Family and Kinship in the Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature: Yearbook, 2012/2013, Family and Kinship in the Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature 3110310368, 9783110310368

Table of contents :
Preface
Abbreviations
From Tobit to Ben Sira: from nostalgia to the recovery of fatherhood
The Emotional Relationship of the Married Couple Hannah and Tobit
Tobit and Tobias: A Model for an Ideal Father-Son Relationship
“I Am My Father’s Only Daughter.” Sarah’s Unbalanced Relationship with Her Parents in the Book of Tobit
The relationship between husband and wife according to Sirach 25-26, 36
Polygamy in Ben Sira?
Respect and Care for Parents in Sirach 3:1-16
“The wisdom teaches their sons” (Sir 4:11). And the daughters? - Sons of Ben Sirach
Daughters and Their Father(s) in the Book of Ben Sira
Occasions when Wisdom replaces the Mother as Educator in Sirach and the Related Literature
The Fate of the Impious and of their Families
“I loved [Wisdom] and sought her from my youth; I desired to take her for my Counsellor” (Wis 8:2a). Solomon and Wisdom: An example of the Closest Intimacy
Esther’s Family: Ethnicity, Politics and Religion
The Praise of the Widow? Changes in the Judith Narrative
The Family Measure in 2 Maccabees: A Mother and Her Seven Sons (2 Macc 7:1-42)
Religious identity and its development. What may Children learn from their Elders?
Parents Rejoice Over Their Children: Examples in the Psalms
Jerusalem as Mother in Bar 4:5-5:9
Family Relationships in 4QInstruction
Illicit Unions, Hybrid Sonship, and Intermarriage in Second Temple Judaism. 1 Enoch, Book of Giants, Jubilees
Marriage and Family in Flavius Josephus’s Contra Apionem (II, § 199–206) against its Hellenistic background
Contingencies and Innovations in the Household Codes of the Pauline Traditions (Col 3:18-4:1; Eph 5:21-6:9)
Born or re-born? Identity and family bonds in 1 Peter and 4 Maccabees
The Fathership of God in Early Rabbinic Liturgy
The Role of the Family in Traditional Judaism
The Marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Venerable Bede’s Commentary on Tobit
Authors
Index of Modern Authors
Index of References
Index of Subjects

Citation preview

Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Yearbook 2012/2013

Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Edited by

Friedrich V. Reiterer, Pancratius C. Beentjes, Nu´ria Calduch-Benages, Benjamin G. Wright

De Gruyter

Yearbook 2012/2013 Family and Kinship in the Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Edited by

Angelo Passaro

De Gruyter

ISBN 978-3-11-031036-8 e-ISBN 978-3-11-031043-6 ISSN 1614-3361 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. 쑔 2013 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston 앝 Printed on acid-free paper 앪 Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com

Preface This volume represents the deposit of careful and detailed research on the concept of family relationships in the biblical tradition, at Qumran, in the ancient Christian literature and in Hellenistic Judaism up to the time of the Judaism of the present day. To summarise very briefly, it shows that family relationships are a metaphor for the situation which Israel and the primitive Christian community are living in their time – a situation determined by the awareness of the presence/absence of the divine, of the need for Wisdom to know the divine plans, etc. – and also a metaphor for the relationship with God. It is within this general frame of reference that the reflection on the relationships within the family (husband-wife, father-child, mother-child, parents-children, children-elders, etc.), but also on every relationship which might have a familial character, is carried out, always with the need for fidelity to the faith and the traditions of the fathers, and in obedience to the Law. The family’s task of education (in particular, that of the parents) consists, therefore, in teaching, in recounting the deeds of God and in the transmission of the faith. To be fathers and teachers are complementary tasks; in fact, the figures of the father and the teacher are metaphors for each other, as is the case also with the figure of the mother and that of Wisdom. The family is the place where there are relationships of freedom, care for the person, and warm affections; never ones that are impersonal or detached. For this reason, it is a guarantee of Jewish identity through the generations, and, for Christians too, it offers the model for the transmission of a precise identity. Particularly in a time when living together in a multi-ethnic setting, especially in a foreign land, had triggered off an inevitable confrontation with cultural and religious pluralism, launching a necessary process of revision in the biblical and Jewish world with regard to the paternal role, to the family, to the woman and to sexuality. It is precisely on the transformation of these roles that, the deutero-canonical books, Tobit and Sirach, display interesting perspectives and offer a picture of the changing situation in which Jewish society was finding itself. Certainly, the importance given to the family and family relationships is typical of a time of peace. 2 Macc shows how, in a time of violence, fidelity to God is more important than the family; the pre-eminence of familial relationships is a luxury which the Jewish community cannot allow itself. The early Christian community will also have to search for a balance between the relativising of familial links and their importance. What are the bonds which matter in the time preceding the parousia? Bonds which are

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Preface

not those of flesh and blood but which are not for this reason any less real and strong. Thus, the reflection on the family does not remain stuck in sociological stereotypes, nor does it dwell on exclusive psychological perspectives, but opens itself to the mystery of God to whose discreet but pervasive presence it bears witness. The production of a volume which is the outcome of an international Conference organised by the International Society for Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature, is always an opus that requires a patient effort of sharing and participation by so many people who, in different ways, have given of their time, their energy and their skills in work that is often obscure but necessary. For this reason, my gratitude is due particularly to the generous helpfulness of Dr. Giuseppina Zarbo who was Chief Secretary of the General Secretariat of the Conference which was held in Palermo from 27 June to 1 July 2011, but who, above all, has read the manuscript and, with patience and expertise taken care of the sections of the Indices and the Abbreviations. That Secretariat also included Dr. Giovanni Pappalardo who last year returned, suddenly, to his Father’s house. To his memory we would like to dedicate this volume. He awaited it with interest, as did Giuseppe Rugolo, Pietro Lo Vecchio, Daniele Centorbi, Luigi Bocchieri, students of the diocesan Seminary of Piazza Armerina and of the Theological Faculty “Saint John the Evangelist”, and Antonio Zarcone and Erasmo Schillaci, both students of the same Faculty, all of whom performed the difficult work of the Secretariat with care and accuracy. My personal gratitude goes to the Theological Faculty “Saint John the Evangelist” which hosted the Conference, as also to Antonella and Giacomo Bucaro of the Conca d’Oro Travel in Palermo who took on the organisation of the travel of all the participants. This volume would not have seen the light of day but for the scrupulous attention and care of Dr. Michael Tait who with tireless availability and specialised knowledge translated into English texts that were originally in Italian and French. To him are due my most warm thanks which are extended also to Dr. Salvatore Tirrito who has been a valuable and irreplaceable collaborator in IT matters. Thanks also to Francesco Bonanno, who edited the (selective) Index of biblical and extra-biblical quotations (References) and to my colleagues Giuseppe Bellia and Rosario Pistone for their valuable suggestions. Last but not least, my thanks must go to the publishers, W. de Gruyter: to Dr. Albrecht Döhnert, Katrin Mittmann, Sophie Wagenhofer and Sabina Dabrowski, for having accepted this volume for publication and for the “familial” collaboration which they have constantly offered me. Palermo, October 2013

Angelo Passaro

Contents Preface V Abbreviations XI Giuseppe Bellia From Tobit to Ben Sira: from nostalgia to the recovery of fatherhood

1

Renate Egger-Wenzel The Emotional Relationship of the Married Couple Hannah and Tobit

41

Beate Ego Tobit and Tobias: A Model for an Ideal Father-Son Relationship

77

Geoffrey D. Miller “I Am My Father’s Only Daughter.” Sarah’s Unbalanced Relationship with Her Parents in the Book of Tobit

87

Ibolya Balla The relationship between husband and wife according to Sirach 25-26, 36

107

Nuria Calduch-Benages Polygamy in Ben Sira?

127

Jeremy Corley Respect and Care for Parents in Sirach 3:1-16

139

Thomas R. Elssner “The wisdom teaches their sons” (Sir 4:11). And the daughters? - Sons of Ben Sirach

173

Pancratius C. Beentjes Daughters and Their Father(s) in the Book of Ben Sira

183

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Jacques Vermeylen Occasions when Wisdom replaces the Mother as Educator in Sirach and the Related Literature

203

Maurice Gilbert The Fate of the Impious and of their Families

221

Luca Mazzinghi “I loved [Wisdom] and sought her from my youth; I desired to take her for my Counsellor” (Wis 8:2a). Solomon and Wisdom: An example of the Closest Intimacy

229

Dionisio Candido Esther’s Family: Ethnicity, Politics and Religion

253

Géza G. Xeravits The Praise of the Widow? Changes in the Judith Narrative

273

Michael W. Duggan The Family Measure in 2 Maccabees: A Mother and Her Seven Sons (2 Macc 7:1-42)

283

Friedrich V. Reiterer Religious identity and its development. What may Children learn from their Elders?

301

Christine Abart Parents Rejoice Over Their Children: Examples in the Psalms

331

Horacio Simian-Yofre Jerusalem as Mother in Bar 4:5-5:9

363

émile Puech Family Relationships in 4QInstruction

377

Luca Arcari Illicit Unions, Hybrid Sonship, and Intermarriage in Second Temple Judaism. 1 Enoch, Book of Giants, Jubilees

405

Contents

IX

Eberhard Bons Marriage and Family in Flavius Josephus’s Contra Apionem (II, § 199–206) against its Hellenistic background

455

Antonio Pitta Contingencies and Innovations in the Household Codes of the Pauline Traditions (Col 3:18-4:1; Eph 5:21-6:9)

467

Rosario Pistone Born or re-born? Identity and family bonds in 1 Peter and 4 Maccabees

481

Stefan C. Reif The Fathership of God in Early Rabbinic Liturgy

505

Luciana Pepi The Role of the Family in Traditional Judaism

527

Bradley C. Gregory The Marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Venerable Bede’s Commentary on Tobit

547

Authors 559 Index of Modern Authors 561 Index of References 573 Index of Subjects 581

Abbreviations AASF Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary ABG Arbeiten zur Bibel und ihrer Geschichte AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums AnBib Analecta Biblica AncB Anchor Bible AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament ATD Das Alte Testament Deutsch AugR Augustinianum AzTh Arbeiten zur Theologie Bac Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos BBB Bonner biblische Beiträge BBET Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie BEATAJ Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des Antiken Judentums BeOr Bibbia e Oriente BEThL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium Bib Biblica BiOr Biblica et orientalia BK Biblischer Kommentar BiLi Bibel und Liturgie BiRe Bible review BJS Biblical and Judaic Studies BKAT Biblischer Kommentar. Altes Testament BN NF Biblische Notizen. Neue Forschung BOT De boeken van het Oude Testament BUL Biblioteca Universale Laterza BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft CAT Commentaire de l’Ancien Testament CBC The Cambridge Bible Commentary CBET Contributions to biblical exegesis and theology CBQ Catholic Biblical quarterly CBQ.MS Catholic Biblical quarterly. Monograph series CEJL Commentaries on early Jewish literature CSCO Corpus scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium CThM.BW Calwer Theologische Monographien. A. Bibelwissenschaft DBS Dictionnaire de la Bible. Supplément DCLY Deuterocanonical and cognate literature yearbook DCLS Deuterocanonical and cognate literature studies DJD Discoveries in the Judean Desert

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Abbreviations

DSD Dead Sea Discoveries EHAT Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament EHS.T Europäische Hochschulschriften. Reihe XXIII, Theologie EI Eretz-Israel EstBib Estudios Biblicos EtB Études Bibliques EThL Ephemerides theologicae Lovanienses ExpTim Expository Times FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament FCB The Feminist Companion to the Bible FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Greg. Gregorianum GSL.AT Geistliche Schriftlesung. AT HAR Hebrew annual review HAT Handbuch zum Alten Testament HBS Herders biblische Studien = Herder’s biblical studies HCOT Historical commentary on the Old Testament Hen Henoch HSAT Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testamentes HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs HThK.AT Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament HThR Harvad theological review HUCA Hebrew Union College annual ICC International Critical Commentary IDB Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible JAJ Journal of Ancient Judaism JBL Journal of biblical literature JHS Journal of hellenic studies JJS Journal of jewish studies JQR Jewish quarterly review JSHRZ Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistich-römischer Zeit JSJ Journal for the study of Judaism JSJ.S Supplements to the Journal for the study of Judaism JSNT Journal for the study of the New Testament JSNT.S Journal for the study of the New Testament. Supplement series JSOT Journal for the study of the Old Testament JSOT.S Journal for the study of the Old Testament. Supplement series JSP.S Journal for the study of the Pseudepigrapha. Supplement series KAT Kommentar zum Alten Testament LAPO Littératures anciennes du Proche-Orient LBNT Libri Biblici. Nuovo Testamento LCL Loeb Classical Library LeDiv Lectio Divina MPI Monographs of the Peshitta Institute Leiden MVÄG Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatisch-Ägyptischen Gesellschaft NEB.AT Neue Echter Bibel. Altes Testament

Abbreviations

XIII

NETS A New English Translation of the Septuagint NRT Nouvelle revue théologique NSK.AT Neuer Stuttgarter Kommentar. Altes Testament NTS New Testament Studies NT.S Supplements to Novum Testamentum OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis OTL Old Testament Library OTMes Old Testament Message PRSt Perspectives in religious studies PSV Parola Spirito Vita PVTG Pseudepigrapha Veteris Testamenti Graece QD Quaestiones disputatae RB Revue Biblique RdQ Revue de Qumran RHPR Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieuses RivB Rivista Biblica RivB Suppl. Supplementi di Rivista Biblica RStB Ricerche Storico Bibliche RTL Revue Théologique de Louvain SBL.DS Society of Biblical Literature. Dissertation series SBL.EJL Society of Biblical Literature. Early Judaism and Its Literature SBL.MS Society of Biblical Literature. Monograph series SBL.SCS Society of Biblical Literature. Septuagint and cognate studies series SBL.SP Society of Biblical Literature. Seminar papers SBS Stuttgarter Bibelstudien SETh Salzburger Exegetische Theologische Vörtrage SJOT Scandinavian journal of the Old Testament SOC Scritti delle Origini Cristiane SPB Studia post-biblica STAC Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum STAR Studies in Theology and Religion STDJ Studies on the texts of the Desert of Judah SVTP Studia in Veteris Testamenti pseudepigrapha TBT Theologische Bibliothek Töpelmann TDNT Theological Dictionary of New Testament TDOT Theological Dictionary of Old Testament ThBN Themes in biblical narrative ThPQ Theologisch-praktische Quartalschrift ThWAT Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testamen ThWNT Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testamen TRE Theologische Realenzyklopädie TSAJ Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum TThSt Trierer Theologische Studien TUAT Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments UTB Uni-Taschenbücher VT Vetus Testamentum VT.S Vetus Testamentum Supplement

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Abbreviations

WBC Word Biblical Commentary WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft ZB Zürcher Bibelkommentare. AT ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

From Tobit to Ben Sira: from nostalgia to the recovery of fatherhood Giuseppe Bellia The only biblical book that tells of the life of the Jewish communities in the Diaspora of Mesopotamia in the obscure Assyrian period, Tobit is a text which is wholly immune to any objective historical configuration and any realistic social environment. Unusual too is its theological and exegetical fortune: rejected from the Jewish canon and taken into the Christian one, it continues to attract criticism and agreement from the specialists on account of its anomalous literary form. The little book by the specialists is presented as a paraenetic novella or it is brought back into the typology of the popular narrative, the so-called folk-tale, and, finally, with Wills it is decided to define it as a “Jewish romance”1 or, more accurately, a “historico-religious romance.”2 In fact, it is an attractive sapiential tale which incorporates didactic, hymnic and prophetic elements, recounting an edifying event in a family environment.3 We are before an evident work of fiction, one, however, that claims to be attested as an historical memory within a precise spatial-temporal framework, a setting, however, which is almost entirely imaginary. But how do we read a fictional text historically?

1. Introduction If scant historical value is generally attached to the writings of the wise scribes of Israel on account of their didactic intent, it is withheld wholly from the Book of Tobit because of its declared apologetic intent in support of the Deuteronomistic doctrine. Because of their pedagogic purpose, their desire to give advice and impart maxims of perennial and universal value, the writings of the sages show little interest in defining concrete 1 2

3

Cf. Grabbe, Tobit, 736-737; Moore, Tobit, 588b-589a; Soll, Tobit and Folklore Studies, 39-53; Wills, The Jewish Novel, 68-92; Zappella, Tobit, 18-20. Soggin, Introduzione, 523-524; Fitzmyer, Tobit, 31-33; Toloni, Echi omerici, 13. For the biblical narrative more generally, cf. Alter, L’arte della narrativa biblica; Grottanelli, Sette storie bibliche, 17-21 and 22-38; Navarro Puerto, Racconti biblici. Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit, 278-279; Fitzmyer, Tobit, 46-49.

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contexts. Their reflections mirror the eternal problems of man, and so their sayings transcend times and places, cultures and institutions, social customs and attitudes. This is an even more pertinent observation when a text, as is the case with Tobit, locates itself right from the beginning as an instructive parable of human faithfulness rewarded by divine justice. To show the benefits of an existence which is blessed from on high if lived in conformity with the laws and traditions of the fathers pushes the author on to the ethical plane of persuasion and certainly does not require compelling historical details on the literal level.4 I my opinion the historico-anthropological approach that has been used many times in the past for the wisdom texts can also be applied to the trajectory of the paternal function which extends from the Book of Tobit to the text of Ben Sira, allowing the reading of those cultural traits that underlie every literary communication and are necessarily shared by the author and his readers.5 The historico-anthropological reading must show itself to be respectful of the definitive conditions in which a biblical text reaches us taken in its formal interest, both from the literary point of view for its final redaction and from the theological point of view for its peculiar canonical configuration. However, a text speaks for itself when it becomes significant to mention also the voids, the lacunae, the blank spaces of the communicative act. Precisely in these spaces of memory or narrative voids one can profitably insert an honest dialogue “between exegesis and psychology or psychoanalysis in view of a better understanding of the Bible” as recommended by the important document of the Pontifical Biblical Commission in 1993.6 An explanation is, however, necessary on the task of these last two disciplines which have already been employed in the past with different degrees of fortune in the interpretation of the different levels of reality expressed in the biblical texts, helping a better understanding of the experiences of life narrated and the rules of behaviour set down. The Book of Tobit and the subject chosen for this paper lend themselves to delicious and suggestive psychoanalytic forays which are difficult to control on the objective plane. In this research, therefore, the psychoanalytical investigation, above all, remains in the background.7 The possible affinities, agree-

4 Soll, Misfortune and Exile, 209-231; Bauckham, Tobit as a Parable, 433-459. 5 Bellia, Proverbi, 56-63; Id., An historico-anthropological reading, 49-51. 6 PCB, L’interpretazione della Bibbia nella Chiesa, 56. 7 Cf. the analysis of Drewermann, Il cammino pericoloso, and, on the psychological plane, Stancari, Il libro di Tobia.

From Tobit to Ben Sira: from nostalgia to the recovery of fatherhood

3

ments or allusions will be indirect and marginal, always induced from an historico-anthropological perspective, alert to analogy and previous human and religious developments recorded in the artistic and literary testimonies of the dominant Hellenistic culture. Following the approach already adopted for the books of the sapiential pentateuch, I shall present first of all, in summary, the historico-literary framework in which the Book of Tobit is situated. By means of a sociological and anthropological investigation of the text, I shall try to draw out the family and religious culturology beneath the redactional tapestry. I shall, therefore, be seeking a comparison with an analogous and preceding recovery of the figure of the father recorded in the literary testimonies of the dominant Hellenistic culture. Finally, by means of an historico-anthropological reading, I shall trace some features of the path trodden by the paternal function from the Eastern Diaspora to the Jerusalem of the Second Temple which, at the time of Ben Sira, seems to have started to recompose itself in the furrow of a renewed tradition which carries, however, the oblique signs of a restorative intention.

2. The search for the historico-literary framework For an anomalous literary genre like that of the Book of Tobit, where events, plots and characters are interwoven, it is an irksome job, and one which cannot be carried out with the normal criteria of research, to define the spatial-temporal coordinates of the work, identifying the author, addressees, and date and place of composition. A deeply dramatic fiction hinged on the account of the miracle of the cure of Tobit’s blindness brought about by his son, so that it may be situated suitably, it requires that elements of comparison and literarily adequate points of reference be identified. In reality, the book contains numerous references to the foundational texts of Judaism by means of the adoption of theological theses or the reformulation of narrative themes, if not exactly by means of the mirroring of equivalent events.8 Beside the biblical influences, we also find traces of not a few influences foreign to the world of the Bible, which, together with infra-biblical agreements, combine to draw a more likely ideological atmosphere, illuminating the historico-literary climate

8

Moore, Tobit, 20-21; Vílchez Líndez, Tobit, 74-75; Nickelsburg, The Search, 340-342; Zappella, Tobit, 16-18; Di Lella, The Book of Tobit and the Book of Judges, 197-206.

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nearest to the work, its authors and addressees.9 It is useful to be aware of these connections, reviewing them briefly. The principal source of theological inspiration for the Book of Tobit is recognised in the imposing Deuteronomistic theological tradition. It has already been noticed that the author makes his story turn on the theology of the covenant, the observing of which procures salvation and blessing to the people as to each Israelite (Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-30; Tob 4:6), while infidelity provokes the curse of exile (Deut 4:27-28; Tob 3:3-4; 12:10). Beside this dominant idea we can glimpse other secondary theological elements: - the centrality of the Jerusalem cult (Deut 12:1-14; Tob 1:4-6; 13:11-18); - the command to fear and love God (Deut 6:13; Tob 4:21; 14:7); - the summons to the prayer of blessing and praise (Deut 8:10; Tob 13:7); - the certainty of his great mercy (Deut 30:1-4; Tob 13:2-6); - the assurance of being assembled to live as blessed ones in the land promised to Abraham’s descendants (Deut 1:8; 6:10; 12:10-11; Tob 13:13; 14:7); - above all, the characteristic ‘theology of remembrance’ which also marks the highly paradigmatic theme of the journey (Deut 8:18; Tob 4:5).10 On the narrative level, the preeminent inspiration appears to belong to the figure of Job whose story seems to be taken up again in several ways, not only with regard to the key theme of the suffering of the righteous, but also in the weaving of the narrative.11 The agreements in the structure of the two accounts can be summarised in the story of a righteous man proved by God in his faith (Tob 1:1-8; Job 1:1-5) who, after the trial of illness (Tob 2:10-11 and Job 2:7-8), regains his health, blessing and honour (Tob 11:13-21; 14:1-4; Job 42:12-15) on account of his faithfulness. In the two works, different journeys are narrated and the Book of Tobit offers different narratival innovations required by its own cultural context beyond that of its specific literary setting. The commentators have pointed out the numerous analogies and multiple agreements with other biblical places. The unfolding of the plot seems to be inspired by the account of the patriarchs: the theme of the 9 Cf. Vílchez Líndez, Tobia, 21-22. 10 Di Lella, The Book of Tobit, 197-206. 11 Toloni, La sofferenza del giusto, 17-58; cf., also, the monograph of Nowell, The Book of Tobit.

From Tobit to Ben Sira: from nostalgia to the recovery of fatherhood

5

daring expedition to find a spouse of the same family descent (Gen 24); the figure of Tamar, a woman who bears death but from whom will come the descent (Gen 38); Joseph, the foreign slave who rises to honour in the court of the great monarch (Gen 41).12 The historical framework seems to derive from the Book of Kings, while the frequent appeals to the Law of Moses (cf. Tob 1:6, 8; 4:5; 6:13; 7:10, 12) refer to legislative norms present in the Pentateuch and in particular in Deuteronomy.13 Multiple too are the contacts of the book with the sapiential texts, with Proverbs especially, and with the Psalms. Finally not without importance, a quotation of Amos (8:10) in Tob 2:6, while, in 14:4, the redactor evokes the prophetic figure of Nahum to confer authority on his own writing, but perhaps also to signal a hermeneutical orientation which claims to interpret historical events according to the style of actualising commentary of the Qumran pesharim. It is precisely in the caves of Qumran that a good four Aramaic and one Hebrew manuscripts of Tobit have been found.14 Is this common prophetic address perhaps the scarlet thread which links Tobit to the men of that community? No less interesting for our research is the correct valuation of the possible literary influences foreign to the biblical world and hailing from the non-Jewish, middle Hellenistic environment. Let us begin with the clearest data. Among the Greek texts, symptomatic but also surprising is the reference to the pedagogic story of Ahikar (1:21-22; 2:10; 11:19; 14:110) which the author of Tobit uses anecdotally, perhaps to reinforce the universal import of his moral lesson of the innocent who is unjustly accused but in the end rehabilitated by direct divine intervention.15 It can be supposed that our author would have known of these or other similar popular legends that were widely diffused in his time and would have drawn from them only in part; it is certain, however, that he was able to integrate the fabulous elements with fertile inventiveness within a historico-religious plot entirely consonant with his own tradition.16 On the other hand, common and universal themes like those alluded to above, which are present in all cultures, present the problem of the real influence which a Jew, and especially a Jew of the Diaspora could have been subject to, not so much from the more widespread popular tales as rather from the pervasive and dominant Greek culture. It is unthinka-

12 Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit, 292-303; Moore, Tobit, 8-9 13 Fitzmyer, Tobit, 35-36 14 Schmitt, Die hebräischen Textfunde, 569. 15 Cf. Contini – Grottanelli, Il saggio Ahiqar, 22-26; Toloni, Tobi e Ahiqar, 141-165. 16 Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit, 280-292; Moore, Book of Tobit, 588; Id., Tobit, 11-12.

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ble that an educated author like ours would not have had an adequate knowledge of the Greek classical world as it was taught in the Hellenistic schools of the period. It is enough to observe the prolix narrative with a happy ending that has been announced beforehand, the skilful weaving of the plot, the poorness of the historical and geographical details, the subtle and neat use of irony, the presence of animated dialogues and stretches of interior monologues which, with some mastery, are turned into prayer. This and other rhetorical expedients employed in the book reveal an advanced awareness of narrative techniques of the Hellenistic school which the author puts at the service of a didactic-sapiential project in support of his religious creed. In the past, with varying success, some authors have sought to explore the existence of thematic influences and literary agreements between the Book of Tobit and the works of classical Greece.17 More than other themes, the journey of Tobias to the East and the return of the long-suffering Ulysses to Ithaca have attracted the attention of scholars, pressing them into a comparison between Tobit and the Odyssey. Recently, these insights have been taken up again and weighed up starting from the literary genre of the two works, held to be close to the popular tale, and from their comparable compositional structure, in order to be able to pass on to a review of the numerous thematic analogies and the most significant similar motifs. I am not going into the merit of these readings. I limit myself to taking notice of a comparison between the two works that is certainly possible and really suggestive. I am able to indicate: the daring voyage to the remote regions of the East; the dangers and the unexpected happenings of an unknown journey; the dramatic world of family affections; the intense affair of conjugal love.18 Among the shared narrative elements are to be signalled: the laborious father-son relationship; the symbolic presence of the faithful dog and the divine intermediaries; the humanity bare of tears; the trust in drugs and magic potions; and, finally, the decisive metaphor of blindness also.19

17 Those who favour this point of view are: Fries, Das Buch Tobit und die Telemachie, 54-87; Glasson, The Main Source of Tobit, 275-277; critical, on the other hand, is Vattioni, Studi e note sul libro di Tobia, 241-284. 18 Cf. Toloni, Echi omerici, 17-22; for a comparison with the Greek world, cf. the volume edited by Grabbe, Did Moses Speak Attic?; in particular: Albertz, The end of the confusion?, 31-45; Becking, The Hellenistic Period, 78-90; Lemche, The Old Testament – A Hellenistic Book?, 287-318; Averincev, Atene e Gerusalemme; Wendland, La cultura ellenistico-romana; Hengel, Ebrei, Greci e barbari; Id., Giudaismo ed ellenismo. 19 Toloni, Echi omerici, 22-30. Cf., also, Finley, Il mondo di Odisseo, 199; Gentiloni, Abramo contro Ulisse; Vertova, Il viaggio di Abramo, 287-307.

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It is possible that the last hagiographer re-elaborated an ancient tale of Tobit and Tobias with Greek assonances in order to give an energetic response to the questions of the Israelites of the Diaspora. It is likewise possible that he exploited the widespread knowledge of the Homeric narrative in view of the success and the enormous diffusion which the story of Odysseus had met with in the Hellenistic age, in order to confer a greater prestige and a vaster resonance on his own work, and to reanimate the expectations of the community by prophesying a return laden with blessing as had happened to the young and obedient son of Tobit. That the Odyssey is the inspiration of the Book of Tobit is an acceptable thesis but not a convincing one on account of some forcings in the parallels and the fact that the same authors have explained that we can detect a moral rather than a formal dependence on the part of our hagiographer on the Homeric model.20 One can only point out a use of the folk-tale of the narrative of Odysseus as the ideal archetype which, in the manner of the Book of Job, acts as framework for the whole book.21 However, judgement on the real influence exercised by the preponderant Greek thought on the fervent literary vein of the biblical authors of that period remains suspended. On this question, there is need of further research to understand what has allowed the hagiographer to carry out a theological operation aimed at protecting the hope of his coreligionists with compositional procedures which, far from the land of the fathers, must not cut a sorry figure before the superior technique of Hellenistic writing.

3. The social environment of Tobit Up to now, something has been observed of the environment of the Book of Tobit, something in truth more ideological than historical. We must now take into consideration the possibility of a sociological and anthropological investigation of the text to seek to grasp its more realistic human and social environment. For this investigation, a valid model from which to take comparative patterns and parameters with which to understand the biblical data starting from their own cultural context is the Mediterranean anthropology of Malina.22 In order to compare the characteristic 20 Toloni, Echi omerici, 34-35, where he cites Trebolle Barrera, La Biblia judía, 200. 21 Cf. Cantilena, Odysseus tra folk-tale e leggenda eroica, 9-21. 22 Cf. Malina, Nuovo Testamento e antropologia, 41-72; in addition, the pioneering works of Pitt Rivers, The People of the Sierra; Campbell, Honour, Family and Pa-

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social actions of the Mediterranean area today with the historical data transmitted by the Scriptures (from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE), one must, however, pay attention to the fact that a certain cultural homogeneity has been safeguarded over a long period in such a way as to ensure that the paradigms of traditional life have not been upset by the processes of accelerated and untidy modernisation. In this perspective, the cultural Graeco-Roman koinè assures a trustworthy ethical framework of social mediation between the ancient world of the Jewish Diaspora and the collective imagination of the Western Mediterranean world where certain cultural stylemes and certain moral behaviour are still in vogue.23 The Book of Tobit is situated within the period considered by Malina, within the lively Hellenistic age, for it is the common opinion that it was composed around the third century BCE when the prophets had already been received as Scripture (Tob 14:4). The key values of the ancient Mediterranean culture proposed by Malina are too well-known to be re-exhibited here. For our enquiry, however, it seems useful to me to record that the three systems of social demarcation constituted by authority, by status of class and by respect, still quite common in the Mediterranean world, mark out where they coexist, today as in the past, that claim to socially recognised value called honour. An added reference should be made to the other significant value of the Mediterranean world represented by collectivism. The honour of the group to which one belongs requires the constant domination of the individual conscience by the collective conscience because the choice of the collective well-being must always be put before the search for individual well-being.24 In the Book of Tobit, it is precisely the symbolic and social value assigned to honour which plays an essential role in identifying the legitimate and acknowledged place which the characters occupy in society, defining their actual social position. In fact, “from a functionalist point of view, honour is the value of someone in his own eyes together with the value of

tronage, and the volume edited by Peristiany, Honour and Shame; and, finally, Gilmore, Honor and Shame and the Unity. 23 Brandes, Reflections of Honor and Shame, 121-134; Chance The Anthropology of Honor, 139-151; cf., also, the methodological reflections of Herzfeld, Honour and Shame, 339-351; for shame in biblical literature, cf. Stiebert, The construction of shame, 25-86; deSilva, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 433-455. 24 Malina, Nuovo Testamento e antropologia, 42-44 and 75-83. Pitt Rivers had distinguished honour as virtue from ‘precedence’ and from moral reputation (The People of the Sierra, 72), while Herzfeld had explained the semantic difference between the English honour, of Victorian origin, and the honour understood as ‘respect’ in Southern Italy (Honour and Shame, 340).

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this person in the eyes of his social group.”25 In the light of this scenario of honour, the affairs of the different characters, male and female, treated in the book have been interpreted as the parable of a way of redemption, moral and religious, where the initial honour, threatened, damaged and lost, is unexpectedly regained, restored and recovered. We shall briefly glide over the steps of this socio-anthropological itinerary of recovery of lost honour, following the narrative order of the fourteen chapters.26 The initial genealogy of the book (1:1) itself signals the importance of the honour attributed to each person simply by force of his belonging to the family and clan. The opening framework (1:3-8) describes with light touches the honourable existence of Tobit in his serene and comfortable youth, in order to go on to recount his exemplary life as an adult (1:9-18). But already at the end of the first chapter (1:19-22), the path of Tobit’s humiliation begins to be outlined when he is forced to hide and to flee after he has been accused before the king of having buried the dead. The narrative continues by describing the descending parabola of the reputation of the righteous and pious Israelite who, in the evening, in the shade of the sunset, weeps in his solitude (2:1-8). His descent along the path of progressive loss of honour has still to register a further let-down. After having been mocked cruelly by his neighbours (v. 8), he has to undergo the affront of apparent divine neglect which, as had already happened with Job, permitted the evil lot to rage upon Tobit. Deprived of all his goods, he is now put to the test in his own physical person, becoming blind, and then in his soul by undergoing the resentful rebukes of his wife (2:9-14). His physical blindness reveals to him his human and religious blindness as a righteous man, rigid keeper of the Law, the full observance of which he praises but which does not give him the ability to see and recognise the good in those around him who serve him and love him. Now having sharpened awareness of his disastrous condition of human and spiritual limitation, he retires to ask from God a liberating death (3:1-6). His prayer, although mirroring the tone of the lamentations and penitential psalms is the disconsolate entreaty of one who has lost his reputation in the eyes of the world, in the eyes of his dear ones, and in his own eyes: it is the terminal prayer of a man without honour.27 At this point, the skilful weaving of the plot introduces, with perfect narrative synchrony, an analogous journey of loss of honour, describing 25 Malina, Nuovo Testamento e antropologia, 68. 26 Gilmore, Introduction: The Shame of Dishonor, 2-21. 27 Drewermann, Il cammino pericoloso, 29-36. Cf., also, Stiebert, The construction of shame, 3-12; Giovannini, Female Chastity, 61-74.

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in the feminine the shameful condition of Sara (3:7-11a). Insulted by a slave on account of her status as an impure woman because possessed by a demon which causes the death of whoever get close to her, at the low point of her bitter humiliation, she thinks of committing suicide. The tormenting thought of her father prevents her; so as not further burden the already compromised reputation of her father, she too blesses God and seeks death from him (3:11-15). It is here that the ‘great prolepsis’ of the Book of Tobit is effected: anticipating the hearing of the two supplications, the dramatic force of the two misfortunes is unexpectedly softened, without causing a loss of interest and rhythm to the account.28 The prayer of the two humiliated individuals, now arrived at the nadir of their state of being forgotten by God and rejected by men (cf. Ps 130:1), is accepted by the benevolent divine will: God, the God of the fathers, always listens to the prayer of men without honour (3:16-17). Unaware of the provident plan of God with regard to him, but certain of being heard by God in his request for death, Tobit disposes of his goods entrusting Tobias with his spiritual testament.29 Imitating a literary genre that was widespread in the intertestamental literature of the Hellenistic period, he utters his farewell discourse, offering his young son the opportunity of preserving and rescuing the paternal honour, entrusting him, together with a list of counsels and precepts to be observed, with a fabulous and far-off inheritance to be recovered and of which he has regained the memory only at the point of death (4:1-21).30 From then on, under the attentive governance of Azaria/Raphael, unrecognised divine messenger, the steps of a gradual path of liberation from shame and dishonour are articulated. Precisely thanks to the successful path of initiation of the son, it will culminate in the blessing of a happy ending which has already been announced to the reader: the woman is freed from the power of the demon and the father is cured of his blindness. The conclusion of the account which celebrates the reconstituted harmony of the family supplies, however, an important theological lesson which it is worth noticing. The reader who, together with the protagonists of this ‘Jewish romance’ has travelled the path of the regaining of honour that has been denied or devalued by the imponderability of destiny and human shabbiness, is called, in the Canticle on Jerusalem, to be a witness and participant in the mysterious presence of God in the history of the believers 28 Cf. Vílchez Líndez, Tobia, 60; Zappella, Tobit, 13-16. 29 Di Lella, Two Major Prayers, 95-116; Fitzmyer, Tobit, 148-149. 30 Vílchez Líndez ,Tobia, 68 e 79; Drewermann, Il cammino pericoloso, 51-54; ; Stancari, Il libro di Tobia, 33-40.

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and the peoples, confessing the divine mercy and greatness (13:1-14:1). As Raphael recalls before revealing his angelic nature, the legitimate search for human respect should not lead to the forgetting of the absolute primacy of the divine honour (12:6-10). Only God is worthy of honour, and the reputation of the righteous receives dignity and glory from him alone. The light of the eyes given back to Tobit to see and contemplate the secret of the solicitous presence of God should thus help to cure also the blindness of the reader who has doubted divine providence.31 This socio-anthropological reconstruction of the story of Tobit, freshly understood in the perspective of honour as a typical value of Mediterranean culture, is undoubtedly loaded with fascination on account of the multiple suggestions which it can provoke, but must be filtered through an historical reading so as not to leave unanswered the search for a realistic setting for the book within the historical contest of the religion of Israel. A reading laid on atemporal data, risks giving the text an achronic understanding, where the actual human, family and social relationships are characterised and perceived as immobile and outside time, indifferent to the historical traumas which were involved in living the faith of the fathers in the land of the Diaspora.32 The multi-ethnic living together in a foreign land had triggered off an inevitable confrontation with cultural and religious pluralism, setting in motion in the biblical and Jewish world a necessary process of revision in relation to the paternal role, the family, the woman and sexuality. It is precisely on the stratification and transformation of these roles that Tobit has something to say.

4. Post-Exilic piety in the family The destruction of the monarchy and the end of the temple cult had provoked in the religious circles of the Exile a period of burning disputes over the theological interpretation of the political catastrophe. The war 31 Zappella, Tobit, 20; Stancari, Il libro di Tobia, 83-91. 32 Pina-Cabral (The Mediterranean as a category, 399-406) has shown up the artificial nature of the model of Honour and Shame which has been taken up to interpret Mediterranean society conceived as a single, homogeneous cultural area. The “academic Mediterranean lump” was a clever invention of Anglo-American anthropology which ‘tribalised’ that Mediterranean which was considered by historians as the cradle of urban civilisation. Ensuing studies, feminist and the like, have proved that that paradigm was not satisfactory to explain the complexity of a geo-historical area studied by anthropologists only on the basis of small and marginal rural communities.

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for the acceptance of the prophetic theology of opposition had spurred the Deuteronomists, linked to the tradition of Jeremiah, to carry out a work of missionary teaching to combat the idolatrous contaminations and the syncretism which was widespread in the private sphere, eating away at the traditional religious foundation of the family. With the irreversible crisis of official religion and the dissolution of the political forms of organisation, the only social mediation that had survived was precisely that of the family with its patriarchal organisation. Moreover, family piety had been the pillar of the Yahwistic religion even before the Exile, allowing, in the rapid and sorrowful evolution of events, the preservation in its integrity of the popular soul of personal piety which, precisely from the more reassuring family relations, provided nourishment for an equally authentic and consoling relationship with God.33 It is not surprising, therefore, that after the Exile recourse was had to the faith of the patriarchs, recovering their exemplarity in the personal relationship with God as an antidote to social and religious dislocation which, in the Diaspora, seemed difficult to contain outside the family structure. The centrality of the family also protected the not secondary role of the woman, mother and wife, to whom was entrusted the early education of the children. Hence the importance of her figure for the maintenance of family traditions. The need to keep the family united and solid in its traditional features convinced Ezra to join exigencies of a moral type with ethnic conditions as the vital presupposition for his cultic reorganisation. With his rigid reform intended also to protect the Jewish people most compromised with idolatry, he decreed the dissolution of mixed marriages because they were judged a risk of syncretistic deviations or various forms of apostasy (cf. Ezra 9:1-10, 44; Neh 10:31; 13:23-31).34 Pressing forcefully for endogamous marriage, celebrated in the Jewish Hellenistic literature, both Greek, as is attested also in our book (Tob 4:12) and in the Testament of Job (45:3), and Hebrew (cf. Jub. 4:11), he intended to reduce the pressures which were corroding what remained of the tradition of the fathers. He imposed a practice that was excessively rigoristic and which clearly was not able to find ready acceptance in the Diaspora, where there were confrontations and collisions with the different models of Hellenstic culture, generating quite different reactions within the various forms of 33 Albertz, Storia della religione, 461-467 for the pillar type of family piety in the Yahwistic religion; for the piety of the microgroup in the time of the Diaspora, cf. 604-606. 34 Cf., also, Deut 7:2f.; Jos 9:6ff.; 23:7, 12; Jdg 2:2; 3:6; cf. 1 Kgs 11:3f.; 16:31; 2 Kgs 8:18. Cf. Smith, The Politics of Ezra, 73-97.

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Jewish membership. A minority group of exiles opposed a tenacious and sometimes also intolerant resistance to any openness to mixed marriages. They were obstinately bound to the institution of endogamous marriage as Tobit attests in a didactic and, all things considered, detached way. In the Diaspora, the observance of these norms had become the constitutive hinge of the new way of obeying the Torah, confirmed by the blind Tobit and witnessed to by the mysterious Azariah (6:16), but not taken up again by Raphael among the precepts transmitted by him (12:6-15).35 In the land of exile, the father-pedagogue of Proverbs had already taught the fear of the contagion of wicked companions and the libertine customs of the foreigner (Prov 1:10-19; 5:1-23) which would have encouraged conformity with the fashions and tendencies emerging from the dominant Hellenistic culture, changing the models and behaviour of the healthy family tradition of Israel in an irreparable way.36 The insistence of Tobit on endogamous marriage in the Diaspora came up against the resistance of those who had a vision more open to the multi-ethnicity and multi-piety of the various cultures. For these Jews, the ethnic belonging of the woman to the house of Israel was not binding, although the foreign woman was required to convert to Judaism. To understand the climate of the lively theological debate, it is enough to think of the brief story of Ruth which tells of the salvific journey of the Moabitess, who, from being an immigrant, gleaning as a pauper, becomes part of the community of Israel, numbered among the mothers of Israel (Ruth 4:11-12), becoming the model of all female proselytes in later Judaism (cf. TgRuth 2:16-17). Moving in the same direction is the historical romance of Joseph and Aseneth (1st century BCE to 1st century CE), a writing characteristic of the Greek-speaking Egyptian Diaspora which celebrates the marriage of the Patriarch Joseph and Aseneth, the daughter of an Egyptian priest, only one who in the fiction of the romance had reached a certain practice of Judaism (JosAs 9:2; 10:1ff.).37 Indeed, the Jewish tradition of the Diaspora sought in many ways to justify the mixed marriages of the patriarchal period, inventing genealogies, tribal associations and dynastic successions which ought to have reassured those who did not have 35 Zappella, Tobit, 21-22. 36 Bellia, Proverbi, 73-76; Bianchi, La donna del tuo popolo, 74-83; Collini, Famiglia, 33-96. 37 In a clannish organisation, there could be wives of different or similar race and religion: Abraham (Gen 16:1-4), Esau (Gen 26:34-35), Joseph (Gen 41:50-52), Moses (Exod 2:21-22; cf. also 18:3), David (1 Sam 25:39-43). For Moses, there is mention of a Kenite marriage (Jdg 1:16; 4:11) and of an Ethiopian wife (Num 12:1). Cf. Bianchi, La donna del tuo popolo, 24-68.

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the intention of breaking their marriage bonds with foreigners who bore equally the seal of an identical divine blessing.38 In Tobit, it is not said that the seven husbands were killed by the treacherous Asmodeus because they were not Jews but only because he loves Sarah and is jealous of them (6:14-15). The author of Tobit, then, takes the side of the Ezra tradition but without treating the condemnation of mixed marriages in a ferocious manner.39 It would be the family piety of the upper levels of Second Temple society, faithful to the sapiential tradition of the Torah, together with the personal piety of the prophetic-apocalyptic tendency of the lower classes that was to overcome the setback of the disastrous experience of the failed restoration. The Edict of Cyrus (538 BCE) had offered to the Jewish Diaspora in Babylon the opportunity to plan the re-establishment of a cultic community in Jerusalem in the ancient land of the fathers. The inability of those who returned to recover a significant historical and religious identity could not be compensated for by visionary projects of future reconstructions on the part of the disputed priestly caste or by the enthusiasm of groups of devout observants. Once again, the only institution that remained ‘strong’ and alive after the umpteenth collapse of all the hopes for the reconstruction of the national and cultic order was the family.40 In the Diaspora, the attention to private religious sentiment, conveyed by the family tradition, had found its optimal form of preservation and increase in the cultic form of the synagogue where elements of the macrocult and the microcult were able to converge. From the Persian period onward, the dynamic and fruitful relationship between the official religion and personal piety will be assured only by fidelity to synagogue practice, helping to overcome that religious and social cleavage in Jewish society of the second post-Exilic age.41 Here we must ask how on earth there is, oddly, no trace of this fervent synagogal world in Tobit. To make up for this, the pious hagiographer seems to share, tacitly, the moralising campaign against polygamy, exhibiting long-lived monogamous couples and holding out to the young Tobias the charm of a union 38 Thus, it is explained that Aseneth, Joseph’s wife, would have been the descendant of Dinah, violated in her time by Shechem (TgJGen 41:45; cf. Gen 34:2); while in the tradition of the LXX, Zipporah, the Midianite wife of Moses, would have been a descendant of Moses in the line of Ketura (cf. Gen 25:3LXX); there is a list of mixed marriages passages in Jewish apocryphal literature in Collini, Famiglia, 43-45. 39 Bianchi, La donna del tuo popolo, 83-116; Virgulin, La vita di famiglia, 159-187; Ra­ va­si, La famiglia, 59-72; Pitkänen, Family life and Ethnicity, 104-117. 40 Albertz, Storia della religione, 467 and 665. 41 Levine, La sinagoga antica, 140-145.

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that lasts for ever. An ethical battle, but also a theological one, engaged after the Exile within the zealous movements of opinion and by scribal currents equipped to accept the fact that polygamy did not belong to the original divine blessing. The texts of Gen 1:27 (MT) and of 2:24 (MT), considered as post-Exilic compositions, were not interpreted as hostile to polygamy or divorce. It would be the oral tradition that was to hand to Greek-speaking Judaism in the Diaspora a new take on the foundational text of Gen 2:24, introducing in the LXX translation a small but substantial gloss which established a new interpretation of the real addressees of the divine command and blessing on marriage: “and they two will be one flesh only” (cf. Pesh-TgJ; Pent Sam Gen 2:24). Restricting the primordial blessing to ‘those two,’ as Giovanni Rizzi shrewdly notes, has the effect of excluding every other relationship, putting polygamy out of bounds.42 The fact that Tobit does not share or witness to this important evolution of meaning which certainly his time needed, spurs us to fix the place and date of composition of the book towards the Eastern Diaspora of Greater Syria, in a time prior to the Alexandrine version of the Septuagint.43

5. Blindness and nostalgia for the father figure In the time of deep religious and social crisis of Jewish society in the second post-Exilic age, the emergence of a series of writings with female heroines has been noted. To the little Book of Ruth, the Moabitess should be added other books which praise heroines like Esther and Judith, not to mention the greater emphasis given to the role of women within the patriarchal narratives. There is agreement over these writings of edifying tales, or, better, true Jewish romances, which oscillate between “inclusive indulgence and exclusive defensiveness,” and which exalt feminine qualities and characteristics against the background of a constant absence or insignificance of male figures.44 In these accounts, it is always the father figure who is hidden or lacking in these narratives. In the Book of Tobit, the author takes care to inform us that his protagonist was an orphan who grew up alone in faithful observance of the Law of Moses, thanks to 42 A reading censuring polygamy assimilated by Jerome in Gen 2,24VG where, despite his proclaimed attachment to the hebraica veritas, he knows he has to stick to the meaning introduced by the LXX and translates: “et erunt duo in carne una.” 43 Cf. Rizzi, Le antiche versioni, 33-35; Bonsirven, Le Judaïsme palestinien, 207-216; Manns, Il matrimonio nel giudaismo antico, 139-191. 44 Zappella, L’immagine dell’elezione, 199.

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the education afforded to him by his grandmother Deborah (1:8). The absence of the father figure has a clear symbolic value and, in a text received as canonical, should bear some theological significance. The story must be read, therefore, not only as symbol of an emotional void for what the absence of the father represents at the level of the family, but rather as a living metaphor of what the symbol can represent for faith in contemporary society.45 It is not necessary here to think of or have recourse to the father according to the various and shifting fortunes of the psychoanalytical readings which want him, now as the normative ideal, now as an ideological function, or yet something else. It seems to me more coherent to understand him within the biblical world where the father is seen first of all as the one who procreates, as the witness of the covenant, as the guarantor of the wise divine Law. In order to educate his son in a foreign land, where there is no religious or moral authority that can collaborate in his educational responsibility, the father of the Book of Proverbs has no resources other than his own patient work of persuasion.46 In this case, the presence of the father figure, even if diminished and weakened compared with the patriarchal models, on account of the lack of support and the useless help of the community, always has a pedagogic role and a paternal responsibility to fulfil.47 When the father becomes weaker, however, when the father is not there, the absence of the paternal function takes on a significance really most serious and disquieting if related to the corresponding symbolic value which the lack of a father carries on the social and religious level. Biblically, the lack of the father must correspond with the profound loss lamented by Daniel: “We no longer have prince or chief or prophet or holocaust or sacrifice or oblation or incense or place to present you with our firstfruits and to find mercy” (3:38). An irremediable loss, an agonising deprivation because, as the contemporary psalmist emphasises; “No one knows how long.” The absence of the father can, perhaps, indicate an institutional void, but in those brief accounts, to the eyes of faith it stands, above all, for the slight authority of that role, the poor reliability of that function, the impracticability of that generating relation.48 In the Book of Tobit, the father is there, but he is blind. He is present, but he seeks from God to be allowed to die. He carries out his paternal function scrupulously, but he cannot bear witness to the fruit of the di45 46 47 48

Barbaglio, Simbologia religiosa, 63-70; Ricoeur, La paternité, 458-486. Bellia, Proverbi, 69, 87; Pinto, “Ascolta figlio,” 144. Pohier, Nel nome del Padre, 13-63. Berger, Una gloria remota, 163.

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vine blessing. The hagiographer, however, with his reiterated prolepsis, just as the final redactor of the Book of Job had done, wishes to reassure the reader immediately, letting him know that he is faced with a didactic drama with a happy ending, so that the story is always kept under the control of the watchful and provident divine wisdom, in addition, naturally, to the narrative control of the careful redactor. Nevertheless, the fact of the banal and inglorious blindness of the father and the uncontrollable pressure of death which is grasping father without any honour are episodes recounted in a dramatic and involving way as if there is an intention to indicate to the reader something that goes beyond the events that are being narrated. The attitude of the young Tobias before the destruction of his father does not interest the hagiographer, just as the disgrace of the unfortunate Sarah is registered without any particular involvement; his paraenetic purpose points elsewhere. The hagiographer knows that the facts happen in their bare truth but are not immediately recognisable because a curtain is hiding them; man would like to raise that veil so as to see, but learns that “it is a good thing to keep the king’s secret hidden” (12:7) as the faithful divine messenger warns in the solemn finale. However, what is narrated in an historical romance is parable, allegory, metaphor which refers to something known, to a reality that is not distant or wholly foreign to the experience of the reader. Moreover, the symbol of blindness has a resonance that is immediate and universal, educated and popular. Taken in a biblical-theological key, it would illustrate “the manifestly irrational and uncontrollable course of human affairs despite faith in an almighty and benevolent God.”49 This interpretation would refer thus to the collective and social loss experienced at that time by the men of the Diaspora getting to grips with a troubled reformulation of the covenant. The figure of the father who is old and blind has no precedents in biblical history except in the episode of the old Isaac deceived by Jacob with the complicity of his mother (Gen 27:1).50 The symbolic value of paternal blindness can lend itself to various readings but should be seen also from the side of the sons. The silence of Tobias before the physical and spiritual decline of the father’s role is perhaps functional with respect to his future task of healing his father. For the children of Israel, however, this paternal blindness, this unreliability of their chiefs and institutions,

49 Dumm, Tobia-Giuditta-Ester, 794b. 50 Blindness is encountered in the prohibition against offering blind victims to God (Deut 15:21) or in the edict of David who had contempt for the crippled and blind, forbidding them to take part in the temple cult (2 Sam 5:8). These and other Old Testament passages are no help in penetrating the parable of the father who has become blind.

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could not avoid provoking discomfort and loss. The very narrative of Tobit, even with its well-timed and repeated reassurances, delivers in the end a drastically reduced figure of the father. It is true that he blesses God and praises his bounty, but now he can only be revealed under the figure of the son of whom he feels himself to be the brother, according to that word of the angel to Tobias which he has already experienced. To the exiles, however, the Book of Tobit should have aroused desires, dreams and expectations which procured living sentiments of lamentation, of nostalgia for an abiding paternal function, for an unbreakable relationship with the father as the biblical story of Cain shows.51 The world of classical Greece has already been considered as a possible place of illumination, rather than of inspiration, for the voyage of Tobias, placed in relation to the nostos (homecoming) of Odysseus. Perhaps we can look again at the Hellenistic world to see whether blindness and paternity find a fertile background in that literature, and a possible place of comparison too with our learned author. In fact, in the ancient Greek world, blindness is known abundantly as a singular prerogative and exceptional gift conferred on cantors, bards and poets.52 A kind of reward given by the Muse, in return for the physical disability. To these blind people, other eyes were given to see, beyond the direct view of reality, things that escaped the common man since they were able to look out from the edge of the mystery. It is recounted of Phineas, legendary prophetic king of Thrace, that he voluntarily renounced the use of his sight in order to obtain the gift of seeing into the future. Similar stories are recorded of Tiresias, of Polymestor and of Anchises, father of Aeneas, of the Thracian Tamiris, inventor of the Doric harmony, and – although with a difference – of Oedipus with his complex story, not forgetting the great Homer whom tradition handed down as “the blind man who dwells on the rocky Chios.” Whoever has eyes to look at the appearance, teach the ancient masters, does not have that pure interior contemplation that is necessary in order to see what is profound. Not by chance, Pliny could write that “A profound meditation renders one blind since the visual capacity withdraws into the interior” [N.H. XI,54]. Further light can be gained by a comparison with the abundant Hellenistic literature in celebration of divine portents (aretalogies), found in great number at cultic centres throughout the Mediterranean basin. They are compositions which praise the miraculous healings worked by 51 Lebrun – Wénin, Des lois pour être humain, 75-81, wich retell the Book of Genesis. 52 Toloni, Echi omerici, 30, who cites the legend of the etymology of Homer, interpreted and represented by some as “the one who does not see.”

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the gods of the place, particularly those who were affected by blindness. Memorable at the height of the Hellenistic age is the healing of the philosopher Demetrius of Phaleron. Having obtained his sight again through the intervention of Serapides, he composed paeans in honour of the goddess that were still in fashion in the time of Diogenes Laertius (Ilustrious Philosophers 5:76). No less well-known is the episode narrated by Diodorus Siculus who hymned Isis, acclaimed as so-teira by the Greeks and as salutaris by the Romans, who, with her drugs, procured the healing of “so many who were completely deprived of the use of their eyes or of some part of their body” who had had recourse to her (Historical Library 1, 25, 2-7). These aretalogies, spread by missionaries of the Oriental cults and by itinerant Cynic philosophers, must have created no little unease among the Jews of the Diaspora. In the face of the propagandist reports of numerous miracles of healing worked by the pagan divinities, those who were more exposed to this kind of thing could have undergone the temptation to abandon the God of the fathers who, above everything, seemed conspicuous by his absence. Hence the decided paraenetic intention of the Book which aims at celebrating the healing power and the mercy of the God of Israel in the face of those pagans who boasted of the benefits and miraculous interventions of their gods. We can, therefore, share the judgement that the Book of Tobit is “an effective propagandist manifesto for righteous conduct on the part of a pious Jew in a Diaspora context.”53 Like an itinerant aretalogist celebrating and recounting the wonders of Isis, the author of the work has intended to leave to future generations an exemplary story (cf. 14:15), a writing that celebrates the honour and praise of YHWH, responding to a precise divine command, as is read in the text: “Write everything that has happened to you” (12:20).54 In the background, there could be here, therefore, also a masked apologetic intention on the part of the author who, in full respect for the more orthodox tradition of Israel, accepted the task of confronting the bawling voices of a hostile world in the tumultuous Hellenistic agora. But in order to do this, if one does not want to be one’s own father, replicating the original sin, nostalgia for the father is not enough; one must encounter his face.55

53 Zappella, L’immagine dell’elezione, 194-196. 54 Praise of the Lord is urged on several occasions by the divine messenger in his revelatory discourse (12:6-20); the extensive hymn of ch. 13 is described as “hymn of praise” (14:1); Tobit’s existence (and that of Tobias according to Codex Sinaiticus [N]) is absorbed in “praising the greatness of God” (14:2; cf. 14:15). Cf. Priotto, Epilogo del Libro, 333-342. 55 Ferrarotti, Padri, madri, figli, 13-26.

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6. Towards the recovery of the father The commentators agree in holding that Tobit’s blindness has the value of a symbol. It is a narrative pretext to speak about the more miserable blindness of Israel in the face of the incomprehensible action of God. A people without guides becomes blind and does not know how to see and recognise the discreet signs of the divine intervention in its history, just as we read in the invectives of the prophets against the voluntary blindness of the leaders (Isa 42:19; 56:10). They need new eyes, eyes of the heart so that, after the bitter cure of the Exile, they may recover a purified sense of sight capable of seeing the becoming of things with the very eyes of God. The absence of the paternal function generates desire for the father because his absence, cancelling all fear of the law, also cancels the Law. The road which reaches from nostalgia to the recovery of paternity is not sudden, not immediate, and, in the story of Tobit, it is carried out by means of his son. We ought not, indeed, forget or undervalue the fact that in the book the interweaving of the different dramas hinges on the cure performed by Tobias.56 Here one asks: is the son who heals his father only a decorative invention or does he conceal a secret to be probed? From whence comes this anomalous idea with its strong human and social implications? What theological value is hidden behind a singular event which finds no correspondence in the numerous biblical stories? Has our author perhaps found in the rich literary canvas of the Greek culture the decisive ideas for his own creative vein? The parental function in ancient Greece, for artists, philosophers, playwrights and poets, has been the object of many questions and many reflections composing a texture of family relations that is really complex, rich in profiles and perspectives that at first sight are unimaginable. We are before a choral work of exceptional historical and, above all, human value which has forged the Greek and Mediterranean imagination and which even today continues to pervade our cultural history.57 In the centre of this imposing collective iconography is the paternal figure, investigated with surprising accuracy and intellectual honesty by many authors at different times, painting a surprising sequence of both continuity and novelty in a process which goes from the Greek paideia to the Latin humanitas.58 We have not space here to present a complete panorama of the 56 Zappella, Tobit, 18-20; Stancari, Il libro di Tobia, 64-66. 57 Snell, The discovery of the mind, cf. chapters I, III, V e IX. 58 Marrou, Storia dell’educazione, 294; cf., also: Frasca, Padri e figli, 135-160; the precise analysis of Pancera, La paideia greca; and, finally, Seveso, Paternità e vita familiare.

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paternal figures produced by the secular Greek culture, but can only indicate some models and certain relevant tendencies which allow us to reconstruct that common and widespread sense of Mediterranean paternity inherited by Hellenism and probably known also to the author of Tobit. The beginning of this quick survey commences with the classics attributed to Homer and recalls two contrasting paternal figures: that of Ulysses, image of the father who is lost and far away, and that of Hector, icon of the deepest and most human fatherhood. The first a cold and cunning hero, on his return from his voyage from the world of the dead makes himself known to Telemachus whom he had abandoned when he was small and defenceless; and, although establishing with his son a paternal relationship of intense emotion and complicity, in the end he allows himself to be grasped again by his wish for adventure, by his role as public man, sacrificing once again the family bond in order to become the negative archetype of the absent father.59 The second stands out for his complete balance of ethical man and affectionate father, respectful both of his civil duty as a citizen and also at the same time of his role as tender parent. The scene of the warrior who, in order to make himself recognised by his terrified little son takes off his helmet “from his impressive head of hair” so as to allow the lad to recognise his human face as father beyond the formal aspect of the military chief is a touching one. The fatherly figure of Hector, tragic on account of his destiny and modern on account of his work-life balance, that is, his civic duty and his parental responsibility, will remain an ideal model that is unique and never surpassed.60 In the succeeding cultural period, the role of fatherhood will be affirmed under the mark of a patriarchy that is more selfish and brutal. In the Aeschylean model, Agamemnon sacrifices Iphigenia in order to favour the success of his plans for power; but the father is not blamed by the poet who fears disorder of roles and confusion of identities more than anything else, as the continuation of the trilogy shows.61 With Sophocles, in the figure of Oedipus, there breaks out the tragic complexity of the father who struggles with the unresolved relationships between the genders and the generations. Oedipus is an unconscious parricide, destined to kill a father who in his turn had tried to eliminate his son just after his birth. The conflict between fathers and sons explodes in Sophocles without the possibility of reconciliation, being accompanied at the same time by the disappearance of the maternal role. A paternal func59 Ciani, Ritorno a Odisseo, XIV-XVII. 60 Zoja, Il gesto di Ettore, 86-102. 61 Seveso, Paternità e vita familiare, 79-90.

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tion which is uncontested and absolute, and which can become violent, incarnating an authoritarian ideal cut off from sentiments of affection, but destined for the darkest and deadliest incommunicability which the children pay for as a heavy and doleful inheritance.62 The social crisis of the fifth century BCE had led to an unresolved conflict, not only between the generations, but also in the ordering of the traditional male and female roles. In the failed solution of the interweaving between bonds of blood and intergenerational links, in the stories of Alcestis and Medea, Euripides shows the egoistic inadequacy of fathers incapable of assuming their parental responsibilities or of sacrificing themselves for their children to whom they offer only claims and rights. An incapacity for relationship which becomes a deaf and irreconcilable incommunicability, as in the case of the despotic and violent Theseus, who, unjustly cursing his perfect son, condemns him to an atrocious death. Precisely the dialogue between Theseus and the dying Hippolytus, where the son, commiserating over the human weakness of his father succeeds in pardoning him, restoring to him for a moment a father’s face long awaited and dreamed of, remains a precious document of the imagination of that period. In the tragedy of Euripides, it is the son who educates and saves his father from the blind folly of a weak and almost unconscious paternity, lived in the obsession of an unacknowledged competition.63 In the works of Euripides and not only those, the theme of fatherhood, even if disfigured by incurable erosions and yet pervaded by shudders of nostalgia, remains a scarlet thread which joins disparate characters and situations from which arise the profound desire of regaining a deep and human image of the paternal function in the time of its evaporation.64 A recovery that is necessary and paradoxical as appears in the comedies of Aristophanes which, in the days of Socrates, signal with disenchantment and sarcasm the contrast of values between old and new education, pointing the finger at fathers who are awkward and incapable of affective relationships and who see in their children only an expensive and useless burden.65 62 Per the tragic course of the father in Sophocles, cf., in order, Antigone, Oedipus Rex and, finally, Oedipus in Colonus. 63 Hippolytus: “I absolve you from this crime” / Theseus: “You absolve me from shedding blood?” / Hippolytus: “Let the virgin archer be witness” / Theseus “Dearest, what nobility you display towards your father!” (Euripides, Ippolytus, 1449-1452, from the Italian translation by Paduano, 648). 64 A Lacanianic expression adopted critically by Recalcati, L’uomo senza inconscio, 2752, in particular, 35-44, who ponders on what remains of the ideal of the father in the period of the progressive weakening of the symbolic image of the Father-God as reflection of the decline of the Oedipal figure of the father/law. 65 Aristophanes, Clouds, 12-16; Id., Wasps, 290-312.

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That recovery of paternity which appeared impracticable in the Athens of the fifth century after the political upheavals of the Peloponnesian War, is made concrete for the Greeks in a foreign land, among the ‘barbarians.’66 In one of his original literary creations, Xenophon holds up Cyrus the Great as an exemplary paradigm of new and satisfying family relationships. His Cyropaedia is not an historical work, nor a biography, but a romantic story of the Persian king whose type of family and social education it recounts and praises.67 Its strong moral rather than historiographical intention allows it to alter freely the biographical data and the paideia practised by the Medes and Persians, reconstituting the scarcely admirable account of the greedy and cruel Astyages, grandfather of Cyrus, transmitted by Herodotus, into an idealised and happy family saga. The pedagogic model put forward by Xenophon is of clear Socratic derivation but in reality it is modelled on his strict Spartan customs, supported by a solid and enlightened monarchical vision, inspired by upright philosophic principles. Xenophon praises Persian education because, in his opinion, it gives the right importance to the family to which belongs the responsibility of educating the young to take care of the common good right from the earliest age. He extols the merits of a family education where the father, with patient skill, knows how to model the character of the boy, orienting him towards a communitarian and social awareness, quite distant from the mean-minded individualistic and autoreferential register of the decadent Greek education.68 Precisely the centrality of the figure of the father, able to accompany the steps of his son while he is growing, emerges clearly in the course of the journey which Cambyses takes together with his son towards Media. Along the journey, he counsels his son with authority and wisdom on the behaviour to adopt in order to succeed in his adult responsibilities and in his future social duties. At the end of the journey, symbol of the conclusion of the education, Cyrus is now ready to assume the task for which he has been educated. Prudent in conceiving and carrying out plans and strategies, secure in commanding events and situations, he is able, in his turn, to exercise that paternal role which has 66 Cf. Seveso, Paternità e vita familiare, 145 who cites Euripides, Andromache, 173-180. 67 The Cyropaedia, described by the critics as “the first historical romance of the Western world”, was written, as Cicero, observed, not “with the aim of historical reliability” (non ad historiae fidem), but to furnish a model example of good government (sed ad effigiem iusti imperii), (Ad Quintum fratrem I, 1, 23). 68 The idealised education of the childhood of Cyrus and the Utopian state dreamed of by Xenophon, have as their basis a curious mixture of Socratic philosophy and of Spartan discipline which portray a figure of the sovereign as shepherd-king (Cyropaedia I, 1 and VIII, 2, 14); cf. Luccioni, Les idées politiques et sociales de Xénophon.

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now been brought back to a human relationship that is non-conflictual, something worthy of esteem and emulation.69

7. The Image of Fatherhood in Hellenism For our research, the Cyropaedia is important for two reasons. First of all, because, on the propositional and projectual plane, it appears with a clear educational programme able, already at the beginning of the Hellenistic period, to identify the necessary characteristics for a way to recover fatherhood, joining the gravitas of the public man together with the comitas of the educated man to the perennial and universal ideals of humanitas, as Cicero, the thoughtful and enthusiastic devotee of ‘Persian’ pedagogy, will recall centuries later.70 But there is more than this in the work of Xenophon; in it, one can grasp the irreversible movement of history: “for the first time, the profoundly Greek concept of the city state to which Plato and Aristotle still remain faithful appears to have been overtaken: the absolute and enlightened monarchy of Xenophon is a precursor of the Hellenistic state.” And it is precisely this exact historico-cultural marking on the strong impact which the work had in the Near East area of the ancient Mediterranean which introduces the second reason for the interest of the Cyropaedia: in the historical fiction of the life of Cyrus, one can encounter themes, narratival elements and points of contact with the historico-religious romance of Tobit. Omitting to take into consideration the possible correspondences in the literary genre of the two accounts which share, broadly, the typology of the romantic story, one can recall that the work of Xenophon, defined by a critic as “the first historical romance of the Western world,” became a source of inspiration for a whole series of writings such as the books of Ruth, Judith and Esther.71 One can suppose that these accounts, considered with Tobit as representatives of this literary genre, at once had the fascination of a flexible composite structure which allowed the author a notable autonomy in the transposition or the adaptation of historical 69 Xenophon, Cyropaedia, I, II-III; a romantic reconstruction of the childhood of Cyrus, wholly different from the tragic memory handed down by Herodotus, History, I, 108116. 70 In Xenophon’s representation of the enlightened sovereign, Cicero found an exemplary model for the man of the Roman State (Tusculanes Disputationes II, 26, 62). 71 Cf. Morrison, Senofonte, 288; Veyne, I greci, 22-23, 73-74 and 87-88; Sharrock – Ash, Fifty key Classical authors, 103-109 .

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or geographical data. In the Hellenistic cultural context, the form of the romance assured the narration a freedom of style which freed the author from having to pay attention to the reliability of the narratival elements or their correspondence with the reality to which they were nonetheless referring. It is sufficient to think of the arbitrary inventions of Xenophon who tells of Hvakhshathra who had no historical existence, of an alleged conquest of Egypt which never happened, and of Cyrus who meets his death in an expedition against the Massagetai whom Xenophon has dying peacefully in his bed in the exemplary manner of Socrates, dispensing maxims and instructions.72 By contrast with the author of Tobit, this appears much more sober and restrained in its alteration of time and places. For the thematic affinities, one can consider the two most significant points of agreement: the paideia and the journey. The theme of education is central in the Cyropaedia. The title already gives a clear idea of the content of the work: the first book, in fact, covers the education of the king, followed through in all its phases, from childhood to adolescence, from maturity to old age.73 It is an activity that is predominantly paternal and serves to form the personality of a man to render him suitable to undertake the tasks with which life will present him. The precepts and prudent counsels transmitted by the royal father to his son summarise with extreme clarity the principles which lie behind the making of Persian man. The sovereign must show himself pious, wise and just, a virtuous man who embodies the ideal of the perfect prince, able to make himself respected in public and by the nobles, who knows how to make himself respected by his subjects and soldiers, to direct the economy, to protect his health and to take command of military expeditions with prudence and courage.74 It is to be noted that, in his youth, Cyrus obtains a twofold paternal education, both on the part of his maternal grandfather, Astyages, as a sort of putative father from whom he receives a Medean education, and on that of his own father, Cambyses, who completes his educational course by integrating it with the tradition of the Persians.75 72 A reference to Cyrus the Elder in Oeconomicus IV, 16; for the death of Cyrus, cf. Herodotus, History, I, 205-208, taken up by Pompeius Trogus, Historiae Philippicae 1, 8. 73 For a comparison with the pedagogic world of the Hellenistic period, cf. Moretti, La scuola, il ginnasio, 469-490. 74 In reality, Xenophon’s Cyrus “is a barely disguised Greek politician, a composite figure who represents a compromise ideal between Xenophon and Agesilaus, the King of Sparta.” Cartledge, Utopia e critica della politica, 207-208. 75 For the role of adoptive father fulfilled by the grandfather Peleus in Euripides’Andromache and by Astiages in the Cyropaedia, cf. Seveso, Paternità e vita familiare, 146 e 179.

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In the Book of Tobit too, the educational function of the father, although temporarly deadened by blindness, plays a central role and occupies a considerable part of the account. We encounter it, first and foremost, as exemplary and dramatic testimony in the very conduct of the parent who, even in the most agonising trial, never forgets the precepts of his God and the teaching which he has received in his time. Subsequently, paternal education is found in a formula which summarises what has already been taught before the son is sent off on his journey to distant lands (4:3-21). It is found, again, in the hymnic form of the final canticle of Zion where the praise is intertwined with exhortations and moral admonitions, and, above all, as though in the manner of the dying Cyrus, in final instructions handed over to the son before the father’s death (14:4-11). We should note that the mysterious companion on the journey, Azaraias, becomes almost a substitute father in Tobias’ journey towards maturity, similar to the role performed by the ancient Astyages with regard to the young Cyrus. The angel too shows himself generous with his counsels and teaching which culminate in his self-revelation as Raphael, the heavenly messenger, ready to deliver salutary precepts of life (12:6-10).76 The theme of the journey is undoubtedly a famous topos throughout literature, and an eternal symbol of human restlessness directed towards the search for what is missing, for what is awaited, what is unknown. Exploration or return, pilgrimage or flight, it is not necessarily configured as a search for truth or happiness, as a way towards identity or towards one’s own origin because, in reality – as René Girard would say – man does not know even what he desires.77 Of these symbolic values and of other suggestive metaphors known in different cultural contexts, there is not a trace in the two books. There is not even a clear trace of the journey/separation commanded powerfully to “the father of Israel’s faith,” Abraham: “Go from the house of your father,” an Abraham still regarded as son by the post-Exilic editor who links family sterility to the theme of the journey.78 The journey of Cyrus and that of Tobias are imaginary journeys and serve as narrative pretexts to delineate, in an almost identical way, the theme of the delicate passage of the young man towards the autonomy of adulthood, accompanied and led by the parent. Approaching the borders between the two countries, as Cyrus is setting out to leave

76 Barker, The Archangel Raphael, 118-128. 77 Without some kind of form of inductive exemplarity, man does not know what to desire: the object and the aim of his desire are indicated to him by a subject who performs the role on intermediary: Girard, La violenza e il sacro, 62-68. 78 Brueggemann, Genesi, 149-151.

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his land for Media, Cambyses takes farewell of his son with words of exceptional ethical and human depth. Tobit too, realising that he is now at the end of his life, while he plans to send Tobias to the distant Rages in Media, takes farewell of his son with words laden with paternal wisdom. A common linguistic detail is found in the two farewell discourses. Cambyses and Tobit address themselves to their respective heirs using as a forceful point for their argument the expression “remember.”79 A remembering which arises in the two fathers from family contexts that are quite different: a relationship that is exclusively masculine/paternal in the first, where the maternal element remains mute and in the shadows; a powerful biblical origin and dramatic complementary involvement of the maternal function in the second.80 In the Cyropaedia, we read: And do you remember, my son, how we thought one day together that it would be a worthy and noble work for a man to succeed in truly becoming a completely fulfilled human being, gaining all that he needed for himself and his family? (I, VI, 7).

And in the Book of Tobit we read:

On that day, Tobit remembered […] My son, honour your mother […] Remember, my son, that she faced many dangers for you while you were yet unborn. […] Every day, my son, remember the Lord; do not sin or transgress his commandments. […] remember Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob our fathers of old […] And now, my son, remember these commandments and do not let them be blotted out from your heart. (4:1, 4, 5, 12, 19).

However, the educational journey sketched out by these two fatherly pedagogues arises from quite different background cultures: the one, of a ‘secular’ type lived within masculine relations that are not conflictual: the other, of religious inspiration, woven from biblical fabric and set in the family circle; in both cases, the sense is that of an educational course handed over and preserved by the memory of the fathers which creates identity.81 Finally, the positive and not humiliating role performed by the two fathers is common. It feeds their sons’ desire for growth and presses them towards independence as goal and end of the whole educational task. Cambyses wishes for the independence of Cyrus who is exhorted to 79 Imperative expressions which impose the obligation of memory (‘remember,’ ‘do not forget’: cf. Deut 8,11-14.17-19) recur 97x in the OT and are addressed to Israel, to sons, to the faithful, and also to God. 80 For the relationship between Cyrus and his mother Mandane (I, III,1-18), cf. Tatum, Xenophon’s Imperial Fiction, 98-100. 81 For the role of the memory as foundation of the right father-son relationship according to God, cf. Exod 10:2; Deut 4:9; 7:20-24; Jos 4:21-24; Tob 4:4.12; Sir 7:27; 44:8-14.

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practice not only all the tricks he has learned “but to invent new ones” (I, VI, 370). Tobit is no less committed to this ideal because he dreams for his son a future of peace and blessing, leaving him an inheritance that has long been forgotten which will make him live as a stranger to misery (4:20-21).

8. From Cyrus to Ben Sira On the literary plane, the recovery of paternity is carried out in a foreign land. We recall this detail in order to draw attention to one particular fact. A Greek, an Athenian who searches for and finds among his cursed Persian enemies an exemplary figure of the father, far from any proof or verification, is carrying out an operation that is ideological and not historiographical. Not finding in his own country concrete solutions to check the decline of the image of fatherhood, and not finding admirable parental figures to put forward as examples, Xenophon, in the Cyropaedia, invents an idealised image of fatherhood which meets the desiderata of his society and the nostalgic feeling of the men of his time. His literary invention was supported by a sound ethical passion, combined with a strong and cohesive vision of society. The dissolution of the father was accompanied by the dissolution of the law and the break-up of society; on account of this, the recovery of the father, with whatever title and under whatever form it was brought about, always involved a recovery of the law, of order and of the social stabilitas. The revaluation of the paternal role implies the endurance and prestige of the institutions which, in their turn, if balanced and efficient, guarantee a vision and symmetrical exercise of paternity. A virtuous and circular dynamism which allows family relationships to be open to the social needs of the community and to recognise themselves in the institutions while the institutions mirror and guarantee the values and vitality of the family. This is the organic project of family and social relationships presented by Xenophon in his Cyropaedia according to Hellenistic historiographical parameters.82 The collapse of paternal symbolism did not concern only the decadence of the Greek family structure; it was an extensive cultural phenomenon which infected Mediterranean society, shaken by the aggressive and 82 For the background to the works of Xenophon, cf. Tatum, Xenophon’s Imperial Fiction; Due, The Cyropaedia Xenophon’s; Gera, Xenophon’s Cyropaedia; Wilms, Techne und Paideia, 100-207; Hirsch, The Friendship, 61-100; Nadon, Xenophon’s Prince.

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conquering invasion of the anthropocentric culture of Hellenism. Did not Tobit’s rather dishonourable condition of blindness signal the fragile condition of the Diaspora family, exposed to the vexations of oppressive central institutions and abandoned to their own devices, even by the God of their fathers. The anomalous doings of the young Tobias, pervaded with nostalgia and stretching out to the uncertain and risky recovery of a faroff paternal inheritance, makes known the role of protagonists which the new generations of exiles have to take on to assure themselves a future that is different and, in the end, blessed. It was up to the young men to take possession of what had been left them as an inheritance, undertaking that journey towards the independence of maturity which allowed the liberation of the woman’s body from the demoniacal subjection of the powerful and the restoration of light to the dull eyes of the old parent. This, in summary, is the historico-anthropological framework which is handed down to us by the deutero-canonical little book, written in a region of the Jewish Diaspora where Aramaic was spoken in a period still distant from the warlike time of the Maccabees (III-II century BCE).83 A quite different social and familial scenario is introduced in the Book of Ben Sira, written in Jerusalem between 195 and 171 BCE. Only a few generations separate Sirach from the Book of Tobit, but during that time, the transition from nostalgia for to the recovery of the paternal figure was effected. In theocratic Judaea and Jerusalem of the Second Temple period, a fervent renewal of socio-religious institutions is discernible. The temple activity reaches a full liturgical regime, assuring a notable economic recovery; the sacerdotal office has gained in reputation and authority (50:124) and the father figures feel the effects of this regained institutional solidity, recovering the exercise of the masculine and fatherly function in every direction (3:16-27; 9:1-9; 23:22-26; 25:13-26:18; 36:21-27; 42:9-14).84 To be sure, the book does not lack criticisms of the religious officials for their ineptitude (7:4-7) and their intrigues (45:26); nor is it sparing of warnings to those fathers neglectful of the education of their sons (22:36) and their daughters (42:9-11) or of sharp reproofs to that part of the Jerusalem aristocracy which was lazy in observing the Law and oppressive with regard to the poor (36:9; 41:8-9). Ben Sira has in his sights the instruction of the youth of the affluent class (51:23), but he must have been animated by a polemical intention towards the powerful groups that were influential in Jerusalem, attracted by deceptive speculations (3:21-23), tempted by superficiality (42:1c-2), or, even, apostates who had 83 Marincola, Authority and Tradition, 63-116. 84 Albertz, Storia della religione, 652-672.

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abandoned the faith of the fathers (41:8-9).85 However, as a whole, the book allows to sound through a refrain that is full of the educational responsibility of the father which, rather than simple recovery, seems to be modelled on a restoration of the ancient and imperious figure of the pater familias. In a celebrated pericope, the author advises the father how to manage his son (30:1-12), lauding a rigid education, more Spartan than Persian, where the parent is warned about the risks of an education that is too accommodating. The father has to realise that if a son is left to his own devices he becomes as obstinate as an untamed stallion; so he must not pet him, fondle him, joke with him or make light of his errors if he does not wish to pay the price later. Rather, he must correct him without letting him have freedom in his youth, weigh down his neck and kick his flanks while he is still young and, even, make frequent use of the rod if he wants to have joy of him in the long run. The author reveals himself inclined towards a pedagogical inflexibility and an excessive severity which is not encountered in the previous sapiential literature and even in the patriarchal system of education. This is parental severity, hardly mitigated by the exhortation to educate the son by taking charge of him in a consistent way so as to mould a character that will not repay him with insolence in the future.86 The transition from the official environment of Jerusalem to the cosmopolitan context of the Alexandrian Diaspora, which can be found in the different level of culturology between the Hebrew and Greek texts, explains, perhaps, the emphasis on pedagogic harshness. Paternal authority had to be defended in the face of the challenges and criticisms provoked by the aggressive Umwelt of the Hellenistic koinè breathing with the full lungs of the young generations.87 In the Greek text more than the Hebrew one, we are faced with an image of fatherhood far from and almost opposed to that portrayed by the gentle parental figure of Tobit as he is at the end. It is he who, recognising his own incapacity to see the works of God and to discern the good that surrounds him, settles himself to wait for death. In accepting his fragility, he gains a humanity that is more authentic and merciful. He does not proclaim the impersonal primacy of the Law; he does not hide behind the scrupulous, semi-mechanical observance of what ought to be done; but in the end communicates 85 Cf. Bellia, An historico-anthropological, 60-61. 86 For Middendorp (Die Stellung, 34), Ben Sira wrote a “school book” following the Greek pedagogic model, particularly of the Stoics; for Hengel (Giudaismo ed ellenismo, 131), the author is “a master of wisdom with an established scholastic structure open to the young,” exposed to the danger of the allurements of Hellenistic civilisation. 87 Cf. Bellia, Historical and Anthropological, 99-101.

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with God in prayer. With trustful abandonment, he seeks his death from God. The thought of the end awakes in Tobit the memory of his past and with it also of his son. Accepting his own state of humiliation, he finds again his lost energy as a father and decides to bet on the enterprise of the young Tobias. At the same time, as well as the paternal relationship, he rediscovers a tender relationship with his wife, now called his sister, consoling her in her separation from her son (5:21-22). There is nothing of all this in the iron lines of discipline advocated by Ben Sira. The painful ambiguity of every restoration is to confuse the new with error, deceiving oneself that one can annul the development of man and events by locking it in the cage of the past. The patriarchal restoration of the paternal role favoured in the pages of Sirach takes his stance on the short-sighted conviction that it is the father, alone or principally, who forbids, prohibits and condemns, believing that the function of the law coincides with and exhausts that of the father. Before the precept comes the agreement, before the Law, the covenant and before everything, God with his mercy. In the pedagogy of Ben Sira, however, one does not even perceive the God who is “merciful and gracious, slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” (Exod 34:6) who is revealed in the gift of the Law. There emerge rather the rigidity and limits of a pious and aristocratic man who is too bound up with the priestly circle on whose behalf he defends their legitimacy and their vocation to ritual sanctity (cf. 45:6-22 and 50:1-21). His pedagogical harshness, therefore, manifests the anthropological truth of that regressive metamorphosis announced by Qoheleth (3:18-21) and declared by the worshipper, something from which even Ben Sira cannot escape: man in his good estate cannot understand the works of God (Ps 49:13.21).88 Into this theological vision of a defensive nature there is inserted the long sequence in praise of the ancestors, in which he exalts the action of the wisdom of God in the history of Israel, lauding the famous men linked to the biblical tradition and to the most important events in the history of the people of God (44:1-50:29). A focused encomium and one that is partisan when, beside the venerable icon of Aaron and the famous High Priest Simon, there emerges the fiery figure of Elijah.89 The prophet 88 On the biblical binome Law/father, a comparison is useful with the structuralist thesis of Lacan, Introduzione ai Nomi-del-Padre, 46-53 and the parallel reading of Agamben, Homo sacer, 20-35. 89 The perpetuity of the two covenants, royal and priestly, known already to the prophetic tradition (Jer 33:17-22 and Zech 6:9-14), was preparing, in the pre-Maccabean climate of fervent expectation, the two-headed Messianic hope of Jubilees 31 and, subsequently, of the Qumranic texts; cf. Puech, Ben Sira and Qumran, 107-109.

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is admired for his deeds narrated in the Book of Kings but chiefly for his fiery words which closed and opened heaven, causing flames of fire to fall upon the wicked (cf. 1 Kgs 18:38; 2 Kgs 1:10-12), this being the indisputable sign of the authority conferred on him by God as the sign of his prophetic activity. It is symptomatic that, in this sequence, the habitual pedagogic preoccupation of Ben Sira is present as he is always alert to seize on the punitive intervention of God.90 In the prophet Elijah, he sees the one who has been “designated to reprove the times to come / to calm the wrath of God before it breaks out in fury / to turn the heart of the father to the son” (48:10). Naturally, the theological wealth of Sirach cannot be reduced to the sole event of paternity; however, what interests here is to indicate that the course of the public recovery of the parental function does not necessarily involve a regained and satisfying personal relationship with the father. The theological aura constructed around the illustrious paternal figures of the past certain cannot hide the weak and foolish fatherhood of the one who, fortifying himself with prohibitions, feels himself supported by the amorphous observance of the Law rather than by the revelation of the face of God. The one who like Moses has the tables of the Law in his hand can only look on God as he passes, since his shoulders are laden with boundless mercy and not his face (Exod 33:19-23 and 34:4-8).

9. Conclusion Two concluding reflections. It was not our aim to investigate and affirm a probable literary dependence between the Book of Tobit and the Cyropaedia, but only to point out how with Xenophon, the way of recovering paternity, after a time of tormenting nostalgia had, in the shadow of Hellenism, come to an ideal shared form. In a time of rapid change, the Athenian writer succeeded in creating an archetype of paternal relationship, anchored in the common values of all and universally recognisable; a model which remained for many centuries in the cultural imagination as a secure point of reference of the ancient Mediterranean sensibility. The Jewish world of that time was naturally a sharer, and not only a spectator, in this Zeitgeist, creating literary forms both derived and orig90 The prophet Elijah was seen as the precursor of Messianic times, “designated to reproach the future times /to calm the wrath before it breaks out, / to turn the heart of the father to the son” (48:10); cf. Poirier, The Endtime Return, 282-286.

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inal as is clear from the Book of Tobit and the other Deutero-Canonical texts. The true question, one that is still open, is not that of finding new sources of inspiration for the biblical texts in the exuberant literary productions of Hellenistic literature, but of understanding if the hagiographers had a real knowledge of these works. Or, perhaps, more realistically, it is important to know and explain what type of cultural influence the Hellenistic literature did in fact exercise on the biblical production of that period. The way to establish a concrete connection between Greek culture and the biblical world is not, however, only an exegetical or literary one; an anthropological approach is also necessary. First of all, there is a contact, a confrontation between two true ways of being human, suffering and incomplete, which prescinds from programmatic intentions and doctrinal schemes. A human contiguity which causes the meeting and dialogue between common experiences, widespread worries and desires, obscure movements of the soul. The psychological analysis developed by the tragedians illuminates the agitations of the human heart, unveiling segments of family relationships which arouse the natural interest of the biblical authors just as of everybody else. Before they operate on the ideological level, these influences act on the pre-logical and pre-systematic plane; they work on the factual level of living together, of the closeness which stimulates new knowledge and inevitable reactions that are not necessarily hostile and conflictual. Moreover, Israel in its DNA bears the impress of many peoples and diverse cultures, showing itself in the end to be capable of transforming and assimilating the discontinuity of the other, of the different, of the foreigner, in the continuity of its own faith. It is useless, therefore to get bogged down in searching, in the linguistic assonances and conceptual analogies, improbable origins and sources of inspiration for the Scriptures of Israel. The obsession with sources, as Momigliano called it, of certain exegesis and certain biblical historiography should henceforth appear in all its arid vacuity. Looking at the road leading from Tobit to Ben Sira, Sirach has reached the exercise of a parental function that has been regained. The old Tobit, accepting his death before God, finds the strength of a residual paternal energy and remembers and decides. It is only in that moment that he remembers wealth that is forgotten and distant, never acknowledged, and he decides to separate his son from himself, cutting the umbilical cord that binds him to his mother to entrust him with the journey of his life. What is inherited must be regained if one wishes really to posses it, as Goethe reminds us. To the exiles of the Eastern Diaspora, the anonymous author wanted to prophesy through a language à la page a return laden with goods and, above all, a spousal union with the partner prepared by

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God. But there is an ultimate symbolic value to weigh up: the unusual happening of the son who heals his father. Only in the Euripidean Hippolytus are we told of a son who frees his father from his folly; the dying wise son pardons and liberates Theseus from the curse of his blood. In the Book of Tobit, the picture is not gloomy and the tone is reconciliatory: the curse of the father is only apparent and his cure is announced in advance. However, there remains, like a goad, the sense of a paternal relationship that has been inverted where it is the son who brings salvation to his father and not vice versa. What is a tormenting paradox in Euripides, is, for the hagiographer, a secret of light which is open to a future permeated with messianic expectation. The meaning of a text can surpass the original significance intended by the author and open itself as a prophecy for the reader. Perhaps Luke was thinking precisely of the Jewish novella of Tobit when he describes the scene of the old Simeon who, taking Mary’s child into his arms, declares that his eyes “have seen” the salvation and the light which is revealed to the Gentiles, seeking from God permission to depart (Lk 2:29-32). The Apostle too speaks of a blindness, of a veil spread over the heart which only the Son can remove (2 Cor 3:14-16).

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Bibliography Agamben, G., Homo sacer. Il potere sovrano e la nuda vita, Torino 1995. Albertz, R., The end of the confusion? Why the Old Testament cannot be a Hellenistic Book!, in: Grabbe, L. L., Did Moses Speak Attic?, 31-45. Albertz, R., Storia della religione nell’Israele antico, 2. Dall’esilio ai Maccabei, Brescia 2005. Alter, R., L’arte della narrativa biblica, Brescia 1990. Aristofane, Le Nuvole, trad. it di Cantarella, R., Torino 1993. Aristofane, Le Vespe, trad. it. Del Corno, D., Milano 2008. Averincev, S. S., Atene e Gerusalemme. Contrapposizione e incontro di due principi creativi, Roma 1994. Barbaglio, G., Simbologia religiosa: tradizione ebraica e cristiana, in: Ferrarotti, F. et al., Le figure del padre. Ricerche interdisciplinari, 57-90. Barker, M., The Archangel Raphael in the Book of Tobit, in: Bredin, M., (ed.), Studies in the Book of Tobit, 118-128. Bauckham, R., Tobit as a Parable for the Exiles of Northern Israel, in: Bredin, M. (ed.), Studies in the Book of Tobit, 140-164. Becking, B., The Hellenistic Period and Ancient Israel: three preliminary statements, in: Grabbe, L. L., Did Moses Speak Attic?, 78-90. Bellia, G., Proverbi: una lettura storico-antropologica, in: Bellia, G. – Passaro, A. (eds.), Il libro dei Proverbi. Tradizione, redazione, teologia, Casale Monferrato (AL) 1999, 55-90. Bellia, G., Historical and Anthropological Reading of the Book of Wisdom, in: Passaro, A. – Bellia, G. (eds.), The Book of Wisdom in Modern Research. Studies on Tradition, Redaction, and Theology (DCLY), Berlin-New York 2005, 83-115. Bellia, G., An historico-anthropological reading of the work of Ben Sira, in: Passaro, A. – Bellia, G. (eds.), The Wisdom of Ben Sira. Studies on Tradition, Redaction, and Theology (DCLS 1), Berlin-New York 2008, 49-77. Berger, P. L., Una gloria remota, Bologna 1994. Bianchi, F., La donna del tuo popolo. La proibizione dei matrimoni misti nella Bibbia e nel mediogiudaismo (Studia Biblica 2), Roma 2005. Bonora, A. – Priotto, M. et Al., Libri Sapienziali e altri scritti (Logos 4), Torino-Leumann 1997. Bonsirven, J., Le Judaïsme palestinien au temps de Jésus-Christ, vol. II, Thèologie morale. Vie morale et religieuse, Paris 1935. Brandes, S., Reflections of Honor and Shame in the Mediterranean, in: Gilmore, D. D. (ed.), Honor and Shame, 121-134. Braudel F., Problemi di metodo storico. Antologia delle “Annales” (BUL 24), Bari 1982. Bredin, M., (ed.), Studies in the Book of Tobit: A Multidisciplinary Approach, London-New York 2006. Brueggemann, W., Genesi, Torino 2002. Brunschwig, J. – Lloyd, G. E. R. – Chiesara, M. L. (eds.), Il sapere greco. Dizionario critico, vol. 2, Torino 2005. Campbell, J. K., Honour, Family and Patronage: A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community, Oxford 1964.

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Cantilena, M., Odysseus tra folk-tale e leggenda eroica, in: Pacati, C. M., Aspetti del mito di Ulisse, 9-21. Cartledge, P., Utopia e critica della politica, in: Brunschwig J. – Lloyd, G. E. R. – Chiesara, M. L. (eds.), Il sapere greco. Dizionario critico, vol. 1, Torino 2005, 192-212. Chance, J. K., The Anthropology of Honor and Shame: Culture, Values, and Practice: Semeia 68 (1994) 139-151. Ciani, M. G., Ritorno a Odisseo, in: Omero, Odissea, a cura di Ciani, M. G., commento di Avezzù, E., Venezia 2005. Collini, P., Famiglia, in: Sacchi, P. (ed.), Indice concettuale del medio giudaismo, vol. 1, Magnago (BI) 2000, 33-96. Contini, R. - Grottanelli, C. (eds.), Il saggio Ahiqar. Fortuna e trasformazioni di uno scritto sapienziale. Il testo più antico e le sue versioni, Brescia 2005. de Pina-Cabral, J., The Mediterranean as a category of regional comparison: a critical approach: Current Anthropology 30 (1989) 399-406. Deselaers, P., Das Buch Tobit: Studien zu seiner Entstehung, Komposition und Theologie (OBO 43), Freibourg-Göttingen 1982. deSilva, D. A., The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Honor, Shame and the Maintenance of the Values of Minority Culture: CBQ 58 (1996) 433-455. Di Lella, A. A., The Deuteronomic Background of the Farewell Discourse in Tob 14:3-11: CBQ 41 (1979) 380-389. Di Lella, A. A., The Book of Tobit and the Book of Judges: An Intertextual Analysis: Hen 22 (2000) 197-206. Di Lella, A. A., Two Major Prayers in the Book of Tobit: in: Egger-Wenzel, R. – Corley, J. (eds), Prayer from Tobit to Qumran: Inaugural Conference of the ISDCL at Salzburg, Austria, 5-9 July 2003 (DCLY), Berlin-New York 2004, 95-116. Drewermann E., Il cammino pericoloso della redenzione. La leggenda di Tobia interpretata alla luce della psicologia del profondo, Brescia 42006. Due, B., The Cyropaedia: Xenophon’s Aims and Methods, Aarhus 1989. Dumm, D. R., Tobia-Giuditta-Ester, in: Brown, R. E. – Fitzmyer, J. A. – Murphy, R. E. (eds.), Grande Commentario Biblico, Brescia 1973. Ferrarotti, F. et al., Le figure del padre. Ricerche interdisciplinari, Roma 2001. Ferrarotti, F., Padri, madri, figli nel terzo millennio (La nostalgia dei padri), in: Ferrarotti, F. et al., Le figure del padre, 13-26. Finley, M. I., Il mondo di Odisseo. Presentazione, bibliografia e glossario di Di Donato, R., Casale Monferrato 1992. Fitzmyer, J. A., Tobit (CEJL), Berlin-New York 2003. Frasca, R., Padri e figli: un rapporto educativo super tempora, in: Bernardinis, A.M. et al., Scritti in onore di G. Flores D’Arcais, La Spezia 1999, 135-160. Fries, C., Das Buch Tobit und die Telemachie: Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie 55 (1910-11) 54-87. Gentiloni, F., Abramo contro Ulisse, Torino 1984. Gera, D. L., Xenophon’s Cyropaedia: Style, Genre and Literary Technique, Oxford 1993. Gilmore, D. D. (ed.), Honor and Shame and the Unity of the Mediterranean, Washington, DC 1987.

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Gilmore, D. D., Introduction: The Shame of Dishonor, in: Id. (ed.), Honor and Shame, 2-21. Giovannini, M. J., Female Chastity Codes in the Circum-Mediterranean: Comparative Perspectives, in: Gilmore, D. D. (ed.), Honor and Shame, 61-74. Girard, R., La violenza e il sacro, Milano 1980. Glasson, T. F., The Main Source of Tobit: ZAW 71 (1959) 275-277. Grabbe, L. L., (ed.), Did Moses Speak Attic? Jewish Historiography and Scripture in the Hellenistic Period (JSOT.S 317), Sheffield 2001. Grabbe, L. L., Tobit, in: Dunn, J. D. G. – Rogerson, J. W. (eds.), Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible, Grand Rapids, MI-Cambridge, U.K. 2003, 736a-747b. Grottanelli, C., Sette storie bibliche, Brescia 1998. Hengel, M., Ebrei, Greci e barbari. Aspetti dell’ellenizzazione del giudaismo in epoca precristiana, Brescia 1981. Hengel, M., Giudaismo ed ellenismo, Brescia 2001. Herzfeld, M., Honour and Shame: Some Problems in the Comparative Analysis of Moral systems 15 (1980) 339-351. Hirsch, S. W., The Friendship of the Barbarians: Xenophon and the Persian Empire, London 1985. Lacan, J., Introduzione ai Nomi-del-Padre, in: Id., Dei Nomi-del-Padre. Il trionfo della religione, Torino 2006. Lebrun, J.-P. – Wénin, A., Des lois pour être humain, Ramonville Saint-Agne 2008. Lemche, N. P., The Old Testament – A Hellenistic Book?, in: Grabbe, L. L., Did Moses Speak Attic?, 287-318. Levine, L. L., La sinagoga antica. 1. Lo sviluppo storico, Brescia 2005. Luccioni, J., Les idées politiques et sociales de Xénophon, Paris 1948. Malina, B. J., Nuovo Testamento e antropologia culturale, Brescia 2008. Manns, F., Il matrimonio nel giudaismo antico, in: Matrimonio-Famiglia nel NT e nei Padri della Chiesa (Dizionario di spiritualità biblico-patristica 43), Roma 2006, 139-181. Marincola, J., Authority and Tradition in Ancient Historiography, Cambridge 1997. Marrou, H.-I., Storia dell’educazione nell’antichità, Roma 1994. Middendorp, Th., Die Stellung Jesu Ben Sirac zwischen Judentum und Hellenismus, Leiden 1973. Moore, C. A., Book of Tobit, in: ABD 6, 585-594. Moore, C. A., Tobit. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AncB 40A), New York 1996. Moretti, L., La scuola, il ginnasio, l’efebia, in: Moretti, L. et al., La società ellenistica. Economia, diritto, religione (Storia e civiltà dei greci 8), Milano 1990, 469-490. Morrison, D., Senofonte, in: Brunschwig, J. – Lloyd, G. E. R. – Chiesara, M. L. (eds.), Il sapere greco, 286-293. Nadon, C., Xenophon’s Prince: Republic and Empire in the Cyropaedia, Berkeley, CA 2001. Navarro Puerto, M., Racconti biblici, in: Sanchez Caro, J. M. (ed.), Storia, narrativa, apocalittica, Brescia 2003.

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Nickelsburg, G. W. E., The Search for Tobit’s mixed Ancestry. A Historical and Hermeneutical Odissey: RdQ 17 (1996) 339-349. Nowell, I., The Book of Tobit: Narrative Technique and Theology, Washington 1983 [PhD diss., Catholic University of America, Washington, DC]. Pacati, C. M. (ed.), Aspetti del mito di Ulisse, Bergamo 2002. Pancera, C., La paideia greca. Dalla cultura arcaica ai dialoghi socratici, Milano 2006. Pancera, C., La formazione dell’uomo in Socrate, Bologna 2003. Peristiany, J. G. (ed.) Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society, Chicago-London 1966. Pinto, S., “Ascolta figlio.” Autorità e antropologia dell’insegnamento in Proverbi 1-9, Roma 2006. Pitkänen, P., Family life and Ethnicity in Early Israel and Tobit, in: Bredin, M. (ed.), Studies in the Book of Tobit, 104-117. Pitt Rivers, J. A., The People of the Sierra, London 1954. Pohier, J. M., Nel nome del Padre, in: Id., Ricerche di teologia e psicanalisi, Assisi 1973, 13-63. Poirier, J. C., The Endtime Return of Elijah and Moses at Qumran: DSD 10 (2003) 221-242. Pontificia Commissione Biblica, L’interpretazione della Bibbia nella Chiesa, Città del Vaticano 1993. Priotto, M., Epilogo del Libro di Tobia (Tb 14), in: Bonora, A. – Priotto, M. et al., Libri Sapienziali, 333-343. Puech, É., Ben Sira and Qumran, in: Passaro, A. – Bellia, G. (eds.), The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 79-118. Ravasi, G., La famiglia nella letteratura sapienziale: PSV 14 (1986) 59-72. Recalcati, M., L’uomo senza inconscio. Figure della nuova clinica psicoanalitica, Milano 2010. Ricoeur, P., La paternité: du fantasme au symbole, in: Id., Le conflit des interprétations: essais d’herméneutique, Paris 1969, 458-486. Rizzi, G., Le antiche versioni della Bibbia. Traduzioni, tradizioni e interpretazioni, Cinisello Balsamo (MI) 2009. Schmitt, A., Die hebräischen Textfunde zum Buch Tobit aus Qumran 4QTobe (4Q200): ZAW 113 (2001) 566-582. Seveso, G., L’educazione delle bambine nella Grecia antica, Milano 2010. Seveso, G., Paternità e vita familiare nella Grecia antica, Roma 2010. Sharrock, A. – Ash, R., Fifty key Classical authors, London-New York 2002. Smith, D. L., The Politics of Ezra: Sociological Indicators of Postexilic Judaean Society, in: Davies, P. R. (ed.), Second Temple Studies, I: Persian Period (JSOT.S 117), Sheffield 1991, 73-97. Snell, B., The discovery of the mind: in Greek philosophy and literature, New York 1960. Soggin, J. A., Introduzione all’Antico Testamento. Dalle origini alla chiusura del Canone alessandrino, Brescia 41987. Soll, W., Tobit and Folklore Studies: with Emphasis on Propp’s Morphology, in: Lull, D. J. (ed.), Society of Biblical Literature 1988 Seminar Papers, Atlanta, GA 1988.

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Soll, W., Misfortune and Exile in Tobit: The Juncture of a Fairy Tale Source and Deuteronomic Theology: CBQ 51 (1989) 209-231. Stancari, P., Il libro di Tobia. Lettura spirituale, Soveria Mannelli (CZ) 2000. Sternberg, M., The Poetics of Biblical Narrative. Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading, Bloomington, IN 1987. Stiebert, J., The construction of shame in the Hebrew Bible: the prophetic contribution (JSOT.S 346), Sheffield 2002. Tatum, J., Xenophon’s Imperial Fiction: On The Education of Cyrus, Princeton, NY 1989. Toloni, G., Tobi e Ahiqar. Sulle tracce di un racconto antico, in Contini, R. – Grottanelli, C. (eds.), Il saggio Ahiqar, 141-165. Toloni, G., Echi omerici nel libro di Tobia?: Sefarad 67 (2007) 5-36. Toloni, G., La sofferenza del giusto. Giobbe e Tobia a confronto, Brescia 2009. Trebolle Barrera, J., La Biblia judía y la Biblia cristiana. Introducción a la historia de la Biblia, Madrid 1998. Vattioni, F., Studi e note sul libro di Tobia: AugR 10 (1970) 241-284. Veyne, P., I greci hanno creduto ai loro miti?, Bologna 1984. Vertova, G. G., Il viaggio di Abramo e quello di Ulisse: due culture a confronto, in Pacati, C. M. (ed.), Aspetti del mito di Ulisse, 287-307. Vílchez Líndez , J., Tobit. Traducción y comentario (Bac 287), Madrid 1969. Vílchez Líndez , J., Tobia e Giuditta, Roma 2004. Virgulin, S., La vita di famiglia nel Libro di Tobia, in: Liberti, V., La famiglia nella Bibbia, Roma 1989, 159-187. Virgulin, S., Tobia, Cinisello Balsamo (MI) 31995. Weigl, M., Die rettende Macht der Barmherzigkeit. Achikar im Buch Tobit: BZ 50 (2006) 212-243. Wendland, P., La cultura ellenistico-romana nei suoi rapporti con giudaismo e cristianesimo, Brescia 1986. Wills, L. M., The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World, London 1995. Wilms, H., Techne und Paideia bei Xenophon und Isokrates, Stuttgart-Leipzig 1995. Zappella, M., L’immagine dell’elezione come strumento dell’esaltazione apologetica di Israele secondo quattro testi ebraici in lingua greca (Tobia, Ben Sira, Giuditta, Ester): RStB 17 (2005) 167-201. Zappella, M., Tobit. Introduzione, traduzione e commento, Cinisello Balsamo (MI) 2010. Zoja, L., Il gesto di Ettore. Preistoria, storia e attualità della scomparsa del padre, Torino 2003.

The Emotional Relationship of the Married Couple Hannah and Tobit Renate Egger-Wenzel 1. Introduction The fictional background story1 of the Book of Tobit is accessible to us only via the medium of texts. Accordingly we must be alert to the fact that a time span of over 2000 years, but also a cultural-linguistic distance separates us from the descriptions and we, therefore, are denied immediate access to the emotions of the fictional characters within the book. In addition, it should also be noted that our current understanding of emotions is somewhat different and can, therefore, not simply be imposed upon ancient texts without further reflection. Within historical psychology there are various theories, which claim that, throughout the ages, human beings and, therefore, also their feelings are ever constant: “Die Annahme universaler anthropologischer Konstanten ist weit verbreitet.”2 On the other hand, since the beginning of the 20th century, there have been other positions within the interdisciplinary debate, which claim that the “Veränderung der Grundstruktur des Menschen … bis in die Anthropolo­ gie hinein … bis in die conditio humana hinein”3 is a fact. According to this view every person can observe an emotional development, at best a maturing, within himself or herself. I would, in this case, like to take an intermediate position: the expression of emotions is dependent on one’s present culture and, therefore, subject to change. The feelings themselves, however, are through the millennia and throughout various cultures, similar; for example in the case of a great calamity or great joy. Since this article deals with the emotional relationship between the married couple Hannah and Tobit4, only the passages within the text that 1 Cf. Moore, Tobit, 9f.; Nicklas, Tobit, 2.6; Engel, Buch, 283: “fiktive Diaspora-Erzählung mit jüdisch-jerusalemischer Orientierung”; Gertz, Tobitbuch, 554: “Die zahlreichen historischen und geographischen Ungenauigkeiten …” 2 Von Gemünden, Affekt, 14. 3 Von Gemünden, Affekt, 14; cf. there also the discussion with bibliographical notes about the different positions (13-16). 4 The names of the couple are programmatic: Tobit/Tobiyahu means “YH(WH) is good” (cf. the analogous root bwj in Tobiel, Tobias) and Hannah means “grace, charm, favor” (!xe); cf. Di Lella, Prayers, 96-97, who mentions that the Book of Tobit contains “twelve theophoric proper names; these hint at a summary of the plot.”

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deal with the two biblical characters, or where a mutual reference exists, will be examined (Tob 1:1, 9, 20; 2:1-2a, 11; 3:1, 6; 4:3-4, 12-13; 5:18-23[6:1]; 10:1-7; 11:5-6, 9-10; 14:9, 12). The two oldest Greek traditions will be cited when relevant: GI (Short version – Codices Vaticanus and Alexandrinus), as well as GII (Long version – Codex Sinaiticus),5 which, presumably, is the more original tradition.6

2. Marriage in the Book of Tobit First of all, Tobit’s attitude, or rather the author’s attitude concerning a good marriage7 should be noted. In Tob 1:9, the book’s protagonist8 already reports that he, upon reaching adulthood (gi,nomai avnh,r) took “a woman of our own lineage” (NAB; gunai/ka evk tou/ spe,rmatoj th/j patria/j h`mw/n) and, from her, begot the son, Tobias. GI mentions the wife by name in 1:9, GII, however, does not mention her until 1:20, when Tobit is threatened due to a complaint against him. He fears (fobe,w; v. 19)9 for his life, flees and therefore loses all his possessions to the king (GII). Only his wife Hannah and his son Tobias are left. However, after 40 symbolic days there is a turn in events due to the murder of the king and Tobit returns to his house. Thus his wife Hannah (GII) and his son are restored to him. One could conclude that only after Tobit separates himself from his wife due to material hardship, the matter of her name – Hannah, the hoped for and ultimately occurring ‘grace’ (from the new king, ultimately from God;10 cf. ca,rij Tob 1:13; 7:17;11 12:8)12 – becomes important, indeed, becomes 5

It is beyond the GIII of the 14th century as well as the Hebrew and Aramaic fragments (4Q196-200) from Qumran on which see Hallermayer, Text. 6 Cf. Ego, Buch, 875-876; Macatangay, Wisdom, 14-16, with a short summary of this topic. 7 Cf. to consider the recent comprehensive work of Miller, Marriage in the Book of Tobit. 8 Tobit’s genealogy in GI has six and in GII eight elements down to his ancestor Naphtali. 9 Cf. Gen 12:12-13; 20:11 (Abraham) and 26:7 (fobe,w; Isaac), where the patriarchs betray their wives out of fearing for their lives. 10 Noticeable are the different names of God during the allocation of grace: GI/II o` u[yistoj (Tob 1:13); GI o` ku,rioj tou/ ouvranou/ kai. th/j gh/j / GII o` ku,rioj tou/ ouvranou/ (7:17); GI tou/ qeou/ h`mw/n / GII tou/ qeou/ (12:8). 11 GII here uses deviating cara,. In contrast Nowell, Book, 109: “…‘grace,’ seems an ironic name for this sharp-tongued woman, …”; also 237. 12 Hannah’s name traces back to the Hebrew word !xe (all in all 70 references), which is translated by the LXX 61x with ca,rij; see also 4Q169 3, 7; 4Q223-224 6, 7.27; 4Q364 7, 4; 4Q368 1, 6-7; 4Q504 11, 18; 4Q506 2, 3; 4Q509 98, 1.

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reality. In GI, Hannah is already mentioned by name prior to the promise of grace (ca,rin kai. morfh,n) from the Most High in 1:9, after which Tobit, in the eyes of the king, is rehabilitated. The joy over Tobit’s return to his family is connected with the cultic Feast of Weeks (Shavuot) on the 50th day (evn th/| penthkosth/| th/| e`orth/| h`mw/n h[ evstin a`gi,a e`pta. e`bdoma,dwn; Tob 2:1). This underlines Tobit’s law-abiding character, which seems hyperbolic13 if not hypocritical14 (cf. Tob 1:5-13; 2:2-9; 3:13).

2.1 Tobit’s ‘Understanding’ of Marriage (Tob 4:12-13) Let’s turn now to Tobit’s view of marriage15 in verses 12-13 of chapter 4:16 the father sends his son on a journey to Rages in Media, in order to settle the family’s financial business. More precisely, through Tobias he most likely wishes to retrieve his fortune of 10 silver talents (Tob 1:14; 4:20),17 which he had deposited with Gabael, in order to relieve Hannah of her responsibility of having to take care of the family, to eliminate the family’s poverty, and to restore his honor as the bread-winner. Instructing his son (Tob 4:1-21), Tobit says the following: A young man should beware of committing pornei,a18 and, in any case, enter into an endogamous marriage19 (v. 12: avpo. tou/ spe,rmatoj tw/n pate,rwn sou … evk th/j fulh/j 13 Cf. Gross, Tobit, 16. 14 McCracken, Narration, 405: “… old Tobit, the egonarrator who is … sometimes a flawed moralist, as when he wrongly accuses his wife Anna of stealing a goat”; Collins, Judaism, 29, observes: “… Tobit is portrayed as almost obsessive in his observance of the Mosaic law.” 15 Cf. Nicklas, Marriage, 141-144, 150-154, who in comparison of GI and GII understands the bonds of kinship and the kind of endogamy drawn more closely in GII. 16 Only in GI preserved. 17 One talent of silver represents 41 kg of the precious metal. Today 41 kg of silver would be estimated to have the cash value of randomised circa 35.000 Euros. The value at the time of writing the Book of Tobit around 200 BCE was far higher. 18 See Gamberoni, Gesetz, 230, who notes that: “Endogamie nach den Kindespflichten und der Wohltätigkeit” signifies/represents “eine ethische Rolle unter dem Oberbegriff der pornei,a”; Fitzmyer, Tobit, 172, translates with “illicit sex … i.e. sexual intercourse between unmarried persons, such as ‘prostitution,’ ‘harlotry’ … But it was used at times in antiquity to mean various sorts of unlawful sexual intercourse.” 19 Cf. the summary by Nicklas, Tobit, 2.4. (5) of Hieke, Endogamy, who notes rightly: “Eine deutliche Parallele zum wohl in hellenistischer Epoche verfassten Buch Esra-Nehemia ist die bei Tobit ins Extreme gesteigerte Tendenz zur Vermeidung von Mischehen. Endogamie bezieht sich hier nicht nur auf das eigene Volk, sondern – vor allem im Text von GII [sic! Tob 4:12-13 only survives in GI; cf. 1:9; 6:16, 18 GII in GI/II] – auf die eigene engere Sippe, die nächste Verwandtschaft.” See now the detailed discussion by Miller, Marriage, 53-82. Hieke, Endogamy, sees a sevenfolded argument in Tob 4:12-

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tou/ patro,j sou … evk tw/n avdelfw/n auvtw/n), that is, he must choose a wife from his father’s tribe. With this he follows the same guidelines that existed during the time of their ancestors.20 Tobit quotes historical reasons for God’s promise, namely the fact that his family is descended from the prophets21 and that the ancestors, Noah,22 Abraham,23 Isaac, and Jacob also all chose wives out of their own lineage. As a result of this choice of women, ancestors were blessed with children (euvlogh,qhsan evn toi/j te,knoij auvtw/n; cf. Gen 12:2; 13:16; 15:5); and were rewarded with God’s promised land (klhronomh,sei gh/n; cf. Gen 12:1; 13:15; 15:18-21). In the event that Tobias, out of arrogance (Tob 4:13: mh. u`perhfaneu,ou th/| kardi,a| sou … evn th/| u`perhfani,a)| might go against his father’s instructions, the consequen­ ces of this would be corruption, conflict, wickedness, poverty, deprivation, even hunger (avpw,leia kai. avkatastasi,a pollh, kai. evn th/| avcreio,thti evla,ttwsij kai. e;ndeia mega,lh h` ga.r avcreio,thj mh,thr24 evsti.n tou/ limou/). One has to ask what Tobit means by the word pornei,a. Superficially, 13: v. 12: five arguments with two requirements and three bans; v. 13: two arguments with per one requirement and one ban. 20 It was quite accepted to marry within one’s own family, as Gen 24:4 (td,lA, m / fulh,); 28:2 (^M,ai ybia] laeWtb. ht'yBe / eivj to.n oi=kon Baqouhl tou/ patro.j th/j mhtro,j sou) and 29:19 show, esp. in a levirate marriage (Gen 38; Deut 25:5; Ruth 3:12-13); cf. also the law of inheritance for women in Num 36:6 (~h,ybia] hJem; tx;Pv; m. li . / evk tou/ dh,mou tou/ patro.j auvtw/n), 10-12 (@seAy-!b, hV,nm: -. ynEB. txoPv. M. mi i / evk tou/ dh,mou tou/ Manassh ui`wn/ Iwshf); 1 Chr 23:22 (~h,yxea] vyqI-ynEB. / ui`oi. Kij avdelfoi. auvtw/n). Especially priests and high priests were directed toward more severe rules (Lev 21:7, 13-15; v. 14: wyM'[m; e hl'WtB. / parqe,non evk tou/ ge,nouj auvtou/; v. 15: ~[; / lao,j). Incestuous relationships were – partly by death penalty – forbidden (Lev 18:6-18; 20:11-17, 19-21; Deut 23:1; 27:20, 22-23). This attitude to mixed marriages is exemplified by Gen 28:1-2LXX (ouv lh,myh| gunai/ka evk tw/n qugate,rwn Canaan); Exod 34:1516LXX (evkporneu,w); Deut 7:3LXX (latreu,sei qeoi/j e`te,roij); 1 Kgs 11:1-8LXX (v. 4: evkkli,nw; v. 8: ponhro,j; v. 9: evxe,klinen kardi,an auvtou/ avpo. kuri,ou qeou/ Israhl); Ezra 9:1-4, 12 LXX (evkkli,nw); Neh 10:31; 13:23-311LXX (avsunqete,w); cf. Mal 2:11. 21 Cf. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 173: “The patriarchs are called prophets. ‘Prophet’ … is being used in the OT sense of ‘God’s mouthpiece,’ i.e. someone who speaks forth in the name of God (having nothing to do with foretelling).” Compare Exod 4:13-16; Ps 105:15; Reiterer, Prophet, 155-161, who thinks, that this may concern a “geistige oder um eine biologisch-physiologische Abstammung” (157). 22 Within the Bible Noah’s wife is not mentioned, but within apocryphal tradition she is Enoch’s granddaughter, who is Noah’s great-grandfather (cf. Gen 5:21-29), in Jub. 4:33 she is “Amzera, Tochter Rakeels, Tochter seiner Schwester” (Berger, Unterweisung, 348-349); cf. also Jub. 8:18. 23 Cf. Gen 20:7. 24 It is interesting that the author combined this phrase with ‘mother’: Arrogance (u`perhfani,a) and worthlessness/weakness (avcreio,thj, hapax legomenon) are in the view of the author the reasons for all evil, therefore “weakness is the mother of poverty.” Possibly the expression here resonates a demotion of women (cf. Sir 25:24), which may be caused through the Hellenistic background of both books; cf. only the difference of description concerning genders with gunh, and a;nqrwpoj in Greek literature (for

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one could assume that Tobit is speaking of adultery, or impure, inappropriate behavior, for example that, of which the widow, Tamar was accused in Gen 38:24 because of her pregnancy (evkporneu,w; evn gastri. e;cei evk pornei,aj). Sir 23:23 also warns against adultery,25 which goes against the law of the Most High (no,mw| u`yi,stou).26 According to the account of that sage, the woman leaves her husband in order to conceive a child by another. Sir 26:9 considers coquetry, or prostitution, combined with alcohol consumption (v. 8) to be pornei,a. The only other related text within the book, Tob 8:7, seems also to be in line with this interpretation, when on his wedding night Tobias asserts in a prayer, “And now, Lord [only GI], I take this sister of mine not because of pornei,a, but out of fidelity/loyalty (avlh,qeia).”27 Yet all other 44 instances28 of pornei,a, as well as 41 occurrences29 of evkporneu,w in the LXX, speak another language. They deal with the issues of apostasy, or idolatry. In this respect it seems fully justified that Tobit, in his instructions to Tobias – that is, in his prohibition of pornei,a – should feel the need to insist upon an endogamous marriage, in order to prevent apostasy, or idolatry; issues which can be a real danger in mixed marriages. All in all, Tobit’s behavior as a grown man corresponds with the instructions, which he passes on to his son, Tobias: Marrying a woman from one’s own family brings forth God’s blessings, which come in the form of many children, material wealth, harmonious coexistence, and the (reexample Demonsthenes, Rhod. lib. 15:23; Isocrates, Nic. 3:36; De Pace 8:113; Pau­ sanias, Descr. 1:2). 25 Cf. Exod 20:14, 17; Deut 5:18, 21. 26 Cf. the “law of Moses” in Tob GI 6:13; 7:13; GII 1:8; 7:13-14. See Gamberoni, Gesetz, 227242; Collins, Judaism, 31-34. 27 Tobias’ “fidelity” is related to his father’s instructions (cf. Tob 4:13), not to enter a mixed (exogamies) marriage, but a endogamous relationship. Cf. Menge, Großwörterbuch, 34: “… Wahrheit … Richtigkeit … Wahrhaftigkeit, Aufrichtigkeit, Treue … wahrer Sachverhalt, Zuverlässigkeit.” Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 101-102, catches this meaning very well, when she writes: “… im Sinne einer verlässlichen Grundordnung … die Zuverlässigkeit einer Person, die Verlässlichkeit in einer Beziehung oder Bindung.” 28 Cf. Num 14:33; 2 Kgs 9:22; Wis 14:12; Sir 41:17; Hos 1:2 (2x); 2:4, 6; 4:11, 12; 5:4; 6:10; Mic 1:7 (2x); Nah 3:4 (2x); Isa 47:10; 57:9; Jer 2:20; 3:2, 9; 13:27; Ezek 16:15, 22, 25, 33, 34, 36, 41; 23:7, 8 (2x), 11 (2x), 14, 17-19, 27, 29 (2x), 35; 43:7, 9. Sir 41:17 maybe allows both interpretations, whereat obscene behavior/adultery or a lapse of faith should not be done in the parents’ presence. 29 Cf. Exod 34:15-16; Lev 17:7; 19:29; 20:5-6; 21:9; Num 15:39; 25:1; Deut 31:16; Jdg 2:17; 8:27, 33; 2 Chr 21:11, 13; Sir 46:11; Hos 1:2; 2:7; 4:12-13, 18; 5:3; Jer 3:1; Ezek 6:9; 16:16-17, 20, 26, 28, 30, 33; 20:30; 23:3, 5, 30, 43 (italics mark the context of mixed marriage). Only two evidences are related to uncontrolled sexuality, which is to be punished by burning or stoning: Gen 38:24; Deut 22:21.

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newed) attainment of God’s promised land (for the exiled diaspora Jews). Endogamous marriage serves to dissociate one from foreign influences, in order to preserve the loyalty to one’s faith and, therefore, one’s own social and cultic identity. According to this account, emotional states are suggested only indirectly in the context of advice about the evidence of arrogance (u`perhfani,a) found in Tob 4:13. Tobit and Hannah have only one son30 and due to Tobit’s law-observance, which is contrary to the norms of the state of Nineveh, they experience fear (1:19 fobe,w) of ruin, conflict, impoverishment, loss, as well as hunger, in their own family. Perhaps Tobit’s strict law-observance is also a type of arrogance/pride.

2.2 Tobias’ Argument on Marriage (Tob 8:6-7) After Sarah has been given to Tobias by his father-in-law to be his wife, and after the marriage contract has been prepared and sealed and a meal has been shared, the mother, Edna, leads her daughter into the bridal chamber. Edna must now console her sorely afflicted daughter, who, because of the loss of her previous husbands, is now crying, whereupon her mother gives her words of encouragement (Tob 7:1-7). Tobias follows Sarah into the prepared room and proceeds according to Azariah’s/Raphael’s instructions on casting out the demon. After that follows the summon to join prayer, in order to call for God’s mercy (and salvation according to GII) for the couple (8:4 GI: i[na h`ma/j evleh,sh| o` ku,rioj; GII: dehqw/men tou/ kuri,ou h`mw/n o[pwj poih,sh| evfV h`ma/j e;leoj kai. swthri,an). However, Tobias speaks alone and praises the Lord. In v. 6 he refers to the creation of Adam and Eve. The woman was given to the man for assistance and support (GI: e;dwkaj auvtw/| bohqo.n Euan sth,rigma th.n gunai/ka auvtou/; GII: evpoi,hsaj auvtw/| bohqo.n sth,rigma Euan th.n gunai/ka auvtou/). Thereafter Tobias explains this by citing, almost verbatim, from Gen 2:18: “It is not good that the man should be alone; let us make for him a help suitable to him” (Brenton; ouv kalo.n ei=nai to.n a;nqrwpon mo,non( poih,swmen auvtw/| bohqo.n katV auvto,n). Only the prepositional term at the end is, through o[moion auvtw/,| slightly changed. Tobias feels very much connected to Sarah; indeed, his soul/his heart is very much attached to her (Tob 6:19 GI: h` yuch. auvtou/ evkollh,qh auvth/|

30 Cf. in contrary Azariah’s/Raphael’s assertion to Tobias and Sarah in 6:18 of more children (GI: u`polamba,nw o[ti soi. e;stai evx auvth/j paidi,a; GII: u`polamba,nw o[ti e;sontai, soi evx auvth/j paidi,a).

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sfo,dra;31 GII: h` kardi,a auvtou/ evkollh,qh eivj auvth,n32); he does not immediately give in to his feelings, but instead in prayer, emphasizes the fact that he does not take Sarah to be his wife out of pornei,a, but out of faithfulness to the command of his father (evpV avlhqei,aj; cf. Tob 4:13).33 Finally he asks God for the grace of being allowed to grow old with Sarah (Tob 8:7 GI: evpi,taxon evleh/sai, me kai. tau,th| sugkataghra/sai; GII: evpi,taxon evleh/sai, me kai. auvth.n kai. sugkataghra/sai koinw/j). GI, in its expression, perhaps sounds more distant, whereas GII emphasizes the similarities between the couple. By quoting from Gen 2:18 in his prayer, Tobias refers to an argument pertaining to creation theology, since he sees the woman in a marriage as a support to the man and, at the same time, he expresses his desire for a long life together with Sarah, who has touched his innermost self (cf. Tob 6:19: yuch,/kardi,a). In other words, he loves her. Therefore bohqo,j is not at all to be understood as being derogatory or implying a subordinate role.34 Furthermore, through avlh,qeia he emphasizes his obedience towards his father.

2.3 Raguel’s Wish for the Married Couple (Tob 10:11-12) After Tobias, out of consideration towards his parents, hastens his departure, the father-in-law, Raguel, hands over (Tob 10:10 GI: di,dwmi; GII: paradi,dwmi) his daughter, Sarah, to the son-in-law (GII: Tobias) to be his wife, and at the same time transfers to him half of his (GII: entire) assets.35 With that, the marriage has been legally and completely conducted and a generous dowry has been given. The marriage contract was, according to Tob 7:13, sealed in front of witnesses. 31 Cf. LXX Ps 44:26; 63:9; 119:25; MT (bb'le … qbd) Josh 22:5; 1 Kgs 11:2. 32 Cf. LXX 1 Kgs 11:2; Ps 101:4; MT (vp,n< … qbd) Gen 34:3; Ps 44:26; 63:9; 119:25. 33 Cf. the “truthfulness/faithfulness” of God and human beings in Tob 1:3; 3:2, 5 [missing in GII]; 4:6; 5:12, 14 [GII]; 7:10; 8:7; 12:8, 11 [GII]; 13:6; 14:7, 8 [GII]. Gamberoni, Gesetz, 232, says: “Nach dem Zusammenhang ist somit Unbeherrschtheit, überwältigende Leidenschaft mit dem Ideal der frommen Ehe unvereinbar.” Moore, Tobit, 238, interprets: “That is with noble intent”; Fitzmyer, Tobit, 246: “… avlh,qeia, lit. ‘truth’ or ‘sincerity,’ which stands in contrast to pornei,a, here understood as ‘lust’”; Skemp, Avenues, 65, speaks of “warnings against sexual immorality” but more precisely of “the danger inherent in the sexual conduct of outsiders,” comparing also “1 Thess 4:3b-5 and 1 Cor 7:2 … and T. Levi 9:9-10.” 34 In contrast Collins, Judaism, 33, but cf. Exod 18:4; Deut 33:7, 26, 29; Ps 20:3; 33:20; 70:6; 115:9-11; 121:1-2; 124:8; 146:5. 35 Also the listing differs in GI: slaves, cattle (sw,mata kai. kth,nh) and silver; GII is more concrete and therefore more true-to-life: male and female slaves (pai/daj kai. paidi,skaj), oxen and sheep, asses and camels, clothing, silver, and household goods.

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Only in GI does the bride’s father “bless the young married couple” (euvlogh,saj auvtou,j; 10:11). GII describes a very personal farewell. Raguel sends the young couple off in good health. The emphasis on the protagonists’ state of health reflects an important and central thought in the Book of Tobit.36 Further, he emphasizes his wish for Tobias’ good health. One almost has the impression that Raguel reflects Tobias’ parents’ concerns.37 On the other hand, Tobias, as the future bread-winner of the family, needs to remain in good health. Furthermore, the father-in-law wishes the couple much success through the Lord38 (GI: qeo.j tou/ ouvranou/; GII: ku,rioj tou/ ouvranou/). GI formulates this more realistically by using the future tense (euvodw,sei u`ma/j) than does GII, which uses the optative (euvodw,sai u`ma/j). In GII, Raguel gives special attention to his daughter by mentioning her twice, and – in the optative – adds that he, before dying, hopes to be able to see the grandchildren. Finally, in v. 12, Raguel expressly addresses his daughter, Sarah. He orders her to regard her parents-in-law as her own parents (cf. Tob 10:13/12LXX), though GII puts particular emphasis on her father-in-law, because at her new home he will represent the pater familias. In conclusion, he bids his daughter farewell with a kiss of peace (ba,dize eivj eivrh,nhn qu,gater), according to GII, and according to GI, with a kiss (evfi,lhsen auvth,n) and expresses the wish to hear good news of her (GI: avkou,saimi, sou avkoh.n kalh,n; GII: avkou,saimi, sou avgaqh.n avkoh,n). This presumably pertains to the children which are expected, as well as a harmonious relationship between the couple, as well as with the parents-in-law, and their public reputation.39 The repetitious mention of the daughter’s name and the constant emphasis on the personal reference to her parents-in-law, or rather her own

36 To turn one’s attention to health is more important in GII (25x: Tob 5:14 [4x], 17, 21 [3x], 22; 6:9; 7:1, 5 [2x], 13; 8:21; 10:6, 11 [3x], 13, 14; 11:17 [2x]; 12:3, 5) than in GI (8x: Tob 5:14, 16, 21f; 7:5 [2x]; 10:6; 11:17); cf. in addition the references of ivao, mai (GI: Tob 3:17; 6:9; 12:14; GII: Tob 3:17; 5:10; 12:14). 37 Cf. GII Tob 5:17 (4x), 21 (3x), 22; 10:6. 38 GI has 28 references to ku,rioj, but GII has 33; 42x one finds in GI qeo,j and in GII 52x. Cf. Reiterer, Dimensionen, 172-176, with the differences within the context of creation. 39 Compare Ben Sira’s expectations of a daughter: Sir 22:4 quga,thr froni,mh klhronomh,sei a;ndra auvth/j kai. h` kataiscu,nousa eivj lu,phn gennh,santoj; 49:2 quga,thr patri. avpo,krufoj avgrupni,a kai. h` me,rimna auvth/j avfista/| u[pnon evn neo,thti auvth/j mh,pote parakma,sh| kai. sunw|khkui/a mh,pote mishqh/;| 42:11 … mh,pote poih,sh| se evpi,carma evcqroi/j lalia.n evn po,lei kai. e;kklhton laou/; 42:14 krei,sswn ponhri,a avndro.j h' avgaqopoio.j gunh, kai. gunh. kataiscu,nousa eivj ovneidismo,n.

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father, points out the familial bond between father and daughter,40 as well as the emotional bond connected with it. Furthermore, next to his desire that they be blessed with children (cf. Tob 4:12), the daughter’s affiliation, or rather her subordination to the parents-in-law within the patriarchal society is the father’s utmost concern, as it is the key to a successful marriage.

2.4 Edna’s Female Perception of Marriage (Tob 10:13/12LXX) According to Tob 10:13, Sarah’s mother, Edna, wishes to share her perception of things with her son-in-law, Tobias. In GI she speaks to him as an equal adult, as a “beloved brother” (a;delfe avgaphte,), but in GII the generation gap and the didactic character is accentuated through the preceding form of address, “child” (te,knon). The Lord (GI: o` ku,rioj tou/ ouvranou/; GII: ku,rioj) may grant Tobias a successful return to his parents. Then Edna, like her husband, expresses her wish to be able to see the grandchildren, that shall come forth from the union between Tobias and her daughter, Sarah, during her lifetime (GII: pro. tou/ me avpoqanei/n). GI gives Edna’s reasoning: “that I may rejoice before the Lord” (Brenton; i[na euvfranqw/ evnw,pion tou/ kuri,ou).41 Lastly, she appeals (GI: ivdou.) to Tobias by showing her trust towards him: “I commit my daughter to you with special trust” (parati,qemai, soi th.n qugate,ra mou evn parakataqh,kh|). In the context of the book parati,qhmi refers to the ten silver talents,42 which Tobit had deposited with Gaba­ el during his journeys and which Tobias has been sent to retrieve in order to support the family. As is documented in a few parallel passages, entrusted property (parakataqh,kh) is absolutely deserving of protection. Within the Book of the Covenant (Exod 21-23), the term appears in Exod 22:7, 10, in the context of the responsibility for someone else’s property. The person who is in charge of safekeeping this property, may, in the event that the property is lost, be confronted with God’s judgment (~yhila{ h/ -' la, tyIBh; -; l[;B; br:qn. wI > / proseleu,setai o` ku,rioj th/j oivki,aj evnw,pion tou/ qeou/ kai. ovmei/tai; v. 7), or may have to take an oath 40 In comparison Tobias was not seen off so heartily by his parents, although he got extensive instructions and a companion on his journey. There one may interpret the lack of a hearty send-off as an initiation rite for his manhood; cf. further on Xeravits, Stranger, 93. 41 Cf. LXXD: “damit ich vor dem Herrn in Freuden lebe”; the nominal translation is not adequate. 42 Cf. Tob 1:14; 4:1, 20.

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(hw'hy> t[;bvu . / o[rkoj e;stai tou/ qeou/; v. 10), or rather have to compensate with double the amount (~yInv" . ~Levy; > / avpotei,sei diplou/n; v. 6). In 2 Macc 3:10, 15 the endangerment of the temple treasures through Heliodorus, in 4 Macc 4:7 through Apollonius, becomes the focal point. This “entrusted property” is dedicated to the socially disadvantaged groups, such as widows and orphans, who are under God’s particular protection (cf. Exod 22:2122; Sir 35:17). These references point out how important the daughter’s well-being is to Edna. However, it is not enough. Edna goes one step further by commanding Tobias not to cause Sarah any pain (mh. luph,sh|j auvth,n; same wording as in GI Tob 4:3 how to treat a mother);43 GII extends this with a time specification: “all the days of your life.” How is this phrasing to be understood in the context of the book? Is the author perhaps indirectly alluding to the relationship between Tobit and Hannah? The verb lupe,w is spread throughout the entire work. GII in Tob 2:10, with lupe,w, expresses the grief/regret of all the kinsfolk over Tobit’s seemingly permanent blindness, which in GI 7:6 finds echoes in the example of Raguel. In Tob 3:1 (GI) Tobit’s prayer, which follows after the altercation with his wife, in which she is accused of having stolen a kid goat, is introduced rather emotionally: he is painfully heart-stricken, weeps and prays full of pain (luphqei.j e;klausa kai. proseuxa,mhn metV ovdu,nhj). Parallel to this, Tob 3:7-10 reports that Sarah, because she has lost seven potential husbands, was mocked (ovneidi,zw) by her father’s maids (luphqei.j e;klausa kai. proseuxa,mhn metV ovdu,nhj), and accused of having choked her wedded husbands, so that she, upon the maids’ recommendation, intended to hang herself (GI: evluph,qh sfo,dra – GII: evluph,qh evn th/| yuch/;| v. 10). However, the thought of how her action would bring shame, as well as pain to her father, as well as the thought of losing his only child and leading him to his grave prematurely, keeps her from doing so (poih,sw tou/to o;neidoj auvtw/| evstin kai. to. gh/raj auvtou/ kata,xw metV ovdu,nhj eivj a[d| ou; v. 10). The word iteration caused by lupe,w and ovdu,nh (in GII also by klai,w) connects the painful feelings of Tobit and Sarah. Later on, when Tobias is given instructions in Tob 4:3-21, Tobit reprimands his son by telling him not to scorn his mother, but to do everything according to her will and to honor her and not cause her any pain (GI: mh. luph,sh|j auvth,n – GII: mh. luph,sh|j to. pneu/ma auvth/j; v. 3 cf. 10,13/12LXX). According to Tob 9:3 GII, Tobias wishes to save his parents from becoming more aggrieved by his long absence, which occurs as a result of his wedding 43 Cf. relationship of couples (Esth 1:12; Tob 3:1); relationship of father and son (2 Sam 13:21; 19:3; Sir 3:12; 30:4-5, 9; Tob 10:3); relationship of mother and son (Tob 4:3; 4 Macc 16:12); relationship of brothers (Gen 4:5; 45:5).

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(evan. croni,sw h`me,ran mi,an luph,sw auvto.n li,an). So he sends Azariah/Raphael to complete his father’s task alone, to fetch the money from Rages and also to invite Gabael to his wedding ceremony. In the meantime Tobias’s parents become more and more concerned over their son’s long absence; above all, Tobit is, according to 10:3, painfully heart-stricken (GI: evlupei/ to li,an/GII: h;rxato lupei/sqai). Especially when Hannah fears that Tobias might have perished and, according to GII, begins to weep and lament (h;rxato klai,ein kai. qrhnei/n; v. 3), Tobit attempts to appease her (mh. lupou/; v. 6). In Tobit’s prayer of thanksgiving in chapter 13, he happily praises two (GII three) groups of people (maka,rioi); those who love God (v. 15 GI; plus GII); those who are gladdened by his peace [oi] carh,sontai evpi. th/| eivrh,nh| sou] and those who have felt God’s reprehension in a painful way (lupe,w; v. 16 GI.II). It may be that here, Tobit is speaking of himself since he, through his blindness, experienced his wife’s lack of understanding, the long absence of his son as God’s reprehension, as a ma,stix. Provided that one loves the Lord, one may, as a human being, nourish the hope of a return of joy.44 Edna in 10:13/12LXX argues even further. She begins anew with the address ‘child,’ whereas the text continues on with nominal clauses in order to increase the forcefulness (of her wish): “in peace: from now on I [am] your mother and Sarah [your] sister” (cf. Gen 20:2; 26:7). With that, Edna makes new familial references in a way similar to Raguel (10:11-12). Now that all have become part of one family, she continues, “May we all prosper together all the days of our lives (euvodwqei,hmen).” Then she kissed them both and “saw them safely off (u`giai,nontaj)” (NAB). Through the phrase mh. luph,sh|j auvth,n in Tob 4:3 and 10:13/12LXX GI a direct connection is established between Hannah and Sarah. Tobit, in his instructions for his son, Tobias, commanded him not to cause his mother any pain. Edna, as Tobias’ mother-in-law, or rather by self-definition according to 10:13/12LXX, “his mother,” commands Tobias not to hurt his newly acquired wife’s feelings. At one point the topic deals with the mother-son-relationship, at another time, it deals with the relationship between spouses, although the appropriate behavior is, in each case, demanded by the male figure through the reference to the relationship between relatives. In this way, Edna as a woman surely argues on an emotional level in favor of her daughter. 44 Tob 13:16/14LXX GI: evpi. soi. carh,sontai qeasa,menoi pa/san th.n do,xan sou kai. euvfranqh,sontai eivj to.n aivwn/ a h` yuch, mou euvlogei,tw to.n qeo.n to.n basile,a to.n me,gan; GII: o[ti evn soi. carh,sontai kai. o;yontai pa/san th.n cara,n sou eivj to.n aivwn/ a h` yuch, mou euvlo,gei to.n ku,rion to.n basile,a to.n me,gan.

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2.5. Various Patterns of Argument for Marriage By taking up the ancestral generation’s practice of endogamous marriage and avoiding endangerment of faith caused by mixed marriage (pornei,a), Tobit ensures God’s blessing for a successful marriage. This is meant to bless them with children, material wealth, and a harmonious marriage, as well as a new entry of the Promised Land. In his prayer, Tobias employs an argument pertaining to creation theology, which considers the woman as having been created for the purpose of helping (bohqo,j) the man, in order for them to achieve a long life together. Raguel emphasizes his emotional bond between his daughter and himself and sees a successful marriage, along with the blessing of children, as being dependent on the quality of the relationship with the parents-in-law. Edna argues completely on the level of their new family relation and forbids her son-in-law, Tobias to hurt his newly acquired wife’s emotions. These three teachings are passed down to Tobias from the older generation (from Tobit, Raguel, and Edna), one is aimed at the young wife (from Raguel) and one is aimed at the couple (from Raguel). Tobias’ demand is addressed towards his wife.

3. The Conflict between Tobit and Hannah (Tob 2:11-3:1) 3.1 Tobit’s Allegations Tobit’s blindness leads to the head of the family not being able to fulfill his role as the bread-winner. Initially, Tobit’s nephew, Ahikar, takes over the duty of supporting the family for two years, until he moves to Elymais (Tob 2:10). After that, Hannah takes over this role (cf. Sir 25:22), an action, which from the viewpoint of a man living in the patriarchal society of those days, was most likely considered a disgrace.45 Nevertheless, within the ancient world, a disability was not always regarded as something negative.46 In GI one finds a note that at the age of 58, Tobit becomes blind for eight years. Thus, Hannah would have earned a living for six years (Tob 2:10), but, according to GII, only for two years. GII speaks of Tobit’s four-year blindness at the age of 62 (Tob 14:2).47 45 Cf. Egger-Wenzel, Knechtschaft. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 139: “Strangely enough, nothing is recalled here about the money that Tobit had deposited with Gabael (1:14),” or did she know about it? 46 Cf. Egger-Wenzel, Welt. 47 Tobit’s age also differs; according to GI it adds up to 158 years (14:11), according to GII to 112 (= 8x14) years (14:1).

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Tobit himself reports that Hannah earned money by means of female labor (evriqeu,omai), with tasks such as weaving and sewing, as is made clear in v. 12 GII (evxe,teme to.n i`sto,n). For she sent her woven items (avposte,llw) to the/her masters48 (GII toi/j kuri,oij auvtw/n), who gave her the wages (to.n misqo,n). In this connection, it is clear that Hannah leaves her home only for the transfer of her wages – GII emphasizes: “the whole wages” (to.n misqo.n pa,nta). According to v. 12 GII, by attaching the possessive pronoun auvtw/n, Tobit is likely criticizing Hannah about the fact that she no longer serves just the “one Lord,” but rather “several lords.” For in the entire book, the singular of ku,rioj usually only means the God of Israel49 (cf. Deut 6:4 dx'a, hw"hy> Wnyhela{ / hw'hy> / ku,rioj o` qeo.j h`mw/n ku,rioj ei-j evstin). Thereby, Tobit presumably implies an endangerment of the one true faith, if not a lapse of faith, on Hannah’s part. What then follows in GII, is an exact date according to the Macedonian-Seleucid calendar: the 7th day of Dystrus (evn th/| e`bdo,mh| tou/ Du,strou) is, according to Gregorian calculations, the 2nd of February (Jewish Shebat),50 which coincides with the time in spring in which goats give birth to their young. Hannah, therefore, could in fact have been given a young goat as a gift (v. 12 GI: e;rifon; GII: e;rifon evx aivgw/n).51 The dates might also refer to cultic matters,52 which deal with Jewish dietary laws:53 “You shall not boil a kid in its mother’s milk” (NRSV) AMai blexB] ; ydIG> lVebt; -. al{ / ouvc e`yh,seij a;rna evn ga,lakti mhtro.j auvtou/ (Exod 23:19; Deut 14:21; cf. Exod

48 According to a note in Zimmermann, Book, 58, this is a case of “the plural of majesty.” 49 See the references of ku,rioj (GI: 25x in singular, 3x in plural; GII: 29x in singular, 4x in plural); cf. the lapse of faith by other kinsfolk of Tobit in Tob 1:5. 50 Cf. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 140. 51 To.n e;rifon evx aivgw/n is only attested in Gen 38:20. There Judah wants to redeem his pledge securities (his signet, cord, and staff as ‘identity card’) through the Adullamite with a goat, from the pretended prostitute Tamar. With her maneuver Tamar had secured the living on of her family as Hannah does; therefore commentaries partly insinuate adultery (cf. Moore, Tobit, 133-134). By the way e;rifoj has 24 instances in the O.T.; whereas 10 of them speak of sacrifices, 3 of cheating and Gen 38:17, 20, 23 of a wage for sexual favors. The word ai;x has 75 references; 54 of them occur in contexts of sacrifices, 3 of them for the purpose of cheating (Jacob – Laban, Joseph’s death is pretended to Jacob, Michal hides David) and once in context of Tamar’s sexual favor (Gen 38:17, 20). For practical reasons Hannah did not get her wages only once a year. To wait one year for the first wage, the family would not have survived. 52 Moore, Tobit, 133, mentions according to Bertrand, that Tobit does not want to use a stolen animal for the meal at Pesah (cf. Exod 12:2-5; 2 Chr 35:7f.: e;rifoj; 2 Chr 35:7: ai;x). The mentioned date in GII would fit, because the 7th Dystrus/2nd February/Shebat is a few weeks before the date of Pesah in Nisan. 53 To discuss the development of dietary instructions, would exceed the frame of this contribution.

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34:26: ouv prosoi,seij …54). What also plays a role is that a kid goat should remain with its mother for seven days and that both may not be slaughtered on the same day (Lev 22:27-28). With the words “for the hearth” (evfV e`sti,a)| GII seems to emphasize the employers’ intentions of providing a decent meal for the family, but not intending to affect the dietary laws of the Torah. Therefore one can exclude a spurious cultic action. Thereafter, Tobit recounts a reaction to Hannah’s return to her husband (pro,j me; v. 13): The animal (GII: e;rifoj) makes its presence known acoustically, in that it begins to bleat (GI: krauga,zw;55 GII: kra,zw). Tobit calls for his wife (only GII) and asks her from where the/this kid (GII: evri,fion tou/to) has come and assumes that it is stolen (kleyimai/on, ). He orders her to immediately return the animal to the/its “lords” (GII: toi/j kuri,oij auvtou/). His reason for this, is that it is not permitted to consume anything which has been stolen (GI: ouv ga.r qemito,n evstin fagei/n kleyimai/on; GII: ouv ga.r evxousi,an e;comen h`mei/j fagei/n ouvde.n kleyimai/on).56 Hannah is confronted with a fourfold set of arguments from her husband and, at first, she is not given the opportunity to react. Before she answers the question as to where the kid is from, it is instantly implied that she might have stolen the animal. This is, of course, a horrible accusation, which is reinforced by the order to return the goat, as well as the reasoning that one is not permitted to consume anything which has been stolen (kleyimai/oj).57 According to the Decalogue (Exod 20:14; Deut 5:19: kle,ptw), stealing is forbidden. Thus, Hannah is accused of having violated the Ten Commandments. Even if Hannah had stolen out of necessity, because the family would otherwise have starved, Tobit makes no comment in regard to this. For him, Prov 6:30 does not seem to apply: “Thieves are not despised who steal only to satisfy their appetite when they are hun-

54 This variant of the verb in Exod 34:26 with prosfe,rw points as technical term to a cultic offering (from 163 references in total in the O.T. there are 142 in a context of sacrifice), as in Tob 2:12 with e;rifon (GII evx aivgw/n). The term in Tob 2:14 GI dw/ron may also hint at a sacrificial meaning. 55 Cf. Hanhart, Tobit, 76: krauga,zw; Rahlfs, Septuaginta, 1008, has the same verb as GII. 56 Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 72, connects this with the “Verbot, etwas Unreines zu essen … eine deutliche Akzentverschiebung vom Ethischen zu rein rituellem oder kasuistischem Denken.” What the impurity cause, she does not mention. Differently Moore, Tobit, 133: “Tobit’s religion was not some cold, impersonal legalism.” Fitzmyer, Tobit, 141, also excuses: “Blind Tobit’s reaction of suspicion is partly owing to his poverty and misfortune. It is quite different from the way he will react to his wife’s concerns later on (5:18-21; 10:4-6). It is because he is scrupulous about eating or keeping anything that does not belong to him. His thinking is governed by the injunction of Deut 22:1-3 or Exod 23:4.” 57 This adjective is a hapax legomenon also in classic Greek literature.

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gry” (NRSV; cf. Hos 4:2; Zech 5:3). Correspondingly, Tobit is reported for stealing the corpses of murdered Israelites, which he then secretly buries (Tob 1:18 GI: e;qaya auvtou.j kle,ptwn pollou.j; GII: e;klepton ta. sw,mata auvtw/n kai. e;qapton) and because of which he is forced to flee. A ban on consuming stolen goods is not, however, verifiable from the Hebrew Bible. What should at last be mentioned is that compensation must be made for stolen goods at a ratio of 1:5 (for cattle), or 1:4 (for small livestock/pro,baton), as is required in Exod 21:37;58 2 Sam 12:6 (cf. Exod 22:2-14 in the case of deposited possessions a compensation at a ratio of 1:2). Analogous to this – however, with emphasis on the Sabbath ordinance – might be the accusations made by the Pharisees that the disciples of Christ picked ears of corn on the Sabbath (cf. Mt 12:1-8//Mk 2:23-38// Lk 6:1-5). He, in turn, justifies his action by referring to 1 Sam 21:2-7, in which David asks for the showbread for his hungry men from the sanctuary in Nob. The priest Ahimelech hands these over only under the condition – regarding priestly law – that David’s men have kept themselves away from women (v. 5 hV'ami e %a; ~yrI[N' h> ; Wrm.vn. -I ~ai / eiv pefulagme,na ta. paida,ria, evstin avpo. gunaiko,j). According to GI, Tobit apodictically expresses that it is (by law) not permitted (qemito,n)59 to eat stolen goods. GII varies this with … evxousi,an e;comen h`mei/j: “for we have no right to eat anything stolen” (NRSV). It is interesting that evxousi,a is documented only in 1:21 and 7:10 in the GII version of the Book of Tobit. Tob 1:21 speaks of the fact that not 40 days have passed when King Sennacherib – who had Tobit’s property expropriated due to a complaint – is himself murdered by two of his sons. Thereupon another son – Esarhaddon – became king. He appointed Ahikar, Tobit’s nephew, treasurer of the kingdom and gave him authority over the entire administration (auvto.j ei=cen th.n evxousi,an evpi. pa/san th.n dioi,khsin). According to Tob 7:10 Raguel learns of Tobias’ desire to marry Sarah. So he encourages the future son-in-law by assuring him that, as the next of kin (su. e;ggista, mou), no one other than Tobias is entitled to Sarah. Raguel does not have the authority/right (evgw. ouvk e;cw evxousi,an dou/nai auvth.n e`te,rw| avndri,) to give his daughter to another man as his wife. Did Raguel act wrongly then, in other words without any authority, by previously intending to give Sarah to seven different men as their wife, all of whom were killed

58 “When someone steals an ox or a sheep, and slaughters it or sells it…” (NRSV). xbj presumably expresses the slaughtering for one’s own consumption (cf. Gen 43:16; Deut 28:31; 1 Sam 25:11; Prov 9:2). 59 Menge, Grosswörterbuch, 327, writes for qemito,j: “gesetzmäßig, gerecht, recht, rechtmäßig, billig, gestattet, erlaubt.”

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by Asmodeus (Tob 3:8)? Whether there was a familial relation between the seven and his family is not mentioned in the context.60 However, he has to warn Tobias too, since seven candidates have already lost their lives (v. 11).

3.2 Hannah’s Response Following all the accusations made against her, Hannah defends herself with one single sentence: that the young kid had been given to her as a present over and above her wages (Tob 2:14 GI: dw/ron de,dotai, moi evpi. tw/| misqw/;| GII: do,sei …). What is noticeable is that the term dw/ron in GII has something of a cultic element to it, which is apparent in all other occurrences within the Book of Tobit (cf. 4:11; 13:13 [2x]).61 However, Tobit refuses to believe her (ouvk evpi,steuon) – thus he, in addition to this, accuses her of lying62 – and repeats his command to return the animal to “the lords” (GI: avpodido,nai auvto. toi/j kuri,oij; GII: avpodou/nai …). He is ashamed of Hannah, which is obvious from his blushing (GI: hvruqri,wn pro.j auvth,n; GII: proshruqri,wn ca,rin tou,tou pro.j auvth,n). With the double use of pro,j (in the compound, as well as a preposition) in GII, his embarrassment at alleged Hannah’s behavior is emphasized. Vv. 14-15 continue with Hannah’s reaction. She defends herself (with an emphatic participle: avpokriqei/sa) against the accusations of her husband – the one person who, next to her son, is closest to her (moi) – with two counter questions and a statement: 1) “Where are your charitable deeds now?” (evlehmosu,nai)?63 2) “Where (only GII) are your righteous deeds (dikaiosu,nai)?64 – See! Everything is known about you!” (GI: ivdou. gnwsta. pa,nta meta. sou/) / “See, these things are known about you!” (GII: ivde. tau/ta meta. sou/ gnwsta, evstin). 60 Cf. Sarah’s argument in Tob 3:15: she must not wait for a closer kinsman to be married (GI: ouvde. avdelfo.j evggu.j ouvde. u`pa,rcwn auvtw/| ui`oj, ; GII: ouvde. avdelfo.j auvtw/| evggu.j ou;te suggenh.j auvtw/| u`pa,rcei). 61 Out of 190 occurrences in the LXX, 88 are found in context of sacrifice in the books of Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomium. 62 Cf. the Decalogue in Exod 20:16; Deut 5:20 (yeudomarture,w; yeudh,j). In Tob 3:6 Tobit himself bemoans the lies against him. 63 The word is attested 56 times in the LXX, while one can find the most occurrences in the book of Tobit (GI: 20x; GII: 13x) and Ben Sira (13x). The Hebrew originals are mostly hq'dc' . (8x) and ds,x, (6x). Ego, Buch, 891, notes: “entsprechend der semantischen Entwicklung des hebräischen Befriffs hqdc läßt sich aber auch bei diesem Terminus eine eindeutige Verengung auf den Aspekt des Almosengebens feststellen.” 64 The technical term occurs 337 times in the LXX; mostly hq'dc' . (135x) is read originally, then qd,c, (82x), ds,x, (9x), jP'vm. i (7x), and 6x tm,a/ respectively qyDIc.;

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Both terms evlehmosu,nh and dikaiosu,nh (as well avlh,qeia GI: 8x / GII: 14x) are keywords65 within the book first as GI: 20 / GII: 13, and second GI: 11 / GII: 8 references. It is fascinating that evlehmosu,nh in its plural form, is used only for the qualification of Tobit’s actions in GII (1:3, 16; 2:14; 7:6/7; 14:2; a similar case is dikaiosu,nh in the plural GI: 2:14; 12:9; GII: 1:3; 2:14; 4:5),66 which through the apposition of the adjective polu,j67 (1:3, 16) is given an additional emphasis; compare also the multiple use of pa/j in contrast to the uniqueness of Tobit in his self-description.68 In GI this clear usage is somewhat watered down a bit by a reference in the plural in the context of Raphael’s invitation to both Tobit and Tobias to praise the Lord. Rapha­ el teaches that those who do acts of charity and good deeds69 shall have a full life (oi` poiou/ntej evlehmosu,naj kai. dikaiosu,naj plhsqh,sontai zwh/j; 12:9). In this way, one can conclude that in the author’s portrayal of Tobit, he seems to be far more charitable than any other person, even more so than God (but cf. once Tob 3:2 GI: pa/sai ai` o`doi, sou evlehmosu,nai). The author allows for Hannah also to pick up on this peak of irony70 against Tobit in the response to the insinuation of an endangerment of faith, as well as to the theft. On the other hand, one can argue that only God represents the true evlehmosu,nh and dikaiosu,nh and human actions can realize this71 65 Cf. Ego, Buch, 890f.; Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 101f.; Deselaers, Tobit, 882; Engel, Buch, 286f.; Di Lella, Prayer, 103, note 38, speaks of an inclusio: “Thus, ‘truth,’ ‘righeousness,’ and ‘charitable works’ are central themes of the book.” 66 Cf. two occurrences of the plural form twqdc also in the Hebrew Tobit fragment 4Q200 f2 line 6, 8 (= Tob 4:7, 8); Hallermayer, Text, 145, observes the difference from the translation of GI. 67 Engel, Buch, 286-287, refers to the significance of these terms as “Gabe Gottes” in “Tob 1,17 (vgl. 4,16).” 68 Cf. Tob GI: 1:3, 4 (4x), 5, 6, 7, 10, 20, 21 (2x); GII: 1:3, 4 (4x), 5 (2x), 6, 10, 13, 20, 21 (2x); see McCracken, Narration, 408. 69 The emphasis as a concrete assignment to act corresponds to the combination of evlehmosu,nh and poie,w (cf. 13x in GI: Tob 1:3, 16; 4:7, 8, 11, 16; 12:8, 9; 13:8; 14:2, 10, 11 and 9x in GII: 1:3, 16; 7:6; 12:8, 9; 14:2, 8, 10, 11); see Engel, Buch, 287. 70 Moore, Tobit, 24-26, finds irony only in the chosen names in comparison with their fate or character. 71 Cf. Blass – Debrunner – Rehkopf, Grammatik, 118: “Der Plural für Abstrakta Er dient bei Dichtern und in (gehobener?) Prosa nicht selten zur Bezeichnung konkreter Erschei­ nungsformen …” §142 alludes only to New Testament references and mentions Isocrates’ “besondere Vorliebe für abstrakte Plurale.” The plural of evlehmosu,nh or dikaiosu,nh does not occur in “Perseus Digital Library.” The Bible Works LXX search offers for evlehmosu,nh in plural 23 references (Tob GI 1:3, 16; 2:14; 3:2; 12:9; 14:2; GII 1:3, 16; 2:14; 7:6; 14:2; Ps 102:6; Prov 3:3; 14:22; 15:27; Sir 31:11; Dan 4:27; Theod. 4:27; Acts 9:36; 10:2, 4, 31; 24:17), for dikaiosu,nh 19 instances (Deut 9:4.6; Jdg 5:11 [2x]; 1 Sam 26:23; Tob GI 2:14; 12:9; GII 1:3; 2:14; 4:5; Ps 10:7; Sir 44:10; PsSol 9:3; Ezek 3:20 [2x]; 18:24; 33:13; Dan 9:18; Theod. 9:18). Forming the plural of abstract terms seems to appear very late, so that one may presume a closeness of time within these texts.

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in various ways – because of that the plural is used. Hannah’s second question to her husband is consequently introduced only in GII through Tobit’s self-introduction. For he had explained that, all the days of his life, he had walked the paths of truth and “justice” (Tob 1:3 GI: dikaiosu,nhj; GII: dikaiosu,naij). In GI the plural is applied only to Raphael’s call to the father and son (12:9), which claims that the “deeds of charity and justice” promise a full life. According to GII Tobias is also instructed by his father always to do just acts (dikaiosu,naj poi,ei; in contrast GI: dikaiosu,nhn … 4:5). With the exception of one other, all remaining references have the singular of the noun and include demands to Tobias, or rather to him and Sarah, along with the children, or to sinners, or all people, to act justly. Only once do we find the noun also as part of a description of God (13:7: to.n ku,rion th/j dikaiosu,nhj).72 This God of justice is to be praised according to Tobit’s song of praise. Again it is noteworthy that even for God himself there exists only one singular ‘justice’ (see above 3:2 GI). With her statement in 2:14 “See! Everything is known about you!”/ “See, these things are known about you!” – the acts of charity and the just deeds – Hannah ultimately wishes to put her husband, Tobit, in his place. Ironically, she picked up on his self-definition of having demonstrated many acts of charity and justice towards his fellow kinsfolk (Tob 1:3, 6-8 GI: kavgw. mo,noj …; GII: kavgw. monw,tatoj …; v. 11: evgw. de. …; vv. 16-18; 2:2-7). He neither shows her solidarity, nor does he show her justice, as he had done for others of his people when these were in life-threatening situations. Instead, Tobit’s “oh-so perfect” behavior led to his flight (Tob 1:19), the expropriation of his property (v. 20), his blindness (2:9-10), and the mockery by his neighbors (2:8), as well as his family falling into economic ruin, yes, even poverty. Now Hannah must make a living.73 However, she is so successful at her work, especially as regards the quality of her weaving, that she is rewarded with a bonus, a kid goat. Instead of receiving Tobit’s gratitude and respect, she is reproached by him. If her husband truly kept to Israel’s “eternal statute” (evn prosta,gmati aivwni,w)| in an exemplary manner, then he would merit God’s blessings. Instead, Tobit and his family are overcome by various misfortunes. It is evident to Hannah that the “Tun- und Ergehenzusammenhang” 72 Cf. Tob 3:2 GI di,kaioj ei= ku,rie kai. pa,nta ta. e;rga sou kai. pa/sai ai` o`doi, sou evlehmosu,nai kai. avlh,qeia kai. kri,sin avlhqinh.n kai. dikai,an su. kri,neij eivj to.n aivw/na; GII: di,kaioj ei= ku,rie kai. pa,nta ta. e;rga sou di,kaia kai. pa/sai ai` o`doi, sou evlehmosu,nh kai. avlh,qeia su. kri,neij to.n aivw/na. 73 Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 113, argues: “Vom soziologischen Standpunkt zeigt die Szene in 2,11-14, daß offenbar im 2. Jh. v.Chr. eine Famile von drei Personen vom Verdienst einer Frau leben konnte, wenn auch ärmlich.”

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in Tobit’s life has not taken effect.74 “According to the Deuteronomistic doctrine of retribution (Deut 6; 8; 28:1-68; 30:15-20), Tobit should receive divine favour in return for his good deeds.”75 This should be obvious to Tobit, as well. Where are the deeds of gratitude performed by his brothers whom he has helped before (1:3, 16)? However, Tobit is not struck with blindness for no reason at all.76 Particularly his wife notices the contradiction: gnwsta, – meta. sou/. Considering that the combination of evlehmosu,nh and dikaiosu,nh appears only in Tob 2:14; 12:8, 9 (not in GII) and in 14:11 (GII v. 8), Hannah, with her choice of words, joins in the critisicm of Tobit. In chap. 12, Raphael speaks to Tobit and Tobias. He warmly assures to them that acts of charity and justice cleanse from sin,77 save from death, grant long life,78 and all are greater than possessions, which have been acquired unjustly.79 In chap. 14, Tobit urges the next generation to do the same in order to be saved (according to GI). So Hannah, with her response, attempts to open her husband’s eyes, despite his blindness; however, this is, at first, unsuccessful. He does not see the lack of appreciation which he shows Hannah, nor does he see her injury.80

3.3 Tobit’s Withdrawal (Tob 3:1, 6) Tobit reacts to the rebuke from his wife Hannah by withdrawing. He is painfully affected, according to GII affected within the soul (GI: luphqei,j;

74 Moore, Tobit, 135, sees in Hannah’s words “a sarcastic and cutting manner … now Hannah is intent on hurting him, perhaps even to the extent of attributing his false motives to all his charitable acts.” 75 Miller, Marriage, 193; cf. in this context the analogy to Job’s wife (Job 2:9-10), who is often cited as parallel to Hannah; however there are many differences; see amongst others the indications given by Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 72-73. 76 Gross, Tobit, 20, comments: “Heilung erlangt der Kranke nach biblischer Auffassung im Grund nur durch betende Hinkehr zu Jahwe”; so first Tobit was not really law abiding in God’s opinion. 77 Cf. Prov 15:27; Dan 4:27. 78 Cf. Prov 21:21; Bar 5:9. 79 Cf. in context of Sirach the article of Kaiser, Reichtum, 10-49. 80 Cf. Gross, Tobit, 21: “… vor allem seiner Frau gegenüber mitunter geradezu herzlos und steinern geworden ist“; so the former passage seems senseless and prejudiced: “Seine vorwurfsvolle Frage an Hanna, die kaum auf die Mißstimmung und die üble Laune des Erblindeten zurückzuführen ist, und ihre Antwort beweisen wie 518 und 104, daß sie ihrem Gatten an seelischer Kraft und Größe keineswegs gleichkommt” (20-21), and the presentation of Tobit is too idealized.

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GII: peri,lupoj geno,menoj th/| yuch/)| .81 According to GI he weeps82 and eventually prays to the Lord, whom he, according to v. 2, describes with the same attributes (di,kaioj and evlehmosu,nh; GI in the plural) he had used in his self-description and from which Hannah had quoted earlier. GII noticeably unfolds this state of emotions: sad at heart he weeps and sighs, and begins his prayer (stena,xaj e;klausa kai. hvrxa,mhn proseu,cesqai meta. stenagmw/n). In the process GI employs three terms to describe Tobit’s emotional state and GII uses four. On the one hand, he feels that his condition has been caused by his own sins – whether he committed them consciously or unconsciously – as well as from the sins of his ancestors (a`marti,aij mou … avgnoh,masi,n mou … pate,rwn mou; … a`martiw/n mou kai. tw/n pate,rwn mou; vv. 3, 583). On the other hand, he speaks of false insults toward him (ovneidismou.j yeudei/j; v. 6), which Tobit has overheard. Aside from the present reference, yeudh,j appears only in Tob 14:6 GII, where Tobit, in his farewell speech, expresses confidence towards his son, as well as his grandchildren, that all nations of the world shall turn towards the Lord with great reverence. They will abandon the idols of their gods, which, falsely, had led them astray (tou.j planw/ntaj yeudh/ th.n pla,nhsin auvtw/n).84 Furthermore, ovneidismo,j,85 as well as its corresponding verb, ovneidi,zw86 can be found almost exclusively in chap. 3, particularly in Tobit’s and Sarah’s prayers. Thus Tobit beseeches God not to repay him according to his sins and those of his ancestors. They had not adhered to God’s commandments (tw/n evntolw/n sou), so the Lord subjected them to plundering, captivity, death, and mockery (ovneidismo,j) within the dispersion of the nations (3:4; cf. Deut 28:15-68). Along with his ancestors, he did not truly adhere to the Lord’s ways. Now Tobit would rather prefer death87 (5x in GI … avnalabei/n to. pneu/ma, mou … avpoluqw/ … ge,nwmai gh/ … lusitelei/ moi avpoqanei/n h' zh/n … avpoluqh/nai, 81 Cf. Ps 42:6, 12; 43:5; Matt 26:38; Mark 14:34. 82 See Di Lella, Prayers, 108: “What strikes the reader is the contrast between the calm comportment of Sarah, a female and still quite young and impressionable, and the weepy behaviour of Tobit, a much older and presumably experienced male. The reader perhaps would have expected the youngster Sarah to shed tears and carry on, and the older Tobit to be in control of his emotions”; comments Miller, Marriage, 88: “Unlike Tobit, she does not allow her emotions to get the better of her but reflects on her situation rationally, deciding not to take her own life.” 83 GII no longer mentions the ancestors in v. 5. 84 Cf. Isa 41:41-29; 42:17; 44:9-20; 46:1-7. 85 Cf. GI: Tob 3:4, 6, 13, 15 and GII: Tob 3:4, 6, 7, 10, 13, 15; 8:10. 86 Cf. GI: Tob 3:7 and GII: Tob 3:10. 87 Cf. 1 Kgs 19:4; Jer 20:7-9; Jonah 4:3, 9; Job 3.

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me th/j avna,gkhj h;dh eivj to.n aivwn, ion to,pon; 7x in GII: avnalabei/n to. pneu/ma, mou evx evmou/ … avpoluqw/ avpo. prosw,pou th/j gh/j … ge,nwmai gh/ … lusitelei/ moi avpoqanei/n ma/llon h' zh/n … avpoluqw/ avpo. th/j avna,gkhj tau,thj … avpo,luso,n me eivj to.n to,pon to.n aivwn, ion … lusitelei/ moi avpoqanei/n ma/llon h' ble,pein avna,gkhn pollh.n evn th/| zwh/| mou), than listen to false insults (ovneidismou.j yeudei/j h;kousa). GII, at the end of v. 6 repeats: mh. avkou,ein ovneidismou,j. At this point, Sarah is mentioned in v. 7. Her maids mock her (GI: ovneidisqh/nai; GII: auvth.n avkou/sai ovneidismou,j) because each of her seven spouses had passed away on their wedding night. When the situation becomes unbearable for Sarah, she sets out to hang herself. However, she does not go through with her intention because she wants to spare her father mockery88 by others (GII: mh,pote ovneidi,swsin to.n pate,ra mou … mhke,ti ovneidismou.j avkou,sw). So, like Tobit,89 she prays that the Lord should let her die, so that she need no longer hear the mockeries (v. 13 GI: mh. avkou/sai, me mhke,ti ovneidismo,n; GII: mh. avkou,ein me mhke,ti ovneidismou,j). By emphasizing her virginity (v. 14 kaqara, eivmi avpo. pa,shj a`marti,aj [GII avkaqarsi,aj] avndro,j), she affirms that she has tarnished neither her name, nor that of her father (molu,nw). Because she is an only child and there are no close relatives, who might be cosidered as an heir, or as someone whom she might wed, she no longer wishes to live. She knows nothing of the fact that Tobias is soon to arrive as somebody from her own lineage, whom she is allowed to marry as the only daughter (cf. Num 36). But should the Lord not wish to let her die then may he (GI behold her and show her mercy [evpi,taxon evpible,yai evpV evme. kai. evleh/sai, me]; cf. v. 6 mh. avpostre,yh|j to. pro,swpo,n sou [GII ku,rie] avpV evmou/) at least keep her from hearing any more mockery (v. 15 GI: mhke,ti avkou/sai, me ovneidismo,n; GII: nu/n eivsa,kouson ovneidismo,n mou). In GII Tob 8:10, Raguel expresses to his servants – with whom he is providently digging a grave, intended for his son-inlaw (according to GI he does this alone) – his fear that his family/house would, in the case of Tobias’ death, be subject to ridicule and mockery (genw,meqa kata,gelwj kai. ovneidismo,j). It is noticeable that mockeries are, very often, connected with the sense of hearing.90 This verbal attack occurs through a collective (or its speaker), which always adversely faces the respective protagonist: 3:3-4: Tobit and his ancestors ↔ all nations in their dispersion (GI: pa/sin toi/j e;qnesin evn oi-j evskorpi,smeqa; GII: evn pa/sin toi/j e;qnesin evn oi-j h`ma/j diesko,rpisaj);

88 Cf. Exod 20:12; Deut 5:16. 89 Ego, Buch, 885, notes between the two prayers further structural parallels. 90 Cf. GI: Tob 3:6, 13, 15; GII: 3:6 (2x), 7, 10, 13 (ovneidismo,j + avkou,w).

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3:7-13: Sarah ↔ the maids91 (GI: v. 7 … u`po. paidiskw/n patro.j auvth/j; v. 8 … ei=pan …; v. 9 … h`ma/j … i;doimen …; GII: v. 7 … u`po. mia/j tw/n paidiskw/n tou/ patro.j e`auth/j; v. 8 … ei=pen auvth/| h` paidi,skh …; v. 9 … h`ma/j … i;doime,n); GII 8:9-10: Raguel and the servants ↔ the population of Ecbatana, tentatively also the maids (… tou.j oivke,taj meqV e`autou/ kai. w;c| onto kai. w;ruxan ta,fon … genw,meqa kata,gelwj kai. ovneidismo,j). When one takes into account the other references92 in which there is a combination of ovneidismo,j with avkou,w, then it follows that the Israelite, or God, experiences mockery from hostile and external people. Thus, one can conclude that by his “false insults” (ovneidismou.j yeudei/j), Tobit is not alluding to his wife’s preceding response and is, therefore, not accusing her of lies, as well. Therefore, based on the course of the book, the only remaining groups, which feel adversity towards Tobit can only either be his kinsfolk, who act like foreign people (1:10 pa,ntej oi` avdelfoi, mou kai. oi` evk tou/ ge,nouj mou h;sqion evk tw/n a;rtwn tw/n evqnw/n), or his mocking neighbors (2:8 GI: oi` plhsi,on evpege,lwn le,gontej; GII: oi` plhsi,on mou katege,lwn le,gontej)93, or even more likely, the Ninevites, who denounced him (1:19 GI: poreuqei.j de. ei-j tw/n evn Nineuh; GII: evporeu,qh ei-j tij tw/n evk th/j Nineuh).

3.4 The Patterns of Argumentation Due to Tobit’s blindness, the situation within the family is rather tense. For this reason, Hannah takes over the traditional male role as the bread-winner94 working at home95 as a weaver. Upon receiving an additional payment, a bonus in the form of a kid goat, a conflict erupts – on a relational level – which has, most likely, been brewing for some time.96 Very wordily

91 In GII Tob 3:7-8 only one maid appears as speaker, maybe to parallel the maids’ affront with Hannah’s reproach against Tobit. However in v. 9 the singular disappears. At least here it is obvious that the maids act as a collective (also in GII). 92 Cf. Sir 29:23 (paroiki,a); Zeph 2:8 (ovneidismou.j Mwab); Isa 51:6f. (oi` de. katoikou/ntej th.n gh/n w[sper tau/ta avpoqanou/ntai↔lao,j mou↔mh. fobei/sqe ovneidismo.n avnqrw,pwn); Jer 28:51 (eivsh/lqon avllogenei/j); Lam 3:61 (from v. 46: pa,ntej oi` evcqroi. h`mw/n); Ezek 36:15 (avtimi,a evqnw/n kai. ovneidismou.j law/n). 93 Cf. Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 78-79; in contrast Moore, Tobit, 138: “In any event, her biting sarcasm must have pushed Tobit’s thinking and suffering to new depths of despair.” 94 Cf. Bow – Nickelsburg, Patriarchy. 95 Cf. for example Deselaers, Tobit, 880; Engel, Buch, 280; in contrast Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 113, and Nicklas, Tobit 2.5. 6), write of an employment outside of her home, which avposte,llw seems to disprove. 96 Hannah works six (GI) or two (GII) years. The Greek versions differ.

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the author describes Tobit’s accusations toward his wife, which claim that she had endangered her faith, committed theft, and lied. With that, the first/second, seventh to tenth commandment (in Jewish counting) are addressed – possibly even the sixth commandment, if by toi/j kuri,oij auvtou/ in Tob 2:13 GII insinuates an act of adultery, for which she received the kid goat as payment (cf. Gen 38). He is ashamed of her alleged behavior: Tobit 4 sentences in direct speech + description (altogether GI: 30, GII: 35 words) 2:13

2:14

3:1

1. question (GI: 3; GII: 4 words) 2. question (3 words) explicit order to return the goat (4 words) apodictic declaration (GI: 6; GII: 8 words) (GI: 16, GII: 20 words) unbelief implicit command to return goat blushes of shame (GI: 14, GII 15 words)

sorrow, weeping, pain (GI: 3, GII: 4 terms)

Hannah 4 sentences in direct speech (altogether GI: 20, GII: 23 words)

v. 14

explanation (GI /II: 6 words) 1. question (GI: 5; GII: 6 words) 2. question (GI: 4; GII: 5 words) statement (GI: 5; 6 words) altogether (GI: 14, GII: 17 words)

no emotion

Altogether the author uses, according to GI, 30 and, according to GII, 35 words, in order to present Tobit’s point of view. For Hannah, only 20 (GI) or 23 (GII) words are used. In direct speech, Tobit has four (GI), or three (GII) few words than Hannah. This might be an insinuation of the female “gift of the gab.” Without a doubt, the emotions are, in the first conflict between Tobit and Hannah, ascribed to the husband, which is substantiated through his shorter and sharper sentences in direct speech:97 He turns red out of shame (2:14 GI: hvruqri,wn pro.j auvth,n; GII: proshruqri,wn ca,rin tou,tou pro.j auvth,n) over Hannah’s explanation, which he considers to be a lie. Upon questioning Tobit about his acts of charity and justice, Hannah ultimately insists that these acts are (yet to be) manifested within him. The question whether she – in accordance with the “Tun- und Ergehenzusammenhang”– means the overdue wages, or his uncharitableness/unkindness towards her, remains undecided. It should be noted that there is no report of emotions on her part.98 In contrast to this, To97 Miller, Marriage, 195, gives vague details. 98 Cf. Miller, Marriage, 195: “… Anna does not exhibit any composure during this scene.”

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bit, hurt, lamenting, and weeping, retreats in order to pray (3:1 GI: lupe,w, klai,w ovdu,nh; GII: peri,lupoj, stena,zw, klai,w, stenagmo,j). Here GII describes Tobit’s feelings more intensely and situates them within his yuch,.

4. Hannah’s and Tobit’s Concern over Their Son (Tob 5:18-6:1; 10:1-7) 4.1 Tob 5:18-6:1 Following Tobit’s and Sarah’s prayers is God’s answer in Tob 3:15-16 (in GI via Raphael, in GII by God). Thereby it is clear to the listener/reader that Tobit, as well as Sarah are ‘healed,’ that Tobias is to marry Sarah (or rather her levir), and that the evil demon, Asmodeus, is to be bound by Raphael.99 With that, the plot turns back to Tobit, who only now recalls having left with Gabael in Rages a fortune which his only son, Tobias, is to retrieve at this point. This is perhaps connected with the desire to free the family from poverty, as well as to make Hannah’s life easier. Tobit, in preparation for Tobias’ long and dangerous journey, gives his son instructions, as well as a travel companion (Tob 4:1-5:17). His wish that an angel may accompany them (Tob 5:17 GI: o` a;ggeloj auvtou/ sumporeuqh,tw u`mi/n; GII: … sunodeu,sai …) is, unbeknownst to Tobit, a reality. By this time, one must ask why Tobias does not share his mother’s workload, in order to support the family, or relieve her from it altogether, especially since he is obviously old enough to undertake such a long, dangerous, and exhausting journey. It is not until now that Hannah’s reaction, which apparently was not included in her husband’s thinking, sets in. As a mother, she weeps (klai,w) and, according to GI, says, “Why have you sent away our child?” (NETS; evxaposte,llw). The word “our” includes Tobit. In Tob 5:18 GII, Hannah asks the question solely out of her perspective as a mother, “Why is it that you have sent my child away (avposte,llw)?” Tobit could have found another person whom he trusts. Hannah’s second question expresses her concern for the couple’s continuing mutual existence, “Is he not the staff of our hand as he goes in and out before us?” (NRSV). With respect to the constant desire of her son’s presence, GII uses a formulation with a nominal infinitive (present middle): evn tw/| eivsporeu,esqai auvto.n kai. evkporeu,esqai. Then, questioning Tobit’s lone decision, she says, “Do not add money 99 One can find the following sentence only in GII: lu/sai Asmodaion to. daimo,nion to. ponhro.n avpV auvth/j.

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upon money, but let it be garbage in contrast to our child!” (5:19). Thereby she criticizes Tobit, who risks the son’s life for the sake of money, or else perhaps wants to free his family from poverty and relieve Hannah’s burden. However she would gladly continue to carry this heavy burden, if she knew her son to be safely at home. With v. 20, Hannah argues, “For the life (zh/n) that is given to us by the Lord is enough for us” (NRSV). With that Hannah shows that she has come to terms with the fate of the family and does not criticize God for this, since He still provides them with the necessities of life. Her son’s life, or rather his presence is more important to her than any material improvement. Tobit’s response is intended to calm her when he says, “Do not talk this way (mh. lo,gon e;ce freely translated)!” GI uses the title of “sister.” Tobit adds: “… he will come back in good health, and your eyes will see him” (NETS v. 21). GII includes Hannah’s choice of words (to. paidi,on h`mw/n) and unfolds a bit: “And your eyes will see him on the day when he comes back to you in good health” (NETS). “Do not talk this way! Do not fear for them (mh. fobou/ peri. auvtw/n), sister!” With the three-fold expression of health (u`giai,nwn), Tobit wishes to express his confidence that Tobias will ride out the journey and will most certainly return while his mother is still alive. She should not fear (mh. fobou/). After all, Tobias is not going alone, as she only now understands through the possessive pronoun auvtw/n. According to GI, Hannah does not receive this information. However, Tobit, without knowing that he in fact speaks the truth, wants to assure her that their son is protected by the Lord: “For a good angel will accompany him (GI: sumporeu,omai; GII: sune,rcomai), his journey will be successful, and he will come back in good health” (NRSV; v. 22). Shortly after this, Tob 6:1 says that Hannah ceases to weep (klai,w) and is silent. GII, only in Tob 6:2, reports Tobias’ departure with the angel, accompanied by his dog. To sum up, we can say that in this section, Hannah accuses her husband of putting the worth of money over the life and presence of her son. The scene begins with her weeping and her concern over both her care in old age and the well-being and safety of her son. Tobit takes his wife’s concerns quite seriously and attempts to keep her from expressing her fears, for that is what makes them reality. He emphasizes – most likely also in order to calm himself – that Tobias, because he is their son, will certainly be fine (u`giai,nw in GI 2x; GII 4x)100 and that Hannah shall see him again in her lifetime, when he returns to her. By saying so, he respects 100 This topic is focused from Tob 5 onward [cf. Tob GI: 5:14, 16, 21-22; 7:5 (2x); 10:6; 11:17; GII: 5:14, 17 (2x), 21 (3x), 22; 6:9; 7:1, 5 (2x), 13; 8:21; 10:6, 11 (3x), 13-14; 11:17 (2x); 12:3, 5] and is already important for Tobit when he asks for company for his son.

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Hannah’s intimate bond with her son, though he mostly describes Tobias as “our” son in order to emphasize what connects them. This goes also for Hannah, with the exception of Tob 5:18 GII (to. paidi,on mou). According to GII, on a side note Tobit mentions that Tobias has not departed on his own. For now, Hannah can be of comforted.

4.2 Tob 10:1-7 In the meantime, Tobias is en route with Azariah/Raphael and is able to catch a fish, whose organs will heal his future wife and his blind father. Upon the encouragement of his heavenly companion he makes plans for his wedding. These are realized at the house of his relatives in Ecbatana, the bride is freed from the evil, man-murdering demon, Asmodeus, and a fourteen-day wedding feast is celebrated. In order not to make his father wait any longer (Tob 9:4 … avriqmei/ ta.j h`me,raj kai. evan. croni,sw me,ga ovdunhqh,setai li,an) Tobias beseeches Raphael to go and fetch the fortune from Rages. Tobias seems to know of his father’s (and his mother’s) impatience and the delay, which is painfully felt (ovduna,w + li,an). For this same reason, Tobias later, in Tob 10:8, asks his father-in-law, to finally allow him to depart, lest his parents give up hope of seeing him alive again (GI: evxapo,steilo,n me o[ti o` path,r mou kai. h` mh,thr mou ouvke,ti evlpi,zousin o;yesqai, me; GII: evxapo,steilo,n me ginw,skw ga.r evgw. o[ti o` path,r mou kai. h` mh,thr mou ouv pisteu,ousin o[ti o;yontai, me). With that it becomes clear that the son wishes to be considerate of his mother’s emotional condition. Tob 10:1 mirrors the choice of words in 9:4, where it is mentioned how his father, Tobit, in anticipation of his son’s return, is already counting each day in which he does not come back with his companion (GI: Twbit o` path.r auvtou/ evlogi,zeto e`ka,sthj h`me,raj kai. w`j evplhrw,qhsan ai` h`me,rai th/j porei,aj kai. ouvk h;rconto). GII formulates this in a more detailed fashion, in that Tobit calculates the time of his son’s journey, there and back, and records the time already elapsed, without taking into consideration his companion (e`ka,sthn de. h`me,ran evx h`me,raj evlogi,zeto Twbiq ta.j h`me,raj evn po,saij poreu,setai kai. evn po,saij evpistre,yei kai. o[te sunetele,sqhsan ai` h`me,rai kai. o` ui`oj. auvtou/ ouv parh/n). The fourfold mention of the days, the father’s growing restlessness is clearly emphasized. Finally, he seeks a conversation with his wife and says, “Perhaps they were disappointed (kataiscu,nw)?101 Or perhaps Gabael has died, and no one is giving him the silver?” (10:2 GI). GII varies some101 It is hard to accept the translation of LXXD: “Ob sie vielleicht umgekommen sind?,” which is in contradiction to 10:6.

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what, “Perhaps he has been detained (kate,cw) there …” These thoughts sadden Tobit greatly (NETS; GI: evlupei/to li,an; GII: h;rxato lupei/sqai). Hannah’s reaction does not go unheard, since she, most likely, feels the same way. GI somewhat distantly mentions her as “the wife” and without any connection to her husband: ei=pen de. auvtw/| h` gunh,. On the other hand GII demonstrates by means of the possessive pronoun, the connection to her husband. The mention of her name emphasizes her independent character (Anna h` gunh. auvtou/ le,gei). Hannah cannot or does not want to calm her husband, as he had done with her in Tob 5:18-6:1. Rather she is very pessimistic: “‘The child has perished and is no longer among the living.’ And she began to weep and mourn for her son” (qrhne,w; NRSV – Tob 10:4 GI). More dramatic and self-centred is the formulation of GII: “‘My child has perished and is no longer among the living.’ And she began to weep and mourn for her son” (klai,w, qrhne,w; NETS). She turns to her absent son and asks a rhetorical question: “Do I not care (me,lei moi), my child, that I let you go, the light of my eyes?” (NETS; v. 5 GI). GII, because of the interjection, appears to be more emotionally charged: “Woe to me (ouvai, moi), my child.” The mother gives herself the blame in regard to the child’s fate, even though it was the father who actually sent him on his way and she was not even in a position to prevent this. Tobit orders Hannah, more harshly than in Tob 5:21, to be silent and not to speak in such a manner (si,ga mh. lo,gon e;ce; 10:6 GI). It probably frightens him. As if to reassure himself, he adds: “he is in good health.” After the command to be silent with the address “sister” (si,ga mh. lo,gon e;ce avdelfh,) Tobit’s efforts on behalf of his wife are described in greater detail in GII: “he is in good health. And they probably had a distraction there. Also the man who went with him is trustworthy and is one of our own kindred. Do not grieve for him, my sister (mh. lupou/ peri. auvtou/ avdelfh,); he will be soon here” (NETS). Tobit wants to make the absence of their son more plausible for Hannah and himself. Furthermore, the son has a reliable relative as his companion, as avdelfo,j points out. With his double use of the word avdelfh,, Tobit wishes to get his wife’s attention and thereby distract her from her pain. With his explanations he remains at an intellectual level, though, at the same time also attempts to calm himself by forcing himself into talking. The prohibition of emotion allows reason to take over. However, this is a false conclusion. Emotions, despite this, continue to take effect, even if one does not voice them. Tobit’s chain of arguments is illustrated as follows: assertion

assertion

argument

prohibition

assertion

health

delay

reliable companion

emotion

speedy return

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Hannah’s answer in Tob 10:7 is concise: she does not wish to hear any more explanations: “Be quiet; stop deceiving me! My child has perished” (NETS; GI). Yet, contrary to her utterance, she goes out every day onto the street by which her son should return, thus leaving her husband behind in the house. During the day, Hannah remains outside. According to GI, she cannot eat anything and at night her grief takes over. She does not cease to mourn over Tobias, her son (GI: ouv dieli,mpanen qrhnou/sa Twbian to.n ui`on. auvth/j). GII very abruptly and consistently (cf. the participle) describes the end of the discussion between Tobit and Hannah. She jumps up (evkphdh,sasa) and in her restlessness, goes outside every day in order to watch out (perible,pw) for her son. No one is able to appease her. So, most likely, others (aside from her husband) also made an attempt. At sunset, Hannah returns home: “she would go in and mourn and weep (evqrh,nei kai. e;klaien)102 the whole night and get no sleep”103 (NETS). All in all, we might say that, in the second scene, which describes the married couple’s concern for their absent son, the initiative comes from the worried Tobit. He seeks conversation with Hannah. She, however, will not be calmed by Tobit’s rational arguments. Thus, the couple cannot share in each other’s pain because Tobit does not allow it to happen. He remains in the house all by himself; she is on the lookout for her son every day – the phrasing does not include the father. Tobit’s restlessness, on the one hand, and Hannah’s loss of appetite (GI), lack of sleep, desolation, and incessant nightly weeping are typical symptoms of grief which occur in situations of loss in the form of depression.104 Nevertheless, Hannah does not entirely give up the hope of seeing her son again.

5. A Joyful Reunion (Tob 11:5-15) While sitting by the road and waiting (Tob 11:5), Hannah looks out (periblepome,nh) for her son (GI: pai/j; GII: ui`oj, ). When she notices that Tobias has finally come, she does not immediately run towards him, but instead first informs Tobit, his father (tw/| patri. auvtou/), so that for him the worrying is also finally over: “Behold, your son is coming, and the man who went with him!” (v. 6). 102 Cf. Tob GII 10:4, 7; Joel 1:5; Jer 22:10; Lam 1:1; Lk 7:32; John 16:20. 103 Cf. Isa 38:15. 104 Kübler-Ross, Interviews.

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Verses 7-8 interpose the narrative with Raphael’s instructions for Tobias, for his father’s healing. He must be allowed to see again as soon as possible. Not until v. 9 is it mentioned that Hannah runs towards these arriving (GI: prostre,cw;105 GII: avnatre,cw) and embraces her son (evpe,pesen evpi. to.n tra,chlon tou/ ui`ou/ auvth/j). Thereupon, she expresses her relief, “‘I see you, my child; from now on I am ready to die’. And they both wept / she wept (NETS; GI: e;klausan avmfo,teroi; GII: e;klausen).” Tobit can no longer endure the impatience and tries to meet these arriving at the door, but stumbles. Tobias runs toward him (v. 10) and catches him. He then immediately proceeds with the therapy (v. 11). The fish gall causes a sharp pain (v. 12 GI: sunedh,cqhsan die,triye tou.j ovfqalmou.j auvtou/) and the white spots begin to dissolve. Upon being able to see again, the father embraces his son (GI: evpe,pesen …; GII: e;pesen evpi. to.n tra,chlon auvtou/). Tobit also cries (klai,w) and, according to GII, says to Tobias, “I see you, my child, the light of my eyes!” (v. 13). The mother’s and father’s greetings are constructed in a parallel manner: running toward, embracing the son, crying, and having seen the “light of my eyes.” Thereupon, Tobit follows with a song of praise (euvloge,w, euvloghto,j) for the Lord and all his holy angels (v. 14). Tobit was chastised (mastigo,w) and God took pity on him (GI: evlee,w). Full of joy (cai,rw) Tobias enters his family home, praises the Lord (only GII: euvlogw/n to.n qeo.n evn o[lw| tw/| sto,mati auvtou/) and tells of all his experiences in Media (v. 15 GI: summarize; GII: enumerate).

6. Summary If one compares the three relationships in the Book of Tobit, it is evident that the relationship between Tobit and Hannah is the one which is described most extensively. In particular the terms in which the emotions become tangible, focus on the couple, Tobit and Hannah. The following chart senses to illustrate the couple’s joy and sorrow.

105 Cf. Gen 33:4. Is there a hint that mixed marriages (such as Esau’s) with all the risks of losing true faith are not necessarily breaking off kinship? Collins, Judaism, 30, seems to think in the same direction, when he notes: “The concern is not so much to avoid foreign women because of the danger of idolatry, but rather to maintain the traditional bonds of tribal society.”

70 Terms

Renate Egger-Wenzel Tobit

Hannah

Raguel

Edna

Tobias

Sarah

10:4,7GI/II

qrhne,w to lament

2:6GI/II

qrh/noj lament klai,w to weep

2:6; 3:1; 11:13GI/II

lupe,w (passive) to be hurt/ offended

3:1GI 4:3GI/II 10:3GI/II 10:6GII

7:6GI

lu,ph grief

2:5GI; 3:6GI/II

7:17GI/II

peri,lupoj very hurt

3:1GII

ovdu,nh pain

3:1GI

5:18, 23GI/II 10:4, 7GII 11:9GI/II

7:6 (2x) GI/II

7:7GI2/II 7:16GI/II

11:9GI/II

3:10GII 7:7GI/II

9:6GII

10:13GI/II

9:3GII

3:10GI/II

2:10GI 13:16GI/II

3:10GII

14:4GII

6:15GI/II

3:10GI

10:5GII

ouvai, Woe! pe,nqoj grief

2:5GII

stena,zw to sigh

3:1GII

stenagmo,j sigh

3:1GII

fobe,w to fear

1:19GI/II 4:8GI 4:21 (2x)GI/II 5:17, 22GII 12:16GI/II 13:14GII 14:2GI

avgallia,w to exult/ to jubilate

others

7:16GI/II

da,kruon tear

13:9GI

2:6GI/II

6:15 (2x)GI 6:15GII

2:8; 6:18GI/II 12:17 14:6GI/II

12:16GI/ II

13:15GI/II

The Emotional Relationship of the Married Couple Hannah and Tobit

avgapa,w to love

4:13GI

avresto,j pleasing

4:3GI/II 4:21GI 14:8GII

10:13GII

6:19GII

71

13:12, 14, 15; 14:7GI 13:12, 15; 14:7GII 3:6GI/II

8,:16GI/

euvfrai,nw to rejoice

10:13GI

13:12GI/II 13:16GI

II

8:20GII

euvfrosu,nh joy

11:19GI

maka,rioj happy

13:17GI

cai,rw to rejoice

5:10,14GII 11:16; 14:15GI/II

8:17GI/II

2:6GI 13:15, 16GI 13:15 (2x), 16GII

7:1GII

10:14GII 11:15GI/

5,:10; 11:19GII 13:15 (2x), 16; 14:7GI/II

II

cara, joy

11:17GII

7:17GII

11:18; 13:11GI/II 13:16 GII

total

23/25

5/8

5/7

4/5

6/8

4/5

25/28

negative

15/18

5/8

3/3

3/3

5/5

4/5

8/10

positive

8/7

--

2/4

1/2

1/3

--

17/18

What is noticeable is that Tobit uses the most emotional expressions. Following at a distance are Sarah and Tobias. For each person listed, the words for painful, sorrowful feelings far outweigh the words of positive feelings. Only in Hannah’s and Sarah’s descriptions are terms referring to joy absent, even though the mother’s and the son’s weeping in Tob 11:9* are to be interpreted as joyful. Above and beyond this, the narrative cha­ racterization is to be noted. To be sure, when Hannah or Tobit embrace their son or, at their reunion, describe him as “light of my eyes” and begin singing a song of praise,106 this is, certainly, an expression of joy. When we review the depiction of the emotional relationship between Tobit and Hannah, then we find things that they share and also things that separate them. Because of his rigorous observance of the law, Tobit 106 Cf. euvloge,w (GI 24/GII 28), euvlogi,a (GI 1/GII 5), euvloghto,j (GI 12/GII 16), e`orth, (GI 3/GII 3), wvd| h, (GII 2x).

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risks the economical existence of his family, must fear for his life, and is forced to flee. This separates him from his wife and child and drives him into isolation. Tobit’s assets are confiscated (GI: dihrpa,gh pa,nta ta. u`pa,rconta, mou; GII: h`rpa,gh pa,nta o[sa u`ph/rce,n moi). However Hannah does not state any complaint. Quite the contrary: she prepares a joyous feast and wishes to celebrate her husband’s return. A conflict erupts only when Hannah, because of Tobit’s blindness, is forced to take over as the breadwinner for an extensive amount of time by taking up work at home and then receives a bonus from her employers. Tobit questions Hannah about the kid goat, although he, with the phrase kuri,oij auvtou/ (Tob 2:13 in GII) perhaps accuses her of endangering the faith, or committing adultery. This might be the intention of the use of the phrase e;rifon [evx] aivgw/n (Tob 2:12; Gen 38:17, 20) and the connection of that phrase with pornei,a (Tob 4:12; Gen 38:24). The date “seventh of Dystros” in GII possibly implies further cultic endangerments in regard to Jewish dietary laws: the kid and its mother must remain together for seven days and may not be slaughtered on the same day (Lev 22:27-28); the kid goat may not be cooked in its mother’s milk (Exod 23:19; Deut 14:21). GII, with the words “for the hearth” (evfV e`sti,a)| excludes the use of the animal as a cultic sacrifice. Tobit’s second question accuses Hannah of theft (Exod 20:14; Deut 5:19). The consumption of stolen food is prohibited (Exod 21:37; Prov 6:30). Despite Hannah’s justification, Tobit does not believe his wife and even blushes out of shame and orders her, a second time, to return the animal. All in all it seems as though Tobit is accusing his wife of having gone against the first/second, seventh to tenth Commandments of the Decalogue (according to Jewish counting). Hannah’s emotions are clarified merely through the conciseness of her replies, without the use of relevant terminology. Her questions are of a rhetorical nature, when she wishes to know, how things stand with Tobit’s many exemplary (1:3) acts of charity (evlehmosu,nai) and righteous deeds (dikaiosu,nai). Toward strangers, or the dead, Tobit acts according to these principles. Yet, what about the living, what about her, his wife?107 Is that hypocrisy?108 Or is Hannah referring to the missing connection between act and consequence (Tun- und Ergehenszusammenhang)?109

107 Cf. Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 72. 108 Cf. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 141: “She seems to regard Tobit’s righteousness and good deeds as hypocritical”; Di Lella, Prayers, 98: “Provoked by this baseless charge, Anna struck back in anger, accusing him of hypocrisy.” 109 Fitzmyer, Tobit, 141: “Hannah’s retort poses the real question in this book: Does God reward those who are righteous?”

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Hurt, weeping, and sighing, Tobit withdraws back into prayer and wishes death upon himself. It is only in their concern for their son, that Hannah’s emotions are released and the couple, for the most part, finds their way back together. In Tob 5:18-6:1 it is Hannah’s turn to accuse her husband of having put his assets above the well-being of their son. Hannah cannot, or will not hear the consoling word in which she is addressed – “sister”110 – nor realize Tobit’s intention to relieve the heavy workload by retrieving the money, in a wish to eliminate their poverty. She weeps and complains, but at Tobit’s behest, she is to be silent, therefore not being able to express her emotions. On this occasion she allows herself to be silenced. However, as the days go by, and Tobias remains absent, even his father becomes restless. He seeks to engage in conversation with Hannah (Tob 10:1-7), but she is not to be consoled. Tobit’s rational argument, his repeated order to remain silent and his prohibiting her to worry about her son (10:6: mh. lupou/), drive Hannah into isolation. Thus they wait separately for their son, Tobit in the house, Hannah – during the day – by sitting beside the road on which Tobias would arrive. Especially at nights, Hannah weeps and laments over her supposed dead child and shows signs of a great bereavement, a depression with loss of appetite and sleep. For emotions cannot be prohibited. Thus, each carries their own pain; however in their joyful hope of seeing their child again, they are joined together. The inner relation between the couple is revealed once Hannah finally espies her son. She cries to her husband of the good news before she runs towards Tobias and, weeping, embraces her son. The father’s greeting is constructed in a parallel manner. Also, Tobit demonstrates the inner bond between his wife and himself, even beyond death, by instructing Tobias to bury them in the same grave (Tob 4:4; 14:12) and to honor his mother (GI: ti,ma auvth.n; GII: ti,ma th.n mhte,ra sou) and not to cause her pain (Tob 4:3 GI: mh. luph,sh|j auvth,n; GII: mh. luph,sh|j to. pneu/ma auvth/j). Immediately after Tobias’ arrival, he heals his father’s blindness, according to Raphael’s instructions. Apparently, Tobit needed to first become blind in order to be healed of his self-righteousness,111 which he particularly demonstrated toward Hannah. In the end, the Lord heals Tobit not because of his faithfulness (avlh,qeia), all of his righteous deeds (dikaiosu,naij pa,saj), and his many acts of love (evlehmosu,naj polla.j), but despite all of these traits – at least in Hannah’s perspective, who, since the beginning, has been his “grace.” 110 Accords to Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 112: “Kosewort für die Ehefrau.” 111 Cf. Corley, Tobit, 22.

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In comparison to the other two relationships in the book,112 this representation of Tobit and Hannah is definitely realistic. They are a strong couple; neither of them allows the other to force their opinions or arguments upon each other. At times, harsh words and major accusations are exchanged between them; there are issues which separate them and issues which bind them together. However ultimately, they both stick together, feel closely connected to each other, respect each other and each is concerned about the other’s well-being.113 It is only their pain of which they cannot share.114

112 Cf. Di Lella, Espression, notes about the major emotional states that “… most of them are in contexts dealing with family relationships.” 113 See also Nowell, Book, 237: “The interaction between Tobit and Anna is the liveliest of the three and portrays both the positive and negative sides of the relationship. … there is a general picture of loving fidelity and service between Tobit and Anna”; “A third area in which the virtuous life within the family is expressed is in the respect for wo­ men shown throughout the book” (239); “Edna and Anna also function as independent characters, respected by their husbands, and contributing members of their families” (240), and “Women in our book are regarded as competent persons, capable of relating to God through prayer and obedience to the law, capable of providing help and support for their husbands, instructing and guiding their children” (240f.). 114 I would like to thank Rebecca Parker for translating this article and Jeremy Corley for his proof reading.

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Bibliography Berger, K., Unterweisung in erzählender Form. Das Buch der Jubiläen (JSHRZ II,3), Gütersloh 1981. Bow, B. – Nickelsburg, G. W. E., Patriarchy with a Twist: Men and Women in Tobit, in: Levine, A.-J. (ed.), ‘Women Like This’: New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman World (SBL.EJL 1), Atlanta, GA 1991, 127-143. Brenton, L. C. L., The Septuagint with Apocrypha, London 1851 (= BibleWorks, version 8) Collins, J. J., The Judaism of the Book of Tobit, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Zsengellér, J. (eds.), The Book of Tobit. Text, Tradition, Theology: Papers of the First International Conference on the Deuterocanonical Books, Pápa, Hungary, 20-21 May, 2004 (JSJ.S 98), Leiden-Boston 2005, 23-40. Corley, J., Rediscovering Tobit: Scripture Bulletin 29 (1999) 22-31. Deselaers, P., Tobit (Buch), in: Neues Bibel-Lexikon, III O-Z, 880-883. Di Lella, A. A., The Expression of Emotion in the Book of Tobit, in: Egger-Wenzel, R. – Corley, J. (eds.), Emotions from Ben Sira to Paul (DCLY 2011), Berlin-New York 2012, 177-188. Di Lella, A. A., Two Major Prayers in the Book of Tobit, in: Egger-Wenzel, R. – Corley, J. (eds.), Prayer from Tobit to Qumran: Inaugural Conference of the ISDCL at Salzburg, Austria, 5-9 July 2003 (DCLY 2004), Berlin-New York 2004, 95-115. Egger-Wenzel, R., Blind für die Welt, aber sehend für Gott. Blindheit als Qualitätsmerkmal in der Prophetie?: BN NF 151 (2012) 95-110. Egger-Wenzel, R., „Denn harte Knechtschaft und Schande ist es, wenn eine Frau ihren Mann ernährt“ (Sir 25,22), in: Egger-Wenzel, R. – Krammer, I. (eds.), Der Einzelne und seine Gemeinschaft bei Ben Sira (BZAW 270), Berlin-New York 1998, 23-49. Ego, B., Buch Tobit (JSHRZ II,6), Gütersloh 1999, 873-1007. Ego, B., Tobit (Buch), in: TRE XXXIII, 573-579. Engel, H., Das Buch Tobit, in: E. Zenger et al. (eds.), Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Kohlhammer Studienbücher Theologie 1,1), Stuttgart 72008, 278288. Fitzmyer, J. A., Tobit (CEJL), Berlin-New York 2003. Gamberoni, J., Das „Gesetz des Mose“ im Buch Tobias, in: Braulik, G. (ed.), Studien zum Pentateuch. FS W. Kornfeld, Vienna-Freiburg-Basel 1977, 227-242. Gertz, J. Ch., Das Tobitbuch (Tobias), in: Id., Grundinformation Altes Testament (UTB 2745), Stuttgart 32009, 550-555. Gross, H., Tobit. Judit (NEB 19), Würzburg 1987. Hallermayer, M., Text und Überlieferung des Buches Tobit (DCLS 3), Berlin-New York 2008. Hanhart, R., Tobit (Septuaginta. Vetus Testamentum Graecum VIII,5), Göttingen 1983. Hieke, Th., Endogamy in the Book of Tobit, Genesis, and Ezra-Nehemiah, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Zsengellér, J. (eds.), The Book of Tobit. Text, Tradition, Theology, 103-120.

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Kaiser, O., „Reichtum ist gut, ist er ohne Schuld“ Sir 13,24. Vom rechten Umgang mit Armut und Reichtum nach Jesus Sirach, in: Reiterer, F. V. (ed.), „Reichtum ist gut, ist er ohne Schuld” (Sir 13,24). Vorstellung eines Exegeten (SEThV 2), Münster-Hamburg-London 2003, 10-49. Kraus, W. – Karrer, M., Septuaginta Deutsch. Das griechische Alte Testament in deutscher Übersetzung, Stuttgart 2009. Kübler-Ross, E., Interviews mit Sterbenden, Stuttgart 101977. Macatangay, F. M., The Wisdom Instructions in the Book of Tobit (DCLS 12), Berlin-New York 2011. McCracken, D., Narration and Comedy in the Book of Tobit: JBL 114 (1995) 401418. Menge, H., Langenscheidts Grosswörterbuch Altgriechisch-Deutsch, Berlin-Munich-Leipzig 281994. Miller, G. D., Marriage in the Book of Tobit (DCLS 10), Berlin-New York 2011. Moore, C. A., Tobit: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AncB 40A), New York 1996. Nicklas, T., Marriage in the Book of Tobit: A Synoptic Approach, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Zsengellér, J. (eds.), The Book of Tobit. Text, Tradition, Theology, 139-154. Nicklas, T., Tobit/Tobitbuch, in: www.wibilex.de (latest update: July 2005) . Nowell, I., The Book of Tobit: Narrative Technique and Theology, Washington 1983 [PhD diss., Catholic University of America, Washington, DC]. Pietersma, A. – Wright, B. G. (eds.), A New English Translation of the Septuagint: And the Other Greek Translations Traditionally Included under that Title, New York-Oxford 2007 (= NETS). Rahlfs, A., Septuaginta. Id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes, Stuttgart 2004. Reiterer, F. V., Prophet und Prophetie in Tobit und Ben Sira. Berührungspunkte und Differenzen, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Zsengellér, J. (eds.), The Book of Tobit. Text, Tradition, Theology, 155-175. Reiterer, F. V., Dimensionen der Schöpfung in der Deuterokanonischen Literatur: Sacra Scripta VII (2009) 169-198. Schüngel-Straumann, H., Tobit (HThK.AT), Freiburg-Basel-Vienna 2000. Skemp, V., Avenues of Intertextuality between Tobit and the New Testament, in: Corley, J. – Skemp, V. (eds.), Intertextual Studies in Ben Sira and Tobit: Essays in Honor of Alexander A. Di Lella, O.F.M. (CBQ.MS 38), Washington, DC 2005, 43-70. von Gemünden, P., Affekt und Glaube. Studien zur Historischen Psychologie des Frühjudentums und Urchristentums (Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus. Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments 73), Göttingen 2009. Xeravits, G. G., “Stranger in a Strange Land”: Tobiah’s Journey, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Dušek, J. (eds.), The Stranger in Ancient and Mediaeval Jewish Traditon (DCLS 4), Berlin-New York 2010, 86-94. Zimmermann, F., The Book of Tobit: An English Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Jewish Apocryphal Literature 5), New York 1958.

Tobit and Tobias: A Model for an Ideal Father-Son Relationship Beate Ego The Tobit narration, which probably originated in the eastern Diaspora around 200 BCE,1 can be seen as a story of father and son which portrays an ideal parent-child relationship. In the course of the story, this motif, which can be presented in a highly emotional manner, plays a crucial role since it is linked to important theological concepts such as Torah obedience and Torah learning. To demonstrate these different aspects, an extant cursory view of the story´s plot focusing on scenes between old Tobit and his son Tobiah shall be given in this contribution. A systematical summarisation will follow, concluding the paper. Pious Tobit is in Assyrian exile and it soon becomes clear that his son Tobiah, who is introduced only very briefly (1:9), was an obedient child. By abstaining from heathen food, the old Tobit isolates himself from his people in exile in Niniveh. He shows great kindness to his brethren, sharing food and clothes with the needy and burying all his people who had been persecuted and killed by the Assyrian king and who had been refused a decent burial. This unsettles Tobit’s life, and it is for this reason that he loses not only his well-respected position as the king’s buyer, but also his entire property, and himself becomes the subject of persecution. He cannot return to his house, wife and child until after Sennacherib’s death and the start of Esarhaddon’s reign (1:15-22). Now Tobit makes his son Tobiah his accomplice. When Tobit sits down at a richly laid table, he sends Tobiah to bring one of the poor among his deported kinsfolk to eat with him. Tobiah goes out and returns with the news that one of 1

I would like to thank Ms. Judith Kölling, Osnabrueck, for translating the manuscript. Concerning the date and provenance of the Book of Tobit see also above Ego, Das Buch Tobit, 134; Fitzmyer, Tobit, 50-57. The book of Tobit has a long and complicated textual history; cf. also above Fitzmyer, Tobit, 3-17; Wagner, Tobit-Synopse, XIV-XXXIII. It is important to keep in mind that the Tobit narration – aside from various fragments from Qumran – is basically passed on in two Greek recensions: the short version GI and the long version GII. Since the recension GII is considered to be the more original version, having been revised and smoothed in GI, GII is used as the basis for analysing the text in this article. However, since GI is regarded as a textform in its own right, this recension must also be referred to occasionally in the event of pronounced variations concerning the content of particular passages.

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his people had been killed and left unburied on the market square. Tobit immediately leaves his rich meal to bury the dead man. At this point, the situation deteriorates drastically. His neighbours are surprised at his behaviour and mock him: “Is he still unafraid? He has already been hunted down to be put to death for this very deed! He once ran away, but now he is burying the dead again!” (2:8).2 In addition to his social exclusion, Tobit turns blind, an incident probably arising from burying the dead. For he spends the night outside (probable due to purity laws3) after burying the aforementioned kinsman; sparrows’ droppings fall into his eyes and Tobit loses his eyesight. This leaves him – in modern terms – unfit for work, and his wife Hannah takes on the responsibility for financially maintaining the family. To make things even worse, an argument erupts between the married couple: Tobit, presumably as a result of his bad luck now mistrustful and bitter, accuses his wife Hannah of having stolen a kid goat from her employers. Hannah refuses to accept this accusation, which causes a sensation when Tobit does not believe her protestations of innocence: “And where are your alms? Where are your righteous deeds? Look, the things about you are well known!” (2:14).4 We are not told how Tobiah perceives this situation. Nevertheless, the family constellation we encounter here is quite remarkable. We can almost speak of two opposing parties within Tobit’s little family: whereas Tobiah is obedient to his father’s seemingly absurd deeds, Hannah strongly criticises him. Her words shed lurid light on Tobit’s existence and also question a basic rule of Israelite life – the act-consequence-relationship, which states that everyone is judged and rewarded according to his or her deeds. Tobit is at the end of his tether and wishes for his own death in an urgent invocation (3:1-6). This is not mere lip service, as becomes evident in Tob 4:1ff., since Tobit makes practical provisions. He focuses on his son Tobiah and instructs him on how to proceed without the old head of the family. Firstly, he addresses a practical matter: on a journey, Tobit once deposited money with a man called Gabael in Rages of Media (4:1; 2:20) and now orders his son to fetch this fortune. Tobiah is obedient and shows his general readiness to fulfil his father’s wishes by stating the following: “All that you have ordered me I will do” (Tob 5:1).5 2 3

4 5

Quoted according to Fitzmyer, Tobit, 127f. Concerning this aspect see Eshel, 4Q414 Fragment, 3-10. Concerning the issue of the impurity of the dead and purification rituals in general see Achenbach, Verunreinigung, 347-369; Hieke, Unreinheit, 43-65. Quoted according to Fitzmyer, Tobit, 128. Quoted according to Fitzmyer, Tobit, 181.

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At the same time, however, he raises certain problems which could occur during his journey to Media. The voyage is long and dangerous, and Tobiah will somehow have to prove his identity as the legal owner of the money. His father can resolve all doubts: he possesses one part of a bond with his signature, Gabael the other; it should therefore not be difficult to identify Tobiah as the legal owner. In addition, he orders Tobiah to find a faithful travelling companion. Again, Tobiah shows obedience and immediately follows his father’s instructions. Tobiah’s obedience to his father is expressed narratively by the direct sequence of the command and its observance. Thus, father Tobit tells his son: “So now, my boy, look for some trustworthy person who will go with you, and we shall pay him up to the time of your return; but get that money from Gabael” (v. 3); and in the following sentence we hear: “Tobiah went out to look for someone who would go with him to Media, someone who was acquainted with the route. He went out and found the angel Raphael standing before him, but he did not know that he was an angel of God” (v. 4).6 We shall address the travelling companion soon. However, we first need to focus on another preparation for Tobit’s death. For Tobit does not only instruct his son to settle practical matters like collecting his fortune, he also instructs him in general life lessons. These lessons are contained in chapter 4:3-19 and are thus framed by the theme of Gabael and the deported money. To begin with, Tobit exhorts his son Tobiah to give him a decent burial (4:3). Then, he asks him to honour his mother who was already facing hardship before the birth of her child; she shall be buried alongside her husband in the same grave (4:4). In this first part, the command to bury the father frames the command to honour the mother. Verses 7ff. contain a further explicit instruction: Tobit orders his son to give alms to the needy (4:7-11). Since the tradition of the Codex Sinaiticus (GII) is interrupted in Tob 4:6 and does not continue until Tob 4:19, we are forced to revert to GI. The verses in Tob 4:12f. address the command to practice endogamy. Tobiah may not marry a foreign woman, but must take a woman of his father’s tribe because Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob “all of them took wives from their kindred” and were blessed.7 The reference to the endogamy of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob is a clear allusion to the narrative traditions of the Pentateuch, according to which Israel’s fathers married women of their own tribe (Gen 24:3-4, 37-38; 27:46; 28:1f.). Concerning Noah, the narrator of the story of Tobit probably thought of a tradition 6 7

Quoted according to Fitzmyer, Tobit, 181. Quoted according to Fitzmyer, Tobit, 164.

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in the Book of Jubilees which states that Noah married his niece Amzera (Jub. 4:33).8 Numerous rules follow, now set forth in brief instructions: anyone working for Tobiah shall be paid on the same day (4:14b); he shall avoid drunkenness (4:15) and give bread and alms to the needy (4:16). Finally, Tobiah is even asked to put bread on the tombs of the righteous. This phrase constitutes one of the most difficult passages of the Book of Tobit, and has been much discussed; however, it seems plausible to assume that it expresses the practice of feeding the dead (4:17).9 By calling these instructions “commands,” it becomes obvious that, according to the author of the Book of Tobit, they provide the hermeneutic framework for the correct interpretation of the Torah. Thus, quite at the beginning of his long list of advice, Tobit asks his son to “be mindful of (God) the Lord ... every day of your life. Do not seek to sin or transgress His commandments (kai. pa,saj ta.j h`me,raj sou paidi,on tou/ kuri,ou mnhmo,neue kai. mh. qelh,sh|j a`martei/n kai. parabh/nai ta.j evntola.j auvtou/). Practise righteousness all the days of your life, and tread not the paths of wickedness (dikaiosu,naj poi,ei pa,saj ta.j h`me,raj th/j zwh/j sou kai. mh. poreuqh/j| tai/j o`doi/j th/j avdiki,aj) (Tob 4:5).10 Finally, at the end of this speech, we hear the following words in Tob 4:19 (GI): On every occasion praise God and beg Him that your ways may be made straight and all your path may lead to prosperity. For no nation has good counsel but the Lord Himself supplies them with good counsel. Whomever He wishes, the Lord casts down to deepest Hades. So, my boy, remember these commands, and let them not be effaced from your mind.11

At the same time, it becomes apparent that all commands ultimately originate from God. They are “good advice” which God passes on, and their implementation will require divine assistance. Since Marten Rabenau presented an in-depth traditio-critical analysis of this material in his dissertation in 1995 (Studien zum Buch Tobit) and Francis M. Macatangay recently published his research concerning the structure of Tobit´s address (The Wisdom Instructions in the Book of

8 See Rabenau, Studien, 47; Fitzmyer, Tobit, 173; see also Gamberoni, Gesetz des Mose, 228-230; Hieke, Endogamy, 108; Nicklas, Marriage, 143. In general, see also Miller, Marriage. 9 Cf. Ego, Death, 94-96; see also Rabenau, Studien, 61f. 10 Quoted according to Fitzmyer, Tobit, 163. 11 Quoted according to Fitzmyer, Tobit, 165.

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Tobit, 2011), in this context we can restrict ourselves primarily to the material which is relevant to the topic of the father-son relationship. In this context, it should be stressed that the focus is on didactics and wisdom in this speech with its family setting. The father-son relationship thus appears to be similar to a teacher-student relationship. In order to understand Tobit´s words adequately, we have to consider the narrative framework of this speech: it is none other than the broken and desperate Tobit who utters these words. Even though he gained no advantage from his noble and solidly deeds, he is undisputedly in a position to pass on certain maxims. As a matter of course, Tobiah shall do what is just and give alms and, of course, these deeds will be rewarded (4:11); he shall look after the needy (4:16); and despite Tobit’s bad experiences, there is no reason why Tobiah should not deal fairly with the dead. This illustrates that Tobit sticks to his principles and thinks it important to pass them on to his son, even though others may perceive him as a broken man. We have to follow the course of the narration further if we wish to attach full importance to this speech. Father and son now take different paths. Tobiah starts his journey after finding the right travel companion, and the reader encounters a very touching scene. Hannah cries and reproaches her husband for sending her child away. Tobit, however, remains confident about his son’s future and puts him under God’s protection (5:22). When we now follow the further events, it is important to focus on the second strand of the plot. Immediately after Tobit’s desperate prayer in Tob 3:1-6, the reader of the Book of Tobit learns about Sarah of far-distant Ecbatana who has already lost seven grooms on her wedding night. The reason for this fate is rather obvious: the wicked demon Asmodeus is in love with Sarah and kills every man who comes too close to her. This tragic situation results in scorn and mockery which Sarah has to endure from her maidservants. Just like Tobit, Sarah asks to be delivered from her earthly existence and leaves herself in God’s hands (3:7-14). The story of Sarah’s fate runs parallel to that of Tobit. Both Tobit and Sarah are portrayed as pious and god-fearing people who did not inflict their own suffering and who even become the target of social hostility. God answers both of them by sending his angel Raphael. He is sent to cure them both: Tobit by removing the white films from his eyes and Sarah by freeing her from the wicked demon Asmodeus (3:16f.). These two separate strands of plot are connected by Tobiah’s journey. His travelling companion Azariah is none other than the angel Raphael, and already the first part of their journey is connected to God’s salvation

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plan. Tobiah and Azariah reach the river Tigris on their way to far-distant Ecbatana. When Tobiah goes to wash himself in the river’s waters, he is attacked by a fish which tries to swallow him. It is a dramatic situation, and it is probably safe to assume that Tobiah’s life is at risk. Due to the angel’s instructions, however, Tobiah manages to grab the fish and, also thanks to Raphael’s instructions, to collect its heart, gall and liver. The importance of this action soon becomes clear when the angel Raphael explains to Tobiah why he had to do this. The heart and liver have to be smoked to cast out evil demons and the gall can be used to make a healing ointment to help cure people’s white film on their eyes.12 This anticipates the further course of the story, namely the banishment of the demon and the father’s recovery. By grabbing the fish, Tobiah may be risking his own life – even unconsciously – but he also lays the foundation for Tobit being healed and Sarah being helped. The father remains implicitly present during the rest of the voyage. When the travellers approach Ecbatana, the angel explains to Tobiah that it is his duty to marry Sarah since he is her next of kin and he alone has the right to own her; this is in line with the Torah of Moses and hence has to be supported by Sarah’s father (6:12). Tobiah, who is aware of the girl’s tragic fate, reacts cautiously. It is quite remarkable, however, that Tobiah does not primarily fear for his own life, but is rather concerned about the pain his father will suffer from his son’s death. He points out that he is his parents’ only child and that his death might bring them to their grave and that there would be nobody to bury his mother and father (6:15). On the one hand, this is a motif of the close relationship between the son and his parents. On the other hand, it is an explicit back reference to old Tobit’s life lessons in chapter 4 in which the practice of burial plays a major role. Nevertheless, the angel is not satisfied with Tobiah’s argument but, instead, reminds him of his father’s authority and the admonition Tobit gave his son shortly before Tobiah’s departure. Furthermore, he explains how to use the liver and heart of the fish to make incense to banish the demon (6:17). The story’s progress shows that it is especially the recourse to the father’s law of endogamy that determines Tobiah’s further actions, and he decides to marry Sarah (6:18). When they reach the house of Sarah’s parents, all doors open up before Tobiah and Azariah. Sarah’s parents know old Tobit and see the great resemblance between him and their guest whom they were unable to identify earlier. They are overjoyed at knowing that Tobit is still alive, but also weep for his fate and the loss of his eyesight. Tobiah is willingly 12 Cf. in this context Kollmann, Göttliche Offenbarung, and Stuckenbruck, Magic.

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accepted after this touching scene and is invited to a richly laid table, an occasion for which Sarah’s parents even slaughter a ram. This leads to the impression that the young Tobiah benefits from his old father’s authority and charisma. Yet Tobiah succeeds in obeying the law of endogamy. The wicked demon Asmodeus is banished by burning the incense made from the fish, and Tobiah and Sarah celebrate their marriage. Despite all the love and kindness Tobiah encounters in Sarah’s house, he does not forget about his parents. Although Raguel offers to send a message to Tobit to inform him about his son’s well-being, Tobiah insists on going back to his parents. Meanwhile, the narrator lets the readership know that Hannah, Tobiah’s mother, is particularly concerned about her son. Old Tobit, on the other hand, tries to soothe her (10:1-7). Finally, Raguel lets his son-in-law go, and the latter returns home with his newlywed wife. The reunion between Tobiah and his parents, but particularly that with his father, is once more set up emotionally.13 Hannah is the first to see her homecoming son. She runs up to him and embraces him; now, having seen her child again, she can die peacefully. The reunion between father and son, however, is even more touching since Tobit stumbles blindly towards his son. Tobiah goes up to him and applies the gall ointment to his father’s eyes, just as the angel ordered him to, and the miracle happens: the old Tobit regains his eyesight.14 He also embraces his son and cries (11:5-14a). The narrator does not neglect the religious level of the events, and relates that Tobit praises God and understands his own hardship as a form of chastisement. In this scene, Tobit does not only praise God, but he also serves as a role model. As soon as he starts praising God, Tobiah joins in with him and praises God as well (11:15f.). When Tobit then hears that his son has married Sarah, Raguel’s daughter, and brought her home with him, he is overjoyed! The old Tobit blesses his son and daughter-in-law, and all Jews in Niniveh rejoice with them (11:15-18). The wider dimension to the events is not revealed to the protagonists until Azariah identifies himself as the angel Raphael. Before he departs to the celestial world, he emphasises the importance of praising God to the surrounding people and reminds them to follow certain maxims, most of which Tobit has already illustrated during the course of his life lessons. Mercy and alms save one from death, and he who does righteous deeds will not be found by evil. This way, Tobit’s lessons obtain divine confirmation.15 13 Cf. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 279. 14 Cf. Kollmann, Göttliche Offenbarung; Stuckenbruck, Magic. 15 Macatangay, Wisdom Instructions, 170.

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The end of the story of father and son can be summed up briefly: before he dies, Tobit sees Jerusalem’s salvations16 and orders his son to leave Niniveh as it will be destroyed soon. Again, Tobiah readily obeys his father’s instructions. The son’s obedience is, of course, fulfilled when Tobiah gives his father, and later also his mother, a decent burial, which closes the circle of Tobit’s life lessons. To wrap it up: when we systematically summarise the results of this scrutiny of the Tobit narration, we can name three main points that are of great importance for the topic at hand. 1) Both Tobit and his son Tobiah are depicted as ideal figures. On the one hand, old Tobit is the ideal father since, despite his disappointment with life, he still takes care of his material goods and teaches his son invaluable lessons, which lays both a solid material and a firm spiritual foundation for Tobiah’s future life. Tobiah, on the other hand, ensures that the relationship works by obeying his father’s commands. Eventually, this obedience leads to Tobiah’s great contribution towards curing his father. Thus, the relationship between Tobit and Tobiah is defined by its reciprocity. 2) Furthermore, it is important to note that the relationship between father and son resembles the relationship of a teacher and his student. By making such a comparison, we can differentiate between an explicit act of learning and an implicit one. Regarding the explicit art of learning, for one thing, Tobit passes on his knowledge of traditions, even though this knowledge could not be confirmed by what he experienced. For another thing, Tobiah turns out to be an obedient student who strictly follows all his father’s instructions during the course of his life. He thus marries a woman from his own family and finally buries his parents. Besides, he is always willing to follow the words of advice his father or his travelling companion Azariah offer him. Despite the apparent discrepancies between the traditional knowledge his father passes on and the latter’s experiences in life, Tobiah does not question his father’s authority at any point. Regarding the implicit act of learning,17 we can refer to Tobiah’s participation in his father’s acts of mercy, such as when he looks after his poor kinsmen. In addition, Tobit also functions as an indirect role model when, at the end of the narration, Tobiah joins in with his father’s praise to God. 16 Regarding the hymn on Jerusalem cf. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 301-320 with further literature. 17 Cf. e.g. Buchner, Implizites Lernen; Kirsner, Implicit and Explicit; Stadler, Handbook.

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The plot itself and the confirmation by the angel Raphael stand proof for the value of Tobit’s direct and indirect lessons. This way, father and son have the same teacher and are connected by their praise to God.18 3) The father-son relationship is embedded in a highly emotional web of family relations. Whilst the mother expresses her deep concern for her son, the father continues to express his trust in Tobiah’s safe return. At the same time, it becomes evident that, ultimately, Tobit’s assurance derives from his deep trust in God and his guardian angel, even though this is not explicitly shown. The emotional scenes peak in the reunion between Tobiah and his parents, a moment full of joyous tears and embrace. It is certainly undeniable that there are numerous other examples of these individual elements in parallel Biblical traditions, such as the encounter between Joseph and his father Jacob in Gen 46:29-30.19 Nevertheless, the Tobit narration remains remarkable since it artfully interweaves the emotional aspect with other motifs, forming an integral whole. The elements of reciprocity, the teacher-student situation and the emotional scenes all add to portraying a parent-child relationship of downright ideal and utopian characteristics. Since this relationship is connected to the tradition of the Torah, including endogamy and the acts of righteousness, it can be characterised as the real foundation for Israel´s future existence.

18 Cf. Ego, Lob. 19 See also Gen 33:4 and Gen 45:14; for this aspect cf. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 277.

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Bibliography Achenbach, R., Verunreinigung durch die Berührung Toter. Zum Ursprung einer altisraelitischen Vorstellung, in: Berlejung, A. – Janowski, B. (eds.), Tod und Jenseits im alten Israel und in seiner Umwelt (FAT 64), Tübingen 2009, 347-369. Buchner, A., Implizites Lernen. Probleme und Perspektiven, Weinheim 1993. Ego, B., Vom Lob als Existenzerschließung. Aspekte der Doxologie in der Tobiterzählung: BiLi 77 (2004) 20-26. Ego, B., Das Buch Tobit, in: Oegema, G. S. (ed.), Unterweisung in erzählender Form (JSHRZ VI 1,2), Gütersloh 2005, 115-150; revised and updated version of the introduction: Ego, B., Das Buch Tobit (JSHRZ II/6), Gütersloh 1999. Ego, B., Death and Burial in the Tobit Narration in the Context of the Old Testament Tradition, in: Nicklas, T. – Reiterer, F. V. – Verheyden, J. (eds.), The Human Body in Death and Resurrection (DCLY 2009), Berlin-New York 2009, 87-104. Eshel, E., 4Q414 Fragment 2: Purification of a corpse contaminated Person, in: Bernstein, M. (ed.), Legal Texts and legal Issues, Leiden-New York-Köln 1997, 3-10. Fitzmyer, J., Tobit (CEJL), Berlin 2003. Gamberoni, J., Das „Gesetz des Mose“ im Buch Tobias, in: Braulik, G. (ed.), Studien zum Pentateuch. Walter Kornfeld zum 60. Geburtstag, Wien-Freiburg i. Br.-Basel 1977, 227-242. Hieke, Th., Die Unreinheit der Leiche nach der Tora, in: Nicklas, T. – Reiterer, F. V. – Verheyden, J. (eds.), The Human Body in Death and Resurrection, 43-65. Hieke, Th., Endogamy in the Book of Tobit, Genesis and Ezra-Nehemiah, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Zsengellér, J. (eds.), The Book of Tobit. Text, Tradition, Theology. Papers of the First International Conference on the Deuterocanonical Books, Pápa, Hungary, 20-21 May 2004 (JSJ.S 98), Leiden 2005, 103-120. Kirsner, K., Implicit and Explicit Mental Processes, Mahwah, NY 1998. Kollmann, B., Göttliche Offenbarung magisch-pharmakologischer Heilkunst im Buch Tobit: ZAW 106 (1994) 289-299. Macatangay, F. M., The Wisdom Instructions in the Book of Tobit (DCLS 12), Berlin 2011. Miller, G. D., Marriage in the Book of Tobit (DCLS 10), Berlin 2011. Nicklas, T., Marriage in the Book of Tobit. A Synoptic Approach, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Zsengellér, J. (eds.), The Book of Tobit, 139-155. Rabenau, M., Studien zum Buch Tobit (BZAW 220), Berlin 1994. Stadler, M., Handbook of Implicit Learning, Thousand Oaks, CA 1998. Stuckenbruck, L. T., The Book of Tobit and the Problem of “Magic,” in: Lichtenberger, H. – Oegema, G. S. (eds.), Jüdische Schriften in ihrem antik-jüdischen und urchristlichen Kontext (Studien zu den Jüdischen Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit 1), Gütersloh 2002, 258-269. Wagner, C., Polyglotte Tobit-Synopse. Griechisch – Lateinisch – Syrisch – Hebräisch – Aramäisch. Mit einem Index zu den Tobit-Fragmenten vom Toten Meer (Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Philologisch-Historische Klasse Dritte Folge, Bd. 258, Mitteilungen des Septuaginta-Unternehmens [MSU] XXVIII), Göttingen 2003.

“I Am My Father’s Only Daughter.” Sarah’s Unbalanced Relationship with Her Parents in the Book of Tobit Geoffrey D. Miller Familial relationships occupy center stage in the Book of Tobit, and all the major characters are related to each other in some fashion. Each is another’s mother, father, son, daughter, spouse, or cousin.1 Few siblings appear in the story,2 yet the words ‘brother’ (avdelfo,j) and ‘sister’ (avdelfh,) are applied to fellow Israelites (14:4) and even to husbands and wives (5:21; 7:15; 8:4; 10:6).3 This profusion of kinship language stresses the importance of family for the book’s audience while also highlighting the “several interrelated layers of family“4 and uniting the two initially independent subplots.5 The book’s primary focus, however, is on the immediate family, and the narrator provides several colorful vignettes in this regard. Nearly every chapter features a scene where a person converses with or about another family member. Of utmost importance is the relationship between parents and children, which is characterized by “mutual affection”6 as well as “obedience, respect, and love.“7 This is evident in both families, although it is sometimes difficult to see in Raguel’s. The tender

1

2

3

4 5 6 7

Several minor characters are also relatives of the principal characters. Tobit has a nephew named Ahiqar (1:21), and he has a scurrilous nephew named Nadab (11:18; 14:10). There is even mention of a grandmother (1:8), which is a rarity in biblical literature; the only other named grandmothers are Macaah (1 Kgs 15:10-13) and Lois (2 Tim 1:5). Another character is a pseudo-relative. The angel Raphael feigns a human identity in order to accomplish his divinely ordained mission, pretending to be a kinsman of Tobit’s named Azariah (5:13). The seven sons of Tobiah and Sarah are the only siblings mentioned explicitly (14:3), although it is possible that two or more of Sarah’s seven husbands were brothers since they were all related to Sarah (7:11). The word avdelfo,j / avdelfh, is polyvalent, referring to five different relations in the Book of Tobit: 1) a literal sibling, 2) a close relative, 3) a person with an imprecise degree of familial proximity, 4) a spouse, and 5) a fellow countryman. See further Grelot, Les noms; Skemp, A ; delfoj. Soll, The Family, 167. Wills, The Jewish Novel, 77. Griffin, The Theology, 186. Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 234.

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care shown by Raguel and Edna for their daughter Sarah is readily apparent, yet Sarah’s love for her parents is one-sided. Her words, actions, and more importantly, her inaction reveal a rift in the mother-daughter relationship. Edna’s displays of affection for Sarah are left unrequited. Raguel, meanwhile, loves his daughter dearly but rarely manifests that love outwardly and is less frequently present in his daughter’s life than his wife is. And yet Sarah has a closer bond with her father than with her mother. In this essay, I will examine the relationship that Sarah has with each of her parents. Her coldness towards her mother is evident in her prayer and monologue in chap. 3 as well as later episodes where she declines to respond to her mother’s love. These examples constitute a defect in Sarah’s character and show her to be more complex than previously assumed. On the other hand, the love between Raguel and Sarah is robust and exemplary, and the author uses these two characters as symbols for God’s love of Israel. Through intertextual allusions to other OT texts, the author insinuates that just as Raguel loves his daughter, so also does God care for his people in exile. And just as Sarah finds happiness by loving and obeying her father, so also should Diaspora Jews do for their Father.

1. Sarah as a Complex Character Previous scholarship has largely ignored the relationship between Sarah and her parents. Scholarly interest in Raguel’s family has centered on Sarah, especially in terms of her strength of character or, conversely, her passivity in the story. Sarah’s strength is most noticeable in chap. 3 where she contemplates suicide but ultimately decides against it. She considers the opprobrium that her father would have to endure if she were to hang herself, and she therefore resolves to put her fate in God’s hands. Sarah shows herself to be “an independent thinking and clever person,“8 capable of intense deliberation and mindful of the wellbeing of others. Moreover, she demonstrates tremendous valor in being “willing to risk an eighth marriage,”9 even though she is unaware of any potential suitors remaining. Finally, her calm comportment of her prayer shows her to be a woman of great poise, unlike her kinsman Tobit. Whereas he is portrayed as “self-centered and whining“ in his prayer, Sarah appears “wiser [and] 8 9

Otzen, Tobit and Judith, 41. Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 182.

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less self-centered“ in hers.10 These amiable qualities are reiterated by the angel Raphael three chapters later, who describes Sarah as “sensible, courageous, and very beautiful“ (6:12).11 For all her admirable traits, however, commentators have been quick to note Sarah’s taciturn nature as a wife. After her prayer in chap. 3, “everything else is done to her and for her.”12 She is directed where to go by her parents and her husband Tobiah, and she speaks only once more in the book. While Tobiah utters the words of their wedding night prayer, Sarah prays along silently and adds “Amen“ at the prayer’s conclusion (8:8). As a married woman, Sarah’s “role is diminished,“ and her husband “dictates the contours of their relationship.“13 Sarah quickly recedes into the background of the story and remains “fully and completely an object,“14 never the originator of an action but always the recipient. These seemingly incongruous observations about Sarah – passive yet strong and intrepid – are true to an extent, yet they fail to adequately elucidate her character. In each case, Sarah is mistakenly viewed as one-dimensional: either as a strong, virtuous woman with no apparent flaws, or as a silent, retiring figure who lacks the nerve to speak up for herself. Upon closer inspection, however, it becomes clear that Sarah is a more complex character than previously realized. Not only should Sarah “not be regarded simply as a pawn in the action,“15 but she should not be regarded as entirely blameless either. Her actions, and much of her inaction, reveal a troubled woman who struggles to respond to adversity in a healthy manner and whose relationship with her mother is strained. Sarah’s seven failed marriages have caused her tremendous anguish, and when her father’s maidservant accuses her of murdering her husbands, she “collapses underneath the weight of the maid’s reproach.“

10 Bow – Nickelsburg, Patriarchy with a Twist, 130. 11 Although S lacks the detail that Sarah is beautiful (kalh.), d, 319, La, and 4Q197 all contain it. It is therefore the preferred reading. For the Greek text of Tobit, I employ Hanhart, Tobit. The abbreviations used for the versions are Hanhart’s. For the Old Latin text, I use Brooke – McLean – Thackeray (eds.), Esther, Judith, Tobit. For the Vulgate, I employ the critical edition of Weber, Biblia Sacra iuxta Vulgatam Versionem. For the Syriac text, I use the critical edition of Lebram, Tobit. For the Qumran fragments, I use Fitzmyer, Tobit, 1-76. For a detailed analysis of each of these textual witnesses, especially the Qumran fragments, see Hallermayer, Text und Überlieferung. 12 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 145. 13 Bow – Nickelsburg, Patriarchy with a Twist, 138. See also Nicklas, Marriage, 142 n. 9. 14 Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 140. Levine, Tobit, 51, puts the matter more stridently: “Passive, dependent and silent, Sarah emerges as the perfect wife.“ 15 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 147.

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Amid these verbal assaults is an important revelation about Sarah’s character. The servant asks Sarah, “Why do you beat us?“ indicating that Sarah has resorted to physical abuse in the past when dealing with this woman. Sarah is depicted as “a hard mistress who flogs her female servants. Hurt and confused by her repeated loss, Sarah has literally lashed out at those nearest her, responding to her sorrow with violent anger.“ The deaths of her husbands have crippled Sarah emotionally and made her prone to destructive outbursts which alienate her from others. Like Tobit, Sarah is “blinded by pain and isolation“ and does not respond to hardship the way she should.16 Sarah’s subsequent prayer to the Lord uncovers another blemish on her character. Despite the many praiseworthy aspects of her supplication, there is an obvious omission: she never mentions her mother. Thoughts of suicide fill her mind, but they are dissipated by thoughts of her father. She worries that her death would harm her father’s reputation, and her ability to sympathize with his plight prevents her from taking her own life. Sarah has just “experienced both insults (3:7) and grief (3:10), and she does not want to bring these experiences on her father.“17 However, she does not show the same compassion toward her mother. Sarah‘s death would be devastating for Edna as well, but she seems oblivious to her mother’s feelings. Instead, she emphasizes her relationship to Raguel by using the word ‘father’ four times in six verses (3:10-15),18 neglecting to mention her mother even once.19 It is peculiar that, in such a “warm, caring“ family,20 Sarah is unconcerned about her mother’s welfare. This neglect is made more striking by Tobiah’s sensitivity to the emotional state of each of his parents. When Tobiah travels to the east to retrieve his father’s money, the angel Raphael tries to persuade him to stop 16 Portier-Young, Alleviation of Suffering, 45. See also Levine, Diaspora as Metaphor, 112. Other commentators are less critical of Sarah. Without condoning her violent treatment of her father’s maids, some scholars point out that the servant’s remarks are especially caustic, for she claims not only that Sarah is a murderess but strikes at the heart of her identity as a woman. She is a disappointing daughter who cannot produce an heir and who is doomed to be unwed and childless for the remainder of her life. See Griffin, The Theology, 91-92, 129, 131-132; Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit, 67. 17 Griffin, The Theology, 133. 18 Some MSS (319, La-W) have a fifth reference at the end of v. 10, where Sarah prays that she and her father no longer have to listen to insults. Fitzmyer’s (Tobit, 153) reconstruction of 4Q200 agrees. 19 This point has been overlooked by many scholars, who presume that Sarah worries about both parents rather than only one. See, e.g., Levine, Women in Tobit, 82; Ego, Death and Burial, 93. For a rare exception, see VÍlchez LÍndez, Tobías y Judit, 89 n. 65, who observes, “It is notable that not a single word about her mother is uttered.“ 20 Moore, Tobit, 224.

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at the house of Raguel and marry his daughter Sarah. Somehow Tobiah has already heard of her and is aware of the grisly fate that her seven husbands suffered. He also knows that a demon is responsible for their deaths, and he explains that he does not wish to marry Sarah lest he die and leave his parents with no one to bury them. He further adds that his death “would bring my father and mother down to their grave in sorrow over me“ (6:15).21 This sentiment is precisely what Sarah had voiced in 3:10; she dare not kill herself, for “thus would I cause my father in his old age to go down to the netherworld laden with sorrow.“ Yet there is a slight difference between these two statements. She worries she will bring her father down to the netherworld in sorrow, but unlike Tobiah, she does not include her mother here. Tobiah’s reference to his mother thus calls attention to Sarah’s careless omission, and the paralleled syntactical structures of the two statements heighten the contrast. Both express their concern that their premature deaths would lead (kata,xw) the life of their father (tou/ patro,j mou) with grief (metV ovdu,nhj) into (eivj) the grave/netherworld.22 Care for one’s mother is emphasized elsewhere in the story as well, further underscoring the egregiousness of Sarah’s neglect of Edna. In Tobit’s family, both father and son worry about Anna. Before dispatching his son on a journey to Media, Tobit counsels his son about many matters. After instructing Tobiah to give him a proper burial when he dies, Tobit admonishes, “Honor your mother, and do not abandon her as long as she lives. Do whatever pleases her, and do not grieve her spirit in any way. Remember, my son, that she went through many trials for your sake while you were in her womb. And when she dies, bury her in the same grave with me“ (4:3-4). Tobiah takes these words to heart; he explains to Raphael the need to give his parents a proper burial (6:15), and he buries them at the end of the tale (14:12). In the interim, Tobiah recalls the other element of his father’s advice: not to grieve his mother’s spirit. While sojourning in Ecbatana, Tobiah is compelled to stay at the house of Raguel for two weeks to celebrate his marriage to Sarah, twice the normal length of time for such feasts (cf. Gen 29:22-27; Judg 14:1017). He worries that his delay in returning home will cause his parents much anxiety, and so he pleads with his father-in-law, “Please let me go, for I know that my father and mother do not believe they will ever see me again“ (10:7). Unlike his wife Sarah, therefore, Tobiah is constantly mindful of his parents‘ wellbeing and does not exclude his mother from his thoughts. 21 All translations are taken from the New American Bible. 22 In 3:10, GII has lu,ph instead of ovdu,nh. Only GI contains ovdu,nh, agreeing with 6:15.

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Sarah’s inability, or reluctance, to mention her mother in chap. 3 is part of a general pattern of neglect. In the other two scenes involving mother and daughter, Edna’s affection for Sarah is not reciprocated. Shortly after marrying Tobiah, Sarah attempts to consummate a marriage for the eighth time. Her mother prepares the birdal chamber for the newlyweds and leads Sarah there, but before she departs, Edna is overcome with emotion and weeps for Sarah. Edna wipes away her tears23 and offers consolation to her beleaguered daughter, trying to “encourage her with all her soul.“24 “Be brave, my daughter,“ she says. “May the Lord of heaven grant you joy in place of your grief. Courage, my daughter“ (7:1517). But Edna’s outpouring of love has no effect, at least not ostensibly, for Sarah remains speechless in her mother’s presence. Although Edna offers her daughter compassion, Sarah offers her mother nothing in return. Three chapters later, Tobiah and Sarah embark upon the long trip to Nineveh, and Sarah’s parents bid them farewell. Raguel gives parting advice to both Tobiah and Sarah and wishes them a safe journey. Edna likewise offers advice and well wishes, but she addresses only Tobiah, perhaps still spurned by her daughter’s silence in chap. 7. Nonetheless, Edna continues to show motherly concern for her daughter, exhorting Tobiah to treat Sarah well and kissing both before sending them on their way. Once again, however, Sarah does not respond to her mother’s kindness. In fact, she is the only character not to speak here. In “the most extended and affectionate of the departure/arrival scenes,”25 the tenderness expressed by Tobiah, Raguel, and Edna is unmistakable. Sarah’s parents now regard Tobiah as a member of their own family, and he returns their warmth by promising to honor them all the days of his life (10:13). Yet Sarah never opens her mouth. Whatever emotions she may be experiencing at this moment are indiscernible. Moreover, it is ironic that Edna is the parent who expresses her love most directly toward Sarah, yet she is routinely ignored by her daughter. Raguel sometimes speaks to his daughter but often instructs his wife to attend to Sarah, commissioning Edna to lead Sarah to the bridal chamber (7:15) and then later to send a maid to check on Sarah and her husband to see if he has survived the night (8:11-12). Edna, meanwhile, not only tries to comfort her daughter verbally but offers physical affection as well, kissing her before she leaves Ecbatana. But Sarah is not moved by her mother’s love. She turns a cold shoulder to her mother, even though 23 In GI, Edna wipes away Sarah’s tears, illustrating her compassion even more. 24 VÍlchez LÍndez, Tobías y Judit, 146. 25 Nowell, Tobit, 3:1050.

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Edna has done nothing in the story to merit such treatment. Altogether, there are three episodes in the book involving Sarah and her parents, and in each case, Sarah has an opportunity to show love toward her mother but opts not to do so.26 One might argue, however, that Sarah’s behavior toward her mother does not constitute a character flaw but is merely the byproduct of her reticent nature. Sarah is quiet and unresponsive for most of the story, and, as many scholars have alleged, passivity seems to be her defining characteristic. Her silence toward her mother would thus be consistent with her character, showing her to be reluctant to speak to anyone and not simply callous to her mother’s feelings.27 Or still further, one could attribute Sarah’s inaction to the fault of the narrator, who has left her character undeveloped and ‘flat.’ Despite multiple opportunities to give Sarah a voice, the narrator has failed to do so, possibly more interested in other elements of the tale. Both scenarios seem unlikely, however. Although female characters of the OT are frequently undeveloped and eclipsed by their male counterparts,28 the Book of Tobit is unique in that “the minor female characters are more developed than in many biblical narratives.“29 Instead of leaving these women in the shadows, the narrator brings them to life and fashions them with care. All three of the women bear names, and all three are “carefully drawn and given significant roles and distinct personalities.“30 Anna becomes her family’s breadwinner and enjoys the freedom to speak her mind on multiple occasions (2:14; 5:18-20; 10:4-7). Edna likewise takes an active role, greeting Tobiah and Raphael when they visit her house, peppering her guests with questions, and addressing her new son-in-law when he departs from her home (7:3-4; 10:13).

26 Since the number three in the Old Testament denotes completion (Pope, Number, Numbering, and Numbers, 564), Sarah’s threefold neglect of her mother represents a complete failure on her part. 27 Moore (Tobit, 153) entertains this possibility, noting that “some individuals are, by nature,... quiet and retiring.“ He cites Isaac as an example. Moore further speculates that Sarah is “essentially passive and reactive throughout the tale“ because of “her tender years and gender (as stereotyped in those days)“ (144). 28 Numerous examples abound, such as Bathsheba, who recedes from the limelight as David tries to conceal their adultery and mourns for their ailing child (2 Samuel 11-12), or the matriarch Sarah, who is absent when Abraham tries to sacrifice her son and who quietly complies with her husband when pretending to be his sister on trips to Egypt and Gerar (Gen 12:10-20; 20:1-18; 22:1-19). The few exceptions (e.g. the Shunammite woman of 2 Kgs 4:1-37) prove the rule. 29 Schuller, The Apocrypha, 239. 30 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 240.

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Similarly, Sarah is depicted as a ‘round’ character when she enters the story in chap. 3. She speaks at some length and mulls over difficult choices, showing herself to be an insightful, reflective woman who strives to do what is right. The narrator is under no compulsion to give her a speaking role in the story since a brief description of her distress would be sufficient for the purposes of the plot. This initial vignette is therefore significant and offers important information about Sarah’s personality. Indeed, the narrator does the same for all the principal human characters. A person’s inaugural scene provides essential details for characterization. Tobit’s virtuosity, for example, is described in great detail in chap. 1 and makes his later blindness and confiscation of property all the more tragic (1:20-2:10). Anna’s first scene illustrates her volatile nature and propensity for verbal attacks (2:11-14), both of which resurface throughout the tale (5:18-19; 10:4-7). In the same vein, the narrator introduces Sarah as a deliberative, courageous woman who is not wooden but capable of emotional response to the words and deeds of others (e.g. her father’s maidservant). By means of the ‘reliable witnesses’ of interior monologue and prayer, the narrator offers a window into the person of Sarah. Readers can see how she thinks and feels, what she values, and how she seeks to overcome her trials and tribulations.31 Far from flat, Sarah is endowed with substantive qualities from the onset, and readers use this knowledge to construe her character in future scenes. In chap. 7, Sarah again demonstrates her willingness to exhibit emotion. Upon learning that Tobit has become blind, Raguel and Edna burst into tears, and Sarah joins them in weeping for her kinsman (7:7-8). Inexplicably, though, Sarah chooses to restrain herself emotionally when it comes to her relationship with her mother. Edna’s comfort and tears in the bridal chamber and her kisses on the day of Sarah’s departure elicit no reaction from Sarah. The former scene is especially significant, for it represents “one of the very few biblical interchanges between mothers and daughters.”32 Rather than omit these verses and thereby hasten to the climactic bedroom scene, the narrator inserts them in order to “create the possibility of a dialogue between mother and daughter.“33 Unfortunately for Edna, her dialogue partner is unwilling to participate, and the reader should take note since “the silence of a character when speech is expect-

31 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 144. See also Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative, 117, who ranks “inward speech“ as the second most trustworthy indication of a character’s persona. The most reliable is the narrator’s description of the character. 32 Levine, Women in Tobit, 84. 33 Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit, 126.

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ed is also a clue to characterization.“34 Earlier she was quick to express emotion over her own predicament and over a relative’s misfortune, but Sarah will not do the same for her mother. This blemish on Sarah’s character is not trivial, for the bonds of kinship and family are of paramount importance in the book. But at the same time, this character flaw makes Sarah more realistic and more relatable. She is not a perfectly docile daughter and wife who does what she is told and who acts blamelessly. Rather, Sarah is like everyday people who genuinely aim to live a good life but sometimes struggle along the way. Sarah’s own particular struggle is how to respond to adversity in a healthy manner (i.e. not to beat her father’s servants) and how to respond to her mother lovingly. Moreover, Sarah’s imperfections further connect her to Tobit. The parallels between their two prayers have been well documented,35 but commentators have missed another link between the two figures. Both are upright people who seek to overcome great hardship yet who evince a character flaw when it comes to familial relationships. Tobit allows his blindness to tarnish his relationship with Anna, falsely accusing her of stealing a goat and exposing his own insecurity about being supported financially by his wife (2:11-14). Sarah likewise demonstrates many honorable qualities at the beginning of the story but does not show compassion toward her mother when the opportunities arise. These round characters are more appealing to readers who confront adversity in their own lives. Blameless characters are impossible to imitate, but ones who pursue a virtuous life while occasionally making mistakes are more believable. Characters such as Tobit and Sarah instill hope in common men and women that their own flaws will not prevent them from living a good life. If they persevere and genuinely strive to do what is right, God will reward them in the end, just as he does for Tobit and Sarah.

2. Raguel and Sarah as Symbolic of God and Israel Sarah’s character thus serves an exemplary function in the story by providing a realistic model for readers to emulate, yet there is another dimension to this function. On a symbolic level, Sarah’s relationship with 34 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 117. 35 E.g., Griffin, The Theology, 72-161; Di Lella, Two Major Prayers; Schellenberg, Suspense.

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her father mirrors Israel’s relationship with its heavenly Father. Raguel teaches her, cares for her, and watches over her like YHWH does for his people, and Sarah responds with dutiful compliance. The characterization of Sarah and Raguel is redolent of Israel and YHWH in several ways. Sarah’s primary role in the Book of Tobit is to be a bride, which is a common metaphor used for Israel (e.g. Isa 49:18; 61:10; 62:5; Jer 2:2, 32; 3:4). For much of her adult life, Sarah has been someone‘s bride, marrying seven men before becoming Tobiah’s wife. Marital language is regularly employed in depicting Sarah, who is introduced to the reader as a woman who “had been given in marriage to seven husbands“ yet who was unable to consummate those marriages “as is prescribed for wives“ (3:7). In the next verse, a maid taunts Sarah for her failed marriages, and her marital woes drive her to contemplate suicide. Strewn throughout her prayer are references to marriage and husbands, and the narrator explains that God will make Sarah a bride for an eighth time (3:15-16). Again, first appearances are integral to characterization, and the narrator emphasizes Sarah’s experience and prospects as a bride multiple times in 3:7-15. In other scenes involving Sarah, her role as bride is essential to the plot. Tobiah requests to marry her (7:9-11a),36 she is given to Tobiah as a wife (7:11b-13), she is led to the bridal chamber (7:15-17), she prays with her husband on their wedding night (8:4-8), and she travels as a young bride to live with her husband’s family (10:10-11:18).37 This frequent use of bridal imagery creates “scriptural resonances” with earlier biblical texts where Israel is also depicted as a bride, inviting readers to associate Sarah with Israel itself.38 More specifically, Sarah “models the story of the city of Jerusalem, often portrayed as a woman or... bride.”39 Like Sarah, Jerusalem is a place of radiant beauty, but the catastrophic events of the sixth century have marred her peaceful existence. These calamities are so horrific that they continue to reverberate down to the third century, and 36 During the conversation between Tobiah and Raguel, the latter reiterates the point that Sarah has been a bride seven times before (7:11). 37 The wedding procession marks the completion of the series of marital rituals in the OT and the ancient Near East. See, e.g., Gen 24:54-59; 32:1. The wedding procession is also implied in Gen 30:25-26 and possibly Ps 45:15-16; 1 Macc 9:39. For more on this custom, see Miller, Marriage, 126-129. 38 Bauckham, Tobit as a Parable, 149. According to Bow – Nickelsburg (Patriarchy with a Twist, 129), Sarah “is paradigmatic neither for Israel nor even for other women in her situation.“ Other scholars, however, have understood Sarah – like Tobit – to be representative of the nation of Israel. In addition to Bauckham see, e.g., Craghan, Esther, Judith, Tobit, Jonah, Ruth, 134; Ego, Buch Tobit, 897. 39 Bauckham, Tobit as a Parable, 149.

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the audience of the Book of Tobit needs no reminder about how their capital city had been ravaged by Babylonian marauders.40 They recall how the Temple had been destroyed, the city walls razed to the ground, and much of the city left uninhabitable. They will also recognize that Sarah’s condition in the Book of Tobit is similar. She “resembles Jerusalem after its fall to the Babylonian armies: deserted, without inhabitants.“41 This beautiful bride remains barren, becoming a source of both pity and scorn. Sarah also represents Jerusalem in her name. As Bauckham observes, “Given that most of the names in Tobit seem carefully chosen for their significance, it is probably not coincidental that Sarah’s name (hrf, meaning ‘princess’) occurs in the opening verse of Lamentations as an epithet of Jerusalem.“42 Indeed, it seems that the author of Tobit has patterned Sarah after the holy city as described in Lamentations. The Book of Lamentations begins with a description of Jerusalem as a “princess among the provinces“ (twnydmb ytrf) and as a “widow“ (Lam 1:1). Sarah likewise lives among the provinces of the eastern Diaspora and is a widow for the first half of the book. Moreover, the next verse in Lamentations portrays Jerusalem as a woman “weeping bitterly in the night (Lam 1:2; cf. Tob 2:10),“ and the following chapter recounts “the taunts she suffers (Lam 2:14-15; cf. Tob 3:7-9).“ Both apply to Sarah as well, yet both will ultimately see a reversal of fortunes. Jerusalem will not lie desolate forever but will be repopulated and rebuilt when a remnant returns after the exile. Sarah’s desolation is also temporary, for she finds the husband destined for her by God and eventually gives birth to seven sons (14:3). Death has given way to life, and “in marriage and childbearing she resembles the gloriously restored Jerusalem of the prophets.”43 40 The Book of Tobit is set in the 8th century BCE but was composed approximately 200 BCE. See Fitzmyer, Tobit, 51-52; Toloni, L’originale del libro del Tobia, 153-157. 41 Bauckham, Tobit as a Parable, 149. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. Another intertextual link between Tobit and Lamentations occurs in Tobit’s prayer in chap. 3. He beseeches the Lord to be mindful (mnh,sqhti, 3:3) and look upon (evpi,bleyon, 3:3) him, and he also speaks of the reproaches (ovneidismo.n, 3:4; ovneidismou,j, 3:6) he has endured, “all of which are echoes of LXX Lam 5:1” (Di Lella, Two Major Prayers,103). It should also be noted that the connection to Lamentations by means of Sarah’s name does not rule out the possibility of other biblical allusions. For example, Sarah has much in common with her namesake from Genesis. Both have the same name, struggle with infertility, and maltreat one of their servants. In many ways, Sarah is like a new matriarch forging her way in a predominantly Gentile world and trying to live an authentically Jewish life. For other parallels, see Levine, Diaspora as Metaphor, 112. But the Sarah of Tobit need not be modelled on the Sarah of Genesis alone. The story is a rich tapestry incorporating elements from numerous OT texts, and the author could very well allude to multiple texts with the same character.

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Sarah’s father, meanwhile, represents Israel’s Father: Yhwh. Raguel does all the things a good father should do for his child, many of which resemble Yhwh’s love for his people. Like every good father, Raguel is an excellent provider for his child. He takes care of her mundane needs by giving her food and shelter, and he supplies her with a lavish dowry to ensure that she will always have financial security (10:10). This dowry is especially significant, for the contents are reminiscent of God’s beneficence toward Abraham. Raguel grants his daughter “male and female slaves, oxen and sheep, donkeys and camels, clothing, money, and household goods,“ and the astute reader cannot ignore the “the similarity of phraseology here with Gen 24:35.“44 When Eliezer lists the blessings God has bestowed on his master Abraham, he mentions “flocks and herds, silver and gold, male and female slaves, and camels and donkeys.“ Just as God’s providential love for Abraham was manifest by a bevy of possessions, so too is Raguel’s providential love for his daughter evidenced by those same possessions.45 Raguel also imitates God’s munificence in procuring a husband for Sarah. Raguel has previously provided seven husbands for his daughter, and though he does not seek out Tobiah, he formally gives Sarah to him as a wife. It is Raguel who makes their marriage official by declaring them husband and wife and drawing up a marriage contract to legalize their union (7:11-13). Of course, it is ultimately God who is responsible for their marriage, commissioning the angel Raphael to insure that the 44 Fitzmyer, Tobit, 267. According to the text, Raguel gives the dowry to Tobiah, which is customary in the ancient Near East, but those same customs show that the wife is the true recipient. Dowries are formally entrusted to the husband, who acts as the administrator of the property, but the wife remains the owner of these items and receives them back in the case of divorce or her husband’s death. Although the OT reveals little about dowries (e.g. Gen 29:24, 29; 1 Kgs 9:16; Josh 16:10LXX), such practices are discernible in other related texts, such as the marriage contracts of the Jewish colony of Elephantine as well as Mesopotamian marriage contracts. On the wife’s legal ownership of the dowry in these contracts, see Porten, Archives from Elephantine, 223; Grosz, Dowry and Brideprice in Nuzi, 1:161. 45 Readers have already been predisposed to identify intertextual allusions to Genesis 24 since the Book of Tobit contains numerous parallels. In both stories, a father expresses his wish that his son not marry a Gentile but take a kinswoman as his wife. The father sends a member of his household on a long journey to the east, and the traveler eventually comes to the house of the future bride, who is described as ‘beautiful.’ The traveler is received with great hospitality but demands the marriage be arranged before tasting a morsel of the meal. The marriage is arranged, the male custodian of the bride recognizes that the marriage accords with God’s will, and the bride accompanies the traveling party back to the husband’s house. For more on these parallels, see Priero, Tobia, 32-33; Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit, 293-296; Schüngel-Straumann, Tobit, 129131.

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two wed (3:16-17). Consequently, two figures provide a spouse for Sarah but in different spheres. Raguel operates on an earthly plane, physically giving Sarah to Tobiah as a wife, while God operates on a heavenly plane, bringing Sarah and Tobiah together by means of his emissary Raphael. The pedagogical aspect of Raguel and Sarah’s relationship also evokes images of God’s relationship with Israel. YHWH is Israel’s teacher (e.g. Ps 32:8; 94:12; Isa 30:20), guiding his people in the ways of righteousness and imparting instruction (hrwt) on them. Raguel likewise serves as Sarah’s teacher, and this is his most salient role in his verbal interaction with her. The only time in the story that Raguel addresses his daughter is to offer instruction. Whereas Raguel gives words of encouragement and blessing to Tobiah before sending him off, he utters words of admonition to Sarah. He enjoins her to obey her parents-in-law and to “let me hear good reports about you as long as I live“ (10:12). The wording of his instruction is noteworthy, especially in his initial statement. Raguel tells Sarah to “honor your father-in-law and mother-in-law,“ thereby “set[ting] before his daughter a version of the parent-commandment“ from the Decalogue.46 In fact, he explains to Sarah that Tobit and Anna “are as much your parents as the ones who brought you into the world.“ Thus, Raguel imitates YHWH as teacher and law-giver, commanding Sarah as God had done for Israel at Sinai, albeit adapted for her unique situation. Raguel‘s pedagogical role is also implicit in Sarah‘s soliloquy and prayer in chap. 3. Sarah’s choice of words as well as her mannerisms illustrate that Raguel “has instructed Sarah well.“47 She faces the window and stretches out her hands, demonstrating the proper posture for prayer (e.g. Exod 9:29; Ezra 9:5; Ps 28:2; 44:21; Dan 6:11).48 She begins her prayer, “Blessed are you, Lord God,“49 which is a standard formula in OT blessings and prayers (e.g. Gen 9:26; 24:27; 1 Sam 25:32; Ps 41:14; 72:18). She also understands her marital situation and the dictates of the Mosaic Law regarding marriage, for she acknowledges that she is not free to marry anyone other than a kinsman (3:15). In all these things, Sarah shows herself to be an obedient daughter whose father has taught her properly. Paradoxically, this fine teacher interacts with his daughter only intermittently in the story, yet the element of loving absence in their relationship constitutes another parallel with Israel’s relationship with YHWH. Raguel interacts regularly with his wife Edna but only occasionally with 46 Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit (1990), 152. See also VÍlchez LÍndez, Tobías y Judit, 171. 47 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 153. 48 Ibid.; Fitzmyer, The Book of Tobit, 153; Moore, Tobit, 150. 49 In some manuscripts (S, Vg, and some La MSS), Sarah omits “Lord” (ku,rie).

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Sarah, handing her over to Tobiah as a wife (7:11-13) and speaking to her only once (10:12). Otherwise, Raguel is physically absent from his daughter’s life. He is not present when Sarah is maligned by a maid and ponders suicide in the upper level of his house (3:7-15), he discusses Sarah’s marital status with Tobiah while she dines in another room (7:9-11), he does not comfort Sarah on her wedding night as Edna does (7:17), and he has Edna send a maid to inspect the bridal chamber instead of doing it himself (8:11-14). In short, the narrative provides multiple opportunities for Raguel to be actively present in Sarah’s life, yet he prefers to maintain some distance in his relationship with his daughter. Even in his absence, however, Raguel exudes great love for his daughter. Sarah is grief-stricken as a childless widow, and, though initially hesitant, Raguel provides a way out of her predicament by arranging her eighth marriage. Raguel empowers Sarah to cast off the ignominy of barrenness, and his prayers and statements to other characters indicate his hope that she will find happiness as a wife and mother. He prays for God’s blessing on her marriage (8:17),50 implores Tobiah to “bring joy to my daughter’s afflicted spirit” (8:20), and expresses his wish that the newly married couple have children together (10:11). Raguel’s behavior as a loving yet physically absent parent mimics the same behavior of YHWH throughout the OT. Yhwh is a deity of theophanic presence as well as mysterious absence. In his love for Israel, God appears to human beings periodically (e.g. Exodus 3), but more often Yhwh remains distant from creation, at least apparently so. In the day-to-day lives of the Israelites, God’s presence is not easily detectable, and the seeming absence of God becomes a problem with which various OT texts attempt to grapple (e.g. Job, the lament Psalms). Nevertheless, those same texts acknowledge that God is still operative in the lives of his people and that his love has never waned. The people must trust in divine providence and know that God would never forsake them.51 The love of Raguel for Sarah also mirrors God’s love for Israel in his use of an intermediary. As a physically absent parent, Raguel employs the use of a go-between in two scenes involving Sarah. Both take place on the wedding night. After entrusting his daughter to Tobiah as a wife, Raguel tells Edna to prepare a bedroom for the newlyweds and lead Sa50 It is unclear if Raguel prays alone. Many versions (S, Syr-O, d, Vg, and one La Ms) have Edna joining Raguel in prayer, but some (GI and most La Mss) identify Raguel as the sole supplicant. 51 On divine presence and absence in the OT, see Terrien, The Elusive Presence; Friedman, The Disappearance of God, 7-140; Kutsko, Between Heaven and Earth, 77-156; Fretheim, The Suffering of God, 60-78.

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rah there. Sarah could easily go to the room on her own volition since she has performed this rite seven times before, yet Raguel will not permit her to take this emotional walk alone but insures that a loving parent will accompany her to the room. Once there, Edna displays her affection for Sarah overtly through tears and words of comfort, but Raguel’s care for his daughter is implicit at the same time, conveyed by means of Edna as his intermediary. Had it not been for Raguel’s paternal concern for Sarah, his daughter might not have received any affection at all. A few verses later, Raguel again shows his proclivity for using an intermediary by dispatching a maid to check on the married couple and see if Tobiah has survived the night. He is unwilling to observe his daughter and son-inlaw in person, but the “tenderness of his feeling” impels him to involve himself in some fashion.52 So he relies on another person to do his will and to be present for his daughter (and Tobiah) when he cannot. God likewise makes use of an intermediary in his relationship with Israel. Though appearing to human beings on various occasions, YHWH frequently employs an angel or prophet to communicate with the Israelites. This is especially true in late biblical texts where angels assume a more prominent role (e.g. Daniel, Zechariah). God continues to deliver his word to the Israelites but utilizes others in the revelatory process so that he can maintain some measure of distance from his creation. In the Book of Tobit, this is God’s only form of interaction with human beings. God refrains from direct intervention in the lives of the principal characters and sends the angel Raphael in his stead to heal Tobit and bring about Tobiah’s marriage to Sarah (3:17). In multiple ways, then, Raguel’s relationship with Sarah symbolizes Yhwh’s relationship with Israel. Just as Raguel is somewhat distant yet loving toward Sarah, so also is God intimately involved in the lives of his people, even if they struggle to perceive that love concretely. The allusive association of Raguel with God and Sarah with Israel thus relays an important message to the book’s readership. The Book of Tobit, like many other texts from this time period, addresses the problem of a Deus absconditus. God is virtually absent in books such as Judith and 1-2 Maccabees, and divine hiddenness is difficult to fathom in light of the crises that his people are facing. In the Book of Tobit, apostasy is rampant, and amalgamation to other Gentile cultures has put Israel’s existence in jeopardy (1:4-5, 10), yet God seems to be silent. The only two devout families of the Diaspora have a single child each, and a demon prevents one of them from having children. If Tobiah and Sarah do not meet and produce 52 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 154.

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offspring together, the lines of these pious Jews will die out, making it likely that Diaspora Jewy will succumb to Gentile hegemony and lapse from their faith. Their situation is bleak, and readers of the book find themselves in a similar quandry, wondering if God really cares for them after centuries of Gentile rule and exile from their homeland.53 Fortunately, God’s absence is only illusory. The days of dramatic, miraculous intervention by God are long past, but divine providence is alive and well. The characters of the story must wait until the angelophany of chap. 12 to discover that God has been at work in their lives all along (12:14), yet readers are privy to this information from the story’s inception (3:16-17). On a literal level, they see that an angel carries out his divinely appointed mission by ameliorating the dire situations of Tobit and Sarah, and on a symbolic level, they see that Raguel’s love for his daughter reflects God’s love for Israel. Fathers in both realms show untiring love for their children, and just as Sarah never loses faith in her father, neither should Israel. Moreover, when readers recognize the symbolic function of Raguel and Sarah’s relationship, they will understand not only that God is providentially involved in their lives, but they will also find the solution to their own plight. Both Tobiah and Sarah find happiness through loving obedience to their fathers. Tobiah heeds the counsel of his father (as well as the instructions of God via the angel Raphael), and Sarah humbly submits to her father’s will. She decides to spare her life out of concern for her father’s wellbeing, and she allows Raguel the chance to give her away in marriage once again. Death and disgrace have driven Sarah to the brink of despair, but her love for her father becomes “the source of her strength.”54 Sarah’s relationship with her father “thus saves Sarah’s life, pulling her up from the depths of her grief.”55 Love for their Father will also strengthen Diaspora Jews in times of trouble and lead them to happiness. Even though Sarah rarely witnesses her father’s love firsthand,56 she trusts him enough to follow his com53 Ego (‘Denn er liebt sie,‘ 315) describes the situation in more symbolic terms. The real conflict in the story is not between Tobiah and the demon but between Israel and “non-Israel.“ Asmodeus personifies the death of Israel by obstructing Sarah’s ability to reproduce, endangering Judaism’s existence in the Diaspora. Tobiah’s vanquishing of the demon therefore represents Israel’s ultimate triumph over apostasy and external threats. 54 Nowell, The Book of Tobit, 182. 55 Portier-Young, Alleviation of Suffering, 46. 56 Sarah is also never told of her father‘ love, unlike Tobiah, who learns of Raguel’s love for his daughter in 6:12. Although this detail is lacking in S, it is present in the majority of MSS (319, d, most La MSS, and 4Q197).

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mands and put her life in his hands. The book’s audience must follow suit. They might also undergo hardship and struggle to discern God’s presence in their lives, but perseverance and fidelity to God are the only ways to find happiness. This loving trust in Raguel pays great dividends for Sarah, and love of God will do the same for Israel in exile. Sarah finally marries the man destined for her by God, and she begets seven children by the story’s end (14:3). Her fecundity “signals the hope for the ‘new society,’ the new Jerusalem whose future citizens are symbolized in their seven sons.”57 The desolate, barren “bride” Israel will also see her return to glory. Though demolished, Jerusalem will rise again, and her “gates shall be built with sapphire and emerald, and all [her] walls with precious stones” (13:16).

3. Conclusion Sarah’s character, therefore, is critical to the plot and instrumental to the purposes of the book. She suffers more than anyone else in the story, save perhaps Tobit, yet she does not capitulate in the face of adversity but perseveres to the end. She is a moral exemplar who inspires all who read her tale, but she is not so perfect as to be inimitable. Sarah’s relationships with her maids and her mother reveal that she is human after all. In her misery, she beats her father’s servants and denies her mother affection. She neglects to mention her mother even once in her prayer in chap. 3, despite mentioning her father four times, and though capable of emotional response on other occasions, she refuses to respond to her mother’s love in any tangible way. No person is entirely blameless in the story, and both Sarah and Tobit exhibit character flaws early on. But they also excel over the course of the narrative, and readers of the book will view both of them as realistic, relatable figures who sometimes struggle to do what is right but always make the right choice in the end. Readers will also be encouraged by Sarah’s relationship with her father. Their love for one another symbolizes the same love that Yhwh and his people are meant to share. Like Yhwh in the OT, Raguel teaches his child, gives her a commandment to obey her parents(-in-law), provides for her, gives her a dowry much like the bounty that God bestows on Abraham, and remains physically absent yet loving towards his daughter. Like God in the Book of Tobit, Raguel provides a husband for Sarah 57 Nowell, Tobit, 3:1026.

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and uses an intermediary to show his love for her. Sarah, meanwhile, represents Israel, especially the harried city of Jerusalem. Sarah is characterized as a bride throughout the story, and her name, widowhood, and enduring of taunts allude to the description of Jerusalem in the Book of Lamentations. Diaspora Jews are meant to see themselves in Sarah and follow her example. Just as she overcomes barrenness and find happiness through obedience to her father, so also will Israel if she remains faithful to her heavenly Father.

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Bibliography Alter, R., The Art of Biblical Narrative, New York 1981. Bauckham, R., Tobit as a Parable for the Exiles of Northern Israel, in: Bredin, M. (ed.), Studies in the Book of Tobit: A Multidisciplinary Approach (Library of Second Temple Studies 55), New York 2006, 140-164. Bow, B. – Nickelsburg, G. W. E., Patriarchy with a Twist. Men and Women in Tobit, in: Levine, A.-J. (ed.), ‘Women Like This.’ New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman World (Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Literature 1), Atlanta, GA 1991. Brooke, A. – McLean, N. – Thackeray, H. (eds.), Esther, Judith, Tobit, in: The Old Testament in Greek 3/1, Cambridge 1940, 123-144. Craghan, J., Esther, Judith, Tobit, Jonah, Ruth (OTMes 16), Wilmington, DE 1982. Deselaers, P., Das Buch Tobit: Studien zu seiner Entstehung, Komposition und Theologie (OBO 43), Freiburg-Göttingen 1982. Deselaers, P., Das Buch Tobit (GSL.AT 11), Düsseldorf 1990. Di Lella, A., Two Major Prayers in the Book of Tobit, in: Egger-Wenzel, R. – Corley, J. (eds.), Prayer from Tobit to Qumran, International Society for the Study of Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Inaugural Conference at Salzburg, Austria, 5-9 July 2003 (DCLY 2004), Berlin-New York 2004, 95-115. Ego, B., Buch Tobit (JSHRZ 2/6), Gütersloh 1999. Ego, B., ‘Denn er liebt sie’ (Tob 6,15 Ms. 319): Zur Rolle des Dämons Asmodäus in der Tobit-Erzälung, in: Lange, A. – Lichtenberger, H. – Römheld, K. F. D. (eds.), Die Dämonen: Die Dämonologie der israelitisch-jüdischen und frühchristlichen Literatur im Kontext ihrer Umwelt-Demons – The Demonology of Israelite-Jewish and Early Christian Literature in Context of their Environment, Tübingen 2003, 309-317. Ego, B., Death and Burial in the Tobit Narration in the Context of the Old Testament Tradition, in: Nicklas, T. – Reiterer, F. V. – Verheyden, J. (eds.), The Human Body in Death and Resurrection (DCLY 2009), Berlin-New York 2009, 87-103. Fitzmyer, J., Tobit (CEJL), Berlin-New York 2003. Fitzmyer, J., Tobit, in: Broshi, M. et al (eds.), Qumran Cave 4, XIV: Parabiblical Texts, Part 2 (DJD 19), Oxford 1995, 1-76. Fretheim, T. E., The Suffering of God: An Old Testament Perspective (Overtures to Biblical Theology), Philadelphia, PA 1984. Friedman, R., The Disappearance of God: A Divine Mystery, Boston, MA 1995. Grelot, P., Les noms de parenté dans le livre de Tobie: RdQ 17 (1996) 330-335. Griffin, P., The Theology and Function of Prayer in the Book of Tobit, PhD diss., The Catholic University of America, Washington 1984. Grosz, K., Dowry and Brideprice in Nuzi, in: Morrison, M. – Owen, D. (eds.), Studies on the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians, Winona Lake, IN 1981, 161-177. Hallermayer, M., Text und Überlieferung des Buches Tobit (DCLS 3), Berlin-New York 2007. Hanhart, R., Tobit (Septuaginta. Vetus Testamentum Graecum VIII/5), Göttingen 1983.

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Kutsko, J., Between Heaven and Earth: Divine Presence and Absence in the Book of Ezekiel (BJS 7), Winona Lake, IN 2007. Lebram, J., Tobit (Vetus Testamentum syriace 4/6), Leiden 1972. Levine, A.-J., Tobit: Teaching Jews How to Live in the Diaspora: BiRe 8 (1992), 42-64. Levine, A.-J., Diaspora as Metaphor: Bodies and Boundaries in the Book of Tobit, in: Overman, J. – MacLennan, R. (eds.), Diaspora Jews and Judaism: Essays in Honor of, and in Dialogue with, A. Thomas Kraabel (South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism 41), Atlanta, GA 1992, 105-117. Levine, A.-J., Women in Tobit: TBT 37 (1999) 80-85. Miller, G. D., Marriage in the Book of Tobit (DCLS 10), Berlin-New York 2011. Moore, C. A., Tobit: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AncB 40A), Garden City, NY 1996. Nicklas, T., Marriage in the Book of Tobit: A Synoptic Approach, in: Xeravits, G. G. – Zsengellér, J. (eds.), The Book of Tobit: Text, Tradition, Theology. Papers of the First International Conference on the Deuterocanonical Books, Pápa, Hungary, 20-21 May, 2004, Leiden 2005, 139-155. Nowell, I., The Book of Tobit: Narrative Technique and Theology, PhD diss., The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 1983. Nowell, I., Tobit, in: New Interpreter’s Bible, 3:1026. Otzen, B., Tobit and Judith (Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha), London-New York 2002. Pope, M., Number, Numbering, and Numbers, in: Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 3:563. Porten, B., Archives from Elephantine: The Life of an Ancient Jewish Military Colony, Berkeley, CA 1968. Portier-Young, A., Alleviation of Suffering in the Book of Tobit: Comedy, Community, and Happy Endings: CBQ 63 (2001) 35-54. Priero, G., Tobia, Torino 21963. Schellenberg, R., Suspense, Simultaneity, and Divine Providence in the Book of Tobit: JBL 130 (2011) 320-324. Schuller, E., The Apocrypha, in: Newsom, C. – Ringe, S. (eds.), The Women’s Bible Commentary, Louisville, KY 1992. Schüngel-Straumann, H., Tobit übersetzt und ausgelegt (HhTK.AT), Freiburg im Breisgau 2000. Skemp, V., A ; delfoj and the Theme of Kinship in Tobit: EThL 75 (1999) 92-103. Soll, W., The Family as Scriptural and Social Construct in Tobit, in: Evans, C. A. – Sanders, J. A. (eds.), The Function of Scripture in Early Jewish and Christian Tradition (JSNT.S 154; Studies in Early Judaism and Christianity 6), Sheffield 1998, 166-175. Terrien, S., The Elusive Presence: Toward a New Biblical Theology (Religious Perspectives 26), San Francisco, CA 1978. Toloni, G., L’originale del libro di Tobia. Studio filologico-linguistico, Madrid 2004. VÍlchez LÍndez, J., Tobías y Judit (Nueva Biblia española Narraciones 3), Estella 2000. Wills, L. M., The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World, Ithaca, NY 1995.

The relationship between husband and wife according to Sirach 25-26, 36 Ibolya Balla It is no surprise for anyone who is familiar with the Book of Ben Sira that the writer has a lot to say about marital relationships. While there are comments scattered about marriage and wives throughout the book, the lengthiest ones are in chapters 25-26, 36. In comparison with other Second Temple Jewish works Ben Sira devotes a remarkably large number of passages to family relations and issues. It includes relations to both parents and children, and the relationship between husband and wife. As we will see one of the characteristics of the sayings on marital relationships is that descriptions of marriages seem more apparent than advice on how men should conduct themselves in a marriage. Many of these depictions are rather general. At times the comments are emotional, especially the negative ones. This fact may indicate that the author is speaking from experience depicting his own marriage to a potentially evil wife. In chapter 25 we are concerned with two short sayings (25:1d; 25:8c [MS C = 25:8a in G]) and a long poem (25:13-26). The short sayings are both parts of numerical proverbs within 25:1-11 and comment on the relation between husband and wife. In 25:1 harmony in marriage is one of the things that delight a person’s heart (25:1d). The third proverb (25:7-10) surrounds the saying on a sensible wife (25:8c[8a]).1 While 25:1d is a short, almost isolated saying, it deserves some attention. In Sir 25:1d the word that describes the relationship of the wife and the husband is sumperifero,menoi. Its root, sumperife,rw literally means ‘to carry around along with/together’ but it can also denote ‘to adapt oneself to circumstances,’ also ‘to have intercourse with someone.’ Out of its three occurrences in the LXX two contain a reference to marital relationship: one is 25:1d itself, and the other is Prov 5:19, which warns the student to enjoy only the love of his own wife (as is clear from the context in 5:15-20), or be captivated by it.2

1 The Hebrew text of Sir 25:8 is taken from Scheiber, Leaf of the Fourth Manuscript, 185. This verse has only three stichs in G, lacking the stich that appears in MS C as 25:8d. 2 The third occurrence (Prov 11:29) concerns one’s household.

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In Sir 25:1 in Skehan – Di Lella’s translation (“and the mutual love of husband and wife”)3 the term sumperifero,menoi suggests the mutuality of love in marriage. The expression “to have intercourse with someone” is broad, conveying in itself some sort of communication between people, and without the adjective ‘sexual,’ would not necessarily mean a sexual act. The latter certainly cannot be excluded when it comes to marriage. If the idea of sexual intercourse is accepted, then 25:1d may have significant messages: either that intercourse between wife and husband, i.e. within a licit relationship, is pleasing to the Lord and to humans, or that it is only pleasing in the context of marriage.4 The comment “Happy is/blessed is the husband of a sensible wife (tlkXm hXa)” in Sir 25:8c is followed by the readings “and one who is not ploughing as (with) a bull, with an ass combined” (25:8d, MS C) and “whoever is not ploughing with an ox and a donkey combined” (25:8b, S, where the comment on wife is in 25:8a).5 Whether the two lines together can be understood as referring to a marriage where a man is married to two incompatible women is one possible interpretation.6 This would put the comment on the sensible wife in a different perspective. This way the marriage with such a woman would be compared with a marriage with two wives who are each other’s rivals. Rivalry between wives can cause heartache to all parties of the marriage, including the husband, as suggested in Sir 26:5-6. Ben Sira may be referring to this bitterness in 25:8d (MS C = 25:8b, S). It can only be surmised why the wife is called sensible in Sir 25:8. Ben Sira uses the term tlkXm (‘sensible’) in two other comments (7:19; 40:23). The latter has the exact term tlkXm hXa. None of them explains from what point of view the wife is regarded as sensible. It is noteworthy that Prov 19:14 uses the same term. In the first half of the parallel it is stated that “house and wealth are inherited from parents.” With it is contrasted the “prudent wife” who is “from the Lord.” It seems that while one’s wealth is something one may count on, the selection of a prudent, sensible or discreet wife is not up to humans: it is a blessing of the Lord.7 In Sir 25:8 one interpretation may be that the wife is sensible because she gets on well with her rival and does not make her husband’s life bitter. One, however, must be careful and not read too much into one short comment that is found on the list of things and behaviours that are 3 Skehan – Di Lella, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 339, 341. 4 See Sir 25:2d, where the elderly person seeking extramarital relationships is despised. 5 Cf. also Skehan – Di Lella, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 340. This idea is missing from G. 6 See a similar comment in Deut 22:10. Cf. also Skehan – Di Lella, The Wisdom of Ben Sira 340. 7 Cf. Sir 26:23b.

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important for the author: joy in children; justice in this life; avoiding sins of the tongue; wisdom; the fear of the Lord. In the rest of chapter 25 the tone is very different. Verses 13-26 are devoted to the description of wicked women/wives. These verses follow 25:1-11 and precede 26:1-27 that treats various types of women and marriage.8 Although no woman or wife is explicitly mentioned in the first half of 25:13, it is clear that it is the wicked wife of verse 13b that causes the wound of the heart for the husband in verse 13a. By implication such wound surpasses all other wounds for which the author uses the word plhgh,.9 The term wickedness of a wife/woman is used three times throughout the passage ([hXa t[]r, 25:13; hXa [r, 25:17; hXa t[r, 25:19). Wickedness is usually not specified but seems to be used in a fairly broad sense. Only sometimes can we gather some ideas from the context. The four verses that follow 25:13 are graphic and full of emotions. Some explicitly describe a wicked wife, some are less specific. If we take Sir 25:14-15 as a unit it may be another reference to polygyny,10 where the ‘affliction’ and “vengeance” of the wives, who quarrel with each other and become each other’s enemies, would affect both them and the husband. This, again, is only one possible interpretation. To determine whether the term “head of a snake” is a reference to Eve’s transgression in Genesis 3 (Gen 3:15) is beyond the scope of this study. Sir 25:16 with its animal comparison speaks for itself. A similar idea is found in Prov 21:9, 19; 25:24. While living in a desert (Prov 21:19) or on a corner of the roof (Prov 21:9; 25:24) is hard, it is possible. The vivid comparisons in Sir 25:16 suggest the impossibility of living with an evil wife. This way Ben Sira goes even beyond the Proverbs idea. The term evil woman/wife (gunaiko.j ponhra/j) is, similarly to the “wickedness of wife/ woman,” characteristic of Ben Sira who, apart from the present context (25:16), employs it in 25:25 (gunaiki. ponhra/)| , 26:7 (gunh. ponhra,) and in 42:6a (gunaiki. ponhra/| or h[r hXa in MS B, the only extant Hebrew version for the term). It is not used in the Hebrew Bible.11 The heartache of a husband living in such a marriage finds another expression in Sir 25:17. The verse either depicts a husband whose emotions are so affected that in his eyes even the wicked wife’s appearance 8 Beentjes, Hermeneutics in the Book of Ben Sira, 342-344, argues that the compiler of MS C has organized the text of Leafs V and VI with a preconceived purpose. All the extant verses here treat the theme of wife (Sir 25:8, 13, 17-24; 26:1-3, 13, 15-17; 36:22-26). 9 Sir 21:3; 22:22; 25:13 (twice); 25:23; 27:25; 28:17 (twice). 10 Cf. Sir 26:6; 28:15; 37:11a. 11 The only similar form ([r tXa) is found in Prov 6:24.

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changes, or it refers to a wife whose anger makes her face look serious. The meaning of wickedness itself seems broad in most of the occurrences and remains unspecified in 25:16-17. An outward expression of heartache is that the husband “sighs unawares” (25:18b, also bitterly in G) among his neighbours (25:18a). 25:19 has a message similar to that of 25:13 but further develops it. While the latter only asserts that women are capable of doing evils, 25:19a states that there is little wickedness like the “wickedness of a woman” (hXa t[rk). The term hXa t[r again, remains unspecified. Whatever it may mean, the statement seems extreme. The comment “may the sinner’s lot fall upon her” in 25:19b (MS C) may mean that a sinner should marry a wicked woman. A similar idea is contained in Qoh 7:26: “I found more bitter than death the woman who is a trap, whose heart is snares and nets, whose hands are fetters; one who pleases God escapes her, but the sinner is taken by her.”12 Interpreted in such a way Sir 25:19 would be antithetical to Sir 26:3.23b where the good or devout wife will be given to the God-fearer. Another comparison concerns the frustration of living with a garrulous wife in 25:20. While in Sir 36:22(27) beauty is a desirable attribute in the selection of the suitable wife, in Sir 25:21a it is something dangerous (“Do not fall (lwpt la) [through the beauty of ([ypyb])] a woman,” MS C).13 It is a good example of how important it is to look at the context of actual passages when one attempts to reveal something about Ben Sira’s attitude to wives or women and to marriage. The term lpn (‘ fall’) is used in a negative context in Sir 9:3 regarding illicit relationships. Sir 25:21a may suggest that a man who is captivated by a beautiful but wicked wife will be trapped in a very bitter marriage.14 Therefore beauty should not be decisive in the selection of a wife. In Sir 25:21b there is a significant difference between MS C and G: “and [do not desire] her possessions (lit. what she has/owns),” MS C; “and do not desire a woman,” G. The Hebrew may convey the message that just like beauty, wealth should also not be the decisive reason in se-

12 Cf. also Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 67. 13 The two text versions convey the same idea in 25:21a. 14 The Syriac version even includes the term ”evil” in the sentence; cf. van Peursen, Language and Interpretation, 78, who argues, that the Syriac translator generally seems to soften Ben Sira’s hostile tone towards women, and by the addition of the word ”evil” in some cases he restricts the negative remarks about women in general to ”the evil woman.”

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lecting a wife.15 A large dowry may be very attractive but it can also trap a man in a marriage. Thus the verse implies that the woman will take back her possessions with her in the case of divorce.16 The wealth of a wicked wife will not compensate for either the heartache or the shame of the husband who is maintained by the wife, as suggested in 25:22. While the Hebrew text of 25:21 may refer merely to a financial technicality, the Greek advises against desiring a woman in general. Ben Sira advises the reader against desiring a woman in 9:8 and 41:21c, but in these verses the woman in question belongs to someone else. The context in Sir 25:21 is different and most probably concerns the selection of a wife. It is not certain why the financial aspect is missing in the Greek text. Perhaps the writer did not consider it necessary to include, since it is present in both versions of the verse that follows (25:22). 25:23 implies that a bad marriage may have an impact on the health of the husband (“feeble hands and [stumbling/tottering] knees,” MS C). It is noteworthy that while the term “wicked wife” is not used in MS C, it is employed in G (gunh. ponhra,), where the impact on the husband’s health is more detailed (“Dejected heart and a saddened face and a wound of the heart … drooping hands and weak knees”). Total deterioration is the result of such a marriage. This may be contrasted with the long, peaceful life in Sir 26:1-4, 13. Whether Sir 25:24 is a reference to Eve’s transgression (Gen 3:1-15, especially Gen 3:6) is the subject of scholarly debate. We may make some brief remarks. While it cannot be excluded that the author indeed refers to Eve, evidence is too little to conclude that he does. According to Sir 17:1-2a mortality is God’s will for creation since the beginning. Ben Sira does not associate either sin or death with Adam and Eve’s disobedience (14:17; 17:2a). In addition, it seems that behind the vivid and emotional comments of 25:13-26 we find a person whose life was indeed affected by a wicked/evil woman. That he may be speaking from experience could be assumed from 25:16 where the author of G talks about the wickedness of the wife in the first person. Death may be a hyperbolic expression to describe the impact a bad marriage has on a husband, maybe even the culmination of the negative effects that also appear in the surrounding verses: an uncontrollable wife cuts short the husband’s days by grief.17 It is possible that 25:24 is anoth15 The beauty and possessions are positive in the case of Judith (Jdt 8:7-8) and Sarah (Tob 6:11-12); they, however, are pious and sensible, respectively. 16 Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 65, 67. 17 See also Levison, Is Eve to Blame?, 617-623, especially 619, 620, 621.

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er practical advice from one husband to other husbands or unmarried young men. The control of women is the subject in the closing lines of the passage. What ‘boldness’ means is not specified, nor is it clear why the wife is called evil. The term, again, is fairly broad. She may simply be disobedient, questioning the husband’s authority or she may do something that harms his reputation. In Sir 26:10-12 a daughter who is not watched over finds an opportunity and engages in sexual intercourse. In the latter the concern about sexual wrongdoing is explicit.18 In Sir 25:25 one can only surmise that boldness can include similar concerns regarding the wife. The solution to the problem of an uncontrollable wife appears in verse 26: “If she does not go as you direct (or: according to your hands) (kata. cei/ra,j sou), cut her off from your flesh (avpo. tw/n sarkw/n sou avpo,teme auvth,n).” The reason for cutting off an evil wife from the husband’s flesh is very broad and implies that the woman does not want to be controlled or directed in any circumstance.19 The image “cut her off from your flesh” might be a reference to Gen 2:24, where a man and his wife “become one flesh.”20 This supports the argument for divorce in Sir 25:26, even though G does not employ the usual word for divorce (evkba,llw). G 248 and S, in Sir 25:26, seem to suppose a document of divorce presented to the wife by the husband: “give and send (her) away” (G 248); “give to her and send her from your house” (S).21 While in Sir 7:26 (“Do you have a wife… Do not cast her out [mh. evkba,lh|j auvth,n]”) the sage counsels against sending a wife away, the practice of divorce may have been a concern for the author, otherwise the advice would not have been necessary. Both the latter and 25:26 show that the author of the Greek text was occupied with the issue. Following Sir 25:26, the theme of good marriage and good wives re-

18 In Prov 5:15-16 (in the context of 5:15-20), scattered water in the streets implies that a husband starts an extramarital sexual relationship, instead of enjoying his own wife’s sexuality; Loader, personal communication. 19 Calduch-Benages, Divorce in Ben Sira, 90. 20 Cf. also 4Q416 2 iv 4.5. 21 Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 65, argues that divorce appears to have been widespread in Second Temple Judaism. The Temple Scroll appears to assume the normality of divorce (54.4-5); CD 13.16-17 also attests that divorce was an accepted part of life in the Qumran community. However, both the Damascus Document for all, and the Temple Scroll regarding only the king, were critical of polygyny (CD 4.20-21; 5.1b-2a; Temple Scroll 56.18-19); Loader, Dead Sea Scrolls, 29-30, 37-46, 38, 110-119, 168-170. The document of divorce is called twtyrk rps and is mentioned in Deut 24:1, 3; Isa 50:1; Jer 3:8. In b.Sanh. 100b the idea of divorce is also confirmed: “An evil woman is a plague to her husband […]. What is the solution? […] Let him banish [divorce] her from his house (wtybm hnXrgy) and be healed from his plague […].” Cf. Calduch-Benages, Divorce in Ben Sira, 92.

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turns in Sir 26:1. Sir 26:1-1822 not only has a mixture of passages on both women who are cause for praise and women who cause anxiety, but also touches upon the theme of selecting the proper wife. In 26:1-4.13-18 we find the praise of a good wife and good marital relationship. These verses are intertwined with comments on the rivalry of wives (26:5-6), the teaching on a wicked wife (or wives) (26:7-9), and an intriguing passage on a daughter who indiscriminately engages in sexual wrongdoing. The latter will not be discussed here. Leaving aside 26:19-27, 26:1-4 opens, and 26:13-18 closes, the material concerned with wives in 26:1-18 with positive comments. Between the opening and closing lines the comments are all negative. It is difficult to discern why the author has included some of the most positive and most negative comments in the book in the same chapter. The theme of 26:1 was already taken up briefly by Ben Sira in 25:8, where we read: “Happy is/blessed is the husband of a sensible wife.” Here, in 26:1 the attribute of the wife is ‘good’ in both versions of the text (hbwj hXa, gunaiko.j avgaqh/j). After the opening statement itself (“A good wife – happy/blessed is her husband,” 26:1a, MS C),23 we find a detailed description of what effect a good wife has on her husband’s life (26:1b-4). Not only are his days doubled (26:1b, MS C), but according to the Hebrew version of 26:2a a wife of valour can fatten (!Xdy) her husband. Since in the Hebrew Bible the fat part of produce or land was frequently the choicest part, being fat meant being prosperous, an idea present in Prov 11:25; 13:4; 28:25, expressed with the same word (!Xd). Prov 15:30 uses the same term ~c[-!Xdt (in a different form) as in Sir 26:13b. The woman/wife of valour (lyx-tXa) in Prov 31:10-31 is said to provide everything for her household, including food and clothing. There the description of the wife is much more detailed, depicting her as engaging in business and public duties such as almsgiving. Within Sirach 26 the idea that the wife gladdens the life of her husband is present in both text versions, first in 26:2a (G) and then in 26:2b (MS C). Another characteristic of the husband’s life is that it is completed in peace (26:2b, G). In 26:3 the fear of the Lord is combined with the idea of the good 22 Sir 26:19-27 is extant only in GII and S and will not be discussed here. We may briefly note that in Sir 26:19-21 the sage advises the student to rejoice in the offspring of his marriage with a virtuous wife instead of giving his strength (ivscu,j) to others for instance by surrendering family property through illegitimate sexual relations; Sir 26:2227 has a mixture of sayings on women and marriage, both negative and positive, some already touched upon earlier in 26:1-18. 23 G supports it.

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wife as the gift of God. The wife as the gift from the Lord occurs in other passages with different attributes attached to the woman or wife. There is a concentration in Sir 26:1-27: good wife in 26:3a, silent wife in 26:14a and pious wife in 26:23b. Out of these passages 26:3a, 23b also asserts that such a woman will be given to the God-fearing man. As we noted already Prov 19:14 has a similar comment, where the ‘sensible’ or ‘prudent’ wife is compared to inheritance. While material assets such as inheritance are something a person may count on, a sensible wife is the gift of the Lord. Sir 26:4 similarly implies that a good wife is more important than wealth. (“Whether rich or poor, a glad heart, at all times a cheerful face [pro,swpon i`laro,n],” G). Even if a person lacks wealth, he may still be happy. This is one of the most positive comments of the author and it may also shed some light on the nature of Israelite marriage. The issue whether marriage in ancient Israel was an act of purchase and the wife became a property or not attracts much debate. 26:4 however, seems to support the argument against the notion of purchase and property. Since the wife can make her husband happy even without wealth, it implies that she is almost contrasted with property; she is more than that. Sir 26:1-4 may be contrasted with Sir 25:20-23 where the negative effects the bad wife has on her husband’s life, including his health, are detailed. The praise of a good wife is interrupted by a passage that very likely concerns polygyny (26:5-6). Especially the fourth element of this numerical proverb (26:6a) suggests a situation where a man is either married to more than one wife, or married to one and is about to take another. Sir 26:5-6, like Sir 28:15, probably belongs to the first group. Polygyny is attested in the Hebrew Bible24 and it appears that it was still existent in Ben Sira’s time; otherwise his comments on the issue would not be relevant. The term ‘rival’ is expressed with avnti,zhloj. Even though the Hebrew ver24 One of the reasons behind taking more than one wife was to produce offspring if the first wife proved to be barren. According to Deut 21:15-18 polygyny was legislated for in the Mosaic period. The passage prescribed that the sons of both the favoured and unfavoured wife had to be treated equally by their father. The levirate marriage (Deut 25:5-10) was another form of polygamy, namely polyandry (Deut 25:5-10), where the main purposes of the union were to raise a family for the deceased man to perpetuate his name, and to keep the inherited land in the family. However, it also kept the widows in the family, where they were provided with a livelihood. Cf. Harrison, Polygamy, 901-902; Baab, Marriage, 280, 282-283. In the history of the Davidic dynasty polygyny is attested by the marriages of David himself (1 Sam 25:43; 2 Sam 5:13-16) and by the famous harem Solomon kept (1 Kgs 11:3). The latter cases particularly indicate that there were other motivations behind a polygynous marriage than procreation: love, sexual desire (especially between David and Bathsheba, 2 Samuel 11) and the need for political alliances.

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sion of 26:6 is not extant,25 the same term is found in the LXX version of Sir 37:11a (“[Do not consult] with a woman with regard to her rival”), another passage taken as a reference to rivalry between wives or between an existing and a prospective wife. Behind it the Hebrew uses the word hrc (“rival wife,” “other wife,” “wife of a man who has another wife”) in 37:11a, the root of which means “show hostility toward” (from rrc II).26 1 Sam 1:6 has the only occurrence of hrc apart from Sir 37:11a. The term pa/sin evpikoinwnou/sa can have several interpretations in Sir 26:6b: “and a tongue-lashing (ma,stix glw,sshj) is like all (pa/sin evpikoinwnou/sa).” If it is understood as “is like all,” i.e. “the others,” then it expresses a comparison between the fourth element of the proverb (“a wife jealous [lit. rival] of another wife,” 26:6a) and the three elements found in 26:5cd (“slander in the city, and the assembly of the people, and a false testimony”). Such a marriage can cause grief for all parties. If the husband preferred one wife over the other (Gen 29:30 or 1 Sam 1:5), it could result in the unloved wife mistreating the one preferred by the husband (Gen 30:15-21; 1 Sam 1:6). If one of the wives was barren, again, jealousy would arise (Gen 30:1). The barren wife may have even been mocked by the other (again, 1 Sam 1:6). If both wives had children who were not treated equally by their father, it may have led to envy between their mothers.27 The expression of such jealousy between the wives could be the ‘tongue-lashing’ (ma,stix glw,sshj) in the form of quarrelling. The word evpikoinwne,w, however, can also mean ‘to communicate with a person’ or ‘to have a share of a thing.’ The term pa/sin evpikoinwnou/sa could therefore imply that the feuding wife takes the argument outside the domestic spheres.28 In this case it is the husband who suffers most from the ‘tongue-lashing.’ Such public shame seems harder to bear than “slander in the city, and the assembly of the people, and a false testimony” (26:5), two of which are also insults of the tongue. This is important since the honour of a person before others is a significant issue for the author, as reflected in many comments throughout the book. The numerical proverb is followed by 26:7-9, within which 26:7 refers to an evil/wicked wife, where the evil is first not specified. She later becomes a drunken wife (26:8a) and her drunkenness leads her to inde25 The Syriac version lacks this comment and the other reference to rivalry between wives (37:11); see also van Peursen, Language and Interpretation, 77-78. 26 Koehler – Baumgartner, Lexicon, 818. In the sense ‘to be a rival wife’ the verb rrc II is only employed in Lev 18:18 in the prohibition of marrying a woman as a rival to her sister during the lifetime of the latter. This passage also contains the only occurrence of avnti,zhloj in the LXX apart from Sir 26:6; 37:11a. 27 See the legislation of Deut 21:15-18. 28 Cf. also Trenchard, Ben Sira’s View, 61-62.

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cency (26:8b). She is explicitly described as a sexual wrongdoer in 26:9. The term gunh. ponhra, (‘evil/wicked wife’) in Sir 26:7 is, similarly to the ‘wickedness of wife/woman’ (ponhri,a gunaiko.j, 25:17), characteristic of Ben Sira. This is another example where the evil or wickedness of the wife is not specified and seems to be used in a broader sense. It may be that this verse is a continuation of 26:5-6. In this case the constant irritation could be the quarrel of one or both rival wives either with the husband or with each other. However, it is also possible that 26:7 is independent of the preceding comment and the author simply refers to a nagging wife, whose constant chatter or gossip is difficult to bear. In any case, the comparison used here is very vivid. In 26:8 the wickedness either becomes specified (“drunken wife”; gunh. me,qusoj) or the sage refers to a different wife who is drunken. It is a disgrace in itself if a woman29 (or a man)30 is drunk. The wife’s state can have further implications, as expressed in 26:8b (“she will not conceal her indecency/shame”): she may forfeit her sense of responsibility, or may undress herself literally and engage in sexual wrongdoing.31 26:9 is more definite. This is the only passage in the LXX that employs the term pornei,a gunaiko.j (‘a wife’s sexual wrongdoing’). Here pornei,a can certainly have a meaning broader than prostitution. The characteristics of such a woman are her ‘haughty eyes’ (lit. lifting up of eyes, metewrismoi/j ovfqalmw/n), the same term as used in Sir 23:4-6, and ‘her eyelids.’ It is not certain to whose wife the author is referring in 26:7-9. While there is no evidence that Ben Sira’s own wife was guilty of fornication, adultery is condemned by him categorically. We may mention some of the concerns behind it: disobeying the law of God, wronging the husband, and possibly bringing illegitimate children into the marriage. In Sir 26:8b-9 all these issues may lie in the background. A new concern appears here: the wanton wife is not even ashamed of her behaviour. In Sir 26:13a returns the praise of a good wife (“[The charm] of a wife

29 While women and drinking are associated in some passages of the Hebrew Bible, their contexts are different from that of Sir 26:8. 30 Cf. Sir 9:9; 18:30-19:3, where drinking and women are associated. 31 In Gen 9:21 Noah in his drunken state exposes his nakedness. In Prov 31:4-9 the king is advised against drinking intoxicants after he is instructed not to spend his vigour on women (31:3a; cf. also Hos 4:11). In Testament of Judah 12:3 Judah confesses that he has become drunk and did not recognize Tamar, with whom he had sexual intercourse. Wine and sex are also associated in the Testament of Judah 13. Drunkenness and sexual desire are combined in Philo, Agr. 37 and Ebr. 209.

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[delights/pleases] her husband,” MS C32). First the wife is viewed again from the husband’s viewpoint. The words !x and ca,rij can denote charm as attractiveness or as goodwill, favour. In this light it is possible that in 26:13a it is the beauty of the wife that pleases her husband rather than her kindness, or perhaps both. The verbs used here (byjm and te,rfei) can mean ‘delights,’ ‘pleases.’ Te,rfei can also be understood as ‘satisfies.’ This way 26:13a could even read “the attractiveness of the wife satisfies her husband” (G). The second half of Sir 26:13 refers again to the skill of the wife to make her husband fat, probably in the sense of prosperous, wealthy, as in 26:2a (MS C), using the same verb !Xd. We noted above that the idea of a wife as the gift of God is recurrent within Sir 26:1-27. The following verse has two characteristics of a good wife that are important for the writer: silence and discipline (26:14). Through untimely or improper speech a wife can bring shame on her husband. Ben Sira even advises the student to use a seal on an evil wife in 42:6a. On the other hand in the eyes of the author a disciplined tongue is important for not only women, but also for men. He speaks of disciplined speech and ‘falling,’ ‘slipping’ or being ‘entrapped’ because of one’s tongue with regard to himself in 22:27-23:1 and to others in 5:13; 14:1; 19:16; 20:18; 21:7; 23:8; 25:8a (MS C = 25:8b in G, 25:8c in S); 27:23; 28:18, 26.33 Sir 26:15 is an intriguing verse which reads: “Charm [upon charm] is a wife who is ashamed/shameful [tXyyb hXa] and there is no price [lit. weight] of a sealed mouth/a sealed mouth is priceless [hp trwrc], MS C). The term ‘sealed mouth’ is translated by G as “self-controlled person/ character” (evgkratou/j yuch/j), which can refer to various aspects of self-control. In MS C the term ‘sealed’/‘restricted mouth’ or ‘shut up mouth’ (hp trwrc, from rrc I = ‘to shut up,’ Qal I), need not refer exclusively to a closed mouth. The word, apart from meaning among other things ‘to shut up,’ ‘to wrap up,’ is said of women withheld from marital intercourse as in 2 Sam 20:3.34 If the term is understood with a similar connotation in Sir 26:15 then the verse would be more than just a reference to being disciplined in a rather general sense of G. However, what it means exactly for the author of the Hebrew version is difficult to determine. It is hard to imagine that the writer describes a wife who is entirely unavailable for intercourse. It is more probable that she is unavailable for other men; she is reserved only for her husband. The words ‘ashamed’/ ‘shameful’ (MS 32 The text versions do not differ significantly. 33 Cf. also Minissale, The Metaphor of Falling, 255-256. 34 Koehler – Baumgartner, Lexicon, 818.

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C) in the same verse could confirm this concern. The Greek translation (“modest wife,” gunh. aivscunthra,) is not so explicit. Sir 26:16 contains a comparison to describe the attractiveness of the wife. In the first half MS C and G differ only slightly, but in the second part the texts differ more significantly: “a beautiful (hpy) [woman] in the chosen shrine,” MS C; “so is the beauty of a good wife (ka,lloj avgaqh/j gunaiko.j) in the order of her house/home,” G. The mutilated text of MS C only refers to a beautiful wife ([hX]a hpy), while G has ka,lloj avgaqh/j gunaiko.j (“the beauty of a good wife”). This is not the only passage where G adds the word ‘good’ to a description of a wife, where the Hebrew original only has ‘beautiful wife’/‘beauty of wife’ or ‘sensible wife.’ For the latter we may note Sir 7:19 which reads: tlkXm Xha samt la = “Do not reject/despise a sensible wife,” MS A; mh. avsto,cei gunaiko.j sofh/j kai. avgaqh/j = “Do not depart from a wise and good wife,” G. This way in Sir 26:16b the ethical aspect may call into question natural beauty. The final words of the verse in the Hebrew are puzzling (“in the chosen shrine”). In the Greek we see a relatively free rendering with a reference to the order of the good wife’s home. All that is known from the Hebrew text is that the wife’s beauty or attractiveness in itself is praised and compared to the rising sun. In what context she is viewed is not certain. It appears that the Greek text emphasizes not only beauty but also goodness in her and sees her in the domestic environment, where mainly her husband can enjoy her beauty. While the Hebrew text of Sir 26:17 is awkward and may contain corruption, the Greek text of this and the following verse uses a series of similes to compare the beauty of the wife to the splendour of sacred objects in the Temple.35 She graces her home, or her husband’s home as the lamps and pillars grace the Temple.36 While this is a very positive statement knowing that Ben Sira highly regards the Temple and its sacred rites (50:1-21), in it the wife seems passive, almost a beautiful ornament of her home, especially in the Greek version of 26:17-18. Her attributes and the description of the marriage are rather general in the whole of 26:1-4, 1318. Even the comment on ‘fattening’ the husband (26:2.13) seems general, emphasizing rather the economic aspect of the relationship. Contrasted with the lyx-tXa (“woman of valour”, gunh. avndrei,a, “courageous woman”) of Prov 31:10-31, who seems constantly busy and active, engaging 35 Cf. also 1 Macc 1:22, 23; 4:49-50. 36 See Satlow, Jewish Marriage in Antiquity, 226. Praising single body parts is characteristic of Near Eastern love poetry (Cant 4:1-7; 1QapGen 20:2-7); see Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 70.

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in business and charity, the lyx tXa of Sir 26:1-4, 13-18 is almost confined to a Temple-like home where she is mainly praised for her modesty and proper shame especially in the Greek text.37 Why she is called “courageous woman” (gunh. avndrei,a, translating lyx tXa in Sir 26:2) is not specified. According to Prov 31:26 the wife teaches with wisdom, while in Sir 26:14 (G) the silent wife is the gift of the Lord. The former is called happy even by her children (Prov 31:28), the latter is viewed solely in the context of her husband. Sir 36:21(26)-26(31) is a remarkable and lengthy passage that praises a good wife and affirms marriage. In its wider context (36:18[23]-37:15) the preceding section (36:18[23]-20[25]) is about distinguishing between foods of different qualities and discerning a deceitful character. The verses that follow our passage concern false and true friends (37:1-6), while 37:7-15, the choice of counsellors. Gilbert argues that, while the exhortation to pray to God in 37:15 only follows the issue of selecting the right counsellors, in the wider context it may also apply to the selection of a good wife. On the one hand this would mean that praying in Ben Sira’s view is important not only in distress or in order to avoid sins, but also regarding everyday issues,38 and on the other it would confirm that finding a suitable wife is the gift of God, as suggested in Sir 26:3, 14, 23. The comment in Sir 36:21a(26a) (“[Any] man will a woman accept/receive,” MS B) may imply that the bride did not have much choice regarding the person of the groom but to consent to the marriage, or express what would be the ideal situation in the view of Ben Sira and his translator. Sir 22:4a may contain a similar sentiment where a sensible daughter will ‘inherit’ a husband perhaps in the sense that she will accept any husband.39 Sir 36:21a(26a) may also convey the sage’s negative view that women are not discriminating and will put up with anything. This however is not explicit in the text and cannot be concluded with any certainty. The second half of 36:21 reflects on the selection of a suitable woman: “yet [there exists a woman more pleasant than a woman]”; ~[[nt] [hXam hXa Xy] $a; 36:21b, MS B). G renders the complete verse as “Any man a woman will accept, but there exists a daughter better than a daughter” (= 36:26),

37 Satlow, Jewish Marriage in Antiquity, 226-227. Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 70, argues that the difference between the descriptions of these women partially reflects a transition from rural to urban culture. 38 Gilbert, Prayer in the Book of Ben Sira, 131. 39 This would be in contrast with 4Q271/4QDf 3.9 where the father could deem someone unfit for his daughter as husband. Cf. Loader, Dead Sea Scrolls, 157-158.

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where krei,sswn (‘better’) is without any specification.40 The translation from ‘woman’ to ‘daughter’ is not significant in this case since one was usually marrying daughters. In the Hebrew of 36:21b the word ~[n can denote ‘to be pleasant’/‘delightful’/‘beautiful,’ which can include sexual beauty. This suggests that attractiveness in itself is a criterion in finding a wife. It is probable from the following line, that ~[n refers to beauty rather than the more general attribute ‘pleasant’ or ‘delightful’: “The beauty (rawt) of a woman [brightens] the face” (36:22a, MS B); “A woman’s beauty (ka,lloj) gladdens/cheers up the face” (36:27a, G). Within the book of Ben Sira the comments regarding beauty are mixed. Beauty is sometimes dangerous (9:8 [ypy and !x tXa]; 25:21a [ypy]; 42:12 [rat]). It is, however, above pearls in 7:19 (!x tbwjw)41 and is also praised in 26:16-18, especially in 26:16b (ypy). In Sir 36:22(27) beauty (rawt, ka,lloj) is not negative at all, as has been noted above. First it brightens (MS Bmg) or gladdens/cheers up (G) the face. Even though this line lacks the reference to the husband, he is the one who enjoys the wife’s beauty.42 Beauty surpasses everything the eye can desire according to 36:22b (rbgy !y[ dmxm lk l[w, MS B). This comment not only places ‘beauty’ at the beginning of the list of the wife’s positive attributes, but also states that it can satisfy and even surpass what the human eye desires. The Greek text perhaps goes even a step further: “and surpasses every human desire” (kai. u`pe.r pa/san evpiqumi,an avnqrw,pou u`pera,gei, 36:27b, G). It is an important, although isolated remark: beauty in itself brings pleasure to the husband. In 36:23(28) within the expression “healing tongue” (!wXl aprm) the word aprm may be translated as ‘calmness,’ ‘peace,’ or ‘tranquillity.’ The wife is not quarrelsome with her husband, who can enjoy peace or tranquillity,43 and does not have to worry that his wife brings shame on him for instance by gossiping. The terms “compassion and gentleness” (e;leoj kai. prau / o` h`me,teroj lo,goj); keep my commandments (yt;wcO m. i / evntola,j), and live (hyExw. < / -). 5 Get wisdom (hm'kx. ' / evntola,j!); get insight (hn'yBi / -): do not forget, nor turn away from the words of my mouth (ypi-yrema. i / r`hs/ in evmou/ sto,matoj). 6 Do not forsake her, and she will keep you; love her (h'bh, a' / / evra,sqhti), and she will guard you. 7 The beginning of wisdom (hm'kx. ' tyviare / -) is this: Get wisdom (hm'kx. ' hnEq. / -), and whatever else you get, get insight (hn'ybi hnEq. / -). 8 Prize her highly, and she will exalt you; she will honor you if you embrace her. 9 She will place on your head a fair garland; she will bestow on you a beautiful crown.” 10 Hear, my child, and accept my words (yr'ma' ] / evmou.j lo,gouj), that the years of your life may be many (~yYIx; tAnv. ^l. WBr>ywI > / e;th zwh/j sou i[na soi ge,nwntai pollai. o`doi. bi,ou). 11 I have taught you the way of wisdom (hm'kx. ' / sofi,aj); I have led you in the paths of uprightness (rv,y-O yleG[> m. ; / trociai/j ovrqai/j). 12 When you walk, your step will not be hampered; and if you run, you will not stumble. 13 Keep hold of instruction (rs'WMB; / evmh/j paidei,aj); do not let go; guard her, for she is your life (^yY Exod 13:8) that the rescue from Egypt is the reason for this celebration. We regularly find the command of talking about God’s act of salvation to the next generation. This task is expressed in a general way, and

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the parents are not mentioned. The situation is different during the experience of great crisis, when one must even anticipate death. Then the words that the “father9 (ba') makes known to children (~ynIbl' ). your faithfulness” (Isa 38:19) are consoling. Not just any single praying person, but the entire people could learn from history and make life easier, if they draw the right conclusions from God’s past actions. Those who do not do so are truly foolish in the eyes of the author of Deut 32:6f. There the writer refers to God’s paternity, establishes relationships with the fathers, and excitedly scolds in order to urge them to learn from history. Those who are not willing to learn from history are ungrateful towards God: “Do you thus repay the LORD, o foolish and senseless people (~k'x' al{w> lb'n' ~[;)? Is not he your father (^ybia)' , who created you, who made you and established you? Remember (rkoz)> the days of old, consider (WnyBi) the years long past; ask your father (^ybia' la;v). , and he will inform you; your elders (^yn , and they will tell you” (Deut 32:6f.). We pointed out that the individual believer, on the one hand, and the entire people, on the other hand, are instructed to tell the next generation of the experiences they had had with God. Therefore, the fact and the value of the tradition are undeniable. Thus, one can, theoretically, deal with this. However, our investigation is not directed at what is said, without considering the initiative of the children. Rather it is about what the children are told when they turn to the ancestors with their questions. What answers do they get? The title of the lecture is to be understood thus: What might children learn from their elders. Therefore, we turn to references where children are mentioned and they explicitly address the ancestors. Again we are dealing with an instruction to teach the next generation.

4. The children’s questions and the answers The writers assume that certain customs and regular practices connected with this, in themselves, stimulate questions. Any parent knows the typical questions of children – asked on appropriate and inappropriate occasions – starting with “Why ...?” The answers will be given only if there has been a request. The children are not taught and confronted with things that do not interest them. We intend to find out whether and how the answers correspond to the mental capacity of the questioning children. 9

NRSV has the plural form.

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Biblical writers use children’s questions “Why ...?” as a stylistic device to refresh events of the past for their current day and draw lessons from it: “When in the future your child asks you” (Exod 13:14; Deut 6:20: rmoale rx'm' ^n>bi ^l.av' y. -I yKi / evan. de. evrwth,sh| se o` ui`oj, sou meta. tau/ta le,gwn and o[tan evrwth,sh| se o` ui`oj, sou au;rion le,gwn) and “when your children ask in time to come,” Josh 4:6.21: rmoale … rx'm' ~k,ynEB. !Wla'vy. I / o[tan evrwta/| se o` ui`oj, sou au;rion le,gwn and o[tan evrwtw/sin u`ma/j oi` ui`oi. u`mw/n le,gontej. In Exod 12:27; 13:14 “the people,” in Exod 12:28; Deut 6:20 and Josh 4:6 “Israel” and in Josh 4:21 the fathers answer the questions of children. Therefore, we first turn to the reference where the fathers answer.

4.1 Question and answer in Josh 4:20-22 The twelve stones, those which10 they had taken out of the Jordan, Joshua set up in Gilgal. He said (rm,aYOw11 : ) to the Israelites (laerf' y. I ynEB). : When your children ask (~k,ynEB). their fathers/ancestors12 (~t'Aba]-ta, ) in time to come (rx'm)' , “What do these stones mean?” 22 then you shall let your children (~k,ynEB-. ta, ) know (~T,[d. A; hw> ), “Israel crossed over the Jordan here on dry ground.23 For the LORD your God (~k,yhela{ / hw'hy>) dried up the waters of the Jordan for you (~k,ynEPm. )i until you crossed over (~k,rb> [. )' , as the LORD your God (~k,yhela{ / hw'hy>) did to the Red Sea, which he dried up for us (WnynEPm' )i until we crossed over (Wnreb[. )' ,24 so that (![;ml; ). all the peoples of the earth may know that the hand of the LORD (dy:-ta, hw'hy>) is mighty (hq'zx' )] , and so that (![;ml; ). you may fear (~t,ar'y)> the LORD your God (~k,yhela{ / hw'hy>-ta,) forever.” 20 21

4.1.1 Literary analyses and correlations The pronouns set up references. These differ in the Hebrew text and in the LXX:

10 “[Those] which”, is the usual translation in !DErY> h: -; !mi Wxq.l' rv,a] hL,ahe ' ~ynIba' h] ' hrEf[. , ~yTev. taew> (Josh 4:20; cf. Boling, Joshua, 182), it establishes an interpretive relation to the earlier written, but rv,a] ‘which’ refers grammatically to ‘take’ (Wxq.l)' . There are those stones that were taken out of Jordan, regardless of whether there was earlier said something about stones or not. 11 In H we find the narrative rm,aYOw.: The translation (NRSV) used the participle ‘saying’ and follows apparently the LXX. 12 The NRSV translates tAba', except in the phrase tAba' yvear' “the heads of the families,” regularly with “parents.” The translators do not deal with the question whether both parents are actually meant.

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oi` ui`oi. u`mw/n

~k,ynEB.

u`ma/j1

~t'Aba]-ta,

toi/j ui`oi/j u`mw/n

~k,ynEB.-ta,

cf. avnaggei,late

~T,[.d;Ahw>

kuri,ou tou/ qeou/ h`mw/n

~k,yhel{a/ hw'hy>

evk tou/ e;mprosqen auvtw/n

~k,ynEP.mi

ou- die,bhsan [-]

~k,r>b.['

ku,rioj o` qeo.j h`mw/n

~k,yhel{a/ hw'hy>

ku,rioj o` qeo.j h`mw/n

-

e;mprosqen h`mw/n

WnynEP'mi

parh,lqomen

Wnreb.['

Josh 4:21 Josh 4:22 Josh 4:23

Hebrew version: With the possessive pronoun we can see a movement from the second person plural to the first person plural. The pronoun connected with the ‘fathers’ / ~t'Aba] should be noted, because the third person is used. This results in an aspect of distance regarding the spokesman, Joshua. It emphasizes the fact that it is the ‘fathers’ / ~t'Aba] of the asking children who answer. The meaning of tAba] is not defined. They may be the biological fathers, the relatives, or, more generally, the ancestors. Greek version: At the beginning, the questioners are addressed in the second person plural. However, the first person plural is found more frequently in the second part of the speech of Joshua than in the Hebrew version. With the mentioning of God, it is striking that the Greek only says, “Lord, our God,” as opposed to the Hebrew, “Lord, your God.” For our study, however, the most striking difference is that the fathers are not at all mentioned, but instead of “your fathers,” it only says “their.” 4.1.2 The contents The children’s question13 is very general and vague: “What do these stones (hL,ahe ' ~ynIba' h] ' hm')?” Although obviously the stones in themselves stimulate, the question is not about their shape, their arrangement, or their number, although this was explicitly mentioned in 4:20. It is the message, which is why these

13 Although Knauf, Joshua, 61, did not mention the fathers, he handled the problem indirectly, because to him “die ‘Kinderfrage’ beim Einzug ins Land … mit der Frage bei Exodus-Pessach (2 Mose 13,14) (korrespondiert),” since the reference to the ancestors is central.

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stones have been erected.14 The children expect the interpretation and symbolism from their fathers, not the description of the external facts. Joshua points out that the fathers do not give their own answer. They say what Joshua is telling them to say. The teacher of the responding fathers, therefore, is Joshua. The Israelites were able to cross the Jordan here. Previously, God had dried up the Jordan, till all the people had crossed the river. This process also hearks back to the scene at the Red Sea. The nations should recognize the power of God in this deed. Israel is to revere God because of this divine act. It is presupposed that there are 12 distinctive stones in Gilgal that prompt questions. It is not said that a cultic celebration is taking place by these stones, but the abnormal formation of stones will provoke children’s questions in the future. The verb [dy in the causative in v. 22, plays a prominent role, for its grammatical form, as well as for the choice of the word: the verb does not (only) mean theoretical knowledge, but also experience and self-accomplished understanding. The causative even reinforces this aspect. The children should, therefore, not only acknowledge a matter neutrally and formally, but virtually experience what is being said. The context shows that it is a significant event on the way to the land promised by God. God is called by both his name (hw'hy>) and his role, his function (~k,yhela{ )/ . ‘Your,’ on the one hand, produces a direct relationship between the responding fathersand the listening children, on the other. On the way to the promised land the people come to the Jordan. The river is a major obstacle for the marching people. No human being can tame a river on his own. God intervenes and makes possible the crossing of the Jordan. Thus there is a particular sequence of actions: God helps the people first. His help precedes any human action. God’s work is so effective, that every natural problem is removed. You can compare it with the soft soil in the river bed. This muddy ground would cause great difficulties for those who have to walk through it. God makes the floor dry and firm. In this great event the wet ground and the problems caused by it as a result of the moisture seem to be a trivial question. But God eliminates every difficulty! God thinks of everything!

14 Therefore Long, Problem, 80, did not deal with the crucial questions when he writes: “As such, the recitation neither identifies the stones nor explains their origin. Rather it capsulates that which the stones memorialize, and to this extent explains them as a memory sign.” Immediately, with this intention of the author assumed, the question arises, why there does not occur a word for ‘memory.’

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This intervention of God is above all a confirmation of a previous rescue operation. It is not described why the people come to the Red Sea and what has already happened before. The text mentions only what happened at the Red Sea. The sea was dried out by God and the people moved from one bank to the other. The focus is not on salvation from misery, but on God’s work as a helpful assistance. In the reference to the deliverance at the Red Sea the change of person is striking. The author uses the first person plural (we): For us and before us God has set his mark. The stones are a reminder that God does not act for the generations in the past, but for us, the presently living. For all who have not yet understood the intention of the author, there follow consequen­ ces introduced by double “![;ml; . / so that” (4:24ab): The first consequence initiated in 4:24a with a “![;ml; . / thus” holds that what God does for Israel, should be understood as a sign for all peoples. The whole world can see God’s deeds and understand what power YHWH, the God has. God’s action is an illustrative example for the peoples (#r,ah' ' yMe[-; lK'). Again we have to point to the root [dy (t[;D;; 4:24). Among children as well as among the nations [dy does not only imply abstract knowledge, but an individual and personal experience. The author wants to express his hope that the peoples come to the conclusion that the power of God has a meaning for them as well. If one takes the action beneficial to Israel as a model case, one can imagine how God also wants to be helpful for the people. – In 4:24b serves “![;ml; . / so that” as an introduction to emphasize the second focus. Because of what is reported from earlier times and observed, now the children turn to derive, that God is respected (~t,ar'y)> forever. Accordingly, God’s deeds in history and in the present have – as seen above – an external and an internal effect. How long should the effect of the experienced continue to last? Every day, so they say. You will understand this so: as long as there are days, as long as the aftermath of God’s help has an impact on the lives of children.

4.2. Question and answer in Exod 12:25-28 The introduction to the children’s question is different from the other examples, because in all other places mentioned rx'm' (‘tomorrow, in the future’) is not used. Therefore this text can be compared only partially with the other references. When you come to the land that the LORD will give you, as he has promised, you shall keep this observance (hd'b[o h] )' . 26 And when your children (~k,ynEB). ask you,

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Friedrich V. Reiterer “What does this observance [mean] for you15 (~k,l' taZOh; hd'b[o h] ' hm')?” You shall say, “It is the passover sacrifice (xs;P-, xb;z)< to the LORD, for he passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when he struck down the Egyptians (~yIrc: m. )i but spared our houses.” And the people bowed down and worshiped. – 28 The Israelites went and did just as the LORD had commanded Moses and Aaron. 27

The story first tells about the order Moses gives to the elders “Go, select lambs for your families, and slaughter the Passover lamb” (Exod 12:21). Then the command to keep this observance and to perform it as a service of God follows. It is therefore a concrete ritual act. As is it clear from Exod 12:27 this rite is seen as a sacrifice: xs;P-, xb;z.< When the offspring observes this performed ritual (hd'b[o ] in v. 25 and v. 26), they will ask what role these actions play for those who carry them out. The translation “what do you mean by this observance” (NRSV) turns the relations upside down: it does not mean that those who carry out God’s command express something on their own, but that it only matters what God expresses, or what ideas you call to mind if you see the rite. Then the ancestors who were asked formulate how they themselves understand the ritual signs. In any case, the rite has the effect that the experience of the ‘first’ generation will be refreshed with the offspring. The ancestors give testimony, even if many ancestors who join the cult are not aware of their role as witnesses. They are models that help the next generation relive past experiences as new and fresh. As regards the contents it is said that God destroyed – taking for granted, but not saying directly ‘hostile’ – Egyptians. At the same time he spared the Israelites. If you look at the sentence xs;P' laerf' y. -I ynEb. yTeB-' l[; (Exod 12:27) by itself – and further reason is not given – then it follows that Israel would also be affected. The Israelites have thus neither a right, nor have they done a particular act, nor demonstrated an attitude that made God spare them. No, it was apparently entirely God‘s (unaccounted) decision to spare the Israelites. The ’child question‘ is not based on curiosity, why a sacrifice is offered again and again in the way observed, but on the desire to understand, what the rite is for those who offer something as a sacrifice. The intended meaning is obviously a statement, which implies that the ‘kids’ want to know for themselves what the personally relevant background of the cultic celebration is. Infants and younger children will not be able to ask such questions. On the whole, the spontaneity of the scene is missing, so that 15 NRSV offers other references: “What do you mean by this observance.”

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the ’child question‘ is used as a stylistic device to actualize. In other text documents this appears suddenly and spontaneously. Literarily and liturgically speaking, there arises the possibility for the studied text, presupposing a skilful choice of words – to understand !Be as a child, then also as a descendant, but also as a statement of common membership – to make the Israelites regularly keep in mind the important matter: “God had spared us.”

4.3 Question and answer in Exod 13:14-16 A detailed examination makes this example more impressive than the others. rx'm' “in the future” as in the other references a statement looking forward in time, but in the other texts the time memorized is repeated at longer intervals. The following rule has to be actualized with every firstborn. With both animals and humans first births are, over and again, seen and interpreted as joyful events, at non determinable time intervals. When in the future (rx'm' / meta. tau/ta!) your child asks you, “What does this mean?” You shall answer, “By strength of hand the LORD brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery. 15 When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, the LORD killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals. Therefore I sacrifice to the LORD every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.” 16 It shall serve as a sign on your hand and as an emblem on your forehead that by strength of hand the LORD brought us out of Egypt. 14

The question interrupts the context and somehow appears to be unnecessary. If this exclamation was included from the beginning, but also even if it is a later insertion, it adds an extra accent. Exod 13,14 precedes the confirmation that God will bring ‘you,’ that is Israel, to the land of Canaan, which God has promised with an oath. From that derives the order, that all male firstborn must be redeemed from the Lord (Exod 13:11-13). The children’s question requires that children observe how this requirement is fulfilled. The children ask very generally: taZO-hm;. This question requires absolutely no special knowledge or understanding. The question in itself proves their curiosity. Again its openness may indicate that relatively young children are interested in the question. The answer highlights several aspects: The people were in Egypt, which was experienced as a slave house.

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God has led ‘us’ out from there. The Pharaoh did not let the people go away. Then the LORD slew all the firstborn with humans and animals. Therefore (!Ke-l[;; Exod 13:15d) the Israelites (x:bze O ynIa;] Exod 13:15d) sacrifice the male, which breaks through the mother’s womb (~x,r, rj,P-, lK'; Exod 13:15d). Every firstborn of my sons (yn:B' rAkB.-lk'w;> Exod 13:15e) are redeemed (hD,pa. ;, Exod 13:15e). While the initial question of the children was very simple, the answer requires knowledge and understanding, which one probably cannot expect from young children. To understand the answer, one must know the following: What is meant by ‘Egypt?’ Why is a house of slavery so threatening? Why did God intervene? What is the role of a pharaoh? How can one YHWH slay the firstborn of all Egypt? What does ‘firstborn’ mean with animals? What is the function of a sacrifice? What do you do when you redeem a free-born son? All these questions require knowledge of social, political, cultic and religious contexts. Does it make any sense to give such answers to children? The answer to the question is given formulated in detail. What does the biblical author achieve with an answer, which he formulated for others? We try to illustrate the function of the response from three points of view and we consider the third variant the most important. The first thing to be noted is, that he who knows the answer, knows some facts, which played an important role in the history of the people. The response argued only with past events. These facts are regularly repeated on the occasion of the birth of the first male and kept in mind. If you can actually repeat the answers, they are in your memory and you memorize them. If all members of your community know the same thing by heart, then these facts form a common view and for those who know it, a common, connecting information level. The second consideration comes from the parallel tendencies observable within small communities and implies partially “western behaviors.” By the way, young children still acquire the everyday words and customs in the family. By mere observation they adopt habitual practices from their parents and other adults, and they keep these customs, without understanding them for quite a long time to come. The problems are well known, when the children no longer want to suit the roles and behavior mediated by parents. Tensions are predetermined. But there are also examples showing that the younger generation almost uncompromisingly strives to emulate their parents, ancestors and other examples. In clubs where persons stemming from the same region are associated, for exam-

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ple, principles are derived from earlier times and handed down to the young generation. At the regular meetings the same sayings are always repeated and learnt by heart. Those who are too young often do not understand what they say. But they grow up into the community and even strive to become equal members. Imitation becomes an aim in itself and forms engagement and community-cohesion from inside, thus developing the consciousness of identity. The same applies to the local identities in some areas (e.g. Bavarians, Catalans, Basques, etc.). He who wishes to live there must accept certain basic rules. The group‘s internal rules serve as a barrier against other groups in society. Minorities sometimes need such a mental protection in order to exist alongside influential majorities. The fact that such questions can gain national-wide importance shows us the problem of integrating foreigners coming from ’third countries‘ into areas of economic prosperity. Usually majorities provide the rules to be adopted by the whole community. The small groups are anxious to preserve their identity, and sometimes even their existence. If such arguments are true for Exod 13:14-16, then the answer to the children‘s question indicated that Israel has been a minority in that time, when the answers mentioned above were formulated. Israel wants to maintain both her religious and political identity. The third consideration focuses on the emotional implications of the scene. The time of waiting during pregnancy is long. With pregnancy and childbirth hopes and expectations are associated, more unconsciously than consciously. The future appears in a bright light. When you see babies, they prompt positive reactions. Therefore, such situations are a very positive background. Moreover, one cannot precisely determine the time when the birth will take place. Therefore the experience that you cannot make key events on your own follows automatically. Someone else determines these processes. For Israel, this is only YHWH. In addition to this, the life of a community only has a future, if human and animal births have a good outcome. A successful birth is a gift and confirms the positive acting of God. In addition, births happen repeatedly within a clan in the course of a year. Therefore, sacrificing will also be repeated often. The repetition is, however, desired and – because of these reasons – can never be a disturbing duty. With this cult performed at birth favourable emotions are combined. The positive content is reinforced by the fact that it is repeated regularly, that God saved his people from the house of slavery and the danger of death in Egypt. The positive experience due to the birth-oriented feeling and the thankfulness thus deepens the realization of the salvation that has already happened in the distant past. This shows that God helps for a long time. Because – in

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fact – God is at the center of a successful birth and at the historic rescue, he is also the center of hope and experienced happiness. With YHWH you connect not only abstract theological, but also emotionally positive feelings. The frequent repetition of the sacrificing makes positive ideas penetrate deeply into the consciousness and characterizes the mental attitude. Therefore, the religious identity of the Israelites is so firm and inviolable. Moreover, the attitude of observing the commandments is positive. A child’s question brings an additional emphasis. From the entire complex it is clear that the formation of identity, starting from birth, is essential.

4.4 Question and answer in Deut 6:20-25 When your child (^n>B)i ask you (^l.av' y. )I in time to come (rx'm)' , “What is the meaning of the decrees (tdo[he )' and the statutes (~yQix)u and the ordinances (~yjiPv' m. )i that the LORD our God has commanded (hW'c)i you?” 21 then you shall say to your child (^n>bli ). , “We were Pharaoh’s slaves in Egypt, but the LORD brought us out of Egypt with a mighty hand. 22 The LORD displayed before our eyes great and awesome signs and wonders (~y[irw' > ~ylidGo > ~ytipm. Wo ttoAa) against Egypt, against Pharaoh and all his household. 23 He brought us out from there in order to bring us in, to give us the land that he promised on oath to our ancestors. 24 Then the LORD commanded (WnWEcy; w> ): us to observe all these statutes (hL,ahe ' ~yQixhu ); , to fear the LORD our God, for our lasting good, so as to keep us alive (WnteYxO l; ). , as is now the case. 25 If we diligently observe (rmovn. )I this entire commandment (taZOh; hw'cM. hi -; lK') before the LORD our God, as he has commanded us (WnW'c)i , we will be in the right.” 20

Deut 6 is divided into several “small units.” It has long been observed that the unexpected change from the second person singular – on the one hand – to the second person plural – on the other hand – raises questions. If one takes the singular or the plural as a distinguishing criterion, then there is the following. In Deut 6:17 the verb is in the second masculine plural: … !Wrm.vT. i rAmv' (6:17 “You must diligently keep the commandments of the LORD your God, and his decrees, and his statutes, which he has commanded you”). In Deuteronomy 6:18-19 only sentences in the second person singular follow: “Do (t'yfi[w' )> what is right and good in the sight of the LORD, so that (![;ml; ). it may go well with you (%l'), and so that you may go in (t'ab'W) and occupy (T'vr. y; w' )> the good land that the LORD swore to your ancestors (^yt,bao l] ); to give you, thrusting out all your enemies (^yb,ya> -o lK'-ta,) from before you (^yn ~k,yhela{ / hw'hy> twOcm. -i ta, !Wrm.vT. i rAmv' – Deut 6:17

~k,ta. , Wnyhela{ / hw'hy> hW'ci rv,a] ~yjiPv' M. hi w; > ~yQixhu w; > tdo[he ' … ^n>bi ^l.av' y. -I yKi – Deut 6:20

One can give good reasons for this sequence: – In 6:17 the second person plural is at the beginning (!Wrm.vT. )i , in 6:20 at the end (~k,ta. )< , thus forming a chiastic structure; – in 6:17 the verb (%W'c)i with a pronoun in second person singular is at the end of the verse, in 6:20 the pronoun in the second person singular is at the beginning (^n>bi ^l.av' y. )I ; – both verses (6:17 as well as 6:20) contain a group of three words from the legal field. These differ by a single word (6:17 wyQ'xwu > wyt'd[o we > … twOcm. ,i and 6:20 ~yjiPv' M. hi w; > ~yQixhu w; > tdo[he )' ; – the designations of God are the same (6:17 ~k,yhela{ / hw'hy>; 6:20 Wnyhela{ / hw'hy>). In 6:17 it was not explained why you should respect the laws of God. This stylistic analysis shows that the child‘s question was prompted by the earlier order, namely that of 6:17 (!Wrm.vT. i rAmv'). The explanation for the observance of the commandments can be given because of the question. The child’s question shows that the order of 6:17 has actually been observed. The group of persons to whom the question is addressed, is not clarified in detail. The order of God was addressed to any indefinite “you” (~k,ta. )< . Respondents do not first react directly to the question about ~yQixhu w; > tdo[he ' ~yjiPv' M. hi w; ,> but refer to previous events. We were slaves to Pharaoh in Egypt. YHWH has done terrible signs to Pharaoh and to all that goes with him. YHWH brought the slaves from Egypt with the help of his power. YHWH has promised a country with an oath. YHWH brought the speaker into the Promised Land and gives it as a present to the speaker. YHWH requires the addressee (WnWEcy; w> ;: 6:24a / WnW'c;i 6:25c) to comply (tAf[]l;; 6:24b; 6:25c) with all laws (~yQixhu -; lK'; 6:24b / taZOh; hw'cM. hi -; lK'; 6:25c). YHWH obliged the person addressed to respect God. Implications and consequences of compliance (rmovn. ;I 6:25b) with the

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commandments and the fear of God serve as the basis for life (WnteYxO l; ;. 6:24e). They lead to well-being (Wnl' bAjl.; 6:24d). The speakers thus attain the status of legal correctness (WnL'-hy hO ; ~yIMh; ; Wdm.[Y; w: ;: Josh 3:16; cf. 3:13) was standing. “Standing” (dm[) seems to have found a concise verb in the context of this dramatic episode. Because this is a very significant event that is imprinted by the path and the activity of the priests, it is obviously widely unfolded and finds a completion in 4:10: “The priests who bore the Ark (!Ara'h' yaefn. O ~ynIhK] ho w; )> remained standing (~ydIm[. )o in the middle of the Jordan (!DErY> h: ; %AtB.), until everything was finished that the LORD commanded Joshua to tell the people, according to all that Moses had commanded Joshua. The people crossed over in haste.” For this description Josh 4:2-8/9 is not necessary! But biblical redactors have added this multilayered notice (4:2-8 and 4:9) about the collection and laying of the stones. In Josh 4:3 bC'm; is used for the local position of the priest, a noun that can be found again in 4:9 (bC;m); . But the root dm[ is not used. In Josh 4:9 the stone monument was erected contrary to 4:3 (“overnight stop”) in the middle of the Jordan (!DErY> h: ; %AtB.). Compared with 4:3, the verse 4:9 is presumably a later secondary insertion. The confusing relations show that there are different stages in the development of this passage. The mentioning of the number of tribes requires that the 12-number was well known at the time of writing. The monument, built from the twelve stones, serves as a reminder to the entire nation. The symbolism of the number 12 is undeniable. The construction of stones cannot have been a truly impressive monument. It is expressly stated that individuals are asked to pick up a stone – each only one stone. An individual can not carry very large stones. Even if you put 12 stones together there remains a rather small collection. The intention of the writer is not to emphasize the shape or the force of the “large stone structure,” rather is he concerned with the function of these stones: “So that this may be a sign among you (~k,Br. q> Bi . tAa)” (Josh 4:6). This raises the question whether the translation “among you (~k Bi ). ” (v.

in Josh 3-4. But the different formulations even show, that several hands had been employed: see hw'hy>-!Ara] (Josh 4:11); ~k,yhela{ / hw'hy> !Ara] (Josh 4:5); #r !Ara] (Josh 3:13); tyrIBh. ; !Ara] (Josh 3:6.8; 4:9); hw'hy>-tyrIB. !Ara] (Josh 4:7.18); ~k,yhela{ / hw'hy>-tyrIB. !Ara] (Josh 3:3); tyrIBh. ; !Ara] #rkn. )I ” (Jos 4:7). The effect of the LORD’s acting through the ark is emphasized by the fact that this statement occurs twice – a repetition probably not accidental. ‘Water’ indicates danger and evil. When the Ark of God has touched the Jordan, these are banned! If the enclitic personal pronoun A- in Arb.[B' . refers to the last masculine subject, then it is YHWH. God himself crossed the Jordan and not the people. But even if the pronoun points back to !Ara], then at least the presence of God is expressed. The memory of the impressive effects of God’s presence is the object of memory (!ArK'z;I Josh 4:7), which over and over again is activated by the stone memorial. This emphasis makes Josh 4:2-8 distinguishable from the other examined passages in which neither !ArK'z,I nor rk tALhiT]. , his might [AzWz[/], the wonders [wyt'Aal.pn. ]I ). The second objects are the rules: decree (tWd[e) and law (hr'AT). With ![;ml; ' (6a) is introduced, which was the purpose of the command to tell the great deeds and the laws to the next generation: the coming generations will know the events of the past, or even deal with them (both aspects contains [dy), they should share these experiences in turn with the next generation (!Arx]a; rAdl. [4b] / !Arx]a; rAD [6a]), they should not forget God’s deeds (WxK.vy. I al{w> [7b]), they should then put their hope in God (… B lsK ~yf [7a]) and they should rather observe than forget the commandments of God (Wrcony> I wyt'wcO m. i [7c]). V. 8 is the grand finale and makes a sharp comparing past generations and what God expects of the coming generations. The children should not turn out as their fathers did. The fathers were a stubborn and rebellious generation (rAD hr,mWo rreAs rAD [8a]). The faithless, previous generation has neither the heart (ble [8b]) nor the mind (x:Wr [8c]) firmly rooted in and with God. Therefore, God does not play any role in the conviction. The verses 78,3.5 deal with our fathers (WnyteAba]) and the relationship with them is positive. They have told what has happened and they pass on the commandments of God. You have received a divine commission (hW'ci) to do so and they obviously fulfill this order, too. Our fathers are positive caregivers. The change of the possessive pronoun in the third person plural in v. 8 (~t'Aba]) is striking. The same pronoun is also found with ~t'Aba] in 78:12 and 78:57. Both times the fathers are associated with a harsh criticism, because they had been grossly wrong. Obviously, the forgetfulness is a particular problem. “Not to forget” had already been discussed in 4a. The fact that forgetting has very negative consequences, is shown whith regard to what the fathers had experienced, but what they had forgotten: They forgot (WxK.vY. wI ): what he had done (wyt'Alyli[)] , and the miracles (wyt'Aal.pn. wI )> that he had shown them. In the sight of their ancestors (~t'Aba] dg ): ,” and refused to live according to God’s law, see 78:10: “refused to walk (tk,ll, ' Wna]m)e according to his law (Atr'AtB.),” – treacherously they cheated God, see 78:57: they “were faithless (WdG>bY. wI ): ,” deceived him and lied to him, see 78:36: “they flattered him (WhWTp;yw> ): with their mouths; they lied to him (Al-WbZ>ky; )> with their tongues,” and even put God to the test to see if he could provide for his people, see 78:18: “they tested (lae-WSn:yw> ): God in their heart”; and 78:56: “they tested (WSn:yw> ): the Most High God,” – they have done wrong against God, see 78:17: “they sinned still more against him (Al-ajoxl] ); ; and 78,32: “In spite of all this they still sinned (dA[-Waj.x)' ,” and they revolted against God, see 78:17: “they were rebelling against (tArm.l); the Most High” and 78:56: they “rebelled against him (Wrm.Yw: ): ”; – as highlights of the reprehensible they provoked him by worshipping idols, see 78:58: “they moved him to jealousy (WhWaynIqy. ): with their idols (~h,yleysipb. Wi ),” and celebrated even in non-Yahwistic cult places, see 78:58: “they provoked him to anger (WhWsy[ikY. w: ): with their high places (~t'Amb'B). .”

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In contrast, positive behaviors are enumerated. But the author has to say that these are not consistently observed. From this we know, that they would have known what is correct, but did not act accordingly: – They were not convinced of the great deeds and saving acts of God, see 78:32: “they did not believe (Wnymiah/ -, al{w)> in his wonders (wyt'Aal.pn. BI ). ” and 78:22: “did not trust (Wxj.b' al{) his saving power (At['WvyBi),” and they had no confidence in him, see 78:37: “their heart (~B'lwi )> was not steadfast (!Akn'-al{) toward him,” last but not least, they lacked faith, see 78:22: “had no faith (Wnymiah/ , al{) in God (~yhila{ Be).” – Against their better knowledge, they did not rely on the agreement with God and were also neglecting the covenant, see 78:10: “They did not keep (Wrm.v' al{) God’s covenant (~yhila{ / tyrIB). ,” and 78:37: “they were not true (Wnm.an, < al{w)> to his covenant (AtyrIbB. )i ”; 78:56: “They did not observe (Wrm'v' al{) his decrees (wyt'Ad[ew)> .” – Only when the pressure and the dangers had become unbearable, they asked for God, seeking him and no other gods, see 78:34: “they sought for him (WhWvr'dW> ) … and sought God earnestly (lae-Wrx]vwi )> ,” and only if it was impossible to find help otherwise, did they turned to God, see 78:34: they repented (Wbv'w)> , only in a hopeless situation, they thought of God and his saving actions (78,35: “remembered that God was their rock, the Most High God their redeemer”).

Summing up, the range of negative statements embraces negligence, forgetfulness of suspicion and doubt about God, disregard of his historical leadership, active cheating and lying, even direct rebellion and, ultimately, apostasy and the worship of other deities. The enumeration of the positive elements includes turning to God, commanding a benevolent attitude towards him, general obedience, especially the observance of the commandments and obedience to his rules, the serious consideration of the previous work of God, and the effort to be close to God, and, to have faith. What follows from our study on fathers? The biblical author distinguishes between our fathers (WnyteAba]) and their fathers (~t'Aba]). The author’s intent is clear from the analysis of contrasts. – “Our Fathers (WnyteAba])” are in a positive oral tradition, in which the psalmist joins in. “Our Fathers” have told of significant experiences with God: the glorious deeds of the LORD (tALhiT. hw'hy>), his might (AzWz[/) and the wonders (wyt'Aal.pn. )I , that he has done (v. 4). These great works of God must again be told orally and, first of all, to their own offspring. This will tell it again to the children. Although all the narrated events have occurred in the past, this part of the psalm puts

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a strong accent on the future. The future is to master! He who does not know the events cannot act accordingly. The history with God and his benefits are the positive example from which you can see the teachings for your own future life. The demolition of the tradition would also take away the opportunity to align themselves with acts of God and his laws. To deliver these facts to the children and to teach, is a command of God (“commanded our ancestors [WnyteAba]-ta, hW'c]i . They must teach their children there again [~['ydIAhl. ~h,ynEb.li]”). The children learn from their fathers how to align the fathers in God and then they will put their hope (ls,K, ~yf; 7a) in God. If the fathers do that, then they will not forget the deeds of God (lae-ylel.[;m;; 7b). The knowledge of God’s work shapes the way of life. The children can see that the fathers fulfill the commandments of God (Wrcon>yI wyt'wOc.mi; 7c). Then they will follow the example. – “Their fathers (~t'Aba])”: the author does obviously not assume that good or bad behavior is innate in human beings. How a human being lives is the result of a development (hyh / to become in v. 8). Whether a human being is good or bad is not accidental. He imitates the ancestors. The fathers are not automatically a good example as fathers. Frequently one encounters negative role models: “and that they should not be like their ancestors, a stubborn and rebellious generation, a generation whose heart was not steadfast, whose spirit was not faithful to God.” It is also said what wrong things these fathers have done. For the next generation, to be dealt with it in 3-8, this means that they can also learn from their fathers, but only what they may not do and which attitude leads to ruin. From v. 9 onwards, there are many examples of how one can go wrong. These negative examples will deter from the point of view of education and teaching.

6. Summary Although all examined passages, especially Psalm 78:1-2, show features of wisdom literature, they are not comparable with the sayings on education at home treated in the beginning, much less can they be compared with words we read about Solomon: “He would speak of trees, from the cedar that is in the Lebanon to the hyssop that grows in the wall; he would speak of animals, and birds, and reptiles, and fish” (1 Kgs 5:13). All issues treated in the examples have different religious or theologi-

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cal content. In Exod 12:25-28; 13:14-16; Josh 4:20-22, and especially in Josh 4:2-8, the attitude plays a significant role, it is all about the explanation of past events and their importance for ‘Today.’ The preoccupation with the past events leads to the individual’s identity. It developes and deepens the idea of identity in the next generations. The self-image as an individual in each time in history rests on the doctrine of the religious events of the past. Psalm 78 does not only differ formally from the other references, but also offers significant aspects for our study. The psalm focuses on the transfer of the knowledge across the generations. It emphasizes the goal of education, namely to avoid the faults of past. It gives examples from the past in order to show which different facets of behavior are wrong, or how the desirable behavior, with which you answer God looks like. God plays a fundamentally central role, but more than in the past that applies to the future. The history – also the history with God – is no given fact that works by itself like a charm, as if one could say a “good deed once done is effective forever.” God’s great deeds have passed away long ago. God wanted his actions to be always present and not be forgotten. If you do not forget them, then the deeds inspire further reflection. Moreover, God has given his commandments and rules so that the next generation has a guide for their way of life. For the next generation, the ancestors have important functions: in the texts, in which the children ask the fathers questions (Exodus, Deuteronomy, Joshua), it was assumed that cultic or liturgical activity has occurred regularly, which plays a special role in religious life. Looking back to the past, this way of life was made understandable for ‘Today.’ Within 3-8 Psalm 78 deals with personal development of the believer; cf. Josh 4,3-8. It is an outlook into the future. The fathers serve as good or bad example. The fathers have the primary task of keeping the works of God in memory in children through oral teachings, because the threat of oblivion would make all the acts of God disappear from memory. The result would be as it is observed even in the past of the fathers that the people behave fundamentally wrong and thus destroyed their lives. Furthermore, there is a divine command to teach the commandments to the children. The parents and ancestors passed on not only biological life. They teach the next generation through their talking, and connect them with the inherited tradition. Thus, they are an extension of God. Hopefully, this offer is accepted well. Fearfully, looking back to the history of God’s people, one finds that this goal often failed, as has been shown by the “ancestor of Israel.”

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Bibliography Biberger, B., Unsere Väter und wir. Unterteilung von Geschichtsdarstellungen in Generationen und das Verhältnis der Generationen im Alten Testament (BBB 145), Berlin-Wien 2003. Campbell, A. F., Psalm 78: A Contribution to the Theology of Tenth Century Israel: CBQ 41 (1979) 51-79. Carroll, R. P., Psalm LXXVIII: Vestiges of a Tribal Polemic: VT 21 (1971) 133-150. Clifford, R. J., In Zion and David a new Beginning: An Interpretation of Psalm 78, in: Halpern, B. – Levenson, J. D. (eds.), Traditions in Transformation. Turning Points in Biblical Faith. FS Frank Moore Cross, Winona Lake, IN 1981, 121-141. Crenshaw, J. L., Education in Ancient Israel: JBL 104 (1985) 601-615. Crenshaw, J. L., Education in Ancient Israel. Across the Deadening Silence, New York 1998. Davies, G. I., Were there schools in ancient Israel?, in: Day, J. – Gordon, R. P. – Williamson, H. G. M. (eds.), Wisdom in Ancient Israel, Cambridge 1995, 199-211. Deissler, A., Die Psalmen, Düsseldorf 61989. Dürr, L., Das Erziehungswesen im Alten Testament und im Antiken Orient (MVÄG 36,2), Leipzig 1932. Eichhorn, D., Gott als Fels, Burg und Zuflucht. Eine Untersuchung zum Gebet des Mittlers in den Psalmen (EHS.T 4), Bern-Frankfurt am Main 1972. Eissfeldt, O., Das Lied Moses Deuteronomium 32,1-43 und das Lehrgedicht Asaphs Psalm 78 samt einer Analyse der Umgebung des Mose-Liedes (Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-Historische Klasse 104,5), Berlin 1958. Fritz, V., Das Buch Josua (HAT I/7), Tübingen 1994. Füglister, N., Psalm LXXXVIII: Der Rätsel Lösung?, in: Emerton, J. A. (ed.), Congress Volume Leuven 1989 (VT.S 43), Leiden-Boston 1991, 264-297. Golka, F. W., Die Israelitische Weisheitschule oder „Des Kaisers neue Kleider,“ in: Id., Die Flecken des Leoparden. Biblische und afrikanische Weisheit im Sprichwort (AzTh 78), Stuttgart 1994, 11-23 (= VT 33 [1983] 257-270). Haag, E., Zion und Schilo. Traditionsgeschichtliche Parallelen in Jeremia 7 und Psalm 78, in: Zmijewski, J. (ed.), Die alttestamentliche Botschaft als Wegweisung. FS für Heinz Reinelt, Stuttgart 1990, 85-115. Hadot, I., Das hellenistische Gymnasion, in: Der Neue Pauly V, 23-27. Heaton, E. W., The School Tradition of the Old Testament. The Bampton Lectures for 1992, Oxford 1994. Hermisson, H.-J., Studien zur israelitischen Spruchweisheit (WMANT 28), Neukirchen-Vluyn 1968. Hieke, Th., “Weitergabe des Glaubens” (Ps 78,1-8). Versuch zu Syntax und Struktur von Ps 78: BN 78 (1995) 49-62. Hossfeld, F.-L., Psalm 78, in: Hossfeld, F.-L. – Zenger, E., Psalmen 51-100. Übersetzt und ausgelegt (HThK.AT), Freiburg 22000, 414-440. Kieweler, H.-V., Erziehung zum guten Verhalten und zur rechten Frömmigkeit.

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Die Hiskianische Sammlung, ein hebräischer und griechischer Schultext, Frankfurt a. M. 2001. Klostermann, A., Schulwesen im Alten Israel, in: Bonwetsch, N. et al. (eds.), Theologische Studien. FS Theodor Zahn, Leipzig 1908, 193-232. Knauf, E. A., Josua (ZB), Zürich 2008. Kraus, H.-J., Psalmen II. Psalmen 60-150 (BK XV,2), Neukirchen-Vluyn 61989. Kreuzer, S., Die Frühgeschichte Israels in Bekenntnis und Verkündigung des Alten Testaments (BZAW 178), Berlin-New York 1989. Kühlewein, J., Geschichte in den Psalmen (CThM.BW 2), Stuttgart 1973. Lang, B., Die weisheitliche Lehrrede. Eine Untersuchung von Spr 1-7 (SBS 54), Stuttgart 1972. Lang, B., Frau Weisheit. Deutung einer biblischen Gestalt, Düsseldorf 1975. Lang, B., Schule und Unterricht im Alten Israel, in: Id., Wie wird man Prophet in Israel? Aufsätze zum Alten Testament, Düsseldorf 1980, 104-119 (= in: Gilbert, M. [ed.], La Sagesse de l’Ancien Testament [BEThL 51], Paris-Gembloux-Leuven 1979, 186-201). Lee, A. C. C., The Context and Function of the Plagues Tradition in Psalm 78: JSOT 48 (1990) 83-89. Lemaire, A., Les écoles et la formation de la Bible dans l’ancient Israël (OBO 39), Freiburg-Göttingen 1981. Lisowski, G., Konkordanz zum hebräischen Alten Testament. Nach dem von Paul Kahle in der Biblia Hebraica (edidit R. Kittel) besorgten Masorententext, Stuttgart 1958. Long, B. O., The Problem of Etiological Narrative in the Old Testament (BZAW 108), Berlin 1968. Mathias, D., Die Geschichtstheologie der Geschichtssummarien in den Psalmen (BEATAJ 35), Frankfurt am Main 1993. Mathys, H.-P., Dichter und Beter. Theologen aus spätalttestamentlicher Zeit (OBO 132), Freiburg-Göttingen 1994. Mosis, R., ldg, in: ThWAT I, 928-956. Rattray, S. – Milgrom, J., br,q,, in: ThWAT VIII, 161-165. Römer, Th., Israels Väter. Untersuchungen zur Väterthematik im Deuteronomium und in der deuteronomistischen Tradition (OBO 99), Freiburg-Göttingen 1990. Scherer, A., Das weise Wort und seine Wirkung. Eine Untersuchung zur Komposition und Redaktion von Proverbia 10,1-22,16 (WMANT 83), Neukirchen-Vluyn 1999. Schreiner, J., Geschichte als Wegweisung. Psalm 78, in: Zmijewski, J. (ed.), Die alttestamentliche Botschaft als Wegweisung, 307-328. Seybold, K., Die Psalmen (HAT 15), Tübingen 1996. Spieckermann, H., Heilsgegenwart. Eine Theologie der Psalmen (FRLANT 148), Göttingen 1989. Ueberschaer, F., Weisheit aus der Begegnung. Bildung nach dem Buch Ben Sira (BZAW 379), Berlin-New York 2007. Veijola, T., Verheißung in der Krise. Studien zur Literatur und Theologie der Exilszeit anhand des 89. Psalms (AASF 220), Helsinki 1982.

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von Rad, G., Weisheit in Israel, Gütersloh 1992 (Neukirchen-Vluyn 1970). Weeks, S., Early Israelite Wisdom, Oxford 1994. Whybray, R. N., Intellectual Tradition in the Old Testament (BZAW 135), Berlin-New York 1974.

Parents Rejoice Over Their Children: Examples in the Psalms Christine Abart 1. Introduction We know from experience how important it is for parents to rejoice over their children whilst they are growing up and that they should also show them this joy. In Proverbs 23:25 the wisdom teacher says to a child who has developed into a righteous (qyDIc); and wise (~k'x)' person: “Let your father and mother have joy; let her who bore you exult”1 (^M,awi > ^ybia-' xm;f. yI ^T,dl> A; y lgEtw' )> . This paper deals with the joy which parents feel for their children and the way it is expressed in the psalms, mainly the texts in which joy is expressed bodily. According to psychological knowledge bodily expression is an important part of emotions. Physiological reaction and a corresponding behaviour complement thoughts and feelings.2 In Ps 113 we hear about a joyful mother, ‘the upright’ rejoice about God’s blessing in the form of her children (Ps 107). Others are praised as being happy because they have children (Ps 112; 127; 128; 144). There is no psalm where the joy of mother and father together is shown. For an example of this see the aforementioned quotation in Proverbs 23:25. The joyful mother (hx'mfe . … ~ae; Ps 113:9) indicates her joy to some extent with her body. The reference to her having been childless shows her as a physical being, this results in the intensified joy about her offspring. In Ps 107 joy is described with the same word root xmf although no bodily reaction is discernible. If men/people are praised by others as happy (yreva. ;; Ps 112; 127; 128; 144), then their fatherhood/parenthood3 is seen as a cause of happiness but they themselves make no comment about this. This paper mainly deals with the joy which mothers and/or fathers express over their children. Thus the mother of Ps 113 comes first. As this joyful mother can represent all other women, she is indeed compared to all the barren women in the Bible. Subsequently all the “upright”, who rejoice over the blessing of their offspring in Ps 107, are mentioned. In the 1 Unless otherwise stated the translations are taken from NAB sometimes modified. 2 Cf. Myers, Psychologie, 548. 3 In Ps 144:15 the parents are included in the term ‘people.’

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last part there is mention of those who others call joyful because of their children (Ps 112; 127; 128 and 144).

2. A joyful mother (Ps 113:9) In Ps 113:9a-b we witness the joy a mother has over her children. YHWH allows the once barren woman to abide in the house. In the meantime she has become a joyful (x;mfe )' 4 mother of children. In the psalms where joy is also manifested bodily the word root xmf is used for joy from the heart (ble; Ps 4:8; 16:9; 19:9; 33:21; 97:11; 104:15; 105:3) and from the soul (vp,n;< Ps 86:4), furthermore for joy in YHWH’s presence (hn ~yIAG-lK'-l[;; v. 4a) and secondly high “above the heavens his glory” (AdAbK. ~yImV; h' ; l[;; v. 4b).11 V. 4a raises YHWH first above all nations, thus implying above all gods. V. 4b then raises his glory above the heavens. The incomparable uniqueness of God is „dem Raum des Universums, Himmel und Erde, in Beziehung gesetzt und damit als unüberbietbar charakterisiert.“12 Both clauses are in synonymous parallelism and as nominal clauses are infinitely valid. According to ancient oriental belief God’s place is to be found above the heavens, which are like a dome over earth, swimming in the middle of the waters. In the following illustration the throne above the dome is an important place of “his glory.”13 All people of the nations should recognise and accept him as he is.

9

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11 12 13

Craigie (Psalm 113, 70f.), Dahood (Psalms III, 130) and Weiser (Psalmen, 485) speak of the same three parts. On the other hand, Briggs (The Book of Psalms 2, 387) divides Ps 113 into four sections, namely vv. 1-2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-9. Kraus (Psalmen 2, 776) describes two parts, vv. 1-4 and vv. 5-9. Altogether seven participles are used in Ps 113 (vv. 2a, 3b, 4a, 5b, 6, 7a, 9a). The participle style is characteristic of hymns, in particular of the ones describing God (cf. Kraus, Psalmen 2, 777). Craigie (Ps 113, 71) believes that we can only adequately praise YHWH once we know his loving actions. Therefore he suggests to start studying Ps 113 at the end and to work backwards until the praise of God is reached. The participle ‘high’ of v. 4a also applies to v. 4b. Hossfeld – Zenger, Psalmen 101-150, 251. The term dAbK' literally means his ‘weight.’ Actually in vv. 4 and 5 it is more a matter of showing YHWH’s great importance to the people.

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Illus. 1 (from: Keel, Miniaturkunst, 15). This drawing by H. Keel-Leu is an attempt to illustrate the OT view of the world. It is based upon biblical texts and iconographical elements from Palestine/Israel and their neighbourhood.

The question “Who is like the LORD our God (NRSV)?” (Wnyhela{ / hw'hyK; ymi; v. 5a) forms the centre of the assertions about YHWH (vv. 4a-6). The rhetorical question14 shows that in this prayer it is also a matter of convincing all nations of YHWH’s greatness. Already in v. 1b all of YHWH’s servants are addressed. The term leaves open whether or not they belong to the people of Israel. Further, in v. 4a they are called “all nations” and thus everyone is being addressed. The rhetorical question in v. 5a (nominal clause) says that YHWH is above everyone and everything. This is the way that Israel’s people, who want to convince others of YHWH’s universal dimension, speak. Whether or not they are addressing people from their own nation or from surrounding nations is not mentioned in the psalm. The text can be understood either way. In vv. 5b-6 hiphil verbs describe the way YHWH acts. He lets things happen. who is seated on high (NRSV), who looks far down on the heavens and the earth (NRSV)?

15

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5b

#rM;h;

5b

AM[; ybeydIn> ~[i ~ybiydIn>-~[i ybiyviAhl.

8

tyIB;h; tr a home (bvy). The forsaken are in the masculine plural and can also mean men together with women. It is possible that childless wives are also included. Immediately before this in v. 6 we hear of orphans and widows, here too the barren ones could also be included. The formulation ht'yB> ; ~ydIyxiy> byviAm ~yhila{ / is similar to Ps 113:9a – the triad “the poor, widows, orphans” identifies the socially needy in Israel (Deut 24:14, 17, 19-21; Job 24:3-4; 29:12-13; Isa 10:2). To some extent the following are added: the foreigner/stranger (Exod 22:20; Zech 7:10), the sick one (Ps 69:30), the childless wife (Ps 113:9), the divorced (Deut 24:1), the ignorant (Job 29:16), those in bondage (Ps 69:34; 142:7-8) and the Levite (Deut 26:12). Actually there should be no needy/ poor in Israel (Deut 15:4). As natural catastrophes and complex economic conditions often cause poverty, legislation to prevent this is instigated. Both individuals and the community are bound to keep to these rules (cf. Egger-Wenzel, Armut, 47f.). “Going over a second time” (= learning) is important for social welfare. That which has either been forgotten on the field and vineyards, either intentionally or non-intentionally, belongs to the foreigners, orphans and widows (cf. Deut 24:21). The same also applies to the fruit of

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and her family as Israel’s matriarch Hannah once did. A further closeness in the contents can be seen between v. 9a-b and v. 6. As YHWH bends to look far down on heaven and earth, the formerly childless wife now, as a mother, has the task to turn to her children. The following overview shows the parallels in the contents of the statements about YHWH and about his doings. !Ayb.a, ~yrIy" tPov.a;me v. 7b lD' rp'['me ymiyqim . v. 7a AM[; ybeydIn> ~[i ~ybiydIn>-~[i ybiyviAhl. v. 8 hx'mef. ~ynIB'h;-~ae tyIB;h; trli yliyPiv.M;h;

v. 6

The woman in v. 9 is joyful about what YHWH does. Her motherhood changes her into a joyful (x;mfe )' woman. Grammar allows the following possible translation by Grohmann, based on Freedman27: „Er lässt die Unfruchtbare des Hauses wie eine fröhliche Mutter von Kindern wohnen.“28 And thus the childless woman would have a place in the house just like the woman who has many children. From the text it is not certain whether childlessness is actually over.29 In this case YHWH’s intervention would have caused a change in the order of society. A woman, who did not have any children, would have been accepted the same way as a mother who had children.30 The woman reacts like a mother implying her bodily experience of pregnancy, birth and motherly love (of her womb; ~x,r), . She, who at first suffered barrenness, experiences the bodily changes particularly strongly. She does not express her joy actively, although her feeling is clearly visible to others by the use of the adjective ‘joyful.’ the olive trees, which are still on the trees once these have been shaken and harvested (cf. Egger-Wenzel, Gott für die Menschen, 39). In Ps 113 YHWH is concerned with the poor. On the other hand in Ps 112:9, which is similar to Ps 113 in terms and contents, the rich person helps the poor (cf. Hossfeld, Der gnädige Gott, 57). 27 “A literal rendering would be: ‘Who makes the barren one of the house sit, the mother of sons rejoices.’ The pairings of constructs and absolutes reflect a more varied and subtle relationship than the normal possessive, while the verbs serve to link the two” (Freedman, Psalm 113, 60). However, Freedman reaches different conclusions (cf. Groh­mann, Psalm 113, 148.) 28 Grohmann, Psalm 113, 148. 29 Cf. Grohmann, Psalm 113, 148. 30 Rachel and Hannah are respected by their husbands Jacob und Elkanah despite being childless, indeed they are their particularly beloved ones. However, they are still not respected by the society.

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By describing the joy of the mother the depiction of this woman is different to that of the previously mentioned examples of the needy and the poor. These people do not show any reaction to YHWH’s help. Furthermore, after the woman, who is mentioned last, there immediately follows ‘Hallelujah.’ It seems that by being mentioned last she receives particular importance, in a very basic way connected to YHWH, the creator, through her ability to pass on life. A few illustrations31 demonstrate the reasons for joy of this woman within a female ideology centred on fertility and motherhood.

Illus. 2 (from: Keel, Bildsymbolik, 182f., 366). This woman with many children on the 11 cm high terracotta relief from the Larsa period (approx. 1960-1860 BCE) in Babylon portrays the Mother Earth (‘great parturient’). According to Keel to the left and the right of her are ‘two embryos,’ two heads are visible behind her shoulders and a further child is sucking at her breast. Both of the Omegas to the left and right of her head were interpreted as a ‘Wickelband’ or an uterus. Cf. Keel, Göttinnen, Götter, 29: the W-sign comes from Babylon and probably symbolised the mother’s womb.

31 The ancient oriental pictures chosen serve as an exemplary depiction of the respective theme and do not claim to portray all of the material available on a certain subject.

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In ancient oriental society a woman’s central task was to be a mother. The numerous children on this relief demonstrate this. If a woman could not fulfil this ideal then she was in danger of losing her social status. These women were often mocked by women with many children.

Illus. 3 (from: Keel, Bildsymbolik, 182, 366). The 13 cm high cast bronze figurine of a woman breast feeding comes from Egypt at the time of the 12th Dynasty (1991-1778 BCE).

Figurines, as can be seen on this and further illustrations, were often donated as votive offerings. They served the function of asking for help or giving thanks.32 “Ein magisches Weltverständnis mochte der bildlichen Vergegenwärtigung der Schwangerschaft, der Geburt oder des Stillens die Kraft zutrauen, diese Vorgänge zu sichern und zu fördern.”33

32 Cf. Keel, Bildsymbolik, 181. 33 Keel, Bildsymbolik, 181. The votive offerings which are still offered today at places of pilgrimage as thanks for a fulfilled wish for a pregnancy are comparable.

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Illus. 4 (from: Schroer, Körpersymbolik, 83). The long haired woman, a terracotta figurine from Revadim in Israel, 1500-1300 BCE, opens her vulva. She is feeding a child on each breast. Wild goats feeding on palm trees are portrayed on her thighs. She is wearing an amulet in the form of a lunar crescent on her neck (up to then the length of a pregnancy is always counted in lunar months; cf. Wis 7:2).

This female figurine shows the goddess of fertility (in Hebrew Asherah). She was referred to as ‘womb,’ ‘nourisher of the gods’ and ‘wet-nurse of the gods.’34

Illus. 5 (from: Keel, Bildsymbolik, 181, 366). The terracotta figurine comes from Achsiv in Israel and is from the 6th/5th century BCE. At least three such examples are known. The repeated occurrence of this figurine attests the production of such figurines in larger amounts in order to be used as votive offerings.

34 Cf. Schroer, Körpersymbolik, 83.

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This woman appears to be feeling and listening to her inner self. It could well be that it depicts a woman who has been waiting for a long time to become pregnant. In conclusion it can be said that the childless wife is clearly related to the needy and the poor. All are dependent on YHWH’s intervention. YHWH enables them to build up their house.35 YHWH seats the needy and the poor with the princes of the people, meaning that they share their prosperity and therefore their standing is raised. YHWH also alters the status of the childless wife by freeing her from her barrenness. As YHWH is seated on high, so these three groups of people are raised from their misery to have a seat/home. The woman’s emotional reaction to YHWH’s doings is described. The once barren wife is now a joyful mother.

2.3 Who was the once childless wife but now joyful mother? In ancient Israelite belief, a woman’s womb was under God´s control: „Der Schoß der Frau, der Uterus, gehört nach Israels Vorstellung und Glauben Gott. Gott hat ihn nicht nur erschaffen, sondern hat auch die Macht, ihn zu verschließen oder zu öffnen.“36 God forms the individual in the womb (Jer 1:5). And thus, in Israel, a fertile womb and breasts giving milk were seen as a sign of the blessing given by God.37

Illus. 6 (from: Schroer, Körpersymbolik, 80). On the painting in the tomb of pharaoh Ramses VI (1145-1137 BCE) in Thebes West the goddess Nut gives birth to her son Horus with the help of her midwives Isis and Nephtys. The disc, in which the child is drawn, symbolises both the mother’s uterus as well as the sun which represents the royal child in heaven.

35 In the story about Ruth the aspects of poverty and the question of offspring are combined. YHWH ensures Ruth’s and Naomi’s existence through Boaz, their next-of-kin. Upon Obed’s birth it becomes clear that YHWH wants to save both of them from poverty forever. 36 Schroer, Körpersymbolik, 79. “The importance of large families in ancient Israel encouraged the belief that a barren wife was cursed by God” (Dahood, Psalms III, 132). 37 Cf. Schroer, Körpersymbolik, 82.

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Men react accordingly when women complain about being childless. Jacob is angry about Rachel. It is not him but God who denies her the fruit of the womb (Gen 30:1-2). Elkanah wants to comfort Hannah by saying that her love is more important than children (1 Sam 1:8). However, both men have already been blessed with children by their second wife and therefore are possibly unable to empathise with their beloved ones. In these two examples those women who are particularly loved by their husbands are faced with being childless; Jacob loves Rachel more than Leah (Gen 29:30; 30:1-2), Elkanah chooses Hannah over Peninnah (1 Sam 1:5, 8). YHWH has mercy on the less favoured wives Leah and Peninnah and only opens their womb. Infact, many mothers of important sons of Israel are at first barren for a long time. Their sons are longed for.38 „Wohl zu allen Zeiten hat YHWH (unter gezielter Reservation kanaanäischer Fruchtbarkeitsvorstellungen) als der gegolten, der die Unfruchtbarkeit, die größte Schande einer Frau aufhebt (Isa 54:1; Ps 113:9) und ins Gegenteil verkehrt …“.39 Sarai (Gen 11:30) was barren (rq'[)' , for a certain time every womb in Abimelech’s household (Gen 20:18) was barren, childless were Rebekah (Gen 25:21), Rachel (Gen 29:31), the wife of Manoah and mother of Samson (Judg 13:2), Hannah (1 Sam 1:2) and an unnamed woman in Hannah’s song (1 Sam 2:5) as well as the woman in Isa 54:1.40 The LXX translates rq'[' with stei/ra. The same term is also used in the Gospel according to Luke to describe Elisabeth’s barrenness (Lk 1:7, 36). The childless wives are compared to the mothers of many (~ynIB' tB;rw: ;> 1 Sam 2:5; 1 Chr 28:5; Isa 54:1), the ones who are blessed (hk'WrB.; Ruth 3:10), and the joyful mother (hx'mfe . … ~ae; Ps 113:9b).41 YHWH’s promise at the time of the Covenant on Sinai states: The LORD, your God, you shall worship (Exod 23:25) and heed these decrees and observe them carefully (Deut 7:12), no woman in your land will be barren (Exod 23:26), you will be blessed above all peoples; no man or woman among you shall be childless nor shall your livestock be barren (Deut 7:14).42

38 Isaac, Jacob and Esau, Joseph and Benjamin, Samuel, Samson as well as John the Baptist in the NT can be named. 39 Fabry, rq'[' ‘a-qar, 345. 40 The following are used as further expressions for childless women: “had borne no children” (hd'ly. ' al{; Gen 16:1; Judg 13:2f.; Isa 54:1), “who denies you the fruit of the womb” (!j,b-' yrIP. %Memi [n:m-' rv,a;] Gen 30:2), “to be childless” (~ydIly' > !yae; 1 Sam 1:2) and “had made/left her barren” (Hm'xr. : rg:s;' 1 Sam 1:5.6). 41 Cf. Fabry, rq'[' ‘a-qar, 345. 42 Cf. Fabry, rq'[' ‘a-qar, 345.

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In connection with this paper it is of particular interest whether and how these women react, whose barrenness is ended by YHWH, and if they can be an example for the joyful mother in Ps 113:9b.43 Of Abimelech’s household it is only collectively said that for a time it was barren and was restored to health by YHWH. No emotional reaction of Rebekah and Rachel on the birth of their sons is depicted. Samson’s mother is directly confronted with the promise of pregnancy. In a conversation with her husband she defends God’s promise of life. That what YHWH lets her and her husband see or hear is enough for this woman to trust in God. An emotional reaction on the birth of the son is not mentioned. Sarah, on the other hand, shows her joy by laughing (Gen 21:6). Hannah sings with joy (1 Sam 2:1) and YHWH summons the barren one in Isa 54:1 with three imperatives to raise a glad cry and break forth in jubilant song.44 These three texts are shown below. 2.3.1 Sarah (Gen 21:1-8) Sarah’s barrenness is told in several different story lines: the way she deals with it herself (Gen 16:1-4), YHWH’s intervention (Gen 18:1-15) and Isaac’s birth (Gen 21:1-8). In Gen 16:1-4 she, who is still called Sarai, tries to solve the problem by herself. She realises that YHWH has ‘closed’ her (rc[; v. 2) and thus the LORD has kept her from bearing children (dly; vv. 1, 2). Therefore she sends Abraham to her slave; perhaps she shall have sons through her (hnb; Gen 16:1-2). Abraham listens to Sarai, has intercourse with Hagar who becomes pregnant (Gen 16:3-4). Immediately we hear that this pregnancy brings no happiness to Sarai (Gen 16:5-6). YHWH surprises Abraham and Sarah with the promise of their son Isaac. When Isaac is born Sarah says that God has given her cause to laugh (~yhila{ / yli hf'[' qxoc;. Gen 21:6). The nominal use of the verb ‘to laugh’ (qxc) shows Sarah’s all-encompassing feeling. She had previously laughed about the unthinkable idea of having children at her age.45 But now God 43 The texts about women who were considered barren but who later gave birth are discussed here. Examples of women who became childless again due to the death of their children have not been included (cf. 1 Sam 15:33; Isa 47:9; Jer 18:21). 44 Edna should be mentioned as well, who is awaiting the joy of being a grandmother. She would like to see the children of her daughter Sarah and her son-in-law Tobias, so she can “exult before the Lord” (Tob 10:13 GI). Sarah is not depicted as being infertile but her seven former husbands died in the bridal chamber. Because Tobias is still alive Edna hopes that she will have grandchildren. The term euvfrai,nw for the expected joy, is used in most cases in LXX for xmf. 45 Sarah laughed to herself (HB'rq> Bi . hr'f qx;cT. wi ;: Gen 18:12). Abraham also laughs (qxc; Gen 17:17) about God’s promise. He begs God to let Ishmael live on (v. 18); however, God

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gives her laughter to express her positive feelings. Furthermore, she expects all who hear of her happiness to share in her joy.46 In conclusion it can be said that Sarah expresses her joy over the birth of Isaac by laughing. She herself speaks of the laughter which God has given to her and that those who hear her story can share. 2.3.2 Hannah (1 Sam 1:1-2:10) Hannah is one of two wives of Elkanah, the Ephraimite. Peninnah had children, but Hannah was childless (1 Sam 1:2). It is said about Elkanah that of his annual sacrifice at Shiloh he gave Hannah a double portion. The reason for this was because he loved her. However, in the same sentence it is said that YHWH “closed her womb” (rgs; v. 5). As with Rachel, Hannah is the beloved one but she suffers from being childless. During the annual pilgrimage Hannah has to endure Peninnah’s mockery. Peninnah is referred to as her ‘rival’ (hr'c') in 1 Sam 1:6.47 And so Hannah weeps and refuses to eat (v. 7). Elkanah tries to console her and finally asks whether he is not worth more to her than ten sons (v. 8). Now Hannah takes her fate into her own hands. It is said that she rose and presented herself before YHWH praying full of bitterness and weeping (figu­ra etymologica; v. 10). She made a vow before YHWH which she would fulfil if he gave her a son (v. 11). After this prayer Hannah no longer had a sad face (v. 18). YHWH remembered her, Elkanah had relations with his wife Hannah and she conceived (vv. 19-20). She gave birth to a son whom she named Samuel. Later, after he was weaned the boy was given to YHWH to serve in his sanctuary, and Hannah sang her great hymn of praise (1 Sam 2:1-10). This hymn begins with her rejoicing.

repeats that Sarah will bear him a son (v. 19). The text, from the Priestly source, presupposes the scene, i.e. Sarah’s laughing, in Gen 18:10-15. There Sarah speaks to one of the three guests, to a man who she does not know (cf. Westermann, Genesis 12-36, 322): „Das Lachen Abrahams hier in Gn 17:17a aber hat etwas Bizarres im unmittelbaren Gegenüber zu dem ihm Wunderbares verheißenden Gott“ (323). 46 Cf. Westermann, Genesis 12-36, 408. 47 Polygamous relationships of Elkanah with Hannah and Peninnah and also of Jacob with Leah and Rachel are described. In both cases the rivals Rachel and Hannah suffer from being childless, Leah and Peninnah suffer from the lack of love from their husbands. According to the exilic/post-exilic development it is forbidden in Lev 18:18 “to marry sisters and thus to make them rivals” (rrc). This prohibition may have arisen from the painful experiences of jealousy (cf. Egger-Wenzel, Polygamie, 60).

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hN'x; lLeP;t.Tiw:

1a

rm;aTow:

1b

“My heart exults in the LORD,

hw'hyB; yBili #l;['

1c

my horn is exalted in my God.

ynIr>q; hm'r'

1d

yb;y>Aa-l[; yPi bx;r' hw'hyB;

1e

^t,['WvyBi yTix.m;f' yKi

1f

And as she worshipped the LORD she said:

My mouth speaks boldly against my enemies (NASB), I rejoice in your salvation (NASB).

V. 1 consists of six clauses: the first two are synonymous parallels and introduce the hymn, the following four are interconnected by several parallels. In all four clauses of vv. 1c-1f the verbs are in SK, in vv. 1c-1d at the beginning of the sentence, in v. 1e after the statement “in YHWH” (hw'hyB;), in v. 1f after the particle yKi. With regard to the meaning, the verbs for rejoicing in vv. 1c and 1f (#l[; xmf) are parallel, also the verbs to exalt and to speak boldly (literally to widen) of vv. 1d and 1e (~wr; bxr) are parallel too. Hannah is the subject of the action in v. 1a, her heart in v. 1c and her mouth in v. 1e, regularly in every other clause. Furthermore, her horn is named in v. 1d, although now YHWH is acting. The statements “in YHWH” (hw'hyB;) in vv. 1c and 1e are in a parallel and a chiastic pattern arrangement, the statements in “my enemies” (yb;yA> a-l[;; v. 1e) and “in your salvation” (^t,[W' vyBi; v. 1f) are in antithetic parallelism. Hannah, the former childless one, worships and speaks, her heart exults and her mouth speaks boldly against her enemies. The first clause of her prayer is that her heart48 exults. This is how the woman feels whom YHWH has saved from her barrenness (v. 1c). In the language of the day her horn is exalted in her God (v. 1d).49 Hannah feels that YHWH has 48 „Das AT versteht leb kaum als Körperorgan ‚Herz‘“ (Fabry, ble leb, 424). On several oc¯ casions the word ‘heart’ replaces the word for ‘breast,’ which is not found in Hebrew, it means the entire chest (cf. 424). Leb is the centre of the basic processes of life and food intake. Bodily expressions of emotional processes become visible here, e.g. through heartbeat, a fluttering heart, heart cramps or a jumping heart. Sorrow (more than 80 times) and joy (about 50 times) could also be situated in leb (cf. 427). Seen as a rational centre, „vollziehen sich im leb das vorstellende Vergegenwärtigen (Erkennen und Erinnern), das Denken und Erfassen sowie die Aufmerksamkeit“ (432). And the doings result from the understanding in the heart. „Der leb zeigt sich als die treibende Kraft der voluntativen Bestrebungen des Menschen, als Subjekt des Sinnens und Planens in reichhaltiger Performation, sowie als Sitz von Mut und Tatendrang“ (437). 49 The horn stands for the honour of a person. In the ancient Orient rulers were often portrayed with horns. Animal horns show their strength and power. In the Bible the term is

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raised her from lowliness.50 At the same time she remembers the ones who mocked her. Because her honour is restored she is now able to open her mouth and to defend herself against the mockery. When she rejoices in her heart as well as when she is talking against her enemies then she is aware that this is only possible because of YHWH (hw'hyB;; v. 1e).51 The clause between both of Hannah’s statements talks about YHWH’s help (v. 1d). In v. 1f Hannah concludes, after the introduction ‘yes,’ (yKi) that she is joyful that YHWH has saved her. Hannah feels joy in her heart, the centre of her being (v. 1c). Vanoni calls the basic meaning of the term #l[52 a manifestation of joy.53 The woman’s heart shows her emotional state and calls the one who is the reason for this feeling YHWH.54 In v. 1f Hannah repeats her feeling by using the verb “I rejoice” (yTixm. f; )' . The reason for this joy is named more precisely “salvation by YHWH.” There is no further mention of a bodily expression here. The mother in Ps 113:9b is described with the adjective of the same word root ‘joyful’ (x;mfe )' . In v. 5 of the hymn the blessed and the suffering are juxtaposed. Those who once received in abundance have now, through YHWH’s intervention, become impoverished and vice versa. This gives the once suffering Hannah a sense of justice. The verbs are all in SK, meaning that it is a satisfaction for a certain period only. also used for the inner strength of the believers. At the end of the song in 1 Sam 2:10 the horn of the anointed is spoken of. YHWH exalts the horns of those who are praying (Ps 89:18.25; 92:11). The horn of the one, who fears YHWH, is exalted in honour (Ps 112:9). In contrast the wrongdoers should not raise their horns (Ps 75:5-6). 50 Mary experiences something similar, when God looks upon her lowliness (Lk 1:48) and does great things to her (Lk 1:49). 51 From the contents it seems obvious that Hannah calls her rival Peninnah, who ridiculed her during the pilgrimage, her ‘enemy’ (byEa)o . However, the term is in the plural here. Peninnah is described as her ‘rival’ (Ht'rc' )' in 1 Sam 1:6. She puts pressure on Hannah. Hannah is confronted with Peninnah’s real hostility (cf. Grohmann, Psalm 113, 149). Probably the priest Eli is one of her enemies as well when he thinks that Hannah is drunk (1 Sam 1:14). He is not expressly mentioned by his name. It is possible that Hannah’s emotions during her barrenness are seen as her enemies. She considers herself to be bitter (rm;; 1 Sam 1:10), “oppressed in spirit (NASB)” (x:Wr-tv;q;. 1 Sam 1:15), “in deep sorrow” (x;yfi bro; 1 Sam 1:16) and “misery” (s[;K;; 1 Sam 1:16). „Die krassen Bilder der Bedrohung durch Feinde können durchaus auch die bedrängende Situation der Kinderlosigkeit beschreiben“ (Grohmann, Psalm 113, 149). The use of such images is understandable when we consider the suppressed position of childless women in society. 52 The roots #l;[' and zl;[' are mainly used with the same meanings (cf. Vanoni, zl;[' 'a-laz, 127). 53 Cf. Vanoni, zl;[' 'a-laz, 128. 54 If the cause for joy is named when #l[ is used in the Bible, then it is always YHWH who is meant (cf. Vanoni, zl;[' 'a-laz, 128).

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WrK'f.nI ~x,L,B; ~y[ibef.

5a

while the hungry batten on spoil.

WLdEx' ~ybi[er>W

5b

the barren wife bears seven sons,

h['b.vi hd'l.y' hr'q'[]-d[;

5c

hl'l'm.au ~ynIB' tB;r:w>

5d

The well-fed hire themselves out for bread,

while the mother of many languishes.

As in Ps 113:7-9b a barren wife is referred to as to being parallel to the poor and the hungry. In comparison to Ps 113:9a-b the barren wife is the acting subject in v. 5c.55 In Ps 113:9a YHWH is the acting person with regard to the barren wife. In vv. 6-8 it is explained that also here YHWH causes the changes (vv. 6-8). His doings are expressed with participles in the hiphil as in Ps 113:5-9b. However, the negative and positive effects are juxtaposed as in v. 5.56 tymime hw'hy>

6a

hY

7a

and makes rich,

ryvi[]m;W

7b

he humbles,

lyPiv.m;

7c

~meArm.-@a;

7d

The LORD/YHWH puts to death and gives life, he casts down to the nether world; he raises up again. The Lord/YHWH makes poor

he also exalts.

Vv. 8a-8c are almost identical to Ps 113 vv. 7a-8. A further sentence with new contents follows in 1 Sam 2:8d in place of the apposition in Ps 113:8.57 Statements follow about YHWH and his relationship to the earth in vv. 8e-8f. 55 The seven children whom the barren wife bears show the abundance of his blessing (cf. Ruth 4:15). The statement that, in contrast to this, the mother of many languishes (v. 5d) is missing in Ps 113:9. Hannah’s hymn is full of dialectic statements (cf. Groh­ mann, Psalm 113, 147). 56 Parts of it recur in the Magnificat (Lk 2:46-55). There, however, the mention of a childless woman is missing, Mary being in a contrary situation. 57 From this group of people, for whom God causes a turning point to happen in Hannah’s hymn, the mighty, tottering, well-fed, hungry, barren wives, mothers of many, poor, rich etc.), a poor man and a childless and therefore poor woman are chosen in Ps

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lD' rp'['me ~yqime

8a

from the ash heap he lifts up the poor,

!Ayb.a, ~yrIy' tPov.a;me

8b

To seat them with nobles

~ybiydIn>-~[i byviAhl.

8c

and make a glorious throne their heritage.

~lexin>y: dAbk' aSekiw>

8d

He raises the needy from the dust;

The similarity between the texts58 allows the assumption that Hannah’s hymn refers to the barren woman in Ps 113:9a-b.59 In conclusion it can be said that Hannah clearly shows her joy over the birth of her son, showing the end of her misery which she has been granted. She begins her song in 1 Sam 2:1 with two descriptions of her joy, at the beginning with reference to her heart which exults and at the end of the sentence that she has rejoiced in her salvation by YHWH. In particular Hannah experienced that through her son YHWH restored her honour which in turn enabled her to stand up against her foes. In the hymn it is not stated who her foes are. They are probably Hannah’s feelings during the period of her barrenness. YHWH has freed her from her negative emotions by giving her a son. 2.3.3 The barren city of Jerusalem (Isa 54:1) In Isa 54:1 YHWH tells a barren female figure to raise a glad cry as she will be blessed with many sons/children. The context shows that this woman stands for Jerusalem which was destroyed by the Babylonians.60 113. This reduction creates an emphasis according to a theology for the poor (cf. Hossfeld – Zenger, Psalmen 101-150, 252). 58 The following Hebrew word roots are used in both texts: ‘to rejoice’ (xmf) in 1 Sam 2:1 and Ps 113:9, ‘to exalt’ (~wr) in 1 Sam 2:1.7.8.10 and Ps 113:4.7, ‘high’ (hbg) in 1 Sam 2:3 and Ps 113:5, ‘heaven’ (~yImv; )' in 1 Sam 2:10 and Ps 113:4.6, ‘earth’ (#r,a), in 1 Sam 2:8 and Ps 113:6, ‘looking far down/humble’ (lpv) in 1 Sam 2:7 and Ps 113:6, ‘glory’ (dAbK') in 1 Sam 2:8 and Ps 113:4, ‘ash heap’ (tPova. ); in 1 Sam 2:8 and Ps 113:7, ‘barren/childless wife’ (rq'[)' and ‘children’/’rejoice’ (~ynIB)' in 1 Sam 2:5 and Ps 113:9 (cf. Grohmann, Ps 113, 145). The fact that the terms ‘ash heap’ (tPova. ;; 7 times) and ‘barren’ (rq'[;' 12 times), which are seldom found in the OT, are used in both texts speak in favour of a connection between the two of them (Hossfeld, Aufwertung Hannas, 253). 59 It can be assumed that Ps 113 is older than Hannah’s hymn of joy. “Psalm 113 is the more archaic of the two” (Freedman, Psalm 113, 56). Hurvitz (Biblical Poetry, 116) examines the archaic forms of expression in the Psalm and comes to the same conclusion. In this context the question regarding the time that it was written cannot be discussed here. 60 From Isa 49:14 onwards the city of Zion is referred to as a woman (cf. Koole, Isaiah 49-55, 350). Furthermore, the term ‘Zion’ in 51:3, 11, 16; 52:1, 2, 7, 8, and then in 59:20 is used as a synonym to ‘Jerusalem’ in 51:17; 52:1, 2, 9 (twice).

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Raise a glad cry, you barren one

hr"q'[] yNIr"

1a

who did not bear,

hd"l'y" al{

1b

Break forth into joyful shouting (NASB)

hN"rI yxic.Pi

1c

ylih]c;w>

1d

hl'x'-al{

1e

hm'meAv-ynEB. ~yBir:-yKi hl'W[b. ynEB.mi

1f

hw'hy> rm;a'

1g

and cry aloud (NASB), you who were not in labor, For more numerous are the children of the deserted wife than the children of her who has a husband, says the LORD.

Three imperatives addressed to the barren one alternate with three statements about her. For the first imperative (v. 1a) the same word root !nr is used as for the noun in v. 1c. The combination of the imperative (yxicP. )i with the noun in v. 1c enforces the challenge of v. 1a. A further imperative also follows in v. 1d with a new expression of a surprised/joyful shout (lhc). The threefold encouragement to rejoice (vv. 1a, c, d) is interrupted by the statements about the formerly (SK; vv. 1b, e) barren woman (hr'q[' ;] v. 1a). The phrases “who did not bear” (hd'ly' ' al{; v. 1b) and “who was not in labor” (hl'x-' al{; v. 1e) in synonymous parallelism reinforce this statement.61 In v. 1f the reason for this joy follows in a nominal clause. The sons of the lonely/deserted wife are more numerous than the sons of the one who has a husband.62 Accordingly she is told to enlarge her tent to accommodate her offspring in v. 2. The woman herself does not speak either here or later in the text. Second-Isaiah lets YHWH speak in order to encourage the defeated nation which is represented by the barren woman.63 The speech prompts the 61 Words and pictures of the lamentation of a childless woman are contrasted with a call to rejoice. This paradox must sound outrageous for the lamenting woman. It conforms to Second-Isaiah’s unbelievable announcement (cf. Westermann, Jesaja 40-66, 219). 62 Goldingay (Isaiah 40-55, 341) establishes: “the currently desolate will regain her marital status and will have more children than she had when she was married.” YHWH restores his relationship to the woman/City of Jerusalem and brings back its people (cf. Isa 49:17). It is not said that she will bear the children promised (cf. 341). 63 The barren woman referred to reminds us of the actual “childless women” in Israel’s history. These women have overcome being childless through YHWH’s intervention. Now the same also happens to the personified city of Jerusalem (cf. Goldingay, Isaiah 40-55, 341). Höffken (Jesaja 40-66, 172) stresses that the childless woman otherwise plays no role in prophetic tradition. Therefore, the text may be orientated to the older

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woman to rejoice. With reference to the actual barren women a salvation by YHWH and the resultant rejoicing is to be expected. In this text in particular no affected mothers talk.

2.4 Conclusion Sarah’s joy over the son whom God blessed her with can be seen in her laughing (Gen 20:6). In contrast to the previous laughter in reaction to the seemingly unlikely promise of God, after Isaac’s birth, her laughter is given to her by God as a sign of her joy. This positive emotion caused by God connects Sarah to the woman in Ps 113:9a-b. After the birth and weaning of Samuel Hannah clearly expresses her joy in a hymn (1 Sam 2:1). The closest parallel is Ps 113. This is most obviously seen in a repetition of the text (Ps 113:7b-8 and 1 Sam 2:8a-8c). The reference to a childless woman precedes this in 1 Sam 2:5c, in Ps 113 it follows in v. 9a-b. In 1 Sam 2:5c a barren wife, who has given birth to a child, is referred to in the SK. Ps 113:9a-b refers to a general experience which can be repeated. Hannah experienced this herself. She shows her joy (1 Sam 2:1) by using the same term xmf, which is used in Ps 113:9b to describe the mother as joyful. Furthermore, Hannah says that her heart exults in YHWH (#l[; 1 Sam 2:1c). The reason for this is the experience of being raised by YHWH. In general it can be said that YHWH speaks for the hungry, the needy and the poor (participles; hiphil) and the childless also belong to them, as shown above. In Isa 54:1 it becomes clear what form of rejoicing is to be expected when a childless woman finally gives birth to children. She who will experience this is told to rejoice three times. This rejoicing takes away her former misery (her barrenness is also named with three different expressions). God gives her more children and in turn more blessing than the married ones. Isaiah speaks to the City of Jerusalem and refers to its lamenting inhabitants at the time of the exile. The woman/the city and the nation of Israel do not react themselves; however, the words of God through the prophet show the positive emotional change that will follow God’s doings. tradition of the matriarchs Sarah, Rachel or Rebekah. The childless woman Zion should also have absolutely miraculous children as these other women did. In 51:2 Abraham and Sarah are referred to. God gave them offspring; he will comfort Zion in the same way (v. 3; cf. Koole, Isaiah 49-55, 350). Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40-55, 361) says: “We could go on to note that the blessing of fertility … is transformed into a narrative topos in the stories about the ancestors. In these stories all of the leading women – Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel – are initially childless (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31).”

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3. Joy of “the upright” about their families (Ps 107:42) Among other things Ps 107, like as Ps 113:8-9a, is concerned with God giving the homeless somewhere to live. YHWH has gathered those being addressed from foreign lands (v. 3) and so they have been given a city to live in (vv. 4, 7, 36). Altogether in Ps 107 appeals for his redeemed (v. 2) to thank YHWH (vv. 1-2a, 8, 15, 21-22, 31-32) alternate with the previous cries for help (vv. 6, 13, 19, 28) and the description of their affliction. While the poor were released from their affliction; their families increased like their flocks. The upright saw this and rejoiced; all wickedness shut its mouth.

ynIA[me !Ayb.a, bGEf;y>w:

41a

tAxP'v.mi !aCoK; ~f,Y'w:

41b

~yrIv'y> War>yI

42a

Wxm'f.yIw>

42b

In v. 41 the statement of raising/releasing the poor from their affliction is added to a second clause about the growth of their family in synthetic parallelism. The elements ‘the poor’ and ‘their families’ are in a chiastic pattern arrangement to the elements ‘their families’ and ‘their flocks.’64 The fact that YHWH lets the families grow to a size as large as a herd of animals corresponds to raising the people from misery.65 Having numerous offspring means being able to thrive in the future. The “upright” see YHWH’s help. The adjective rv'y' is used as a noun. In the psalms the terms “upright of the heart” (ble-yrEvy. ;I Ps 7:11; 11:2; 32:11; 64 Small animals are meant by herd, mainly a herd of sheep. On several occasions YHWH’s people are compared with such a herd. The people may not be like sheep without a shepherd (Num 27:17). In other texts the people are like sheep without a shepherd (1 Kgs 22:17; 2 Chr 18:16; Isa 13:14; 53:6; Jer 50:6; Zech 10:2). YHWH’s people are the sheep of his pasture (Ps 74:1; 79:13; 95:7; 100:3; Jer 23:1-3; Zech 9:16) and YHWH leads his people like a flock (Ps 77:21; 78:52; 80:2). God will pick them out like sheep for the slaughter (Jer 12:3). Later the sheep that were God’s glory, the people of his nation, are sought (Jer 13:20). Moses is described as the shepherd of his flock, his people (Isa 63:11), in the same way other powerful people among the people are described (Jer 25:34-36). In Jer 49:20 and 50:45 we hear of the smallest sheep (man). In Ezek 34 YHWH speaks as the ideal shepherd of his people in contrast to human shepherds, who act selfishly. YHWH will group them like a flock in the fold (Mic 2:12) and the people are described as the flock of his inheritance (Mic 7:14). Ps 107:41b is close to the statement in Ezek 36:37-38. YHWH promises the House of Israel that he will multiply them like sheep (~d'a' !aCoK; ~t'ao hB,ra> ; ~h,l' tAf[]l); . 65 YHWH “gives His People, who have sought and found refuge in Him, wonderful fertility, so that their families increase as rapidly as a flock of sheep” (Briggs, Book of Psalms 2, 362f.).

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36:11; 64:11; 94:15; 97:11; 125:4) and “those whose way is honest” (%r -; lk'w;> v. 42c). In summary it can be said that in Ps 107:42 the ‘upright’ see YHWH’s actions and as a result are joyful. As in Ps 113 he releases the poor from their affliction and increases their families. The ‘upright’ are those who have built their life on YHWH’s promises. Among them mothers and fathers are surely included so that the joy about growing families must include the joy of the parents.

66 Furthermore, the term the ‘upright ones’ is often found in the Book of Proverbs. The ‘upright ones’ are parallel to the ‘honest’ (~ymiT;' Prov 2:21; 28:10; 29:10) and “those who walk honestly” (~to ykelh. lo ;. Prov 2:7). YHWH is joyful over the upright (Prov 3:32) and the prayer of the upright is his delight (Prov 15:8). The virtue (hq'dc' ). of the upright saves them (Prov 11:6). The speech of the upright saves them (hP,; Prov 12:6). Through the blessing of the righteous the city is exalted (Prov 11:11). The upright have favor in the house (!Acr'; Prov 14:9) and the tent of the upright will flourish (xrp; Prov 14:11). The path of the diligent is a highway (lls; Prov 15:19) and the path of the upright avoids misfortune (Prov 16:17). In Prov 21:18 the ‘upright’ are parallel to the ‘righteous’ (qyDIc); . In Job 4:7 and 17:8 they are parallel to an ‘innocent person’ (yqin)' . In Num 23:10 Balaam himself wishes to die as a just one.

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4. Men and nations being praised as happy because of their children A man/person (Ps 112:1) and a young man (Ps 127:5; 128:4) are called happy when YHWH blesses them with children, and this also applies to the people (Ps 144:15). All of the passages in the text use the particle yreva. 67 ; (‘happy is he’ or ‘blessed is he’).68 The corresponding verb rva in the active means ‘to call/praise happy’ or ‘to make happy,’ and in the passive ‘to be praised/happy.’69 The liturgical acclamation yreva. ; therefore indicates an act of seeking happiness by the believers.70 Being happy/becoming happy demands certain actions on the part of the believers.71 Happy are those who are concerned for the lowly and poor (Ps 41:2), happy are those who do what is right (Ps 106:3), happy are those who receive children as a gift from God (Ps 127:3)72 and happy are 67 According to the form this term is in the masculine plural (contruct state) and was very early understood as a kind of interjection (cf. Cazelles, yreva. ; 'ašrê, 481). 68 The particle appears 48 times in the Hebrew Bible, 26 times in the Psalms and 8 times in the Proverbs. The term opens the Psalter (Ps 1:1 and 2:12), but then only appears at times especially at the end of a collection of psalms and is most often found in the last Book of psalms. Therefore a connection with the liturgy in the Second Temple can be assumed (cf. Cazelles, yreva. ; 'ašrê, 482). 69 Cf. Köhler, Lexikon AT, 1, 94. 70 Cf. Cazelles, yreva. ; 'ašrê, 481f. He believes that „wahrscheinlich handelt es sich um die Wallfahrt zum Tempel im Sinne der dtr. Bewegung und der Rückkehr aus dem Exil“ (482). That makes the believers ‘happy,’ which is why LXX translates maka,rioj (cf. 482). Kraus asserts that yreva. ; differs in its more cosmopolitan character to %WrB' (cf. Kraus, Psalmen 1, 3). Cazelles (yreva. ; 'ašrê, 482) agrees and argues that yreva. ,; in contrast to %WrB' is never used for God. 71 The praying man/woman will dwell in God’s house (Ps 65:5; 84:5), where he/she takes refuge in God (Ps 2:12; 34:9; 84:13). His/her fault is removed and sin is forgiven (Ps 32:1-2). He/she will fear the LORD (Ps 112:1; 128:1) and be blameless (Ps 119:1), and observe God’s decrees (Ps 119:2) and not follow the counsel of the wicked (Ps 1:1; cf. Cazelles, yreva. ; 'ašrê, 482f.). 72 In this connection the comparison between the two makarisms in Wis 3:13-14 is interesting. In contrast to the texts from the psalms a childless and undefiled (stei/ra; 3:13) woman and a eunuch (euvnou/coj; 3:14) are blessed (maka,rioj), because they have no children and remain childless. In 3:13 a woman is mentioned, „die es vorzog, auf Ehe und Kinder zu verzichten, anstatt durch einen als sündhaft beurteilten Geschlechtsverkehr sich schuldig zu machen“ (Schmitt, Weisheit, 61). Schmitt says of the man in v. 14 (Weisheit, 61f.), that a castrated man could be meant but also a man who, for certain reasons, voluntarily abstains from marriage and offspring (cf. Mt 19:12). Childlessness is accepted with virtue (avtekni,a) (Wis 4:1), these children would remain without issue (avte,lesta; Wis 3:16). Also in the references in the psalms children are depicted who conform to their parents’ wishes and their ideals. This is clear in the example of parental joy over their son in Prov 23:24-25 mentioned at the beginning. Having many children was seen as the reward and expression of a wise and holy life. This order of values from

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those who pay back their foes for their misdoing (Ps 137:8.9). All of this depends on the fortune of being chosen as God’s very own (Ps 33:12) or on his instruction (Ps 94:12).73 The analysis of the terms for joy in connection to the bodily expression brings no results in the psalms for the word root rva. No-one praises himself as happy, only others do so. The acclamation can be meant as assurance to a praying person or as encouragement to act in accordance with God. The previously mentioned psalm verses, in which individuals or the nation are praised because of their children, will be explained briefly.

4.1 Happy is the man of mighty offspring (Ps 112:1-2) In Ps 112:1 a man/person is praised happy (vyai-yrEva. ); , who fears God (nominal clause) and who has great delight in God’s commands. “His descendants shall be mighty in the land” as a result of his fear of God in v. 2a (A[r>z: hy arEy-> lK' yrEva. ); and, as a parallel, who walks in the ways of God. YHWH’s reward is that this man can eat what he has provided himself with his hands – a great blessing and at that time certainly not to be taken for granted. Once again the acclamation ‘happy’ is inserted in the middle of v. 2, now with the suffix of the second person singular ‘you’ (^yr vyai rm;ay' E !AYcilW] * Of Zion it will be said, this one and that one were born in her,

and then it adds that he, the Most High, has established her foundations.

The Greek, however, affirms explicitly that Zion is mother, and it is she who is speaking, but the second stich is the same as the Hebrew: the Most High, has established her foundations: mh,thr Siwn evrei/ a;nqrwpoj kai. a;nqrwpoj evgenh,qh evn auvth/| kai. auvto.j evqemeli,wsen auvth.n o` u[yistoj

Mother Zion knows, then, that each person is born in a different country (v. 4), but she considers herself the mother of all (v. 5) and, therefore, the Lord becomes a registrar declaring who is born in her (v. 6): ku,rioj dihgh,setai evn grafh/| law/n kai. avrco,ntwn tou,twn tw/n gegenhme,nwn evn auvth/|

The peoples give their assent with joy and sing, “In you are found all my springs,” where ‘spring’ is found for ‘origins.’ In this text, Zion becomes, in the Christian reading, a clear metaphor for the Church as mother who welcomes into her bosom all peoples and nations.

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Psalm 74 is a lamentation over the condition of the Temple after the enemy invasion. The description of vv. 4-9 suggests that the worshipper has seen the destruction of the sanctuary and also its profanation at the moment when the liturgical assembly was gathered (v. 4). The worshipper seeks to move God to act in favour of his people and against his enemies with two arguments: the good of the people who belong to him and the memory and honour of Mount Zion, his own dwelling. But it is not clear that ‘sanctuary’ and ‘ruins’ are to be identified with Mount Zion. We can almost establish a distinction between the dwelling of God on Mount Zion and the ‘sanctuary’ which has been destroyed. In fact, v. 8 mentions ‘sanctuaries’ and ‘assemblies’ in the plural, terminology which also implies a plurality of sanctuaries, but not the sanctuary of Jerusalem exclusively. Psalm 84 also considers Zion as the place of the manifestation of the Lord. The psalm is a canticle full of joy and nostalgia for the house of the Lord, with blessings for those who from now on will be found or dwell in it. The worshipper seems to be an exile. On being liberated, he is found journeying towards the temple, or else he is a pilgrim who, with many others, is heading for Jerusalem for a religious festival. The psalm praises the strength of will of the one who sets out on pilgrimage in order to see the temple (vv. 6, 8, 12), and the worshipper imagines the temple but is not yet before it. Verse 8 indicates that God will manifest himself to them in Zion. In an apparently realistic description of pilgrimage such as this, it is at least curious that there is no explicit mention of the temple at Jerusalem. Zion is not only the place of manifestation of the Lord but also the privileged witness of the coming of the kingdom. Psalm 97 presents two complementary aspects of the kingdom of God proclaimed in v. 1. The future coming which will provoke universal rejoicing (v. 1) because the Lord is coming to restore a new order of justice and equity (v. 2) is also a deed already fulfilled which is described with the characteristics of a theophany (vv. 3-5). The Lord frees the just from the perils which threaten them and awards the wicked their deserts (v. 7). His kingdom is a reality in the life of those who love him (vv. 10-12). The theophanic, universal, cosmic and non temporal character of the arrival of the kingdom of God makes of Zion (without mention of Jerusalem) the natural joyous witness of the divine manifestation (v. 8) before the peoples (v. 6b). Psalm 65 is a canticle in praise of the bounty of God who gives his gifts generously, the faults of his people notwithstanding. The worshipper too recognises his own faults and looks for pardon for all. Despite the fact that the beginning of the psalm seems to allude to a cultic en-

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vironment, the vagueness of the Hebrew terminology opens the sense towards another possibility. We should note the presence of the terms ‘courts,’ ‘your house,’ terms sufficiently general as to be able to refer to secular constructions. “The holiness of your temple” (^l “YHWH of Zion give you blessing” does not intend to establish the place from where the Lord gives his blessing. In fact, immediately afterwards, the place where the blessing is made concrete is situated in Jerusalem: bWjB. haerW> ~~ilv' W' ry> (“that you may see the prosperity of Jerusalem and length of days”). A blessing ‘from Zion’ would set up a distance between the point of origin of the blessing and its concrete manifestation, something which does not correspond to the actual concept of blessing in the Bible. In Psalm 129, this too a song of pilgrimage, the violent imagery and the mention of Israel as a people suggest, as in other psalms, a collective interpretation of the text: the worshipper, in the name of all the people, thanks the Lord for his intervention in a time of persecution and suffering. In v. 5, “May all who hate Zion be out to shame and turned backward!” (RSV), Zion is a metonymy to express the totality of everything has to do with Israel, beginning with the Lord himself. It includes, perhaps, his sanctuary, but certainly his people, and, with this too, the city and the land. In the same sense one could interpret Psalm 126 which, with the imagery of the seed and the harvest, expresses the joy caused by the return of the prisoners to Jerusalem. The construction implies YHWH as subject and the verb bWv, curiously in the qal form rather than the expected hiphil. Another three psalms bear the same construction: Ps 14:7: “May the salvation of Israel come from Zion! When the Lord causes the exiles of his people to return, Jacob will rejoice, Israel will be glad.” Ps 53:7 is almost identical: “Who will send the salvation of Israel from Zion? When God causes the exiles of his people to return, Jacob will rejoice, Israel will be glad.” Ps 85:2 is similar: “… you have brought back the exiles of Jacob.” Ps 126:1 presents the same construction, but the exiles are called “exiles/captives of Zion”: !AYci tb;yvi-ta, hw"hy> bWvB.. tb;yv, for the only time except for 2 Sam 19:33, is probably to be read tbwv as in v. 4 WnteWbv (v. 4 ‘our captives’). The Greek translates tbwvi systematically with aivcmalwsi,a and in Ps 126 ‘the exiles of Zion’ as aivcmalwsi,a Siwn. From the point of view of the real referent, the expression cannot mean anything other than the exiles of Israel, but the unique formulation ‘exiles of Zion’ (and not of Jerusalem or of Israel) seems to establish a particular relationship between the exiles and the Lord as if to emphasise that because of their suffering the exiles have become, like the poor or the servants of YHWH, his particular possession.

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These observations on Zion in the Psalms, somewhat concise and needing greater work in detail, leave us nonetheless with the clear impression, based on the texts, that Zion, in the Psalms, when it is not in clear parallel with Jerusalem, is intended to say something more: Zion is not Jerusalem; it is not a supposed mountain in Jerusalem; it is not, therefore, a geographical place; it is not the seat of the temple. In many texts, Zion is a theological concept which, in a great metonymy, includes the Lord himself, all those who are faithful to him, Jews or pagans, the cultic sites pleasing to the Lord, in Jerusalem or outside it, the ‘holy mountains’ as residence of the Lord and so legitimate place of worship, the captives who have been faithful to the Lord, the origin of salvation and blessing which is the Lord himself, the place, in a transferred sense, of the manifestation of the Lord, and also the privileged witness of the coming of the kingdom. Perhaps from these observations, and on the basis of the difficulties of the text of Baruch indicated at the beginning of this paper we can put forward an interpretation which seeks to resolve them.

3. An interpretation of Baruch I suggest that the implicit speaker in the Baruch text is Zion herself, understood in the sense that we have indicated for those psalms where she does not appear in explicit parallel to Jerusalem. It is considered as a given that it is the prophet who speaks in Bar 4:5-9a, but actually the prophet is not introduced in this text. It is true that nor is Zion introduced in a explicit way, but that Zion could be the subject who speaks is clear and recognised in texts like Is 49:14; Lam 1, and her presence is recognised in Ps 102:2-12, 24-29. In this last psalm, as here, her presence offers an aid to interpretation.9 The intermediate presence of Zion in the text of Baruch as great interpreter of the situation of Jerusalem resolves the problem, justifies and allows us to understand the long exhortations addressed to ‘my people,’ ‘my sons’ and, above all, to ‘Jerusalem’ who has to be consoled. How would Jerusalem have been in a position to do any consoling in her dramatic situation expressed in the lamentation of vv. 9b-15? The citation of the words of Jerusalem introduced by v. 9a would, therefore, be extended only until v. 15. In v. 16, in fact, the words of Jerusalem from v. 12, “I have 9

As I seek to show in my study, Una preghiera di Sion (Sal 102).

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been left desolate,” are taken up again but now in the third person, “and they have left her desolate.” The long exhortations to Jerusalem in Bar 4:30-5:9, which are frequently attributed to ‘the prophet’ constitute a unique case. When a certain comparison with Isaiah is made (for example, Isa 40-55 and 60-62), the fact is overlooked that in the Isaianic texts the prophet introduces the word of the Lord with the formula (“Thus says the Lord” or similar formula), but the exhortations, threats and promises belong to the Lord himself. It is he who is presented thus as the creator and only comforter. Lacking this type of reference, to attribute the words of consolation in the text of Baruch to Zion, as the representative and almost literary hypostasis of the word of God seems a legitimate solution. At this point, we can return unde aberravit oratio. In association with Zion, pa,roikoi does not appear anywhere outside Baruch. Only in Jer 49:18 (G 20:12) does it speak of the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah kai. ai` pa,roikoi auvth/j, often translated “and of the neighbouring cities.” This translation is supported by a parallel Greek text, Jer 27:40, which, on the same subject, uses the formulation (ta.j o`morou,saj autai/j), the participle being well attested in 1 Chr 12:41 (o`morou/ntej) and Ezek 16:26 (o`morou/nta,j) in the sense of the neighbours, those who dwell in the surrounding parts. In Jer 49:18 (G 30:12), one could nevertheless translate as “Sodom and Gomorrah including those resident strangers of the same kai. ai` pa,roikoi auvth/j.” The translation is possible because there is the pronoun auvth/j which refers to Sodom and Gomorrah treated as a single city. This device, however, is not available for the text of Baruch where there is no antecedent referring to them. But the construction remains difficult since the article, as in Baruch, is in the feminine while the substantive is masculine, a possibility, however, which the Greek does not exclude in connection with certain terms. Of the other appearances of pa,roikoi in the plural: in Lev 25:23, it appears in parallel with prosh,lutoi – the more frequent term – and designates the ‘strangers and sojourners’; 1 Chr 29:15 states: “We are strangers before you.” With the dominating presence of Zion, which we have tried to make likely as an almost divine hypostasis, it could be argued that the three times that Bar 4 employs ai` pa,roikoi Siwn, he intends to refer to those who dwell in the land of Israel as aliens, strangers and sojourners, whether they are actually such or whether they are holding themselves aloof from the Lord in such a way as to become strangers. It is these who are

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invited by Zion to listen, remember and observe the slavery (aivcmalwsi,an) of the sons and daughters of Israel, a reference to those who have remained faithful to the Lord. What interest could the book of Baruch have had in the testimony of the ‘neighbouring cities’? And, on the other hand, how coherent it is with the character of the text to allude to this distinction between children and strangers. I hope that these suggestions can enrich our reading of the text of Baruch.

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Bibliography Booij, T., Psalm 132: Zion’s Well-Being: Bib 90 (2009) 75-83. Fretheim, T. E., Psalm 132: a Form-Critical Study: JBL 86 (1967) 289-300. Gesenius, W. – Kautzsch, E., Hebräische Grammatik, Leipzig 281909. Laato, A., Psalm 132 and the Development of the Jerusalemite/Israelite Royal Ideology: CBQ 54 (1992) 49-66. Robinson, A., Do Ephrathah and Jaar Really Appear in Psalm 132,6?: ZAW 86 (1974) 220-222. Simian-Yofre H., Una preghiera di Sion (Sal 102), in: Bons, E. – Passaro, A. (eds.), Dai Salmi al Salterio, Trapani 2013, 153-167.

Family Relationships in 4QInstruction émile Puech The Qumran composition called Instruction, preserved by seven or eight fragmentary manuscripts (1Q26, 4Q415 to 4Q418a [418c?] and 4Q423),1 is a work that is well attested at Qumran and one that was copied on several occasions. The palaeographic dating of the oldest copy (4Q416) is placed in the third quarter of the first century BCE; the others stretch up to the first half of the first century CE. But the composition is certainly older: the editors date it between Proverbs and Ben Sira,2 other authors in the first half of the second century BCE;3 yet others take it to be an Essene composition, given the eloquent parallels in 1/4QS, 1QHa, the halakhah and the specific vocabulary: dxy as a substantive, the absence of the tetragrammaton and of ~yhwla, replaced by substitutes such as ~ynda, and particular theological themes.4 Only the manuscripts 4Q415 to 4Q418a retain fragments relative to family relationships. In dependence on the Fifth Commandment, they bear on the honour due to parents, a common theme of ancient literature and of the Bible: “Honour thy father and thy mother, as the Lord thy God hath commanded thee, that thy days may be long and that it may go well with thee in the land which God giveth thee” (Deut 5:16 [/Deut 20:12, cf. Mal 1:6; Sir 3:3-9]), and they concern also the mutual relations of the 1

Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 36. For the discussion, cf. Rey, 4QInstruction, 2-3. 2 Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 36. 3 Cf., e.g. Lange, Wisdom and Predestination, and Tigchelaar, To Increase: a pre-Qumran work. 4 Cf. Rey, 4QInstruction, 6 n. 15, citing Elgvin followed by G. Vermes, but Elgvin later reckoned it to be a pre-Qumran composition, and p. 8, citing D.F. Jefferies who dates it around 150 BCE regarding it as an Essene composition. Finally, through a stylistic and lexicographical analysis, Rey, 4QInstruction, 31f., makes it out to be a composition intermediary between Ben Sira and 1QS and 1QHa, but hailing from a similar cultural milieu as these compositions, and he sees “la communauté essénienne comme destinataire de l’ouvrage” (133), looking on it as “un texte sapientiel d’origine essénienne, mais non qumranienne” (335). Cf. Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements,166-176, and Kister, Divorce, who hold it to be an Essene composition, both on account of the specific vocabulary and on the parallels with the Essene halakhah. The current tendency is to lower the date of composition to within the Essene milieu. Adams, Rethinking, reckons that the Instruction has influenced Essene compositions, 1QH, 1QS, …, and that it is more distant from Ben Sira, but it is not an Essene composition; as this author does not distinguish between Essene and Qumran, this conclusion is not compelling.

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couple along the lines of the creation narrative in Gen 2-3 in particular. We shall study here principally the filial relations and those between the couple. In order to do this, we shall follow in order the themes given by a leaf of the manuscript 4Q416.

1. 4Q416 1.1 The children-parent relationship: the honour due to parents 4Q416 2 iii 15-19 // 4Q418 9a-c 17-18 + 10a-b 1-2 (underlined) Some pointers to this subject are found at the bottom of column iii of fragment 2 of a leaf of 4Q416 with cross-references on two fragments of 4Q418. The passage comes at the end of a long sequence of wisdom’s exhortations to a poor man: the latter must accept his condition, be he a slave, debtor, etc., for God provides for man’s needs and destines him to an eternal inheritance which his state should not make him forget. Then comes this neatly delimited paragraph on the honour due to parents: hkXyrb hkyba dybk (vac.) yk wma !k rbgl ~yndakw whyba !k Xyal l¿ÏbÀak yk hkyr[cmb hkmaw rXakw ~dbw[ !k xwrh l[ wcyw hkb hmlyXmh rXakw hkyrwh rwk hmh hmhynp rdhÎ ¿ÌÀhktdwb[Ðbw hkdwbk ![ml ~dbk hyhn zrb hknzwa hlg vac. hmymy $wraw hkyyx ![ml

15 16 17 18 19

…Honour5 your father in your poverty and your mother in your necessity. For as God (/the Father)6 is for a human, so is his father, and as the Lord/Teacher7 is for a man, so is his mother,

15 16

5

After a fairly long vacat, line 16, 4Q418 reads the pi‘el dbk, and 4Q416 could be read dybk (in scriptio plena), as the scribe did not always distinguish yod and waw, cf. yk (l. 10), dymt (l. 12), wmX (l. 6), hktwmb (l. 7), etc., preferable to the substantive dwbk of the editors, and before that of Caquot, Les textes, 13-14. 6 Reading la with 4Q418, preferable to the ba of 4Q416 attracted by the term of comparison unless understanding “the Father.” One cannot follow Wold, Reconsidering an Aspect, 151, who does not accept 4Q418’s reading of lak as preferable. On the designation of God as Father, cf. Puech, Dieu le Père, adding now 4Q379 18 4; 4Q382 104 3; 4Q392 6-9 5; 4Q416 2 iii 16; 4Q423 7 3 and 4Q448 I 2. 7 The defective writing ~ynda in the two manuscripts calls for the reading of a plural of majesty attested elsewhere for the divine name (cf. Joüon, Grammaire, § 136d) taking up Mal 1:6 but transposing it as the author has done previously with ba-la, following

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for, 17they are the crucible which has formed you.8 And just as He has set them in authority over you and He has commanded the spirit,9 so serve them. And as 18He has uncovered your ear to the mystery of existence, honour them for the sake of your (own) honour, and in [your service (?)10] respect their persons 19 for the sake of your life and of the length of your days.11 (vacat)

This paragraph, materially delimited by the vacat in both copies,12 is also structured by an almost literal reference to the Fifth Commandment: hkymy $wraw hkyyx ![ml ~dbk …hkmaw …hkyba dbk compare Exod 20:12 and Deut 5:16:

the editors, (cf. a similar sequence in Sir 3:7 but without the comparison, and a comparable phraseology in Tob 13:4, cf. 4Q200 6 9-10: ~yml[ ]l[wkl ~yhla awhw hmkyba awhw]10 [hmky]hla awhw [hm]kynda awh ayk of which the orthography before correction supports this reading), not with Wold, Reconsidering an Aspect, 156, who wants to see there “angels,” nor Caquot, Les textes, 14, understanding “des piliers.” Here we have an example of the replacement of the divine names (the tetragrammaton and ~yawlh), which supports a dating of the composition after the Maccabean Wars. 8 The reading would appear to be hkyrwh, the masc. plur. participle “those who have conceived you,” referring here to the two parents, not only to the woman for the motherly breast, cf. genna,w in Sir 3:7 and 7:28, or, with more difficulty, hkwrwh, the hif‘îl perfect 3rd person masc. plur. “they have instructed you.” The author could be playing on the two meanings: they have conceived the child and they have brought him up in their home which is also a ‘crucible.’ The English ‘form’ renders these two meanings quite well. Tob 4:4 and Sir 7:27 allude to the mother’s sufferings during her pregnancy, childbirth and what follows. Kugel, Some Instances, 166, understands: “they are the smelting pot of your creation.” For emphasis on the role of parents as educators, cf. Eph 6:4 in a sequence which is quite similar, cf. Rey, Family Relationships, 233-242. 9 The reading wcyw is certain for the lacuna (for joining the fragments, cf. whyba l. 16). But the sense of the expression xwrh l[ wcyw is not clear: “and that he has commanded/with regard to the spirit,” with more difficulty “and he has entrusted the spirit (to them) (understanding xwrh (hmhy)l[).” Compare Ezek 37:9-10 where “God commands the prophet to breathe the Spirit (xwrh) over the dead, and they live again.” 10 The lacuna is suitable for a word of 4 to 5 letters with a suffix, e.g. hmhynp rdh[ hktdwb[]bw, a substantive resuming the verb of l. 17: “service, (filial) duty.” Rey, 4QInstruction, 184 and 190, separates differently: “honore-les en vue de ta gloire et de […], vénère leurs visages en vue de ta vie et la longueur de tes jours,” repeated in Rey, Family Relationships, 234-235, which emphasises the service due to parents (Rey, Family Relationships, 223-224). 11 Cf. Sir 3:6 for the connection between length of days and honour due to one’s father according to Deut 5:16; Eph 6:3. 12 At the beginning in 4Q418 9 16 and at the end in 4Q416 2 iii 19.

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Exod 20 $ma taw $yba ta dbk

$ymy !wkray ![ml $l !tn “la “y rXa hmdah l[

Deut 5 $ma taw $yba ta dbk

416 hkyr[cmb hkmaw hkXyrb hkyba dybk

$yhla hwhy $wc rXak

…yk …yk ~dbw[ !k … rXakw

$ymy !kyray ![ml $l bjyy ![ml $l !tn “la “y rXa hmdah l[

hkdwbk ![ml ~dbk …rXakw hmhynp rdhÎ ¿ÌÀhktdwb[Ðbw hkymy $wraw hkyyx ![ml

The commandment to honour one’s parents is justified by two clauses introduced by yk: the parents are for the child as God (Father) is for a human: they have procreated and given life to their child and educated him in their home, ‘the crucible’ (rwk), just as God is the Creator of a human, has given him the breath of life and the spirit, and takes care of his creature like a father and a mother. One sees this image also in 1QHa XVII 29-36 where the author tells how God has taken care of him, orphan as he is. Then follow two other motives introduced by two rXak which justify the honour which a child owes to his parents on account of their authority or power over him, just as a master exercises it over his slave; even in his poverty, he must serve them and respect them, for they are at the origin of his existence and his initiation into life (similarly, Eph 6:4). Honour (dbk, ~dbk) and service (~dbw[) are not separate; they are complementary, or two sides of the same commandment of the Law, as is explained at length in Sir 3:3-16, and as Jesus expresses it in his teaching, opposing the commandment of God to the oral traditions of the Pharisees on the subject of the Fifth Commandment of the Law; Mt 15:3-9 // Mk 7:6-13. “Doing this” ([?hktdwb[]bw), the son will draw to himself honour and blessing for the whole of his life. See also Sir 3:6: “Whoever glorifies his father will have long life,” and Sir 3:11-12: “For a man’s glory comes from honouring his father, and whoever curses his mother multiplies (his) sin. My son, be steadfast in honouring your father, and do not abandon him all the days of your life” (HA), and, again, Tob 4:3: “Honour your mother, and do not abandon her for a single day of your life.” For in honouring his father, honour comes back also to the son (line 8), and he will be honoured in his turn by his children (see Sir 3:2, and, negatively, 3:10). This honour due to parents, object of the Fifth Commandment of the Law, in line with and following those concerned with the relations of man towards God, has its root in the divine plan of creation, in the mystery of existence (hyhn zr) which God reveals to his creature: the parents transmit life and have authority over their children. In fact, the Law ordains death for anyone who strikes or despises his father or his mother (Exod 21:15, 17; Lev 20:9). Sir 3:16 expresses this same idea negatively: “for he who

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despises his father is insolent, and he who curses his mother offends his Creator” (HA). A long life is associated with the observance of the commandments of the Law (see Deut 4:40; 5:16; 6:2, and with the respect for life, see Deut 22:70, and it is seen as a divine blessing on the earth, without going into everything which is hidden within the mystery of existence. In other passages, the Instruction knows that the just will have an eternal life after death in the company of the angels but that there will be an eternal pit for the wicked: 4Q418 69 ii + 60, and 127 1-7,13 while, surpassing the promise of Deut 5:16, Ben Sira appeals to it for the forgiveness of sins and salvation, 3:1, 3, 15. Thus the son will be counted among the just.14 In the Instruction, the passage on the honour due to parents follows immediately on a paragraph about the search for true wisdom from which even the poor man cannot withdraw, so indispensable is it for the life of every human: knowledge, discernment and the mystery of existence which one acquires by the discipline and corrections in the education given by one’s parents, in order to distinguish the roots of iniquity and the paths of truth for the present life and probably also for the future life (?), 4Q416 2 iii 12-15 (// 4Q418 9+9b 13-16):15 12 …You are poor; do not say: “I am needy, so I canno[t] 13 seek after knowledge!” Bend your shoulder to all discipline, And at each [repriman]d purify your heart and with great discernment 14your thoughts. Study the mystery of existence, and discern all the paths of truth, and to all the roots of iniquity 15pay heed. And then you will know whatever is bitter for a human and what is sweet for a man.

rmat la hta !wyba t[d Xwrda13 ÎawÐlw yna Xr hkmkX abh rswm lkb hkbl @wrc ¿ÌÀtÎxkwt Ðlkbw hkytwbXxm14 hnyb bwrbw Xwrd hyhn zr tma ykrd lkb !nwbthw jybt15 hlw[ yXrwX lkw Xyal rm hm [dt zaw rbgl qwtm hmw

13 Cf. Puech, Apports des manuscrits, 87-94. 14 4Q417 2 i 10-17 warns that God will judge, and the poor man who does good will be justified and will inherit glory and elevation/exaltation in the judgment; for the reading of this passage, cf. Puech, Apports des manuscrits, 88; cf. also, 4Q417 1 i 6-27, ibid., 88-89, with the announcement of the rewards and punishments at the time of the judgment. One cannot accept the interpretation of Adams, Rethinking, 580-582, for the angels do not sleep and do not have to wake up for the judgment; here, it is the just who ‘wake up’ and will then be like the angels and in their company in glory. 15 This paragraph is preceded by a vacat in 4Q416 2 iii 12 but it is between two vacats in 4Q418 9 12 and 16. Tigchelaar, To Increase, 48, reads lw[hm] at the end of l. 12: “et pour[quoi] chercherai-je la connaissance?” The vertical trace at the edge of the lacuna (l. 13) fits in perfectly with the taw of tÎxkwtÐ (there is sufficient space in the two copies with the fold of the leather), a word often found in parallel with rswm in Prov 3:11; 5:12; 10:17; 12:1; 13:18; 15:5, 10, 31, 32, including Eph 6:4, in comparable contexts.

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The parents who fulfil an essential role in the gift of life are also the first to guarantee the instruction of the children in revealing to them the mystery of existence while awakening them to the knowledge of it; they transmit life and the first knowledge of the Law, the faith in the one God, Creator and Father. Also in this paragraph, the honour and service of parents is inscribed in the extension of the ‘fear of God’ and of the commandments of God in the Law. 1.2 Relations between the couple, husband – wife 4Q416 2 iii 19 – iv // 4Q418 10 (2-)4-10 and 4Q418a 18 1-4 (underlined) The following passage of the Instruction treats of the couple after Gen 2:18, 24 (4Q416 2 iii 19-iv 7)16 followed by references to Numbers 30 concerning vows (iv 7-14): Îhyht awl hrwtb/~ymt hkklhÐthXk hta Xr ~aw vac hkymy $wraw hkyyx ![ml 19 Îtrkt awl ![ml hÐydlwm xq hkXyrb htxql hXa vacat qwx awlb 20 ÎXya bwz[y !k l[ ÐhkrXb rz[ ~[ $lhth dxy hkrbxthb hyhn zrm 21 lower and upper margins

Îdxa rXbl wyhw wtXab qÐbdw wma taÎwÐ wyba ta Îhyba ~wyhmw hklwÐqÎb Ð[ÎmÐXtw hb lyXmh hktwa¿wÀ ÎhyhtÀw h¿xÀjbÐ hkylaw hdyrph hmam hb lyXmh al Îhky[r twnbl Ðhkynbw dyrpy rxal hktb dxa rXbl $l

1 2 3 4

16 My reconstruction, to be completed partly with 4Q418 10 5-8 and 4Q418a 18 1-4. The completions of these manuscripts are underlined here faintly. Cf. Rey, 4QInstruction, 166-176, who does not keep the fragment 4Q418a 18 1-4, and Kister, Divorce, 202-208, who has inserted the latter, but the clause htbwXb, line 1 (here 3), is excluded, just as is the case with the editors’ htqwXt, and he does not read some letters, line 1. In line 2, the restoration [hyba ~wyhmw hklw]q[b [[m]Xtw is demanded by the remains of ‘ayn and qof and because of the length. In line 8, hkxwr bXh can derive from bwX or from bXn: ‘restore/ breathe your breath,’ that is to say “(re)take the initiative by your word/ express/ state/ manifest/ impose” (cf. Kister, Divorce, 204-205), without the editors’ and Rey’s correction of the suffix. In 9, read rph (not rpx with the editors), then restore Îacwm¿bÀ [wmXÐl (cf. l. 2) without space for the yÐlÎbm of the edition (p. 124 and 130), and at line 10, correct hls of the scribe into xls by attraction of the suffix hl following. In line 10, understand according to the sense, for example Îgyst !p ¿ÌÀ~yrdn hÐbrt la. Line 11 ought to follow with another warning, for example … t la(w). At the end of line 12, understand, for example, after Deut 24,1.3 Îhktybm xlXt ~aw. In line 13, understand probably either hÐprx or hkÆtÐprx. In line 14, a reading Ðhqdcw lÎ would be possible.

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ÎhktwÐr[ raX ayh ¿aÀyk hkqyx tXa ~[ dxyl htaw ÎhxwrÐb whyyx lwbg gysh hktlwz hb lwXmy rXaw ÎhÐbdnw rdn @yswhl alw hknwcrb $lhthl $lyXmh ÎhrÐdn rdnl hrsa t[wbX lkw hknwcrl hkxwr bXh Îacwm [wmXÐlÎ hÐaynh hknwcrbw hkyp acwm l[ rph ÎgyXt !p ¿ÌÀhÏ~yrdn hÐbrt la hkn[ml hl hls hkytpX οÌÀhydlwm xq laÐ hktlxnb hkdwbk οÌÀhktybm xlXt ~aw Ðvac. !p hktlxnb Î tÏhÐprxw hkqyx tXa Ðhqdcw lÎ Ð

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

…vacat And if you are poor, according as [you have walked perfect / according to the Law, you will not be]

19

without statute. vacat You have taken a wife in your poverty, accept [her] origins/descendants[ so that you will not be excluded]

20

21 from the mystery to come. Once you are married, walk with the aid of your flesh[: “That is why a man will leave]

iv 1his father and his mother and will cle[ave to his wife and they will become one flesh” (Gen 2:24).] 2 (And) As for you, He has set (you) in authority over her and [she shall ob[e]y[ your ] v[oice, and from this day, her father] 3 He has no longer set in authority over her (Gen 3:16). From her mother He has separated her and to you [He has entrusted her and she will be] 4 one flesh with you. Your daughter He will separate for another, and your sons[ for the daughters of your brethren.] 5 And you, you shall form only one with the wife of your bosom, for she is the flesh of [your] naked[ness.] 6 And he who would have authority over her, apart from you, would remove the landmark of his life.17 Over [her breath/spirit] 7 He has set you in authority so that she shall walk according to your will. And that she shall not continue to make vows and free[ will] offerings, 8 revoke/breathe your breath according (= impose) your will; and every oath binding on her to fulfil [her] vo[w], 9 cancel (it) by the mere utterance of your mouth, and according to your will, restrain[ her so that she submits herself to the utterance of]

your lips; He forgave her for your own sake. Let her not multiply[ (her) vows( ?) lest she injure]

10

your honour in your heritage. [… take her children( ?)]

11

in your heritage lest vac. [… If you dismiss from your house (without fault on her part( ?)]

12

the wife of your bosom, then (your/the) shame[…]

13

[…]. and justice( ?)[.

14

17 Probably an allusion to a greater fault contracted by this adulterer guilty of the death sentence. The Sage advises living always united with one’s wife without thinking of divorce while she is alive, cf. Tob 8:7.

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Following the honour due to parents, a short sentence framed by two blanks (lines 19-20) seems to recall, according to a probable reading, that insofar as a man walks perfectly or according to the Law(?), he is not without rights. Compare a wisdom sentence in Aramaic in 4Q569 1-2 8: οabrÀ anyd¿~wyÀb hl Ðawhl ajpÎXm yd lyÐdb yn[ rwkd “Remember the poor ones be[cause] the [la]w will be[ in his favour on(/ the day of) the (great?) Judgment].”18 The author then devotes a long paragraph to the conjugal state, seen essentially from the point of view of the husband in the remains that have been preserved. Still in the setting of the observations on poverty emphasised again in lines 19-20, this instruction is addressed to every man, the poor included, who has certainly the right to establish a home and take a wife. The latter must understand and accept the status of his wife,19 her origins, that which the expression hÐydlwm xq in the Instruction seems to signify at first sight, but also ‘her child bearing’, more awkwardly ‘her horoscope,’20 without its being directly a question of the poor man having married a widow with children. The feminine suffix, which is surprising since the offspring of the wife is also that of the husband, refers here more precisely to the woman who bears children, who gives birth, and, by extension, to her children to be born, her descendants.21 In this instruction, the husband is called upon to accept the births which will happen in or18 Cf. Puech, Qumrân grotte 4 XXVII, 358-359. 19 4Q416 2 ii 20-21 “Do not boast in your need, when you are poor, lest 21you cast away your life; and likewise do not despise the vessel of your bosom” must allude to the dowry of the bride, whatever her importance, which he can enjoy as long as they are united, cf. Murphy, Wealth, 189-190. 20 The plural hydlwm is not suitable for “ses génitures” in the astrological sense of the genethliac theme, the “horoscope” at the moment of birth, unless also including that of the conception! In fact for that sense, Qumran Aramaic employs the singular: 4Q534 1 i 10, 1 ii 1,2,6. 21 A reading Ðydlwm is ruled out by the sense: the preposition does not fit. The word dlwm, literally ‘childbirth,’ can mean ‘birth, childbirth, origin, horoscope,’ cf. 1Q27 1 i 5 and 4Q299 1 4, 3a ii-b 13 and 5 5 (= Book of Mysteries with three occurrences of ~ydlwm tyb), 1QHa XI 12 (twice), XX 11 (with t[), 4Q186 1 ii 8, 2 ii 2. In the Instruction dlwm designates ‘origins, horoscope, natal signs’ (Ð~ydlwm tybm in 4Q415 2 ii 9); it is employed with the verb Xrd in 4Q416 2 iii 9 and 4Q418 9+9a-c 8 in the sense of ‘seek, study, discern his origins’ in the phrase w¿yÀdlwm Xrwd hyhn zrbw, and with xq in 4Q415 11 11; 4Q416 2 iii 20; 4Q417 2 i 11 (with [Xy) and 4Q418 202 1 in the more probable sense of ‘take, grasp, recognise, accept.’ One could hesitate here given how the phrase continues: “Take her offspring” [with the editors, 113, 123, and Rey, 4QInstruction, 35-36 and 168-169, but translating “take (his/ her/the) descendants”], the offspring being common to the couple. Kister, Divorce, 204, understands: “study her horoscope.” Cf. 4Q415 11 13, infra, where the sense “her descendants” fits best. Rey, Family Relationships, 242-247, repeats his previous readings and interpretations.

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der to share in the mystery of existence, the mystery to come, and not to be excluded from it by disobedience to the divine plan for the human couple, cf. 1Q27 1 i 4.22 The father has duties towards the progeny that his wife gives him, towards the children who participate in the mystery of life to be transmitted in creation. Since the children are the fruit of the union of a man and a woman, there is advised for the married man, bound by the conjugal union, – a matrimonial ‘covenant’ as underlined by the root rbx in hkrbxthb followed by dxy to designate the marriage –,23 “to walk with the help of your flesh,” gently paraphrasing at first Gen 2:18, “It is not good that the man should be alone; I must make him a helper fit for him,” and 2:23, “This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh.”24 The word dxy strongly underlines this ‘unity’ of the couple which the allusions and citations of Gen 2:18 and 24 are supporting; mention is made of it again in lines 3-4 and 5. The Instruction strongly emphasizes the original constitutive unity of the common life which the spouses must lead once they have contracted the matrimonial covenant. While in Gen 2:24 the narrative focuses on the human protagonists, “a man shall leave his father and his mother and he will cleave to his wife, and they shall become one flesh,” in the development that follows (ll. 2-4), the Instruction has the Creator intervening directly: (And) As for you, He has set (you) in authority over her and [she ] shall ob[e]y[ your ]v[oice, and from this day, her father] 3He has no longer set in authority over her. From

22 For the space and the sense, read e.g. Îtrkt awl ![ml “in order that you may not be cut off/excluded.” Rey, 4QInstruction, 167-169, proposes rwst !p “lest you go astray” which is too short for the space. 23 The value of the hitpa‘el rbxth followed by the substantive/adverb dxy, redundant here, but, in line 5, more probably the case of a substantive “a unit” in a nominal phrase, means “to associate together, to bind together in a union”, and thence “to marry”, cf. Cazelles, rbx, 196. The expression has no direct sexual connotation as the authors suggest (Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 123) but concerns matrimony in its widest sense, as Rey has rightly seen, 4QInstruction, 170-173; it is the meaning of the word for marriage in the sense of association, cf. rbx and tyrb in Mal 2:14 to designate “your companion / your associate and the wife of your covenant,” Prov 21:9; 25:24, Sir 7:25 (cf. Gilbert, Une seule chair). 24 The end of line iii 21 must be completed by Gen 2,24aa, and line iv 1 by Gen 2,24b the last word of which is preserved by the parallel 4Q418 10b 2 (agreeing with the MT with regard to space in the two copies, without hmhynX of the LXX reinterpreted by the Samaritan Pentateuch, cf. Kister, Divorce, 206). A restoration of bwtkk or rma rXak to introduce the quotation, line 21, (cf. Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 126-127, and Rey, 4QInstruction, 167-169) is not indispensable for the sense and, above all, for the length of the line in the two copies, cf., e.g., Gen 32;33; Mk 10:6-8. Finally, the reading qÐbdw would appear to be assured, base of bet and bottom of the strokes of waw and dalet (waw-taw would be much more difficult).

386

Émile Puech her mother He has separated her and to you [He has entrusted her and she will be] 4one flesh with you. Your daughter He will separate for another, and your sons (He will separate) [for the daughters of your brethren.]

This explanation confirms the interpretation of Gen 2:24 as the divine commandment on the subject of marriage, insisting on its validity and its permanent value since it is God who unites the couple; this is the case also with the response of Jesus in his teaching on marriage-divorce in Mt 19:4-6 and Mk 10:6-9.25 Such a union has legal consequences. On the one hand, the separation of the spouses from their respective families in view of their union in becoming “one flesh,” is also effectuated, according to the Law, under divine authority. The explanation insists equally on the separation of the daughter from her mother and on the end of the authority of the father to whom God had given authority over his daughter, since she passed under the authority of her husband (Gen 3:16) to whom God has entrusted her26 and whom she shall henceforth obey: “And you, you will form only one with the wife of your bosom, for she is the flesh of your nakedness.”27 On the other hand, the wife, as complementary partner, having become the ‘property’ of her husband by the matrimonial covenant, cannot become the possession of another, whether by adultery or by divorce and second marriage, as is made clear by: “And he who would have authority over her, apart from you, would remove the landmark of his life” (line 6). To pass under the authority of another would be to break the marriage contract and to transgress the commandment of the Creator. Such a transgression – adultery is punishable by death according to the law, Lev 20:10; Deut 22:22-27. The metaphorical expression “remove the landmark,” known to both biblical and Qumran Hebrew, must take on here a pregnant sense, specified by the complement “the landmark of his life”: the adulterer, man or woman, must be cut off, thus risking the shortening of their lives since they have infringed the ‘property’ rights of their neighbour: for “cursed be he that removeth his neighbour’s landmark” (Deut 27:17).28 25 Kister, Divorce, 207-208, has clearly shown the exegetical affinities of the two passages. On this topic, cf. Puech, ‘Les œuvres de la Loi.’ 26 The reading Ðw hÎxÐjb Î in 4Q418a 18 1 is assured, and the other lines confirm iv 4-5 and 7 and guarantee the restorations. The plural hky[r requires that the plural is understood in Ðhkynbw without exact parallelism with “your daughter.” 27 This formula which alludes to Gen 2:21-24 – the woman drawn from the side of man constituting only one flesh with him – is completed by an expansion referring to Lev 18:10 to signify “the sexual property” of the husband. 28 Cf. Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 129, who stick with the metaphorical sense of transgression, or altering of the law. Kister, Divorce, 207-208, ob-

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The Instruction continues with the authority of the husband over the ‘spirit’ of his wife (hxwrb) (ll. 6-7). The sense of the word is not clear: her breath/spirit’ or, better here, “her speech (like the breath that emits her will),”29 as is explained in the following lines on the subject of the vows of the wife (ll. 6-10). The husband has authority over the utterance of the mouth of his wife, and he must bring the speech of his wife into conformity with his own will, annulling those vows which do not fit in with his wishes and his will. What is important, firstly, is less enumerating the different types of vows or the subjects and the circumstances of their formulation, as is the case in Num 30:2-17; Deut 23:22-24; CD XVI 10-12 (= 4Q271 4 ii 10-12) and 11QRT LIII 9-LIV 7, than emphasizing the authority of the husband over his wife and limiting their impact on the good and the honour of the couple, and, before all, the honour of the husband. In these lines, the legal formula in the third person has been adapted to the sapiential context, turning them into counsels of wisdom in the second person and concerning only the case of the wife. In this sequence of imperatives, the perfect of line 10, even in the absence of the tetragrammaton, must certainly have God as its subject as in Num 30:6, 9, 13 (there in the imperfect) and 11QRT LIII 21 and LIV 3, see Deut 23:22, for God alone can forgive sins.30 When the husband has taken on his responsibilities, the wife is no longer culpable of any fault with regard to that matter. By contrast with its source in Numbers and the parallels in CD and RT, where in certain cases the husband cannot annul all the vows of his wife, the Instruction does not apparently place any limit to the husband’s annulment or confirmation of vows: everything is left to his discretion and judgment and he has total authority over his wife, so that his honour and his heritage, including in that of his children, must be preserved from every slur (ll. 11-12). The remains of line 13 which have been preserved seem to deal with another subject and to bear upon cases of separation on the part of the husband who is described as the one who has authority over the wife, serves very fairly that every intrusion into the life of the married couple is a transgression against the commandment of God and, thus, is a grave sin. 29 One might perhaps compare the sense of the Aramaic yhwmXn xwr of 4Q534 1 i 10 and ii 7, where the meaning “the breath/the spirit of his breathings” seems to designate “his words/ the expression of his will,” but the two uses are incomplete! 30 With Kister, Divorce, 205, contrary to the solution maintained by Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 125 and 130 (who change the suffix), followed by Schiffman, Halakhic Elements, 90, and Rey, 4QInstruction, 168, citing, however, 11QRT LIV 3, 178. Note here the absence of the tetragrammaton present in Numbers and replaced by the first person in RT, cf., also, supra note 7, as an indication of the date of composition.

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see also 4Q415 11 9-11 (below), awkwardly from the point of view of the wife.31 In effect, within the framework of the laws on vows, Num 30:10 and 11QRT LIV 4-5 are aware of the case of the separated wife and of the widow whose vows cannot be annulled by others, allowing for the supposition that the conjugal union, despite everything, could be broken, see also CD XII 17-20 (to be completed by 4Q266 9 iii 4-10).32 In that, these passages may follow Deut 24:1-4 and its interpretation by Mal 2:15-16 (according to the versions and 4QXIIa) which might authorize separation-divorce in certain cases. The Instruction would appear to allude to this possibility – the motive has not been preserved – which would then be a disgrace33 for the man who divorced, transgressing the divine commandment expounded immediately before. One can compare and contrast Sir 25:26 where separation is explicit in the case of the wife who is disobedient: “If she does not walk according to your hand/authority, cut her away [from your flesh], (give her [the bill] and send her out) [from your house].”34 Along the lines of the allusions to Mal 2:14-15, this passage on the union of the spouses characteristically cites Gen 2:24 literally and puts at the centre God the Creator of man and his helpmeet (Gen 2:18), thus making a divine commandment concerning the validity and the indissolubility of marriage, since God has united the partners in one flesh (see also, CD IV 21) and has given the man complete authority over his wife (Gen 3:16).

31 Cf. 4Q415 11 11. Judaism knows of cases where the wife takes the initiative in the separation: a Jewish marriage contract of the 5th century BCE at Elephantine lists explicitly the grounds for repudiation and divorce on the initiative of the two parties without distinction: the adultery of the one or the other of the spouses (the wife cannot have sexual relations with another and the husband cannot take another woman in marriage) just as the failure of the mutual obligation of conjugal duty, cf. Kraeling, The Brookling Museum Aramaic Papyri, n. 7 21-28.30-40, cf. also, n. 2 7-10 = Grelot, Documents araméens d’Égypte, nn. 48 and 43, and, later, Murabba‘ât 20 3 ...hXwÐm !ydk “ 6… Au cas où tu di[vorcerais, je te rendrai l’argent de ta dot …,” cf. Milik, Textes hébreux et araméens, 109-114. Cf., also, Mk 10:12, and the probable sense in 1 Cor 7:10. 32 Jesus takes a quite different position in opposing divorce in Mt 19:6 and Mk 10:9. 33 The word is employed in Prov 6:33 in the case of adultery. The parallel with 4Q415 11 10 justifies the restoration proposed here. 34 In Greek with the additions of (mss 248) and the [Syriac].

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2. 4Q415 Marriage: choice of son-in-law, rights and duties of the husband, submission of the wife Having presented the passages in the sequence of the columns of manuscript 416 with their parallels, other passages of a manuscript, fragments 4Q415 ii 9 and 11, touch on this subject of which the latter only reproduces in part the fragment 4Q418 167a-b. 2.1 4Q415 2 ii The fragment 4Q415 2 ii bears on the verso some remains of the Ritual of Purification A (4Q414). Of this column, there survives only the beginning of the lines which sometimes renders the sense of the content uncertain. The grammatical elements indicate that we are dealing with a passage addressed to a wife.35 Î Ð$nÎtwÐx ydbk bak Î whbwzÐ [y ÉÎlÐawË $bblm yXymt la Î tkÐrb wqyxbw ~wyh lwk Î XÐdwq tyrb y[rpt !p Î Ðmw $Xpnl tbywaw Î ~lwÐ[l d[ hXÎyÐa Î qzxtÐt $tyrbbw $ÎynÐwkm tybb Î Ð~yXna lÉwËk ypbÎ Ð hlht Ð~ydlwm tybmÎ Xya ÐlÎwkÐ

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Passage which can be understood with some restorations e.g.: Î wl hqdcw Ð$nÎtwÐx ydbk bak Îwdwbkb ¿wÀqzxttw wnb whbwzÐ[y ÉÎlÐawË $bblm yXymt la Îhb whlyXmhw $tyb dyst ba tkÐrb wqyxbw ~wyh lwk οÌÀtrxa hXa wyl[ $yrdh !pw XÐdwq tyrb y[rpt !p Îwl hyhtw Ðmw $Xpnl tbywaw Î ~lwÐ[l d[ hXÎyÐa Îhyhtw $yyx ymwy lwk qzxtÐt $tyrbbw $ÎynÐwkm tybb Î!nwkth hyhn zrb ayk Ð ~yXna lÉwËk ypb hlht Ð~ydlwm tybmÎ Xya ÐlÎwkÐ

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

35 Thus the remarks of Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 48, followed by Rey, 4QInstruction, 138.

390

Émile Puech Like a father, honour your father-in-law,[ for he is the father of your house(?), and charity towards him]

1

2 do not remove from your heart, and let not [his son] a[bandon him, but (both of you) strive to honour him]

every day, and in his bosom the pat[ernal benediction will establish your house. He has set him in authority over you]

3

lest you transgress a ho[ly] covenant,[ and allow another woman (slave/married/divorced/ widow(?) to have power over him]

4

5 and be your rival, and s[ince your youth you were destined to be his wife(?), and you will be his]

wife for e[ver. Then you will live in peace and happiness(?)]

6

in the place of you[r] dwell[ing], and your covenant you[ will keep faithfully all the days of your life(?), and you will be] 7

a (subject of) praise in the mouth of all men, [for in the mystery of existence is determined]

8

[e]a[ch ]by horoscopes[

9

Line 1, the reading of which seems assured, demands that the wife honour the father of her husband36 just as her own father along the lines of the commandment of the Decalogue. It is possible that what follows explains that her father-in-law has become like her own father for her, the father of “her house”, thus underlining the force of the union of the marriage.37 The reading $bblm yXymt la, line 2, demands the restoration previously of [~ymxrw] or better [wl hqdcw]’ “and charity towards him]” (with the same verb and the same complement in 4Q417 2 i 8-9 // 4Q416 2 i 3) of what the daughter-in-law must show to her father-in-law,38 particularly when the parents are elderly, just as is demanded of the son (see also Sir 3:12-16). Then understanding ad sensum e.g. wnb or $l[b then wdwbkb wqzxthw, see Sir 3:12. In line 3, the reading wqyxb seems the most probable in the context, but what follows has not found agreement among the authors.39 At the 36 This reading is far preferable to that proposed by Wold, Reconstruction, 210-211, founding himself on Philo, Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesim 1 § 27, the wife must honour her husband as a father. 37 A restoration $ybak Æ $tyb ba awh aykÐ is not to be excluded. For the previous reading, cf. PAM 41.860. 38 Cf., also, Sir 3:14 ba tqdc. The reading $bblm is certain (bet corrected to mem), with Rey, 4QInstruction, 139, cf. PAM 41.860, 42.561, in spite of Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 48. Then the supra-linear correction seems to have to be read ÎlÐaw, followed by an imperfect Ð[y, probably bwzÐ[y, cf. Sir 3:12 (HA): whbz[t law $yba dwbkb qzxth ynb $yyx ymy lk here also with a masculine subject, not Ð[w of the editors followed by the authors. 39 Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 47-48 have retained wqyxb, followed by Rey, 4QInstruction, 138-140; García Martínez – Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls,

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break, it is proposed to restore dyst ba tkÐrb in the singular or plural with the aid of Sir 3:9 (HA). In line 4, tyrb without article can with difficulty refer to the ‘Covenant.’ It should qualify the union of the spouses, the marriage, see Mal 2:14; Ezek 16:8 and Prov 2:17 where it is qualified as “covenant of her God,” and here as “holy covenant,” see also line 7 and Sir 11:34 (HA). This instruction seems to refer to the authority of the man over his wife as guardian and head of his wife in the divine plan (see 4Q416 iv and Eph 5:22-23). The verb [rp has the sense of ‘infringe, transgress’ rather than that of ‘neglect’ and seems to refer to the duty of a husband concerning the vows of his wife, etc. In line 5, the sequence $Xpnl tbywaw ought to refer to another women, without necessarily envisaging bigamy40 or a case of divorce: it could be a foreign woman, adulteress, married, divorced, widow, slave (see Sir 9:1-9) seeking an illegitimate extra-conjugal relationship and consequently becoming the rival, jealous of the legitimate spouse. The phrase seems to be parallel to the preceding and can be completed with the help of Sir 9:2. What follows is more uncertain, e.g. Îwl hyhtw wtXal wl htyh $yrw[nÐmw might agree with the remains of line 6,41 see Prov 5:18; Isa 54:6, quoted in 4Q176 8-11 8. Since the two fragments are practically touching, we must read $ÎynÐwkm tybb,42 see the expression in 4Q418 178 3. The phrase must probably allude to the peace and happiness-prosperity which the married woman enjoys who is well established in her new home, e.g. Îhbwjbw ~wlXb bXyt zaw. In parallel, the second proposition most certainly demands her to remain faithful to her husband, holding firm to her commitment. Thus she will be praised by all men (line 8), see the eulogy of the perfect women in Proverbs 31. In line 9, the expression ~ydlwm tyb certainly designates ‘the horoscope,’ the astronomic sign of the birth of a person, as in 4Q186 1 ii 8; 2 ii 3.43 The traces at the beginning of the line which can be read Î Xya ÐlÎwkÐ allow the understanding of the phrase with a more general meaning (ll. 8-9): Ð~ydlwm tybmÎ Xya ÐlÎwkÐ ÆÆ Î!nwk¿thÀ hyhn zrb aykÐ, “[for in the mystery of existence is 846, preferred to retain tyÐrb wqwxb. Even if tyrb can mean ‘marriage’ as seems to be the case in lines 4 and 6, the reference to ‘statutes’ does not appear evident. 40 Example of bigamy possible in Sir 26:6 as cause of jealousy, but nothing makes this certain. In 4QInstruction, bigamy as the cause of jealousy is certainly not to be envisaged. 41 Accepting the reading of Rey, 4QInstruction, 138 and 141. 42 Not $ÎytwrÐwkm of Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 47 and 49, followed by Wold, Reconstruction, 210, and Rey, 4QInstruction, 138 and 141: “la maison de tes origines.” Cf. 4Q414 2 ii 1-2, and the pertinent observation of Tigchelaar, To Increase, 33, which also confirms the reading of line 8, with the traces of bet. For the word and the expression, cf., also, 4Q415 11 12. 43 With Morgenstern, The Meaning.

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determined]//[e]a[ch ]by horoscopes[” (see the destiny of each one taken up in 4Q417 2 i 10-11). Despite these restorations with the aid of parallels to understand these remains, the passage preserved is addressed principally to the wife and counsels her to remain faithful to ‘her covenant,’ the term employed for marriage. Thus, attached to and submissive to her husband in his home, honouring her father-in-law, she will be a faithful wife all her life, earning the praise of all. In these lines, the sage anticipates a possible temptation to separation on the part of the wife because of her submission to her husband; her destiny is fixed by her horoscope. The happiness of the wife is in her fidelity. 2.2 4Q415 9 5-11 The authority of the man over the woman is repeated elsewhere, in fragment 4Q415 9 5-11 in a passage after a vacat: Î Î Î Î Î Îrbxthb Î Î Î Î

Ð hmhmtt Î Ð awlÐkl hknjb twrwhl ¿hÀÐbrtÎ haÐmwj Ðvacat ~yXna hÐXyrl hwXt awl tlwa ~[ Ð!wkt hayh ayk hnykh hb hbqÐn ta rkz lXmm dxy wtbb baÐk hb lXmh hxwr hÐzm hz hmrwsxmw rwsxÐmh hkmÎsÐn hz yplw qdc Ðynzwmkw hbqn

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

.[ ] you will delay [ ] to accustom your belly to re[strain its desires ] 3 an impurity you/she multiplie(s)[ ] 4 men. vacat [ ] 5 With folly do not compare [the/her] poverty[ ] 6 in her He has established it, for she, she is determined [by her origins/her horoscope ... but once united] 7 together, the man has authority over the w[oman, ] 8 her spirit, dominate her/it like[ a father his daughter their good (?)] 9 and their need, this more/less than th[at ] 10 and after that has been [su]pported the n[eed44 ] 1 2

a wife. And like the scales that are[ just

11

44 The reading of the mem is quite acceptable because of the angle of the head of the letter, cf. the examples line 7, etc., and the word is expected by the sense.

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Despite the uncertainties inherent in the lacunae, it is possible to draw some teachings from these lines set within the framework of family life against the background of poverty. The latter cannot be compared to folly, and, in particular, in the case of a poor wife (line 5). Then there seems to be an allusion to the birth of the wife under a horoscopic sign in line with poverty (hb, line 6), see 4Q415 2 ii 8-9 and 416 2 iii 20-iv.45 The remains of line 7 would appear to refer again to the formulations of 4Q416 2 iii 20-iv, so much so that dxy could be connected with a form of rbx in order to designate the conjugal union of the spouses (see 4Q416 2 iii 21), with the recalling of the authority of man over his wife in Gen 3:16, after that of Gen 2:24. The sage goes to the extent of explaining this authority: “over her spirit,”46 to be understood as everything coming out of her mouth, the formulation of the vows as in 4Q416 2 iv, the spouse owing obedience to the will of her husband. What follows intends to introduce the comparison of the authority of the father over his daughter before her marriage. The metaphor of the just scales is found again elsewhere in 4Q415 11 // 418 167a-b, and 418 127 6.

2.3 4Q415 11 // 4Q418 167a-b // 4Q418a 15 (+ 13?) A last passage on the choice of the son-of-law and the advice given to the husband in case of separation is found in 4Q415 11 // 4Q418 167a-b // 4Q418a 15 (+ 13?):47 Î lwkb htnwktm Îqdc ynzwmk yk ~b h Î tazÉwË hl[t taz yk

lÀqXm dx¿a dxyb Àwyhy awl rXa¿



Ð Ð Ð

1 2 3

45 The word !wkt could also be understood “a/the measure of[ his spirit,” cf. 4Q415 11 // 4Q418 167a-b. 46 The word xwr being most often feminine could be resumed by the feminine suffix of the verb as well as the bride, cf., supra, note 29. 47 The lines of the fragment 11 (1) are indicated just as those of the text restored with the aid of 4Q418 167a-b and of 418a 13 and 15. Since fragments 167 a-b are not adjacent, their distance remains hypothetical over 4 lines, cf. some cross-checks of 4Q415, (with variants or vacat); 4Q418 167a-b is underlined, and 418a 13 and 15 are outside parentheses. For different arrangements of the text, cf. Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 57-58; Tigchelaar, To Increase, 36-37, and Rey, 4QInstruction, 146-147, but who does not retain the fragments of 4Q418a 15 and 13 (the reading of which it is impossible to verify in the absence of other copies), and Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements, 171-172.

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Î awl rXa rXÀakwÐ hmÎlqXml dxa¿ Ð!kÎty Ð ¿1À Î alÐ rmw[w rmw[l¿ hpyÎaw hpyalÐ ¿2À Î hyarm ypyl hmxwr dmc ÐdxÀyb awl rX¿a ÎhmÐlÎqXm Ð ¿3À Î hmxwr dxyb htnktw wnkÐty twxwr aypl yk ~ynybm lwÎklÐ ¿4À Î whÐnybh hytywgbw wl rps hmwm lwÎkÐ ¿5À Î wyhw hlpab @gn ¿aÀyk Ðynpl lwXkmk wl hyhtÎ htÐlwaw ¿6À Î - l l hkdwÐsb wpa hrxw wpgnÎw ÐwlXÎkwÐ ¿7À Î dÐxyb ~xwr hnwkt lqXm ~[ ¿8À Î hÐb @gny ~aw hb lwXky aÎwÐl ¿9À Î hydlÐwm xq hktwrhb hdrpn ~aÎwÐ ¿10À Î hÐdrpn ~a hdawm !nwbth hklhth ¿11À Ð zaÎm Ðhhnxb hlab acmt awl hynwkm ¿12À

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

A passage which could be thus understood, e.g.: Î lwkb htnwktm Ð Ð Îqdc ynzwmk yk ~b h¿yh awl hwX lÀqXm dx¿a Îdrt tazÉwË hl[t taz yk wwX awl dxyb Àwyhy awl rXa¿ ~ylqXm wnkty rXaÐ Î!ktn awl rXa ~ylqXm !wktb acmn rXÀakwÐ hmÎlqXml dxa¿!wkt Ð!kÎty dmcbÐ Îawh hmxwr l[w qdc awl !wkt hmhm dxÀalÐ rmw[w rmw[l¿ hpyÎaw hpyÀal¿Ð Îjybh hyarm ypyl hmxwr hnkty awlw dmc ÐdxÀyb awl rX¿a ÎhmÐlÎqXm !wktÐ ÎhmlqXmb hmxwr dxyb htnktw wnkÐty twxwr aypl yk ~ynybm lwÎklÐ Îhb rtsy rXa [dwy hta rXa lwkb whÐnybh hytywgbw wl rps hmwm lwÎkÐ Î~yrw[k wyhw hlpab @gn ¿aÀyk wlyXky rXa rw[ Ðynpl lwXkmk wl hyhtÎ htÐlwaw οÌÀrwrah yjpXm hÐkÎyÐlÎ[ wÐlÎ wpyw [Xr hkdwÐsb wpa hrxw wpgnÎw ÐwlXÎkwÐ Îyk hb lyXmyw wtybl hxqyw hXyal wl hyhtw dÐxyb ~xwr hnwkt lqXm ~[ Îwtybm hxlXyw . hnm drpy hÐb @gny ~aw hb lwXky aÎwÐl Î hktlxnb hydlÐwm xq hktwrhb hdrpn ~aÎwÐ Îtybw rxa Xyal htyhw wtybm hacyw hÐdrpn ~a hdawm !nwbth hklhth hxqlÐt zaÎm Ðhhnxb hlab acmt awl hynwkm 1

… her measure in everything…

2

… a same weight there is not in them, for (it is) like the just scales

¿1À ¿2À ¿3À ¿4À ¿5À ¿6À ¿7À ¿8À ¿9À ¿10À ¿11À ¿12À

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

which measure weights that do not agree they are in a state of unbalance, for this (arm) rises and that one falls. 3

In a couple(?) ]a same [measure is mea]sured[ according to their[ weight, and when it is discovered in the measure of the weights that it is not (measured] 4

5 [for an ephah an e]phah, for an omer an omer, [(for ea[ch of them the measure is not just, and concerning their spirit, it is] 6 [the measure of their weight]s which does not tend to the agreement of the co[uple, their spirit must not be measured by the beauty of their appearances. Consider]

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7 [a]ll those who understand, for according to their spirits they will be m[easured, and ] you have measured together their spirit according to their weight.] 8 [A]ll her blemishes report to him, and à propos of her physical faults give[ him] knowledge[ of all that you know which could be hidden(?),] 9 and [her ]folly will be for him like an obstacle before[ a blind man which makes him stumble, for he staggers in the darkness, they will be like the blind,]

[and] they will totter[ and] they will stagger, and his anger will be inflamed against [your wrong(?)] ad[vice and the judgement of the curse(?) will come upon you.]

10

With a weight, measure their spirit in harmon[y, then she will be his wife, and he can take her to his house and have authority over her, so that]

11

he will not totter because of her. But if he staggers because of [her, he will separate himself from her, .... and dismiss her from his house(?);]

12

and if she is separated when pregnant from you, take [her] chil[dren into your heritage, educate your/her sons and daughters(?), and how]

13

she behaves herself, observe attentively. If she is separate[d, that she leaves his house and belongs to another man(?), the place of]

14

her dwellings you will not find. In those things prove her[ when] you[ marry her( ?)…

15

Despite some cross-references and the restorations suggested to make an intelligible sequence, the text remains difficult to read in parts.48 It concerns the search by the daughter’s father for spousal compatibility in the couple, a possible reading in line 6 being: dmÐc dxyb.49 The passage employs the image of just scales for “the measure of the spirits” of the future couple, a measure which God guarantees to the wise in the knowledge of his design (see 4Q418 123 ii 4) in which everything responds to a divine

48 Reading notes: in 4Q418a 15 1 lÐqXm is uniquely suggested by the context, and 4: read Ðal inversion of the measurements compared with the two other copies. In 4Q418 167a-b 3: read ybÎ with Tigchelaar, To Increase, 36; 8: ~xÎwÐrÎ is possible and suggested by the parallel. In 4Q415 11 1: the reading ÐymÎ and hmÎb of Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 57-58, followed by Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements, 171-172, and Rey, 4QInstruction, 146, for the second, is not possible, read Ð!kÎ and hmÎlqXml by cross reference, with Tigchelaar; 3: the space on the line suggests reading ÎhmÐlÎqXm !wktÐ and 4: lwÎklÐ not lwÎkÐ (Kister) which requires another restoration at the end of the preceding line; 6: hÐlÎpÐwab of the editors followed by Kister is impossible because of the traces and the space at the margin, read htÐlwaw with Rey (without the following waw), then read Ðynpl without any other trace for Ð- wynpl of the editors followed by Tigchelaar and Rey; 7: ÐxlXÎÅÐ of the editors just as ÐxlXÎyÐ of Kister are excluded, read ÐwlXÎkwÐ with Rey; 8: read probably hnwkt ‘measurement’ (from !kt) with Kister in place of hnykt ‘prepares’ from (!wk) of the editors, Tigchelaar and Rey, then dÐxyb is certain because of the crooked beginning of the stroke (waw, yod, šin of the authors are excluded); 9: Ðb read with the edition, not Ðm (Tigchelaar); 10: one can hesitate between hktyrhb with the authors and hktwrhb, a nuance of sense of the grammatical construction; 11: read hÐdrpn with Tigchelaar and Rey, not Ðrkz retained by the editors after hesitation; 12: read, better, Ðt zaÎm. 49 In 418 167a 3 (PAM 42.759), there is a light trace which corresponds best to tsade.

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measure, whether physical or metaphysical.50 The measure of the spirit of each person depends not on beauty or on appearance51 but on his true self.52 For the unity of the couple, the scales must be in equilibrium, something which supposes the two spirits to be in harmonious correspondence. The structure of the passage is disputed and depends on the readings and the appropriateness of the cross references. The editors have delimited four sub-sections: lines 1-5 on weights and measures, 6-7 on the spirits and various subjects, 8-12 on the stone of stumbling, and 13-15 on the pregnant woman, while Qimron has emphasized the thematic unity: advice to the maven-‘sage’ on the marriage of his daughter, the son-inlaw must not look at the appearances but at the spirit of his fiancée.53 Rey finds three ensembles: lines 1-7 the choice of the husband; lines 8-12 instructions for the marriage of the daughter; lines 13-15 on the descendants of the maven-‘sage’.54 The new arrangement of the cross-references and the deciphering proposed above indicate clearly that the passage deals 1) with the marriage of the daughter of a sage-maven who must show discernment in giving his daughter to a man; he must measure the quality of the harmony55 of the future couple, weighing the spirit of the future son-in-law to see if it 50 Cf., again, 4QMysteries (4Q299) 20 with a probable allusion to Ezek 45:10-11; 4Q418 77 // 4Q416 7 (parallel to the Instruction on the Two Spirits of 1QS III-IV); 4Q418 81+81a, 126 ii, 127, and, in particular, 4Q416 1, cf. Puech, Les fragments eschatologiques, 90-98. Undoubtedly it is God who “measures the spirits” (Prov 16:2; 21:2) and men (Jub. 31:6), similarly in 4Q434 1 10: “He has measured their spirits with a ruler and their words with scales,” but God has afforded the Sage the knowledge of these measures in the divine plan. In the Community Rule, this measuring is carried out by the lot and the rank assigned to each one. Horoscopes and astrological observations are taken into consideration in the manuscripts, cf. Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements, 173174. Predestination is at the heart of Essene theology, illuminated by the image of the measurements in all areas and in all its dimensions, the divine (Is 40:12-13) and the human. 51 The plural with the feminine suffix hyarm can as easily refer to the appearances of the spirit (feminine) of each member of the couple as to the beauty of the wife as reckoned by Rey, 4QInstruction, 149, but Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements, 172, hesitates: of her (or: their) appearance. 52 In this regard, Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements, 171, underlines that with !kt and lqXm these striking parallels with the Instruction on the Two Spirits in 1QS III-IV indicate that the Instruction is a Essene composition. 53 Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 59, where the two versions are laid out, repeated by Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements, 172. 54 Rey, 4QInstruction, 152-156 (according to the lines of the text above). The feminine suffix, line 1, can refer as easily to the spirit as to the wife (Rey). 55 The expression dxyb can be understood “in the community (of the couple)/ the accord/ the harmony.”

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is compatible with that of his daughter (lines 1 – 1a), then 2) the marriage concluded, the duties of the man, envisaging possible situations of separation. For the choice of husband, the Instruction uses the metaphor of the just scales borrowed from Ezek 45:10-11 to appreciate the compatibility of the two beings, or their incompatibility with regard to their spirits. This measure of spirits takes up the formula of Prov 16:2 expressing the weighing of hearts, and it is found clearly in 1QS IV à propos of the maskil using the same vocabulary !wkt, lqXm, ~xwr to know man in his depth and weigh up the wisdom of his conduct in the divine law (see also 1QS V 20-24).56 According to these criteria, the father chooses his son-in-law.57 For his part, the father must report to his future son-in-law all that he knows about his daughter with regard to her previous behaviour, not only her faults more or less hidden, but also what he knows of her conduct while she was living under his roof – in brief, everything which might be disqualifications threatening the validity of the union and the harmonious life of the future couple (lines 8-12a). As has already been noted,58 line 8 takes up under another form the ordinance of the Damascus Document (in 4Q271 3 7-10):59 ~aw jpXm ta wyl[ ayby hml wl rpsy hymwm lwk ta XÎyal Xya !ty wtb taÐ yk hl !kwh awl rXal hhnty la ~gw $rdb rw[ hgXm rÎma rXa rwrahÐ vacat wydxy ~ytXwpw rmc Xwblw rwmxw rwÎX ~yalk awhÐ

7 8 9 10

And if 8[a man gives his daughter to a ma]n, let him disclose all her blemishes to him, lest he bring upon himself the judgment of 9[the curse, as it is sai]d: “(Cursed be) he who leads a blind man astray in his path” (Deut 27:18). And moreover he should not give her to one unfit for her, for 10[that is (kilayim), (ploughing with) an o]x and an ass and wearing wool and linen together (Deut 22:10-11).

But while CD commands the father to choose a man within the clan or family/relatives, an ordinance founded perhaps on Lev 21:7 for the priests, extended here to all the group, in order not to be kilayim,60 the In56 This aspect has been well emphasised by Rey, 4QInstruction, 153. 57 It is possible that ~b, line 2, refers to several men from among whom the father will choose his son-in-law, but the plural can also refer to the spirits of the ones to be married. The state of the context does not permit a decision. 58 Qimron apud DJD XXXIV, 59, accepted by Kister, Physical and Metaphysical Measurements, 172, and Rey, 4QInstruction, 153-154. 59 Cf. Baumgarten – Milik, Qumran Cave 4 XIII, 175: completed by 4Q270 5 14-17 and 4Q269 9 1-2 (underlined faintly). 60 As understood by Wassen, Women, 79. The image takes up Deut 22:10 to evoke an undesirable marriage where inequalities or incompatibilities between husband and wife

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struction comes nearer still to the spirit of 1QS IX calling for the “weighing of spirits” without retaining the direct belonging to the clan. But, beyond the blemishes or corporal faults more or less hidden, lines 8-9 also mention the folly of which the daughter could be accused.61 Among the defects which would trip up the couple as a blind man according to Lev 19:14,62 there ought undoubtedly to be included everything which is envisaged by another ordinance which follows in the Damascus Document (in 4Q271 3 13-15) according to Deut 22:13-21 and Deut 24:1 (rbd twr[):63 lwkw ~a yk Xya hxqy la hyba tybb hylwtbb [r ~ÎX hyl[ rXaÐ l[ rXa rqbmh rmamm twrwrb tw[dyw twnman Î~yXn twarbÐ ÎhÐyl[ dygy ÎawlwÐ jpÎXÐmk hX[y htwa wxqwlbw hnxqy rÎxaw ~ybrhÐ Ð

12 13 14 15 16

And any 13[woman upon whom there is a] bad [na]me in her maidenhood in her father’s house, let no man take her, except 14[upon examination] by trustworthy and expert women selected by command of the supervisor over 15[the Many/Learned. After] wards he may take her, and when he takes her, he shall act in accordance with the law [and he shall not t]ell about [her] 16[that he has not found the signs of her virginity.

If the father-in-law does not reveal to him all the defects, in his anger the son-in-law will turn against him for having left him in ignorance (line 10).64 And he will bring down on him the curse of Deut 27:18 repeated in CD (4Q271 3 8-9). Continuing in the same register, line 11 takes up the

61

62

63 64

are manifest, it is found again in Sir 25:8b (absent from the Greek); Hebrew C certainly carries a scribal error in reading rmwx ~[ rwXk Xrwx instead of rwXb as in Deut 22:10 on account of the frequent confusion of bet/kaf, and the Syriac has rightly read arWtb, cf. 2 Cor 6:14. It is difficult to know to what this word refers here: a demoniacal possession as for Sarah in the book of Tobit, or something else? The rabbinical literature also attests the duty which the father has of informing the fiancé of his daughter’s defects on pain of nullity, Mishna Qiddushim II 5. This restoration is compelled by the space in 4Q418 167 7 in the context and the continuation of the line hlpab @gn ayk to signify the ignorance in which the father-in-law would have left his future son-in-law. Completed by 4Q270 5 20-21 and 4Q269 9 6-8 (underlined faintly). For a woman of bad reputation, cf., also, 4Q213a 3 15-17, cf. Puech, Qumrân grotte 4 XXVII, 512-517. The anger here refers to the son-in-law, not to God as the editors would prefer it (Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 61). The restoration hkdwÐsb is compelling here, followed, probably, by the curse of 4Q271 3 8-9: rwrah jpXm ta wyl[ ayby, “he will cause the judgement of the curse to come on him],” expressed in a slightly different form if one takes account of the traces in 4Q418 167a-b 8. Rey, 4QInstruction, 155, notes correctly that in CD XIII 14-17 this advice follows others concerning frauds in commercial transactions: the vendor is bound to disclose the faults of the thing he is selling.

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image of the weights of the scales for “the measure of spirits” in view of the agreement between the parties. Then the man can marry his daughter, take her home, and exercise authority over her,65 and he will not stumble because of her, a clause which corresponds in CD (4Q271 3 9) to “someone unfit for her” hl !kwh awl rXal.66 See also Tob 6:18.67 Despite the “weighing of spirits” and the conclusion of the marriage, lines 12-15 envisage possible sources of discord between the couple and the case of separation (-divorce?) on the part of the husband. The passage seems to adopt in its own way the clauses of Deut 24:1-4 which, in great part, authorise their restoration, at least ad sensum. If he stumbles because of his wife, he will separate himself from her,68 (will he compose an act of repudiation which he will give to her?),69 and dismiss her from his house (Deut 24:1 and Mal 2:16 [versions and 4QXIIa]; Sir 25:260). In lines 13-14a, there is envisaged the case of the pregnant woman separated from her husband.70 The man must take “her descendants” hydlÐwm71 under his authority, the woman being then deprived of her maternal rights. His

65 66 67

68

69

70

71

Thus the daughter’s transition from her father’s authority to that of her husband is also considered to be a transactional agreement. This restoration appears to be certain if one takes account of what is said in the other passages of the Instruction studied above. For fixed destinies, cf. 4Q415 2 ii 5-9 and 9 6. To be compared with Tob 8:18 (4Q197 4 ii 17): hbsml rzg anyd Ð$lw aqylx ayh $Îl yd Ðlxdt lÎaw “[and do no]t fear [because] she has been destined for you, and for you [the decision has been made to take her.” The same is true with regard to the wicked woman in Sir 25:26 (G): “If she does not behave according to your hand, cut her off from your flesh, (give [the contract] and dismiss [her]),” ms 248, following the interpretation of Gen 2:24 of the union of the wife with her husband and his authority over her, but on account of impropriety, the husband can sever the conjugal bond (by means of the certificate of divorce), as in Mal 2:15-16 (with the versions and 4QXIIa). Cf. note 31 for the grounds of repudiation and divorce on the initiative of either of the two Jewish partners without distinction in a papyrus from Elephantine of the 5th century BCE. This would be a certain example of divorce if one could restore hdyb jg !tyw “and he will hand her an act of repudiation,” but this would be the only clear example of divorce in this text and at Qumran, since the act of repudiation confirms the breach of the contract and authorises a ‘legitimate’ remarriage (Deut 24:1-4). The verb marking the separation cannot mean ‘to lie in childbirth,’ as proposed by Rey, 4QInstruction, 148 and 151, a sense of the verb not understood by the editors, Strugnell – Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV, 59 and 62. This verb is known from 4Q416 iv 3-4 ‘to separate.’ In the case of a separation, it is important to lay down clearly who is entrusted with the ‘guardianship’ of the children: the father, head of the family in a patriarchal society. It is the most probable meaning of the word in this phrase, given as hktwrhb ‘being pregnant with you’ an infinitive construct with suffix, a reading far preferable to the hktyrhb of the editors and the authors. hydlwm is here in a sequence rather different from that in 4Q416 2 iii 20 where the sense is more debatable.

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children constitute part of his heritage as father, and he must certainly educate them as the Damascus Document lays down for the Supervisor (CD XIII 16-18 + 4Q266 9 iii 6-7) in its counsels on the subject of choice of spouses and separation. But he must also observe attentively the conduct of the wife whom he has dismissed from his house; this provision probably alludes to the life of the repudiated wife. He must keep himself informed of her situation and of her moral conduct (celibate life, concubinage-adultery, remarriage?) in case the wife or he himself asks for the resumption of living together (see Deut 24:1-4; 1 Cor 7:11).72 In lines 14b-15a, there is envisaged, finally, the case of the separated wife73 who, having left the house, would have likely contracted another marriage. The first husband would then lose track of where she lived.74 There, resumed in several lines, is the collection of counsels (hlab) which the sage gives to the husband-to-be (line 15b) on his future responsibilities in the home after the father would have discharged his over his daughter, compare Sir 7:25-26 and CD XIII 16-17.75 This passage recognises the case of separation on the part of the husband, “the case where he stumbles because of [her” (line 12), thereby lining up with the other attestations of separation in the Instruction (4Q416 2 iv 12-13) and in the Qumran manuscripts without remarriage of the living partner (CD XIII 16-18 = 4Q266 9 iii 4-7, or the prohibitions: 4Q159 2-4 8-10, 11QRT LXIV 10-11 = 4Q524 15-22 1-2). But this last point is not clearly envisaged here.

72 Cf. the Greek papyrus Murabba‘ât 115, dating from 124 CE, which is a valid Jewish contract of remarriage: the husband who had repudiated and sent away his wife for the sake of their common life (spoiled text) is agreeable to being reconciled again and to taking again the same Salome as his legitimate wife, but nothing is said of a marriage of Salome, legal or not, in the intervening period, cf. Benoit – Milik – de Vaux, Les grottes de Murabba‘ât, 243-254, and also a papyrus from Elephantine, Kraeling n. 7 = Grelot n. 48 36-37, citati. 73 Contrary to the construction of l. 12 @gny ~aw, the conjunction ~a with the perfect hÐdrpn ~a should not be read as a case of separation decided by the wife by translating “If she separates herself…” following Rey, 4QInstruction, 148. Restore probably with Deut 24:2. 74 For the expression hynwkm tyb, cf. 4Q415 2 ii 7 and 4Q418 178 3. Having lost track of his wife, he no longer knows anything of her moral situation. 75 25To give one’s daughter in marriage is a good thing, but marry her to a sensible man (hrbx rbg !wbn law) 26You have a wife (after your heart) do not repudiate her, but if you hate her, do not trust her.

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3. Conclusion We have surveyed and read again with particular attention the passages of the Instruction concerning family relationships, and it appears that this wisdom composition follows the biblical tradition, and is pretty close to Ben Sira. However, it brings its share of unique provisions. Children must honour and serve their parents to whom they owe their life and up-bringing because their parents are for them as God is for man, simultaneously Father and Teacher. This is the interpretation of the Fifth Commandment of the Law, associating closely honour towards God and honour towards parents with a view to one’s own honour, their happiness and a long life. Concerning the marriage and life of the couple, the Instruction following Mal 2:14-15, makes of it a matrimonial ‘covenant’ founded on the first divine commandment of the Law in Genesis: God created man in his own image, male and female, in order to be one flesh. It is God who has willed this primordial unity thus, as 4Q416 2 iii 20 – iv insists at length, putting a high value on the original constitutive unity of the life together which the spouses must lead when they have contracted a covenant of marriage; hence as a divine commandment its validity and its permanent character which cannot be put asunder with impunity. Therefore, when the wife leaves the authority of her father, she passes under that of her husband. Several paragraphs are concerned with the duties of the wife towards her father-in-law and her husband. She owes them charity, fidelity and obedience, avoiding all impulses contrary to her commitment. The father of the young girl must evaluate carefully the characters of both parties before giving his daughter in wedlock so that the marriage may be as united and as stable as possible, and he must reveal to his future son-in-law all the faults and blemishes of his daughter in order to avoid a potential nullity of the contract and the curses which would thereby descend on him. But should the occasion arise, the husband has the possibility of separating himself from his wife –the lacunae deprive us of the motives and consequences– and the duty of taking the children into his heritage as his responsibility. When all is said and done, and despite the restorations made to give some intelligibility to passages with lacunae, the Instruction contributes not inconsiderably to the understanding of family relationships in the Judaism of the second century BCE (the date of the composition). The vocabulary and the basis of the theology of the destiny of each person in the mystery of existence (hyhn zr) fit well within the framework of Essene compositions, as has been recently recognised, and the position of the

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author on family relationships is highly comparable to that of the Damascus Document. A number of these basics will be taken up again in Jesus’ teaching on marriage, and on the indissoluble nature of the matrimonial bond, apparently like the Essenes, in opposition to the divorce on any grounds in contemporary Judaism. In Eph 5:21-6:4, Paul uses the model of the conjugal relation of the period to locate the dependence of the Church with relation to Christ in the divine mystery (to. musth,rion), and immediately afterwards he quotes the text of the first commandment to which is attached a promise: the honour due to parents and the duty of parents towards their children. These themes are found in inverse sequence in the Instruction,76 showing thereby the strong influence of wisdom literature in the Palestinian Judaism of the time.

76 See Rey, Family Relationships, 237-242 and 247-255.

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Bibliography Adams, S. L., Rethinking the Relationship Between 4QInstruction and Ben Sira: RdQ 96 (2010) 555-583. Baumgarten, J. M. – Milik, J. T., Qumran Cave 4 XIII. The Damascus Document (4Q266-273) (DJD XVIII), Oxford 1996. Benoit, P. – Milik, J. T. – de Vaux, R., Les grottes de Murabba‘ât. Texte (DJD II), Oxford 1960. Caquot, A., Les textes de Sagesse de Qoumrân (Aperçu préliminaire): RHPR 76 (1996) 1-34. Cazelles, H., rbx, in: Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 4, 193-197. García Martínez, F. – Tigchelaar, E. J. C., The Dead Sea Scrolls. Study Edition, Vols. 2, Leiden-Boston-Köln 1998. Gilbert, M., Une seule chair (Gn 2,24): NRT 100 (1978) 66-78. Grelot, P., Documents araméens d’Égypte (LAPO 5), Paris 1972. Kister, M., Divorce, Reproof, and Other Sayings in the Synoptic Gospels: Jesus Traditions in the Context of ‘Qumranic’ and Other Texts, in: Clements, R. A. – Schwartz, D. R. (eds.), Text, Thought, and Practice in Qumran and Early Christianity (STDJ 84), Leiden-Boston 2009, 195-229. Kister, M., Physical and Metaphysical Measurements Ordained by God in the Literature of the Second Temple Period, in: Chazon, E. G. – Dimant, D. – Clements, R. A. (eds.), Reworking the Bible: Apocryphal and Related Texts at Qumran. Proceedings of a Joint Symposium by the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associate Literature and the Hebrew University Institute for Advanced Studies Research Group on Qumran, 15-17 January, 2002 (STDJ 58), Leiden-Boston 2005, 151-176. Kraeling, E. G., The Brookling Museum Aramaic Papyri: New Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. from the Jewish Colony at Elephantine, New Haven 1953, Kugel, J. L., Some Instances of Biblical Interpretation in the Hymns and Wisdom Writing of Qumran, in: Id. (ed.), Studies in Ancient Midrash, Harvard 2001, 155-169. Joüon, P., Grammaire de l’hébreu biblique, Rome 1923. Lange, A., Wisdom and Predestination in the Dead Sea Scrolls: DSD 2 (1995) 340354, Milik, J. T., Textes hébreux et araméens, in: Benoit, P. – Milik, J. T. – de Vaux, R., Les grottes de Murabba‘ât, 109-114. Morgenstern, M., The Meaning of ~ydlwm tyb in the Qumran Wisdom Texts: JJS 51 (2000) 141-144. Murphy, C. M., Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Qumran Community (STDJ 40), Leiden-Boston-Köln 2002. Puech, é., Dieu le Père dans les écrits péritestamentaires et les manuscrits de la mer Morte: RdQ 78 (2001) 287-310. Puech, é., Apports des manuscrits de Qumrân à la croyance à la résurrection dans le judaïsme ancien, in: Lemaire, A. – Mimouni, S. C. (eds.), Qoumrân et le judaïsme du tournant de notre ère. Actes de la Table Ronde, Collège de France, 16 novembre 2004, Paris-Louvain 2006, 81-110.

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Puech, é., Les fragments eschatologiques de 4QInstruction (4Q416 1 et 4Q418 69 ii, 81-81a, 127): RdQ 85 (2005) 89-119. Puech, é., Qumrân grotte 4 XXVII. Textes araméens, deuxième partie (DJD XXXVII), Oxford 2009. Puech, é., ‘Les œuvres de la Loi’ : mariage et divorce à Qumrân et dans les lettres de Paul, in: Rey, J.-S. (ed.), Les manuscrits de la mer Morte et la littérature paulinienne, Colloque international 14-16 juin 2011 – Metz (STDJ), forthcoming. Rey, J.-S., 4QInstruction: sagesse et eschatologie (STDJ 81), Leiden-Boston 2009. Rey, J.-S., Family Relationships in 4QInstruction and in Eph 5:21-6:4, in: García Martínez, F. (ed.), Echoes from the Caves: Qumran and the New Testament (STDJ 85), Leiden-Boston 2009, 231-255. Schiffman, L. H., Halakhic Elements in the Sapiential Texts from Qumran, in: Collins, J. J. – Sterling, G. E. – Clements, R.A. (eds.), Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls (STDJ 51), Leiden-Boston 2004, 89-100. Strugnell, J. – Harrington, D. J., Qumran Cave 4.XXIV. Sapiential Texts, Part 2: 4QInstruction (Mûsar leMevîn): 4Q415 ff. with a re-edition of 1Q26 and an edition of 4Q423 by Elgvin, T. (DJD XXXIV), Oxford 1999. Tigchelaar, E. J. C., To Increase Learning for the Understanding One. Reading and Reconstructing the Fragmentary Early Jewish Sapiential Text 4QInstruction (STDJ 44), Leiden-Boston-Köln 2001. Wassen, C., Women in the Damascus Document (SBL Academia Biblica 21), Atlanta, GA 2005. Wold, B. G., Reconsidering an Aspect of the Title Kyrios in Light of Sapiential Fragment 4Q416 2 iii: ZNW 95 (2004) 149-160. Wold, B. G., Reconstruction and Reading 4Q416 2 II 21: Comments on Menahem Kister’s proposal: DSD 12 (2005) 204-211.

Illicit Unions, Hybrid Sonship, and Intermarriage in Second Temple Judaism. 1 Enoch, Book of Giants, Jubilees Luca Arcari 1. Introduction Starting from some studies carried out now more than thirty years ago,1 and taken up successively by other scholars,2 in the present article I intend to analyse the various representations of the account of the fall of the watchers in different literary and historico-cultural contexts, referring more particularly to 1 Enoch 6-11, 12-16, to the Book of Giants and to Jubilees. I shall seek to indicate that the mytheme of the illicit union between the watchers and the daughters of men is a cultural construct capable of establishing the self-definition of particular social groups precisely in virtue of its connections, on the level of imagery, with real ideological debates which took place in Second Temple Judaism. Before devoting myself to the subject in detail, I would like, as a preliminary, to set out some of the methodological presuppositions on which my investigation is founded.

1.1 The account of the union between the angel watchers and the women as ‘mytheme’ As is well known, the term ‘mytheme’ was coined by C. Lévi-Strauss by analogy with the term ‘phoneme’, typical of linguistics, precisely by beginning from the consideration of myth as ‘meta-language’, a language that possesses a meaning different from that of the discourse which contains 1 Cf. Suter, Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest, and, more recently, Suter, Revisiting “Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest,” 137-142; Nickelsburg, Enoch, Levi, and Peter. 2 Cf. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, 20-23; Himmelfarb, The Book of the Watchers and the Priests of Jerusalem, 131-135; Tigchelaar, Prophets of the Old and the Day of the End, 165-213; Bianchi, La donna del tuo popolo; Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees 6-59, 126-145; Arcari, “Una donna avvolta nel sole,” 97-149. See also Suter, Temples and the Temple in the Early Enoch Tradition: Memory, Vision, and Expectation, and M. Himmelfarb, Temple and Priests in the Book of the Watchers, the Animal Apocalypse and the Apocalypse of Weeks, 195-218 and 219-236.

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it, the constitutive unity of which is actually represented by ‘mythemes,’ micro-units which can be reassembled in a way that is always different depending on the contexts in which they find themselves re-employed.3 Recent studies have shown the danger inherent in the generalisation of discourse carried out by Lévi-Strauss,4 first of all because the so-called ‘myths’ cannot exist outside the witnesses, be they literary, iconographic or cultic, which transmit them, and, secondly, as far as the specific events of the watchers are concerned, because of the impossibility of assimilating in toto the various accounts of the union of the watchers with the women, originating from Second Temple Judaism, with the sphere of ‘myth’ as understood in the different traditions of study on Greek mythology. The greater difficulty for the question that interests me here, resides in the difficulty in establishing with certainty the diffusion of the account as such, precisely as mythos, over and above the texts which have transmitted it.5 Nevertheless, despite this difficulty, it remains that the tale of the illicit union of the angels with the women occurs, with functions quite different according to the literary contexts in which we find it reused, in numerous Jewish writings of the Second Temple, which do not seem to depend directly on 1 Enoch 6-16. To this is joined the fact that the same account in 1 Enoch 6-16, perhaps the most ancient testimony concerning the illicit union of the angels hailing from Second Temple Judaism,6 seems to be taking up, in an independent way, fragments of accounts, quite similar in 3 See Lévi-Strauss, Anthropologie structurale, 227-255. 4 For studies on Myth, cf. Schrempp – Hansen (eds.), Myth: A New Symposium. For questions connected wiht the superimposition mythos/myth, more recently, see Fow­ ler, Thoughts on Myth, and Casadio, Mythos vs Mito. 5 For a general survey of the problem, cf. Yosiko Reed, Fallen Angels. 6 It is not possible to tackle here the complex questions concerning the relationship between the narrative attested in 1 Enoch 6-16 and Gen 6:1-4, which is the object of fierce scholarly debate; for considerably opposed positions, for example, see Kvanvig, The Watchers Story, Genesis, and Atra-hasis: A Triangular Reading; A. Bedenbender, Traces of Enochic Judaism within the Hebrew Bible; Stuckenbruck, Genesis 6:1-4 as the Basis for Divergent Readings during the Second Temple Period, 17-22, 39-48 and 99-106. For a recent portrayal of the different positions, cf. Bachmann, The Book of the Watchers. My position, however, is that the fragment of narrative which is attested in Genesis could well come under the definition of ‘mytheme’ as understood by Lévi-Strauss, a fragment of narrative greatly developed in 1 Enoch 6-16, prescinding from the problem of historico-literary dependence between the two texts. Precisely because concrete historical and contextual relations between the two texts (Which is prior? Which depends on which?) are impossible to describe with certainty, because of the impossibility of an unambiguous dating of both the witnesses which have come down to us, it is possible to maintain that a narrative outline circulated in an independent form, with regard to which the accounts attested in Genesis and 1 Enoch respectively could well represent independent literary developments.

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their structural profile, which are attested in the so-called Ancient Near East.7 As employed by me in this study to describe the episode of the sin of the watchers with the women, the term ‘mytheme,’ is meant to indicate the authoritativeness of the narrative segment in question for those texts which seem to refer to it, even when a direct textual connection is not demonstrable with the account attested in the Book of Watchers and/or the other textual witnesses originating from the Judaism of the Second Temple which preserve a version of the protological episode.

1.2 Illicit unions, mixed marriages, and genealogical impurities in Second Temple Judaism A study of the portrayals which we define as ‘hybrids,’ for the ancient Jewish world, has to bear in mind 1) that there is no Hebrew or Greek term which can be easily rendered with our ‘hybrid’, 2) that the estimate which the Jews had of the crossing of different species implies a whole value system and vision of the world quite different from ours, in that what we identify as ‘hybrid’ or paradoxical cannot be perfectly superimposed on to what the ancients intended with similar cultural creations. In a recent article,8 Pietro Li Causi has indicated that to carry out an enquiry on the portrayal of hybrids in the ancient world means recognising that with the change of scenarios of theoretic, cultural and technological reference, there is a change not only of the symbolic processes which are activated, but in certain ways, the very nature of the object of study. In the case of the generation deriving from the union between the women and the watchers, that is, the Giants, these can be defined as ‘hybrids’ because of their springing from an illicit union between opposed and incompatible beings, on the one hand, the watchers, belonging to the divine sphere, on the other, the women, or the daughters of men, human creatures. However, this raises a further question. At least at the level of imagery, do there exist links between the union of the watchers with the women and so-called ‘mixed marriages,’ one of those concrete ideological questions which have been amply manifested in Judaism throughout its broad and variegated historical development? In other terms, can the un7 8

On this topic, cf. Bhayro, The Shemihazah and Asael Narrative of 1Enoch 6-11; Kvanvig, Primeval History. Li Causi, Pensare gli ibridi nella cultura greca; Id., Generazione di ibridi, generazione di donne.

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ion between the watchers and the women really be assimilated to ‘mixed marriage,’ just as this was understood from time to time in the concrete debates of Second Temple Judaism? An important study by Christine Hayes has indicated the variform valuations present in Judaism concerning the impurity of ‘others’ and their importance in the formation of groups in Second Temple Judaism just as in the separation between Christianity and rabbinic Judaism.9 Beyond the traditional subdivision between ritual and moral impurity, Hayes has succeeded in distinguishing a third category, that of genealogical impurity which, in her opinion, is fundamental for understanding the various Jewish self-definitions and the ‘Perceived Boundaries’ between Jews and Gentiles. From Hayes’s study, it emerges that the socalled mixed marriage is not an intrinsically impure reality throughout the panorama of Judaism, from the Bible up to the Talmud, but, at the most, a kind of ‘Identity Marker’ which oscillates and is narrow or wide according to the contexts in which it is employed, a cultural creation in the service of specific ideological programmes in which it is this genealogical impurity that is the criterion by which it is possible to describe the matrimonial or sexual union as mixed or not. The remedy for a situation of genealogical impurity often turns out to be possible only by avoiding union with a woman considered to be ‘foreign,’ or keeping separate something which is considered ‘other’ with respect to Jewishness; but this too (Jewishness) emerges as a cultural construct which has been reformulated and refunctionalised depending on the groups operating in the variform historico-cultural reality of Second Temple Judaism.10 9 Hayes, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities. 10 Hayes starts from an analysis of the priestly laws in Lev 12-15, through which she shows the close connection between the system of ritual purity and the covenant between YHWH and his people; in this context, she demonstrates that the system of priestly purity does not have the same validity for the so-called Gentiles, so that they are not intrinsically impure but only as a result of not living according to the laws laid down for the Israelites. It is no accident that in the Hebrew Bible itself, among the inhabitants of the land of Israel, Gentiles are recorded (cf. Josh 6:25) who succeed in becoming part of the community of the covenant, precisely on account of their marriage to Israelites (cf. Num 15:13-16). The impossibility of conversion for non-Israelites, where it is referred to, is often the result of genealogical impurity: in the Pentateuch, the geneaological impurity of the Gentiles is relevant only to the Jewish priesthood so that so-called mixed marriage are possible, at least in principle for those who do not have sacerdotal offices. With Ezra and Nehemiah, the idea becomes established that all Israel is holy like the priesthood, so that the prohibition of mixed marriages becomes valid for all Israel. The extension of the Levitic concept of the ‘holy seed’ to all Israel, under the reforms introduced by Ezra and Nehemiah, implies, as a necessary consequence, the extension of the prohibition of mixed marriages and of genealogical impurity. In the sphere of Second Temple Jewish

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The case of 1 Enoch seems to fall within the ideological scheme identified by Hayes. Preciesly because we find ourselves faced with a protological text, where the events narrated belong to a phase of the original human history and for this reason are foundational, the overlapping of the protological narration and the concrete cultural action of the group(s) which stand behind the text itself becomes the factor able to give substance to the foundational dimension of the text. Although the text of 1 Enoch hardly ever seems, at least explicitly, to connect the union of the watchers with the daughters of men and mixed marriage – the narration contained in the book of Jubilees is more explicit in this respext – the fact that the genealogical impurity of the Giants is something referred to several times in the Book of Watchers, and this time explicitly, seems to strengthen the interpretation advanced by us in with regard to the mixed, and so illicit, nature of the union between the rebel angels and the women (because the starting point for a hybrid and therefore impure race).

2. The Union of the Watchers with the Women and the birth of the Giants in 1 Enoch 6-11 and 12-16 2.1 1 Enoch 6-11 If we take the seminal studies by Paolo Sacchi11 and George W.E. Nickelsburg as our starting point,12 1 Enoch 6-11 ( = Book of Watchers, henceforth BW) seems to represent the oldest nucleus of the so-called Enochic literature, Hayes awards extensive treatment to the Apocrypha (Tobit, Sirach, Epistle of Jeremiah, 1 and 2 Maccabees), the Pseudepigrapha (1 Enoch, Jubilees, 3 Maccabees, III and V Books of the Sibylline Oracles, Testament of Levi), the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QM, 1QS, 4QFlorilegium, 4QMMT), Philo and Josephus. In this context, the influence of the so-called biblical, laws appears to be of great importance, although a certain variety of approaches can be detected: if Philo and Josephus follow the Pentateuch more closely, so that they do not hold non-Jewishness to be an insurmountable obstacle to the preservation of genealogical purity, Jubilees and 4QFlorilegium adopt the concept of the ‘holy seed’ formulated under Ezra and Nehemiah, so that the conversion of Gentiles is impossible and mixed marriages unacceptable. The influence of the reform set in motion after the return from the Babylonian Exile makes itself felt with particular force in documents such as Jubilees and 4QMMT, where mixed marriages are openly condemned, although even in these cases, it is quite clear that there are particular and specific variations as to what constitutes a mixed marriage. 11 Cf. Sacchi, Jewish Apocalyptic and Its History, 32-71; Sacchi, Libro di Enoc (Enoc Etiopico), 26-30. 12 Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 134 ff. See, also, Nickelsburg, Apocalyptic and Myth.

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tradition (and/or narration), datable to approximately between the fourth and the third century BCE. J. J. Collins has challenged a ‘source critical’ reading of BW, by showing that a separate circulation of 1 Enoch 6-11 with regard to the rest of BW cannot be demonstrated. He observes that: The evidence from Qumran shows that these chapters (sc. 1Enoch 6-11) were integrated with the rest of the Book of Watchers in the early second century BCE – the earliest stage for which we actually have documentary evidence.13

Nevertheless, also Collins has been able to show that 1 Enoch 6-11 represents a distinct literary unit with respect to the narration contained in the rest of BW,14 although reintegrated in its turn in the narrative texture of the book by a final redactor probably around the III-II century B.C. according to an ideological programme consistent with the rest of the narrataive.15 As shown by Paolo Sacchi, moreover, chapters 6-11 of BW seem to derive from the Book of Noah16 mentioned elsewhere precisely in the other finite texts in the Enochic pentateuch (cf. 1 Enoch 54-55:2, 60, 65-69:25, 106-107; cf., also, Jubilees 10:13 and, above all, 21:10, where the Enochic and Noachic traditions are considered parallel), although a rupture that is quite evident at the end of chapter 8 indicates, if the thesis is confirmed definitively, that the same Book of Noah has undergone its own rather robust process of re-elaboration.17 13 Collins, Methodological Issues 315. 14 For studies which go in this direction, see Hanson, Rebellion in Heaven; Dimant, 1Enoch 6-11: A Methodological Perspective; Dimant, 1 Enoch 6-11: A Fragment of a Parabiblical Work; Newsom, The Development of 1 Enoch 6-19. In agreement with Nickelsburg, D. Dimant sees in the account relating to the illicit union of Semihazah the most ancient nucleus of the narrative. She has also observed that in the Enochic account the human race is presented in rather passive terms, in a way quite different from the account of the Flood contained in Genesis, where humanity is destroyed because of its wickedness. C. Newsom claims that section 6-11 originally contained only the events relating to Semihazah and to the union of the angels with the women, but challenges the idea that the myth had a circulation independent from the rest of the narrative in 6-19; however, she holds it possible that there is an addition of material relating to Asa’el in a second phase. For a recent analysis which takes up the study of Dimant, cf. Bhayro, The Shemihazah and Asael Narrative, 11-18. 15 Cf., also, Yosiko Reed, Fallen Angels, 29. 16 García Martínez, Qumran and Apocalyptic, 29-30, is of a different opinion. According to him, only 1 Enoch 10:1-3 can be considered an interpolation from the Book of Noah. I do not believe that the criterion of the explicit mention of Noah’s name, by itself, can guarantee that a piece of text belongs to the lost Book of Noah. One consideration, then, is to look for interpolations, or direct and explicit citations (a somewhat risky procedure seeing that we do not possess the Book of Noah in its entirety); another is to establish the provenance of material which has been adapted and rewritten in and for a new narrative context. 17 Cf. Sacchi, Libro di Enoc, 20.

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In the fragment 4QEnocha (4Q201) found at Qumran the Aramaic text of the account contained in 1 Enoch 1:1-10:22 is preserved.18 Column i of the fragment preserves 1 Enoch 1:1-6, col. ii 2:1-5,6, col. iii 6:4-8,1, col. iv 8:3-9,3.6-8, col. v 10:3-4, col. vi 10:21-22. The entire fragment has been dated by Milik to the beginning of the second century BCE19, and, from a paleographical point of view, seems to contain material parallel only to Greek and Ethiopic BW without the other sections successively taken into the Enochic pentateuch (cf., also, the fragment 4QEnochb [4Q202], which contains only excerpta from 1 Enoch 5:9-14:6 Greek and Ethiopic). If the first two columns of the manuscript preserve sections of the general introduction to BW, column iii restores for us the Aramaic version of the episode of the union of the watchers with the women recounted in 1 Enoch 6:4-8:1, more or less identical in substance with the Greek versions transmitted by the Gizeh Papyrus (henceforth, G) and from the Chronographia Universalis of the Byzantine monk George Syncellus (henceforth, S)20 and with the Ethiopic tradition (henceforth, eth.).21 As already noted, column iii of 4Q201 preserves 1 Enoch 6:4-8:1, col. iv 8:3-9:3, 6-8, while cols. v and vi restore for us 1 Enoch 10:3-4 and 21-22, for which it is necessary to have recourse to 4Q20222 for a comparison which is quite exhaustive with the Greek and Ethiopic witnesses, given that column ii of the second manuscript restores 1 Enoch 5:9-6:4 + 6:7-8:1, col. iii 1 Enoch 8:2-9:4, 18 On the importance of the Qumran discoveries for the study of the Aramaic original of 1 Enoch, see VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth; García Martínez, Contribution of Aramaic Enoch Fragments to our Understanding of the Books of Enoch, 45-96, Stuckenbruck, The Early Traditions Related to 1 Enoch from the Dead Sea Scrolls: An Overview and an Assessment, 41-64. Concerning the new edition of Fragment 4Q201 edited by Langlois, Le premier manuscrit, we hold the reservations expressed by Puech, Notes sur le manuscrit araméen 4Q201, to be valid. 19 Cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 141. On the basis of manuscript’s consonantal orthography and a misconstrual of the Vorlage’s pe as a yod, this scholar argues, however, that the manuscript was copied from an older archetype, which would thus have dated around “the third century at the very least”. 20 For the text of S, cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 21-25 and 29-30. On general questions concerning S, see Arcari – Del Verme, Il Papiro Gizeh, 24-45. 21 For the different versions of 1 Enoch in recent treatments, cf. Knibb, The Book of Enoch or Books of Enoch? The Textual Evidence for 1 Enoch, 21-40 and Erho, The Book of Enoch and the Ethiopian Manuscript Tradition. For the Greek versions, cf. Arcari – Del Verme, Il Papiro Gizeh. For the editio princeps of G, a papyrus found near the acropolos of Akhmîm, the ancient Panopolis, during the excavations of 1886-1887, cf. Bouriant, Fragments grecs du Livre d’Énoch, and Lods, Le Livre d’Hénoch. On general questions concerning the Greek version of G, cf. Arcari – Del Verme, Il Papiro Gizeh, 45-74. For the edition of the Greek text of 1 Enoch, cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece.  22 Dated by Milik to the end of the II century BCE The manuscript consists of 26 fragments rearranged by the editor into 5 columns: cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 164.

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col. iv 10:8-12. It should be emphasised that a good part of the Aramaic fragments have been reconstructed by Milik on the basis of comparison with the Greek and Ethiopic texts. Some scholars have considered Milik’s reconstructional procedures as too invasive and, on this account, rather hazardous, above all because of the highly fragmentary state in which the manuscripts have come down to us and because of the difficulties connected with a unambiguous reading of them.23 In this matter, however, I prefer to accept the reconstructions advanced by Milik, given that the recent readings proposed, other than some specific cases, do not seem to have threatened substantially the philological work carried out by the first editor.24 In 4QEnochb 1 ii 2-29,25 the sin of the watchers is committed at the time when “[there began to multiply … the sons of men]” (l. 2: aymwyb aXna ynb waygX) or when “there were born to them daughters who were] pleasant and [fair” (ll. 2-3: !bjÐw© !rypX Îtnb !whl hdlyta). The watchers, the “sons of heaven” in Aramaic (l. 3: aymX ynb), see the women and desire them (l. 3: wdmxtaw). Their chief, Shemihazah (which means “my name has seen” in Aramaic), reveals to his angels his fear at their possible defection with regard to the ‘plan’ (the text uses the peal, with the infinitive construct of dk[). All are bound with an oath (l. 7: amwm, according to the reconstruction of the editor; cf., also, 4Q201 [4QEna] 1 iii 1) to carry out the ‘project’ (l. 7: $lm;26 cf., also, 4Q201 [4QEna] iii 2.5) to the end. After a list of names of the “chiefs of the chiefs of the groups of ten” (cf. l. 17: Î=atrÐX[ ynbr !OÎwnaÐ !yla; cf., also, 4Q201 iii 13), these take women for themselves, and begin “[to go in to them and to defile themselves with them” (cf. l. 19: !hb hbatsalw !hyl[ l[mlÐ; cf., also, 4Q201 iii 14), an act which in the narrative coincides with “[teaching them] magic and spells [and the cutting of roots] [and revealing plants to them]” (cf. ll. 19-20: aybX[ !hl hywxalwÐ // ÎayXrX [jqmlw 27tpÐXklw atXÎrxl !yna hplalw; cf., also, 4Q201 iii 15).28 Some of the terms present in the Aramaic fragments in this section of 23 Cf. VanderKam, Some Major Issues; Stuckenbruck; Revision, 13-18, and the observations of Langlois, Le premier manuscript, 44-50. Readings which differ in some cases and agree in others, have been advanced by Beyer, Die aramäischen Texte, 232-240. 24 Cf. the recent observations of Puech, Józef Tadeusz Milik; Puech, Notes sur le manuscrit araméen 4Q201. 25 Cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 165-166. 26 The reconstruction of Beyer, Die aramäischen Texte, a. l., coincides with that of Milik. The letter mem of the word that has been reconstructed is based on the parallel provided by 4QEnocha. 27 Beyer, Die aramäischen Texte, reads tXÐxnlw atXrxÎl. 28 On Watchers’ instruction on the cutting of roots and herbs in 1 Enoch 7:1 and 8:3a, see Chrysovergi, The Watchers’ Instruction.

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the narrative seem interesting to me. The angels are explicitly described as ‘sons of heaven’, aymX ynb (in G ui`oi. ouvranou/), an appellative which implies their origin from a sphere that is ‘other’ compared to the world of men; the mention of the aXna ynb (oi` ui`oi. tw/n avnqrw,pwn) in 4Q202 ii 2 also recalls the contrast between the two spheres to which they belong: on the one hand, the sons of men (and the daughters who originate from them: cf. 4Q202 ii 2-3); on the other hand, the sons of heaven. The deed which the angels intend to perform is explicitly described as $lm. In Dan 4:24, the term is employed to indicate the advice from Daniel to Nebuchadnezzar after the interpretation of the sovereign’s dream, that of the great tree in the midst of the earth and of the watcher coming from heaven who orders that it be cut (cf. Dan 4:1-15). The ‘advice’ of Daniel, after he has carefully listened to the ruler’s account, is identified with the global interpretation of the dreams, that is, to redeem the sins committeed by the sovereign with alms and with acts of justice towards the afflicted (cf. Dan 4:24). At Qumran, the substantive is attested in the Book of Giants (4Q531 xiv 2, xxvi 1) and in 4QMess Ar (4Q534) i 1 7, to indicate what emerges from a consultation, a piece of advice or a resolution (corresponding to the Greek gnw,mh, the term that we find in G and in S); the Ethiopic has m∂kr, counsel, deliberation, judgement.29 The action designated generically with the term $lm is described in more detail in what follows (4Q202 ii 18-19 = 1 Enoch 7:1). Milik has reconstructed the Aramaic text thus: 30

!hb hbatsalw !hyl[ l[ml] wyrXw

And they began [to go in them, and to defile themselves with them G: kai. h;rxanto eivsporeu,esqai pro.j auvta.j kai. miai,nesqai evn auvtai/j And they began to go in to them, and to defile themselves with them S: kai. h;rxanto miai,nesqai evn auvtai/j e[wj tou/ kataklusmou/.31 And they began to defile themselves with them until the flood

The verb ll[ indicates entering into someone/something, so that the peal form, infinitive construct, beyond the more generic entrance into the dwellings of the daughters of men, could be rendering the idea of the sexual act itself, with the man’s entering the woman to fertilise her,32 29 Cf. Langlois, Le premier manuscript, 197. 30 Milik, The Books of Enoch, 166. 31 Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 22. 32 The sexual nature of the angelic sin in Enoch is well attested in ancient Christian literature: cf. Ps.-Clem., hom. 8.11-15, Just., II apol. 2.5, although these witnesses indicate that the sexual sin of the watchers was a result of their descent and not their principal

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while the ithpaal, again infinitive construct, hbatsa (cf., also, bas in 4Q2011 vi 4), refers to the contamination that derives from contact, rendered by the Greek with the verb miai,nesqai. It is interesting to observe that the Ethiopic has the verb dammara, to unite, mix, connected with the term tedmert, indicating marriage, which, according to Knibb, would derive from the confusion between the Aramaic amj and [mj, “defile” and “mix” respectively.33 The angels teach the women sorcery and spell-binding (4Q201 1 iii 15 hpXkÐw hXrx !yna hplalw // 4Q202 1 ii 19 atpÐXklw atXÎrxl !yna hplalw “... and (they began) to teach them sorcery and spell-binding...”;34 G records kai. evdi,daxan auvta.j farmakei,aj kai. evpaoida.j “... and they taught them spells and enchantments...”,35 while S omits the detail). The object of the angelic teaching is further explained by reference to the “cutting of the roots” and to the use of plants as instruments with which to dominate nature, techniques that were previously unknown revealed by the superior wisdom of which the angels are the bearers36 (cf. 4Q201 1 iii 15 37Î!ybs[ !hl hywxalw !yXrX [jqmw // 4Q202 1 ii 19-20: 38aybX[ !hl hywxalwÐ ÎayXrX [jqmlw “and (they began) to teach them ... [the cutting the roots; and they showed them herbs]”; G renders the Aramaic with r`izotomi,aj,39 kai. ta.j bota,naj evdh,lwsan auvtai/j40 “... and to reveal to them the cutting of roots and plants”). The Semitic root h.rš renders, in Hebrew just as in Syriac and in Ethiopic, practices considered as magic because intended to dominate nature with a purpose contrary to the divine plan. The Hebrew @vk is often rendered in the LXX, with farmak-, and the use of the Greek term farmakei,a for the Aramaic hvr aim whch was more that of wanting to give instruction rather than committing impurity with the women. The account in Test. Reuben 5, Gen 6:2 and Jub. 4:15 is different. There, the angelic sin takes place at the instigation of the women who seduce the angels and force them into defilement. This also seems to emerge from the Greek traditions of Enoch used by S: cf. Arcari, Are Women the ‘aition’? 33 Cf. Knibb, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch II, 77 and Bhayro, Shemihazah and Asael Narrative, 138-139. 34 Milik, The Books of Enoch, 150-151, 166-167. 35 Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 22. 36 In 4Q201 iv 1-2 we find the substantive ÐXwt (!yÐXwt according to Milik’s reconstruction), corresponding to the Greek sofi,a of S. The Aramaic term is rather obscure, but it is quite probable that it is equivalent to the Hebrew hyvwt, wisdom, the technical ability to do something. 37 Milik’s reconstruction The Books of Enoch, 150. 38 Milik’s reconstruction The Books of Enoch, 166. 39 As noted by Chrysovergi, Watchers’ Instruction 16-18, the term r`izotomi,a is not attested in the Septuagint, but it occurs together with the term r`izoto,moi in Theophrastus’ History of Plants, for example 9.8 (see also Black, The Book of Enoch 125). 40 Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 22.

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seems to refer to the idea of the magic potion as a wicked creation.41 For the second term reconstructed by Milik in 7:1, tpÐvklw, it has been observed that the completion could derive from a too literal retroversion from G into Aramaic, evpw|dh, (evpaoida,j), spell.42 Nickelsburg, in particular, has indicated that the text could also be reconstructed with atpvÐa,43 given that in Daniel the same root appears within lists of some ‘magicians’ (cf. 1:20, 2:2, 10, 27; 4:4; 5:7, 11, 15; cf., also, 1QApGn XX 19).44 From 4Q201 1 iv 1-22 // 4Q202 1 iii 1-16 (= 1 Enoch 8:2-9:3-4, 6-8),45 there emerges with greater clarity the anthropological horizon which lies beneath the angelic revelation of magic, spells and secrets of plants and/ or magic potions. The focus of the account is on some of the chiefs of the watchers (already mentioned in 4Q201 1 iii 5-12 // 4Q202 1 ii 15-17 = 1 Enoch 6:7-8) and on their defiling actions (cf. 1 Enoch 8:3): if Shemihazah continues to teach “spells and [the cutting of the roots]” (4Q201 1 iv 1: !yXrX [jqmw wÐrbx // G: epaÎoÐida.j kai. r`izotomi,aj // S: e;ti de. kai. o` prw,tarcoj

41 Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 197. It is interesting to note that in Rev 22:15 those excluded from the heavenly Jerusalem are identified with a group of the impure held to be such in the light of a perspective that is truly sacerdotal. Particularly close to the sacerdotal tradition are the references to idolaters (oi` eivdwlola,trai, cf. Ezek 20:7, Exod 22:20, Deut 13:20, 17:2-7), murderers (oi` fonei/j, cf. Num 35:16, Lev 24:17, Exod 21:12, Deut 19:11, 13), prostitutes (oi` po,rnoi; prostitution is one of the impurities par excellence, cf. Sir 23:16, and thus often appears linked to idolatry: cf. 1 Chr 5:25, Ps 72:27, Jer 3:6, Ezek 23:19). The farmako,j cited by the seer of Patmos, rather than indicating a poisoner, seems to refer to one who produces magic potions. In the LXX, the term occurs precisely to indicate one who heals by means of potions, cf. Exod 7:11, 9:11, while, in Deut 18:10, the Greek term refers to a precise category of the impure, in a context which speaks of divinatory practices of a clearly ‘pagan’ mark. From Homeric Greek on, words derived from farmak- have to do with something that manipulates nature for human purposes. They can also indicate medicine used to cure the wounded (cf. Il. 4.190, 11.846, 13.932, Od. 4.230, 11.741, 22.94) or the poison which puts an end to life in a sudden way (cf. Od. 1.261, 2.329). Chrisovergi, Watchers’ Instruction, 20-21, suggests that the constant trade in aromatics, herbs and spices and the knowledge of pharmaceutical plants, as well as the boost provided by Hellenistic pharmacology, served as the basis for the rise of the uncontrolled promotion of herbal drugs by travelling practitioners. The author of BW and his contemporaries may have had to deal with this situation and this could have been one of the reasons that herbal medicine is so negatively depicted in the Book. 42 The term enters into the technical terminology of Greek magic (cf. Plat., leg. X 909 b), although, even in this case, the connections with medical matters are not to be underestimated (cf. resp. 426 b). For Greek terminology concerning what is described, in a way which is not always fortunate, as ‘magic’, cf. Graf, La magie dans l’antiquité. 43 For the presence of the root in Akkadian, to indicate the recitation of prayers and incantations, cf. Largement, Magie I, 715-716. 44 Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 197. 45 For the Aramaic text, cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 157-158, 170-171. For the Greek texts, cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 22.

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auvtw/n Semiaza/j evdi,daxen † ei-nai ovrga.j † kata. tou/ noo,j, kai. r`iz, aj botanw/n th/j gh/j, “Moreover, their first chief, Shemihazah, taught † that there should be anger [pl.] † against the mind and roots of the plants of the earth”46), Hermoni is generous in revealing to human beings the methods through which to “be freed from spells”, as well as “magic, sorcery, skill” (4Q201 1 iv 1-2: 47!yÐXwtw wmjrxw wpXÎkÐ ÎarXml Xrx @la ynmrx “Hermoni taught the loosing of spells,] magic, sorcery, and skill” // G: A v rmarw.j evpaoidw/n luth,rion, “Armaros [taught] the resolving of enchantments” // S: o` de. e`nde,katoj Farmaro.j evdi,daxe farmakei,aj, evpaoidi,aj, sofi,aj, kai. evpaoidw/n luth,ria, “the eleventh, Pharmaros taught charms, spells, [magical] skills and the release of spells”). Baraq’el, furthermore, teaches about “the signs of the lights” (4Q201 1 iv 2:!yqrb yXxn // G: avstrologi,aj // S: avstroskopi,an), Kokab’el about “the signs of the stars” (4Q201 1 iv 3: !ybkwk yXx ÎnÐ // G: ta. shmeiwtika, // S: avstrologi,an), Zeq’el about “the signs of the lightning” (4Q201 1 iv 3: !yqyz yXxn // G: avsteroskopi,an // S: averoskopi,an), ’Ar‘teqof about “the signs of the earth” (4Q201 1 iv 3: Î[ra yXxn // G: ? // S: ta. shmei/a th/j gh/j), Shamsi’el about those “of the sun” (4Q201 1 iv 4: XÐmX yXxn // G: ? // S: ta. shmei/a tou/ h`li,ou) and Sahari’el about those “of the moon” (4Q201 1 iv 4 [Milik’s reconstruction]: rÐhX ÎyXxn // G: selhnagwgi,aj // S: ta. shmei/a th/j selh,nhj). Taken together, all these acts have to do only with the revelation of secrets (4Q201 1 iv 4-5: !hyXnl !yzr hÎylglÐ Î wyrX !hlkw “And they all began to reveal] secrets to their wives” // G: ? // S: pa,ntej ou-toi h;rxanto avnakalu,ptein ta. musth,ria tai/j gunaixi.n auvtw/n kai. toi/j te,knoij auvtw/n, “All these began to reveal mysteries to their wives and their children” [the final precision is an addition with regard to the Aramaic text]), a revelation which leads one lot of men straight to death (cf. 4Q201 1 iv 5). The term zr, rendered by G with musth,rion, is attested in Daniel (cf. Dan 2:18, 27, 30) and its meaning emerges clearly from some of the Qumran manuscripts (cf., for example, 1QS, 1Q/4QInstruction, 4QMysteries [1Q27/4Q299-301]),48 where it serves to affirm the idea of a revelation which only some (in primis, the Teacher of Righteousness) are able to receive and explain, because invested with a similar authority from YHWH himself. On the other hand, revelation that has not been authorised, like that of the watchers, is a wicked 46 Chrysovergi, Watchers’ Instruction, 10, translates this passage as follows: “And their leader, Semiazas, taught that rages are against the mind, and roots of herbs of the earth.” 47 Cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 157-158. 48 On this term, and on its importance for some of the concepts present at Qumran, cf. Elgvin, The Mystery to Come; Gladd, Revealing the Mysterion; Ashton, ‘Mystery’ in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

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deed, because contrary to the will of YHWH, as well as leading to the death of human beings. A further detail relating to the impurity of the act committed by the watchers is found in 1 Enoch 10:11, when Shemihazah and the other watchers unite themselves to the women. 4Q202 1 iv 8-9 has been reconstructed for the most part by Milik on the basis of G:49 [[]dwa[w lakym an !htamwjb !hb hbatsal ayXnÐl wrbxta yd yhÎwrbx lwÐklw aÎzxyÐmXl Go, Michael, and] make known to Semihazah and to all his companions who associated with [women to defile themselves with them in their uncleannes ... G: Poreu,ou kai. dh,lwson Semiaza/| kai. toi/j loipoi/j toi/j su.n auvtw/| tai/j gunaixi.n migei/sin, mianqh/nai evn auvtai/j evn avkaqarsi,a| auvtw/n ... Go, reveal to Semiaza and his associates who have united themselves with the women to defile themselves with them in their uncleanness ... S: Poreu,ou( Micah,l( dh/son Semiaza/n kai. tou.j a;llouj su.n auvtw/| tou.j summige,ntaj tai/j qugatra,si tw/n avnqrw,pwn tou/ mianqh/nai evn auvtai/j evn th/| avkaqarsi,a| auvtw/n ... Go, Michael, bind Semiaza and the others with him who have mixed up together with the daughters of the men to defile themselves with them in their uncleanness ...

The verb bas seems to be what corresponds to miai,nw (ma-sana in Ethiopic), one of the technical terms with which is indicated in Greek the state of impurity which arises following a contamination which, in its turn, necessitates an act of reparation which is able to rebalance the preceding status of purity.50 G seems to specify further the principal cause of such a contamination, or the fact that the watchers unite themselves to women who are “in their uncleanness,” evn avkaqarsi,a| auvtw/n, a text reconstructed in Aramaic by Milik with !htamwjb (rekws in Ethiopic).51 Some scholars52 have held that this detail is to be explained in the light of what is laid down in Lev 15:19-24, in connection with the impurity of the woman during her menstrual period.53 But if Wright has observed that the reference to menstruation appears to be in contradiction with the detail 49 For the Aramaic text, cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 175. For the Greek text, cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graeces 25. 50 Cf. Parker, Miasma. 51 The substantive hamj is a terminus technicus indicating the status of ritual impurity: cf., for example, Lev 5:3 (referring to men), 15:25 (referring to women), Ezek 24:11 (referring to things). 52 Cf. Dimant, 1 Enoch 6-11: A Fragment of a Parabiblical Work 232, and Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 184. 53 Cf., also, 1 Enoch 15:4. In CD v 6-7 and PssSol 8:12 it is said clearly that to unite oneself to a woman during the period of the menstrual cycle is one of the principal causes of sexual impurity.

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of the conception which is central to the account;54 if Kvanvig, by contrast, has shifted the attention on to a concept quite widespread in the ancient world, that of the generation of the male sperm in the blood of the woman;55 and if according to Himmelfarb the detail of the impurity of the women should be read in the light of 1 Enoch 15:4, so that the blood would refer to their violated virginity,56 more recently, Loader has stated that the impurity referred to in the text could well identify an attribute belonging to the women themselves as such in relation to the purity of which the angels are the bearers (because belonging to a sphere that, if not opposed to, is different from that of man): In other words, it expressed the understanding that all human women were unclean for the Watchers as sexual partners at all times because they were of a different kind. For them, therefore, the sexual intercourse was not as innocent as the natural defilement which takes places through sexual intercourse or through touching a corpse, neither of which meets moral disapproval. For them, rather, it is a forbidden relationship, so that their defilement falls into the category of abomination.57

From the sexual union between the watchers and the women were born the so-called Giants. In 4Q201 1 iii 16-22 // 4Q202 1 ii 20-25b ( = 1 Enoch 7:3 ff.)58 the text is somewhat mutilated, as a result of which the reconstruction can be only highly hypothetical, based exclusively on a retroversion from the Greek and the Ethiopic. The Giants (in the Aramaic text reconstructed by Milik the term which identifies these beings is !yrbg, corresponding to the gi,gantaj mega,louj of G) are “three thousand cubits high” (4Q201 1 iii 16 // 4Q202 1 ii 20-21: hma !ypla ttltk !ymr // G: evk phcw/n triscili,wn), and their principal activity consists in “devouring the work of all men, until men could no longer sustain them” (4Q201 1 iii 18 // 4Q202 1 ii 21-22: !hl hqpsal aXna wlykÐy alw aXna ynb lk lm[ // G: oi[tinej kathsqi,osan tou.j ko,pouj tw/n avnqrw,pwn. W ` j de. ouvk evdunh,qhsan auvtoi/j oi` a;nqrwpwi evpicorhgei/n “Who consumed all the acquisitions of men. And when men could no longer sustain them...”). These monstrous beings, precisely because men were no longer able to provide for their sustenance, end up by plotting to kill men and devour them (4Q201 1 iii 18-19 // 4Q202 1 ii 23: !wna lkmlÐw© aXnal hljql !yrXq Îayrbg wwhw “But the Giants conspired to slay men, and to devour them” // G: oi` gi,gantej evto,lmhsan 54 55 56 57 58

Wright, The Origin of Evil Spirits, 130. Kvanvig, Gen 6,3 and the Watcher Story, 291. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, 21. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality, 15. For the Aramaic text, cf. Milik, the Books of Enoch, 150, 166. For the Greek text, cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 22.

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evp’auvtou,j, kai. kathsqi,osan tou.j avnqrw,pouj “The Giants turned against them, and devoured the men”). At the same time, the Giants began to sin “against all the birds and animals of the earth [and against the reptiles which move on the earth and in the waters] and in the sky, and the fishes of the sea, and some to devour the flesh [of the others (?), and they drank the blood]” (4Q201 1 iii 20-21 // 4Q202 1 ii 23-25: hmd !ytX wwhw !ylal !yla !hÐrXb lkmlw© hmy ynnOwO hymXÎbwÐ Î hymbw 59h[ra l[ !yXxr yd 60hyXxrw hÐ[ra tÎwyxÐw© @nOk 61lk lbwOq // G: kai. h;rxanto a`marta,nein evn toi/j peteinoi/j kai. toi/j ÎqÐhri,oij kai. e`rpetoi/j kai. toi/j ÎivÐcqu,sin, kai. avllh,lwn ta.j sa,rkaj katesqi,ein, kai. to. ai-ma e;pinon “And they began to sin against birds, and beasts, and reptiles, and fish, and to devour one another’s flesh, and drink the blood”). At this point, the Aramaic and Greek versions diverge in some details, but in substance the narrative follows more or less the same pattern of events: in Milik’s reconstruction, if the result of this whole series of acts is the accusation on the part of the earth with regard to the Giants, for all that had been done on it (4Q201 1 iii 22 // 4Q202 1 ii 25 db[tm 62hb hm lk l[ !y[ÐyXÎr l[ h[ra tlbqÐ “[Then the earth made the accusation against] the wicked, [concerning everything which was done upon it]”), and G records explicitly that the earth pleads against the a;nomoi (to,te h` gh/ evne,tucen kata. tw/n avno,mwn “Then the earth pleaded against the lawless ones”). In a recent article, M. Goff has seen in the insatiable appetite of the Giants one of the principle keys with which to understand the crimes with which these beings defile themselves in 1 Enoch: murder, cannibalism and feeding themselves with blood.63 This reading is certainly fascinating, and undoubtedly takes account of the development of the narrative as they emerge from successive witnesses (chiefly G and the Ethiopic). But, as for the Aramaic version of 1 Enoch 6-11, I do not think that one can state with certainty that cannibalism is exactly one of the crimes being referred to. Milik reconstructs 4Q201 1 iii 21 // 4Q202 1 ii 25 with !ylal !yla !hÐrXb hmy ynnw lkmlw©,64 where it is not at all clear to what the second !yla refers (other human beings or the animals mentioned previously?). If the act of drinking blood, which is explicit in the Aramaic text (4Q202 1 ii 25a: ÎaÐmd !ytX,65 G: kai. to. ai-ma e;pinon), alludes to a form of non-ritual consumption of the blood of animals hunted by the Giants, then it seems fair to me to 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

In 4Q202 1 ii 24, Milik reads a[ra ypna (cf. The Books of Enoch, 166). In 4Q202 1 ii 25, Milik reads aÐyXxÎrw (cf. The Books of Enoch, 166). In 4Q202 1 ii 22, Milik reads lwk (cf. The Books of Enoch, 166). In 4Q202 1 ii 25, Milik reads am (cf. The Books of Enoch, 166). Goff, Monstrous Appetites, 20-23. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 150, 166. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 166.

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hold – against G (kai. avllh,lwn ta.j sa,rkaj katesqi,ein), which clearly already represents a further interpretative stage with regard to the Aramaic text that has come down to us – that the act of eating should be referred to the flesh of the animals and not to human beings mentioned in the text, much less to the Giants devouring one another. As far as 1 Enoch 6-11 is concerned, what emerges is that the union of the watchers with the women, which is intrinsically impure because they belong to a sphere that is different from, not to say opposed to that from which the angels originate, involves the birth of monstrous beings, the fruit of an illicit mingling, endowed with an abnormal appetite which induces them to defile themselves with a series of impurities: hunting forbidden animals, eating their flesh and drinking their blood in a way that is contrary to that laid down by YHWH. The whole narrative serves to show that the hybrid generation of the Giants, on account of its derivation from a mingling subversive of ineffable plans, is per se something that is chaotic and destructive. It is no accident that, in 1 Enoch 10:13-19 (cf. 4Q204 1 v 1-966), the promise of the destruction of the sons of the watchers, those who have done such evil to men (4Q204 1 v 2-3: ÎaXna w[yXra ydb ayry[Ð Î ynbw ayrzmm txwr lwk trkaÐ “[Destroy all the spirits of the bastards and the sons of the Watchers, because they made men to act wickedly]” // G: avpo,leson pa,nta ta. pneu,mata tw/n kibdh,lwn kai. tou.j ui`ou.j tw/n evgrhgo,rwn dia. to. avdikh/sai tou.j avnqrw,pouj “And destroy all the souls of the spurious ones and the sons of the Watchers, because they have wronged the men”), is connected with the appearing of a plant of justice (4Q204 1 v 4: ajXwq tbcÎ! azxttw ad[yÐ “And let the plant of righteousness [appear] ...”// G: kai. avnafanh,tw to. futo.n th/j dikaiosu,nhj “and let the plant of righteousness appear ...”), while the order of the Creation is re-established in the cultivation of the earth “in justice” (cf. 4Q204 1 v 7: !ynlya bÐcnOtt hlwOkw© jXwqbÎ a[ra lk db[tt !ydabÐ “[Then all the earth shall be tilled] in righteousness, and it shall all be planted [with trees...” // G: to,te evrgasqh,setai pa/sa h` gh/ evn dikaiosu,nh kai. futeuqh,setai de,ndron evn auvth/| “And then the whole earth will be tilled in righteousness, and will be planted a tree on it ...”). 2.2 1 Enoch 12-16 According to Nickelsburg,67 the section which today is found in 1 Enoch 12-16 had its origin in a phase successive to that of 1 Enoch 6-11, going 66 For the Aramaic text, cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 189. For the Greek text, cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 25-26. 67 Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 226-232.

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back more or less to the second century BCE. Here the theme of the original fault of the Watchers is treated with further details. The text seems to take up and amplify the content of 1 Enoch 6-11. Here we find a further reinterpretation of the same tale recorded in Gen 6:1-4 on the basis of 1 Enoch 6-11. The sin of the Watchers is specified (mingling of the divine and human spheres); the traditions of Shemihazah and Asa’el are combined to the advantage of the latter; a stronger emphasis is laid on the generation of the evil spirits; the figure of Enoch assumes a central role analogous to that of the archangels in 1 Enoch 6-11. To 6-11’s themes of a rigid separation between the human and the heavenly sphere and of the origin of the evil spirits is linked the explanation of the nature of the angelic sin: an out-andout confusion between the human and the divine has taken place. The narrative develops the theme of the mission of Enoch among the watchers (1 Enoch 12:3-13:3), followed by the watchers’ request for him to intercede for them before YHWH (13:4). Enoch falls asleep and during this extraordinary state of consciousness receives the task of visiting the watchers who are gathered in the territory of Dan (at Abel-Main, between Lebanon and Senir) and informing them about the vision which he has received (13:8). Over and above communicating to them the content of the revelation, Enoch reports to the watchers his transmission of their plea for pardon before YHWH, but tells them that this has not been accepted (cf. 14:1-7). The whole section focuses on the theme of the other-worldly journey of the patriarch, as a result of which Enoch succeeds in instructing the watchers on their fate of condemnation and on the reasons why their plea for pardon was not accepted (cf. 14:8-16:4). The first reference to the sin of the watchers is found in 12:4, where Enoch is summoned by the angels to report the divine message. The text is not preserved in the Aramaic fragments, except, in a limited way for the initial scene, the call of Enoch while he blesses the Lord, and that in a highly fragmented state (cf. 4Q204 1 v 19). G, by contrast, provides us with the complete text of the passage in question (1 Enoch 12:4-6): E ` nw,c, o` grammateu.j th/j dikaiosu,nhj, poreu,ou kai. ei-pe toi/j evgrhgo,roij tou/ ouvranou/ oi[tinej avpolipo,ntej to.n ouvrano.n to.n u`yhlo,n, to. a`gi,asma th/j sta,sewj tou/ aivwn/ oj, meta. tw/n gunaikw/n evmia,nqhsan, kai. w[sper oi` ui`oi. th/j gh/j poiou/sin, kai. e;labon e`autoi/j gunai/kaj. A v fanismo.n me,gan hvfani,sate th.n gh/n, kai. ouvk e;stai u`mi/n eivrh,nh ou;te a;fesij. Kai. peri. w-n cai,rousin tw/n ui`wn/ auvtw/n, to.n fo,non tw/n avgaphtw/n auvtw/n o;yontai, kai. evpi. th/| avpwlei,a| tw/n ui`wn/ auvtw/n stena,xousin kai. dehqh,sontai eivj to.n aivwn/ a, kai. ouvk auvtoi/j e;stai eivj e;leon kai. eivrh,nhn.68

68 Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 27.

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As observed by Nickelsburg, the section “prepares for the emphases and nuances of 12:1-16:4 as a whole.”69 The account emphasises the sin committed by the watchers with the women, shifting the attention on to the voluntary act of the angels and leaving the role of the women in second place. There is mention of the violence committed by the Giants, a consequence of the act of primordial contamination. The watchers abandoned the height of heaven (avpolipo,ntej to.n ouvrano.n to.n u`yhlo,n), the sanctuary of their eternal position (to. a`gi,asma th/j sta,sewj tou/ aivwn/ oj). They defiled themselves with the women (meta. tw/n gunaikw/n evmia,nqhsan), just as human beings do, they took women for themselves, (kai. w[sper oi` ui`oi. th/j gh/j poiou/sin, kai. e;labon e`autoi/j gunai/kaj), bringing great destruction on the earth (avfanismo.n me,gan hvfani,sate th.n gh/n). The theme of the illicit mingling of incompatible planes is presented particularly clearly by some of the terms employed. By coming down to the earth, the watchers have abandoned the height of heaven. Heaven is described as a true sanctuary; in the LXX, the term a`gi,asma, sacrality/ holy, can also indicate the real sanctuary (cf., for example, Am 7:13), and here alludes to the place where they were eternally placed and which they could not abandon (th/j sta,sewj tou/ aivwn/ oj). The terminus technicus miai,nw returns to indicate the contamination with which the watchers have defiled themselves, a details further clarified by the fact that they have behaved like humans, acting in a sphere foreign to them and in ways which cannot be theirs. In this context, according to a vision of the world that is typically patriarchal, the women are ‘taken’ by the watchers, and if this does not imply actual sexual violence, it certainly alludes to a way typical of the ancient world of representing (and basing) marriage, a cultural construct which sanctions male authority over women and their right to compel them to carrying out the legitimate procreational sexual act.70 The result of the mingling of incompatible planes is the destruction (avfanismo,j) which is manifested on the earth, a reference to the criminal activities of the Giants on it. A further allusion to the Giants seems to 69 Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 235. 70 Cf. Johnson–Ryan, Sexuality in Greek and Roman Society, 146-162.

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return at the end of the section when Enoch reports that there will be neither peace nor pardon for the watchers (kai. ouvk e;stai u`mi/n eivrh,nh ou;te a;fesij // kai. ouvk auvtoi/j e;stai eivj e;leon kai. eivrh,nhn), they will see the slaughter of their loved ones71 (to.n fo,non tw/n avgaphtw/n auvtw/n o;yontai), they will sigh deeply and pray72 for ever afterwards for, or as a result of their ruin (kai. evpi. th/| avpwlei,a| tw/n ui`wn/ auvtw/n stena,xousin kai. dehqh,sontai eivj to.n aivwn/ a). In the ensuing portion of the account, Enoch is sent to Asa’el to report the judgement decreed for him, i.e. that he will not have peace (cf. 1 Enoch 13:1). The motive for his condemnation is brought back, in this case, to the other transgression with which the watchers were stained and recorded previously (1 Enoch 13:1-2): Ouvk e;stai soi eivrh,nh. Kri,ma me,ga evxh/lqen kata. sou/ dh/sai se, kai. avnoch. kai. evrw,thsi,j soi ouvk e;stai peri. w-n e;deixaj avdikhma,twn kai. peri. pa,ntwn tw/n e;rgwn tw/n avsebeiw/n kai. th/j avdiki,aj kai. th/j a`marti,aj, o[sa u`pe,deixaj toi/j avnqrw,poij.73 You will not have peace. A great sentence has come out against you, to bind you and it will be for you neither rest, nor petition, because of the unrighteous deeds that you revealed, and because of all the works of blasphemy and wrong and sin which you have shown to the men.

There is no truce or possibility of challenge (kai. avnoch. kai. evrw,thsi,j soi ouvk e;stai) because of the injustices which the angels have shown (peri. w-n e;deixaj avdikhma,twn), through all their wicked deeds, through the impiety and the error which they have revealed to human beings (peri. pa,ntwn tw/n e;rgwn tw/n avsebeiw/n kai. th/j avdiki,aj kai. th/j a`marti,aj, o[sa u`pe,deixaj toi/j avnqrw,poij). The reference is to the revealing of magic practices and the domination of nature already specified in 6-11, as is proved also by the Ethiopic text, different from the Greek because greatly extended to make explicit the connections with the account contained in 1 Enoch 6-11 (cf. 13:2 eth.: “{and because of all the godless deeds and the unrighteousness and the sin that you revealed} to men”74).

71 The theme returns in 1 Enoch 14:6: cf. 4Q204 1 vi 15 (Milik, The Books of Enoch, 193): Îlwkw !wkybybx lwk !wwhl andbal yd !wzxt !wh // G: kai. i[na peri. tou,twn i;dhte th.n avpw,leian tw/n ui`wn/ u`mw/n tw/n avgaphtw/n. 72 Present in the G version, beyond suggesting the idea of need, necessity, the verb de,omai, also indicates begging something from someone (cf. Hdt. 3.157; Thuc. 1.32; Soph., Oed. Colon. 1170), such as the request for a favour (cf. Hdt. 1.59; Thuc. 1.119); from which the paraenetic sense of ‘pray’ attested in the LXX (cf. Gen 44:18). 73 Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 27. 74 Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 234.

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1 Enoch 12-16 seems to present notable connections with a priestly environment, even if transposed into a strongly symbolic key: the heaven to which Enoch ascends is understood as a temple75 (cf. 14:9.10.15.18.20.21; 4Q204 1 vi 21.23). The angels are represented according to a sacerdotal order76 (cf. 1 Enoch 12:4, to. a`gi,asma th/j sta,sewj tou/ aivwn/ oj77). The fact that Enoch is described as ‘scribe’78 (cf. 1 Enoch 12:4, E ` nw,c, o` grammateu.j th/j dikaiosu,nhj79) connects him with the figure of Ezra, he too described as ‘scribe’ (cf. Ezek 7:6.11; Neh 8:1.4, etc). Moreover, in the narrative we have a forceful affirmation of the centrality of the territories of Dan and Hermon80 (cf. 1 Enoch 13:7.9; 4Q204 1 vi 2-3.6). This has led to the hypothesis of a Galilean origin for the group which stands behind the text.81 The importance of the site, according to some scholars, seems to find its etiology in the fact that divine epiphany is associated with Mount Hermon (cf. Ps 29:6; 42:7; 89:13; 133:3). The data emerging from the archaeological excavations carried out in the area of Mount Hermon and published by A. Biran, have revealed, for the Hellenistic-Roman period, a complex co-presence of Jewish cults together with their local and Graeco-Roman counterparts.82 For example, a Graeco-Aramaic inscription, dated to about 200 BCE speaks of a local God; furthermore, Josephus records a place called ‘Daphne’, which the historian locates in the area of Hermon and where there arose a temple dedicated to the ‘golden calf’ (cf. Bell. 4.3). As far as the presence there of the Graeco-Roman cults is concerned, that devoted to the god Pan has emerged strongly. According to the above-mentioned scholars,83 this could be the fundamental element for a social contextualisation of the mytheme of the fall of the Watchers which is attested in BW 12-16. As is well-known, the cult devoted to Pan was strongly connected to sexual

75 Cf. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, 14-28. 76 Cf. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, 20-23. 77 Cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 27. 78 Cf. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, 23-25. 79 Cf. Black, Apokalypsis Henochi Graece, 27. 80 See also 1 Enoch 6:6 eth. // 4Q201 1 iii 3-5 (Milik, The Books of Enoch, 150). 81 Cf. Nickelsburg, Enoch, Levi, and Peter; Suter, Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest; Suter, Revisiting “Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest”; Eshel – Eshel, Toponymic Midrash in 1 Enoch and Other Second Temple Jewish Literature, 115-130. For further observations that are sometimes quite critical with regard to associations that are too mechanical, cf. Pio­ vanelli, “Sitting by the Waters of Dan” or the “Tricky Business” of Tracing Social Profile of the Communities that Produced the Earliest Enochic Texts, 257-282. 82 Cf. Biran, Biblical Dan. 83 For other arguments, cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 229-232.

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intercourse.84 Moreover, as far as the specific case of Judaea is concerned, the connection between the cult of Pan and the family of Herod has been demonstrated.85 This connection is recorded by Josephus (cf. Bell. 2.9.1; Ant. 18, 2). The presence of a cult such as that of Pan in the area around Mount Hermon86 could only have appeared intolerable in the eyes of some Jews who were close (or pretended to be close) to the priestly cult. In this sense, the episode of the illicit union of the Watchers with the women seems to became the instrument by which the impurity which occurs when two absolutely incompatible realities are associated is indicated. This is not the place for an analytic discussion of the methodological presuppositions of and the conclusions reached by studies of the cultural and social context which stands behind 1 Enoch 12-16. Piovanelli has already succeeded in showing exhaustively what are the gains to be derived from an analysis which, from references in the text, seeks to define the historico-cultural context which could have produced it, detecting behind it concrete communitarian arrangements, and what are the criticisms connected with too rigid and mechanical applications concerning the possible identification of specific communities that are firmly situated geographically and chronologically.87 Moreover, in a study referred to many times,88 Collins has warned against a study of the material that has flowed into BW ‘in layers,’ which derives, that is, from the sections of the present text which have originated independently of one another and arisen in different historico-cultural contexts without taking into account the redactional level. Elsewhere,89 I have supported and fully adopted Nickelsburg’s treatment with regard to 1 Enoch 12-16, sharing his basic assumptions and conclusions. On the other hand, following the observations advanced several times and in several places by Collins,90 and some conclusions recently presented by Paolo Sacchi,91 what I need to emphasise here with greater force is, in primis, the ‘traditional’ dimension of the episode of the union of the watchers with the women in the area of the tradition which has given rise to BW as it has come down to us, its function as an authoritative and foundational account, which can be used in and for 84 Cf. Borgeaud, Recherches. 85 Borgeaud, Recherches, 83ff. 86 A temple dedicated to Pan has been found in the area of Banias: cf. Ma‘oz, Banias. 87 Cf. Piovanelli, “Sitting by the Waters of Dan,” 257-263. 88 Cf. Collins, Methodological Issues. 89 Cf. Arcari, “Una donna avvolta nel sole,” 121-130. 90 Cf. Collins, The Apocalyptic Technique; The Apocalyptic Imagination. 91 Cf. Sacchi, The Book of the Watchers; Enochism as Secret Revelation.

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different socio-cultural instances, brought to be a real ‘identity marker’ of belonging to an ideological environment which can be described as ‘Enochic’ because reassembled and reorganised in this sense by a final redactor in the complex literary construction which is BW.92 However, it is clear, furthermore, and this is the second aspect which I feel necessary to emphasise, beyond the redactional differences between 6-11 and 12-16, that in both the narratives the account functions to indicate an impure and contaminating, an illicit coming together of planes that cannot communicate or approach each other, something further symbolised by the birth of those real hybrids, the Giants, bearers of destruction and death as well as being the authors of acts that are abominable and, in their turn, contaminating. In both the narrative segments (above all, in the narrative contained in 1 Enoch 6-11), the subversion of YHWH’s order is sealed by the revealing of techniques capable of dominating nature, that magic knowledge which the angels impart to human beings and which also involves an overlapping of incompatible plains that is intrinsically contaminating and destructive. Beyond the historico-concrete inference which, from time to time, it is possible to reconstruct behind the different versions of the account preserved in BW, the cultural and anthropological viewpoint for which it becomes the spokesman appears to be quite unambiguous, and not by chance has been raised to a kind of traditional ‘unit of measurement’ by the final redactor of BW.

2.3 A Comparative Perspective As I have stressed in the previous paragraph, the tale of the union between the angels and the women, in its different versions, is the symbol of the union of two incompatible realities. This is the origin of a hybrid, the so-called ‘Giants,’ the symbol of a reality that is contaminated and impure. The imagery of sexual union between two incompatible realities recalls a 92 If it is true that the figure of Enoch appears, and assumes importance, in 1 Enoch 12-16, while in 6-11 he is totally absent, it is equally true that the introduction to BW (1 Enoch 1-5), present in 4Q201 i-ii and 4Q202 ii (this manuscript shows that, already at the end of the II century BCE, BW had put together 1 Enoch 1-5, 6-11 and 12-16, while the first attests that 1-5 represented the introduction to 6-11 already at the beginning of the II century BCE), opens with the incipit LOGOS euvlogi,aj E ` nw,c, kaqw.j euvlo,ghsen evklektou,j dikai,ouj oi[tinej e;sontai eivj h`me,ran avna,gkhj evxa/rai pa,ntaj tou.j evcqrou,j, kai. swqh,sontai di,kaioi (G = Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 19) // Îhyns lk hyd[al htq[ ~wyb !wwhl !yjyXqwÐ yd !yjyXq !yryÐxbl $=wn=© x !©Îhb $rb yd htkrb ylmÐ (4Q201 1 i 1 [Milik, The Books of Enoch, 139]).

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state of social disorder which subverts the established order. It is not an accident that – beside the angels teaching the women magic techniques and herbal cures – the Giants eat “all the toil of men until men were unable to sustain them” (7:3). A further consequence of the subversion of the order of creation is the fact that Asa’el teaches men “to make swords and daggers, and shields and breastplates”, and shows them the way to manufacture “bracelets and ornaments. Then the art of making up the eyes and beautifying the eyelids, and the most precious and choice stones, and all kinds of coloured dyes” (8:1). The protology underlying the account of the angelic fall present in BW certainly does not represent something unique in the circle of ancient protological traditions. The theme of the influences of the Near Eastern traditions in Jewish culture was already dear to the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule, as evinced, for example, in the work of H. Gunkel.93 Starting out from a new research perspective which adopts some of the presuppositions which stand behind the same Religionsgeschichtliche Schule, renewing and reformulating them, recent scholars have devoted their attention to the traditions hailing from the Mesopotamian and Babylonian world. 94 But what also undoubtedly emerges at a first glance, in my opinion, is the closeness with some elements that have survived in the Greek theogony.95 The phenomenology of the angelic fault appears analogous to that of Prometheus.96 In both cases, the transgression represents the leitmotiv of the whole parable of the fall of semi-divine beings upon whom a reparatory punishment is inflicted in order to re-establish the order that has been subverted. The myth of Prometheus is placed by Hesiod at the centre of his Theogony (vv. 521-616) and in the personal war which the cunning of the Titan wages against the power established by Zeus. Hesiod understands the institution of sacrifice as the principal consequence: the distance between gods and men has become unbridgeable and irreversible.97 Further parallels with BW are evident in the version of the myth as recorded by Aeschylus.98 In the tragedy also, the act of rebellion is 93 Cf. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos. 94 Cf. Kvanvig, Primeval History; Bhayro, The Shemihazah and Asael Narrative. 95 Cf. the study of Glasson, Greek Influence in Jewish Eschatology. More recently, see Coblentz Bautch, A Study of the Geography of 1 Enoch 17-19. 96 On this topic see Bremmer, Remember the Titans! 97 See the seminal work by Vernant, Mythe et societé, 177-194. 98 Cf. Séchan, Le mythe de Prométhée; Vernant, Mythe et pensée, 185-195. On the relationships between Hesiod and Aeschylus, see Solmsen, Hesiod and Aeschylus; and Lefevre, Studien zu den Quellen.

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followed by punishment (vv. 7-11; 106-112; 254-260); and in this context too, the Titan imparts to human beings techniques and skills that were previously unknown (vv. 442-482).99 The punishment for such pride is not slow in arriving: Prometheus is taken into a desert place and chained there to a rock (vv. 1-81; 142; 271; 618). In both these protological schemes, the distance between God and man is demonstrated and this is followed by an act which puts a definite seal on this distance. As has been shown by J.-P. Vernant,100 the structure of the myth of Prometheus, at least in Hesiod’s version of the story, seems to have to do with the institution of sacrifice as an act which tries to heal the absolute separation which has taken place between the divine and human planes (as a result of an improper association of the two). In 1 Enoch 7:3-5, as we have seen, the Giants eat: the labour of all the sons of men, and men were not able to supply them. And the Giants began to kill men and to devour them. And they began to sin against the birds and beasts and creeping things and the fish, and to devour one another’s flesh. And they drank the blood.101

The passage is arranged on two levels: the hunting of the animals and the consuming of their blood. The element bound up with the hunt seems to be one of the first consequences of civilisation. It is no accident that in 1 Enoch 8:1 we find Asa’el who teaches “men to make swords of iron and weapons and shields and breastplates and every instrument of war.”102 For the other element, that regarding the taking of the flesh and blood of the victims, the emphasis is placed on the connection with a sacrificial action in which the blood of the victims who have been hunted is drunk, a practice contrary to that of Lev 17:10-16. The hunt and the sacrifice are expressions of the passage from the state of nature to that of culture, and are similar to warfare.103 In the Greek world, both hunting and sacrifice are means by which men procure meat to eat, and they are found in a direct relationship to 99 See Vernant, Mythe et pensée, 189-192, Salomon, Prométhée empêtré. 100 See Vernant, Mythe et societé, 177-194. See also Rudhart, Les mythes grecs relatifs à l’instauration du sacrifice. For a recent fine-tuning of the question, cf. Prescendi, Prométhée fonde-t-il le sacrifice grec?. 101 Text translated by Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 182. 102 Translation by Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch I, 188. 103 It is not an accident that some of the activities taught by Asa’el have to do with the manufacture of instruments of war. The same anthropological scheme is found as the basis of a passage from Platon’s Prothagoras (322 b): cf. Cole, Democritus, 34-36, 64-65, 83-84, 92-93, 123-126.

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each other. Moreover, the function of the hunt as well as being complementary is at the same time antithetical to that of sacrifice; both represent a culinary act.104 In the Jewish world, as is well-known, sacrifice is regulated by a whole series of cultural acts, bound up basically with the Temple and its centrality: sacrificial slaughter can take place only within the sacral space of the temple area (e.g., cf. Deut 12:4-8; Exod 20:24; Lev 17:4 ff.). Slaughter in the camp is forbidden (Lev 17:5). Every sacrificial victim must be brought before the priest, and it is he who will shed the blood over the altar. It is forbidden to drink the blood. It is interesting likewise to note how, in this context, the prescriptions of Lev 17 make allusion to the hunt (cf. Lev 7:13). The allusion contained in 1 Enoch 7:3-5 seems to refer to the fact that the ‘hybrids’ deriving from the union between the angels and the women, hunting every type of animal, do not care about drinking their blood. This practice, contrary to the prohibition of shedding blood except by the priest in the Temple area, is seen as a mirror of the corruption introduced into the creation following the illicit sexual union between the angels and the women. In addition to the structural similarities between the deeds of Prometheus and those of the watchers, there emerges the fact that, in his translation from Aramaic to Greek, the Greek translator of 1 Enoch has not hesitated to make use of terms hailing from the Greek protological narratives, perhaps making use of the same mediation as the LXX. The watchers, !yry[ (4Q201 1 i 3105) or ayry[ (4Q202 1 ii 3106) in Aramaic, become in Greek oi` a;ggeloi ui`oi. ouvranou/ in G and oi` evgrh,goroi in S.107 If in this case G appears closer to Gen 6:1-4LXX (where, however, the watchers are described as oi` ui`oi. tou/ qeou/), S employs a term which is less used in classical Greek but which succeeds in rendering more faithfully the sense of !yry[, a substantive connected with waking/watching (cf. the Hebrew r[ and the use of the Aramaic in Dan 4:10, 14, 20, 28).The term seems to reinterpret the idea of the regional gods active in the time of Chronos, demons who have the functions of true divine shepherds (cf. Plato, polit. 271 d 5), each of which appears so self-sufficient in providing for the needs of his own group that nothing violent can happen, no devouring of each other, no war, no strife (cf. ibid. 271e 1-2).108

104 See Vernant – Vidal-Naquet, Mythe et tragédie, 133-158. 105 Milik, The Books of Enoch, 150. 106 Milik, The Books of Enoch, 165. 107 Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 21. 108 Cf., also, Plato, Critias 110 d.

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The Giants, fruit of the illicit union between the watchers and the women, are identified with the substantive !yrbg in Aramaic (cf. 4Q202 1 ii 20109), a term which refers to the extraordinary strength with which they are endowed. The Gizeh Papyrus translates the substantive with gi,gantej and tita/nej; S, by contrast, is more uniform in its constant use of gi,gantej: 1 Enoch 7:2 G: ai` de. evn gastri. labou/sai evte,kosan gi,gantaj mega,louj evk phcw/n triscili,wn110 ... and they conceived and bore great Giants of 3000 cubits 1 Enoch 9.9 G: kai. ai` gunai/kej evge,nnhsan tita/naj, u`f’ w-n o[lh h` gh/ evplh,sqh ai[matoj kai. avdiki,aj111 ... and the women generated Titans, and the whole earth was filled with blood and iniquity. 1 Enoch 7:2 S: ai` de. evn gastri. labou/sai evte,kosan gi,gantaj mega,louj evk phcw/n triscili,wn112 ... and they conceived and bore great Giants of 3000 cubits. 1 Enoch 9:9 S: kai. nu/n ivdou. ai` qugate,rej tw/n avnqrw,pwn e;tekon evx auvtw/n ui`ou.j gi,gantaj.113 ... and now look, the daughters of men bore sons from them, Giants...

Among other terms, classical Greek includes precisely the words gi,gantej and tita/nej (or tith/nej) to indicate some of the actors of the primordial happenings. The first alludes to those beings born from the drops of blood trickling out of the wound of Uranus who had been wounded by Chronos (cf. Theog. 185-186), represented by Hesiod as “powerful and great Giants, splendid in arms, with long spears in their hands” (kratera.j mega,louj te Gi,gantaj / teu,cesi lampome,nouj, doli,c’ e;gcea cersi.n e;contaj). The second refers, more generally, to ancestral gods, those of the second generation (cf. Hesiod, theog. 424, Tith/si me,ta prote,roisi qeoi/sin, 648 [and 668]: Tith/ne,j te qeoi. kai. o[soi Kro,nou evkgeno,mesqa). Hesiod also provides us with a kind of etymology of the term tita/nej. On the basis of its assonance with the verb ‘to stretch’, the poet specifies that Uranus called his sons ‘titans’ because, stretching out their arms with arrogance, they committed huge wrongs, for which they had paid the penalty (cf. theog. 207-210). If, at least in the Theogony, the Giants are, all things considered, a clearly defined category, the Titans appear several times in the poem as those who are contrary to the order which Zeus is trying laboriously to establish (cf. theog. 393, 630-631, 648, 650, 663, 668). Moreover, a descendant of the Ti109 110 111 112 113

Milik, The Books of Enoch, 166. Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 22. Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 24. Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 22. Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 24.

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tans is Prometheus, son of Iapetus (cf. theog. 507-512), who was punished in chains, like the same titans for not having acknowledged the power of Zeus (cf. theog. 559-560). The Greek version of 1 Enoch contained in G, therefore, employs the terms gi,gantej and tita/nej without distinction to indicate the sons of the watchers, by contrast with the greater uniformity attested in S. If there is quite a distinction between the Giants and the Titans in Hesiod, the alternating terminology of G seems to presuppose that association between these groups of divinities which was well-known in the Hellenistic-Romano period in virtue of their belonging to a cosmogonic, or antecedent, of divine goings-on (cf. Plutarch, de Iside et Osiride 360 and 7114). S, by contrast, is more respectful of the account in Gen 6:1-4 as attested in the LXX,115 the influence of which has not failed to leave traces also in the terminological uniformity with which Philo, who is usually quite ready to employ Greek philophical and cultic terminology, has treated the protological events of Gen 6:1-4 (cf. Philo, gigant. 58 and the use of the term gi,gantej).116

3. Illicit Unions and Hybrid Generation in the Book of Giants from Qumran A further development in the story of the fallen angels is found in fragments of the Book of Giants (henceforth BG) hailing from Qumran. The text consists of 4 fairly fragmentary manuscripts (1Q23, 4Q203, 4Q530,

114 Despite Plutarch’s intention of comparing the Egyptian myths with the Greek ones, setting out a true interpretatio graeca of the Egyptian religion, the association Gigantika. kai. Titanika. indicates that the tradition on which the philsopher leans for his analysis coincides with a particular relecture of the ancient Greek theogonies, which he shared, at least in part, with his period. On the myth recounted by Plutarch in De Iside et Osiride, cf. Borgeaud-Volokhine, La formation de la légende de Serapis. For the association Gigantika. kai. titanika., see also Philo Bybl., FGr Hist 790 F 2; Epicharmus, fr. 135 K.A. (thanks are due to G. D’Alessio for such an information). 115 Cf. Gen 6:4LXX, where the Greek gi,gantej translates the Hebrew ~ylipNi .> S preserves a portion of 1 Enoch in Greek, not attested in Aramaic or Ethiopic, in which not more clearly identiified ‘sons of the giants’ are indicated by the transliterated Hebrew term ~ylipNi :> cf. 7:2 ( = Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, 22): oi` de. gi,gantej † evte,knwsan Nafhlei,m kai. toi/j Nafhlei.m † evgennh,qhsan E v liou,d “and the giants † begat Nafeleim and to the Nafeleim were † born the Elioud…” 116 Cf. Borgen, Philo of Alexandria, 105-112. The term gi,gantej is quite often used in the LXX: cf. 1 Chr 20:8; Jdt 16:6; 3 Macc 2:4; Job 26:5; Isa 13:3; 14:9; Bar 3:26; Ezek 32:21.

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4Q531), all dated paleographically between the first half (1Q23, 4Q203, 4Q530) and the end (4Q531) of the I century BCE. According to J. T. Milik,117 the fragments in question could form part of the work which provided the basis for Mani on which to compose his writing on the Giants, mentioned in some Hellenistic-Romano sources, of which some excerpta have come down to us Middle Persian, Sogdian, Parthian and Coptic.118 Given the highly fragmentary state of the Qumran manuscripts and the difficulty of reconstructing Mani’s work in its entirety, it is almost impossible to say with if it is possible to recognise in the Qumran texts the foundation of the written Manichean cosmology. It is more prudent to hold that some of their traditions taken into BG were also adopted by Mani in the redaction/composition of his text. Despite this, Milik’s comparison between the Qumran texts and the Manichean excerpta shows that there is a certain relationship, whether directly linked with the adoption by Mani of the text found at Qumran, or whether the result of a layer of previous traditions.119 The first edition of the Qumranic BG goes back to Milik;120 a new edition has recently been prepared by L.T. Stuckenbruck. There, some of the restorations proposed by Milik are discussed.121 Here, I shall make use of the text edited by Milik, but I shall also take account of some of the observations put forward by Stuckenbruck. As I have already outlined, BG seems to take up the story of the fall of the watchers122 and the birth of the Giants,123 making reference to the authority of Enoch just as emerges from the narrative of 1 Enoch,124 even if the highly fragmentary state of the manuscripts does not allow a thorough assessment of this kind. However, a first element which connected with the Enochic account could be found in 1Q23 fr. 9 + 14 + 15. According to Milik, the first part of the fragment could contain the phrase ÎyzÐr w[dywÎ ·· Ð.125 If Stuckenbruck has observed that the highly incomplete state of the fragment does not allow for the certain identification of a single letter,126 F. García Martínez, by contrast, has accepted Milik’s reconstruc-

117 Cf. Milik, Problèmes de la litterature hénochique, 366-372. Cf., also Id., The Books of Enoch, 301-302. 118 Cf. Henning, The Book of Giants. See also Reeves, Jewish Lore. 119 Cf. Milik, Turfan et Qumran; Milik, Problèmes de la litterature hénochique, 367-372. 120 Cf. Milik, The Books of Enoch, 301-302, 304-317. 121 Cf. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants from Qumran. 122 Cf. 4Q203 vii 1 6. 123 Cf. 4Q203 vii 1 7. Cf., also, 1Q23 9 + 14 + 15. 124 Cf. 4Q203 viii 3-4. 125 Milik, The Books of Enoch, 302. 126 Cf. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, 58.

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tion, translating the passage in question with “And they knew the mysteries”.127 If Stuckenbruck’s observation with regard to the difficulty of a global reading of the fragment is true, it is equally the case that both Milik and García Martínez have shown themselves quite sure in seeing in the first letter after w[dyw a r. The presence of the verb w[dyw (peal, perfect, III person masculine plural), which is quite legible or, more or less, presumable, obliges us to take two possible readings into consideration, yzr or t[d. Although attested in Dan 1:4MT, [D"mê ; ynEyå bimW. t[;d: y[edy> wÝO ,> the second option appears less probable if we accept as certain Milik’s identification of the first letter with a r. But if, on the other hand, we accept what Stuckenbruck has emphasised, that is, that in the fragment no letter which makes up the word that follows the verb is legible, then the reading t[d would not be impossible per se. In any case, if we accept Milik’s reading, the text could be alluding to the work of revelation of the mysteries by the watchers in their dealings with the women, with reference to the text of 1 Enoch 8:3 preserved in 4Q201 iv 4-5,128 putting the stress, however, chiefly on the role of the human beings in the cognitive process with regard to the mysteries revealed by the watchers (the masculine plural of the verb could refer, in a generic manner, to the whole human race by contrast with the host of watchers, or we could be faced with a relecture of the watchers’ story where the revealing of the mysteries is made to all the beings on the earth). On the other hand, if we accept the reading t[d, although not changing the substance of the story, the work of the revelation of the mysteries by the watchers would be being described not in a revelatory sense (yzr), but as real ‘technical knowledge’ and/or practical ability (t[d; in Dan 1:4 the periphrasis t[;d: y[edy> wÝO > points to one of the intellectual capacities with which the Jewish youths brought to the court of Nebuchadnezzar are endowed. Different the case of the presence of the verb without the substantive t[d: in Dan 8:19 we find the phrase tyrIxå a] B; . hy