 7

M u h . M i s i r , IV, 117a:501 1180).

(mid Hl.i.ie 1144), V I I I , io8b:428 (mid Jum&da

" See p . 204. ' EvlIyS, Qeleb£, X , 4 4 5 - 6 . ' See p . 296 and Table L V I I I .

EXPENDITURES FOR THE PORTE b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

900 900 324 180 900 247 914

okkes okkes okkes okkes okkes okkes okkes

at 12,400 paras a year.

In 1004/1595-6, the Imperial Treasury of Egypt spent 3,573,227 paras for the needs of the Imperial Pantry and the Imperial Kitchen of the Porte. During the next century, however, as the Treasury was forced to increase its expenditures for wages and pensions, the pilgrimage, and the Holy Cities, it had to reduce the amounts spent for the needs of the Porte until they reached only 2,435,575 paras in 1106, a reduction of 1,137,65 2 paras, or forty-six per cent. 18 In addition, the purchase of the required amounts of many of the commodities became difficult with the annual sums allowed from the Imperial Treasury. As a result, in the reform of 1107/1695-6 the Treasury was absolved of the responsibility for the purchase of all the commodities previously secured for the Porte except rice, sugar, and lentils, and 618,682 paras was subtracted from the Treasury's annual expenditures for this purpose, leaving them at 1,816,893 paras a year. The burden of the expenditures taken from the obligation of the Treasury was transferred to the Irs!liyye-i ijazine, which was compensated for the increased expense by the establishment in Vagf for it of villages yielding an equal amount of revenues. 19

During the rest of the century, sugar, rice, and lentils were required for the Porte in the same amounts as before. However, their prices continued to rise, the Vekil ul-lf,arj was, as a result, able to deliver only a portion of the quantities which were demanded, large arrears piled up, 20 and the Porte was required to appropriate further sums from the Irs~liyye-i 18. ~. 108, p. 107 (end Rejeb 1107). 19· Maliyyeden Mudevvere 593 (year 1107). 20. Muh. ~' III, 8b:37 (start Se",:!l 1131), 16b:80 (end Jum&da II 1132), 23b:121 (~ 113 2 ), 34b:174 (end ReJ(b 1133), 48a:242 (end Rebi I 1134), 8 2a:835 (end Jum&da II 1136), 90b:417 mid servfl 1136), 102a:475 (end Re~eb 1137), 137a:645 (end .ID:.ill1138), V, 19 : 94 (start Jum&da I 1153), 13 :331 (end Muparrem 1150), 210:533 (start Sa'b§.n 1153), VI, 63b:289 (end Rebi I 1159), 79a:362 (end Rebi I 1160), 128a:577 (end Hijje 1160), 16b:86 (start Sa b§.n 1156), VII, 11:21 (mid Jum&da II 1165), 70:143 (mid Jum&da II 1167), 13 6:296 (mid SeVVfl 1169), 215~mid Q~62a 1171), 240:519 (end Jum&da I 117 2 ), 224:493 mid Rebi II 1172), 301: (start MUbarrem 1174), 322:717 (mid Rejeb 1174), VII~2a:130 (mid Rejg~ 1176), 62a:256 (mid Rebi II 1178), 105a:412 (start ~ 1180), 180: 9 (mid Seva§.l 1188), IX, p. 59 (start Rebi II 1191), p.99a 1mid Jum&da I 1193), p. 1 9 (start Mtibarrem 1199~la (start ~ 1202),~mid ~a'b§.n 1206), 99b (start Qa'da 1208).

EXPENDITURES FOR THE IMPERIAL DOCKYARD

277

21 when a d d i t i o n a l amounts of these commodities were d e s i r e d . By 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 5 - 6 , the t o t a l amount expended annually f o r these commodities had f a l l e n to 1,650,065 paras, and t h i s purchased only about o n e - t h i r d of the q u a n t i t y of sugar, r i c e , and l e n t i l s which was d e s i r e d . As a r e s u l t , I n the reform of that year there was abolished from the Treasury o b l i g a t i o n s and added to those of the the purchase of sugar Cr80,945 p a r a s ) the cost of i t s transport from Alexandria to the Porte (45,016 p a r a s ) , and v a r i o u s other expenditures connected with i t ( 5 0 , 0 1 1 p a r a s ) , reducing the Treasury expenditures f o r commodities f o r the Porte by 875,972 paras to 774,093 paras a y e a r , where I t remained t h e r e a f t e r . I t was ordered that t h e r e a f t e r sugar f o r the Porte be purchased i n f u l l at the market p r i c e , whatever I t might be, r a t h e r than a t the p r i c e p r e v i o u s l y f i x e d by the Treasury, and that that p r i c e be paid from the on the a u t h o r i z a t i o n of the and the I n a d d i t i o n , the q u a n t i t y of sugar required a n n u a l l y f o r the Porte was r a i s e d from 42,600 okkes to 68,680 okkes, where i t remained t h e r e a f t e r . The q u a n t i t i e s of r i c e and l e n t i l s which were required and the Treasury 22 expenditures provided f o r t h e i r purchase remained the same as before, and 774,093 paras were a l l o t t e d annually from the Treasury f o r t h i s p u r pose u n t i l the a r r i v a l of the French expedition. I I - Ammunition and Other Supplies f o r the I m p e r i a l Dockyard i n Istanbul. 1 . Gunpowder. The thorns of the a c a c i a t r e e s which grew w i l d along the banks of the N i l e were gathered by c u l t i v a t o r s and Arabs I n the v i c i n i t y and brought to the i n C a i r o , who burned them and used the white powder which was l e f t to manufacture gunpowder f o r the needs of the of Cairo and of the P o r t e . 2 3 Some of the thorns were d e l i v e r e d to the as p a r t of the land tax of the areas from which they came, and t h e i r f i x e d value was accounted as part of the f i x e d expenditures 1 ' Muh. M i g i r , I , I34b:598 (end Rebl I 1 1 3 1 ) , 85b:378 (mid Safar 1 1 2 7 ) , 93b:416 ( s t a r t Safar 1 1 2 8 ) , HOa:493 (mid Jum&da I I 1 1 2 9 ) , n i a : 5 0 2 (end Muharrem 1 1 3 0 ) , I i 2 a : 5 0 4 ( s t a r t Safar 1 1 3 0 J , 1 1 7 3 : 5 2 2 ( s t a r t Safar 1 1 3 0 ) , I I I , 75a:357 (end Ramad&i 1 1 3 5 ) , I V , 8b:35 (end Sevv&l 1 1 3 9 ) , I 4 a : 5 8 ( s t a r t Safar 1 1 4 0 ) , 2 6 b : H 7 (end Sa'b&n 1141 ), 63a:272 (mid JumSda I I 1 1 4 2 ) , 7 3 b : 3 1 7 ( s t a r t Muharrem 1 1 4 3 ) , V, 39:90 (end Hl.i.ie 1 146), 6 4 : 1 5 0 ( s t a r t Jum&da I I 1 1 4 7 ) , 69:214 (mid Qa'da 1 1 4 7 ) , 102:243 (mid Jumfida I I 1 1 4 8 ) , 140:355 ( s t a r t Qa'da 1 1 5 0 ) , 153:394 (end Re.jeb 1 1 5 1 ) , 182:458 (mid Sevvfil 1 1 5 2 ) , 192:480 (mid Rebl I 1 1 5 3 ) - See a l s o references i n note 20 and p. 31 o22 " A l l E m l r l , I Abd u l Hamld (Bag Vekalet A r g i v i , I s t a n b u l ) , 7520b (19 Re.jeb 1202 ) : A 1 1 B n l r l , I I I Selim 20030 ( s t a r t Muharrem 1204); A l l E m l r l , I Abd u l Hamld, 10161 (14 H i l i e 1 2 0 1 ) ; Muh. M i s i r , X, 62b ( s t a r t R e b T T 1 2 0 2 ; , b4a ( s t a r t Rebl I 1 2 0 2 ) 7 71a ( s t a r t S a ' t S n 1 2 0 2 ) , 73a (mld~gaTban 1206). See a l s o p. 302. 23

" E v l l y f i geleb£, X, 593, 727; see a l s o p.

174.

278

EXPENDITURES FOR THE

of the

PORTE

Treasury: (FROM L O W E R E G Y P T ) FROM VILLAGE OF F R O M V I L L A G E OF SALAQAN (SARQJYYE) MINYET KINANE (SARQIYYE) QJWIARS QAMTARS

YEARS 1004-1107 Tenzil of 1 1 07 1107-1124 Tenzil of 1124 1124-1212

I n addition,

EQUIVALENT IN PARAS, ACCOUNTED AS TREASURY EXPENDITURE

300

300

-200 1 00

-200 1 00

-129489 64746

1 00

-50 50

-15000 49746

thorns worth

194235

1 1 6 , 6 0 0 p a r a s a y e a r were d e l i v e r e d as l a n d

tax

f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s o f Behnasfi and A§muneyn and 1 3 9 , 7 6 7 p a r a 3 i n c a s h was p a i d t o t h e J e b e . j i B & g i b y t h e T r e a s u r y t o c o v e r t h e e x p e n s e s o f manuf a c t u r i n g t h e p o w d e r f r o m t h e s e r a w m a t e r i a l s and o f p u r c h a s i n g gunpowder i f

needed t o f u l f i l l

his obligations.

additional

He was r e q u i r e d t o

turn

b a c k t o t h e T r e a s u r y as p a r t o f i t s r e v e n u e s a n y p a r t o f t h e s e sums w h i c h 2k w e r e n o t expended d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e y e a r . I n the reform of 1107/1695-6,

t h e s e gunpowder r e v e n u e s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

expenditures

( 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 p a r a s a y e a r ) w e r e removed e n t i r e l y f r o m t h e I m p e r i a l

Treasury's

r e v e n u e s and e x p e n d i t u r e s and j o i n e d t o t h o s e o f t h e 2s funds o f t h e P o r t e i n Egypt, where t h e y remained t h e r e a f t e r . after,

w h e n e v e r t h e P o r t e r e q u i r e d gunpowder f r o m E g y p t ,

order authorizing the

it

J

There-

sent a

t o d e d u c t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e amount

special from

t3uch h e was n o l o n g e r c o n cfeor nr e dt h w a ti t hp u ripto. s2 e6 , w h i l e t h e T r e a s u r y o f E g y p t as 2.

Naval Supplies.

F o r t h e most p a r t ,

2 5

p

"

See p .

175-

See p .

297,

The P o r t e a l s o r e q u i r e d a n n u a l l y f r o m E g y p t :

t h e c o s t o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s was b o r n e b y t h e

312.

f.

' M u h . I l l , 2 2 a : 1 1 1 ( e n d M u h a r r e m 1 1 3 3 ) , V , 1 3 2 : 3 3 1 (end M u h a r r e m 1 1 5 0 ) , 2 1 0 : 5 3 3 (start S a ' b & n 1 1 5 3 ) , 90:2; 8 (end Q a ' d a 1 1 4 7 ) , 1 1 1 2 : 2 7 5 (end S e w & l 1 1 4 8 ) , I V , 5 a : 17 ( s t a r t S a ' b t o 1 1 3 9 ) , I V , 6 6 b : 2 8 5 (end Ramadfin 1 1 4 2 ) , V T ; I 2 2 b : 5 5 7 (end Q a ' d a 1 1 5 7 ) , I 3 7 a : 6 2 5 ( s t a r t Hl.i.ie 1 1 6 3 ) , i 4 7 b : 6 7 i (end S a f a r 1 1 6 4 ) , V I I , 1 3 7 : 2 9 9 (end R e b l I 1 1 7 0 ) , 2 9 9 : 5 0 0 ( y e a r 1 1 7 3 ) , 3 0 3 : 6 7 1 ( m i a S a f a r 1 1 7 4 ) , V I I I , 3 2 b : 1 3 2 ~ 7 e n d Re.jeb 1 1 7 6 ) , I 3 9 b : 5 2 2 ( s t a r t Sa'bfin 1 1 8 1 ) , 1 4 3 : 5 3 1 (mid S e v v a i 1 1 8 1 ) , 1 6 9 : 6 1 6 ( e n d S e v v a i 1 1 8 3 ) , 1 7 8 b : 6 6 6 (mid Hl.i.ie 1 1 8 8 ) , I X , 5 5 b ( e n d Hl.i.ie 1 1 9 0 ) . I X , 1 8 5 a ( y e a r 1 1 9 5 ) . E n v e r i , T & r i h - i 'Ogm&ni, Suleymanlyye Library (Istanbul), Esad Efendl coll. M S 20a, fol. 83E; E s t S v e , M S m o i r e sur les F i n a n c e s d e l ' E g y p t e " , p p . 112, y u s e y n E f e n d l , " A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of 18th Century E g y p t " , p p . 14, 7 4 .

EXPENDITURES FOR THE IMPERIAL DOCKYARD

279

of the Porte r a t h e r than as part of the expenditures of the Imperial 27

Treasury of Egypt. During the course of the H / l 7 t h century, however, the Treasury provided f o r the purpose sums varying from a low of 8000 paras I n 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 - 2 to a high of 69,350 paras I n 1 0 0 5 / 1 5 9 6 - 7 . During the 1 2 / l 8 t h century, the burden was borne e n t i r e l y by the except from 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6 to 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 5 - 6 , when the Treasury was obliged to supply 705, 350 paras a year f o r t h i s purpose. T h i s expenditure was, how2ft ever, f o r the most part abolished I n the reform of 1200. 3 - Other Expenditures f o r the Porte. I n the 1 0 / 1 6 t h and e a r l y 1 1 / 1 7 t h c e n t u r i e s , the Treasury was required to support the operations of I m p e r i a l Dockyards operating i n Damietta, Alexandria,

and Suez, and provided sums ranging from a h i g h of 1,685,844 paras i n 1 0 2 0 / 1 6 1 1 to a low of 35,875 paras i n 1 0 1 1 / 1 6 0 2 - 3 , with the balance of the cost, as w e l l as t h e i r d i r e c t i o n , being assumed by the of the ports concerned. The l a29 s t year I n which a payment f o r t h i s purpose was

recorded was 1 0 2 5 / 1 6 1 6 . 7 The Treasury a l s o provided various other sums f o r the Porte and I t s agents I n E g y p t . 3 0 TABLE L V I I I . EXPENDITURES OF THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT FOR THE PORTE FROM 1 0 0 5 / 1 5 9 61082 - 7 to 1 2 11 1 3 07 / 1 7 9 8 - 9 (PARAS)1200 1213 EXPENDITURES 1005 1179 1 ) Hire of camels, t o r c h bearers, and other attendants f o r the transport of the boxes of the I r s S l i y y e - i Bazlne from Cairo to — the Porte (see p. 283) 221000 50000(a) 50000 50000 50000(b) 2) Cow s k i n s f o r the boxes of the I r s f i l i y y e - i — Hazine 10000 10000 3 2 2 1 2 ( c ) 1 0000 9757(d) NOTES:

(a) Reduced to 50,000 paras I n the reform of 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 (see p. 296). (b) Esteve, "Memolre sur l e s F i n a n c e s de l ' E g y p t e , p. 248 says that t h i s sum was paid by the but t h i s was not the case e a r l i e r . (c) Reduced to 10,000 paras i n the reform of 1 1 0 7 (see p. 296). (d) EstSve, I b i d . , p. 248 says that t h i s sum was paid by the but t h i s was not the case e a r l i e r . 2 71 .

28 2 yQ

See pp. See p .

311-2. 302.

Bas Vekalet A r s l v l (Turkish State A r c h i v e s , I s t a n b u l ) Tapu 734, f o l . 7b. The f a t e of these dockyards a f t e r that time I s unknown, although we may assume that the may have assumed the e n t i r e burden of t h e i r support. 30 • See Table L V I I I .

280

EXPENDITURES FOR THE PORTE TABLE LVIII (Continued)

EXPENDITURES 3) Cloth and carpets to cover the boxes of the Hazine 4) Leather purses to carry the money of the Irsillyye-I Hazine and boxes for the sugar sent to

1 005

1082

1107

1179

1 200

1213

4000

5262

5262

5262

5262

5134(e)

(see p p . 2 7 3

64376

116287

76000

76000

76000

2327948

1356160

1650065

1650065

774093

11120

11886

35566

35566

35566

11347

13267

(h) 13748 (h)

6638

6257

the Porte

(f)

5)

itiglr, white rice, and lentils for the Porte

6)

Sugar, amber, musk, and other commodities for the Imperial Beverages (Asrlbe-I Hum&yHn) sent to the

7)

Imperial Falcons, price of storage and transport ( s e e p . 275) Food for the Imperial Falcons Rent of boats to carry the IrsSllyye-i Hazine

(see p .

273)

P o r t e (see p . 2 7 4 )

8)

9)

to the Porte 10)

p. 279)

11) Price of wood and hire of artisans for boxes to carry the Irs&llyye-l Hazine to the Porte 12) Gunpowder for the Porte (see p . 2 7 7 )

Maintenance of and supplies for the Imperial Dockyards in Damietta, Alexandria, and Suez, (see p . 279) 14) Other commodities and supplies sent to the

702969

35566(g)

(h) —

Oakum, twine and cord for the Imperial Dockyard in the Porte (see

—

238000 238000

(i)

69350

8000

---

(k) 2216

450000

—

—

(j)

11708 (m)

450000 450000

705350

28000

11708

11708

—

—

11423(1)

—

—

—

—

13)

Porte

998873

—

—

1222812

FOR TOTALS SEE TABLE LVIII; FOR REFERENCES SEE TABLE LVI NOTES: (e) Esteve, Ibid., p . 248 says that this sum was paid by the Ir3&liyye-i Hazine, but this was not the case earlier. (f) Reduced to 76,000 paras in the reform of 1107 (see p . 296). (g) An additional 71,124 aras worth of beverages was provided from the Irs&llyye-i Eazine (EstSve, 5I3T, p . 2 1 0 ) . (h) Abolished in the reform of 1107 (see p . 296). (1) Abolished in the reform of 1 1 0 7 (see p . 2 9 6 ) but restored from 1 1 7 9 / 1 7 6 5 - 6 to 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 5 - 6 , when this expense was again joined to the Irsfi.llyye-1 Hazine (see p . 3 0 2 ) . (j) This 2 8 , 0 0 0 paras which remained in the obligation of the Porte after the balance of this expenditure was abolished was salary for the scribes of the Treasury, (k) Abolished in the reform of 1107 but later restored (see p . 296). (1) Est&ve, Ibid., p . 248 says that this was paid by the Irs&llyye-l Hazine, but this was not the case earlier, (m) Joined to Irs&liyye-i Hazine in reform of 1107.

?

EXPENDITURES FOR THE PORTE

281

I n s u m , the e x p e n d i t u r e s of t h e I m p e r i a l T r e a s u r y of E g y p t to p r o v i d e s u p p l i e s f o r t h e Porte f e l l f r o m 7 , 2 7 9 , 8 0 3 p a r a s I n 1004/1595-6 to 9 7 5 , 0 0 0 p a r a s i n 1 2 0 9 / 1 7 9 4 - 5 , a d e c r e a s e of 6 , 3 0 4 , 8 0 3 p a r a s , o r e i g h t y - s i x per cent.

31

T h e b u l k of t h e s e e x p e n d i t u r e s w e r e a s s u m e d b y the

H a z i n e f u n d s w h i c h w e r e supposed to b e sent to t h e P o r t e , w h i l e the m o n e y w h i c h w a s saved f o r t h e T r e a s u r y b y t h e s e r e d u c t i o n s w a s u s e d to m e e t the g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d w a g e a n d o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s of the T r e a s u r y t o the E m i r s a n d M a m l Q k s of E g y p t . TABLE LIX.

T O T A L E X P E N D I T U R E S OF T H E I M P E R I A L T R E A S U R Y OF E G Y P T FOR THE PORTE FROM

1004/1595-6

YEARS

TO

1213/1798-9

PARAS

1004(a) 1004-1082 1082 t e n z i l of 1082 zlyfide of 11 0 7 t e n z i l of

7,279,803

1082(b) 1082-1107 1107(c)

-4,477,179 2,802,624 -367,049 2,435,575 +344,530 2,780,105 -602,547

2, 177,558 1107-1179 -338,967 1179 1,838,591 zlyfide of 11 7 9 - 8 0 ( d ) . + 7 0 5 , 3 5 0 1180-1200 2,543,941 t e n z i l of 1 2 0 0 ( e ) -1,553,312

1107 tenzil of

1200 tenzil 1209 tenzil 1213

990,629

-15,629 975,000 -160,151 814^849

1200-1209 1209-1213

C h a n g e from 1004 to 1 2 0 9

-6,304,803

NOTES: (a) T h e d e t a i l s of e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r the y e a r 1004 l a c k , so i n T a b l e L V I I I t h o s e f o r 1005 w e r e u s e d , and t h e i r t o t a l w a s 5 , 1 5 9 , 8 2 6 p a r a s . F o r p u r p o s e s of c o n s i s t e n c y , h o w e v e r , the t o t a l s f o r the y e a r 1004 a r e used In this table, (b) See p p . 287-294. See p p . 298-299. (e) See p . 302.

SUMMARY:

(c)

See pp. 295-296.

(d)

T H E E X P E N D I T U R E S OF T H E I M P E R I A L T R E A S U R Y OF E G Y P T

F r o m 1004/1595-6 t o 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 ,

the t o t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s of the

I m p e r i a l T r e a s u r y of E g y p t rose f r o m 4 8 , 3 0 2 , 9 5 7 p a r a s t o 8 9 , 1 6 4 , 0 4 2 p a r a s , a n I n c r e a s e of 4 0 , 8 6 1 , 0 8 5 p a r a s , o r e i g h t y - f o u r p e r cent of the o r i g i n a l amount.

Of t h i s I n c r e a s e , t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r w a g e s , s a l a r i e s , and

p e n s i o n s r o s e b y 2 1 , 4 7 4 , 4 4 5 p a r a s , o r f i f t y - t w o p e r c e n t , the e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r p u r p o s e s i n E g y p t " r o s e b y 93,451 p a r a 3 , o r a b o u t one p e r c e n t , the exp e n d i t u r e s f o r the p i l g r i m a g e and the H o l y C i t i e s rose b y 2 5 , 5 9 7 , 9 9 2 p a r a s , o r s i x t y - t w o p e r c e n t , w h i l e those m a d e i n E g y p t f o r the P o r t e f e l l b y 6 , 3 0 4 , 8 0 3 p a r a s , or f i f t e e n p e r c e n t . 3 1

' See T a b l e L I X .

282

SUMMARY

As a result of this, the expenditures for wages, salaries, and pensions, which in 1004/1595-6 were 3 1 , 6 3 6 , 6 7 2 paras, or sixty-five per cent of the total expenditures, rose to 53,111,117 paras, or sixty-two per cent of the total expenditures in 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 . Expenditures for purposes In Egypt, which in 1004/1595-6 were 5 , 0 2 8 , 4 5 7 paras, or ten per cent of the total, rose to only 5 , 1 2 1 , 9 0 8 paras, or four per cent of the total In 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 . Expenditures for the pilgrimage and the Holy Cities, which in 1004/1595-6 were 4 , 3 5 8 , 0 2 5 p a r a s , or nine per cent of the total expenditures, rose to 29,956,017 paras in 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 , or thirty-three per cent of the total. And expenditures made in Egypt for the Porte, which in 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 were 7 , 2 7 9 , 8 0 3 paras, or sixteen per cent of the total expenditures fell to 975,000 paras, or only one per cent of the total in 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 . 3 2 Thus the increases which were made in the expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt went principally for the benefit of the Emirs and MamlQks, who Increased their share at the expense of the expenditures supposed to be made to fulfill the Porte's obligations and satisfy its needs in Egypt and the Holy Cities, the cost of which wa3, for the most part, shunted onto the Porte's own cash revenues in Egypt, the Irsfillyye-1 33 Hazine. TABLE LX- SUMMARY OP THE TOTAL EXPENDITURES OF THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT FROM 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 TO 1209/1794-5 A N D 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8

REFERENCE TO TABLES: YEARS 1 004 ziyfide-tenzil 1004-1082 1082 zivSde-tenzil 1082-1200

EXPENDITURES EXPENDITURES TOTAL WAGES, SALARIES EXPENDITURES FOR THE PILGRIMAGE A N D PENSIONS FOR THE EXPENDITURES FOR EGYPT A N D HOLY PORTE CITIES PARAS

1200

zlyfide-tenzil

XLVIII PARAS 31636672

LII PARAS 5028457

LVII PARAS 4358025

+24801066 56437738

+ 1615185

6643642

+1699225 58136963

-226734 6416908

1200-1209/12

-5025846 -1295000 1209/1212(a) 5121908 53111117 NOTES: (a) These totals are all for the expenditures for the pilgrimage and Holy 1212/1797-8. See Appendix Table 1 0 , p .

3 2

3 3

• See Table L X . See pp.

310-312.

LIX PARAS

7279803

48302957

+5200196 9558221

"4477179 2802624

+27139268

+21655298 31213519

-258683

+22869106 98311331

-1257502

2543941

75442225

-1568941 -9147289 89164042 975000 year 1209/1794-5 except that for the Cities, which Is for the year 39929956017

PART I I I . THE SURPLUS OP REVENUES OVER EXPENDITURES OF THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OP EGYPT: THE REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT The p r i n c i p a l revenues of the Porte from Ottoman Egypt came from the I r s f i l l y y e - l Hazine "Remittance Treasure" secured from the annual surplus of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt, and from the Sulvfin revenues secured from the s a l e , a l i e n a t i o n or d e l e g a t i o n of I m p e r i a l Possessions and r i g h t s i n Egypt. CHAPTER I . I.

THE

The Revenues of the I r s f i l l y y e - l Hazine.

During the f i r s t decade of Ottoman r u l e I n Egypt, the revenues of the I m p e r i a l Treasury were devoted e n t i r e l y to expenditures f o r Egypt and the Holy C i t i e s and to purchases of commodities sent to the Porte. P e r i o d i c g i f t s i n cash and kind were sent to the S u l t a n hy tjfiyr Bey, hut these were i n payment of h i s personal o b l i g a t i o n s and they were made from h i s own revenues rather than from the Treasury of E g y p t . 1 However, the I m p e r i a l Treasury i n I s t a n b u l became more and more i n need of new revenues to support the growing bureaucracy, munificence, and m i l i t a r y ambitions of Suleyman "the Magnificent" ( 9 2 6 - 9 7 4 / 1 5 2 0 - 1 5 6 6 ) , the son and successor of 2 the Conqueror of Egypt, and so when Ibrahim Paga restored Ottoman r u l e and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n Egypt a f t e r the f a i l u r e of the i l l - f a t e d r e v o l t of Aljmed Pasa i n 931 / 1 5 2 4 - 5 , 3 arrangements were made f o r the d i s p a t c h to the Porte of a f i x e d annual payment as I r s f i l l y y e - 1 Hazine, or "Remittance Treasure", from the I m p e r i a l Treasury of Egypt. The revenues and expenditures of the Treasury of Egypt were arranged to provide an annual surplus of four hundred thousand gold p i e c e s , evaluated a t s i x t e e n m i l l i o n p a r a s , which were to be sent a n n u a l l y as

283

284

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

remittance to the P o r t e . T h i s amount was 3ent regul a r l y under Vfil£ Bfidim SuleymHn Paga ( 9 3 1 - 9 * 1 / i 5 2 4 - 1 5 3 * ) and from 9 3 8 / 1 5 3 1 - 2 t o 9 4 1 / 1 5 3 4 the annual sum was i n c r e a s e d to 500,000 gold p i e c e s , or twenty m i l l i o n p a r a s . During the r u l e o f h i s s u c c e s s o r , Hosrev Paga ( 9 4 1 - 3 / 1 5 3 4 - 6 ) , i t was e s t a b l i s h e d a t 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 gold p i e c e s , or twentye i g h t m i l l i o n paras a y e a r , a t h i 3 own r e q u e s t , and i n 9 4 2 / 1 5 3 5 - 6 he sent the S u l t a n over one m i l l i o n gold p i e c e s . When i t a r r i v e d I n I s t a n b u l , however, S u l t a n Suleyman refused to accept i t , s a y i n g that i t was too much and e x p r e s s i n g the f e a r t h a t i t had been taken t y r a n n i c a l l y from the poor, jjosrev Pa?a had hoped t o Impress h i s master by the a t t e n t i o n of h i s c o l l e c t i o n s , and he r e p l i e d t h a t he had been a b l e to c o l l e c t t h a t much by s p e c i a l e f f o r t s i n the border r e g i o n s of Egypt. But the S u l t a n ordered t h a t the money c o l l e c t e d I n such a way could be spent o n l y f o r the water c i s t e r n s of the Muslims i n the Porte and the Holy C i t i e s , and t h a t t h e r e a f t e r the should be no more than 500,000 gold p i e c e s , or twenty m i l l i o n p a r a s , every y e a r . During the r e s t of the century, the amount a c t u a l l y sent to the Porte every y e a r v a r i e d between s i x t e e n and twenty m i l l i o n p a r a s , according to the amount of revenues and expenditures of the Treasury of Egypt during each y e a r . 6 I n 9 9 5 / 1 5 8 6 - 7 , the sum r e q u i r e d was i n c r e a s e d to twenty-four m i l l i o n paras a y e a r a t the request of the conqueror of Yemen, Slnfin Paga, who agreed to t h i s i n r e t u r n f o r p e r m i s s i o n to become VS.11 of Egypt f o r a second time. However, he found I t impossible to c o l l e c t t h i s sum, and was d i s m i s s e d and forced to f l e e from Egypt i n d i s g r a c e . 7 H i s s u c c e s s o r i n Egypt, Uveys Paga ( 9 9 4 - 8 / 1 5 8 5 - 9 ) managed to send twenty-four m i l l i o n para3 each y e a r by d e p r i v i n g the s o l d i e r s of much of t h e i r wages, and so i n 998/1591 they r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t him, sacked h i s p a l a c e and sent him f l e e i n g f o r h i s l i f e to S y r i a , k i l l e d the c l e r k s of the Treasury and appropriated I t s contents, and p i l l a g e d the homes and shops I n C a i r o . As a r e s u l t , the required from h i s s u c c e s s o r s was s e t a t only s i x t e e n m i l l i o n paras a y e a r during the next f i v e y e a r s . T h i s was i n c r e a s e d to twenty m i l l i o n paras a y e a r I n 9 1 0 0 5 / 1 5 9 6 - 7 and to twenty-four m i l l i o n paras a y e a r i n 1 0 1 0 / 1 6 0 1 - 2 . Fekete, Muteferrlqe 1168 (16 ga'bfin 940) (Bfig Vekfilet A r g i v i , I s t a n b u l ) . e l - J J a l l f i q , T f i r l h - i M i g i r , f o l . 8a: 'Abd u l - K e r i m , T f i r i h - i M i g i r , f o l . 10b. 5

" e l - H a l l f i q , T f i r l h - i M i g i r , f o l 8b;

6

" In

'Abd u l - K e r i m , T f i r i h - i M i g i r , f o l .

1la-b.

9 8 0 / 1 5 7 2 - 3 , s i x t e e n m i l l i o n p a r a s were sent (Muh. 24, 91 :345 ( i 4 H l j . j e i n 9 8 8 / 1 5 8 0 - 1 , twenty m i l l i o n paras were sent (Muh. 4 0 , 1 7 4 : 3 1 8 (end Jumfida I I 9 8 8 ) ; and i n 9 9 0 / 1 5 8 2 , 2 0 , 8 8 8 , 9 1 2 paras were r e c e i v e d from Egypt (Mallyyeden Mudewere, 893). 981);

7

' e l - H a l l f i q , Tfirifa-i M i g i r , f o l .

8

" e l - H a l l f i q , Tfirifa-i M i g i r , f o l 1 7 a ;

9

' See Table LXV.

16b. 'Abd ul-Ker£m, T f i r i h - i M i g i r , f o l .

17b.

THE

REVENUES

285

During the next thirty years, as we have seen, the restoration to cultivation and prosperity of lands which had fallen into idleness following the 10 Ottoman conquest resulted In great increases in the Treasury's revenues, and although expenditures also increased, the Porte was able to raise the to thirty million paras a year in 1037/1627-8, and It 11 received that amount or more for the next four years. However, in the forty years after 1041/1631-2, political and administrative disorders caused revenues to fall and expenditures to increase so that little more than twenty million paras could be sent to the Porte in the best years, while in most years, nothing at all was sent. Only In the last quarter of the 11/17th century did political conditions regain stability sufficient for the Ottomans to attempt to restore administrative and financial order In Egypt, and from 1071/1660-1 through 1085/1674-5 this was done in a series of reforms imposed by V&lls sent especially from the Porte for this purpose. These reforms were begun under Melek Ibrfihim Paga, the son-in-law of the Sultan, who ruled in Egypt from 1071/1661 to 1074/1664 By the time of his arrival, the Treasury's revenues had reached 87,638,539 paras a year, but with expenditures of 71,888,539 paras, only 15,750,000 paras were left for the To remedy this, he decreed a 12 series of financial reforms on 8 Sa'bfin 1071/8 April 1 6 6 1 . A general 13 tax increase, or mudfif, of five thousand paras was added to every twentyfive thousand paras of taxes previously paid by the holders of urban and rural Mugfita'at, and for every ardeb of grain previously paid as land tax, a new cash tax of two paras was established, in order to increase the land tax revenues by 11,450,000 paras a year. At the same time, it was recognized that many lands had decreased in fertility or fallen out of cultivation as 11 a result of the previous thirty years of anarchy, so tenzil tax decreases '' of 1,450,000 paras were allowed, leaving the total anticipated increase In land taxes at ten million paras a year and increasing the total anticipated revenue from taxes on urban and rural Muqfita'at to 80,998,111 paras a •year. 15 The revenues from Jlzye, Teffivut, and other miscellaneous revenues 10

11

- See p . 68. ' See Table LXV.

1 2.

On these reforms, see el-Hallfiq, fol. 76a; 'Abd ulKerSm, Tfirlfa-i Migir, fol. 8oa-b; Anonymous History of Ottoman Egypt, British Museum (London), Add. 9972, fol. 14b. 1 3

' See p p . 67, 73See p . 67.

1 5

' Compare with Table XLV, p . 183.

286

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

were s e t a t 4 , 1 2 8 , 9 2 8 p a r a s a y e a r , 1 6 and the revenues from Hulv&n, and the customs of Suez, t o t a l l i n g 1 8 , 0 1 1 , 5 0 0 p a r a s 17 a year, were j o i n e d to those of the T r e a s u r y to produce a t o t a l annual revenue of 1 0 3 , 1 3 8 , 5 3 9 p a r a s . To reduce e x p e n d i t u r e s demanded from the T r e a s u r y , i t was ordered that a l l vacancies which occurred t h e r e a f t e r I n the a c t i v e and i n a c t i v e corps should be a b o l i s h e d r a t h e r than r e d i s t r i b u t e d u n t i l the n u m e r i c a l and f i n a n c i a l l i m i t s which had been Imposed on each corps i n the 18 1 0 / 1 6 t h c e n t u r y were r e s t o r e d . A l l wages which had been I l l e g a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d from one corps to another 17 9 or converted i n t o Murattabs and a l l those h e l d by persons not q u a l i f i e d to possess them or unable to f u l f i l l the 20

o b l i g a t i o n s r e q u i r e d i n r e t u r n f o r them were a b o l i s h e d . The pensions h e l d by persons I n the i n a c t i v e corps were reduced i n q u a n t i t y and amount t o the l i m i t s imposed on them i n the 1 0 21/ 1 6 t h c e n t u r y , and a l l pensions i n excess of those l i m i t s were a b o l i s h e d . By such means, i t was hoped to reduce expenditures to 7 3 , 0 3 2 , 4 1 7 p a r a s a y e a r , l e a v i n g 3 1 , 7 5 6 , 1 2 2 paras 22 f o r the annual However, a f t e r t h r e e y e a r s of v a i n l y attempting to enforce these reforms Paga was d i s m i s s e d and returned to I s t a n b u l on the 4th of Sevvfil, 1074/30 A p r i l , 1664. A s p e c i a l agent c a l l e d then was sent to Egypt t o d i s c u s s i t s f i n a n c i a l problems w i t h the l e a d e r s of the MamlQk h i e r a r c h y and i n Muharrem, 1 0 7 5 / J u l y , 1664 i t was agreed t h a t 3 0 0 0 paras of the l a n d t a x I n c r e a s e ordered by Ibrahim Paga should be a b o l i s h e d , l e a v i n g an I n c r e a s e of 2 0 0 0 paras on every 2 5 , 0 0 0 p a r a s of p r e v i o u s l y p a i d i n cash and 2 0 0 0 p a r a s on every 1 0 0 0 ardebs of tax p r e v i o u s l y p a i d i n k i n d , i n order to produce a t o t a l I n c r e a s e of 5 , 3 2 6 , 5 0 0 p a r a s i n the annual l a n d t a x revenues of the T r e a s u r y . A s i m i l a r I n c r e a s e was to be extended to the t a x e s p a i d by the h o l d e r s of p o s i t i o n s , to produce an i n c r e a s e of 1 , 6 7 3 , 5 0 0 p a r a s a y e a r . I n a d d i t i o n to these revenues, other revenues of the t o t a l l i n g 7 , 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 paras a y e a r were a l s o j o i n e d to those of the T r e a s u r y to b r i n g them to a t o t a l of 1 0 3 , 1 3 8 , 5 3 9 p a r a s a y e a r , with e x p e n d i t u r e s s e t a t 7 3 , 1 3 8 , 5 3 9 p a r a s 1 17

' See pp.

167,

170,

180.

° See pp.

108,

179,

181 .

l8

° See 19• See 20 ' See 21 ' See 22 •

14b; 76a.

p.

203.

pp. 2 0 5 , p. 2 0 9 . p. 2 0 3 .

208.

Anonymous C h r o n i c l e o f O t t o m a n E g y p t , B r i t i s h Museum, Add. 9 9 7 2 , f o l . 'Abd u l - K e r i m , f o l 80a; e l - H a l l f i q , f o l .

THE IRSALIYYE-I HAZINE REVENUES

287

annually in order to leave the IraSliyye-I Hazine at thirty million paras. In essence, thus, the Emirs agreed to the principle of tax increases in order to balance the Treasury's budget and provide the Porte with the Irsfellyye-I Hazine in the desired amount, but demanded that a portion of the burden of the increase be shifted to the revenues of the Vali, from which an additional 3,U23,500 paras was demanded, and that an increased amount be left for expenditures so that thirty million paraa would be left for the Porte, instead of the 31,756,122 paras established by Ibrahim Pasa· These proposals were accepted by the Porte in 1 0 7 7 / 1 6 6 6 - 7 , and 2k the Treasury's budget was established on that basis. -However, the solution which was adopted could at the most be considered a temporary ex­ pedient, for it deprived the VSlis of Egypt of the bulk of their revenues. In 1081/1670-1, the Treasury's revenues came to 95,258,315 paras, ex­ penditures rose to 76,775,^-68 paras, leaving only 18,932,8^7 paras for the IrsSllyye-1 Hazine, with the Villi providing the additional 11, 0 6 7 , 1 5 3 25 paras needed to send the full amount to the Porte. As a result of this, in Muharrem, 1081/May, 1670 Qara IbrShim Paga was sent to Egypt to re­ form the administration, and this time two thousand Ottoman soldiers were sent with him to enable him to enforce his decisions. During the next three years, he completely reorganized the administrative and financial organization of Ottoman Egypt and set it in the pattern which was to be followed virtually unchanged until the French invasion of Egypt a century and a half later. In Mubarrem/May and Safar/June, he checked the accounts of the Imperial Granary and Treasury for false entries of expenditures established by the scribes for their own profit, abolished the false salaries and pensions which they had set down, imprisoned and executed those who had established them, and seized their properties for the HulvSn revenues of the Sultan. Then he staffed the Treasury with the scribes he had brought from the Porte, and by the end of JxmSda I/September of 1081/1670 they increased the revenues available for the IrsSllyye-I Hazine by 2 , 8 3 6 , 2 ¾ ¾ paras by the following increases in the revenues and decreases in the expenditures of the Treasury:

MaliyyedenMudevvere ^737 (BSg Vekalet Arglvi, Istanbul); el-JJallSq., TSrih-i Misir, fol. 78a; 'Abd ul-Kerim, TSrIh-1 Misir, fol. 85a-86a. See also Table LXIV. 2l··

'Abd ul-Kerim, TSrih-i Migir, fol. Kepeci, BSg Muhasebe

2302

86a.

(BSs Vekalet Arslvi, Istanbul).

288

a)

b)

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

INCREASES IN TREASURY REVENUES 1. Restoration of taxes (murta.ia'a) which had previously been lowered due to the decreased fertility of the lands on which they were Imposed 2. Restoration of taxes and Imposition of M&l-i Bimfiye (protection tax) on various Vaqfs 3. MSl-i Himfiye tax imposed on the urban Muqata'a of0 Ser-i B8.z&ran in Rosetta.^ Increases (ziyade) In the taxes levied on the villages providing revenues for the maintenance and repair of the Holy Kisve. TOTAL INCREASES IN REVENUES DECREASES IN TREASURY EXPENDITURES J,. Decreases in funds provided for the Otl&q&t (rations and fodder) In the provinces, maintenance of Imperial Dams, and for the manufacture of gunpowder for the Dlvin of Cairo 2. Reductions in salaries ( s a i i y & n S t ) and wages (Mevfi.ilb) 3. Abolition of wages and pensions (Vazayif) illegally made Into Murattab&t 4. Abolition of the increases forced on the Treasury in the previous twenty years In the amounts spent by the v a i l for robes of honor given to EmSrs and others 5. Abolition of an Increase which had been made in the money given to the Q&dis of Mecca and Medina to transport to the Holy Cities the grains given to them annually by the Treasury of Egypt 6. Abolition of Increases which had been made in the pensions sent annually to the Holy Cities in the Surre

PARAS

PAGE REFERENCES (25)

164,468

67

156,654

45

1 ,200

50,231

127-8

259-260

+372,553

8*3,387

229, 233, 277

253,512

215

126,400

236

750,000

226-227

7,828

265

416,666

258

7. Reduction in subsidies paid to 249 50, 000 the Arab tribe, Eviad-i $amflde 8. Reduction in Otiaqat for soldiers in Upper Egypt 5,098 229-230 TOTAL DECREASE IN EXPENDITURES -2,45^,891 NOTES: (25) References to pages in this study on which these items are discussed. 2 6

' See p . 109.

THE

I n addition,

289

REVENUES

10,800 p a r a s w e r e s e c u r e d b y u n s p e c i f i e d means, m a k i n g a

grand t o t a l o f 2,836,244 a. b. c.

paras:

Increases I n revenues Decreases I n e x p e n d i t u r e s Other adjustments

On t h e 2 8 t h o f ZQ u l - Q a ' d a , (muflaf) t o t a l l i n g

27

372,553 2,452,891 10,800 2,836,244

1081/9 April

1671,

general tax

7,482,541 paras a y e a r were decreed by t h e PARAS

1. 3000 paras imposed o n e v e r y 25,000 paras of taxes p r e v i o u s l y paid

I n cash

PAGE REFERENCES 67

5^21,000

67, 73

2. 3 0 0 0 p a r a s mud&f imposed o n e v e r y 1,000 a r d e b s o f l a n d t a x p r e v i o u s l y paid I n kind 1,061,5*1 3. New M & l - i B u l v f i n t a x imposed o n the v a i l i n r e t u r n f o r h i s revenues from Buivan

Increases

Porte:

67,

1,000,000

73,

84

326

7,482,541 H o w e v e r , t h e E m i r s and MamlQks o f E g y p t a g a i n r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h a t

large

a n I n c r e a s e I n t h e i r t a x o b l i g a t i o n s and g o t I b r a h i m Paga t o r e q u e s t

the

P o r t e t o reduce t h e t a x i n c r e a s e t o two thousand paras 2 5 , 0 0 0 p a r a s o f t a x p r e v i o u s l y p a i d i n c a s h , w i t h no paid I n

for

every

at a l l

on t a x e s

kind: 1. 2000 paras Increase on e v e r y 2 5 , 0 0 0 p a r a s p r e v i o u s l y p a i d i n cash 2.

PARAS 1,807,000

M & l - i B u l v a n Imposed o n t h e V f i l l

1,000,000

TOTAL INCREASE I N TREASURY REVENUES I N 1082/1671-2.28

2,807,000

The P o r t e was f o r c e d t o a c c e p t t h i s r e d u c t i o n i n t h e t a x which i t

had o r d e r e d , b u t I n r e s p o n s e t o t h i s i t

Increases

s e n t t h r e e t h o u s a n d more

s o l d i e r s t o s u p p o r t I b r a h i m Paga and o r d e r e d h i m t o make t h e

following

reductions i n the established expenditures of the Imperial Treasury

of

Egypt: REDUCTIONS PARAS

EXPENDITURES 1.

S a l a r i e s and wages

463,560

2.

P r o v i s i o n s p u r c h a s e d f o r t h e B a v a i e Agas o f A l e x a n d r i a and R o s e t t a

459,451

PAGE REFERENCE 215 103, 2 3 3 ( 2 1 )

(Turkish State Archives, Istanbul), Mallweden M u d e w e r e 1489 g i v e s a c o m p l e t e a c c o u n t o f t h e s e r e f o r m s . See a l s o 'Abd u l - K e r l m , T a r l h - x M i g i r , f o l . 98a; e l - f i a l i a q , f o l . 87a; Anonymous H i s t o r y o f Ottoman E g y p t , B r i t i s h Museum, Add 9 9 7 2 , f o l . 17a. 28

Maliyyeden Mudewere M i g i r , f o l . 100a.

1489, f o l .

3-4; see a l s o

~

'Abd u l - K e r i m ,

290

REVENUES OF THE PORTE PROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

EXPENDITURES 3· Reduction of land taxes previously increased 4. Abolition of money provided for the hire of messengers to convey to Cairo the news of the arrival of new VSlSs in Alexandria 5· Reduction in funds paid to the QjapddSn of Suez for the maintenance of the Imperial Fleet in the Red Sea 6. Abolition of payments made to the consuls of France and Venice in the port of Alexandria 7· Abolition of the customs exemption granted to the HazinedSr, or personal Treasurer of the VSli, at the customs of Alexandria 8. Reduction in the funds provided for the hire of camels and rent of boats for the transport of grains belonging to the QSdi of Mecca 9· Reduction in the price of leather bags to carry gunpowder for the DivSn of Cairo and for the Porte 10. Reduction in the price paid for cow skins to carry the sugar sent to the Porte 11. Reduction in the price paid for paper and barrels for the sugar sent to the Porte 12. Reduction in the price paid for cloths and carpets to cover the money sent to the Porte in the Irsallyre-i Hazine 13· Abolition of the money provided for meat for the scribes of the Imperial Treasury 14. Abolition of the money paid for wood for the DivSn of Cairo 15· Reduction in the QtlSqSt provided in the province of QSiiyye

16. Abolition of the money provided for boats used to collect and gather the grains paid as Iemd tax 17· Abolition of the money paid for a fullyequipped horse given annually to the Qfidi 'Asker 18. Abolition of the price of linen cloth and white sacks for the money and provisions sent to the Porte 19· Abolition of the money provided for twine (IsoSvII)sent to the Porte

REDUCTIONS PARAS 75,000

25,000 1*50,000

PAGE REFERENCE

237(80)

266(37), 2 6 3

63,360

237(7^-5)

17,500

237(80)

11,040

265(28)

11,000

233(18),279(2)

6,500

279(2), 273

4,700

280(4)

11,597

280(3)

12,420

237(78)

10,000

232(3)

9,900

229-30

30,795

8,000

237(79)

59

83,680

20. Reductions in other expenditures

8,000 35,000

TOTAL REDUCTIONS IN EXPENDITURES

1,796,503

278-9, 280(10)

THE

REVENUES

291

On the 5th of Jum&da I 1 0 8 2 / 1 0 September 1 6 7 1 , a d d i t i o n a l reductions were ordered: REDUCTIONS PAGE PARAS REFERENCES EXPENDITURES 1 . Wages and s a l a r i e s 3,783,810 215 2. Reduction i n the money provided f o r o i l sent 33,000 to the Holy C i t i e s 264(3) A b o l i t i o n of pensions i n the Surre of the 3Holy C i t i e s 258, 264(1 ) 37,593 4. Reduction i n the s a l a r i e s paid to the a s s i s t a n t s of the Muhtesib of C a i r o 58,170 236(65) 5 - A b o l i t i o n of the money provided f o r the cleaning and maintenance of c i s t e r n s i n 26,814 Damietta 226, 231 (1 0 , 13) 6. A b o l i t i o n of the money provided f o r the 16,500 transport of r i c e from F&reskOr to Damietta 274, 280(5) 7- Reduction I n the money provided f o r lamb 50,000 232(2) meat f o r the Dlvfin of C a i r o 8. Reduction i n the money provided f o r white 70,000 r i c e f o r the D£v&n 232(1 ) 9. Reduction i n the Otl&q&t g i v e n to persons 57,808 t r a v e l l i n g i n the provinces 236(59) 1 0 . Reductions I n other expenditures 1,600 b, 125,295 TOTAL REDUCTIONS IN EXPENDITURES However, a t the end of Jum&da I l / O c t o b e r , Ibr&him Paga was forced to r e s t o r e to the o b l i g a t i o n s of the Treasury some of the reductions which he had PAGES made: 1.

f o r persons t r a v e l l i n g i n the

provinces

2.

Wages and s a l a r i e s

39,732

236(59)

112,500

215

152,232

l e a v i n g the t o t a l reduction i n expenditures made i n I and I I of 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 3 , 9 7 3 , 0 6 3 paras. F i n a l l y on 1 1082/31 January, 1672 a d d i t i o n a l i n c r e a s e s t o t a l l i n g 1 4 , 8 1 2 , 4 7 4 paras were added to the revenues of the PARAS PAGETreasury: REFERENCES 1. r e v e n u e s formerly 14,1 10,000

143,

155

2.

A b o l i t i o n of some of the r a t i o n s paid by the Treasury and arrangement f o r the s a l e f o r the p r o f i t of the Treasury of the g r a i n s which were thus saved

500,000

170-1

3.

I n c r e a s e I n Tef&vut revenues

100,000

168-170

4.

Increase i n the

t e c t i o n t a x ) on

102,474 14,812,474

4 5 , 49

292

REVENUES OP THE PORTE F R O M OTTOMAN EGYPT

In s u m , the efforts of Ibr&hlm Paga in 1081 and 1082 were intended to produce f o r the Imperial Treasury a n additional surplus of 26,225,284 paras w h i c h , w h e n combined with the a c t u a l surplus which it had before the ref o r m , would provide the thirty m i l l i o n paras needed f o r the annual Irs&llyye-l Hazine and additionally a small cushion against future Increases which m i g h t occur In expenditures demanded of the Treasury: A-

INCREASES IN REVENUES: a. b. c.

B.

Jum&da I 1081 early 1082 1 S e w & l 1082

PARAS 372,553 2,807,000 14,812,474

TOTAL PARAS

17,992,027

DECREASES IN EXPENDITURES: a. b. c.

Jum&da I 1081 early 1082 Jumfida I and II 1082

TOTAL SURPLUS

2,463,691 1,796,503 3,973,063 8,233,257 26,225, 284

T h e balance of the revenues of the which had b e e n used to complete the In the years before this r e f o r m , w e r e returned to

29

them. Ibrahim Paga then convened a general on 5 1082/4 February 1672 a n d , In the presence of a l l the chief officers of E g y p t , his reforms were confirmed a n d , in accordance with t h e m , the revenues of the Treasury were established at 99,548,854 p a r a s , and the expenditures at 69,548,854 p a r a s , leaving exactly thirty million paras f o r the Irsgliyye-l 30 Hazine of the P o r t e . During the next two y e a r s , Paga continued to reorganize the administration and to adjust elements In his p r e v i o u s financial reforms which were found to be u n w o r k a b l e . In addition, he found it necessary to accept various reductions i n Treasury revenues and increases in its expenditures:

On the reforms of 1081-2, see Mallyyeden M u d e w e r e 1489 (start Jumgda I 1082 and M u h . M i g i r , V I I I , 77b:317 (end Sa'bSn 1178). 3

°" A n account of this D i v a n and of the budget which it established Is contained In the Hujje which It drew u p and sent to the Porte. The original (? ) of thisffu.lje Is possessed b y the Blbllotheque Royale de B r u x e l l e s , M S 17998. Professor Paul W i t t e k , of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of L o n d o n , very kindly m a d e available to m e his own transcription of this manuscript- A defective copy is printed in Evllyfi , X , p . 151-7-

THE

REVENUES PARAS

a)

293 PAGE REFERENCES

D E C R E A S E S IN T R E A S U R Y R E V E N U E S 1. A b o l i t i o n (furQnhfide) of land taxes e x p e c t e d from lands w h i c h had b e c o m e idle and w h i c h could n o longer b e taxed.

a. b. c. d.

N U M B E R OF VILLAGES 24 33 12 5

PROVINCES IN Q a l e m - i Sarqiyye Qalem-1 Garbiyye Qalem-1 Sehir Q a l e m - I Jlze

67

TOTAL ABOLISHED PARAS 195,698 451,260 130,856 29,666

343, 343, 343, 343'

69 71 70 71

807,480 2 . R e d u c t i o n s (tenzilfit) in t h e K u g Q f i y y e - i K e b l r t a x e s imposed o n some h o l d e r s of p o s i t i o n s a. b. c. d. e. f. gh.

Muhfisebe.1l E f e n d l s i Magraf-i Gaiai Efendlsl Erzfiq E f e n d l s l Z a ' I m - i Bulfiq Terlumfin-i Efivfin Kfitib-i Jemfi'at-i M u t e f e r r l q a Sehir Efendlsl Za'lm-1 Mi?ir

15,000 15,000 6,000 15,000 1 0, 000

145, 145, 149, 148 1 47 146, 145, 148

25,000

1 0, 000 20,000

345 345 145 192-4 344

116,000 b)

INCREASES IN T R E A S U R Y E X P E N D I T U R E S

PAGES

1. Increases In the Stiaq p r o v i d e d f o r soldiers t r a v e l l i n g In the p r o v i n c e s of E g y p t 25,000 236(59) 2. P r o v i s i o n s (ta'yinfit) e s t a b l i s h e d b y Ibrahim P a g a f o r the Serifs of the H o l y Cities 965,300 269(5) TOTAL REVENUE DECREASES AND 1, 913,780 E X P E N D I T U R E INCREASES T o m a t c h the Increased e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r the Serifs of the H o l y C i t i e s , the Mfil-i Himfiye (protection t a x ) on v a r i o u s p u b l i c and p r i v a t e V a q f s w a s increased to p r o v i d e the same amount of revenues: PARAS 1.

a. b. c. 2.

PAGES

Public Vaqfs Vaqf-i Harameyn V a q f - i D e g l g e - i Kubrfi Vaqf-i Mubammadiyye

250,000

50,000

221,500

521,500

P r i v a t e V a q f s and Rizqes a. b. c. d. e.

In In In In in

Qalem-i Q.alem-1 Qalem-i Qalem-i Qalem-i

TOTAL MAL-I H M A Y E

Sarqiyye Garbiyye Sehir Jlze Muhfisebe

INCREASE

213,025 11.5, 1 08 81,154 26,130 8,385 443,800 965,300

270 269 269-270

NUMBER OF V A Q F S A N D R I Z Q E S 32 22

9 9 7 79

294

REVENUES OP THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

To provide for the other decreased revenues and increased expenditures: A.

B.

INCREASES IN TREASURY REVENUES a. Increase in the Mfil-i Hara.i required from holders of urban Muqa-fa'St b . Establishment of KugQfiyye-1 Keblr tax on the governor of Jidde c. Increase in the Mfil-i Ktirek.ilyfin d . Increase in the M&l-i JevfilS from the Multezim of the Jizye tax TOTAL INCREASE IN REVENUES DECREASES IN TREASURY EXPENDITURES a . Decreases in Otlfiq&t provided to Emirs travelling in provinces b . Decrease in money given for the hire of camels and rent of ships to carry grains to the Holy Cities TOTAL DECREASE IN EXPENDITURES

PARAS 175,000

75,000 1,731 650,000

PAGE REFERENCE 67, 133 149 178-9, 181 151-2,

167

901,731

34,947

230

11,802

267(44),

261

46,749

In sum, during 1083/1672-3 and 1084/1673-4 the following adjustments were made in the revenues and expenditures of the Imperial Treasury of 31 Egypt. a.

b.

LOSSES 1. Decreases In revenues 2. Increases In expenditures GAINS 1. Increases in revenues 2. Decreases in expenditures

PARAS 923,480 990,300

1,913,780 1,867,031

46,749 1,913,780

Before he departed from Egypt, Paga Issued a decree to assure that the balance which he had achieved In the revenues and expenditures of the Treasury would remain after his departure. He ordered that thereafter wages and salaries In cash or kind should be given only out of vacancies and that new ones should not be created. In addition, It was ordered that If It became necessary to decrease the tax required from 3ome source, the amount which was removed from the revenues of the Treasury should be balanced by abolishing an equal amount of salaries and, conversely, If an increase in expenditures was demanded from the Treasury, it should not be allowed until a corresponding Increase was made In the taxes 3 2 demanded from the rural and urban However, as soon as he left the Emlr3 were able to force his successor — -

Maliyyeden M u d e w e r e , 5104 32

' Muh. 103, fol. 87a (mid Jumada I 1086); Muh. 108, p . 202 (start Jumada II 1109).

THE

295

REVENUES

i n E g y p t to ignore these r u l e s and a c c e p t the c r e a t i o n of new s a l a r i e s and o t h e r e x p e n d i t u r e s w h i c h w e r e o n l y p a r t i a l l y c o m p e n s a t e d f o r b y Increased So b y 1 0 9 4 / 1 6 8 3 , w h i l e the t o t a l r e v e n u e s of t h e T r e a s u r y had

revenues.

Increased to 9 9 , 8 0 8 , 4 9 8 p a r a s , e x p e n d i t u r e s had r i s e n to 7 6 , 8 5 3 , 3 1 1 l e a v i n g only 2 3 , 0 3 5 , 1 8 7 p a r a s f o r the Porte,

53

a d e f i c i e n c y of 6 , 9 6 4 , 8 1 3 p a r a s .

paras,

d e s i r e d b y the By 1106/1694-5,

this d e f i c i e n c y

i n c r e a s e d to 7,319,187 p a r a s and i n t h e same y e a r a n e w m i s s i o n w a s sent f r o m t h e P o r t e u n d e r the d i r e c t i o n of Q e l e b l Ismfi'll P a g a , w i t h the t a s k of restoring the

of the P o r t e to the d e s i r e d t h i r t y m i l l i o n

paras a year. After

1106/September, 1694, Egypt was gripped b y famine

and p l a g u e d u e to a f a i l u r e of the N i l e to w a t e r t h e l a n d s p r o p e r l y . S o l d i e r s a n d p e n s i o n e r s a l i k e rioted to secure t h e i r w a g e s and p e n s i o n s i n s t e a d of t h e tickets w h i c h had b e e n h a n d e d to them in t h e i r p l a c e , ^ and E g y p t f e l l I n t o a g e n e r a l state of p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e 3

anarchy. "'

Ismfi'll P a g a and h i s m i s s i o n a r r i v e d i n A l e x a n d r i a o n the 28th

of M u h a r r e m 1 1 0 7 / 9 S e p t e m b e r 1695 and w e r e f o r c e d to spend the n e x t six months restoring order.

F i n a l l y a t t h e end of t h e y e a r he w a s a b l e to

g e t to the o b j e c t of h i s m i s s i o n , the r e s t o r a t i o n of the To d o t h i s , r e v e n u e s w e r e I n c r e a s e d and e x p e n d i t u r e s w e r e decreased : PARAS a)

PAGE REFERENCES

I N C R E A S E S IN T R E A S U R Y R E V E N U E S 1 . M u d & f i n c r e a s e s of 1000 p a r a s o n e v e r y 2 5 , 0 0 0 p a r a s of Mfil-i O a d l m t a x r e a u l r e d from e a c h Muqfita'a 2.

R e s t o r a t i o n ( m u r t a j a ' a ) of land taxes previously abolished

3-

I n c r e a s e s (zlyfide) I n taxes o w e d b y the Vfill a.

Mfil-i Harfi.i f o r spice c u s t o m s

b.

Mfil-i Hulvfin

at Suez

4.

E s t a b l i s h m e n t of Mfil-i Himfiye o n the M u ' a l l e m of D a m i e t t a f o r the Muqfita'a of r i c e l a n d s i n Its v i c i n i t y w h i c h he h e l d

5-

Mudfif tax I n c r e a s e of t w e n t y - f i v e p a r a s f o r e a c h a r d e b of Mfil-i Oadlm l a n d t a x p a i d I n k i n d In U p p e r Egypt

T O T A L I N C R E A S E OF T R E A S U R Y R E V E N U E S

2,952,111

6 7 , 73

802,387

67

625,000

250,000

1 08 168

50,000

112,

2,000,000

127(6)

6 7 , 7 3 , 84

6,679,^98

p a r ul-Mahfflzfit (Egyptian State A r c h i v e s , C a i r o ) , R e g . 2 1 0 6 (year 1 0 9 4 ) . See p a g e 2 2 1 ' J a b a r t J , 'Ajfi'lb ul-Asfir, I, 2 6 - 7 ; Demlrdfigl, D u r r e t ul-Mugfine, p p . 19, 36; el-Hallfiq, T a r i F i M i g i r . f o l . I02a-b; A n o n y m o u s C h r o n i c l e s of O t t o m a n E g y p t , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , A d d . 9972, f o l . 2 6 b - 2 8 b . 335 5

296

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

PARAS b) DECREASES IN TREASURY EXPENDITURES 1. Reduction in the money paid for vases and baskets to carry rice 21,ooo to the Porte 2 . Reduction in the money paid for the hire of camels and boat freight for oil and beverages 10,591 sent to the Porte Reduction in the money paid for skins used for the barrels in which sugar was sent to the Ή ,287 Porte Abolition of the sums paid to the holder of the customs MuqSta'at of Rosetta and Alexandria for the sugar and beverages sent through 50,034 those ports to the Porte 5- Reduction in money paid for baskets and for the hire of bearers for the white rice sent 23,1H 5 to the Porte 6 . Reduction in the money paid for the hire of camels to carry imperial sugar and beverages from Cairo to Alexandria, for shipment 8,818 to the Porte Reduction in the money paid to rent boats to carry commodities 228,008 to the Porte 8 . Reduction in the money paid for boxes and paper to wrap the 14,635 sugar sent to the Porte 9· Reduction in the money paid for wood and artisans for boxes made to send beverages of the Sultan 2,162 to the Porte 10. Abolition of the money paid for the hire of camels and attendants to carry the Irsailyye-I Hazine by land to the Porte 200,000 11 . Abolition of the salaries paid to guardians and watchmen at the quay of Alexandria 30,000 12. Abolition of the money paid for food for the falcons sent to the Porte 6,257 13· Other unspecified reductions in expenditures 3.682 TOTAL REDUCTIONS IN EXPENDITURES 639,689

PAGE REFEFiENCES

279(2)

280(7)

280(4)

273

274

280(9)

280(4)

280(11 ), 274

279(1) 237(76)

280(8), 275

In sum, in order to restore the Irsailyye-I Hazine of the Porte to an annual sum of thirty million paras, the revenues of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt were increased by 6,679,498 paras and its expenditures were de­ creased by 639,689 paras, making a total surplus of 7,319,187 paras,

THE

297

REVENUES

e q u a l l i n g the d e f i c i t w h i c h had e x i s t e d in the y e a r b e f o r e Ismfi'll P a g a c a m e to E g y p t .

I n a d d i t i o n , 2 , 0 5 3 , 9 3 5 paras p r e v i o u s l y e x p e n d e d b y the

T r e a s u r y e a c h y e a r f o r the p u r c h a s e of c e r t a i n c o m m o d i t i e s and o t h e r s u p p l i e s f o r the P o r t e w e r e converted into T r e a s u r y cash o b l i g a t i o n s to the

i t s e l f , from w h i c h p a y m e n t s f o r f u t u r e e x p e n d i t u r e s

f o r those items w e r e t o b e m a d e o n s p e c i a l o r d e r from the P o r t e .

56

This

i n c r e a s e d to 3 2 , 0 5 3 , 9 3 5 p a r a s the a m o u n t r e q u i r e d a n n u a l l y f o r t h e I n a d d i t i o n , h o w e v e r , the o f f i c e of w a s now joined t o that of Defterdfir, and the previously r e q u i r e d from the h o l d e r s of the f o r m e r p o s i t i o n ( 3 3 4 , 9 0 0 p a r a s ) w a s 37 abolished, r e d u c i n g T r e a s u r y r e v e n u e s and the r e s u l t i n g H a z i n e b y a n e q u a l sum and l e a v i n g the l a t t e r e s t a b l i s h e d at 31,719,055 paras a y e a r .

5

D u r i n g the f i f t y y e a r s w h i c h f o l l o w e d the reform of

1107/1695-6,

e x p e n d i t u r e s continued to r i s e , e s p e c i a l l y , as w e h a v e s e e n , to m e e t the r i s i n g costs of t h e p i l g r i m a g e and of w a g e s and p e n s i o n s .

However,

p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n E g y p t r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e , so that m o s t of t h e s e i n c r e a s e s could b e m a t c h e d b y I n c r e a s e s i n r e v e n u e s . 1 1 3 6 / 1 7 2 3 - 4 and 1 1 4 6 / 1 7 3 3 - 4 ,

Between

revenues totalling 1 , 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 paras a

y e a r w e r e added to the T r e a s u r y ' s r e v e n u e s to h e l p It m e e t the cost of the pilgrimage.

59

O n 20

1 1 , 1 1 5 5 / 2 3 A u g u s t 17*2, a g e n e r a l

c r e a s e of 1000 p a r a s o n e v e r y 2 5 , 0 0 0 p a r a s of p a i d b y r u r a l and u r b a n

In-

tax p r e v i o u s l y

added 3 , 6 6 1 , 8 9 3 p a r a s to the r e v e n u e s

of t h e T r e a s u r y , b u t 2 , 5 1 2 , 8 9 3 p a r a s of this h a d to b e u s e d f o r Increased 40 p a y m e n t s to the H o w e v e r , e x p e n d i t u r e s c o n t i n u e d to r i s e , a n d l i t t l e m o r e t h a n t w e n t y m i l l i o n p a r a s w a s left f o r d e l i v e r y to the P o r t e e v e r y y e a r i n the

1+1

I n a d d i t i o n , o n l y a small

p o r t i o n of the supplies owed b y the T r e a s u r y of E g y p t w e r e i n f a c t del i v e r e d to the P o r t e and t o t h e H o l y C i t i e s .

I n the f a c e of r e p e a t e d

O t t o m a n p r o t e s t s and t h r e a t s , a g e n e r a l

w a s convoked i n Cairo o n

5 6

5 7

' See p p . 306-7. ' See p . 148.

38

C o m p l e t e d e t a i l s of t h e reform of 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 6 , summarized h e r e , a r e found i n its o f f i c i a l r e g i s t e r , Ibn u l - E m i n , M a l l y y e 4122 A r g i v i , Istanbul); see a l s o M a l l y y e d e n M u d e w e r e , 5 9 3 ; M u h . 1 0 6 , p p . 2202 2 3 (start H I lie 1 1 0 6 ) ; M u h . 1 0 8 , p . 2 7 1 (end Re.jeb 11 oTTT D u r r e t u l - M u g a n e , p p . 2 8 - 3 0 ; A n o n y m o u s C h r o n i c l e of O t t o m a n E g y p t , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , A d d . 9962, f o l . 3 2 b . See a l s o T a b l e L X I V . 5 9

'

See p p .

245-246.

4o

M a l l y y e d e n M u d e y v e r e 7 2 7 8 , f o l . 26b _ _ _ _ , Istanbul) M u h . M i g i r , V , 2 5 1 : 6 4 7 (end M u h a r r e m 1155), 2 6 0 : 6 7 0 (end R e b l I I 1155), V I , 3b:12 (start R e b l II 1 156), 2 3 a : 1 2 2 (end M u h a r r e m 115TTT" See a l s o p p . 73, 2 4 6 . " See T a b l e L X I I I .

298

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

the 20th of Rehl I I ,

1 1 7 3 / 1 2 December 1759, and t h e

and MamlQk3

a g r e e d t o p a y t h e i r t a x e s i n f u l l and t o a s s u r e t h e prompt and c o m p l e t e 42 d e l i v e r y o f t h e s u p p l i e s owed t o t h e H o l y C i t i e s and t o t h e P o r t e . But t h e P o r t e w a i t e d i n v a i n f o r t h e s e p r o m i s e s t o be f u l f i l l e d ,

and t h e

fell

s h o r t o f t h e amount demanded b y t e n o r f i f t e e n ii 2a m i l l i o n paras e v e r y y e a r . As a r e s u l t , I n o f 117*/May, 1 7 6 1 , the Imperial

I n I s t a n b u l o r d e r e d t h a t p r e p a r a t i o n s be b e g u n f o r

m i l i t a r y expedition to b r i n g the

o f Egypt t o obedience.

p e d i t i o n was t o p r o c e e d b y l a n d and s e a , w i t h t h e f o r m e r u n d e r d i r e c t i o n of the the l a t t e r under

a

The exthe

Paga, o r Grand A d m i r a l , o f t h e Ottoman f l e e t , ' A l l Bey

the former

who had b e e n d r i v e n f r o m E g y p t b y h 45 is rivals who was c u r r e n t l y r e s i d i n g I n Gaza.

i n the

continued I n 1 1 7 5 / 1 7 6 1 - 2 , ^

Preparations

t h r e a t t h e H a i r s f i n a l l y a g r e e d t o p a y a new on e v e r y 2 5 , 0 0 0 paras o f

and

of Egypt, hierarchy

and

and I n r e s p o n s e t o

this

I n c r e a s e o f 1000 p a r a s

tax previously paid, to increase

the

T r e a s u r y ' s r e v e n u e s b y 3 , 6 5 0 , 0 0 0 p a r a s and a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y r e s t o r e

the

to I t s f u l l a m o u n t . O n c e

again, however,

f a i l e d t o l i v e up t o t h e i r p r o m i s e s a n d , as a r e s u l t , l a t e 1 7 6 3 agents o f t h e P o r t e gave

at the s t a r t of

t o h i s b a n n e r and s e i z e power

46

C a i r o a t t h e end o f t h e same y e a r .

the Porte

authorized

h i m t o s e i z e i n f u l l t h e l a n d s and p r o p e r t i e s o f h i s d e f e a t e d Ottoman a s s i s t a n c e ,

t h e a r r e a r s owed f o r t h e

seized.

'

42a

Muh. M i g i r ,

and I n a d d i t i o n t o p a y

of f i f t y m i l l i o n paras f o r the

to

w h i c h he had

t a x I n c r e a s e w h i c h had b e e n d e c r e e d

which increased T r e a s u r y revenues by 3 , 6 5 0 , 0 0 0 paras a

y e a r , and a g r e e d t o make i t k2

all

during the previous ten years,

He a l s o a c c e p t e d t h e

1175/1761-2,

in

predecessors.

' A l l Bey p r o m i s e d t o p a y

amounting t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y n i n e t y - o n e m i l l i o n paras, to the Porte

in

So t h a t he w o u l d h a v e t h e power

needed t o r e s t o r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r d e r i n E g y p t , this

1177/

' A l l Bey t h e f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e h e

needed t o r a l l y d i s s i d e n t g r o u p s

In return for a l l

the Emlr3

VIlT

See t h e A p p e n d i x , Muh. M i g i r , V I I ,

3*5:758

r e t r o a c t i v e to the year

(20 R e b l I I

p p . 4oo, 34 0:751

1174/1760-1.

7

1173)-

401.

(mid S e v v g l

117*)-

44Muh. M i g i r , V I I , 6b:21 (end S a f a r 1175 ), 9 : 3 2 ( s t a r t Jumada I I 1175), 1 1 b : 4 ; (end Jumfida I I 11 75 ), 12:45 (end Jumada I I 11 75 ), 14a:46(Re.jeb 11 75 ) . Muh. M i g i r ,

VIII,

Muh. M i g i r , V I I , Muh. V I I I ,

15a:59

(end Re.jeb 1175),

17a:66

( s t a r t Ramadan 1175).

61a (Q.a'da 1177).

1o4a:410

( s t a r t Muharrem 1 1 8 0 ) .

See a l s o T a b l e

LXIV.

THE

REVENUES

299 48

'All B e y w a s s o o n d e p o s e d b y h i s

rivals,

but they agreed

to fulfill the financial obligations which he had m a d e to the Porte, and o n t h e b a s i s of t h i s a g e n e r a l D i v S n h e l d o n t h e 1 3 t h of F e b r u a r y 1 7 6 7 , e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e v e n u e s of t h e T r e a s u r y a t

1180/12 123,982,1*3

p a r a s , expenditures at 9 2 , 5 5 1 , 4 9 2 p a r a s , leaving 31,5*5,**5 paras for the out o f w h i c h 6 , 3 6 3 , 0 1 8 para3 w o u l d b e e x p e n d e d f o r s p e c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s of t h e P o r t e in E g y p t a n d 25,182,1+27 p a r a s w o u l d b e sent every y e a r in full to the Porte: T A B L E L X I . T H E B U D G E T OF T H E T R E A S U R Y OF E G Y P T AS' E S T A B L I S H E D IN T H E 1 1 8 0 / 1 2 F E B R U A R Y , 1767 a)

PARAS PAGE REFERENCE REVENUES 1 . Land Taxes and revenues 183 1 00, 7 1 1 , 8 9 * f r o m u r b a n Muqfita'fit 2.

Mfil-i Hulvfin

34.

Mfil-i K u g Q f i y y e

5-

Mfil-i Jevfill Other Miscellaneous Revenues

2,113,500

168

14,948,451

150

2,003,664

167

4,204,634

183 123,982,143

TOTAL REVENUES b)

TOTAL PARAS

EXPENDITURES 1 . W a g e s and salaries

64,485,076

2.

26,969,39*

215 268

4,916,039

238

2,5*3,9*1

281

34.

For the Holy Cities For Egypt For the Porte TOTAL EXPENDITURES

98,91*,510(a)

O f t h e s e e x p e n d i t u r e s , 6 , 3 6 3 , 0 1 8 p a r a s came f r o m t h e and 9 2 , 5 5 1 , 4 9 2 p a r a s f r o m the T r e a s u r y , t h e l a t t e r l e a v i n g t h e T r e a s u r y w i t h a surplus of 31,5*5,**5 paras for the or 2 5 , 1 8 2 , 4 2 7 paras a f t e r Its e x p e n s e s w e r e p a i d . REFERENCE:

C e v d e t , M a l l y y e 1245 (Bfig Vekfilet A r g i v i , I s t a n b u l ) .

NOTE: (a) T h i s I n c o r r e c t t o t a l , as g i v e n I n t h e r e g i s t e r , is p r e s e r v e d h e r e . T h e correct t o t a l Is 9 8 , 9 1 4 , 4 5 0 . 'All B e y r e t u r n e d t o p o w e r I n 1 1 8 1 / 1 7 6 7 - 8 and h o n o r e d i n f u l l 49 h i s o b l i g a t i o n s t o t h e P o r t e d u r i n g t h e n e x t two y e a r s . ' H o w e v e r , f r o m 1 1 8 3 / 1 7 6 9 - 7 0 t o 1 1 8 7 / 1 7 7 3 - 4 h e r u l e d I n c o m p l e t e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e P Ro r0 t e or o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s t o I t .

and without sending any In 1 1 8 7 / 1 7 7 3 - 4 ,

he was overthrown b y his former chief lieutenant, Muhammed

B e y Abfi u l - Z a h a b w h o , I n r e t u r n f o r t h e O t t o m a n a s s i s t a n c e w h i c h h e h a d r e c e i v e d , a g r e e d to i n c r e a s e T r e a s u r y r e v e n u e s a n d d e c r e a s e e x p e n d i t u r e s 4 8

' See p .

7.

V I I I , 14lb:526 (end Re.jeb 1 1 8 5 ) . 5 0

' See p p . 8 - 9

300

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

so that a real surplus of thirty million paras could be achieved for the without the heavy burden of expenditure imposed on It 51 In the reform of 1180/1767. After 1193/1779, however, Egypt fell under the domination of Murfid and Ibrahim Beys, who diverted to their own profit much of the revenues of the Treasury and who, for the most part, withheld Egypt's obligations to the Porte and the Holy Cities. By the a u t u m n o f 1199/1785, the money left annually from the Treasury for the came to only 24,987,200 paras, and of this only a small fraction had actually been sent so that for the years from 1193/1779 to 1199/1785 a total of 103,762,369 paras remained in their debt to the Porte for this, and 278,831 ardebs of grain owed by the Treasury of Egypt to the Holy Cities 52 had not been sent. To consider this situation, a special meeting was convoked In the of the Grand Vezlr In Istanbul on the fourteenth of June, 1785. The Chief Treasurer of the Porte, FeyzS Suleyman Efendi, reported that when he had been In Egypt in 1195/1781, he had come to the conclusion that the only means to restore the of Egypt to obedience and fulfillment of their obligations was to attack In force by land and sea and to crush their Independence. The agreed to prepare a combined land and sea expedition to be sent the following year and, in the meantime, to send a special agent to Egypt to make a last effort to get the to fulfill their obligations and to warn the to make secret preparations to assist the invading force when it arrived. At the same time, a request was sent to the of Gaza, Jezz&r Ahmed Paga, himself formerly an of Egypt, asking for a complete report on conditions in Egypt and for his opinion concerning the military strength and supplies which would be 53 needed for a successful Invasion and the strategy which should be u s e d . A month later, at the very end of 1199/July, 1785, an agent of the Porte was sent to negotiate with the and prepare the for the invasion. About the same time, there arrived from JezzSr Paga a report which described In detail "the state and conditions of the and the and the soldiers and the other persons of importance" in Egypt and which assured the Porte that since the had tyrannically misruled the people, the religious leaders, the soldiers, and the Arab tribes, all would welcome and support a military Invasion which would end their oppression. He recommended that preparations for the expedition be Istanbul); Muh. Migir, VIII, 52.

Top Kapi Saray archives (Istanbul), E . 5647of the Archeology Museum

THE

REVENUES

301

made i n utmost secrecy so that the Emirs would be unable to prepare f o r i t by m i l i t a r y arrangements I n Egypt and p o l i t i c a l maneuverings i n the Porte, that i t be sent f i r s t to Ramla and Gaza o s t e n s i b l y to q u e l l r e b e l l i o u s Beys i n that area, and that i t then be q u i c k l y d i v e r t e d to Egypt before I t s Emirs could be forewarned. 5 ^ During the next four months, preparations were made I n accordance with t h i s report. I n the middle of 1 2 0 0 / 1 7 8 6 , a naval expedition departed from I s t a n b u l under the command of the Hasan Paga, o s t e n s i b l y to crush the r e v o l t of r e b e l l i o u s Beys I n S y r i a . Without warning, i t changed i t s course while I n route, a r r i v e d off the coast of Egypt on the 2 3 r d of June, 1 7 8 6 and occupied Alexandria without r e s i s t a n c e . Within two months, the makeshift army sent a g a i n s t Hasan Paga by the r u l e r s of Cairo was smashed, and MurSd Bey, Ibrahim Bey, t h e i r MamlQks and f o l l o w e r s , f l e d to Upper Egypt without attempting to defend Cairo a g a i n s t the advancing Ottoman f o r c e . Hasan Paga then set to work to r e s t o r e the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Ottoman Egypt and the f i n a n c i a l balance of i t s Treasury. However, he was d i v e r t e d from h i s e f f o r t s by the need to combat the continued m i l i t a r y r e s i s t a n c e of the B n i r s who had f l e d to Upper Egypt. And before he had time to complete h i s reforms, the Porte was forced to r e c a l l him and h i s f l e e t to meet new t h r e a t s from i t s European r i v a l s . 5 5 Before he departed, however, Hasan Paga decreed a s e r i e s of f i n a n c i a l reforms intended to r e s t o r e the to i t s f u l l amount and to assure the f u l f i l l m e n t of the T r e a s u r y ' s o b l i g a t i o n s to the Porte and the Holy C i t i e s : 1.

Heavy new taxes were imposed on c e r t a i n p r o f i t a b l e Muqata'fit: PARAS

a.

A new Muqfita'a was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r the r e g u l a t i o n and t a x a t i o n of f i s h i n g and hunting on the l a k e of Ma-fcariyye, near C a i r o , and on i t s Multezlm there was Imposed a Mfil-i Barfi.j tax of 200,000 paras

200,000

PAGE REFERENCE

130

w -

Ahmed L i b r a r y of the Archeology Museum ( I s t a n b u l ) MS 555, f o l . 2 1 o a - 2 1 3 b . Presumably, t h i s report of J e z z a r Ahmed Pasa to the Grand V e z l r i s the same as the . , a Manuscript In the Top Kapi Saray L i b r a r y i n I s t a n b u l (Bagdad Kosk MS 588), I t s e l f anonymous and undated, but e v i d e n t l y belonging to the same time and covering the same m a t e r i a l as the report of J e z z a r Paga mentioned i n the c h r o n i c l e of V55&• j i f . See a l s o Cevdet, T a r i h , 1 1 1 , 2 * 8 - 9 . On the expedition and campaign i n Egypt o f H a s a n Paga, see J a b a r t i , I I , 10*, 1 1 5 - 7 , 12*; Ahmed I b i d . ; Enveri, 'Oarnanl, Suleymanlyye L i b r a r y ( I s t a n b u l ) , Esad E f e n d l , c o l l . . MS 2089, — f o l . 75b-8*a.

302

REVENUES OP THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

b.

c. d.

The Mfil-i Harfi.i due from the Vfill f o r tfie customs Muq&ta'a of Suez was Increased by s i x m i l l i o n paras The Kus'Qfiyye-i Keblr due from the Em£n-1 HiySr Saribar was Increased by 400,000 paras The Kusftflyye-l Kebir due from the E m i n - 1 Silih&ne was i n creased by 200,000 paras

PARAS

PAGE REFERENCE

6,000,000

1 08

1*00,000

1*9,

1T3-* 1 49

200,000 6,800, 000

While t h i s 6 , 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 para increase was to be Included i n the revenues of the Treasury, I t was to be delivered d i r e c t l y by the Multezims to a s p e c i a l agent of the S u l t a n I n Alexandria, who would send i t to the "Imperial Pocket" or personal Treasury of the Sultan, without I t s a c t u a l l y being sent to Cairo or Included I n the This was done to avoid the deduction from I t of the Innumerable expenditures to which the was subjected i n E g y p t . 5 6 2. Various expenditures previously made by the Treasury i n order to purchase c e r t a i n supplies f o r the Porte were now transferred to the due to the Treasury's i n a b i l i t y to provide the funds to make these purchases: a. b. c. d.

PARAS Sugar f o r the Porte 780,9*5 Cost of f r e i g h t to ship the 45,016 sugar from Egypt to the Porte Cost of f r e i g h t to ship the 50, 01 1 sugar from Cairo to Damietta Cost of supplies f o r the Imperial 677,350 Dockyard i n I s t a n b u l TOTAL REDUCTION IN EXPENDITURES 1,553,322 FOR THE PORTE

PAGE REFERENCE 273-4, 280(5), 31 2

273,

279(1 ),

273,

280,

312

312

277-9, 28o(1 0)

3. Expenditures previously made by the Treasury to provide f o r the shipment of the g r a i n r a t i o n s to the people of the Holy C i t i e s were a l s o abolished, with a portion of the burden transferred to the I r s & l l y y e - l Hazine: PAGE REFERENCE PARAS a . Payments to the QapQd&n of Suez f o r the cost of maintaining the f l e e t I n the Red Sea and of shipping grains to the Holy Cities 1,075,000 263, 266(37) b. Cost of the h i r e of camels to carry those grains from Cairo 760,293 267(44) to Suez 1.835,293 56 • „ See p p .

310-311.

THE

REVENUES

303

Of this sum, 975,000 para3 to provide for the cost of shipping the grains of the Holy Cities from Cairo to Jidde was transferred to the Hazine• The remainder of the cost was to be assumed by t h e o f 57 Mecca. ' On the 7th of Safar, 1201/30 November, 1786, soon after reaching Egypt, Hasan Paga convoked a general

In the Citadel of Cairo, at

which the reforms which he had ordered were accepted and the budget of the Treasury established In accordance with them: TABLE L X I I . THE BUDGET OF THE TREASURY OF EGYPT AS ESTABLISHED IN THE OF 7 SAFAR 1201/30 NOVEMBER, 1786 a) b)

REVENUES EXPENDITURES 1. Wages and salaries 2. For the Holy Cities 3- For Egypt For the Porte TOTAL EXPENDITURES LEFT FOR THE IRS&LIYYE-I HAZlNE SUBTRACTED FOR THE JEYB-I HUM&flN BALANCE

PARAS 130,246,1 58,136,963 29,378,226 6,4i6,908 990,629 94,922,726

PAGE REFERENCE 183 215 268 238 281

35,323,418 6,800,000 28,523,418

However, these reforms were worth little more than the paper on which they were written. Once Hasan Paga and the Ottoman army left, Murfid and Ibrfihim Beys were able to regain power at the end of 1205/1791 and they resumed their old practices. The tax Increases provided for the of the Sultan never were paid and this money was never sent to h i m . Murfid and Ibrfihim kept most of the money for their own profit and by the start of 1208/1793 they owed the Porte 227,500,000 paras for this 58 obligation a l o n e . In that year, the Porte agreed to abolish the additional 6,800,000 paras demanded annually for the In return for the B n l r s ' pledge to deliver without fall an revenue of 5 7

5 8

' See p . 263. " Cevdet, Mallyye 886

Istanbul).

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGRfPT

304

28,375,816 paras a year, and on this basis the revenues and expenditures of the Treasury were adjusted accordingly. However, in the years which followed until the arrival of the French expedition in 1213/1798-9, not a single para of the Irsfiliyye-I Hazine was ever sent to the Porte, as the Emirs diverted the entire revenue of the Treasury for their own profit.^0 In sum, the administration of the finances of Ottoman Egypt developed in a relatively consistent pattern during the three hundred years of Ottoman rule. An ambitious and independent local military group forced the Vfilis to accept a steady rise in the expenditures required from the Imperial Treasury of Egypt. And those expenditures which were increased were the wages, pensions, and other expenditures received by the Emirs and MamlQks of Egypt. While those expenditures provided to meet imperial obligations in Egypt, the Holy Cities, and the Porte remained the same or actually fell in amount and provided only a small portion of the purchases and services which were envisaged when they were established. The Ottoman response to this in the reforms which were decreed during the years from 1082/1671-2 to 1200/1785-6 was an attempt to increase the Treasury's revenues from those who principally benefited from its in­ creased expenditures, the Emirs and MamlHks who also held the Muqfita'St from which its revenues came. While efforts were also made to reduce ex­ penditures, they were in fact little more than formal proposals which could not be enforced in practice. In every case, the expenditures of the Treasury returned to their former levels and continued to rise above them within a few years after each reform was decreed.^1 The increases which 62 were made in revenues, however, were much more lasting and permanent. Deepite this, the increases in revenues did not keep pace with those in expenditures, so that the surpluses of revenues over expenditures which were secured for the Irsfillyye-I Hazine^ never in fact approached the amounts which were envisaged in the reforms and demanded by the Porte every Sb year, and even the money which was left for the Irsfillyye-i Hazine be­ came subject to an increasing burden of deductions to meet the obligations imposed on the Porte in Egypt for those expenditures not directly concerned with the interests and profits of the Emir3 and MamlQks, so that very little 5*9

Top Kapi Saray archives (Istanbul), E. 5657 (year 1208); Jabarti, 'Ajfi'ib ul-Asfir, II, 251. See also Table LXIV. ^0' Cevdet, Mallyye 25867. 61 ' See

62

Tables XLVIII, LII, LVII, LIX, and LX.

• See Tables V, VII, XXIII, XLIII, XLIV, and XLV.

63' See

64.

Table LXIII.

See Table LXIV.

THE

EXPENDITURES

was l e f t to be sent to the Porte I t s e l f .

305

64a

TABLE L X I I I . SUMMARY OF THE SURPLUS OF REVENUES OVER EXPENDITURES OF THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT FROM 1 0 0 4 / 1 5 9 5 - 6 TO 1 2 1 2 / 1 7 9 7 - 8 REFERENCE TO TABLES: YEARS 1 004 ziv&de 1 0 0 4 - 1 0 8 2 1 082 zly&de 1 0 8 2 - 1 2 1 2 1212

Change from 1004 to 1 2 1 2

REVENUES XLV(p. 183) PARAS 69,057,754 +26,767,484 95,805,258 +24,094,021 119,899,259

EXPENDITURES LX (p. 282) PARAS 48,302,957

+27,139,268

75,442,225 + 13,721,817 89, 164,042

SURPLUS PARAS 20,734,797 -371,784 20,363,013 + 10,372,204

30,735,217

+ 5 0 , 8 6 1 , 5 0 3 (+73^ ) + 4 0 , 8 6 1 , 0 8 5 ( + 8 4 $ ) + 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 4 2 0 ( + 4 8 $ )

See appendix Table I V . TABLE L X I V SUMMARY OF THE SURPLUS OF REVENUES OVER EXPENDITURES OF THE IMPERIAL TREASURY OF EGYPT AS CONTEMPLATED IN THE REFORMS OF 1 0 8 2 / 1 6 7 1 ,

1107/1695-6,

1200/1785-6,

REFORM OF YEAR

PAGE REFERENCE

1 082 1 1 07

292

297 299 303

11 7 9 - 8 0 1200

1209

303-4

AND

REVENUES 99,548,854

1 08, 1 9 6 , 0 0 7

123,982,143 130,246,144 121 , 7 9 0 , 0 2 6

1179-80/1765-6,

1209/1794-5

EXPENDITURES 69,548,854 76,477,052 92,551,492 94,922,726

93,414,210

SURPLUS 30,000,000 31,719,055 31,545,44s 35,323,M8(a) 28,375,816

NOTES: (a) T h i s I n c l u d e s 6 , 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 paras Intended f o r d i r e c t shipment to the p e r s o n a l T r e a s u r y of t h e S u l t a n ( J e y b - 1 HumfiyOn) and not a c t u a l l y t o be I n c l u d e d i n the II.

Expenditures From the I r s f i l l y y e - i

Hazine.

The was i n f a c t a fund of money c r e d i t e d to the account of the Sult&n and much of i t was spent on s p e c i a l I m p e r i a l o b l i g a t i o n s i n Egypt and i n the Holy C i t i e s , w i t h o n l y the b a l a n c e a c t u a l l y sent to the P o r t e . The expenditures from the funds were i n theory l i m i t e d to i m p e r i a l o b l i g a t i o n s whose occurrence and amount were i r r e g u l a r and which thus could not be f i t t e d I n t o the r e l a t i v e l y f i x e d p a t t e r n of revenues and expenditures of the I m p e r i a l T r e a s u r y of Egypt. Payments could be made from i t o n l y on the a u t h o r i z a t i o n of the and the e x e c u t i o n of every payment had to be c e r t i f i e d by a drawn up by the of Egypt and sent to the Porte w i t h the remaining Hazine payment. 6 1.

E x p e n d i t u r e s f o r the B e n e f i t of the P o r t e .

See the Appendix, 65

°

See pp.

58-61 .

pp. 4oo, 4oi .

Egypt was o b l i g e d

306

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

to send to every Imperial expedition a contingent of its own troops, usually three thousand m e n drawn from the seven active military corps of Egypt, led by the of the Janissaries or by a Serdar representing him. As we have seen, their wages and bonuses were part of the regular wage 66 obligations of the Treasury of E g y p t . However, the cost of their transportation by land or sea and of special equipment and supplies was borne by the which paid for this purpose an average of two 67 or three million paras every other y e a r . In addition, during most of the 12/18th century the Treasury lacked the necessary reserve of vacant bonuses needed to reward m e n who participated in this and other imperial services, and it was frequently forced to create new Teraqqly&t 67a out of increased revenues. However, revenues lacked to meet the immediate demands of the soldiers for the first year's payment of the Teraqqly&t as soon as they returned, and the money for this had to come 6 8 from the Ottoman troops going to Arabia, Yemen, and the east frequently came by sea to Damietta and then passed by land to Cairo before going on to their destination. However, before they left they often remained In Egypt as long as six months, and during this time the cost of their sustenance, lodging, and wages had to be provided by the out of the funds. In addition, it had to bear the costs of supplies and transport for the Egyptian soldiers who were sent to serve In the same places. These burdens were especially heavy In the late lo/i6th and early 11/17th century, when the process of conquest was still In progress, and In the middle of the 11/17th century, when Abyssinia and Yemen were slipping 69 from the Ottoman grasp into the hands of local dynasties. funds also were used to pay part of the costs of provisioning units of the Imperial Fleet visiting the Mediterranean 6 6

"

See

pp.202-210.

6 7

' M u h . 16, 338:599 (Jumada II 979); Muh- 119, p . 20* (mid S e w S l 1124); M u h . 120, (p. 167 (end Rebl I 1 1 2 6 ) ; M u h . Misir, I, 37b: 160 (mid Jumada II 1 122),

62b:275

(start Rejeb

(end Rebl I 1 1 3 0 ) ,

IV, 6ia:265

1125),

95b:424

III, I9a:95 (Re.jeb 1 1 3 2 ) ,

(end J u m & d a I 1 1 4 2 ) , v ,

21:150

(end R e b l

I

1128),

1 l8b:526

62b:309 (end Hi.i.je 1134),

(start Q a ' d a 1 1 4 6 ) ,

246:637

(start Muharrem 1155), VII, 2 8 5 : 6 3 2 (end $a'b&n 1173)5 el-Hall&q, T&rlb-i Migir, f o l . 44a, 48a, 150b, 111b5 'Abd ul-Kerim, T&r£h-i Misir, fol. 82a, 100a, 101b, 63a5 Evliy& Qelebl, X , 1 0 1 3 , 1018, Jabartl, 'A.m'lb ul-Agar, I, 27, 28, 5 1 ; Demird&sl, Durret ul-Mus&ne, p p . 5, 2 2 2 , 226, 2 7 5 . 6 7 a

See p-

208.

6 8

' M u h . Migir, I 9 0 b : 4 0 3 (start Sewfil 1 1 2 7 ) , io6a:47l (start Safar 1 1 2 9 ) , 107b: 178 (end Rebl I 1129), V , 35:81 (start Qa'da 1146), VII, 2 3 8 : 5 1 4 (end Jum&da II 1 1 7 2 T 6 9

' M u h . 16, 33&:599 (20 Jum&da II 979); el-Hall&q, T&rlh-i Migir, fol. 34b.

THE

EXPENDITURES

307

p o r t s of Egypt above those provided f o r by the charges l e v i e d on many v i l l a g e s i n the D e l t a , 7 0 the expenses of members of the i m p e r i a l f a m i l y and of high Ottoman o f f i c i a l s passing through Egypt on 71 t h e i r way to the Holy C i t i e s , the costs of the r e g u l a r annual shipments of v a r i o u s p r o v i s i o n s and supplies to the Porte, which were p a i d f o r by the Treasury of Egypt u n t i l the l 2 / i 8 t h century and then p e r i o d i c a l l y s h i f t e d 72 to the o b l i g a t i o n of the and the costs of s p e c i a l orders f o r p r o v i s i o n s and supplies f o r the Porte above the r e g u l a r q u a n t i 73 t i e s demanded every y e a r . 2. Expenditures f o r Purposes I n Egypt. The sums provided by the I m p e r i a l Treasury f o r the maintenance of p r o v i n c i a l canal3 and dams were given i n f i x e d annual sums whose amounts were based on the r e q u i r e ments of normal wear and t e a r , and which were not adequate to cover the costs of r e p a i r i n g canals and dams which were destroyed or badly damaged 7k by u n u s u a l l y high waters of the N i l e . Such d i s a s t e r s occurred f r e quently, e s p e c i a l l y i n the 1 2 / 1 8 t h century, when the p r o v i n c i a l governors kept f o r t h e i r own p r o f i t the funds they were supposed to use to keep the 75

i m p e r i a l c a n a l s and dams I n r e p a i r . J Immediate r e p a i r was e s s e n t i a l so that the lands of the provinces I n which the destroyed canals were l o cated might b e n e f i t f u l l y from the N i l e waters during the l i m i t e d time i n which they were a v a i l a b l e . As soon as the news of such a d i s a s t e r was received i n C a i r o , the dispatched to the scene a s p e c i a l agent, who surveyed the damage and estimated the funds needed f o r r e p a i r s . Once h i s statement was c e r t i f i e d as correct by the of the d i s t r i c t i n which the c a n a l was l o c a t e d , the agent or the p r o v i n c i a l governor could take that amount from the l o c a l tax revenues of the Treasury, as at the expense of the with only subsequent reference to the Thus due to the n e c e s s i t y of Immediate a c t i o n , the was presented with a f a i t accompli and had l i t t l e power to prevent the expenditure of great sums from the f o r t h i s purpose by conspiracy amongst the agents, p r o v i n c i a l governors, and l o c a l o f f i c i a l s to secure f o r t h e i r own p r o f i t money above that needed to make the a c t u a l r e p a i r s . 7 6 70 71 72

' See p.

178.

' Muh. M i g i r , IX, f o l . 81b ( s t a r t Qa'da 1 1 9 1 ) • ' S e e pp.

276-277.

75

' Muh. 85, no. 19 (Reieb 1040); Muh. M i g i r , I , 95h:"T2lT (end Rebl I 1128 ).

74

' S e e pp.

93b:416 ( s t a r t Safar 1 1 2 8 ) ,

228-229.

7 5

' See p . 6376 ' Muh. M i g i r , V I 62b:286 (end Rebl I 1 1 5 9 ) , V I I I , 1 1 8 0 ) , I , 4a: 1 2 ( s t a r t Re.jeb 1 1 1 2 T ~

119b:469 (mid Sevvai

308

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

In addition, the IrsSliyye-I Hazine funds were used to pay for additional expenses imposed on the Treasury of Egypt as a result of the difference in length between the financial year, based on the solar calendar, and the shorter Muslim lunar year, which remained in use for certain expenditures of the Treasury. Under Ottoman administration in Egypt, the ancient Coptic solar calendar, which was 365 days and 6 hours in length, was retained as the most efficient means of calculating the agricultural and financial year. Since the first month of this year was called TQt, it was referred to as the Sene-I TQtiyye ("year of TQt"), or Sene-I KSmile ("complete year"). All appointments and tax collections and most expenditures were made in accordance with this solar financial year. However, the expenditures made for the pilgrimage and for pensions to the JevS,li in Egypt^ and to all persons in the Holy Cities had to be calculated according to the lunar year (Sene-i HilSliyye), which was 35¾ days and 8 hours in length, approximately ten days and twenty-one hours shorter than the solar year. For uniformity in calculation, ordinary expenditures were in fact also calculated according to the number of days in the lunar year, and the expenditures for the extra eleven days each year, the Teffivut-u TQtiyye, were accounted separately.^® However, for expenditures fixed according to the lunar year for religious reasons, this could not be done, and in calculating and paying them, when the end of one lunar year was reached, another one was immediately begun. As a result, each year the lunar year of the same number began an additional ten days and twenty-one hours earlier than the solar year, so that in every thirtytwo years of the longer solar calendar there occurred thirty-three lunar years. There was one lunar year for which no corresponding solar year of revenue existed. For example, TQt, the first month of the solar year 1136/1723-4, fell on the 20th day of ZQ ul-Hi.i.ie, the last month of the Muslim lunar year 1136. And the first of TQt of the solar year 1137/172^-5 coincided with the start of Muharrem, the first month of the lunar year 1138. The revenues of the solar year 1136 provided for the expenditures of the solar and lunar years 1136· Those of the solar year 1137 provided for the expenditures of the same solar year and for those of the lunar year 1138. There were no regular revenues to provide for the pensions and expenditures required for the lunar year 1137· In such cases, which occurred once every thirty-three years, the expenditures for the extra lunar year were inserted into the obligations of the Irsfillyye-i Hazine as Tedfihul, or "intercalation" of the lunar year's expenditures. This See p. 151 . 78. Pakalin, Tarih Deyimlerl, III, 433-U; Faik Regit Unat, Hicri Tarihleri Mllfidi Tarihe Cevirme Kilavuzu, 3rd ed., Ankara, 1959, pp. XII-XIV. Ahmed Moukhtar Pacha, La Reforme du Calendrier, Leiden, 1893. Mehmed Muhtfir, Kitfib ul-Taufigfit al-Ilhfimiyye, Cairo, Γ311.

THE expense occurred 1104/1692-3,

309

EXPENDITURES 1005/1 596-7,

In

1137/1724-5,

1170/1756-7,

1038/1628-9,

1071/1660-1,

1203/1788-9,

and

and averaged

about

s e v e n m i l l i o n p a r a s o n e a c h o c c a s i o n d u r i n g the 11/17th c e n t u r y and n i n e In 1 2 0 3 , h o w e v e r , the B e y s left

m i l l i o n p a r a s d u r i n g the 12/18th c e n t u r y . n o m o n e y at a l l f o r the

and so the sums r e q u i r e d f o r

the

p a y m e n t s w e r e secured b y e x t r a o r d i n a r y l e v i e s o n the J e w i s h 79 a n d C h r i s t i a n m e r c h a n t s i n Cairo and A l e x a n d r i a . 3•

E x p e n d i t u r e s f o r the P i l g r i m a g e and the H o l y C i t i e s .

r e v e n u e s of the

The

a l s o w e r e u s e d to s u p p l e m e n t the ex-

p e n d i t u r e s of the T r e a s u r y f o r the P i l g r i m a g e and the H o l y C i t i e s . h a v e s e e n , the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the

As we

to the r e v e n u e s of

r o s e f r o m 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 p a r a s to t e n m i l l i o n p a r a s d u r i n g the

the

course of the 12/18th c e n t u r y . ®

0

S u m s w e r e p r o v i d e d a l s o f o r the s u p p l i e s

of the soldiers sent to g u a r d the p i l g r i m s

1

c a r a v a n , the r e p a i r and

m a i n t e n a n c e of the H o l y K i s v e , o r c u r t a i n c o v e r i n g t h e K a ' b a , and f o r the h i r e of the b o a t s n e e d e d to c a r r y to t h e H o l y C i t i e s the g r a i n s sent to o. them from E g y p t , m o s t of t h e costs of w h i c h w e r e p a i d b y t h e T r e a s u r y . I n a d d i t i o n , the

p a i d the b u l k of the cost of r e p a i r i n g

t h e f o r t s , c i s t e r n s , and o t h e r p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s and e q u iOp p m e n t i n the H o l y C i t i e s , a l o n g the road of the P i l g r i m a g e , and in E g y p t .

It a s s i s t e d t h e

p u b l i c V a q f s t o b u i l d a n d m a i n t a i n the b o a t s t h e y n e e d e d to d e l i v e r t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n k i n d to the p e o p l e of the H o l y C i t i e s .

85

After

1130/1718,

it p r o v i d e d 1 8 0 , 3 3 4 p a r a s e v e r y y e a r to supplement the s a l a r i e s and r a t i o n s g i v e n b y the T r e a s u r y to the soldiers i n the fort of M u w e y l l h 81

a l o n g the p i l g r i m a g e road from Cairo to Mecca. ''

located

D u r i n g m o s t of the

12/18th

c e n t u i y , it p r o v i d e d s p e c i a l a n n u a l p e n s i o n s of 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 p a r a s to the of Y a n b o ' and 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 p a r a s to the

in Mecca.

J a b a r t l , 'A.jS'lb ul-Asfir, II, 179; o n the p r o b l e m of T e d S b u l and the s o l a r and l u n a r c a l e n d a r s , see M u h . 3 , 17a:4 (Hl.i.ie 979); M u h . 3 , 3 6 1 : 1 0 6 9 (7 Subfit 9 6 7 ) ; M u h . M i g i r , I I I , 1 2 8 a : 6 0 1 (mid R a m a d a n 113877"IV, 7 a : 2 9 (mid S e v v a i 1139), V I I I , 3 : 1 0 (start Hl.i.ie 117*), 77b:3l7 (end Sa'bfin 1 1 7 8 ) ; Evllyfi Q e l e b l , X , 456; M a r c e l , E e y p t e . p . 2 1 1 , n . 2 ; d ' O h s s o n , T a b l e a u d e 1 ' E m p i r e O t h o m a n e , V I I , 2 5 7 ; B e c k e r , "Egypt", E n c y c l o p e d i a of I s l a m , I I , 16; Piijdikli S u l e y m a n §am'adfin£ Zfide, M u r i u t - T e v S r l h , B e y S z l d L i b r a r y (Istanbul), Velluddln collection 51**, fol. 5a-b. 80

See p p .

Pi 1

245-6.

See p . 262 and Table L V I .

ft P

M u h . M i g i r , V I , 47b:222 1138TI See a l s o p . 3 1 0 .

8 5

81

(mid Jumfida I 1158); I I I , 128a:600 (mid R a m a d a n

' M u h . M i g i r , I V , 131a:561

(end J u m a d a II 1151 ), V I I , 182:389 (end S a f a r 1171 ).

*' M u h . M i g i r , V I , 47b:222 (mid J u m a d a I 1158), 62a:28o

8 5

' M u h . M i g i r , I , 62b:275 11 kkT-

(mid S a f a r

1159).

(start Re.jeb 1125), I V , 93b:4o6 (start M u h a r r e m —

310

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

And a f t e r 1 1 6 3 / 1 7 5 0 , the l a t t e r sum was supplemented by an a d d i t i o n a l 500,000 paras each y e a r u n t i l 1 1 6 8 / 1 7 5 5 - 6 , when i t was r a i s e d to a t o t a l o f one m i l l i o n paras a y e a r . A complete l i s t of the relatively f i x e d and customary expenditures of the i s g i v e n I n T a b l e LXV. I n a d d i t i o n to them, i t was c a l l e d on to pay a myriad of minor expenses and demands which r a i s e d the t o t a l annual expenditures to an average of f i f t e e n m i l l i o n paras a y e a r before the funds which

s u r v i v e d were sent on t h e i r way to the Porte However, the Porte accepted t h i s s i t u a t i o n and, f o r the most p a r t , a u t h o r i z e d these expenditures because I t l a c k e d the a u t h o r i t y and m i l i t a r y power i n Egypt which would have been n e c e s s a r y to a l t e r I t , b e cause the i m p e r i a l o b l i g a t i o n s i n Egypt and the Holy C i t i e s were f u l f i l l e d by many of these e x p e n d i t u r e s , and, most Important of a l l , because i t was a b l e to secure even g r e a t e r revenues from other sources i n Egypt, p r i n c i p a l l y t h a t of revenues a c c r u i n g from the s a l e of vacated and other p r o p e r t i e s . TABLE LXV. SUMMARY OF THE RELATIVELY FIXED AND CUSTOMARY EXPENDITURES FROM THE DURING THE 1 2 / 1 8 t h CENTURY EXPENDITURES DATES 1 ) P r o v i s i o n s f o r the Jlddel&y&n, or guards accompanying the p i l g r i m a g e to the Holy C i t i e s 1 1 2 3 - 1 1 7 9 2 ) Supplement to pay f o r I n creased p r i c e s of wheat g i v e n 1142-1170 to the JiddelQy&n 3 ) Reduced supplement to pay f o r i n c r e a s e d p r i c e s of wheat g i v e n to the JiddelQyfin 11 7 0 - 1 1 7 9 b) Purchase and d i s p a t c h of p r o v i s i o n s f o r the K l l & r - i 'AmIre, or I m p e r i a l P a n t r y , i n 1107-1212 Istanbul 5) Supplement to pay f o r I n creased p r i c e s of p r o v i s i o n s sent to the K l l f i r - i 'Amlre 1125-1212 6)

7)

A d d i t i o n a l supplement to pay f o r I n c r e a s e d p r i c e s of p r o v i s i o n s sent to the K l l f i r - i '&nire A d d i t i o n a l supplement to pay f o r i n c r e a s e d p r i c e s of p r o v i s i o n s sent to the K i l & r - i '&nire

PARAS

PAGE REFERENCE

566,521

248

96,000

248

16,000

248

1,269,055

272-277

345,450

272-277

11 3 2 - 1 2 1 2

17,779

272-277

11 4 4 - 1 2 0 0

17,781

272-277

A l i s t of the amounts deducted f o r expenditures and those sent to the Porte i n the y e a r s from 1 0 5 9 / 1 7 4 9 to 1 2 1 0 / 1 7 9 5 - 6 f o r which such Informat i o n i s a v a i l a b l e I s found I n the Appendix, pp. 4 0 0 - 4 0 1 .

THE

EXPENDITURES TABLE LXV

EXPENDITURES 8)

a) Reduction of s a l a r i e s o f QapOdfin o f S u e z b) Reduction of s a l a r i e s o f QaptidSn o f S u e z c) Reduction of s a l a r i e s o f QapOdfin o f S u e z

PARAS

PAGE REFERENCE

1107-11*5

1,200,000

11*5 11*5-1150

-200,000 1,000,000

1150

-600,000 * 0 0 , 000

1150-1179 1179

-300,000 1 00, 000

1200

-100,000

P e n s i o n and p r o v i s i o n s f o r the Seyh ul-Barem ul-Nabav£ I n 11*2-1212 Medina

200, 000

d) Reduction of s a l a r i e s o f Qap&d&n o f S u e z 9)

(Continued) DATES

S a l a r i e s p a i d t o t h e Qapftd&n of Suez to supplement e x penditures of the Treasury f o r the maintenance of the Red S e a f l e e t

311

10 ) A d d i t i o n a l pensions and p r o v i s i o n s f o r the Seyh ul-Barem ilL- Nabavi

1179-1200

137,

261-3

259, 266

1168-1212

500,000

11)

A d d i t i o n a l p e n s i o n s and p r o v i s i o n s f o r the Seyh u l - B a r e m ul-Nabavi

1168-1212

300,000

12)

P e n s i o n and p r o v i s i o n s the Emir of Yanbo'

1123-1212

180,000

259, 266

13)

A d d i t i o n a l wages and p r o v i s i o n s f o r the s o l d i e r s of the f o r t of Muweylih

1130-1212

180,**0

199,

14)

Supplement to T r e a s u r y e x penditures for the Kisve of the Ka/ba

1130-1212

1

259-60,

for

15 ) A d d i t i o n a l supplement Treasury expenditures the Kisve

to for

16) A d d i t i o n a l supplement Treasury expenditures the Kisve

to for

17)

A d d i t i o n a l supplement Treasury expenditures the Kisve

to for

18)

Supplement to T r e a s u r y e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r wax t a p e r s f o r the Holy C i t i e s

19) A d d i t i o n a l supplement wax t a p e r s

for

20) A d d i t i o n a l supplement wax t a p e r s

for

21)

for

A d d i t i o n a l supplement wax t a p e r s

00, 000

266

11**-1212

92,535

26*

1 168-1212

87,750

26*

1201-1212

119,7*5

26*

1153-1212

35,000

265

1 157-1212

5,623

265

1179-1212

1 0,

1200-1212

10,000

000

265 265

26*

312

REVNEUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT TABLE LXV (Continued)

EXPENDITURES 22) Purchase and dispatch of oakum, twine, and wicks f o r the TersSne-1 *Amire, or Imperial Dockyard, i n Istanbul 23) Supplement to provide f o r Increased p r i c e s of oakum, twine, and wicks f o r the TersSne-1 'ftnire 24) Supplement to Treasury expenditures f o r the cleaning of imperial c i s t e r n s I n Old Cairo 25) Payment to Imperial Treasury of Egypt of the K u s H f l y y e - 1 Kebir owed to I t by the V a l i of Jldde 26) Payment of the Ottoman o b l i gation of Surre pensions to the people of the Holy C i t i e s 27) Purchase of gunpowder f o r the Porte 28) Purchase of sugar f o r the Porte 29) Assistance to the Emir ul-BS.1.1 30) Supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.1.1 a) A b o l i t i o n of a s s i s t a n c e and supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.1.1 3 1 ) Assistance to the E n i r ul-BS.1.1 32) Supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.1.1 33) Supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.1.1 3*) Supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.i.1 35) Supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.1.1 36) Supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.1.1 37) Supplementary a s s i s t a n c e to the Emir ul-BS.1.1

DATES

PARAS

PAGE REFERENCE

1107-1212

450,000

278-9

1158-1212

255,358

278-9

1142-1212

4,000

1114-1200

80,380

148-9

1079-1126 5,721,660

260-261

225, 233

1107-1212

450,000

276-7

1200-1212

875,972

273-4, 302

1133-1146

450,000

242

1143-1146

550,000

242

1146 - 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0

242-3

1149-1212

1,250,000

243

1154-1212

2,000,000

243

1157-1212

500,000

243

1162-1212

1,000,000

244

1163-1187 1210-1212

1,500,000

244

250,000

244

3,500,000

244

1171-1212 1171-1187 1210-1212

FOR THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF EXPENDITURES MADE EACH YEAR AND FOR REFERENCES TO THE REGISTERS FROM WHICH THESE FIGURES HAVE BEEN TAKEN, SEE THE APPENDIX, pp. 400-401.

CHAPTER II.

THE HULVlN REVENUES OP THE PORTE IN EGYPT

As we have seen, a principal source of imperial revenue in Ottoman Egypt was the Hulvfin prices paid by those who acquired by auction or MugSlebe the right to hold in Iltlzfim vacant urban and rural Muqfita'Et-1 In addition, the Sultan assumed the traditional right of Islamic sovereigns to seize for the public treasury (Beyt ul-Mfil) or, as in this case, the treasury of the Sultan, all the properties of those who died without heirs or in debt to the Imperial Treasury. While the Ottoman Sultans alienated the bulk of the revenues of both to the Villi of Egypt and to the Imperial Treasury during the Il/l7th century, they kept for themselves the HulvSn and Bevt ul-Mfil revenues coming from the properties and MuqSta'fit of those who were executed by agents of the Sultan or who were killed or driven from Egypt while in rebellion against him. During the 12/i8th century, this right was extended to include the properties of all those who lost in the continuing internecine struggles amongst the MamlQk Bnirs of Egypt, and the revenues resulting from it became the most important source of Ottoman revenue from Egypt during the last part of that century. In essence, the Porte would recognize the seizure of the properties and MuqSta1St of the vanquished Emirs by those who emerged tri­ umphant. And in an era in which for the most part the conflicting MamlOlk houses were relatively equal in strength, the support provided by Ottoman recognition, with the financial and other advantages which this brought to the benefiting faction, was sufficient to induce the factions to compete with each other in providing rich HulvSn and Beyt ul-MSl payments to the Porte in return for its support. As a result, from 1 1 2 9 / 1 7 1 7 to 1 1 6 8 / 1 7 5 5 - 6 , the Porte received an average of twenty-five million paras a year from Egypt in Hulvfin and Beyt ul-Mfil revenues.^ In 1182/1768-9, 'Ali Bey ulKebir sent to the Porte a first payment of fifty million paras out of the ninety million paras he had promised to pay in return for the military 1'

See pp.

2'

See p. 172.

38,

16 5 , 168.

Muh- MiSir, VII,

103:225

(mid Qa'da

1168);

see also Table LXVI.

314

REVENUES OF THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT

and financial support he had received from the Porte in his successful 1 struggle with the who had previously ruled In Cairo. * In 1 1 8 8 / 1 7 7 4 - 5 , Muhammed Bey AbCl ul-gahab sent over one hundred million paras to the Porte as and payments for the possessions of 'All Bey which he had seized for himself with the assistance of the P o r t e d In 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 8 7 , the who was Installed b y flasan Paga as Seyh ul-Beled in Cairo sent 83 million paras to the Porte for this purpose. As part of the settlement which was made by the Porte with Murfid Bey and Ibrahim Bey in 7 1 2 0 7 / 1 7 9 2 , In addition to arrears owed to the these agreed to send to the Porte 235 million paras a s a n d Beyt o payments and of this sum, 7 6 , 8 7 5 , 0 0 0 paras were sent in 1 2 0 9 / 1 7 9 4 - 5 9 and 1 2 1 0 / 1 7 9 5 - 6 . These sums of course dwarfed in importance the relatively small revenues which were claimed b y the Porte for the and the much smaller portions of this which were actually delivered. Thus the Porte used the divisions which existed amongst the leaders of the hierarchy to make the revenues the means by which it was able to secure Its share of the wealth of Egypt and of the financial gains of its rulers until the time of the French conquest of Egypt. It was for this reason, then, that the Porte was content to leave to the the revenues of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt as well as the revenues which they secured from the wealth of Egypt which lay entirely outside of Its scope. It limited Its reforms of Treasury revenues and expenditures to measures aimed chiefly at raising the former to provide the latter at the expense of those who benefited from them, the 10 members of the hierarchy. It allowed them to organize and carry out the exploitation of the wealth of Egypt and the provision of the ex11 penditures required from its T r e a s u r y . It accepted the diversion of its own obligations in Egypt and the Holy Cities from the expense of the Treasury to that of the and the use of the latter to M u h . Migir, V I I I , i4ib:526 (end Re.leb 1182); see also p . 8 . 5

" M u h . Misir, IX, 6b: 18 (end Jumfida II 1 1 8 9 ) ; see also p .

8.

6

" Bfig Vekfilet Argivi (Istanbul); 'All Emlrl, I Abd ul-Hamld 7520b (19 Re.leb 1 2 0 2 ) ; Cevdet, Darbhane 333 (Sevvfil 1 2 0 5 ) ; Cevdet, Maliyye 5261 (end

Ramadan 1205). 7

8

' See p . 303" Jabartl, A.lfi'lb ul-Asfir, II, 2 5 1 .

9

" Cevdet, Maliyye 3910 (20 Ramadfin 1 2 0 5 ) ; Top Kapi Saray archives (Istanbul), E . 5657•

10

11

' S e e p p . 282, ' See p . 78.

304.

THE HULVAN REVENUES OP THE PORTE

315

12 provide the supplies which i t wished to secure from Egypt. I t accepted, thus, the l o s s of I t s share of the revenues of the Imperial Treasury of Egypt because by the end of the 1 2 / 1 8 t h century, these revenues represented a r e l a t i v e l y small share of the wealth of Egypt, and because i t found that the best means of securing f o r I t s e l f a proper share of that wealth was to secure I t from the properties of who because of death could no longer r e s i s t I t s claims rather than from taxes on the current revenues of those i n control of the country, who could and did r e s i s t f i n a n c i a l impositions of t h i s kind. TABLE LXVI. THE REVENUES OP THE PORTE FROM OTTOMAN EGYPT IN SELECTED YEARS FROM 1058/16*8 TO 1 2 1 0 / 1 7 9 5 - 6 YEARS 1 058 1108 I 127

TOTAL REVENUE (PARAS) 12,500,000 61,000,000 8,000,000

1129

*1,201,6*8

1137

20,000,000

1138 1151 1161 1168 1170

66, 000,000 25,000,000 12,500,000 25,000,000 25,000,000

1172

20,750,000

1182 1188

50,000,000 100,000,000

I I 90

50,000,000

11 92 1193 1201

25,000,000 50,000, 000 83,000,000

1208 1209 1210

235,000,000(demanded) 66,875,000 10,000,000

el-Hallfiq Tfirlb Migir, f o l . *8a Demlrdfigi, Durret ul-Mugfine, p. 55 Ibn ul-Em£n, Maliyye 1 1 1 3 5 (B&s Vekfilet Argivi, Istanbul) Muh. Migir, I I05b:*68 (end Muharrem 1 1 2 9 ) , 11 Oa: *92 (end Jumfida I I 1 1 2 9 ) . Cevdet, Maliyye 25223 (15 Safar 1 1 3 7 ) ; see a l s o J a b a r t l , 'A.lfi'lb ul-Asfir, I , 56 Muh. Migir, I I I , 128b:601 (mid Ramadfin 1138) Muh. Migir, V, 150:387 (end Re.ieb 1 1 5 1 ) Muh. Migir, V I , 95b:*39 (mid Rebl I 1 1 6 1 ) Muh. M i s i r , V I I , 103:225 (mid Qa'da 1168) Muh. M i s i r , V I I , 1 * 5 : 3 1 * (end Rebl I 1 1 7 0 ) , 172:370 (mid Qa'da 1170) Muh. M i s i r , V I I , 2i8:*76 ( s t a r t Muharrem 1172). Muh. Migir, V I I I , l * l b : 5 2 6 (end Re.leb 1 1 8 2 ) Muh. M i s i r , IX, 3 8 b : 1 1 9 (end Jumfida I I 1 1 9 0 ) , 81b: 171 ( s t a r t Qa'da 1 1 9 1 ) , 6 b : l 8 (end Jumfida I I 1189) Muh. Migir, IX, 8 1 b : 1 7 1 ( s t a r t Qa'da 1191 ); Top Kapi Saray E 3218 Muh. M i s i r , IX, 99a (mid Jumfida I 1193) Muh. M i s i r , IX,99a (mid Jumfida I 1193) A l l E m l r l , I Abd ul-Hamid 7520b (19 Rejeb 1202); Cevdet, Maliyye 3261 (end Ramadan 1205); Cevdet, Darbhane 333 (Sevvfil 1205) J a b a r t l , 'A.ifi'lb ul-Asfir, I I , 251 Cevdet, Maliyye 3910 (20 Ramadfin 1205) Top Kapi Saray archives ( I s t a n b u l ) , E 5657

NOTE: The years mentioned above are the only ones f o r which information on the Hulvfin payments I s a v a i l a b l e .

12

See page 30*.

PART IV.

THE FINANCIAL POSITION OF THE VALI OF EGYPT

In theory, the VSli3 were the principal administrative and financial officers of Ottoman Egypt. It was for them to maintain and enforce the rights and obligations of each member of the Ottoman hier­ archy of government, and it was their duty to enforce the proper collection and expenditure of the portions of the wealth of Egypt which fell to its Imperial Treasury and to the Porte.1 However, after the middle of the 11/17th century, their ability to administer, to enforce, and to decide administrative and financial policy In Egypt fell for the most part to the rulers of the parallel MamlOk hierarchy, whose leader, the Seyh ul-Beled, became the true ruler of the country. "in brief, the people of Egypt, whether they be soldiers or religious leaders, have always since the age of the Pharaohs striven to predominate over their governors. Now they imprison the VSlis in a palace or in a mansion with a ruined ceiling. Sometimes they besiege the Vali in his palace and they have even tortured and killed them. They have done this illegal act on numerous occasions. However, while things are that way, they still have kept the Vfili• For sometimes the QSglmli and the ZQ Ul-FlqSrli^ show hostility to each other. There are great battles in the Rumeli square, and they sometimes heap In it black carcasses like mountains. Sometimes there are great struggles which are confined to the Sultan JJasan and Sultan Mu'ayyad mosque, like the recent event of 'Umar Paga, where they pulled cannon to the roofs and the rebels and tyrants mined the Mu'ayyad mosque by pounding it with cannon.... However, let me tell the secret words. If the members of the corps did not revolt against their leaders or if they were beaten, because of the tyranny of these evil persons and vermin, the organization of Egypt would be broken up, its villages and towns would be devastated and destroyed because of the continual tyranny, and the (Irsfillyye-I) Hazine of the Sultan and the Surre of the Vaqf of God (i.e. the Holy Cities) would not be collected."5

1 ' See p. 1, 76 - 8. 2. See ρ. 6.

EvliyS Celebi, X, 1 0 2 4 ; see also Evliyfi Qelebi, X, p. 1 2 6 . The printed quotation has been compared with the original manuscript text (Top Kapx Saray museum, Bagdad K5sk library, MS 303, fol. 591b), on the basis of which certain supplements and corrections have been added. 316

FINANCIAL POSITION OF THE

OF EGYPT

317

However, the authority which the were able to achieve by exploiting the divisions of the MamlQks was very temporary In nature and limited In scope. It depended on the individual ability and perseverance of the and on the relative strength of the conflicting MamlQk factions• The basic position of the remained as weak at the end of the 12/i8th century as it had been a century and a half earlier. In the middle of 1205/1790-1, the of the time, Ismfi'll Paga sent to the Porte a long report in which he described this state In agonizing detail and lamented, "From the time when the laws of His Excellency the Conqueror of Egypt Sultan were set down and obedience to them was ordered until eighty years ago, all the affairs of Egypt were kept In order under the direction and supervision of the Illustrious of Egypt. However, since that time, the Illustrious in Egypt have been unable to rule as they do In other countries because the Emirs have assumed for themselves the affairs of Egypt and of the Holy Cities. The remain like prisoners in the Citadel.

When t h e

who I s

of Egypt

asks

something of them, they answer that they will look Into the matter, and something will happen..., so the himself has been deficient In no regard. "4 Whatever permanent authority and influence the were able to retain was related principally to their financial position, to the revenues to which they were entitled, while the decline in that authority was manifested by changes which occurred In the ability of the to benefit from or at least to control their revenues and their disposition.

C e v d e t , D a h l l l y y e 2 0 * 0 (28 Jumfida I I 1 2 0 5 ) (Bfig V e k f i l e t A r g i v i , I s t a n b u l ) . F o r o t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e veak p o s i t i o n o f t h e V f i l l s o f E g y p t , s e e Muh. M i g i r , I I I , 1 212b: 5 61 (mid Re.ieb 1 1 5 8 ) , V I , 105a:486 ( e n d g a ' b f i n I I 6 1 ) , V , 1 8 7 : 4 6 9 (mid M u h a r r e m 1 1 5 3 ) ; J a b a r t l , ' A i f i ' l b u l - A s f i r , I , 5J, 6 0 , 64, 5 5 , 5 8 , I I , 181; Est Compte R e n d u de 1 ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d e s f i n a n c e s p e n d a n t 1 ' E t a b l l s s e m e n t d e s F r a n c o i s e n E g y p t e ( P a r i s , n . d . )• 1 8 1 p a g e s .

Vl 0 BIBLIOGRAPHY G a l l a n d , A. T a b l e a u de 1 ' E g y p t e p e n d a n t l e s e . j o u r de l ' a r m e e ( P a r i s , a n X I I I / 1 8 0 4 , 2 v o l . ).

frangalae

G i r a r d , P. S . "Memoire s u r 1 1 a g r i c u l t u r e e t l e commerce de l a H a u t e Efeypte", Decade figyptlenne, I I I , 2 7 - 9 6 ; M6molres 3 u r l ' E g y p t e , I I I , 13-lot. T h e m a n u s c r i p t o f t h i s a r t i c l e i s e n t i t l e d M6molre s u r 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e e t l e commerce de l a h a u t e E g y p t e , a d r e s s S a u q u a r t l e r G 6 n 6 r a l de S l o u t , "au G a l Donzelot pour e t r e m i s sous l e s yeux du G a l D e s a i x en d a t t e du 8 F l o r e a l a n 7 de l a R e p u b l l q u e F r a n g a l s e , A r c h i v e s de l a G u e r r e , M S ~ 6 7 7 / 9 . —— l'Egypte",

, "MSmoire s u r 1 ' A g r i c u l t u r e , 1 ' I n d u s t r i e e t l e Commerce de D e s c r i p t i o n de l ' f i g y p t e , 2nd e d . , X V I I , 1 - 4 3 6 .

, " N o t i c e s u r 1 1 AmSnagement e t l e P r o d u i t d e s t e r r e s de p r o v i n c e de D a m i e t t e " , Decade B g y p t l e n n e , I , 2 2 9 - 2 4 6 .

la

, "MSmoire s u r l e s i r r i g a t i o n s , 1 1 a g r i c u l t u r e e t l e de l a p r o v i n c e d u Fayoum" Memolres s u r l ' f i g y p t e , I I I , 3 2 9 - 3 5 6 .

commerce

J a c o t i n , "MSmoire s u r l a C o n s t r u c t i o n d e l a C a r t e de l ' E g y p t e " , de l ' E g y p t e , 2nd e d . , X V I I , 4 3 7 - 6 3 8 .

Description

J a u b e r t , C h e v a l i e r AmSdSe, " N o m e n c l a t u r e d e s T r i b u s d ' A r a b e s q u i campent e n t r e l ' f i g y p t e e t l a P a l e s t i n e " , D e s c r i p t i o n de l ' f i g y p t e , 2nd e d . , XVI, 107-137. J o m a r d , E d m e - F r a n c o i s , " D e s c r i p t i o n de l a v i l l e e t de l a c i t a d e l l e d u K a i r e , accompagnee de 1 ' e x p l i c a t i o n d e s p l a n s de c e t t e v i l l e e t de s e s e n v i r o n s , e t de r e n s e i g n e m e n s , s u r l a d i s t r i b u t i o n s e s monumens, s a p o p u l a t i o n , s o n commerce e t s o n I n d u s t r i e " , D e s c r i p t i o n de l ' E g y p t e , 2nd e d . , X V I I I , 2e p a r t i e , 1 1 3 - 5 3 8 . , "MSmoire s u r l a p o p u l a t i o n comparSe de l ' E g y p t e a n c l e n n e e t m o d e r n e " , D e s c r i p t i o n de l ' E g y p t e , 2nd e d . , I X , 1 0 3 - 2 1 1 . • , N o t e s s u r l e P r o v i n c e de M l n l e t a v e c r e n s e l g n e m e n t s sur ses v i l l a g e s , l e u r cultures, l e u r population, l e u r I n d u s t r i e et autres su.jets. A r c h i v e s de l a G u e r r e ( P a r i s ) , MS B—26 ( y e a r 1 8 0 0 ) . l a Province du K a i r e .

, N o t e s T o p o g r a p h i q u e s e t a u t r e s s u r l e Q . e l l o u b e h ou A r c h i v e s de l a G u e r r e ( P a r i s ) , MS B b - - 2 6 .

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moyenne",

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Blbllotheque

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(2

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INDEX P r i n c i p a l e n t r i e s a r e I n d i c a t e d by underscored numbers. 'Abd ul-Raiffnfin B e y v a q f ,

147

'Abd u l - Rezz&q E f e n d i , 'Abd u l -

EJatnad f o r t ,

'Abdullfih Paga v a q f , Abib,

(53).

161

198,

211,

11+T

(58).

394

51•

AbQ Q i r ,

119,

Ab(i § f l d ,

127

136,

146 ( 3 9 ) ,

198,

Abti u l - Z a h a b ,

Mutiammed B e y ,

?L

Abyssinia,

4,

184,

306,

Acacia trees,

277.

'Adet

(plu.

185

'AdSt),

(9),

205,

' A d e t - i Eghfib-i Edrfik, 'Adet-1 Egr&f, 'Ads AgS,

393-

91-93,

225,

299,

327,

314.

334.

230-232.

257(12).

257(12).

(Lentils)

Africa,

211,

51,52,

trade with,

231,

234(33),

2jk,

276,

277,

280(5).

101,113.

4 5 , 8 1 , 88, 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 , 201, 216, 222, 223.

I36n,

( E m i n - 1 Mugfiq),

146(24-30,

148(71),

124,

35-44), 178,

148(71),

190,

196,

199,

321.

146(28). 146(34), 44,

321. 27On, 3 3 4 ,

146(24),

402,

403.

146(29),

174,

321 •

(Jebe.ii B S g i ) ,

(Janissary chief),

175,

193,

146(27),

148(74),

(Ser-1 Muteferrlqa),

146(30),

321.

321 • _. 402.

146(33),

321 .

202.

202. 205,

206,

208.

206. 223. 256(1

).

255(1). A^rned I I ,

Sultfin,

256(6),

Aljmed J e z z S r P a g a ,

300,

Ahmed P a g a , _4, 1 2 ,

18,

Aljmed u l - B e d e w i ,

'AjrQd, 1 ^ 2 ,

270. 30m.

32,

233(24),

Aljmed u l - T a h t i f i w i , Afcmediyye V a q f ,

212,

190,

199,

283.

234(28).

2 3 5 ( 5 3 )-

146,

270.

235,

200,

118,

250,

415 265(13-14),

395-

277, 190,

278. 196,

306,

416

INDEX

A'lS,

88,

153,

Bey,

31 •

Aleppo,

227-

15,

11 4 ( 4 ) .

A l e x a n d r i a , 83, 1 0 1 , 1 2 2 , 139, 140, 147, 1 5 2 , 277, 2 9 0 ( 4 ) , 2 9 6 ( 6 ) , 301, 302, 309; c o n v e n t s and tombs, 2 3 5 ( 4 6 ) ; c u s t o m s h o u s e a n d d u t i e s , 1 0 1 , 1 1_L0, 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 8 ( 1 0 ) , 2 3 3 ( 2 1 ) , 2 7 3 , 2 7 4 , 2 9 0 ( 7 ) , 2 9 6 ( 4 ) - , 3 2 5 , 3 2 9 , 3 3 2 , 3 6 2 - 390; d o c k y a r d , 2 7 9 , 2 8 0 ( 1 3 ) ; f o r e i g n c o n s u l s i n , 2 3 7 ( 7 4 , 7 5 ), 2 9 0 ( 6 ) ; f o r t s , 1 4 6 , 1 4 8 , 1 9 7 - 1 9 8 , 2 1 1 ; B a v f i l e Agfi o f , 2 8 9 , 3 2 2 ; J i z y e i n , 1 5 2 ; m a r k e t s a n d i n d u s t r i e s ( s e e a l s o c u s t o m s h o u s e and Qapfidfin) 1 0 9 , 1 2 7 ( 4 ) , 1 4 0 , 1 7 5 ; p o r t p o l i c e and g u a r d s , 1 9 1 , 2 3 7 ( 7 6 ) , 2 9 6 ( 1 1 ); o f , 134, 135, 136, 137, 152, 178, 184, 185, 224; water supply o f , 1 2 2 , 136, 229, 2 3 2 X 1 T ) . ' A l £ B e y u l - K e M r , 7 - 8 , 9, 1 4 , l67n, 194, 219, 244, 245, ' A l l Efend£,

154,

158.

' A l £ Pa§a, Yfivuz,

198.

' A l £ Paga, 'Al£q,

220,

Alum, Amber,

95, 103, 106, 1 3 2 , 1 6 1 , 299, 3 1 3 , 3 1 4 , 323-

257(13-14). 221,

A l l f i w £ mosque, Altfln,

23, 25, 83, 85, 9 1 , 253, 263, 270, 298,

222. 236(64).

(see a l s o G o l d ) ,

66.

140. 274,

280(6),

327.

A M E D , 135• 'Amil,

31-32,

Ammoniac s a l t Ammunition,

33-34,

200,

'An u l - I b r a . j a t , 'An u l - N a q d ,

87,

(NatrQn),

88, 15,

264(12),

338. 122,

i40,

231.

277-278.

217-

217.

A n a t o l i a , 153, 189, 2 3 2 ( 3 ) Anbar ( - 1 ' & n i r e ) , 220, 338, 349-350See a l s o G r a n a r y . Anbar Em£n£, (Em£n-1 A n b a r ) , 8 3 , 148, 195, 350. A n i m a l s , p u r c h a s e a n d s a l e o f , 1 1 4 , 1 2 2 , 1 4 0 , l 4 l , 1 4 9 , 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 177• Animal hides, 114, 115, 127, 264(10), 279(2), 290(10), 296(3)Apricots, 119' A q a b a , 90, 1 2 4 , 1 7 5 , 1 9 3 , 2 5 0 - 2 5 3 , 2 6 4 ( 1 0 ) , 2 6 5 ( 1 8 ) , 2 6 5 ( 2 0 ) , 2 6 6 ( 3 4 ) , ' A q a b a c a r a v a n , 90, 1 7 5 , 1 9 3 , 2 5 1 - 2 5 3 'Aqaba B a s i , 2 5 1 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 3 A q c e , x x i i , .65, 8 8 , 88n, 1 7 m , 1 8 8 . A q i a m - See

266n.

ftalem.

Aqiam-i Muteferriqa, Aqueduct of C a i r o ,

67,

70,

358-362.

225.

A r a b i a , 4, 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 , 104, 199, 2 1 7 , 239, 249, 306. See a l s o H o l y Mecca, Med£na, M u w e y l i h , W a j h , J i d d e , Y a r i b o ' a n d Yemen.

Cities,

A r a b t r i b e s , 1 3 n , 1 6 , 1 9 , 3 0 , 5 2 , 8 5 , 2 2 5 , 2 7 7 , 300; a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s b y , 1 2 , 1 3 , i 4 , 1 5 , 25., 3 1 , 5 8 , 60, 6 2 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 1 , 8 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 7 3 j r a i d s b y , 14, 1 5 , 20, 23, 24, 25, 63, 65, 82, 83, 85, 1 3 7 , 2 2 7 , 2 4 3 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 3 ; p r o t e c t i o n and s e r v i c e t o c a r a v a n s b y , 1 0 4 , 1 7 5 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 7 ( 1 2 ) , 3 3 1 ( 9 ) ; s u b s i d i e s and g i f t s t o , 63, 2 4 i , 2 4 2 , 243, 248, 249, 2 8 8 ( 7 ) 3 3 1 ( 9 ) ; s u p p r e s s i o n o f , 4, 8, 1 3 , 25, 6 1 , 85, 1 7 7 , 1 9 1 , 196, 199, 250; t r e a t i e s with, 12, 14, 3 1 . A r a d £ - i Musta.jldde,

67,

70,

358-362.

INDEX 'Araffit, 'Araq,

266(31,

34),

140.

Ardeb, 22» I 2 n > el-'Ar£§,

15,

8o

>

"4,

67, 20,

21,

'37n, 115,

A r s e n a l s of f o r t s : Aafir,

U17

266n. 139,

170,

220,

224n,

262,

2jkn.

393-

1 7 4 . See a l s o

for naval

arsenals.

346.

22,

23,

24,

25,

Aswfin,

12,

15,

50,

Asyllt,

14,

15,

67,

70,

96.

A§muneyn p r o v i n c e ,

67,

70,

Agrafiyye vaqf,

1 99, 21 2 ,

147,

27,

54, 55,

57,

59,

64,

72-

395-

80,

85,

95,

96,

97,

278,

320,

322,

344,

358-362.

270n.

274-275, AtfleJj province, 356, 357'Atil,

16911,

1 98, 21 1 , 331 ,

14,

15,

280(6).

See a l s o

69, 8 0 , 8 5 ,

95,

Beverages.

96,

97,

31 9,

343,

344,

353,

355,

67.

Atwan u l - S e y f £

235(54).

A u c t i o n (Muzayede), •Avayldfit, 'Ayai,

35~3'6,

346.

331-332-

201-2,

212,

216,

217,

344,

396-397-

'Azab ( p l u . ' A z a b a n ) c o r p s , 1 9 1 - 1 9 2 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 , 2 0 0 n ; r e v e n u e h o l d i n g s , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 6 , 139, 1 4 0 , 1 9 1 - 1 9 2 ; wages, 203, 205, 208, 2 1 0 , 2 1 6 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 , 3 9 2 ; d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s , l 4 6 ( 2 i , ~ 2 8 ) , 1 9 1 - 1 9 2 , 3 2 1 , 3 4 9 . 'Azaban-i K e s t e h a - y i Bender, 1 9 1 . 'Azaban-1 Suveys, Azlem,

90,

175,

Azlem B a g i ,

251,

Azlem c a r a v a n , B8b,

190,

146.

193,

2^0,

252,

193,

251-253,

264(10),

265(18,

20).

253. 251-253.

218. 334.

Mb ul-Defterf, Bab u l - F u t f l b ,

334. 149.

Bab u l - N a g i r ,

114,

Bab u l - S e r i f ,

259.

Mbe,

185 -

51 •

Baha-yi Hll'atha-yi

'Urban,

B a h t - y i S u t r a n - i Bfissa,

177,

331 . 181.

Bahar ( S p i c e s ) , 104, 105, 106, 108, 129, 244, 247, 2 6 4 ( 2 ) , 295, 302, 334. Babreyn,

123>

Babreyn Emini Bakers,

192,

321,

119-120,

275.

Baliq Dalyam, Bamlye,120.

1 35-

121,

140(6),

147(66),

363-390.

(Em£n-1 BaJjreyn),

123-125,

138,

147,

119.

Ba.j-i Bazaran, Balaban,

131,

130(31),

122,

123,

135,

363.

321 ,

350.

175(6),

4l8

INDEX 335-336-

Barley,

51,

52,

Barley corn, Barmahfit, BarrfinI,

79,

220,

221,

See a l s o

Grains.

51• 86,

93-9^,

B a r r f i n £ - y i Jed£d,

95,

93,

96,

96.

Bfirflt-u Slyfih,

180,

Bfis H a l t f e , Bfi.s I h t l y f i r , Bfis K f i t l b , Bfiybfirs,

17^-5,

341,

97,

228.

96.

B a r r f i n l - y l Q.adim, _9i» 345,

3 4 5 n . See a l s o

Gunpowder.

381,

387,

347.

1 5 5 ( l 2 )•

402. 147(51)•

B f i z f i r - i BQz,

130(24),

Bfizhfi-yi M s s a , Beans,

222.

276.

288,

384,

385,

389,

51, 1 2 ,

120,

B e d l - 1 Hulvfin,

126.

38.

Bedl-1 Iltlzfia,

35..

B e d l - 1 Musfilehe, 3 8 . Behnasfi ( B e h n a s f i v l y y e ) p r o v i n c e , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 6 7 , 2 5 2 , 278, 320, 3 2 1 , 3 2 2 , 330, 344, 3 5 ^ 3 6 2 . Beni guseyn, Ben£ S u e y f ,

7 0 , 80, 8 5 ,

95,

96, 9 7 ,

229,

257(12). 96,

122.

Ber v a j h - i kfimll, Berfit

390.

275(6).

52.

(plu. Berfivfit),

177-

BernrQde, 51 • Bevfiql

(arrears),

Beverages, Bevvfibfin,

77,

81,

280(6),

195-

296(2,

4,

6,

9).

200n.

B e x , 2 , 3 , 6, 3 3 , 167, 184-187, Beyfidi,

73,

274-275,

3 4 , 38, 4 3 , 6 1 , 8 5 , 1 9 3 , 200, 2 4 0 , 2 7 2 ,

9 1 , 93, 95, 1 0 8 n , 1 3 7 , 3 0 1 , 3 2 2 , 336, 340.

1^9,

160,

163,

5J..

Beylerbegi,

215.

Beyt ul-Mfil,

171-173,

Beyt ul-Mfil Emini,

180,

171,

B e y t u l - M f i l - 1 Agfiyfin,

'Amma, 1 2 1 ,

Beyt u l - M f i l - 1

'AskerS,

Blacksmiths,

348.

123,

172,

173,

363.

172.

1 72,

173-

Beyt u l - M f i l - i Rfih-i Bfi.i.j-i S e r i f , Big Kusttfiyye:

3^5n,

172.

Beyt u l - M f i l - 1

B e y t u l - M f i l - 1 Hfi3ga

313-315,

195 -

see K u s f i f i y y e - i

172.

Kebtr.

I37n.

B o a t s and s h i p s , 80, 8 1 - 8 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 3 7 , 270, 274, 2 8 0 ( 9 ) , 290(8, 16), 294,

138, 178, 259, 261, 2 6 i n , 2 9 6 ( 2 , 7 ) , 309, 3 5 0 .

109, 1 1 0 , 139. B o x e s and o t h e r h a r d c o n t a i n e r s , 2 3 2 , 2 6 5 ( 2 1 , 2 5 ) , 2 8 0 ( 3 , b, 1 1 ) , 2 9 0 ( 1 1 ) , 2 9 6 ( 1 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 9 ) .

266(29),

262,

273-4,

265(28)

279(1,

2)

INDEX 201,

419

201n.

201 . B r o k e r s and B r o k e r a g e ,

104,

108,

122,

123,

124,

125,

131,

192,

321.

Buljeyre p r o v i n c e : b o u n d a r i e s and l o c a t i o n , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 3 2 0 n ; g o v e r n o r o f , 6 1 , 1 3 6 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 9 , 2 4 3 , 3 2 1 ^ 3 2 2 ; t a x r e v e n u e s f r o m , 6 7 , 68, 69, 90, 9 1 , 9 5 , 96, 9 7 , 3 1 9 , 3 2 o n , 3 3 0 , 3 4 3 , 3 5 3 , 3 5 5 , 3 5 6 , 3 5 7 ; T r e a s u r y expenditures i n , 228, 252; Arab t r i b e s i n , 13, 6 1 . B u b e y r e - 1 Samak, BuksumSt,

127(5),

363-390.

233(19).

BQlfiq, 2 6 9 ( 8 ) ; customs house and t a x e s , 1 5 , 1 0 1 , 1 1 3 - 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 8 ( 3 ) , 230, 3 2 5 ; j u d i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , 59; p o l i c e , i t s , 3 3 1 ; p o r t and q u a i , 1 2 3 , 1 2 8 ( 1 3 ) , 1 39, 350; t a x r e v e n u e s f r o m , 1 T 4 - 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 7 ( 2 , 3 ) , 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 , 1 2 9 ( 1 4 , 1 5 ) , 1 3 9 ( 2 0 ) , 3 6 2 - 3 9 0 ; t r a d e and i n d u s t r y , 1 0 1 , 1 1 3 - 5 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 7 ( 2 , 3 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 4 , 1 5 ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 0 ) , J.40, 1 4 1 , 1 7 4 , 2 7 3 . Bu'ne, Burj

51•

'Abd u l - S a m a d ,

B u r j Mu?taf£t P a ^ a ,

198, 146,

211, 198,

394. 211,

Burullos, 101, i n , 3 6 2 - 3 9 0 , 394.

112,

i n ,

116,

Butchers,

137,

141,

U9.

119,

122,

393117,

120,

136,

14i,

198,

211,

235,

325,

C a d a s t r a l s u r v e y s , 1 6 - 1 9 . 3 1 , 4 2 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 5 , 66, 7 2 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 1 , 338. C a i r o , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 2 1 , 28, 32, 35, 50, 58, 76, 79, 79n, 80, 89, 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 4 , 1 9 3 , 1 96, 2 0 1 , 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 0 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 4 , 235, 236, 239, 249, 250, 253, 2 6 1 , 262, 264, 267, 274, 2 7 5 , 284, 296, 2 9 7 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 3 , 306, 3 0 7 ; c u s t o m s h o u s e a n d t a x e s , 1 0 5 , 1 1 3 - 1 1 5 ; _ _ o f , 34, 6 1 , 62, 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 1 9 2 , 194, 290, 2 9 1 ; p o r t and q u a i , 83, 1 1 3 - 5 , 1 3 8 - 4 1 ; p u b l i c s e r v i c e and w a t e r s u p p l y , 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 , 2 2 5 - 2 2 6 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 5 ; r e l i g i o u s and j u d i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , 5 9 , 2 3 i , 2 3 5 ; r i v a l r y f o r c o n t r o l o f , 4 - 1 0 , 8 5 , 99, 1 0 6 , 1 6 3 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 , 2 8 4 , 2 9 8 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 3 , 3 1 4 ; t a x r e v e n u e s f r o m , 1 1 3 - 1 1 5 , 1 1 8 - 1 3 1 , 309; t r a d e and i n d u s t r y , 2 5 , 7 4 , 75, 83, 1 0 1 , 103, 104, 105, 106, 1 1 3 - 1 1 5 , 1 1 8 - 1 3 1 , 1 3 8 - 1 4 1 , 1 4 7 , 148, 1 7 4 , 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 192m 1 9 5 , 2 3 0 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 7 , 309, 3 2 1 ; u r b a n o r g a n i z a t i o n and p o l i c e , 1 1 8 - 1 3 1 , 1 3 8 - 1 4 1 , 1 4 7 , i 4 « , 1 8 9 . 1 9 0 - 1 9 1 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 , 236, 237, 2 9 1 . 3 2 1 , 3 3 1 , 339. C a l e n d a r s a n d measurement o f t i m e ,

51,

i23n,

216-217.

Camels, 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 , 140, 1 7 5 , 176, J 7 I , 234, 236, 2 6 5 ( 1 6 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 8 ) , 266T33 ), 2 6 7 ( 4 4 ) , ( 2 , 6, 1 0 ) , 3 0 2 , 3 2 7 .

230-231,

308-309.

249, 2 5 1 , 252, 2 6 4 ( 4 ) , 2 7 9 ( 1 ) , 2 9 0 ( 8 ) , 2 9 4 , 296

C a n a l s , 20, 2 1 , 2 3 , 3 1 , 54, 62, 63, 1 2 2 , 1 39, 148, 1 7 9 , 2 2 5 , 226, 2 2 J , 2 3 3 ( 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 7 ) , 2 3 6 ( 6 3 ) , 3 0 7 , 3 2 2 . See a l s o i r r i g a t i o n . C a n d l e s and t a p e r s ,

119,

231,

235(45),

C a n n o n wagons,

264(10,

Capitation tax

( J l z y e , M&L-i Jev&L£),

280(3),

Caucasus, Caulk

137n, to.

191,

175-176,

1 9 3 - See a l s o

196-197,

200n,

202, 285,

294. and H o l y

290(12). 278,

(Sipahiyfoi),

Central Africa, Cheese,

151-168,

311(18-21).

3•

(Ispavl£),

Cavalry

22),

11).

Caravans, 1 5 , 106, 1 1 4 , C i t i e s : Pilgrimage Carpets,

265(21,

120,

228,

290(19). 29,

189,

trade with,

2 3 3 ( 2 5 ) , 248,

206,

2i_o, 2 1 6 ,

101.

252,

265(20),

266(30),

267(45).

393-

420

INDEX

Chick peas,

51, £2,

Christians,

99,

Cinnamon,

136,

Uo,

171,

3°9,

322,

325.

See

136, 226, 312(24).

229,

232(10,

C i t a d e l of Cairo, 122, 127, 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 ( 1 9 ) , 2 3 5 ( 4 3 ), Clothing,

151,

276.

Circassians, Cisterns, 309,

275.

103,

236(64).

Clover,

51•

Coffee,

104,

105,

Coffee shops,

11),

146(35), 236(44),

174, 260,

See a l s o Robes o f 106,

107,

244,

234(39),

250,

1_82, 1 9 0 , 3 0 3 , 31 7 ,

265(13, 192, 341 ,

247,

275,

334,

28, 29, 34, 36, 37, 38, 287, 298, 309, 336.

Construction regulations, Converts to Islfim, 114,

230,

84,

86,

88n,

102,

I53n, 39,

17m, 42,

188,

1+3,

190,

kj,

48,

147(67).

236(67).

335151,

157,

322.

C o r p o r a t i o n s and g u i l d s , 200, 546. C o t t o n (Q.utn), 375, 377, Cows,

216, 225, 349.

403.

C o n f i s c a t i o n of p r o p e r t y , 24, 49, 1 2 1 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 8 , 206n,

103,

291,

I37n. 66,

Copper,

200, 342,

284,

Honor.

C o i n s and money, x x i i , 8, 65, 244, 259n, 260, 323.

Copts,

i4),

98,

119,

120,

122,

5 1 , 52, 74, 1 2 8 ( 1 1 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 4 ) , 379-301, 382-385, 388-390.

147(70), 1 39(20),

1 4 8 ( 7 4 ), i4o,

175,

369,

192,

372,

195,

374-

12o.

Cucumbers,

119,

120,

r/j.

See a l s o H l y f i r

C u l t i v a t i o n and c r o p s , 7 , 8, 1 6 - 1 7 , 5 4 - 5 8 , 6 1 - 6 2 , 63, 66, 67, 7 2 ,

garibar.

19, 22-24, 7 6 - 7 7 , 78,

C u l t i v a t o r s and p e a s a n t s ( F e l l f i b i n ) , 5 7 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 3 , 65, 66, 7 2 , 7 4 , 143, 1 7 8 ( 1 6 ) , 228, 277.

2 6 - 2 7 , 3 1 , 40, 197, 228, 285,

45, 5 0 - 5 2 , 318.

1 9 - 2 5 , 2 7 , 3 1 , 3 3 , k5, 5 3 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 5 6 , 75, 76, 7 7 , 8 2 , 86, 87, 88, 93, 1 3 5 ,

C u s t o m s h o u s e s a n d t a x e s , 99, 1 0 1 - 1 1 7 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 9 ( 1 9 ) , 1 3 3 , 1 4 5 ( 1 ) , 1 9 1 , 1 9 3 , 249, 2 7 5 , 3 2 3 , 3 2 5 , 326, 329, 344, 3 6 2 - 3 9 0 ; a t A l e x a n d r i a , 1 0 1 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 . 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 1 2 7 ( 4 ) , 2 3 3 ( 2 1 ) , 237(76), 273, 274, 296(4), 332, 290(7); at B t t l f i q , 1 0 1 , 113-115. 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 1 2 4 ; B u r u l l o s , 1 0 1 , I J J , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 ; C a i r o , 124; Damietta, 1 0 1 , 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 126; Old C a i r o , 1 0 1 , 113-115, 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 124; Qfi^iyye, 15; Qugeyr, 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 . 106; Rosetta, 1 0 1 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 1 3 0 ( 2 3 ) , 2 3 3 ( 2 1 ) , 271*, 2 9 6 ( 4 ) ; S u e z , 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 8 , 116-117, 1 3 0 ( 2 1 , 2 8 ) , 145(1), 286, 295, 302, 325, 329, 332; e l - V f i h S t , 1 5 . Qakmak,

269. 200n.

CfivQs

( p l u - CSvfig&n-, C & v f l g l y y e ) c o r p s , 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 n ; o r g a n i z a t i o n , s t a t u s and w a g e s , 1 1 9 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 4 - 1 96, 2 0 3 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 3 , 3 9 2 ; r e v e n u e h o l d i n g s 85, 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 , H i , 173, 174, 1 9 4 - 1 9 6 , 227, 350; d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s , 77, 8 1 , 87, 89, 1 0 3 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 2 , 1 9 4 - 1 9 6 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 ; o f f i c e r s o f , 146, 155, 350. 141 (11 ). ,

155(10).

C e r f i k i s e c o r p s ; o r g a n i z a t i o n , s t a t u s , and wages, 205, 2 1 0 , 393; d u t i e s and revenue h o l d i n g s , o f f i c e r s , 146, 321.

196-197. 199-200, 90, 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 ,

201, 200,

203, 330;

INDEX 31 • (apprentice),

1_97,

421

203.

1 97Dabag,

(Tanning House), 105, 263.

DamanhQr,

i4o,

Damascus,

15,

114,

115,

]_2j(2),

3 6 3 . See a l s o A n i m a l h i d e s .

235. 114,

231,

234,

235,

260,

261.

DamgS-i Sim, J_28(12), 3 2 1 , 323, 376-390. D a m i e t t a , 1 4 , 2 9 5 , 3 0 2 , 306; a g r i c u l t u r e i n v i c i n i t y o f , 5 2 , 67, 70n, 1 2 5 1 2 6 , 1 2 7 ( 6 ) , 2 7 4 , 2 9 5 ; customs house and t a x e s , 1 0 1 , 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 1 1 7 , 1 2 9 ( 1 9 ) , 325, 362-390; dockyard o f , 279, 2 8 0 ( 1 3 ) ; f o r t r e s s o f , 1 9 8 , 2 1 1 , 394; B a v f i l e Agfi o f , 3 2 2 ; c a p i t a t i o n t a x ( J i z y e ) o f , 1 5 2 ; r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n , 2 3 5 ( 4 6 ) ; p o r t and q u a i , 83, 1 0 1 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 6 , 1 9 1 , 2 2 4 ( 1 3 ) ; p o l i c e and u r b a n o r g a n i z a t i o n 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 , 135, 136, 140, i 4 i , 1 9 1 ; t a x r e v e n u e s f r o m , 6 7 , 70, 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 1 2 7 ( 5 , 6 ) , 1 2 8 ( 9 ) , 129(18), 1 3 9 , 3 6 2 - 3 9 0 ; t r a d e and i n d u s t r y , 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 ( 9 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 8 , 1 9 ) , U 0 , 1 4 1 ; Qapfldfal o f , 1 3 ^ - 1 3 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 7 , 1 5 2 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 4 , 1 8 5 , 224 ( 1 3 ) , 226(4), 279; water supply o f , H I , 2 3 2 ( 1 0 ) , 2 3 3 ( 1 3 ) , 2 9 1 ( 5 ) . Dams, and t h e i r m a i n t e n a n c e , 2 3 , 3 1 , 6 2 , 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 , 2 3 3 ( 1 7 ) , 288, 3 0 7 . Dancers,

121,

Dfir u l - D a r b

122.

(DarbhSne),

107,

108,

128(7,

27on,

33^,

12),

148,

161,

190,

321,

323-324.

363. 202, 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 ,

Dates,

15,

101.

119,

TtOj

35,

D e l £ l ul-HS.i.i , Deliai

3^,

Dervishes,

35,

122,

124,

184, 1 8 5 ( 1 ) , i85n, 339-340, 347-348.

3 2 1 . See a l s o B r o k e r s and B r o k e r a g e .

14,

15,

16,

20, 2 1 ,

25, 52,

178,

21235(55). 269n,

331•

D e g £ g e - i Kubrg. v a q f ,

146(45),

D e g i g e - l gugrfi v a q f ,

269,

D e y n - 1 D£v&n,

171, 337,

35n.

Des£ge ( p l u . D e g S y l s ) ,

179,

I53n.

323.

269, 2 7 1 ,

331.

329-333,

Dimyfit: see Damietta. Dlrhem,

157, 335,

266(36).

D e l t a of t h e N i l e , el-DemSrt,

403.

36.

(plu. Dellfilfn),

D e l l f i l B&31,

33^, 402,

232(7).

D e f t e r , 59n. D e f t e r d g r , 2 , 1 7 n , 48, 5 0 , 5 3 , 1 4 5 ( 2 ), 1 5 5 ( 1 6 ) , T5FT 1 93, 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 7 , 2 5 5 ( 7 ) , 2 7 2 , 2 9 7 , Defterdfir-i S i q q - i E v v e l , 15^Deger B a M ,

403.

44, 2 7 o n ,

-52-

276. DSrfUr,

337, 402,

335,

336.

293,

331.

307.

422

INDEX o f E g y p t : f u n c t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s o f , 2 , 3 4 - 3 5 , 43, 47, 48, 5 9 , 6 2 , 63, 8 4 , 88, 99, 1 3 5 , 1 4 2 , U 4 , 1 7 2 , 1 9 0 , 2 2 6 , 2 4 9 - 2 5 0 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 7 - 3 0 0 , 3 0 3 , 3 4 2 ; membership o f , 2 , 1 3 4 , 1 8 4 - 1 8 6 ; s u p p l i e s f o r , 6 1 - 6 2 , 1 7 4 , 2 2 4 , 2 3 2 ( 1 - 3 ) , 5 0 7 ( 9 ) , 2 3 3 ( 1 8 , 2 0 ) , 288, 290(9, 1 4 ) , 2 9 1 ( 7 ) , 3 2 0 ; t r a n s l a t o r o f , 5 9 , 1 4 J ( 6 9 ) , 1 5 5 , 1 93, 2 9 3 ; m i l i t a r y s e r v a n t s o f , 1 9 2 1 9 5 ; i s s u a n c e o f wages i n , 2 1 6 - 2 1 9 ; a u c t i o n s o f Muqfi.ta'fit i n , 3 4 - 3 5 ; chambers o f , 3 4 1 - 3 4 2 ; v i l l a g e D i v a n 5 4 of I s t a n b u l ,

13n, 57n,

347338.

• hike, 4 7 . , 3 3 8 , 340,

3 4 3 - 3 4 5 . See a l s o T r e a s u r y

organization.

201 , 2 1 7 , 3 4 9 . D o c k y a r d s : of A l e x a n d r i a , 136, 1 4 8 ( 7 9 ) , 192? 2 1 0 , 279, 2 8 0 ( 1 3 ) ; of D a m i e t t a , 136, 279, 2 8 0 ( 1 3 ) ; of Suez, 137, 280(130; of I s t a n b u l , 272, 277, 280(10) 302, 3 1 2 ( 2 3 , 2 4 ) .

275. Drugs,

104,

276.

Drummers,

120.

122,

124.

5YE,

East Africa, Edevlyye Edffi,

101.

(Drugs),

104,

276.

52.

Edirne,

152,

Ednfi, 88, Efendi,

203.

153,

153,

I54n.

227.

339-342,

343-350.

Efendi ul-Garblyye, Efendi ul-J£ze

(Garblyye E f e n d i s i ) ,

(Jize Efendisi),

145(6),

E f e n d i ul-Mubasebe

(Mufaasebe E f e n d i s i ) ,

Efendi ul-Muqabele

(Muq6.bele.ji E f e n d i s i ) ,

Efendi ul-garqiyye

(Sarqlyye E f e n d i s i ) ,

Efendi ul-Sehlr Efendi

(Emin-i Sehlr),

321,

343.

343..

145(7),

145(4), 145(5), 216,

155(8),

293,

332,

345.

346. 321,

293,

343-

321,

332,

339,

344.

ul-Y6mlyye,345-346.

Egg p l a n t , 1 2 0 . E g y p t : b o u n d a r i e s , 1 2 - 1 3 ; c o n q u e s t o f b y Ottomans, 1 2 - 1 4 , 4 i , 5 9 , 68, 1 8 9 , 196, 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 ; surveys o f , 1 6 - 1 9 . 42, 5 4 - 5 , 65-66, 72, 154, 156, 158, 1 6 1 , 3 3 8 ; l a n d h o l d i n g and u s e , 1 9 - 5 2 : r u r a l t a x a t i o n , 6 4 - 9 7 : u r b a n o r g a n i z a t i o n and t a x a t i o n , 9 8 - 1 6 8 ; m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 8 8 - 2 0 2 : t r e a s u r y e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r , 2 1 5 - 2 3 8 , 2 8 1 - 2 8 3 , 299, 3 0 3 - 3 0 4 , 3 0 7 - 3 0 9 , 3 4 4 - 3 4 5 , 399; c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e H o l y C i t i e s , 5 , 7 , 9, 4 1 , 44, 76, 2 2 3 , 2 4 0 , 2 5 3 - 2 7 2 , 2 8 1 - 2 8 2 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 1 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 4 , 2 9 7 , 299, 300, 3 0 2 - 3 0 3 , 3 0 9 - 3 1 2 , 3 3 1 , 344, 399; c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o I s t a n b u l , 3 4 - 3 5 , 3 7 , 5 2 , 62, 76, 108n, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 9 - 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 6 , 1 8 5 , 2 7 2 - 2 7 9 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 0 ( 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 8 ) , 2 9 6 ( 1 - 1 1 ) , 2 9 7 , 299, 3 0 2 , 303, 304, 3 0 5 - 7 , 310, 3 1 2 ( 2 6 ) , 3 1 3 - 3 1 5 , 3 3 2 - 3 3 5 , 345, 399-403; m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e t o I s t a n b u l , 1 3 4 , 1 3 6 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 5 , 1 99, 2 0 4 , 206, 21 On, 2 2 1 , 2 7 7 2 7 9 , 2 9 0 ( 9 ) , 302, 3 0 5 - 3 0 7 , 3 1 2 ( 2 6 ) ; c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o S y r i a , 2 3 1 , 234 ( 3 2 , 3 3 ) ; o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p r o v i n c e s o f , 1 4 - 1 6 , 6 0 - 6 3 , 76. E h l - i Hlref,

2oon.

INDEX E h l - 1 Jevfili, E h l - 1 Kltfib,

151. 151.

Serife,

255(8),

EmSnet, 26, 2 7 , 29, 151, 153, 157, Emin,

Jevgli.

151 •

E h l - i Zlmmet, Eizfi'-i

See a l s o

423

256(8),

257(9,

4, 2 1 , 26, 2 7 , 3 1 , 103, U 2 , 152, 15F,

13,

3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 40, 5 2 , 1 7 3 , 338, 339-

E m i n - 1 AribSr (AribSr E m i n i ) ,

83,

148,

E m i n - 1 Babreyn (Babreyn E m i n i ) , E m i n - 1 BQlfiq,

11,

TO-

3 1 , 3 2 , 3 9 , 40, 5 8 , 8 3 , 99, 1 6 1 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 6 , 339-

1 95,

110,

62,

118,

64,

75,

147.

E m i n - 1 Damgfi-yi Sim, E m i n - 1 Darbb&ne, E m i n - 1 Dlmyfit,

138,

147,

321,

321,

321,

323,

323-324.

350. Burullos.

Damietta.

1 4 7 . S e e a l s o Customs h o u s e s a n d t a x e s :

149(82),

E m i n - 1 H o r d e (Horde E m i n i ) ,

i50n,

121,

148(76),

173-174,

123,

131,

15On,

147-

Suez.

176,

185,

321 230,

E m i n - 1 K l y f i l e - l U r z - u Beyfi.2,

125,

E m i n - 1 MuSfiq (AgS. u l - M u s & g ) ,

148(71),

E m i n - 1 Sukkfir,

149(83),

176,

180,

I50n,

131,

i^i,

.

152,

147(63). 124,

178(16),

321.

302.

345n.

Emin-1 Sehlr,

145(7),

E m i n - 1 Ters&ne,

236(65),

See a l s o Customs h o u s e s a n d t a x e s : A l e x a n d r i a

E m i n - 1 J e v S l i ( J e v S l i E f e n d i s i , Jevfili E m i n i ) , 11+5(12), 149(84), 154, 157, 161, 162, 321, 323. See a l s o J e v S l i and J l z y e •

Emin-1 Sllib&ne,

195,

302.

147(61),

E m i n - 1 I b t i s g b (Mubteslb), 118, 119, 120, 1 2 1 , 141, 147(60), 248, 252, 2 9 1 , 3 3 1 . See a l s o M u q & t a ' a - i I b t l s f i b Emin-1 l3kenderlyye,

100,

See a l s o D&r u l - D a r b .

E m i n - 1 H a r . i - i HSssa ( V e k i l - 1 H a r . i - 1 Hfissa), 2 7 2 - 2 7 3 , 2767~297. E m i n - 1 Hiy&r Saribar,

99,

376-390.

See a l s o Customs h o u s e s a n d t a x e s :

E m i n - 1 E g n S f - i Bahfir,

88,

U9,

BQlfiq.

See a l s o Customs h o u s e s a n d t a x e s : i_26(i2),

148,

147-

87,

135,

350-

123-125,

1 4 7 . See a l s o Customs h o u s e s a n d t a x e s :

Emin-1 Burullos,

124,

216,

293,

321,

332,

339,

344.

148(79)-

E m i r , 1 , 5, 6, 1 34, 1 37, 188, 194, 242, 243, 300, 3 0 1 , 391-392.

7 , 9, 1 38, 195, 244, 303,

Emir of Yaribo',

259,

33, 14l, 207, 248, 304,

45, 53, 6 1 , 62, 148, 1 5 2 , 1 5 7 , 209, 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 2 5 1 , 262, 263, 313, 314, 315,

266(41),

E m i r Rakab ul-Mabmal,

240n.

309,

89, 161, 222, 268, 317,

103, 162, 223, 269, 329,

105, 165, 227, 281, 333,

106, 107, 167, 1 74, 230, 236, 287-289, 336, 339,

108, 184, 239, 294, 344,

132, 186, 240, 298, 348,

311(12).

See a l s o

E m i r ul-H&.i.i, 185, 298; revenues I n c a s h , 106, 1 0 7 , 186, 24i - 2 5 0 . 263, 2 6 7 ( 4 2 , 4 3 ) , 2 6 8 , 2 9 7 , 309, 3 1 2 ( 2 9 - 3 7 ) ; s u p p l i e s f o r , 2 6 4 ( 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 ) , 265; d u t i e s and e x p e n d i t u r e s , 1 6 6 , 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 , 2 4 7 - 2 4 9 . 2 5 3 , 2 5 4 , 259, 260, 262, 327. Emir ul-Tablbfine,

186,

E m i r l y y e - 1 Sukkfir,

Emv&L-i Muteferrlqa, EnderQn-u Hassa, Erbfib-i Hadia,

84,

335-

202,

241,

120,

322.

123. 142,

i50n,

168,

See a l s o R l k f i b - i

213,

344,

396,

397.

169,

172,

Humfiyfln.

174,

177,

180-181,

345.

424

INDEX (Office holders), 144,

i45J

320,

321.

IIErzSq

(plu.

of R l z q e ) ,

Erz&q E f e n d i s t ,

*£>

26,

1*5,

Es&me, Esfigtf, 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 ,

in,

1*5-50,

64,

96, 2 3 1 ,

236(62),

259,

291,

293.

293-

20*,

206, 207,

208,

216,

2*9-

257(12). 104, 108, 1 2 9 ( 1 7 ) , houses and t a x e s : S u e z . E a n f i f - i Tu.i.ifir-i G a l f i l , 350. E s n e , 96nEskJn.jiy&n, 189, 197, 210. EsrSf

(plu.

Esrgf-i

of S e r i f ) ,

Harameyn,

EE ut knfui ,c h s1,1 9 2- 0 2 , Europe,

327,

EvqSf

(plu.

88,

Evt&n ve

8,

8*,

of Vaqf),

101,

*0,

106,

41-50,

293,

303,

331-

125.

15 3 ,

See a l s o

4i,

Vagf.

269-272.

15*-

See a l s o

Jlzye•

153 • 201-202, 1*5(13)-

6 * , 86, 2*>

212,

95-97,

F S ' l S e - i Evqfif,

176,

216,

100,

F & ' l 2 e - i E m t n - i Sukk&r, J J 6 , 180,

217,

1*2,

180,

3**,

318,

3**. l8o

F f i ' l S e - l J e m ' - i Mugfiq, 1 * 8 ( 7 1 ) ,

1Z4>

180,

F & ' 1 2 e - 1 Sgrm&ye-l B&rflt-u Siygh, 280(7,

Far East:

trade with,

FSreskfir,

15,

Rlyfil,

67,

397.

330.

123»

275,

396,

3*5n.

1*9(82),

Ffe'lfee-l Htoto Saribar,

Fart-i

2 6 4 ( 5 ),

Customs

53•

Evtfen E f e n d l s i ,

Falcons,

263,

269-272.

(Jlzye tickets),

'Ayfil,

Ffi'12,

259,

See a l s o

331 •

(Public foundations),

Evr&q u l - M u l t e z l m , Evgai;,

293,

302.

288(7).

Evo&f u s - S a i a t £ n EvrSq u l - J l z y e

2^8,

26*(4),

264(2),

33*-

trade with,

E v l & d - i IJamGde,

257(12),

298,

1*7(66),

8),

302'

>

3*5n-

3*5n.

17*-175,

180,

3*5n.

296(12).

101,

103.

69, 2 7 * ,

291,

3*3,

353,

355-

357-

1 02.

Ffitimld, Empire,

*1,

46.

Fayyfim, 1 * , 5 1 , 5 2 , 6 7 , 7 0 , 7 9 n , 80, 8 5 , 9 5 , 96, 9 7 , 1 2 2 , 2 2 9 , 2 6 4 ( 7 ), 3 2 0 , 3 2 2 , 330, 3**, 3 5 8 - 3 6 2 . F e d d f i n : a s m e a s u r e o f l a n d , 1 7 , 1 8 , 5 5 , 6 5 , 66, 7 2 , 7 3 , 1 3 n , 7 8 ; a s m e a s u r e of g r a i n r a t i o n s , 220, 229. Feddfine, 78. Fellfib,

(plu. Fell&bin),

20,

24,

25,

55,

75,

77,

9*; See a l s o

Fer|gat, 36, 44. Ferde,

105,

i_05n,

Ferde u l - T a h r t r .

244. 91,

92-93,

93n,

96. 255(6),

256(7)-

Cultivators.

INDEX FezzSn, Figs,

101.

119,

Filfll,

1 37n.

276.

F l q f i r i y y e , j>, 2 4 0 , Fire fighting, Fish

425

316.

148.

119.

F i s h i n g and h u n t i n g , Fit£l,

1 2 7 ( 5 ),

1 30(29),

1 35,

1 39,

301.

278.

Flax,

51, 1 2 ,

1 40,

1 41 .

Fodder f o r a n i m a l s , 2 2 0 - 2 2 4 . 227, 229, 230, 4 2 , 4 4 , 5 2 ) , 2 3 6 ( 5 9 , 60, 6 6 ) , 2 3 7 ( 7 3 ), 2 9 0 ( 1 5 ) , 291 ( 9 ) , 295F o n j , 327Forced labor,

20,

22-23,

25,

57,

135,

233(22, 23), 234(40), 250, 2 6 5 ( 1 4 ) , 280(8),

235(41, 288,

228.

F o r t r e s s e s , 1 5 , 1 1 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 4 6 ( 3 5 - 4 4 ), 1 7 4 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 7 - 1 9 9 . 2 0 1 , 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 , 2 1 6 - 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 3 ( 7 ) , 2 2 4 ( 1 4 ) , 250, 3 1 1 ( 1 3 ) , 345. Foundations: Fountains,

see Vaqf, R l z q e ,

235(52,

53,

54),

200,

and M u r a t t a b • 256(6).

French Consul I n Alexandria,

payments t o ,

237(75),

290(6).

F r e n c h E x p e d i t i o n t o E g y p t ( 1 7 9 8 - 1 8 0 1 ) , 9, 3 9 , 68, 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 8 5 , 8 8 , 90, 91 , 9 2 , 94, 9 5 , 1 0 2 n , 1 0 7 , 1 1 6 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 4 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 9 , 1 94, 2 3 1 , 2 3 8 , 245, 2 5 2 , 2 6 0 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 7 , 31 4 , 3 2 4 , 331 , 3 3 2 , 335 F r u i t , 119, 122, 137n. Furuht, 35Furunhfide, Gafir,

73,

293.

54.

G a l f i l - i Hararoeyn,

261-263.

See a l s o G r a i n s s e n t t o t h e H o l y

G a l f i l - i Musamman, 1 7 1 . G a r b i y y e p r o v i n c e , U , 6 1 , 67, 68, 242, 243, 253, 273, 293, 320, Garbiyye Efendts? Garlic,

(Efendi ul-Garbiyye),

Gaurf

341. 7,

198,

Georgia,

Gold,

343.

298,

300,

301.

276. 213,

398.

140.

15, 283,

65, 66, 8 6 , 284, 323.

Gold caravans, Gourds,

321,

228,

3• 200,

Glass,

145(6),

130(25),

51•

Gaza,

Ginger,

7 1 , 90, 91 , 9 5 , 96, 97, 3 2 1 , 322, 330, 343-

Cities.

107,

128(7),

I36n,

I53n,

170,

244,

259n,

260,

264(6),

15-

119-

Governor of A b y s s i n i a ,

184,

185.

G o v e r n o r o f E g y p t ( s e e a l s o V § 1 £ ) : p o w e r s , f u n c t i o n s , and a c t i v i t i e s , 1 - 1 0 . 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 6 - 1 9 , 2 1 - 2 3 , 2 8 , 3 3 , 34, 3 6 , 3 8 - 3 9 , 4 2 - 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 49, 5 3 , 5 9 , 6 3 , 6 5 - 6 7 , 68, 7 3 , 7 8 , 8 3 , 88, 99, 1 0 0 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 , 1 2 3 , 1 3 2 , 1 7 3 , 1 8 7 , 190, 1 9 2 - 1 96, 2 0 7 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 7 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 6 - 2 2 7 , 2 2 8 , 2 4 4 , 2 5 3 - 2 5 4 ,

1+26

INDEX 259, 260, 2 6 1 , 2 7 7 , 284, 285, 2 8 7 , 292, 295, 3 0 1 , 304, 305, 306, 3 1 6 3 1 7 : r e v e n u e s o f , 3 6 , 3 8 , 3 9 , 4 0 - 4 1 , 4 5 , 4 9 , 6 4 , 9 5 n , 96n, 1 0 0 , 1 0 3 108, 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 1 2 5 , 1 4 2 - 1 44, 1 5 2 , 1 5 3 - 1 5 ^ , 1 5 5 ( 1 ) , 156-157, 1 5 8 - 1 5 9 , 160, 1 6 1 , 162, 164, 165, 167, 168, 170, 1 7 2 , 184, 1 8 7 - 1 8 8 , 206, 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 ( 1 ) , 2 2 3 ( 1 ) , 286, 287, 2 9 1 , 292, 3 1 3 , 3 1 6 - 3 2 8 , 346, 3 9 1 392; s u p p l i e s f o r , 2 3 2 ( 4 ) , 2 3 6 ( 6 6 ) , 2 9 1 ( 8 ) ; e x p e n d i t u r e s o f , 2, 43, 45, 108, 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 , 1 4 5 ( 1 ) , 149(81, 8 3 ) , 165, 168, 1 7 9 - 1 8 1 , 200, 205, 2 2 6 2 2 7 , 2 5 7 ( 1 3 ), 269, 2 7 4 - 2 7 5 , 284, 2 8 8 ( 4 ) , 289, 302, 3 2 9 - 3 3 7 , 402; t i t l e s o f , 1 ; s e r v a n t s o f , 200.

Governor of J i d d a ,

148(81),

G o v e r n o r o f Yemen,

184,

corps,

90,

I50n,

24i,

294,

312(25).

185.

126,

146(17,

32),

lj>6,

203,

205,

210,

321,

330,

393-

G r a i n s , 5 0 - 5 2 , 124, 126, i 4 i , 1 7 1 , 220, 262, 263, 291, 324, 325; as revenues of the T r e a s u r y of Egypt, 78-86, 170, 290(16), 3 ^ 3 - 3 ^ , 3^9-350; sent t o A r a b i a , 2 2 3 , 2 ^ 8 , 2 6 1 - 2 6 3 , 2 6 4 ( 5 ), 2 6 5 ( 2 7 , 2 8 ) , 2 6 6 ( 4 0 ) , 2 6 7 ( 4 6 ) , 2 6 9 - 2 7 1 , 2 8 8 ( 5 ) , 2 9 0 ( 8 ) , 293, 294, 302, 303, 309, 3 1 1 ; s e n t t o I s t a n b u l 2 7 2 - 2 7 7 , 2 8 0 ( 5 , 8, 1 4 ) , 2 9 0 ( 1 8 ) , 2 9 6 ( 1 , 5 , 1 2 ) , 307, 3 1 0 ( 4 - 7 ) , 1 1 1 , 125; p a i d a s r a t i o n s i n E g y p t , 2 2 0 - 2 2 4 , 225, 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 - 3 0 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 2 ( 1 ) , 233 ( 2 2 - 3 , 2 6 ) , 2 3 4 ( 2 7 , 2 8 - 3 0 ) , 2 3 5 ( 5 6 ) , 2 3 6 ( 5 9 , 60, 6 6 ) , 2 3 7 ( 7 3 )Granary of C a i r o ,

248,

261,

287,

33 1 *,

Grand V e z i r ,

79,

82,

83,

322. : manufacture,

140.

147(49),

101

•

200n.

Gurebfi-yi Yesfir,

2oon.

see

Abyssinia. ij_4,

flacjrfi'

island,

Hafir,

5^-

H&.i.i

See H o l y C i t i e s :

Hakim,

60-61,

Haleb;

see

62,

115,

i_22(3),

363-

pilgrimage

185(7),

to.

322.

Aleppo

H aa il fi fa e, , 3 34 iltnl -. H Hali.j

of Cairo,

Hali.j ul-Navar£, H&liyye,

233(14). 226,

233(13).

321-322.

Hammam-i l E g g a , 1 2 7 ( 1 ) ,

233(12),

363-390.

1 92i f i n Yfinus, IJangfih,

15,

11^,

198,

211,

229.

Haqq u l - B u y y f i t a t , Haqq u l - T a r i q ,

91-92,

87-88,

125, 175, 17^-175-

270n.

See a l s o Customs houses and

Gtirebfi-yi Yemin, tJabe§:

195,

s a l e and u s e o f i n E g y p t ,

2 3 3 ( 1 8 ) , 249, 2 7 7 - 2 7 8 , 288; sent t o I s t a n b u l , 290(9), 3 1 2 ( 2 7 ) ; T r e a s u r y revenues from, 180, Gfirlyye vaqf,

190,

220,

221,

403.

Gum A r a b i c , Gunpowder

Giftnrttk, 2 2 >

170,

338,

^02,

G r e e k community i n E g y p t , 104,

81,

89,

9393-

394.

taxes.

278,

174-1 75, 280(12),

INDEX Harameyn, 1 3 0 ( 2 0 ) , Medina. ffarameyn

vaqf,

258,

261-263,

130(20),

2J0,

Harem-i S e r j f - 1 Nabavi, g a r . i - i H&ssa, Hasan Paga,

G&zi,

(plu.

9, 8 9 n ,

256(7),

259,

195,

272-277-

185,

120,

309,

311(9-11)-

92,

93,

106,

130(29),

^UL,

324,

327,

137,

149(81 ),

163,

220,

301 ,

40, 58n,

4o,

192,

196,

333•

318.

121.

Hatem u l - Z a h a b , Batfb,

201.

HStQr,

51•

Hauli,

54-58.

363.

Havfile t i c k e t s ,

87.

87,

86,

103,

104,

132,

193,

99, Havfire t r i b e and c o n f e d e r a t i o n , 26, HSvend,

266(40),

270.

HavSgg),

HSsg-i VUzerfi', Hagtg,

Mecca and

3IT"335.

HSgeklyye vaqf, fl&SS

see a l s o Holy C i t i e s ,

293.

255(6), ij6,

293;

240(50).

Hasan Paga, 303,

148(76),

270,

427

98.

218,

103,

1.4, 8 5 ,

233,

104,

190,

289,

105,

322.

1 5 5 ( 3 ),

325-

248.

See a l s o I m p e r i a l

Possessions

269.

Hay, 225, 226, 234(40), 2 3 5 ( 4 1 , 42). H S y r BOT, 4 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 8 , 41 , 4 2 , W I , ? 5 3 , 274, 283. 2,

334,

338,

349;

47,

65-67,

79,

see a l s o T r e a s u r y of

147,

189,

Egypt.

402. 195/ 290(7), Hazne,

185.

Hedetn u l - ' A s k e r , Hedeme-1 R a ' s - i Hedeme-i S e b t l ,

Hll'at, Hlgge,

87,

9£,

350,

402,

403.

Hazlne.

96. 109,

110,

364-369,

372,

374.

256(6). 256(10).

calendar,

226, 52,

249,

BSgfiz-i Bender-i Regid,

Hedeme-1 Sfllu.juyltn, Hll&llyye,

334,

See a l s o I r s & l i y y e - l

308.

236(70),

288(4),

331 ( 9 ) -

207.

Hlyfir Sanbar,

1.42(82),

Hly&z Bey V a q f ,

I50n, m ( 3 ) ,

180,

302.

147(55)338n; 109,

see Treasury of 110,

111,

112,

Egypt. 128(8,

9),

369N-

H o l y C i t i e s (see a l s o Mecca and M e d i n a ) , 1 4 , 4 3 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 90, 1 0 5 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 8 , 1 7 5 , 249, 250, 2 5 2 , 303, 304, 308, 3 1 7 ; c o n t r i b u t i o n s from E g y p t , 5 , 7, 9, 4 1 , 44, 62, 76, 2 2 3 , 240, 2 5 3 - 2 7 2 , 2 8 1 - 2 8 2 , 2 8 3 , 288, 2 9 1 , 2 9 3 , 294, 297, 299, 3 0 2 - 3 0 4 , 3 0 9 - 3 1 2 , 3 3 1 , 344, 345, 399; c o n t r i b u t i o n s from I s t a n b u l , 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 , 3 1 2 ( 2 6 ) ; p i l g r i m a g e t o , 90, 9 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 5 , 1 7 7 , 185, 193, 199, 204, 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 223, 224, 233, 235, 23.9-253,

428

INDEX 2 5 7 ( 1 2 ) , 260, 308, 3 0 9 - 3 1 2 ,

Holy Curtain: Honey,

140,

265(16-19), 3 2 7 , 399-

see K i s v e - l

266(31-36,

121, 140,

Bosrev Paga,

284.

141,

H o s r e v P a g a , mosque Bu.j.ie, Hu.j.jet,

42,

Sultan,

IbrShim Bey,

9,

266(31,

292n,

106,

6,

4, ftara,

20,

143,

l_4, 6 7 ,

203-208, 333,

43,

131,

193,

194,

321,

321 .

327.

305.

1 37,

42,

238,

163,

300,

301,

303,

314,

326,

327.

66,

151,

283,

349.

287,

289,

292,

293,

294.

234(29).

70,

238(23),

358-362;

fort

of,

12,

198,

212,

395.

214.

334-335,

3 3 7 , J+03 •

48.

259-260, I b t l s S b , 9$, 1 0 9 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 ^ 7 ( 6 0 ) , 195, 230, 2 3 6 ( 6 5 ) , 155(12, 226,

Ilbaslyye,

173,

1 4 7 ( 6 1 ),

290(17),

46, 48. 77, 78, 102, 12on, 132, 2 1 7 , 224, 354-562, 365, 370, 376, 582, 587. 261-263.

Ilbas,

131,

286.

I b r a h i m e d - D e s s f i q i mosque, Ibrim province,

123,

32),

107,

285,

I b r a h i m Paga,

120-123,

7.

I b r a h i m Paga,

'Idlyye,

192,

297,

259.

Ibrahim Paga, M e l l k ,

Ifra.j,

281-282,

235(51). 67,

92,

Ibrahim Kethoda,

Ibtida,

268,

Serife•

(Muqfita'a-i Horde),

121,

Ibrahim,

267(44),

234(27).

Horde Muq&ta'asi 362-390. Horses,

38),

344;

227-250,

see a l s o

252,

307,

342,

344,

345,

Kisve•

1 1 8 - 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 8 ( 8 , 9 ) , 1 3 5 , 141 ( 1 1 ), 550, 3 3 1 ( 5 7 7 3 ^ 2 ^ 3 9 0 . See a l s o M u h t e s i b -

13).

322. 100,

321 - 3 2 2 .

330,

346.

I l t i z a m (Tax F a r m ) : o r i g i n s o f I n Ottoman E g y p t , 3 1 - 3 3 ; s t a t u s o f p e a s a n t s i n , 2 2 - 2 7 ; a c q u i s i t i o n of, 32-33, 34-40. 52-53, 99-101, 3 1 3 - 3 1 4 ; r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s of h o l d e r s , 27, 32, 3 3 - 3 4 , 5 3 - 5 8 , 98-99; of r u r a l Muqata'at, 34-40, 5 2 - 5 8 , 7 8 - 8 1 , 1 7 3 - 1 76, 242, 247, 3 1 3 - 3 1 4 , 3 1 8 - 3 1 9 ; of urban Muqata'at, 9 8 - i 3 3 . 1 38-141 , 149(82, 83), 1 9 1 - 1 9 5 , 323, 3253 2 7 ; p r o v i n c e s a s , 40, 6 0 - 6 2 , 2 4 1 ; g i v e n a s pawns, 3 7 ; J i z y e c o l l e c t i o n s a s , 1 5 2 - 1 5 4 . 1 5 6 - 1 5 9 , i 6 7 n ; T r e a s u r y o f f i c e s a s , 339; h e l d by m i l i t a r y c o r p s , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 , 103-, 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 8 1 4 l , 1 9 1 - 1 9 5 ; h e l d b y G o v e r n o r o f E g y p t , 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 , 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 , 31 9 - 3 2 0 , 323, 325-327. IMAM, 2 0 1 . mosque,

185.

124. Imdad-i S e f e r l y y e , Imperial Canals:

333.

334,

335,

403. 227-228,

233(17),

236(63),

307.

INDEX Imperial Possessions 101, 134, 138, 142,

1 4 5 ( 1 ),

I m p e r i a l T r e a s u r y of Egypt:

, 26-4i , 42,

165.

98,

see

51•

Incense,

104.

India, trade with, Indigo, 140. Infantry corps,

101,

29,

103,

26in,

3 3 ^ ; m i l i t a r y campaigns i n ,

Investiture,

100,

226,

(plu. IqtS'fit),

irfid-i Galfil,

321-322,

33^•

Irfiq,

80, 84, 85,

153-

Ironmongers,

330,

2 6 , 2 6 n , 28,

Irfid-i Galfil Efendist, Irfin,

12,

18.

189-196,

I n h e r i t a n c e o f p r o p e r t y , 2 1 , 2 3 - 2 4 , 34, 3 7 - 3 8 , 207, 208-209, 259, 3 2 6 - 3 2 7 , 346,347. Igll'

4 3 , 44, 48, 60, 62,

see T r e a s u r y of E g y p t .

I m p e r i a l T r e a s u r y of I s t a n b u l : Imgir,

429

3^3-3^;

145(8),

321,

44, 48, 5 9 - 6 0 ,

121,

171-173,

346.

28n, 2 9 , 4 3 , 46, see a l s o

48; s e e a l s o

Grains.

344.

120.

I r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m , 1 9 , 2 0 - 2 1 , 2 3 , 3 1 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 5 4 - 5 5 , 5 6 , 6 0 - 6 1 , 6 2 , 63, 94, 197, 2 2 7 - 8 , 2 2 9 ( 1 ), 2 3 5 ( 1 7 ) , 288, 307. I r s f i l i y y e - i B a z i n e : N a t u r e and amount, 2 , 6, 7 , 8, 9, 1 0 , 2 8 3 - 3 0 5 : r e v e n u e s o f , 2 8 3 - 3 0 5 ; e x p e n d i t u r e s o f : f o r p u r p o s e s i n E g y p t , 5 , 7 , 9, 2 0 5 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 7 , 2 3 3 , 3 0 7 - 3 0 9 , 3 1 1 ( 8 ) , 3 1 2 ( 2 4 , 2 5 ) ; f o r t h e H o l y C i t i e s and t h e P i l g r i m a g e , 5 , 7 , 9, 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 - 2 4 7 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 9 , 260, 2 6 1 , 2 6 2 , 2 6 3 , 264n, 2 6 5 n , 266n, 2 6 7 n , 268n, 2 7 0 , 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 , 3 1 0 ( 1 - 3 ) , 311(9-12), 3 1 2 ( 2 6 , 2 9 - 3 7 ) ; f o r t h e Ottoman g o v e r n m e n t , 6, 2 7 2 , 2 7 5 , 2 7 6 , 2 7 7 , 2 7 8 , 2 7 9 , 2 7 9 n , 28on, 2 8 1 , 3 0 5 - 3 0 7 , 3 1 0 ( 4 - 7 ) , 3 1 2 ( 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 7 , 2 8 ) . 350Iskele,

101.

Iskenderiyye;

see A l e x a n d r i a .

Ismfi'£l Pasa,

295, 297,

Ispavli,

290(19).

278,

Istanbul, 337,

3 1 , 5 9 , 7 9 , 84, 1 0 0 , 1 4 9 , 1 93, 200n, 2 7 3 , 3^6. See a l s o Ottoman g o v e r n m e n t .

Igkenbe,

232(6).

Igtirfik,

52.

Jfi'ize,

317.

100,

325,

277,

284, 298, 300,

310,

347-

J f i ' l z e - 1 Humfiyfln, 329,

333-336,

402-403.

J a n b e r d I Hfitfin v a q f , 2 7 0 n . J a n i s s a r y c o r p s (Mustafrfe^fin) 1 8 9 - 1 9 1 ; r e v e n u e h o l d i n g s , 1 0 3 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 On, 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 9 , 1 3 5 ( 2 0 ; , 1 3 a , 1 3 9 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 9 ( 8 3 ) , 1 9 0 - 1 9 1 , 2 7 4 ; wages o f , 1 9 0 , 1 9 ^ , 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 , 2 0 3 , 2 0 5 , 208, 2 i o , 2 1 6 , 2 2 3 , 3 9 2 ; d u t i e s a n d o b l i g a t i o n s o f , 30, 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 , 1 4 6 ( 2 0 , 2 7 ) , 1 4 8 , 1 8 9 - 1 9 1 , 1 92, 1 9 4 ; o f M u s t a b f e g f i n ) , 1 1 8 , 1 4 6 ( 2 7 ) , 1 4 8 ( 7 4 ) , 1 9 0 , 1 9 6 , 306, 3 2 1 . Jay'fin family,

346.

e l - J a z f i ' i r province,

1 34•

J e b e . i l ( p l u . Jebe.ityfin) c o r p s , Jebe.jS Bfigi

i_74, 200, 2 0 1 , 146(29),

174,

212,

216,

175,

1 93, 200,

217,

395. 277-278.

430

INDEX

Jebel

'Arafat,

266(31,

J e m ' - l Mugfig-1 M i r i ,

34).

174,

180;

see a l s o

J e m f i ' a , J e m a ' a t ( p l u . Jem&'&t), 146, 189, 1 9 1 , 192, 194, 196, 197, 199, 2 0 1 , 2 0 2 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 , 2 0 7 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 3 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 6 , 3 2 1 ; see a l s o M i l i t a r y corps. Jerafe,

228.

Jeraye,

220,

Jerusalem,

221,

231,

222.

234(31-33),

£6i .

J e v a i i - 1 Havaran, 1 3 1 , 155, 396, 397See a l s o

202,

212,

Jevaii Efendisi (Emin-i J e v a i i ) , 162, 321, 323. Jews,

99,

103,

124,

140,

337J e y b - i HumayQn, 3 0 2 ,

151,

303,

145(12),

171,

305,

199,

(Governor of J i d d a ) , 248,

1 73,

217,

255(3),

149(84), i l l ,

309,

322,

256(3), 152,

308,

345,

154,

157,

161,

256(10),

261,

263,

325.

402-403.

J i d d e , 1 0 5 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 8 ( 8 1 ), 1501), 275, 2 9 4 , 3 0 3 , 312(25). Jiddelfly&n,

216,

241,

i48(8i),

248,

249,

I50n,

250,

241,

294,

312(25).

310(1-3).

J i r j e p r o v i n c e ; l o c a t i o n and c o m p o s i t i o n o f , 1 4 - 1 6 ; conquest o f , 1 3 - 1 4 ; a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f , 25, 58, 61; a g r i c u l t u r e o f , 5 2 ; t r e a s u r y revenues f r o m 6 7 , 7 0 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 5 , 9 5 , 96, 9 7 , 2 3 0 , 3 4 4 ; J l z r e e t a x i n , 1 5 7 ; t r e a s u r y e x p e n d i t u r e s i n , 2 2 9 ; f o r t and g a r r i s o n o f , 198, 2 1 2 ; g o v e r n o r o f , 1 6 , 6 1 , 80, 85, 1 5 7 , 3 2 2 , 3 2 7 . J i z e c i t y and p r o v i n c e ; l o c a t i o n , 1 4 ; a g r i c u l t u r e i n , 5 2 , 2 7 3 ; t r e a s u r y r e v e n u e s f r o m 68, 7 1 , 9 5 , 96, 9 7 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 5 ( 5 6 ) , 2 3 6 ( 5 9 , 6 6 ) , 2 7 3 , 293, 343; t r a d e and i n d u s t r y , 1 4 0 ; g o v e r n o r o f , 320, 3 2 2 , 330. Jize Efendisi Jizye

(Efendi u l - J i z e ) ,

(Capitation tax),

Jlzye tickets, Jizyedfir, Joseph,

152,

260,

343-

151-168,

153,

154,

163.

153,

154,

156,

191,

157,

58-61;

JusOr-u Sultani

(Imperial Canals),

JUrm-tt.Jinayet,

1 35-

177,

158,

285,

159,

161,

259,

260,

264(6),

309,

62,

Katlb-1

88,

146(15-23),

Divan,

201.

227-228,

31 1 ( 1 4 - 1 7 ),

227.

K a t l b - 1 Jema'at,

146(15-23),

K e f i l be-Mai, 1 0 0 . K e f i l be-Nefs,

1 oo.

78.

Kemha.iiyan,

200n.

K e s f - i Jusflr,

322,

323n.

233(17),

236(63),

293.

307,

322.

344. 78, 8 1 ,

86,

See a l s o S c r i b e s and S c r i b a l

155(9)-

K S t i b - 1 Bavaie,

Keiaie,

162.

see a l s o

Kagif, 3, 31, 3 3 , 40, 5 8 , 5 8 n , 60, 6on, 6 1 , 6 2 , 17T(i2"5, 1 § 6 , 318, 3 2 1 , 322, 3 3 0 ( 3 ) , 338. KStlb,

294.

350.

J u d i c i a l organization of Egypt,

Ka'ba,

202,

87, 88,

91,

organization.

142,

INDEX

431

Kes£de Efend£s£, 145(14). Kes£de-i D£v§n, ~, 212, 216, 344, 396-397. Kes£de-i Jev~l£, 202, 213, 396-397. Ketbod~, 146(31-34),201,216,222,330,337,402. Kethod~-y~ Q~vas§n, 155(4), 196. Ketbod~-y~ V~l£ (Ketbod~ of the Governor), 155(2), 184, 217, 333. Ketbod~-y~ Vagt, 155 (11 ). Ketbod~y§n-~ Q8l, 330. Kett§n (linen), 114, 129(14),290(18). Keyhek, 51, 76. Keyy§.l, (measurer), 124. Keyy~l B§.§~, 350. Kil, K£le, 79n, 169n, 170, 274n. K£l~r-i 'Amire, 272, 310(5-7), 402. K£l~rj£ B§.§~,

ill.

Kirp§.s, 265(27)· Kis, K£se (Purse) xxii. Kisve-i Serife (Holy Curtain), 111(10), 180, 259-260, 264(6), 288, 309, 311 (14-17), 344. K1t~bet-i GtlmrUk, 128(10, 13), 12 9(17, 19), 130(23, 24), 369, 372, 374, 376, 378, 379-390. Kit§.bet-i U§Dr-u E§~f, 129(17). Kiy~le-i Gal§.l, ~, 125, 364-383. Kiy~le-i Urz-u Bey§.2, 125-126, 131, 147(63), 363-390. Kosher meat, 119. K15prUlU zMe Mel;!med Pa§a, 152. Kulfe, 87, .§.2.:.2Q, 93, 96, 221, 228. Kulfe-i Jedfd, 91,2.1" 96. Kulfe-i Qadfm, 96. Ku§Qf1yye (M~l-~ Ku§Qfiyye) taxes, 40, 64, 86, al, 23, 94, 96-97, 100, 102, 107,117,126,142,143, 150n, 286, 299,318,323,33°; villages, 40, 41, 58, 58n, 60, 64, 70, 78, 79, 87n, 95n, 142, 144, 318-319, 330. Ku§Qf1yye-1 Jed£d (New Ku§Qf1yye), 86-87, 21..=2.1, 95, 96, 97, lOOn. Ku§Qf1yye-1 Kebfr (B1g Ku§ftf1yye), 87n, 100, lOOn, 102, 103, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 121, 123, 125, 126, 131, 133, 142-150, 15 2 , 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, ill., 168, 169, 174, 175,176,182,217,264(2),291,293,294,297,302,312(25), 325, 329, 330(4), 331 (5), 344, 346. KusQfiyye-1 Qad£m. (Old Ku§Qf1yye), 86, §1.:.2!, 96, lOOn. Ku§ftfiyye-i S?g£r (Small Ku§ftfiyye), 87n, ~ lOOn, 103, 109n, 116, 117, 123, 125, 14 3-144, 149, 15 2 , 153, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 167, 318, 320-323, 330, 347. Kutt~b (plu. of ~tib), 189, 200, 202, 222(6). See Scribes and Scribal corporation. Kutt~b-~ Abk§.m-~ Hum~yQn, 200n. KUrek, 1.l2.: Klirekjf (plu. KUrekj£y§n), 95-96, 178-179, 181, 196, 294, 307.

432

INDEX

KUrek.11 E f e n d i s l , Lamps, 2 3 6 ( 6 3 ) , Land t a x :

see T a x e s ,

Leather,

265(24-26).

rural.

232(8).

Lemons,

119.

Lentils

('Ads),

Lettuce,

120.

Lezeg,

216.

Libya,

12,

14,

Linen(Eettfin), Loans

145(11).

257(10),

51,

52, 231,

234(33),

274,

276, 277,

280(5)-

i28n. 114,

129(14),

(Q.arS), 3 7 , 5 6 - 5 7 ,

290(18).

94,

175(6),

177(10),

218,

242,

333•

Lower E g y p t : c o n q u e s t , l o c a t i o n and s u r v e y , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 9 ; p e a s a n t s o f , 2 0 - 2 5 ; a g r i c u l t u r e and c r o p s i n , 5 i - 5 2 , 2 7 4 ; v i l l a g e o r g a n i z a t i o n , 5 2 - 5 8 ; f o r t s i n , 1 9 7 - 1 9 8 ; t r e a s u r y r e v e n u e s from 6 7 , 69, 7 1 , 74, 78, 90, 9 1 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 , 1 7 4 , 2 5 1 - 2 5 2 , 2 7 8 . See a l s o t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o v i n c e s : G a r b i y y e , Menfifiyye, § a r q i y y e , Q a l y f l b i y y e , Man?fire, Bufceyre, F S r e s k f i r , Q S t i y y e , Terrfine, Menzele. 114. Ma'diyye,

122,

139.

Mafciallet u l - K u b r f i , Mabfal,

122,

130(25),

Mabkeme, 5 9 ,

382,

387,

389,

390.

6on.

Mablftl ( p l u . M a b l Q l & t ) , Mabmal-l S e r i f , Maljmtld I , Maize,

140,

26on.

240n,

Sult&i,

286.

260.

153-

51 . .64, 95,

96.

_(Urban t a x e s ) , 64, 1 0 0 - 1 3 3 , 1 4 4 , 2 1 7 , 294, 302, 3 2 5 , 3 6 2 - 3 9 0 . M f i l - i B a r f i . l - i A r f i d i (Land t a x ) , 6 4 - 8 6 , 9 4 - 9 7 , 1 7 9 , 2 1 7 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 2 , 3 0 1 , 3 1 8 , 31 9, 3 2 5 , 3 3 0 , 3 5 3 - 3 6 2 . M f i l - i H a r f i . l - i A r & d £ - 1 M u s t a . i l d d e , 70, 3 5 8 - 3 6 2 . M6.I-1

Ha.rg.i-i Eyqfif (Mfil-i E v q a f ) ,

M f i l - 1 Hara.i-1 K u s Q f l y y e : Mfil-i Bar&.j-i Rlzaq

6k,

M & L - i H i m S y e - 1 M z f l r - l Rflz,

4 5 , 49,

y£(24),

M f i l - i H i m & y e - i E m £ n - 1 Damgfi, 1 2 8 ( i 2 ) , ffimfiye-1

96,

( M & l - i R i z a q ) , 49, 64.

M f i l - i B a r g . i - i S u l t f i n i , _64. M & l - i Hifflfere ( P r o t e c t i o n T a x ) , 288, 2 9 1 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 5 .

Mfil-i

95,

Eygfif, V§,

130(20).

see Kugfiflyye.

ii5n.

288,

123,

]JS8, 1 4 8 ( 7 4 ),

258,

381-390.

293,

See a l s o 358-362.

1 3 0 ( 2 1 ).

M & l - i H i m & y e - l I s k e l e - 1 Matoallet u l - K u b r S , M S l - i H i m & y e - l K e t t f i n ve Q.utn,

120,

376-390.

70, 288, 2 9 1 ,

M f i l - i H i m S y e - 1 Gtirorttk-tt B a h f i r ,

See a l s o R l z q e .

130(25),

382,

387,

389,

390.

129(14).

M & l - i H i m S y e - l K i t & b e t - l GUmrtik, 1 2 8 ( 1 0 , 3 b 9 - 3 7 2 , 374, 376, 378, 379-390.

13),

129(17,

129( 1 7 ) .

19),

1 30(23,

£

4),

INDEX 1 2 8 ( 1 1 ),

383,

385,

386,

388,

369,

120(28), 50, 386, 379,

388, 380,

372,

37^,

375,

377,

379,

380,

3891^0(27),

33 8 7 75 ,,

U33

382,

382,

387,

387,

389,

389,

390.

390.

291 .

1 2 8 ( 7 ) , 1 2 8 n , 369, 3 7 2 , 37^ 3 7 5 , 3 7 7 , 3 7 9 , 380, 3 8 3 , 6 ) , 295 C O389, 3 6 4 , 366, 368, 3 7 1 , 3 7 3 , 3 7 5 , 3 38 3W , 3 8152, 7 (386, 1 2 2 ( 1 5388, ) , 3 7 6 , 3 7 8 , 3 7 9 , 381 , 3 8 4 , 3 8 5 , 386,

38TT390. M6I-1 Bimfiye-i V i k f i l e - l UsfQr,

130(26),

382,

387,

389,

390.

M f i l - i H i m f i y e - 1 V l k S l e - i Z e y t , 1 2 9 ( 1 8 ) , 3 8 1 , 3 8 4 , 3 8 5 , 386, 388, 390. M f i l - i H u l v f i n , 7 , 9, 3 5 - 3 8 , 1 0 0 , l_6£, ±66, 1 6 9 , 1 7 2 , 17311, 1 8 2 , 2 0 6 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 6 , 2 8 7 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 5 , 2 9 9 , 31 0, 3 1 3 - 3 1 5 , 3 2 6 , 3 2 9 - 3 3 0 , 3 ^ 2 , 344, 3 ^ 6 , 3^8. 326-327. , 87,

15On,

151-169,

217,

90-91 , 92,

96, 2 5 2 ,

266(30).

95-96,

178-179,

181,

294,

196,

299,

294,

345,

3^5n.

307.

see K u s f l f i y y e . 64,

95-96.

(Old T a x ) ,

66-67,

73,

286, 295,

177(io),

180.

175-176, 4g, . 51, Mfil-i Sltvt MSI u l - H u r r ,

(el-Sltv£), 64-, 86,

76,

5 1 , Xi>>

93,

MailkHne,30,

39n.

Ma'lQm u n - N a z a r ,

176-177,

94, 180,

297,

298.

See a l s o K l s v e - 1

180,

345n.

64.

See a l s o R l z q e •

Serife.

82. 82

>

2 l 7

"

95-97345n.

Macnlflk E m p i r e ; Ottoman c o n q u e s t o f , 1 , 1 2 , 1 9 6 ; r e s i s t a n c e o f i t s f o l l o w e r s a f t e r Ottoman c o n q u e s t , 4 , 1 2 , 2 0 , 3 0 , 1 9 6 ; i t s o f f i c i a l s and s o l d i e r s i n Ottoman s e r v i c e , 4 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 8 , 3 0 - 3 2 , 1 9 2 , m , 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 , 1 99, 3 3 8 3 3 9 , 3 4 6 ; i n h e r i t a n c e o f Ottomans f r o m , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 6 - 2 8 , 2 8 n , 2 9 , 3 0 - 3 1 , I N , 4 2 , 4 3 , 4 6 - 4 9 , 60, 66, 7 2 , 88n, 1 0 2 , 1 1 8 , 1 5 1 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 9 270. MamlQk h o u s e s a n d Mamlfiks (Ottoman p e r i o d ) , 2 z 3 > 3 3 - 3 ^ , 3 6 , 3 7 , 3 9 , "O, S6, 5 3 , 5 6 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 5 , 7 3 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 8 2 , 8 3 , 84, 8 5 , 89, 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 5 , 99, 1 0 1 , 1 0 5 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 3 , 1 8 4 , 186, 1 J 4 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 7 , 2 1 0 , 2i 4, 2 1 9 , 240, 268, 2 8 1 , 2 8 6 , 2 8 9 , 298, 299, 504, 3 1 3 , 3 H , 3 1 5 , 3 1 6 , 3 1 7 , 3 2 3 , 326, 336, 348. See a l s o M i l i t a r y c o r p s . M a n f a l f r t , M a n f a l H U y y e p r o v i n c e , j_4, 229, 322, 343, 3 ^ ManijGre p r o v i n c e , 319, 32On, 322, Maq§tid P a g a , 339-

15, 3^3,

15,

68,

5 2 , 6 7 , 69, 90, 9 1 , 353, 3 5 5 - 3 5 7 -

71, 95,

80, 85, 96, 9 7 ,

95,

96,

lto,

97,

228,

217, 24i,

252,

Market o r g a n i z a t i o n and r e g u l a t i o n s , 98-99, 1 3 5 ; i n A l e x a n d r i a , 109, 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 ; i n BOlfiq, 1 1 4 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 7 ( 2 , 3 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 ^ , 1 5 ) , 139(30), 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 ; I n C a i r o , 1 1 4 , 1 1 8 - 1 2 4 , 1 3 0 ( 2 6 ) , l 4 0 - i 4 l , 148, 3 2 1 ; i n Damletta, 1 1 1 , 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 , 128(9), 129(16, 18), 135, 136, 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 ;

434

INDEX i n Old C a i r o , 1 1 4 ; i n R o s e t t a , 109, 1 2 7 ( 4 ) , 128(8, 1 1 ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 2 , 24), 135, 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 ; i n Suez, 1 3 0 ( 2 7 ) , 135, 137n, 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 ; see a l s o o k e l .

Magar,

2 1 6.

Magfirif&t,

184.

See a l s o T r e a s u r y of E g y p t :

Magraf-i Qalfil E f e n d i s i ,

145, 2 9 3 ,

345.

Matariyye,

382,

389,

Matbafa-i Mats,

130(29), 'Amlre,

231(2),

301,

387,

Expenditures.

See a l s o Q a l e m - 1 M a g r a f - i

Galfil.

390.

272.

234(31),

264(7,

9),

264n.

Measures and measurement: o f l a n d , 1 7 , 7 2 , 73n, 78; o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , 75, 78, 79, 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 3 - 1 2 4 , 1 70, 224n, 279n; o f r a t i o n s , 220, 229; o f w e i g h E i , 7 9 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 8 ( 8 , 9, 1 1 ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 7 ) , 1 3 9 , 1 7 0 . Meat,

1 19,

149(83),

232(2,

6),

232n,

290(13),

291;

see a l s o

Silihfine.

Meb'aa-i S e r i f , 264(2). Mecca, 1 4 , 62, 1 7 2 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 7 , 184, 199, 2 2 3 ( 1 0 ) , 239, 240, 250, 253, 254, 2 5 5 - 2 5 6 , 259, 2 6 1 , 263, 2 6 4 ( 7 ) , 2 6 5 ( 2 8 ) , 266n, 269, 2 8 8 ( 5 ) , 2 9 0 ( 8 ) , 3 0 3 , 309, 3 3 1 ( 7 ) , 3 4 4 . See a l s o H o l y C i t i e s . Medin,

xxii.

Medina, 14, 62, 1 7 2 , i 8 4 , 199, 2 2 3 ( 1 1 ) , 239, 240, 2 5 1 , 253, 2 5 9 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 5 ( 2 8 ) , 2 6 9 , 2 8 8 . See a l s o H o l y C i t i e s .

254,

256-257,

Mediterranean Sea,

275,

306-307.

14,

Medrese ul-RQznSme,

15,

Meljmed I I ,

Sultan,

29,

Mefcimed I V ,

Sultfin,

269.

Mehmed P a g a ,

101,

134,

139,

178(16),

19-

Mehter Bfigi,

200.

30,

270n.

200n.

Mehterbfine,

186,

200.

Me.ilig-l Serif,

264(2). 255(7, ,

Mektflb.ii, MellSba, Melons,

8).

256(6).

402(7). 139-

51,

See a l s o

119,

120,

Salt.

I37n.

Memlebe-1 M l n y e t - 1 Bedrfin, Mengflr, 28 MenHfiyye p r o v i n c e , J 4 , 3 2 2 , 330, 343Menzele p r o v i n c e , M e r d f i n - i S.ifiqfit,

15,

MesmflJjSt,

274. 231,

114.

61,

67,

223(8). 197-199,

Mer.jimenk, Mesrfi,

198,

256(7).

Mehmed ' A l i , Mehter&n,

30,

347.

See a l s o

67,

319,

211-212, Lentils.

236(62). 54-55,

223(5).

320n,

71,

95,

343,

72.

223(7),

96,

353,

See a l s o M i l i t a r y

51•

Messfib ( S u r v e y o r ) ,

68,

97,

228,

252,

273,

320,

355-357-

organization.

331(8)-

See a l s o

Fortresses.

321,

INDEX Meshed,

435

54n.

Mevfi.iib, M e v a . j i b a t 331, 392-395-

(Wages), 184, 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 , 2 0 2 - 2 2 4 , See a l s o S a l a r i e s a n d w a g e s .

Meva.11b-1 Hedeme-1 S e b i l ,

289,

291,

299,

303,

256(6).

Meva.jlb-1 Jema'at-i FerrSgln,

255(6),

256(7).

(Holy C i t i e s ) , (Holy C i t i e s ) ,

Mevt,

288,

255(4),

255(5),

256(4).

256(5)-

36.

Middle Egypt,

14,

52.

Midi, Mllb,

xxii. ( S a l t ) , 1 1 4 , 1 2 9 ( 1 5 ) , 1 3 9 - 1 4 0 , 2 3 2 ( 5 ) , 376, 378, 379, 3 8 1 , 384, 385, 3 8 6 , 388, 390. M i l i t a r y c o r p s and m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n , 2 - 3 , 5 , 6, 2 2 , 2 9 - 3 3 , 46, 5 2 , 62, 6 3 , 7 7 , 8 3 , 8 9 , 90, 1 0 1 , 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 4 , 1 7 2 , 1 8 9 - 2 0 1 , 2 0 7 - 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 3 , 240, 248, 2 5 1 , 2 6 1 , 2 7 5 , 286, 345See a l s o t h e I n d i v i d u a l corps: ' M u s t a b f e z S n , T U f e n k p l y a n ; see a l s o N a v a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , and S a l a r i e s and Wages. M i l i t a r y R l z q e ( R l z q e - i J e y g i y y e ) , 46, 48. Milk,

119-

Mlnqar, 323Mint of Egypt

321,

, 107,

323-324,

Mlnye, Mlnya,

13,

128(7,

12),

148,

161,

190,

363i4,

Mlnyet Bedran,

114(4).

Mlnyet Kinfine,

278.

Mlqyas

108,

(Nilometer),

15,

96n.

230-231,

233(15),

234(34-36).

see

286. See a l s o M i s c e l l a n e o u s Revenues

(Emvai-i Muteferrlqa),

50,

84,

142-182,

345.

35n.

Mizan-i Q.utn, 228(11 ), 369, 372, 374, 375, 377, 379, 380, 383, 385, 386, 388, 389147(7 0), Migir: Migir-i Molla,

1 93 -

see C a i r o and E g y p t . ftadim:

see Old

Cairo.

337•

Mosques,

41 , 2 3 4 ( 2 7 ) ,

Mu'allem,

1 03>

Mu'arrlf,

81,

Mu'ayyadi,

109,

235(51,

110n,

52,

55)-

H2n, J 1 3

127(6),

295,

325.

350.

xxii.

Mubagir, 9, i i l , 342, 343, 344, 345, 347130(28),

382,

387,

389,

390.

( A d d i t i o n a l t a x ) , §j_, 6 9 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 7 3 , 7 4 , 84n, 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 , 1 8 1 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 - 1 3 2 , 144, 159, 160, 165,

100, 108, 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 204n, 2 4 1 , 243, 244,

INDEX 245, 285, 286, 289, 295, 297, 298, 319, 320. See also Reforms. Mu'el:izcin, 201. Mufetti§ ul-Rizag, 47. MuJ;lammed •AU , 1 9. MuJ;lammed (The Prophet), 255(6), 256(3, 8), 257(9, 13, 14), 259, 266(40). MUbammadiyye vagf, 130(20), 146(46), 258, 269-210, 293. MUb&sebe, 142, 217, 293, 332, 345, 346. MUb&sebei£ Efend£s£ (MUb&sebe Efend£s£, Efend£ ul-MUb&sebe), 145(4), 155(8), 293, 33 2 , 345.

MUbrii&t, 84, 86-94, 174, 197. MUbtesib (Em£n-i Ibtis&b), 118-121, 141, 147(60),230(4),236(65),248,252, 291, 331, See also Mu~~ Ibtis&b. Muidegdn-~ Hum&yQn, 402. Muled ul-Nab£, 233(26). Mules, 121, 140. Mulk, ~, 29. Multezim (Tax Farmer): acquisition of holding, 34-39, 52-53, 99-100, 113; rights and duties, 5, 8, 22-25, g], 33-34, 52-58, 100-101, 13 2 , 139, 229, 332; relations with peasants, 22-24, 74-76; financial obligations of, 24, 38, 49, 63, 67-68, 74-78, 81-82, 84, 87-93,100,116-117,13 2 133,138,140,141,142,170,177,229,301,302,323, 342; revenues from holding, 22, 35-36, 55-58, 64, 74-75, 86, 93-95, 97, 100, 109, 114, 116; supervision of, 59, 60-62, 103; origins of, 31-33; Arab chiefs-as, 14, 25, 31, 78-79, 84-85; of Ku§frfiyye villages, 318; of va~f holdings, 43-44, 45; of provinces, 60-62; of iizye capitation tax, 15 , 153, 154, 156, 159, 294. See also Iltiz§.m, M l-~ Har&j, M~l-~ Har&j-~ ArM£. -Mul"Obiyye, 120. Mug~bele,

345, 346.

Mug~belei£

Efend£s£ (Efend£ ul-Mug~bele), 345, 346. Mug&ta'a (plu. Mug~ta'~t), 1-2, 4, 10; types of holdings of, 26-41, 59-60, 102-103; assignment of, 26-27, 34-35, 38, 60, 62, 99-1.o0~-103, 165, 171-172, 310, 313, 339, 341-342, 346; holders of, 2, 1, 5-8, 38, 89,

99-101, lC2-103, 109, 113, 118, 124, 134, 173, 174, 190-191, 19 2 , 193, 194, 195, 241, 318; rural holdings of, ~, 64-85, 94-97, 114, 1 25, 127(3, 6), 139, 140, 173-176, 242; 247, 313-314, 318-320; urban holdings of, 9~-141' 149, 190-195, 323, 325-3 2 7; of customs taxes, 101-118; revenues 0 ho ders of, 64, 94-97, 107, 111, 114, 116, 119-120, 1211.22, 124-125, 126, 136-137, 138-141, 167, 173, 174, 296(4), 319-320, 325-326, 327; tax obligations of holders of, 45-47, 64-85, 94-97, 108, 110,112,114,115-117, 121, 123, 125, 126, 127-131, 132-133, 144-150, 151,152,153, 166-167, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180-181, 182-183, 217, 221, 229, 231, 236(61), 285, 286, 288, 289, 291, 294, 295, 297, 298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 304, 325-~26, 329, 343, 344, 345, 346; non-official, 138-141; of ~ capitation tax, 151, 15 2 , 153, 161, 165; of provinces 60-62, 241, 242; alienated as Vaqf foundations, 41-45, 177. See-also Iltiz~m, Emdnet, and Jizye. See also the following individual

Mugdta'~t:

H§.§§a. (U§ftr-u E§~-~ Bab~r). Babreyn (Sims~iyye-i Babreyn). Bah&-~ §utr~-~ Bah~r

Mj-~ Mz~r~.

Beyt

ul-M~l.

Beyt Beyt Beyt Beyt Beyt

ul-M~l-~ Aft.~y~n. ul-M~l-~ ul-M~l-~

ul-M~l-~ ul-M~l-~

'Amme 'Asker£ . Im§§a. R~-~ H§.j j-~ §erH.

INDEX

Bupeyre-i Samak. Dab§.gll§.ne .

M§.l-l. M§.l-l.

OOr ul-Darb (parbMne). Df§ Fflf GUmrUgU. Emfriyye-i Sukk~r. F~'i2e-i Emfn-i Sukk~r. F~'i2e-i Evg~f.

Sanbar.

F~'i2e-i Hiy~r

Jem'-i

Mu§~g.

F~'i2e-i Serm~ye-i

B&rQt-u Siy§b.

~' Hamm~m-l. ~§'ia.

Hatem ul-Zahab. ijedeme-i Ra's-i B6g~z-l. Bender-i Re§3'd. Hiy~r Sanbar. Hi#met-i Qabb~. ~.

Jem'-i

Mfrf. ve Nuh~s. Kiy§.le-i Gal~l. Kiy~le-i Urz-u Bey&2. Mu§~g-l.

Kett~

M~l-l. Eim~ye-i ~z~r-l. R~z.

M~l-l. Eim~ye-i

Emfn-i

Eim§.ye-i

Evg~f.

pamg~.

M~l-l. Eim~ye-i GUmrUk-U-Ba.h~r. M~l-l. Eim~ye-i

ul-Kubr§:.

Iskele-i Mal;!allet ve Qutn. GlimrUk. Kit~bet-i 'U§ftr-u

M~l-l. Eim~ye-i Kett~ M~l-l.

Rizag. Ojile. M§.l-l. Eim~ye-i Urz-u Mfrf. M~l-l. Him~ye-i Vik§.le-i Milh. M~l-l. Eim~ye-i Vik~le-i Usfftr. M~l-l. Eim~ye-i Vik~le-i Zeyt M~l-l. Jev~lf (Jizye). M~l-l. Qar2-l. Kisve-i Serffe. M§.l-l. Qar2-l. Serd§.r-l. Q~file. Ma'l~ un-Nazar. Matariyye. Memlel;!e-i MiQyet-i Bedr~. Eim~ye-i

Ming~r. Mfz~-i Qutn. Murta.ja'a-l. Ser-i B&z~r~. Nevl~-u Sef§.yin-i H§.§§a. Qa'a-l. Ifranj. Qabb~f.

Il;!tis~b.

M~l-l.

Eim~ye-i Qabb~.

M~l-l. Eim~ye-i

Damg~-l.Sfm.

F~'i2e-i

437

Eim§.ye-i

M~l-l. ~m~ye-i

Ef}n f. M§.l-l. Eim~ye-i M§.l-l. Eim§.ye-i

Kit~bet-i

Mfz~-i

Qutn.

QalMne. Qav§.fil-i Sam ve ijaleb. Ref' -i Teftf§. Ris§.le. Rus~-u Tez§.kir ve Ber~v~t. Ser-i B~z§.r§.n. Sims~riyye-i Bah§.r. Sims~riyye-i S~e-i Bezr-i Qurtum. S~g ul-Mn§.m. Ta'rff ul-Mar§.kib. Tastih§.n. Urz-u Mfrf. U§~r-u E§n§.f-l. Bah§.r. Vik§.le-i B~§§.. Vik§.le-i Zabfb.

Mub~§ir-i Dfv~n.

346. 346. Muqattam hills, 275· Murabba' (plu. Murabba'§.t), ~ Murabba'§.t-l. Serfff, ll. Mur§.d I, Sult~n, 29. Mur§.d III, Sult~, 269. Mur§.d~, 9, 92, 106, 107, 137, 16 3, 300, 301, 303, 314, 32 6, 32 7. MU9~ta'a'f, Mug~ta'ajl,

INDEX

Mur§diyye vagf, 130(20), 146(47), 269(2), 271. Murattab (plu. Murattab!t), 208-20~, 214, ~, 235(46-55), 254, 255(7, 9), 256(10,7-8), 257(9-11, 13-14,286,28"8. Murattab-l Ferr~sfn-i ijarem-i Serff-i Nabavf, 256(7)· Murattab-l.ijedeme-i SQ1ujQy&n, 256(10). Murattab-l Mekteb ve Q~ra'at-l EjZ~'-l Serffe, 255(8). Murattab-l Mekteb-i Q;ra'at-l Qur'&n-l 'Azfm-i Sa'n, 255(7). Murattab-~ Qan@dfl, 257(10). Murattab-l Ql.ra'at-l EjZ!'-l Serffe, 255(8), 256(8), 257(9, 11, 13, 14). Murattab-l Seyb ul-Qurr~, 255(9). Murtaja'a, 67, 288, 295. Murtaja'a-l Ser-i Mz!r&n, 127(4). Mus~'ade, ~, 243. Mus~'ade-i Evg~f, 245, 246, 247. Mus~'ade-i Irs~liyye, 246, 247, 312(29-37). Mus~'ade-i Jedfd, ~, 245, 246, 247, 267(43). Mus~'ade-i Qadfm, 245, 246, 247, 267(42). Mu§~lebe, ~, 39, 53, 313· Musk, 274, 280(6), 327. Muslims, 171, 236(67). Mu~taf~~, 270n. Mu~taf~ Pa~a, 18. Mustabfez&n (Yenfgerfy&n, Janissaries) corps, ~; revenue holdings, 103,109, 110n, 111, 116, 119, 135(20), 138, 140, 149(83), 190-191, 274; wages of, 190, 194, 195, 196,203,205,208,210,216,223,392; duties and obligations of, 30, 116, 118, 146(20, 271; 148, 189-191, 19 2 , 194; ~ of (M~-y~ Mustabfez&n), 118, 146(27), 148(74), 190, 196, 306,3 21. Mustauff, .§1, i2.Q.. Mus~g-i Mfrf (Oakum), 148(71), ill, 178, 180, 278, 321, 345n. MU§ldd, 2, 55, 59· Mutabaddi~,

J11L.

Muta§arrif, 64. Muteferriqa (plu. Muteferrigag&n) corps, 200n; origins and position, 87n, 192-194,195, 196, 199,208; revenue holdings 121,124, 126, 173, 193194, 227; wages, 193-194,.£Q,J, 204, 205, 208,~, 216, 223(2), 255(4), 256(4), 35 2 ; duties and obligations, 76, 77, 81, 8Tn, 89, 103, 162, 193,2161227,255(4),256(4), 264n, 293,321; officials of, 146(15, 30), 293, 321. Muteg~'~dfn, Muteg~'ldfn-i Dfv~n, 188, ~ 201-202, 203, 212-213, 217, 233(2, 4), 244, 396-397. Muteg~'~dfn-i Hiz&ne, 146(23), 344. Mutega'~dfn-i Ke§fde, 202, 212, 223, 344, 396-397. Muteg~'ldfn-i Medfnat-l Munevvere, 256(5). Muteg~'ldfn-i Mekke-i Mukerreme, 255(5). Mutesellim, 121. MUtevelH, 44. Muw@ylil;l, 146(41), 199,212,3.22,266(39),309,311(13),395.

INDEX

439

Muz!yede (Auction), 11, 35n, 53· el-Nab§.rf, 51. Nabfl, 235; 250, 265(13, 14). ~, 59· N!' ib, 59· NarQ, 84. N!eir1yye canal, ~. NatrOn (Ammoniac salt), 15, 122, ~ 231. Naval organization and ships: in the Mediterranean, 134, ll§, 178(16), 191, 224(13), 278-279, 280(13), 306-307; in the Red Sea, '3~, ill, 146, 224 (12),261- 26 3,266(37),270,290(5),302,311(8); in the NIle River, 80-83, 178(14). Navigation and sailing regulations: in the Mediterranean, 83, 99, 101, 109, 110, ",, 135-1315, 139, 191; in the Red Sea, 104-106, 137, 191, 199; in the Nile River, 80-83, 99, 101, 109, 110, 113-114, 119-120, 122, 123,124,126,130(25), 136, 138, 139n, 178, 191,350. N!~1r (Supervisor), plu. Nu~~!r, 43, 44, 45, 146-147, 176, 191, 260, 270. N!~1r-1 parbD!ne. 161. N!~1r-1 Emv!l, 17n, 215, 216, 338-339; see also Defterd!r. N!~1r-~ Nu§~§.r, N!§~r un-Nu~§!r, 43, ii, 147(59), 176, 195. Nejj!r!n, 200n. Nee!d~r, 276. Nevbet, 60. Nevbetciy~, 250. Nevlfin-u Sef!yin-i ~§§a, ~, 181. New Kueili'iyye (Kueili'iyye-i Jedfd), 86-87, 21=.23, 95, 96, 97, lOOn. Nile River, 12, 14, 18, 21, 23, 31, 34, 40, .42, 50, 51, 52, 66, 72, 73, 76, 80, 81, 82, 85, 113, 114, 122, 126, 130(25), 138, 139, 178, 191, 198, 225, 226, 229, 230, 234, 277. Nile cycle, 2..2.: Nilometer (Migy!s, Umm ul-Qiy!s), 230-231, 233(15), 234(34-36). Nief Figge, §2n, 88n; see also P§.r!. Ni~!m ed-Dfn ul-Isfah~, 235(65). N8bad (Chick Peas), 51, 52, 275. North Africa, 101, 113, 232(7), 239. Nubia, 12, 13. Ntib!s (Copper), 114, 335. (Ustfibf, ~), ~, ~ 180, ~ 280(10), 312(22, 23), 345n. OO!MeiY~, 155 (1 4 ).• Oil (Zeyt), 129(18),236,265(23),266(33),291,296(2),381, 384-386, 388, 390. ~ (plu. 5j!g!t), ~, 200, 205 See also Military corps. Okel (V1k!le), .2,2, 104, 123, 124, 126, 129(15, 16, 18), 130(20, 22, 26), 140, 141, 376, 378, 379, 381-390. Okke, Okka (Vagiyye), 79n, 273, 273n. Old Cairo (~e1r-1 Qadfm)j customs taxes and customs house, 15, 101, lllll2' 116, 117, 127(2), 325, 362 -390; judicial organization of, 59; Oakum

INDEX p o r t and q u a i o f , 1 1 3 - 1 1 5 , 1 £ 3 - 1 2 4 , 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 , 350; t r a d e and i n d u s t r y i n , 1 1 4 , 1 l 5 n , 1 2 2 , 1 2 4 ; a q u e d u c t and c i s t e r n s i n , 2 2 5 , 2 3 3 ( 1 6 ) , 234 (37, ^0), 3 1 2 ( 2 4 ) ; p o l i c e o f , 148(74), 185, 225, 3 3 1 ( 5 ) ; I m p e r i a l G r a n a r i e s i n , 80, 3 4 9 - 3 5 0 . O l i v e o i l , 1 1 9, 2 6 4 ( 3 , M Onions, 5 1 , 1 1 9 , 120, 137n, 2 3 3 ( 2 5 ) , Opium,

248, 252,

265(20),

266(3.0),

267(45).

137n.

Oranges,

119.

Orphans

(Eytfim),

'Oamfin P a g a ,

145(13),

201-202,

2i2,

216,

217,

3^,

396-397-

235(52).

Stlfiq

( p l u . O t i a q f i t ) , 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 , 2 3 3 ( 2 2 , 2 3 ) , 2 3 6 ( 5 9 , 6 0 ) , 2 3 7 ( 7 3 ), 288, 2 9 0 ( 1 5 ), 291 ( 9 ) , 2 9 3 , 2 9 4 . See a l s o R a t i o n s i n K i n d . Ottoman g o v e r n m e n t : c a s h r e v e n u e s from E g y p t , 3 4 - 3 6 , 3 7 , 5 2 , 7 6 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 2 - 1 7 3 , 1 8 8 , .209, 2 8 3 - 3 0 5 , 31 3 - 3 1 5 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 3 , 3 3 3 - 3 3 7 , 4 0 0 - 4 0 3 ; s u p p l i e s and c o m m o d i t i e s from E g y p t , 30, 6 2 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 n , 1 2 5 , 1 7 5 , 176, 184, 1 8 5 ( 6 ) , 2 7 2 - 2 8 0 , 282, 283, 2 9 0 ( 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 18, 1 9 ) , 2 9 6 ( 1 - 1 0 , 1 2 ) , 297, 302, 303, 306-307, 3 1 0 ( 4 - 7 ) , 3 1 2 ( 2 2 - 2 3 ) , 2 7 - 2 8 ), 3 3 3 - 3 3 6 , 3 4 5 , 403; m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e from E g y p t , 3 0 , _i_34, 1 3 6 , 1 3 7 , 1 7 4 - 1 7 5 , 1 7 8 , 1 99, 2 0 4 , 206, 208, 21 On, 2 2 1 , 2 7 7 - 2 7 9 , 2 8 0 ( 1 0 , 1 2 ), 2 9 0 ( 1 9 ) , 302, 306-307, 3 1 2 ( 2 2 - 2 3 , 2 7 ) . Ottoman c o n q u e s t o f E g y p t , Oxen, 2 2 5 ,

233(16),

12-14,

234(37,

*0mer Ogltt t r i b e / 1 3 Palestine, 119, 231, 234(31-33), Paper,

290(11),

4l,

5 9 , 68,

40), 2 3 5 ( 4 1 - 4 2 ,

189,

196.

44),

250,

259n,

260.

265(14).

261.

296(8).

Pfirfi, x x i i , 65, 65n, 66, 84, 86, Money.

102,

244,

See a l s o C o i n s and

Zl£fi, 1• Peas,

126.

Peasants:

see

Cultivators.

P e n s i o n s ( V a g t f e , ' A d e t , M u r a t t a b ) , 2 8 , 4 1 , 48, 49, 1 5 1 , 1 5 4 , i 8 4 , 1 8 8 , 2 0 1 - 2 0 4 , 2 0 8 - 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 - 2 1 3, 2 1 4 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 , 21 7 , 2 1 8 , 21 9, 2 2 2 ( 2 , 4, 5 , 9) 2 2 5 , 2 3 0 - 2 3 1 , 2 3 3 ( 2 4 - 2 6 ) , 2 3 4 ( 2 7 - 3 2 , 3 ^ - 3 5 ) , 2 3 5 ( 4 6 - 5 5 ) , 2 3 6 ( 6 1 - 6 2 ) , 2 5 4 - 2 5 9 , 2 6 0 - 2 6 2 , 2 6 4 ( 1 , 5 ) , 2 6 6 ( 4 0 , 41 ), 268, 2 8 1 , 2 8 2 , 286, 2 8 7 , 288, 2 9 1 ( 2 ) , 299, 3 0 3 , 308, 309, 3 1 1 ( 9 - 1 2 ) , 3 1 2 ( 2 6 ) , 344, 3 ^ 5 , 3^6. See also R l z q e - 1 Ibbfislyye. Pepper,

276.

Persian Gulf, Phosphates P£k,

30.

(Natrfln),

15,

122,

140,

231(2).

72n.

Pilgrimage:

see Holy C i t i e s ,

Pious Rizqe

( R l z q e - i Ifrbfislyye),

Pirates,

pilgrimage 46,

to.

48.

263.

Plyfideg&n ( I n f a n t r y ) ,

29,

189-196.

P o l i c e ; o f c i t i e s , 99, 1 0 0 , 1 0 1 , 1 3 6 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 , i_48(74), 1 2 , 5 4 - 5 5 , 6 1 , 8 1 , 90, 1 9 1 , Preserves, 252, 265(18).

109, 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 - 1 2 2 , 128(8, 9), 135, 148n, 185, 1 8 9 - 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 ; of r u r a l a r e a s , 197-

P r i c e s and p r i c e r e g u l a t i o n s , 84, 86, 99, 1 1 8 , 1 2 0 , 1 3 9 , 2 2 1 , 2 7 4 , 3 2 4 . See a l s o Ihtl3fi.b. P r o p e r t y , p o s s e s s i o n o f , 1 9 - 5 0 ; c o n f i s c a t i o n o f , 34, 3 7 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 48, 49,

INDEX 121,

178,

206n, 2 8 7 ,

44i

298.

P r o t e c t i o n t a x ( M f i l - i H i m f i y e ) , 4 5 , 49, 5 0 , 7 0 , 8 2 , 1 1 5 1 1 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 3 , , 2 7 ( 6 ) , 128(6, 7, 10, 1 1 , 12, 1 3 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 4 , 15, 1 7 - 1 9 ) , 130(21 , 2 3 - 2 8 ) , 1 3 8 , 1 4 8 ( 7 4 ) , 2 5 8 , 288, 2 9 1 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 5 , 3 5 8 - 3 6 2 , 364, 366, 3 6 8 - 3 9 0 ; see a l s o M f i l - i gimfiye. Provinces of Egypt: o r g a n i z a t i o n of, 1 4 - 1 6 ; a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of, 60-63: g o v e r n o r s o f , (Hfikim, K f i g i f ) , 4, 1 3 , 2 l , 3 1 , 3 3 , 34, 40, 5 8 , 6 0 - 6 3 . 7 6 - 7 8 , 8 1 , 86, § 7 , 88, 69, 90, 91, 92, 95, 95n, 10On, 1 3 6 , 1 4 2 , 1 5 2 , 156,

177(12),

179,

185,

186,

196,

112,

128(8,

199,

204,

217,

221,

228,

130(27),

369,

382,

389,

390.

197,

237(77),

2 5 1 , 307, 3 1 8 - 3 1 9 , 3 2 1 , 3 2 2 , 3 3 0 , 3 3 8 , 3 4 2 . See a l s o t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o v i n c e s : A s y Q t , A t f i e b , Beljnasfi, B u i j e y r e , F f i r e s k Q r , FayyGm, G a r b i y y e , I b r £ m , J i r j e , J £ z e , M a n f a r f r t , MangClre, M e n t i f i y y e , M e n z e l e , M i n y e , Qalyflbiyye, Qfitiyye, § a r q i y y e , Terrfine, el-Wfihfit. Q.a'a-i Ifran.j, Q.abbfini,

109,

104, 110,

108. 111,

9),

Qficji ( J u d g e ) , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s , 4 2 , 47, 5 4 , 5 8 - 6 0 . 1 0 1 , 1 0 4 , 1 1 8 , 1 6 2 , 3 0 7 , 3 4 7 ; o f Mecca and M e d i n a , 285(5), 290(8).

6on, 6 1 , 6 7 , 7 5 , 83, 2 2 3 ( 1 0 - 1 1 ) , 265(28),

Q.fidt ' A s k e r ( C h i e f J u d g e o f E g y p t ) , 4 3 , 44, 4 7 , 48, 5 0 , 5 4 , £ 2 , 2 2 2 ( 2 ) , 2 2 3 ( 1 ) , 2 7 7 , 2 9 0 ( 1 7 ) , 305, 3 3 7 QMS u l - B a h f i r , a a a i r g a , 136.

155(6),

184,

1 04.

Q.fif l i e B f i s i ( S e r d f i r - i Q.fif l i e ) , 248, 2 5 1 , 3 2 1 , 345n.

105-106,

140,

i48(8o),

175-176,

180,

193,

Q.fi'lmtnaqfim, 5 3 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 1 3 5 , 1 5 2 , 1 8 5 ( 4 ), 3 3 3 Q . a l ' a - i Mi s i r ( C i t a d e l o f C a i r o ) , 1 2 2 , 1 2 7 , 1 4 6 ( 3 5 ), 1 7 4 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 2 , 200, 2 1 6 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 ( 1 9 ) , 2 3 5 ( 4 3 ), 2 3 6 ( 4 4 ) , 2 6 0 , 303, 3 1 7 , 3 4 l , 342, 3 4 9 . Q.alem ( p l u . Aqlfim; D e p a r t m e n t ) , 6 7 , 341 • Q.alem-i Erzfiq,

49..

Q.alem-i G a r b i y y e ,

6j,

68, 7 1 ,

293,

343.

See a l s o G a r b i y y e

Salem-i Srfid-i Galfil,

80, 84, 8 5 , 3 4 3 - 3 4 4 .

Q.alem-i J i z e ,

293,

67, 7 1 ,

Q.alem-i M a g r a f - i G a l f i l , 142,

217,

Q . a l e m - i Muqfibele,

3^5,

3^6.

345• 293,

See a l s o M a g r a f - i G a l f i l E f e n d t s t . 332,

Q . a l e m - 1 M u q f i b e l e - 1 Q.alfi', 3 ^ 5 n . Q.alem-1 RQznfime, 2 1 7 , 340, 343, 244> 3 ^ 5 , and RQzng.me.ji • Q . a l e m - i S a r q l y y e , 6j, 68, 6 £ , 7 1 , Efendl'si. Q.alem-1 S e b l r , 6 J , 7 £ , 7 1 , 84, Sehlr. Q.filf a , 3 > n n . Qfilbfine,

128(12),

Efendlsl.

343.

217,

Q . a l e m - 1 Mubfisebe,

Efendist.

See a l s o I r f i d - i G a l f i l

See a l s o Mubfisebe ,j£ E f e n d £ s £ .

346.

293, 343, 293, 344,

See a l s o D £ v f i n - i Rflznfime

352-357358-362.

See a l s o See a l s o

Sarqiyye Emin-l

323.

QslyOb. QalyQbiyye p r o v i n c e , 2 3 7 ( 7 3 ) , 241 , 2 4 3 , 2 5 2 , Q.antfir, 1 1 9n, 273, 2 7 3 n .

1 4 , 1 5 , 6 7 , 69, 95, 96, 97, 2 2 8 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 3 ( 2 2 ) , 253, 3 1 9 , 3 2 1 , 322, 330, 343, 353, 3 5 5 - 3 5 7 -

Qfinftnnfime o f 9 3 1 / 1 5 2 4 - 5 , 4 2 , 48, 49, 86, 8 7 , 1 7 1 , 1 92, 1 9 4 , 1 9 6 , 2 0 1 , 2o4n, 339Qapfldfin ( C a p t a i n ) : o f A l e x a n d r i a , 1 3 ^ , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 3 7 , 1 5 2 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 4 , 1 8 5 ( 1 0 )

**2

INDEX 198, 2 2 4 ( 1 3 ) ; of Damletta, 1 3 * - 1 3 5 , 136, 137, 1 * 1 , ( 1 0 , 2 2 4 ( 1 3 ) , 2 2 6 , 2 7 9 ; o f R o s e t t a , 1 3 * , 1 3 5 , U6, 290(5))

2

i o z f ^ W ) . ^ 13*, 2

298,

218,

6,

240,

242,

180.

. 175-176, ,

l 8 5 0

'

0 )

'

2 2 5

'

-263,

279,

266(37),

301.

, 177(10),

. 72, 7 2 n ,

l 8 4

'

185 129

3*(39)•

235(53)56-57, 177(10),

(Loan),

1 ? 8

'

1 5 2 , 178, 184, 1 * 1 ; of Suez,

333See a l s o K l s v e - 1

180,

Serife.

345n.

316. 73n.

QfiUyye province, 15, 3*3, 353, 355Q a t l . 36.

67,

69,

114,

nsn,

198,

229,

230,

290(15),

331(8),

114(2). 147(5*), Qena,

70n,

96n.

22,

53,

Q.lat u l - Y d t n , QILIC,

269(1).

57,

7jn.

88.

207. 255(8),

ftSlluq,

148(7*),

185(8).

ftoreyn,

146(42),

198,

211,

256(8),

257(9,

13,

1*)-

394.

2^6.

Qubbe,

122.

QQds, Q u d u s :

see

Jerusalem.

QGr Qum&s mosque, 2 3 5 ( 4 7 ) • Q u r f i - y i K u s Q f l y y e ( K u g f i f l y y e v i l l a g e s ) , i g , * i , 5 8 , 5 8 n , 60, 6 4 , 7 0 , i § , 7 9 , 8 7 n , 95n, 1 4 2 , 1 4 4 , 3 1 8 - 3 1 9, 330. Q.ur'fin, r e a d i n g o f , 2 3 5 ( 4 9 ) , 2 5 5 ( 7 , 8 , 9 ) , 2 5 6 ( 8 ) , 2 5 7 ( 9 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 * ) , 3 * 7 Qfls, 5 2 . Qu§eyr, 1 2 , 1 0 3 - * , 105, 106, 108, i 4 6 ( 4 o ) , 199, 2 1 2 , 395. Qutn (Cotton), 375, 377,

5 1 , 52, 7*, 1 2 8 ( 1 1 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 4 ) , 379-380, 383-386, 388-390.

R a f ' ul-Mazfillm, Raljm£nlyye, Raisins

91-92,

(2ab£b), 1 1 9,

i4o,

369,

372,

374,

96.

52. 120,

Ramadfin, f e a s t o f , Ramla,

93,

130(20),

129(16),

i37n,

380,

384-386,

388,

390.

234(27).

301 .

R a t i o n s I n k i n d ( J e r i y e , ' A l £ q ) , 220-224, 2 2 7 ( 7 ) , 2 2 9 ( 3 ) , 230, 2 3 2 ( 1 , 2, 5 7 ) , 2 3 3 ( 1 9, 2 2 - 2 6 ) , 2 3 T T T 2 7 - 3 0 , 4 0 ) , 2 3 5 ( 4 1 - 4 2 , 44, 5 6 ) , 2 3 6 ( 5 9 - 6 0 , 66, 69), 2 3 7 ( 7 3 ) , 240, 2 4 7 - 2 4 8 , 250, 2 5 1 - 2 5 2 , 2 5 8 - 2 5 9 , 2 6 1 - 2 6 3 , 2 6 4 ( 5 ) , 2 6 5 ( 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 0 ) , 2 6 6 ( 3 0 , 3 8 - 4 1 ) , 2 6 7 ( 4 5 ), 2 8 8 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 0 ( 1 3 , 1 5 ) , 291 ( 7 - 9 ) , 2 9 3 , 2 9 4 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 1 ( 9 - 1 3 ) , 3 2 5 , 3 3 1 ( 7 ) , 3 * 5 See a l s o Grains. 256(1 ).

INDEX R a v 2 a - i A M l i - y l M e k k e - i Mukerrerne,

255(1).

Rav2a-i Mutahhara-i Nabavi,

257(13,

256(8),

443 14).

Red S e a , 1 2 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 4 - 1 0 6 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 6 , i 4 8 , 1 7 8 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 9 , 2 2 4 ( 1 2 ) , 249, 250, 259, 2 6 1 - 2 6 3 , 2 6 6 ( 3 7 ) , 270, 2 7 5 , 2 9 0 ( 5 ) , 302, 3 1 1 ( 8 ) . R e f ' - l Teftig,

177(12),

181.

Reforms i n E g y p t , 67, 73; o f 1 0 7 1 / 1 6 6 1 , 2 8 5 - 2 8 6 ; o f 1 0 7 5 - 7 7 / 1 6 6 4 - 6 6 , 2 8 6 - 2 8 7 ; o f 1 0 8 1 / 1 6 7 1 - 1 6 7 2 , 69, 7 3 , 84n, 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 3 , 1 4 3 , i 4 7 n , 148n, 167, 169, 178, 188, 202, 225, 226, 227, 230, 2 3 1 , 232, 232n, 236n, 238, 2 4 1 , 250, 258, 263, 264n, 268, 2 7 3 , 2 8 7 - 2 9 4 , 305; r e f o r m o f 1 1 0 7 / 1 6 9 5 - 1 6 9 6 , 69, 7 3 , 8 4 n , 90, 1 0 8 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 S 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 , i 4 4 , 1 5 0 , 1 6 2 , 169, 2 2 5 , 2 4 i , 2 4 5 , 249, -250, 259, 268, 2 7 3 , 274, 2 7 5 , 276, 278, 28on, 2 9 5 - 2 9 7 , 305, 3 1 9 , 3 2 4 ; r e f o r m o f 1 1 5 5 / 1 7 4 2 - 1 7 4 3 , 69, 7 3 , 7 0 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 , 126, 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 133, 144, 150, 160, 167, 169, 243, 245, 297-298, 319; r e f o r m of 1 1 7 4 - 1 1 7 5 / 1 7 6 0 - 1 7 6 1 , 69, 70, 73, 108, 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 133, 1 4 4 , 1 5 0 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 7 , 1 6 9 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 5 , 2 9 8 , 3 1 9 ; r e f o r m o f 1 1 8 0 / 1 7 6 7 , 91 , 2 9 9 , 3 0 5 ; r e f o r m o f 1 2 0 0 - 1 2 0 1 / 1 7 8 5 T 7 B 6 , 69, 7 0 , 89n, 1 0 8 , 1 0 8 n , 1 4 9 , 1 5 0 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 7 , 2 2 0 , 2 6 2 , 2 6 3 , 2 6 8 , 3 0 1 - 3 0 3 , 305, 348. R e g i s t e r s and r e c o r d books, 6 6 - 6 7 , 75, 78, 79, 8 1 , Re'£s ul-KuttSb, Re.je.j,

161,

Resm-l Julfls,

5 5 , 59, 59n, 341-343-

64,

402.

206.

Regen,

216.

Regid:

see R o s e t t a .

R i b v e , 79n,

I37n,

(Rfiz, U r z )

139,

170.

15,

(2F7, TTo,

291(6),

67,

141, 232(1),

295(4),

296(1,

R l k f i b - i Humayfln,

334,

Risfile,

138-139.

134-135,

R l s f i l e AgS, Risvet,

1 7 7 ( i 3 )-

206.

Resm-i Te.jdid,

Rlzqe

43, 54, 232(8),

216.

Resin, p l u . RusQm ( T a x e s ) ,

Rice

1 6 - 1 9 , 29, 35, 42, 94, 201 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 ,

8i,

82,

334, 3 3 5 ,

74, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 2 n , 1 2 4 , 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 , 2 3 4 ( 2 7 ) , 258, 2 7 4 ( 2 ) , 274n, 276, 5 ) , 334, 363-390, 403.

402.

322.

337-

( p l u . R i z a q and B r z a q ) , 291, 293.

R i z q e - i Ibbfislyye R i z q e - i Jeyglyye

26,

4i,

(Pious Rlzqe), 20,

Robes o f h o n o r

226-227,

(Hil'at),

23,

45-50,

64,

96n, 2 3 1 ,

236(62),

259,

46-49-

(Military Rlzqe),

Roads and communication, Rose w a t e r ,

1 2 7 ( 6 ) , 130 277, 280(5),

46-49-

51,

61.

236(70),

288(4),

331 ( 9 ) -

274.

R o g e t t a , 1 4 ; a g r i c u l t u r e I n v i c i n i t y o f , 52, 1 1 4 , 1 1 9 - 1 2 0 , 1 2 7 ( 3 ) ; customs houses and t a x e s o f , 1 0 1 , 109, 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 7 ( 3 ) , 1 2 8 ( 8 ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 3 ) , 233 ( 2 1 ) , 274, 2 9 6 ( 4 ) , 325, 329; f o r t r e s s o f , 1 4 6 ( 3 6 ) , 198, 2 1 1 ; p o r t and q u a i o f , 83, 109, 1 3 4 - 1 35, 136, 1 3 9 ; u r b a n p o l i c e o f , 1 2 8 ( 8 ) , 1 3 5 , 1 4 1 (1 1 ) ; t r a d e a n d i n d u s t r y I n , 7 9 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 9 - 1 2 0 , 1 2 7 ( 4 ) , 1 2 8 ( 8 , 1 1 ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 2 - 2 3 ) , 1 3 5 , 1 4 0 ( 1 , 6 ) , 1 4 1 ( 1 1 ) , 2 8 8 ( 3 ) ; Qapfldan o f , 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 , i 3 6 ; warehouses i n , 2 7 2 , 273, 274; t r e a s u r y revenues from, 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 , 116, 117. Roil,

1 1 9,

119n,

120.

444

INDEX 200n,

Ru.j ' a , Rukn,

344.

£20. 2i 1 ,

393-

Rumayla (Rumeli) square,

146(37),

198,

122,

Rusflm-u T e z & k i r ve B e r f i v f i t , Rfizman.jS,

216.

177-178,

181.

340n.

RQznSme, 2 1 7 , 3 3 8 , 340, 3 4 2 , 343, 346, 3 4 7 . Rflzng.me.il, Rflzn&m.ji, 2 , 1 3 0 ( 2 1 ) , 1 4 5 ( 3 ) , 1 5 5 { 7 ) , 200, W 7 346, 3 4 7 , 348, 349. Sacks, 2 3 4 ( 3 1 ) , 264(9), 267(45), 273, 290(9, 1 8 ) . S a ' d e d - D i n e l - ] J a n a w i mosque, SM&t,

1 39, 'Ali,

Safflower Safron,

340-341 ,

342,

234(28).

1 39n.

Saddle makers, Sadr-i

331(10),

122.

334,

402.

(Ugfflr),

130(26),

382,

387,

389,

390.

140.

G & J I B , _44. S a l a r i e s and wages, 2 i , 2 6 , 2 8 , 29, 3 1 , 3 2 , 40, 46, 4 7 , 49, 62, 76, 7 7 , 8 7 , 89, 108n, 1 3 2 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 2 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 4 - 1 8 8 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 2 - 2 2 3 , 2 3 0 , 281 - 2 8 2 , 284, 286, 2 8 7 , 288, 289, 2 9 1 , 29U, 2 9 5 , 2 9 7 , 299, 3 0 3 , 304, 306, 309, 3 1 1 (8, 1 5 ) , 3 2 3 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 2 , 3 4 4 - 346, 3 9 1 - 3 9 9 ; amounts p a i d , 1 8 8 , 2 1 0 - 2 1 4 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 2 - 2 2 4 , 3 9 1 - 3 9 9 ; methods o f payment, 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 , 2 0 2 - 2 2 0 , 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 , 3W^3k6. See a l s o P e n s i o n s , R a t i o n s I n kind, S a l i y f i n e , and Mevfi.jib. S a l i y f i n e , p l u . S a l i y f i n f i t ( S a l a r i e s ) , 1 8 4 - 1 8 8 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 , 2 4 1 , 288, 3 2 4 , 3 2 5 , 344, 3 9 1 - 4 0 2 . See a l s o S a l a r i e s and wages. S a l t ( M i l f r ) , 1 1 4 , 1 2 9 ( 1 5 ) , 1 3 9 - 1 4 0 , 2 3 2 ( 5 ) , 376, 378, 379, 3 8 1 , 384, 385, 3 M 7 3 8 8 , 390. San.jfiq B e y , 2 , 2 1 5 . Sardines,

119-

Sarr&.jan,

2oon.

Sfirfl Ahmed, Sfiy,

13,

146(38),

14, 198,

198,

212,

211,

392-394.

395.

S c h o o l s (Mektep), 2 5 5 ( 7 - 9 ) , 2 5 6 ( 6 ) , 3 4 7 . S c r i b e s ( K S t i b ) and s c r i b a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 6 - 1 8 , 4 5 , 49, 5 2 , 5 3 , 76, 83, 88, 1 06, 1 2 8 ( 1 0, 1 3 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 7 , 1 9 ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 3 ) , 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 2 ( 4 ), 1 7 7 - 1 78, 1 9 3 , £ 0 0 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 2 , 206, 2 1 6 - 2 1 8 , 2 2 7 ( 6 ) , 2 3 2 n , 2 3 7 ( 7 8 ) , 280n, 284, 287, 2 9 0 ( 1 3 ) , 3 2 1 , 3 3 1 ( 1 0 ) , 343-348, 349-350. 1 78. S e l i m I , S u l t S n , 1 , 4, 1 2 , 1 3 , I 2 7 n , 189, 1 9 1 , 192, 196, S e l i m I I I , S u l t a n , 335 • Selimi,

65.

Semmenfid, 5 2 ,

122,

Sene-i Hiiaiiyye, S e n e - i Kfimile, Sene-i Tutiyye, Senna,

124,

140. 308.

308308.

1 7 3 - 1 74 •

1 6 , 2 0 , 2 8 , 4 i , 4 2 , 5 9 , 65, 66, 7 2 , 7 3 , 1 9 9 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 4 , 2 5 9 , 269, 31 7 , 3 3 7 , 338,

87, 339-

INDEX Sennfir, Ser-i

15,

445

101.

'Aqaba ('Aqaba B f i s i ) ,

S e r - 1 Azlem (Azlem B f i g i ) ,

251, 251,

252, 252,

253. 253.

S e r - i B a z a r a n , 1 0 9 , 1 1 0 , 1 2 7 ( 4 ) , 1 4 8 ( 7 5 ) , 2 8 8 ( 3 ) , 364, 3 6 6 - 3 6 8 , 371 , 3 7 3 , 3 7 6 , 3 7 8 , 379. 3 8 1 , 3 8 3 , 3 8 5 , 386, 388, 389. S e r - 1 Bewfibfin, 402. S e r - i Cfivflgfin, 4 0 2 . S e r - i Muteferrlqa (Agfi-yi Muteferriqagfin), 146(30), 321. Serdfir, 248, 2 5 2 , 2 6 5 ( 1 9 , 2 0 ) , 306. Serdfir ul-Hfi.i.i, 1 8 5 ( 3 ) , 240, 248. Serdfir u l - H a z n e , 1 8 5 ( 4 ) , 186. Serdfir u l - Q f i f l l e ( Q f i f l l e B f i g i ) , 105, 140, 1 4 8 ( 8 0 ) , 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 , 180, 193, 248, 2 5 1 , 3 2 1 , 345n. Serdfir u l - Q . 8 l l u q , 1 8 5 ( 8 ) , 186, 1 4 8 ( 7 4 ) . Serdfir u l - S e f e r , _!85(5), 204. Serdfirlyye, 1 4 1 ( 1 1 ) . Sermfiye-i BfirQt-u Slyfih, 1 7 4 ( 5 ) , 1 7 5 , 180, 345n. S e r r f i f , 5 1 , 56, 57, 75, 124, 1 4 1 , 2 1 9 . Serrfif Bfigi, Sesame, 2 1 , el-Seyf£,

342. 126,

51,

Sheep M a r k e t , Sl.jill,

140.

76,

82.

114(3).

59n. 2oon.

Sllibfine

(Slaughterhouse),

141, 142(83),

S i l k s , 1 2 2 , 1 2 4 , 1 4 i ( 1 2 ) , 260, 2 6 4 ( 6 ) . S i l v e r , 65, 66, 1 0 7 , 1 2 8 ( 1 2 ) , I 5 3 n , 1 7 0 , and a q g e . Slmsfirlyye

(Brokerage),

S l m s f i r l y y e - i Bahfir,

122,

104,

123,

15On,

302.

260, 2 6 4 ( 6 ) ,

3 2 3 . See a l s o

321.

1 0 8 . See a l s o Customs and customs h o u s e s :

S l m s f i r l y y e - 1 B a h r e y n , 1 2 3 - 1 2 5 , 1 3 1 , 1 9 2 , 364, 368, 3 7 0 - 3 7 1 , 380, 3 8 2 - 3 8 3 , 385, 3 8 6 - 3 8 9 . See a l s o E m i n - 1 B a h r e y n . S i m s f i r l y y e - 1 S t e e - 1 B e z r - 1 Qurtum,

123-124.

Sinai Peninsula

199,

S i n a n Paga, Singers,

(T6r),

12,

14,

15,

212,

250,

373,

Suez. 375-378,

395.

284.

122.

Slpfihi, p l u . Slpfihlyfin ( C a v a l r y ) , 393 • S l y f i q a t , s c r i p t , 341 .

208, _2i_o,

216,

209,

327,

33^.

S m a l l K u g f l f l y y e ( K u g f l f i y y e - 1 S a g £ r ) , 87n, 1 £ 0 , 10On, 1 0 3 , 109n, 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 , 149, 1 5 2 , 153, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 3 1 8 , 3 2 0 - 3 2 3 , 330, 347. S o a p , 1 3 7 n , l 4 o ( 4 ), 2 3 2 ( 4 ) .

116, 164,

117, 167,

Slaughterhouse

(Sllibfine),

S l a v e s and s l a v e r y ,

Soutfiern A f r i c a ;

5,

15,

189,

196-197,

141, 149(83), 53,

trade with,

75,

135,

I50n,

2oon, 2 0 5 ,

302.

i4i(io),

197,

207,

101.

S p i c e s (Bahfir), 104, 105, 106, 108, 129, 244, 2 4 7 , 2 6 4 ( 2 ) , 2 9 5 , 302, 3 3 4 .

130(21),

140{6),

147(66),

175(6),

446

INDEX

Spirits, Starch,

I36n,

I37n,

140.

124.

Stuffs,

104,

334.

S-Qbfisi,

65n,

i 4 8 n . See a l s o

Suez:

Police.

customs house and t a x e s , 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 8 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 1 3 0 ( 2 1 , - 2 8 ) , 145(1), 2 8 6 , 2 9 5 , 3 0 2 , 3 2 5 , 3 2 6 , 3 2 9 , 3 3 2 , 3 6 2 - 3 9 0 3 t r a d e and i n d u s t r y o f , 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 7 , 140, 1 7 5 , 199, 244, 2 4 7 , 2 6 1 - 2 6 3 , 2 6 4 ( 4 , 8 ) , 2 6 5 ( 2 3 - 2 6 ) , 267 (44), 3 3 1 ( 9 ) ; n a v a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and n a v i g a t i o n a t , 1 0 4 - 1 0 6 , 134, 1 3 7 , 146, 178, 1 9 1 , 2 2 4 ( 1 2 ) , 2 6 1 - 2 6 3 , 2 6 6 ( 3 7 ) , 270, 2 9 0 ( 5 ) , 302, 3 1 1 ( 8 ) ; l81t Qapfid&n o f , 1 2 9 ( 1 4 ) , 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 , 1 1 1 ' 1 5 2 > > 185(10), 225(1), 261263, 2 6 6 ( 3 7 ) , 279, 2 9 0 ( 5 ) , 302, 3 1 1 ( 8 ) ; dockyard o f , 279, 2 8 0 ( 1 3 ) ; f o r t r e s s and g a r r i s o n o f , 198, 198n, 2 1 1 , 2 1 7 , 2 5 0 , 394; J i z y e o f , 1 5 2 ; water supply of, 225.

S u g a r , 5 1 , 5 £ , 74, 1 1 9 , (4-6), 290(10-11),

120, 123, 2 9 6 ( 3 , 4,

i 4 i , 1 7 6 ( 7 ) , 180, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4 , 276, 6, 8 ) , 3 0 2 , 3 1 2 ( 2 8 ) , 3 3 4 , 4 0 3 .

Suleymfin I I , S u l t & n (SuleymSn t h e M a g n i f i c e n t ) , 2 6 9 ( 1 ) , 2 8 3 , ^84. Suleyman EfendS, F e y z i , Suleymfin P a § a , Suleymfin P a s a , Sulphur,

255(1),

256(1),

277,

280

259(2),

300.

147(57). Bfidim,

233(20),

12,

18,

284.

266(33).

S u l t f i n : a s s o v e r e i g n and p o s s e s s o r o f w e a l t h , 2 , 24, 2 5 - 2 8 , 30, 3 1 , 3 4 - 3 7 , 3 9 , 98, 1 3 4 , 1 4 5 ( 1 ), 1 94, 1 99, 2 0 2 , 2 2 6 , 2 4 4 , 3 3 9 , 340; r e v e n u e s I n c a s h and k i n d from E g y p t , 3 4 - 3 7 , 5 2 , 63, 100, 1 0 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 7 6 , 205, 206, 239, 2 7 2 , 2 7 5 , 283, 284, 2 9 6 ( 9 ) , 302, 305, 3 1 3 , 329, 3 3 3 - 3 3 6 , 4 0 2 - 4 0 3 ; ( s e e a l s o B u l v f i n , I r s f i l i y y e - l flaztne, J e y b - 1 Humfiyfln, a n d J&' i z e - 1 HumfiyQn); endowment o f f o u n d a t i o n s b y , 4 i , 4 3 , 4 4 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 0 ; V f i l i ~ a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f I n E g y p t , 2 ; Ahmed P a § a a s I n d e p e n d e n t S u l t f i n o f E g y p t , 4 ; s e e a l s o t h e f o l l o w i n g Ottoman S u l t a n s : A]jmed I I , I b y f i h i m , Meljmed I I , Mehmed I V , Murfid I I , S e l £ m I , S e l £ m I I I , S u l e y m f i n I I ; on t h e Mamlfik S u l t f i n s s e e 4i a n d 47 a n d B a y b f i r s a n d G a u r £ . Sfllu.jflyfin,

256(10).

Stlq u l - A g n f i m ,

114.

SQq u l - S l t f i ' ,

229.

S u r r e , 2 5 4 - 2 5 8 , 2 6 4 ( 1 ) , 2 6 6 ( 2 9 ) , 268, 2 8 8 ( 6 ) , 2 9 1 ( 3 ) , See a l s o H o l y C i t i e s : c o n t r i b u t i o n s from Egypt. S u r r e - 1 D&r u s - S a ' f i d e ,

S u r r e - 1 R a v 2 a - i A h f i l t - y l M e k k e - 1 Mukerreme, 120,

256(1).

2 5 5 ( 1 ).

122.

S y r i a , 4, 7, 8, 1 5 , 1 1 4 , 33), 2 3 5 ( 5 2 ) , 250, Sfihid, 21>

56,

126, I37n, 140, 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 , 284.

153,

173,

185(9),

189,

231,

234(31-

75-

275.

Sfiklrd, plu. §alaqfin, 36m:

344.

see Suez.

Sweets,

Sfih£n,

316,

260-261•

S u r r e - 1 R a v g a - i A h f i l £ - y l M e d £ n a t - i Munevvere, Suveys:

312(26),

S&klrd&n (Apprentice),

200n,

218,

347-

278.

see Damascus.

Sa'riyye,

276.

S J a r q i y y e p r o v i n c e ; l o c a t i o n a n d b o u n d a r i e s , j_4, 1 5 ; t a x r e v e n u e s f r o m , 6 7 , 68, 69, 90, 9 1 , 9 5 , 96, 9 7 , 1 1 4 ( 4 ) , 2 5 2 , 2 7 8 , 2 9 3 , 31 9 - 3 2 0 , 3 4 3 , 3 5 3 -

INDEX

447

357; t r e a s u r y e x p e n d i t u r e s i n , 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 , 230, 236(59, 60); governor o f , 1 5 , 6 1 , 2 4 i , 2 5 3 , 3 2 2 , 3 3 0 ; f o r t and g a r r i s o n o f ( Q o r e y n ) , 1 9 8 , 2 1 1 , 394. S a r q i y y e E f e n d £ s i ( E f e n d i u l - S a r q l y y e ) , 1 4 5 ( 5 ) , 3 2 1 , 343S e h i r Em£ni

(Bmin-1 S e h i r ) ,

Sehlr Havfilesi, Sehrlyye,

99,

103,

334, 4 0 2 ,

Seker B a M ,

82.

Seker Em£m,

2 i 6, 293, 321, 332, 3 3 9 , 1 5 5 ( 3 ),

344.

325-

403.

273.

34.

Serbet.1i Bagi, Serif

105,

21 6 .

5ehzfideg&n,

Serfiqi,

145(7),

104,

274,

275.

(plu. E s r a f ) ,

Serif1,

257(i2),

228,

259,

263,

264(5),

293,

303,

331 -

65.

Seyh;

o f A r a b t r i b e s , 3 1 , 5 2 , 5 8 , 60, 6 2 , 8 1 , 2 4 i . , 2 4 9 ; a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f M u l t e z i m i n v i l l a g e , 54, 57, Si; as leader of urban corporation, 122; as r e l i g i o u s f i g u r e , 231, 234(35). S e y h u l - B e l e d ; a s l e a d e r s o f Mamlflk h o u s e s I n E g y p t , 6, 7 , 8 , 7 8 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 1 6 2 , 186(1 1 ), 240, 249, 263, 3 1 4 , 3 1 6 , 323; as c h i e f s of v i l l a g e s , £ 4 , 55, 5 T T

Seyh u l - D e l i a i i n ,

321,

32in.

Seyh ul-Harem u l - N a b a v £ , Seyh u l - I s l f i m ,

259, 266(4o),

309,

311 ( 9 - n ) -

337-

Seyh ul-Q.urrg,,

255(9).

Seyh u l - S S d & t ,

139,

139n.

e l - S l t v £ , 21> l ® , 92> 2 1 7 . SQne, 1 2 3 , 3 4 9 n . S u r t e , 99. See a l s o Z a ' t m . S u t r f i n - i Hfissa, 1 7 7 ( 1 1 ) , 1 8 1 . Tablhfine, 186, 2 4 1 , 3 2 2 . Tafrvi 1 ,

205,

Talebe,

35•

218.

T a ' l £ m - 1 T e . l v i d - i Q.ur'fin, Tamarinds, TSnlyye,

255(9).

276.

198,

211,

394.

T a n n i n g h o u s e (Dabagfafine), Tanta,

113-4,

115,

127(2),

363.

233(24).

T a q s i t - 1 Divanf, 2 1 ' T a ' r i f ul-Marakib,

101

»

8ln,

342. 109,

110,

T a g a d d u q a t - i S u l t a n Suleym&n,

Tastiban,

123,

255(1),

125n,

350,

363.

256(1).

120, 123, 363.

T a ' v i z - i KusQflyye-1 Kebir, T a ' v i 2 - 1 Meva.llb,

331 •

T a ' v £ g - i Muqata'a,

331•

330-331•

T a x f a r m s : s e e I l t l z d m and M u l t e z i m . T a x e s and t a x c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m ; r u r a l , 1 6 - 1 9 , 2 0 - 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 40, 4 3 , 5 4 - 5 9 , 62 , 63, 6 4 - 6 9 , 9 5 - 9 7 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 7 ( 3 , 6 ) , 1 3 9 , 1 4 9 ( 8 2 ) , 1 6 8 -

448

INDEX 1 71 , 1 7 3 - 1 7 5 , 1 76, 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 - 1 8 3 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 7 , 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 , 129, 220, 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 , 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 , 2 3 1 , 242, 243, 244, 252, 2 6 9 - 2 7 1 , 2 7 3 - 2 7 5 , 2 7 7 - 2 7 8 , 285, 286, 288, 289, 2 9 0 ( 1 6 ) , 293, 295, 297, 2 9 8 , 2 9 9 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 7 , 308, 3 1 8 - 3 2 0 , 3 3 0 , 3 5 0 , 3 5 3 - 3 6 2 ; u r b a n , 6 4 - 6 5 , 9 § - l 41 , 1 4 7 ( 7 0 ) , 1 4 9 ( 8 3 ), 1 6 9 - 1 7 0 , 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 , 1 8 O - 1 8 1 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 3 , 2 4 4 , 285, 286, 288, 289, 2 9 1 , 295, 297, 298, 299, 302, 308-309, 3 1 3 - 3 1 5 , 3 2 5 - 3 2 6 , 3 4 2 , 344, ( s e e a l s o M f i l - i H a r & . j ) ; p e r s o n a l t a x e s , 1 4 2 - 1 6 8 , 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 , 1 7 7 ( 1 2 , 1 3 ) , 3 1 3 - 3 1 5 (see a l s o K u g H f l y y e - 1 K e b i r , K u g u f l y y e - 1 S a g i r , B u i v a n , and J l z y e • )

Ta'ying.t-1 Esrfif, Tebnjir,

258-259,

Ted&faul

308-309-

Tefllvut,

168-171,

Teffivut-u Fldde, Teffivut-u K i l ,

180, 1 70,

TefSvut-u. Tfltlyye,

218,

285-6,

291,

344.

180. 220.

1 68. 21 6 - 2 1 7 ,

308.

h02.

269. 43.

Temr H i n d i , Tents,

331(7).

235(55).

Telbig.ji, Temkin,

217,

168-170,

Teffivut-u Naqdlyye,

Temem,

293,

1 70-

Teffivut-u Basana,

Tekke,

2 6 4 ( 5 ),

229.

276.

265(17),

265n.

T e n z i l (Decrease), p l u . T e n z i l f i t , 67, 73, 7 t , 100, 108, 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 129, 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 144, 1 5 7 , 2 2 5 , 246, 247, 258, 268, 278, 2 8 1 , 282, 293, 319, 320. T e n z i l - 1 Kuggaf,

3 3 0 ( 3 )-

Teqfi'ud S a l i y f i n e s i , Teraqqi

188.

(Bonus), p l u .

Teraqqiyfit,

204-208,

2i4,

221,

248,

251,

275,

306,

1 97,

210,

3^9Terjumfin ( T r a n s l a t o r ) ,

59-

T e r . j u m f i n - i D i v f i n , Ter.juman B S g i ,

147(69),

155(5),

193,

293.

T e r r S n e , j_5, 6 7 , 2 3 1 ( 3 ) , 2 3 6 ( 6 1 ) , 2 4 i , 3 1 9 , 3 2 0 n , 3 ^ 3 T e r s f i n e - l 'Amlre (Dockyard, n a v a l a r s e n a l ) , 136, 1 3 7 , 11*8(79), 272, 277, 279, 2 8 0 ( 1 0 , 1 3 ) , 302, 3 1 2 ( 2 3 , 2 4 ) , 393, too. TeslimSt,

224,

Tev.iihfit,

21 9, 2 2 i .

225-227,

TezSkl'r-1 CSyfiglyye, Tegkere

241.

87,

(Document), p l u .

Teakere-1 Evvel, Tegkere-1 S&ni,

95-96,

227,

76,

237(72).

80,

90,

1 7 7 - 1 78,

29,

30,

31,

32,

43,

48, J_34, 1 3 5 ,

136,

120. 122,

Tombs,

257(9,

235,

217,

342.

402.

T o b a c c o and t o b a c c o m e r c h a n t s , 122,

81,

402.

Timfir, 26, 27, 28, also Iqt&'• T i m f i r l i , 26. Tinsmiths,

89,

Tezfiklr,

255(6),

256(7-8),

i37n,

141.

13-1*0,

259.

137,

207.

See

INDEX fop.ji

(Artilleryman)

T6p.j£ B a s i , T8r

plu.

Top.iiyfci,

449

c o r p s , _200,

200n,

201.

200.

(Sinai),

12,

i4,

15,

199,

212,

250,

395-

T r a d e , c o m m e r c e , a n d i n d u s t r y , 7 - 8 , 1 5 , 2 5 , 6 6 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 6 , 9 3 , 98, 99, 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 7 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 8 - 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 7 ( 4 ) , 1 2 8 ( 8 - 9 , 1 1 ) , 1 2 9 ( 1 4 - 1 6 , 1 8 ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 0 , 2 2 , 24, 2 6 ) , 1 3 5 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 8 - 1 39, 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 , 1 4 7 ( 7 0 ) , 149(83), 1 7 4 - 1 7 6 , 190, 191 , 193, 195, 244, 247, 249, 2 5 1 , 261, 262, 263, 270, 275. T r e a s u r y o f E g y p t : r e v e n u e s , 8, 2 8 - 3 0 , 4 0 - 4 1 , 6 4 - 8 5 , 9 4 - 9 7 , 9 8 - 1 3 3 , 1 4 2 183, 283-304, 332-333, 342-345; expenditures, 169-170, 342-345; i 8 4 238 ( f o r E g y p t ) , 2 3 9 - 2 5 3 ( f o r t h e P i l g r i m a g e ) , 2 5 3 - 2 6 8 ( f o r Mecca and M e d i n a ) ; 2 7 2 - 2 8 0 ( f o r t h e Ottoman g o v e r n m e n t ) , 2 8 1 - 3 0 4 , 345; i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f , 2, 16, 33, 76, 3 3 8 - 3 5 0 . Tripe, Tflbe,

232(6). 51•

Tufenkgiy&n 393-

(riflemen)corps,

Tflg ( h o r s e t a i l ) ,

61,

Tulbe,

228.

87,

Turbans, Turbe,

89-90,

51,

76,

143,

216,

203,

205,

2±o,

321,

330,

200.

Ubaydull&h,

178,

128n,

59,

(plu.

278,

231,

369,

236(61,

UlflfSt),

U l f l f e DivilnS:,

200n-

'Umar P a g a ,

203,

316.

Ceraklae corps,

U m e r f i ' - i Deryfi., Utnm u l - Q . i y f i s

280(10),

290(19),

312(22,

23).

372,

374,

375,

377,

379,

380,

383,

62);

s e e a l s o Q.fid£ a n d J u d i c i a l

205,

206,

207,

208,

209,

385-386,

388-

organization.

210.

2i8.

Ulflfe.jiyan, Umerfi'-i

327.

308.

147(56).

128(7), 389.

'Ulemg.',

323,

216,

308.

Twine and c o r d ,

Ulflfe

25), 196,

236(67)-

Tfltiyye,

frjle,

146(18,

235(52).

Tusks of elephants, Tfit,

186,

90,

199-200,

213,

217,

222(5),

236(63),

251,

344,

398.

134.

(Mlgyfis,

Nilometer),

230-231,

233(15),

234(34-36).

Upper E g y p t ; c o n q u e s t and s u r v e y o f , 4, 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 1 9 ; a g r i c u l t u r e and crops i n , 21, 50-52, 273; p r o v i n c i a l organization of, 14, 15; v i l l a g e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f , 5 8 ; t r e a s u r y r e v e n u e s f r o m , 67, 68, 70, 7TP85, 2 6 1 , 273, 295, 350; peasants of, 2 4 - 2 5 ; J i z y e c a p i t a t i o n t a x i n , 157; Arab t r i b e s i n , 1 2 , 13, 14, 78-85, 190, 248; port of (Qugeyr), 1 0 3 - 4 , 1 0 5 - 6 , 108, 1 4 6 ( 4 0 ) , 199, 2 1 2 ; f o r t s and g a r r i s o n i n , 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 , 2 1 2 , 288, 395; dancers i n , 122. See a l s o t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o v i n c e s : J i z e , Behnasfi, A t f i e b , Minye, Manfalftt, A s y u t , J i r j e , I b r i m , and Fayyum. Urban o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 1oo-i41. 'Urbfin-i Deggyig, 531(9). See a l s o Deg£ge. Urz: See R i c e U r z - u Beyfi.2, 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 , 1 3 1 , 1 4 7 ( 6 3 ) , 3 6 4 , 3 6 6 , 3 6 8 , 3 7 1 , 3 7 3 , 3 7 5 , 3 7 7 , 3 7 9 , 380, 383, 385, 386, 388, 389. U r z - u M £ r £ , 111, 112, 1 2 7 ( 6 ) , 2 9 5 ( 4 ) , 3 6 4 , 3 6 6 , 3 6 8 , 3 7 1 , 3 7 3 , 3 7 5 , 3 7 7 , 3 7 9 , 380, 383, 386, 388, 389. ' U s f O r ( S a f f l o w e r ) , 1 3 0 ( 2 6 ) , 3 8 2 , 3 8 7 , 3 8 9 , 390.

450

INDEX

Ustflbi, 278. Ugflr-u E a n & f - i Bahfir, 104, 108, 1 2 9 ( 1 7 ) , Customs h o u s e s and t a x e s : S u e z . Uveys Paga,

284.

Vadi'a, ^6,

220.

V a f r - 1 K£1 (Vafrukyal),

el-vahfit

169-170,

1 71 ,

p r o v i n c e , j_5, 67, 69, 122,

Va.jh u l - B a b r i ,

See Lower E g y p t .

Va.ih u l - Q . i b l i , j_4.

See Upper E g y p t .

264(2),

302,

See a l s o

324.

343, 344,

1 4.

vai£

147(66),

353-557.

( s e e a l s o G o v e r n o r o f E g y p t ) , 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 1 0 , 15, 18, 1 9 , 22, 2 8 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 36, 39, 40, 41 , 4 2 , 43, 44, 49, 5 3 , 5 8 n , 5 9 , 60, 63, 64, 67, 68, 70, 7 3 , 78, 83, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, 99, 100, 1 0 1 , 102, 103,

104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 116, 1 1 7 , 120, 1 2 1 , 123, 125, 132, U 2 , 143, 144, 145, 152, 1 5 3 , 1 5 5 , 156, 1 5 7 , 158, 1 5 9 , 161, 162, 1 6 4 , 165, 168, 170, 172, 1 7 3 , 1 7 9 , 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190, 192, 1 93, 194,

1 95,

196, 200, 205,

302,

304,

206, 207,

209,

210,

21 4, 2 1 7 ,

219,

221,

222,

342,

344,

346,

349,

391-392,

223,

226, 227, 228, 232, 236, 241 , 244, 254, 2 5 7 ( 1 3 ) , 259, 260, 26l , 269, 274, 275, 277, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290(4, 7), 291, 295, 300, Valide Sultan,

305,

306, 3 1 2 ,

27On, 2 2 b ,

313,

337,

V a q f , p l u , Evq&f ( F o u n d a t i o n ) ,

402, 26,

348,

402.

403. 29,

4l - 4 5 ,

46, 48, 49, 60, 64,

96,

130,

146(45-48), 147(49-59), 176(8), 1 7 7 ( 1 0 ) , 191, 195, 208, 231, 2 4 i , 242, 243, 245, 253, 254, 259(2), 260, 269-271 , 276, 288, 291, 293, 297,

309, 3 1 6 , 3 1 8 , 3 3 1 ( 9 ) - See a l s o t h e i n d i v i d u a l V a q f s : ' A b d u l l a h , 'Abd u l - R a h m f i n B e y , A g f i - y i D&r u s - 3 a ' f i d e , A h m e d l y y e , A g r a f t y y e , B a y b f i r s , D e g i s e - i K u b r S , D e g l g e - i S u A r S , G t t r i y y e , Harameyn, H S g e k i y y e , H S y r B e y , H l y a z B e y , J a n b e r d i Batfln, Muhammadiyye, MurfidiyyeT M u s t ' a f i A&a, M u g t a f a P a s a , Qfiyd B e y , Suleymfo" P a g a , U b a y g u l l & h , a n a V a l i d e

Sultan.

Vaqfname. Vaqiyye

44.

(Okke),

79n, 2 7 3 ,

vaqif, U . Vagiyye,

22,

23,

25,

273n.

57-58.

Vagife (Pension), plu. Vagaylf, also Pensions. Vegetables,

119,

V e k £ l - 1 Har.i

Vagaylffit,

i84,

203,

2j_5, 288,

r76,

185,

195,

344.

See

1 37n.

(Emin-1 Har.i),

148(76),

i50n,

272-273,

276,

297.

Venice, consul of, 237(74), 290(6). Vezir

(plu.

V u z e r f i ' ), 1 ,

40,

186,

188,

317,

337,

V l k f i l e ( o k e l , m a r k e t ) , 99, 1 0 4 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 6 , 2 6 ) , _j_4o, 1 4 i , 3 7 6 , 3 7 8 , 3 7 9 , 3 8 1 - 3 9 0 .

Vlkaie-i Vlkaie-i Vikaie-1 Vikaie-i Vikaie-1 Vlkaie-i

Baga, Milh, Qutn, UsfQr, Zabib, Zeyt,

130(22), 129(15), 130(20), 130(26), 129(16), 129(15),

122.

Vugfiiat, 221 .

16,

18),

130(20,

381, 384, 385, 387-388, 390. 376, 378, 379, 380', 384, 385, 386, 388, 390. 381, 384, 385, 386, 388, 390. 382, 387, 389, 390. 381, 384-386, 388, 390. 381, 384-386, 388, 390.

V i l l a g e o f f i c i a l s and o r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 7 , Vinegar,

391-392.

129(15,

21-25,

40, 5 2 - 5 9 ,

61,

77-.

22,

INDEX VUzerfi';

see V e z i r •

VUzer&'-i Muteqfi'idin, Wfid£ 0 a l f f i ,

13,

188.

198.

Wages: s e e Mevfi.jib. el-W6h6t

: see e l - V a h a t

Wajh f o r t : waii,

199,

212,

250, 2 6 5 ( 1 6 ) ,

395-

148n.

Weights: Wells,

s e e Measurement-

250,.

265(13)-

Wheat, 5 1 - 5 2 , Wicks,

78-85,

312(22,

124,

137n,

220-224,

249, 2 5 ° ,

266(38).

See a l s o

Grains

23).

Wood, 226, 232(3), 232n, 265(21, 25), 266(29), 2 8 0 ( 1 1 ) , 290(14), 296(9)Woodworkers, 119, 122, 296(9). Yanbo', 137, 259, 266(41 ), 309, 3 1 1 ( 1 2 ) . Yedek G a l & l ,

261-262.

Yemen, t h e ,

12,

Yenlceriyfin,

189,

Y6mlyye E f e n d i a i Yflsuf K5ak, Zabib Za'im

103,

184,

See

(Raisins),

199,

275(5),

284,

306,

334.

(Efendi ul-Yomlyye),

345-346.

1 35120,

129(16),

i37n,

381,

384-386,

388,

390.

275.

(plu.

Zu'ema'),

148,

i48n.

BQiaq,

1 4 8 ( 7 3 ),

293,

Za'im-1 Migir,

148(72),

225(2),

ftadim,

1 4 8 ( 7 4 ),

Za'im-1

185(9),

Janissaries.

260.

Y u v a ft&Qqin Q.Sle, Zaganos,

18, 200n.

Za'im-1 Misir-i Zar&r-i

iddi'S,

Zfivlye,

235(48).

Ze'&met, Zen.jebil,

331(5). 226(3 ), 2 3 7 ( 7 1 ) ,

293,

331 ( 5 ) .

331 (5 ) -

31. 276.

Zeyt ( O i l ) , 129(18), 236, 265(33), 291, 296(2), 381, 384-386, 388, 390. ZLMMET,

151.

Zlmrni ( n o n - M u s l i m ) , Z i r & ' - i Beledi

151-166.

(Local Z£rS'),

See a l s o J l z y e , 72,

Z i r f i ' - i Oamfini (Ottoman Z i r a ' ) ,

Christians,

and J e w s .

72n.

72,

72n.

Z l y f i d e ( A u g m e n t a t i o n ) , 6 7 , 68, 7 1 , i"2i, 126, 1 3 1 , 132, 144, 149,

73, 74, 91, 100, 102, 108, 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 6 3 , 165, 2o4n, 246, 247, 250, 258, 268,

Zly&de-l V a f r - 1 KS1,

3*5n.

281, 282, 288, 295, 319, 320. 17Q-171,

180,