Fibers

Citation preview

by IRVING and RUTH ADLER

A REASON why

Book

FIBERS By IRVING and

RUTH ADLER

Fibers are long and thin like pieces of thread,

and people make them

we

materials that

use

all

into

through the *

day, every day.

Your mattress cover and sheets and pillowcases are

your room

in

made of cotton. The is

chair

covered with a fabric

You

of nylon, rayon, wool, or cotton.

walk on a rug that may be made of one of those fibers or perhaps of acrylic,

the rug back

you wear

If

of polyester.

wear

is

Some are

may be

made

of jute.

a drip-dry shirt,

The

and

elastic in

it is

made

your under-

of rubber fibers.

of these fibers are natural, others

man-made. This book

their story

and

will tell

you

their uses.

Jacket design by The Etheredges

THE JOHN DAY COMPANY New York

8210 $2.29 net This

is

a

TOHN DAY uaranteed

LIBRARY EDITION

Vary Binding

BURLINGflME PUBLIC LIBRARY

mU

WITHDRAW 3URL!NQ

A ,

39042014963596

LIBRARY

DATE DUE

foli

I

I998

Flax, a Fiber for Cloth

Flax

is

a fiber plant.

It

belongs to the family of plants

Linum (LY-num), from which linen, the thread and cloth made from flax fiber, gets its name. Flax was grown in Egypt as long as seven thousand years ago. The ancient Egyptians made rope and cloth from linen yarn. Flax is a bast (BASST) or soft fiber. Bast fibers come from the stems of certain plants. They are found right called

underneath the bark. Flax

fiber

comes from the stem

of

the flax plant.

Flax grows best in places that are not too hot and not too cold.

The most important flax-growing

day are the Soviet Union, the countries

in

countries to-

Europe along

the Baltic Sea, Holland, Ireland, Belgium and France.

The

Then

plants are harvested before their seeds ripen.

woody and it is woody parts of the

the stems are not very

easier to separate

the fibers from the

stems.

are usually harvested

After the flax

is

The

plants

by pulling them up by hand.

harvested, the leaves and seeds of the

The stems are tied into bundles and soaked in water. The soaking or retting makes the woody parts of the stem rot. In some places flax is retted in the

plants are removed.

water of lakes and

rivers.

In places where the

dew is

very

heavy, the bundles are spread out on the grass to be dew-retted.

Then

the bundles of stems are dried in the

sun or in special drying ovens. 6

a

The dried stems are now put through a machine called breaker. The breaker breaks up the rotted woody parts

of the stem into small pieces.

Scutching removes

pure

all

flax fibers. Last,

the

wood from

the stems, leaving

the flax fibers are combed.

removes tangled and broken fibers, called

Next the stems are scutched.

fibers.

tow (TOE), are used

The

Combing

tangled, broken

as a stuffing material

and for making rope.

The combed

flax is

20 inches long. It is

It is

a light yellow fiber between 8 and

one of the strongest natural

fibers.

now ready to be spun into linen yarn and woven into

linen cloth.

Beating flax

How

flax

A

flax

breaker

was prepared about 40Q years ago

Other Bast Fibers

Hemp was first grown in Asia about 2,500 years ago. Now it grows all over the world. It is a sturdy plant that is

anywhere from 3

to

20 feet

tall.

Hemp fibers are prepared in the same way as flax fibers are.

They

straps

hemp

are very strong. So

and canvas.

It is also

is

used for making

used for making rope.

Hemp

ropes are used at sea because they stay strong even

when

they are wet.

Ramie (RAM-ee) was China

also called

countries. In the

Ramie has

grass.

grown

first

Now

it is

United States

woody centers. This frees Ramie is the longest of the fibers

vas shoes are

is

in

many

grown

it is

it

is

other

in Florida.

Ramie stalks crushing machines which break up

their

from ramie

grown

10 feet

stalks that are 8 or

are put through great

in China, so

light

made from

and it.

tall.

their bast fibers.

bast fibers. Cloth

strong. Overalls

Ramie

is

also

made

and can-

used for mak-

ing twine, shoelaces, and cord for fishing nets.

Most 12 feet plant

jute tall.

grown

Jute fiber

in India. is

The

plants are from 6 to

freed from the stem of the jute

by retting.

Jute

woven,

is

a coarse fiber. So, before they are spun

jute fibers are crushed to

Jute loses it is

is

its

make them

strength quickly. But

used for making bags and sacks. 8

it is

and

softer.

very cheap. So

It is also

made

into

a cheap rope. usually

A

coarse,

made from

rough cloth called burlap

jute yarn.

Kenaf (kuh-NAFF),

rosette

(AA-ruh-MEE-na) are

all

(row-ZELL) and aramina

bast fiber plants. Their fibers

are sometimes used in place of jute.

from India. Most east of Asia.

is

roselle

Most kenaf comes

comes from Asia and the

Most aramina

Retted jute on

is

grown

its

9

way

to

in Africa.

market

islands

Spinning If

you look

at a single flax fiber

under a microscope,

the fiber will look like the picture on this page.

The

fiber

has a rough surface.

When fibers

are twisted together, their rough surfaces

make them

does not look smooth.

It

stick together to

form a strong thread. Spinning

way many weak,

short fibers are twisted together to

is

the

form

a strong, unbroken yarn.

A

long time ago spinning was done by hand, using a

Spinning with a spindle and distaff about 500 years ago 10

spindle

(SPIN-duhl) and a

combed

fiber

was kept

in the distaff.

The spinner slowly

pulled the fibers from the distaff with her twisting

them

in

The

(DISS-taff).

distaff

one direction as she did

left

hand,

She hooked

so.

hung straight down as she worked. With her right hand she set the spindle spinning in the opposite direction. These two

the twisted fibers to the spindle which

motions in opposite directions twisted the fibers into a tight yarn that did not

As more

fiber

unwind.

was twisted

dropped lower and lower.

the spindle

into yarn,

When the spindle reached

the

the spinner unhooked the yarn she had just spun

floor,

and wound

up on the spindle. Then she hooked the yarn to the spindle again and started spinning once more. This

is

it

the

way

spinning was done until about seven

hundred years ago, when the spinning wheel was vented in India. In a spinning wheel, a big wheel

When the big wheel turns

many

times. So turning the big

wheel makes the spindle turn very spinning wheels

hand that

spinner.

it

first

Then

fast.

The

spun and then wound,

the spinning wheel

earliest

just like a

was improved

so

could spin and wind the yarn at the same time.

Modern spinning machines, operated by one spin and time.

is at-

belt.

tached to the spindle by a once, the spindle turns

in-

wind hundreds

person,

of spools of yarn at the

You can read about them on page 11

22.

same

.

The people who Egypt about 5000 years lived in

ago wove mats like this

out

of reeds.

Weaving Weaving is a way of putting thin strips or threads together to make a broad, flat sheet. Thousands of years ago people know how to weave mats and baskets out of reeds and stems. They wove the stem of the flax plant, because it was strong and bent easily. When they learned

how

to separate the flax fiber

from the

and spin it into linen yarn, they began too. It

The

linen cloth they

could be sewn

wove was

easily. So, for a

sails

and

for

making

soft

stem

weave the

yarn,

and very

strong.

long time, linen was the

most important cloth people made. ing

to

rest of the

It

was used

for

mak-

clothing.

Weaving is done on a loom. Using a small, simple hand-

how

to

between the notches

of

loom, like the one in the picture, you can learn

weave.

First,

you

string threads

the loom. These threads are called the

warp

(

WAWRP)

The loom holds the warp threads in place, side by side. Then you weave cross threads over and under the warp 12

The cross threads are called the weft WEHFT) or woof. To make it easier to put the weft over and under the warp, you can wind the weft around a stick. Then you pass the stick over and under the warp threads pullthreads.

(

ing the weft thread along behind

passed the stick over and under in

one direction, you pass

direction.

the warp,

Because the it is

it

stick goes

like this

is

After you have

of the

back again

called a shuttle.

on a handloom

all

it.

warp threads

in the opposite

back and forth across

You will

find that

very slow work.

The black threads are the warp. The brown threads are the weft or woof. 13

weaving

Handlooms were improved by setting them in frames that stood on the floor. By using foot pedals, the weaver

A frame handloom used about 500 years ago 14

could automatically raise some of the warp threads, making a space or shed that separated them from the rest of the warp. of the

Then the

loom

shuttle could

be passed from one side

more quickly than by using the over and under method. Weaving was made even faster

when

to the other

the flying shuttle was invented in 1733.

By

pulling

on a tightened cord that was attached to the shuttle, the weaver shot the shuttle through the shed very fast. Weaving with a flying shuttle

became so fast that the handspinners could not keep up with the looms. Looms can weave many different patterns. This is done by picking different warp threads to be raised. The drawings on

this

page show how three different patterns

can be made.

Handlooms

are

still

used sometimes for making

blankets and rugs. Most weaving today

power looms

J_L

that

11

is

cloth,

done on large

work automatically.

u uu

11 II

rr

m Linen weave

Canvas weave 15

2x2

twill

weave

Some Other Sisal (SY-suhl)

is

Plant Fibers

Hard

a hard fiber.

come from Hard fibers are

fibers

the leaves and stalks of certain plants.

not really harder than the bast or soft thicker

and

stiffer.

Sisal

into

is

but they are

comes from the leaves

Sisal

agave (uh-GAH-vee) plant. Most co, Brazil,

fibers,

sisal

of the

comes from Mexi-

Indonesia and East Africa.

used for making rope and twine.

It is

woven

mats and braided into rugs.

Abaca (AB-uh-KAH) belongs plants as the banana.

The

fiber

to the

same family

comes from the

tall

of

stem

The most important use of abaca is for ropemaking. Abaca rope is very strong and very light. It of the abaca leaf.

is

even stronger than hemp rope.

Abaca

wrong

is

for

sometimes called Manila hemp. This name

two

reasons.

Abaca

is

is

not hemp. Although

abaca grows in the Philippine Islands,

it

does not grow

near the city of Manila. Coir

(

KOY-uhr )

is

a coconut

fiber. It is

made from

the

hairy outside covering or husk of the coconut.

Coir fibers are spun into yarn and

woven

into cloth or

twisted into rope. Coir ropes cannot be used in fresh water, because they rot in fresh water. However, salt

water makes coir ropes stronger. So they are used

Kapok KAY-pock) (

pods of the silk-cotton

is

the white

tree.

The 16

fluff

found

at sea.

in the seed

fibers are too short to

be

woven. They are used

as a material for stuffing mat-

tresses, furniture, pillows

Raffia

(RAF-ee-uh)

leaves of an African kets

is

palm

and sleeping bags. a fiber that comes from the tree. It is

used for making bas-

and straw hats.

Esparto (eh-SPART-o)

is

the fiber from esparto grass.

Esparto grass grows in Spain and Algeria. Esparto

used for making rope.

It is

woven

&

into shoes

*

.

iron bar to

made from the

hairy husk.

husk. Coir

is

17

baskets.

&

Smashing a coconut against an its

and

is

remove

Ropemaking

in

ancient Egypt

Ropemaking Stone Age

men who

more than 10,000 years ago used rope for fishing. They made rope by twisting together hair, strips of leather or natural fibers. The first Egyptians

lived

made rope from

hair, flax, esparto

and palm-

Rope was important in the lives of people who lived a long time ago. They had no machines for pulling or lifting. Ropes helped many men work together leaf fibers.

to pull or raise

heavy

Until 1850 rope

rope took up a

loads.

was made by hand. Twisting a long

lot of space.

So long sheds, called rope

walks, were built in which the rope twisting

Some rope walks were 900

was done.

feet long.

Ropemaking machines can make ropes even miles long in a small space. is

Here

is

how ropemaking,

or rope laying,

done. First the fiber,

which

is

usually 18

sisal,

hemp

or abaca,

is

spun into strands and wound on

The

reels.

reeled

strands are called readies. Three or four readies are fed into a metal block at

one end of the ropemaking machine.

Before the readies go into the machine, each strand given a

of a twist in one direction. Then,

little bit

is

when

the readies pass through the block, they are twisted to-

gether in the opposite direction. These two twists in opposite directions keep the rope from untwisting. finished rope

is

wound on

The

end of the

reels at the other

machine.

made of three or four ropes in the same ropes are made of three or four strands.

Cables are

way

that

Cotton

The

who

early history of cotton

is

a big riddle.

lived in Peru four thousand years ago

and knew how cloth.

Mummy

to spin cotton yarn

wrappings found

The people grew cotton

and weave

in ancient

it

into

tombs

in

The people who lived in India at about the same time also knew how to grow, spin and weave cotton. The cotton plant grown in America

Peru are made of cotton

cloth.

today seems to be related to a wild cotton plant growing in

America and

makes some

scientists think that

were brought ago.

How

to the Indian cotton plant, too. This

this

to

Peru

in

happened

Indian cotton plants

some way thousands is

the big riddle. 19

of years

)

Unopened

Opened

boll

boll

showing locks

Cotton was not used in Egypt and Europe until about twenty-five

hundred years ago.

Now the world uses more

cotton than any other fiber. Cotton strong, It

has

is

many

uses. It it

is

used a

clothing, because

lot for clothing, sheets

can be washed

water. So cotton cloth it

is

easily.

especially

Cotton absorbs

good

summer

for

absorbs perspiration.

of the world's cotton

Cotton grows in is

make up

warm

is

climates. In the

United States

raised in the states of the South.

These

states

the cotton belt of the United States.

Cotton fiber comes from the seed pod or boll

kinds of

(

BOLE

The cotton plant is a flowering bush. cotton grow to be 6 feet tall. Other kinds

of the cotton plant.

Some

and

grown in the United the Soviet Union, China, India, Egypt and Brazil.

Most

cotton

cheap, light and

easy to spin, weave and dye. Cotton cloth

towels because

States,

is

20

are only a foot

tall.

Different kinds of cotton have dif-

The blossoms may be

ferent colored blossoms.

white,

yellow, pink or red.

The blossoms of the cotton plant last only about a day. Then the boll begins to form. The boll is divided into four or five parts called locks. Each lock has about nine seeds in it. Each seed has a thick mat of hair around it. These hairs are the cotton fibers. The seeds ripen about 50 days after the plant blossoms. Then the boll opens and the cotton fibers of the locks can be seen. The open boll looks like cotton candy. locks are

picking.

When

removed from the

Most cotton picking

bolls. is

work. In some places picking

The picked cotton The gin is a machine

is

the fibers have dried, the

This

is

called cotton

done by hand.

is

now done by

It is

hard

machine.

taken to the cotton gin (JIN).

that removes the cotton seeds. Af-

ter ginning, the cotton

is

pressed and tied into bales and

sent to spinning mills.

Cotton

fibers are

much

shorter than linen fibers.

cotton fibers are between % and

though cotton

fibers are so short,

1/2

inches long.

Most

Even

they can be spun easily

into a tightly twisted yarn because the fiber itself has a

Cotton fibers as they look under a microscope. Notice the twists

21

Each

natural twist.

The very

from 200 to 300

fiber has

best cotton has fibers

between 1% inches and

2 inches long. Cotton with long fibers staple

cotton

is

called long-

(STAY-puhl) cotton. Long-staple cotton comes

from Sea Island ifornia

twists.

in Georgia,

from Imperial Valley

in Cal-

and from Egypt. Cloth woven from long-staple is

fine

and

silky.

The Cotton Spinning Mill

When

the bales of cotton are opened at the spinning

mill, a little

cotton from

many

a machine called an opener.

is

fed into

fluffs

the cot-

different bales

The machine

ton and mixes together cotton from different bales.

mixing makes

all

The

the cotton that leaves the opener about

the same.

The cotton is then blown through pipes to the picker. The picker cleans the cotton by beating it. From the picker, the cotton goes to the card. The card cleans the fibers some more and makes them lie side by side. The combing machine

straightening out the fibers.

ing machine as a

(SLYV-uhr). The

cleaning

the

job

The

fibers leave the

finishes

of

and

comb-

soft,

untwisted rope called sliver

sliver

then goes on to the drawing

The drawing frame has a series of rollers that pull the sliver, making it thinner and more even. The slubber finishes what the drawing frame began. It also gives

frame.

22

the sliver it is

twist.

its first

called roving

(

When the fiber leaves the slubber,

ROH V-ing

other machines which twist

The roving goes on to and pull it some more. Fi)

.

nally the roving goes to the spinning frame

the roving

its last

pull

which gives

and twist. The fiber leaves the

spin-

ning frame as cotton yarn.

made by twisting together yarns in the same way as cable is made by twisting together ropes. Cotton thread

is

Cotton thread must before

it is

wound on

Most thread ized )

.

for

The thread

ical called lye.

is

still

go through a few more steps

spools to be sold in stores.

sewing

is

mercerized (MUHR-sir-

mercerized by soaking

it

in a

After the soaking each fiber

smooth round tube. The smoothness makes the

Using a modern spinning frame

is

chemlike a

fibers re-

BURL1NGAME PUETL1C

23

LIB.

fleet light.

ness

So mercerized

makes the

fibers look shiny.

The round-

The mercerized thread snow white. Then the thread

fibers stronger.

then bleached to make

it

is is

dyed to color it. Yarn that

dyed yarn from these

is

woven

into cloth usually

wound on hundreds spools is then wound

is

is first

of spools.

dyed.

The

The yarn

onto a huge 4-foot

spool, called a

beam. The yarn on the beam has hundreds

of loose ends,

one for each of the spools that was wound

onto

it.

The beam

is

now ready

to

be placed

in a

power

loom, where each loose end becomes a warp thread for

weaving. Mercerizing

is

woven. Sometimes cloth

woven,

done is

after the cloth has

dyed or printed

too.

Winding yarn onto a beam 24

after

been it

is

.

«

\ A wool

fiber looks scaly

under a microscope

.

x^maJiM"

.

.

.

.

but hair does not

—

Wool, an Animal Fiber

Wool of

is

the hairlike covering that grows on the skin

some mammals (MAM-uhls). Mammals

that feed their

young on mother's

milk.

from sheep. Some wool comes from nas, camels

and

and

alpacas.

of the llama, vicuna,

The wool

are animals

Most wool comes

goats, llamas, vicu-

of the

camel and alpaca

cashmere goat is

much

softer

than the wool of sheep.

Although wool grows from the skin of animals the way

not.

Wool is scaly is made up of

scaliness helps

wool do something that no other animal

hair does,

wool and hair are quite

different.

The outside of a wool fiber many tiny scales. The scales can be seen with the help of a microscope. Wool fibers are very curly, so wool is stretchier than hair. The scaliness and curliness of wool fibers make them stick together when they are twisted. This is why wool can be spun very easily into yarn. The and hair

fiber felt

is

can do naturally. Wool can

on pages 30 and

31.

25

felt

.

You can read about

*

\

1

i\PKi' f

m;

X

j /y

i. x