Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009): Final Report: The Hellenistic and Roman Strata 9781407311753, 9781407341453

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. The Stratigraphy
Chapter 3. The Ceramics. The Roman Pottery; The Hellenistic Pottery
Chapter 4. The Faunal Remains
Chapter 5. The Coinage. Hellenistic and Roman Coins; Ayyubid Coins
Chapter 6. The Glass
Chapter 7. The Ground Stone
Chapter 8. The Metals. EDS-XRF Analyses
Chapter 9. The Stamped Amphora Handles
Chapter 10. Varia
Chapter 11. The Stratum IA Muslim Cemetery
Chapter 12. Tel Zahara in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods
Appendices
Appendix 1. List of Loci
Appendix 2. Material Culture
References

Citation preview

BAR S2554 2013 COHEN (Ed) EXCAVATIONS AT TEL ZAHARA (2006–2009)

B A R Cohen 2554 cover.indd 1

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009): Final Report The Hellenistic and Roman Strata

Edited by

Susan L. Cohen

BAR International Series 2554 2013 17/09/2013 17:19:40

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009): Final Report The Hellenistic and Roman Strata

Edited by

Susan L. Cohen

BAR International Series 2554 2013

ISBN 9781407311753 paperback ISBN 9781407341453 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407311753 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

To Dorothy Phelps.

List of Contributors

Donald T. Ariel Israel Antiquities Authority

Liora Kolska Horwitz Department of Evolution, Systematics and Ecology The Hebrew University of Jerusalem National Natural History Collections

Jill Baker Independent Researcher Rachel Bar-Nathan Israel Antiquities Authority

Sariel Shalev Department of Maritime Civilizations University of Haifa Weizmann Institute of Science

Susan Cohen Department of History and Philosophy Montana State University

Sana Shilstein Department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics Weizmann Institute of Science

Jennie Ebeling Department of Archaeology and Art History University of Evansville

Peter Stone Department of Classical Archaeology University of Cinncinati

Erin Estrup Independent Researcher The Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World Brown University

Carolyn Swan The Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World Brown University

Judit Gärtner Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Wieslaw Więckowski Department of Historical Anthropology Institute of Archaeology University of Warsaw

Mahmoud Hawari Khalil Centre, The Oriental Institute, the University of Oxford

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Table of Contents Preface

................................................................................................................................................. x

Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1. Introduction (S. Cohen, with contribution by W. Więckowski)............................................... 1 1.1 Site Location and Setting .................................................................................................. 1 1.2 History of Excavations at the Site...................................................................................... 4 1.3 Methodology...................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Modern Damage to the Site............................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2. The Stratigraphy (S. Cohen, with contribution by J. Baker).................................................... 9 2.1 The Hellenistic Stratigraphy and Architecture (Strata IV – III)........................................ 9 2.2 The Roman Stratigraphy and Architecture (Stratum II).................................................. 10 2.3 The Stratum IIA Water System ....................................................................................... 22 2.4 Later Deposits and the Muslim Cemetery (Stratum I).................................................... 30 Chapter 3. The Ceramics. The Roman Pottery (R. Bar-Nathan); The Hellenistic Pottery (R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner).............................................................................................. 31 3.1 The Late Pottery from Stratum IB .................................................................................. 31 3.2 Early Roman Pottery from Pit NE.A.11 L0013 in Stratum IB........................................ 34 3.3 The Pottery from the Roman Buildings in Stratum II..................................................... 34 3.4 Summary of the Roman Pottery...................................................................................... 48 3.5 The Hellenistic Pottery (R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gartner).................................................. 48 3.6 Summary of the Hellenistic Pottery................................................................................ 67 Chapter 4.

The Faunal Remains (L.K. Horwitz)..................................................................................... 75 4.1 Materials and Methods.................................................................................................... 75 4.2 Results: Stratum IV (late Persian – early Hellenistic Period)......................................... 77 4.3 Results: Stratum III (Hellenistic Period)......................................................................... 78 4.4 Results: Stratum II (Roman Period)................................................................................ 79 4.5 Results: Stratum IB (Islamic – Modern Period).............................................................. 84 4.6 Discussion and Conclusions............................................................................................ 94

Chapter 5. The Coinage. Hellenistic and Roman Coins (E. Estrup); Ayyubid Coins (M. Hawari)......... 97 5.1 Catalog of the Hellenistic and Roman Provincial Coins................................................. 97 5.2 Summary........................................................................................................................ 100 5.3 The Ayyubid Coins ....................................................................................................... 101 Chapter 6. The Glass (C. Swan)............................................................................................................. 103 6.1 Overview....................................................................................................................... 103 6.2 Condition....................................................................................................................... 103 6.3 Catalog .......................................................................................................................... 103 6.4 Discussion...................................................................................................................... 116 6.5 Summary........................................................................................................................ 118 Chapter 7. The Ground Stone (J. Ebeling)............................................................................................. 121 7.1 The Ground Stone Objects............................................................................................ 121 7.2 Conclusion..................................................................................................................... 125 Chapter 8. The Metals. EDS-XRF Analyses (S. Shalev and S. Shilstein)............................................ 127 Chapter 9. The Stamped Amphora Handles (D.T. Ariel)....................................................................... 131 9.1 Catalogue ...................................................................................................................... 131 9.2 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 135

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Chapter 10. Varia................................................................................................................................... 137 10.1 Two Incised Graffiti on Aegean Amphora Sherds (P. Stone)........................................ 137 10.2 The Worked Bone (J. Baker, S. Cohen, and L. Horwitz).............................................. 138 10.3 The Small Finds (J. Baker)........................................................................................... 140 Chapter 11. The Stratum IA Muslim Cemetery (W. Więckowski and S. Cohen).................................. 143 11.1 The Burials................................................................................................................... 143 11.2 The Human Bones associated with the Porcupine Burrows ....................................... 143 11.3 The Cemetery .............................................................................................................. 145 Chapter 12. Tel Zahara in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods (S. Cohen)............................................ 147 12.1 Rural Sites in Hellenistic and Roman Palestine.......................................................... 147 12.2 Scythopolis (Beth Shean) in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods................................ 148 12.3 Tel Zahara and its Relationship to Scythopolis in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods............................................................................................................. 149 12.4 Conclusions.................................................................................................................. 151 Appendices Appendix 1. List of Loci..................................................................................................... 153 Appendix 2. List of Material Culture.................................................................................. 169 References ............................................................................................................................................. 177

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List of Figures Fig. 1.1 Map showing the location of Tel Zahara. Prepared by J. Rosenberg. Fig. 1.2 View of Tel Zahara and the surrounding countryside from the southwest. Photo by W. Więckowski. Fig. 1.3 Plan of Tel Zahara showing walking paths. Prepared by J. Rosenberg. Fig. 1.4 Map of the geographic region around Tel Zahara. Prepared by W. Więckowski. Fig. 1.5 Plan of Tel Zahara showing all open excavation areas. Prepared by J. Rosenberg. Fig. 2.1 Plan of Stratum IIIA architecture. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker. Fig. 2.2 Corner and walls of Building I in Stratum IIIA looking north. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.3 Blocked doorway and remains of cobbled paving in Building I in Stratum IIIA, looking west. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.4 Building II in Stratum IIIA, looking west. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.5 Plan of Stratum IIB architecture. Prepared by W. Więckowski. Fig. 2.6 Plan of Building I. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker. Fig. 2.7 Courtyard 1 of Building I in Stratum IIB, looking south. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.8 Walls of Room 4, Building I, looking south. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.9 Plan of Stratum IIA. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker. Fig. 2.10 Plan of Building II in Stratum IIA. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker. Fig. 2.11a Stratum IIA wall connecting Buildings I and II, looking west. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.11b Stratum IIA wall connecting Buildings I and II, looking east. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.12 Stratum IIA wall between Rooms 1 and 2 in Building I, looking south. Photo by J. Baker. Fig. 2.13 Cobble floor in Room 3 in Building I, looking west. Photo by S. Cohen Fig. 2.14 Cobble floor in Room 1 in Building II, looking east. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.15 Tabun in Room 4 in Building II. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.17 Cistern section and view from the top. Drawing by W. Więckowski. Fig. 2.16 Drawing of cistern and channels. Prepared by W. Więckowski. Fig. 2.18 Plaster in the cistern. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.19 Possible cistern cover in situ. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.20 Close up of Channel 3 and capping stones. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.21 Close up of the end of Channel 1 (at upper right) in Room 5. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.22 Section showing Channels 1 and 5 opening into the cistern. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.23 View of Channel 1 with capping stones looking east. Photo by J. Baker. Fig. 2.24 Channel 2 looking east. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.25 Opening of cistern with Channel 3 to the north and Channel 2 to the south. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.26 Close up of Channels 3 and 4. Photo by S. Cohen. Fig. 2.27 Farmhouses with courtyard cisterns. Qalandiyeh adapted from Magen 1993:1198; Qasr el-Leja adapted from Dar 1993:1315; and Ramat Ha-Nadiv adapted from Hirschfeld and Birger-Calderon 1993:1258 and Hirschfeld 1995:54, Fig. 31. Fig. 2.28 Farmhouses with cisterns that use the natural slope of a mountain or hill. Otniel adapted from Peleg 2004:261, Fig. 2; Ein Yael adapted from Edelstein 1990:35. Fig. 2.29 Peristyle houses with associated channel and cistern systems. Samaria House A adapted from Reisner 1924:141, Fig. 59; Samaria House C, Room 63 cistern curb vi

1 2 2 3 7 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26

27 27

adapted from Reisner 1924:187, Fig. 71; Samaria Atrium House adapted from Reisner 1924:181, Fig. 97; and Khirbet el-Muraq Hilkiya Palace adapted from Damati 1982:118. Fig. 3.1 Selected Crusader, Early Islamic, and Byzantine pottery from Stratum IB. Fig. 3.2 Early Roman pottery from Pit NE.A.11.L00013 in Stratum IB. Fig. 3.3 Storage jars from the Middle Roman period. Fig. 3.4 Table ware from the Middle Roman period. Fig. 3.5 Cooking pots from the Middle Roman period. Fig. 3.6 Cooking ware from the Middle Roman period. Fig. 3.7 Lamps, Eastern Sigillata, and amphorae from the Roman period. Fig. 3.8 Storage jars HELL/SJ1 – SJ3 from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 3.9 Storage jars HELL/SJ4 – SJ7 from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 3.10 Jars, jugs, and flask from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 3.11 Kraters and mortaria from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 3.12 Bowls and plates from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 3.13 Cooking ware from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 3.14 Perfume containers and lamps from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 3.15 Imported fine wares and local imitations: plates, West Slope Technique bowls, and mold made relief bowls. Fig. 3.16 Imported fine wares and local imitations: fine ware bowls and Eastern Terra Sigillata. Fig. 3.17 Amphorae from the Hellenistic period. Fig. 4.1 Map showing location of Tel Zahara and nearby sites mentioned in the text. Fig. 4.2 Harod Spring—Shepherd and flock ca.1900–1920 (The American Colony and Eric Matson Collection, US Library of Congress). Fig. 4.3 Examples of bone modifications in the Persian-Hellenistic period assemblage (scales in mm). Fig. 4.3a Pig tibia shaft with carnivore gnawed proximal end, and scoring on proximal shaft (SE.A.7.L0071, B25). Fig. 4.3b Sheep/goat metacarpal shaft with carnivore gnawed distal end, proximal shaft is broken with a spiral fracture (SE.A.7.L0079, B10). Fig. 4.3c Cattle tibia fragment with striations caused by carnivore gnawing (SE.A.7.L0056, MC#0227). Fig. 4.4 Sheep/goat thoracic vertebra with 3 cut marks near the base (SE.A.7.L0052, MC#0195 Stratum IIIB). Fig. 4.5 An almost complete immature pig skeleton from the Roman period (Str. IIA). Fig. 4.6 Histogram showing the frequency of weathering stages by phase for the Roman period assemblage (W0=least weathering and W3=most). Fig. 4.7 Location on skeleton of butchery damage for the main domestic taxa in the Roman period (side not taken into account). Fig. 4.8 Examples of butchery damage in the Roman period assemblage (scales in mm) Fig. 4.8a Neonatal sheep/goat scapula with distal epiphysis severed (shown by arrow). Fig. 4.8b Pig lower jaw with sections removed during butchery (solid arrows) as well as gnawing on the cut edge of gonion (open arrows). Fig. 4.8c Sheep/goat distal humerus shaft with two deep chop marks (solid arrows) and a gnawed distal end (open arrow). Fig. 4.8d Cattle distal femoral epiphysis that has been chopped in half horizontally (solid arrows). Fig. 4.8e Sheep/goat thoracic vertebra that has been severed longitudinal to the right axis of the bone (solid arrows) as well as gnawed on the cut, dorsal edge of the spine (open arrow). Fig. 4.8f Pig pelvic acetabulum with a deep chop mark on the ilium (solid arrow). Fig. 4.9 Location on skeleton of gnawing on sheep/goat and medium-sized mammal bones. Fig. 4.10 Examples of gnawing damage in the Roman period assemblage (scales in mm). Fig. 4.10a Carnivore gnawing on a large mammal humerus shaft. vii

29 33 33 37 37 41 43 47 51 53 55 59 61 63 65 69 71 73 75 76 77 77 77 77 80 82 85 85 87 87 87 87 87 87 88 89 89

Fig. 4.10b Cattle proximal radius shaft showing porcupine gnawing that has resulted in a lighter coloured, eroded ‘patch’ of bone adjacent to the edge. 89 Fig. 4.10c A cattle distal calcaneum showing porcupine gnawing that has resulted in a lighter coloured ‘patch’ than the surrounding bone which shows the typical archaeological patina of Roman period bones from Tel Zahara. 89 Fig. 4.10d A cattle rib corpus with the proximal end gnawed, probably by a carnivore. 89 Fig. 4.11 Dog (Canis familiaris) cranium from Islamic-Modern layer (Stratum IB, NE.A.11.L0013). 92 Fig. 4.12 Horse (Equus caballus) mandible from Islamic-Modern layer (Stratum IB, SE.A.6.L0021). 93 Fig. 4.13 Horse (Equus caballus) atlas from Islamic-Modern layer (Stratum IB, SE.A.6.L0021) showing two parallel sets of cut marks, probably associated with disarticulation of the skull from the body. 93 Fig. 5.1 Hellenistic coin of Demetrius II. Photo by Z. Radovan. 97 Fig. 5.2 Roman coin of Antoninus Pius. Photo by Z. Radovan. 98 Fig. 5.3 Autonomous coin from Tyre. Photo by Z. Radovan. 99 Fig. 5.4 Roman coin of Antonius Pius, depicting Faustina the Elder. Photo by Z. Radovan. 99 Fig. 5.5 Unknown coin. Photo by Z. Radovan. 99 Fig. 5.6 Beveled coin of unknown source or date. Photo by Z. Radovan. 99 Fig. 5.7 Obliterated coin. Photo by Z. Radovan. 100 Fig. 5.8 Ayyubid coin 1. Photo by Z. Radovan. 100 Fig. 5.9 Ayyubid coin 2. Photo by Z. Radovan. 100 Fig. 5.10 Ayyubid coin 3. Photo by Z. Radovan. 100 Fig. 6.1 Illustrated items in the glass catalog from Stratum IB. Drawings by J. Rudman. 105 Fig. 6.2 Complete glass bottle (Glass Catalog 25). Photo by Z. Radovan. 109 Fig. 6.3 Illustrated items in the glass catalog from Stratum IIA. Drawings by J. Rudman. 110 Fig. 6.4 Illustrated items in the glass catalog from Stratum IIC. Drawings by J. Rudman. 113 Fig. 7.1 Four-legged mortar bowls and vessel base. Drawings by J. Rudman. 121 Fig. 7.2 Grinding slab and Olynthus mills. Drawings by J. Rudman. 123 Fig. 7.3 Complete upper stone from an Olynthus mill. Drawing by E. Jastrzebska. 124 Fig. 7.4 Handstone fragment, socle, and basalt slab with cupmarks. Drawings by J. Rudman. 124 Fig. 9.1. Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 1. Photo by Z. Radovan. 131 Fig. 9.2 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 2. Photo by C. Amit. 131 Fig. 9.3 Profile drawings of stamped amphora handles, catalogue #s 2, 4 and 6. 132 Fig. 9.4 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 3. Photo by Z. Radovan. 132 Fig. 9.5 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 4. Photo by Z. Radovan. 133 Fig. 9.6 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 5. Photo by Z. Radovan. 133 Fig. 9.7 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 6. Photo by C. Amit. 133 Fig. 9.8 Secondary stamp on amphora handle catalogue 6. Photo by C. Amit. 134 Fig. 9.9 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 7. Photo by Z. Radovan. 134 Fig. 9.10 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 8. Photo by C. Amit. 134 Fig. 9.11 Stamped amphora handle, catalogue 9. Photo by Z. Radovan. 134 Fig. 10.1 Graffito found in topsoil. Photo by Z. Radovan. 137 Fig. 10.2 Graffito with Greek name (one of two joining sherds). Photo by Z. Radovan. 138 Fig. 10.3 Graffito with Greek name (second of two joining sherds). Photo by Z. Radovan. 138 Fig. 10.4 The worked bone. 139 Fig. 10.5 The small objects. Drawings by J. Rudman. 140 Fig. 11.1 Photo of child burial from Square SW.K.7. Photo by S. Cohen. 144 Fig. 11.2 Bracelets found with child burial from Square SW.K.7. Photo by Z. Radovan. 144 Fig. 11.3 Map of Tel Zahara showing the location of the porcupine burials on the site. Prepared by W. Więckowski. 145 Fig. 12.1 Overview of Stratum IIA in Buildings I and II, looking east. Photo by S. Cohen. 147 viii

List of Tables Table 1.1. Stratigraphic sequence and approximate dates of occupation at Tel Zahara. Table 4.1 Species representation in Hellenistic (Stratum III) and Persian-Hellenistic (Stratum IV) periods. Table 4.2 Data on bone preservation and modification by species for combined HellenisticPersian period samples (Strata III and IV). Table 4.3a Age data for sheep/goat. Bone fusion. Table 4.3b Age data for sheep/goat. Dental attrition (after Payne 1973). Table 4.4 Species representation in the Roman period (Stratum II). Table 4.5 Bone measurements—Roman period (Stratum II). Table 4.6 Information on ageing by species and phase in the Roman period (Stratum II). Table 4.7 Skeletal element breakdown by species and phase in the Roman period (Stratum II). Table 4.8 Taphonomic information by phase and species in the Roman period (Stratum II). Table 4.9 Fauna from the Islamic-Modern assemblage (Stratum IB). Table 4.10 Bone and tooth measurements (in mm) for the Islamic-Modern assemblage (Stratum IB). Table 5.1 Coins found at Tel Zahara. Table 6.1 Total number of glass fragments by stratum. Table 6.2 Number of glass fragments by diagnostic type. Table 6.3 Object types of glass fragments. Table 6.4 Glass colors. Table 7.1 Four-legged mortar bowls (n=2). Table 7.2 Everted mortar bowl with flat base (n=1). Table 7.3 Mortars (N=2). Table 7.4 Grinding slabs and querns (n=7). Table 7.5 Olynthus mills (n=7). Table 7.6 Handstones (n=7). Table 7.7 Pestles (n=3). Table 7.8 Varia (n=4). Table 7.9 Ground fragments (n=5). Table 8.1 Coins and bracelets (all results are presented in Wt %). Table 8.2 Non-ferrous various objects (all results are presented in Wt %). Table 8.3 Corroded iron objects (all results are presented in Wt %). Table 11.1 Inventory of human bones found in association with the known porcupine burrows, and other human remains from the cemetery.

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5 77 78 79 79 80 81 82 84 86 88 91 98 117 117 117 118 121 121 122 122 122 123 123 125 125 127 128 128 146

Preface This volume presents the architecture, biological remains, and other material culture from the Hellenistic, Roman, and later strata excavated at Tel Zahara. Tel Zahara is a small site approximately 0.25 ha in size, located in an agricultural field of Kibbutz Nir David in the central Jordan Valley, approximately five km west of Beth Shean. Noted in Zori’s 1962 survey, additional surface surveys in recent years indicated a multi-period history of occupation at Tel Zahara. Excavations began at the site in 2006, under the direction of Dr. Susan L. Cohen, on behalf of Montana State University in association with the Israel Antiquities Authority. During the four seasons of work at the site (2006–2009), excavations uncovered a recent Muslim cemetery, indications of ephemeral activities at the site dating to the Islamic periods, significant Roman and Hellenistic settlements, which are the focus of the current volume, as well as a smaller amount of architecture and ceramic remains from the Middle and Early Bronze Ages. The Hellenistic settlement at Tel Zahara, although uncovered in only a small exposure, revealed portions of several large, well-constructed, buildings, dating primarily to the late third – late second century B.C.E. After a period of several centuries when the site was uninhabited, Tel Zahara was again resettled during the Roman period. The Roman occupation at Tel Zahara included a series of sizeable buildings, as well as a complex water system, consisting of multiple plaster channels leading into a small bell-shaped, plaster-lined cistern. The size of the buildings, their layout, and the methods of construction all suggest a carefully planned settlement at the site. The ceramic remains, as well as the numismatic evidence, indicate that the Roman occupation at Tel Zahara first began during the second century C.E. and lasted for only a short period of time, not later than the second half of the third century C.E., when the site was again abandoned. In both the Hellenistic and Roman periods of settlement at the site, Tel Zahara’s close proximity to Beth Shean (Scythopolis) influenced its development and illustrates the interconnection between rural settlement and urban site. The data from both eras, and particularly the faunal remains, strongly indicate that Tel Zahara provided support to Beth Shean in the form of meat and other products, and that the subsistence and economic strategies implemented by the site’s inhabitants were linked to the fortunes of this larger urban center. The evidence from the Tel Zahara excavations helps to illustrate practices and subsistence patterns utilized by the rural population, and points to the strength and significance of the rural sector for development in Hellenistic and Roman Palestine.

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Acknowledgements The excavations at Tel Zahara were made possible due to funds generously granted by the Office of the Vice President for Research and Creativity and the College of Letters and Science at Montana State University in Bozeman, Montana. Room and board was supplied by Kibbutz Nir David. The project was affiliated with the American Schools of Oriental Research, the Council for British Research in the Levant, and the Israel Antiquities Authority. The architectural plans and section drawings for this volume were prepared by W. Więckowski, and the drawings of the small finds were done by J. Rudman. Zev Radovan and C. Amit photographed the objects; maps were prepared by J. Rosenberg, W. Więckowski, and J. Baker. The ceramic illustrations and plates were drawn by I. Lidsky-Reznikov and prepared by J. Gärtner. Other illustrations were created by J. Baker, C. Swan, and W. Więckowski. Many thanks are due to many people in many places, without whom the excavations at Tel Zahara could never have taken place. In Bozeman, Montana, Bob Rydell and Brett Walker helped me secure the necessary financial support to fund the excavations. Diane Cattrell, Deidre Manry, and Cassandra Balent provided invaluable administrative support, without ever being fazed by dealing with receipts in multiple languages accounting for the expenses accrued each summer. Heartfelt thanks are also due to Kristen Intemann, Dale Martin, Mary Murphy, and all the rest of my friends and colleagues in the Department of History and Philosophy, for their enthusiastic support of my research and goals. At Kibbutz Nir David, many thanks are due to Racheli Sasson, the bed and breakfast manager, who helped coordinate our stay, and ensured that we were fed, comfortable, and had working internet service, among many other things. Saul and Rami helped clear the site, sharpen our tools, found us a stable ladder of the right height, fixed the plumbing, and aided us in solving a host of other problems. Thanks also go to all other the members of the kibbutz, and particularly those in the office and in the dining hall, for providing a welcoming and pleasant atmosphere for us at all times. In Jerusalem, as always, thanks go to Sy Gitin, director of the W. F. Albright Institute for Archaeological Research, for all of his invaluable assistance and support. In addition, the excavations were aided by Maida Smeir and Sami Salah at the Kenyon Institute, who helped in everything from carrying boxes, making reservations for confused American students, finding supplies, and more. Almost last, but never least, I would like to acknowledge and thank the members of the Tel Zahara excavation staff: J. Baker, J. Busby, O. Cannon, E. Estrup, T. Estrup, E. Jastrzebska, D. Phelps, D. Smith, and W. Więckowski, as well as the many students who participated in the excavations from Montana State University and the University of Warsaw. Without their help, their unflagging stamina, and their enthusiasm for working with me at a “small grubby little site in the middle of nowhere,” the excavations, and the publication of this volume, could not have occurred. Finally, a special thanks goes to Dorothy Phelps, the registrar for Tel Zahara from 2006–2008, to whom this volume is dedicated. Not everyone can start a new career after retiring from their first one, and very few are able to carry it off with success, aplomb, and serenity. Dorothy brought talent, humor, and stability to Tel Zahara, while simultaneously producing error-free object registration, an unparalleled organization of supplies and materials, and detailed record-keeping. It was, and continues to be, my pleasure and privilege to work with her.

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Chapter 1.

Introduction S. Cohen, with Contribution by W. Więckowski

Tel Zahara (Israel map reference 1929/2131) is a small site (ca. 0.25 ha.), located approximately five km west of Beth Shean, near the confluence of the Jordan and Jezreel Valleys (Figs. 1.1–1.2). The site rises approximately nine meters above the surrounding plain; the top of the mound is -95 m below sea level. The site is currently located in the fields of Kibbutz Nir David less than one kilometer from the main highway (Route #669); a well-maintained gravel road leads directly to the eastern slope of the tel. A concrete pathway, established and maintained by the Central Jordan Valley Drainage Authority, as part of the creation of a park-like environment and walking tour linking this site with the nearby water sources in the region, circles the tel, leading from the base of the eastern slope to the highest point on top (Fig. 1.3); this has caused some damage to the site and as a result it is highly likely that the contours of the tel in antiquity would have been quite different than they are today (see discussion below in section 1.4). A large porcupine (Hystrix indica) population has taken up residence on the top of the tel and the upper slopes, which has also caused some additional damage to these portions of the site (section 1.4). The location of Tel Zahara in a fertile region of the Jezreel and Jordan Valleys would have provided good agricultural potential for the inhabitants. The Wadi Harod, which flows next to the site on its north, would have provided a water source for the inhabitants in antiquity; in addition, the site’s proximity to the waterfalls at modern Gan HaShlosha (located less than two kilometers to the east) may have contributed to the desirability of the location for human habitation. The hills of Gilboa stand to the southeast, which would have provided sources of timber and building materials. In addition, Zahara’s location close to Beth Shean (Scythopolis) places this small site within the social and economic sphere of the larger cultural center, thus allowing for an examination of rural-urban interactions and interconnections in the Hellenistic and Roman periods in Palestine

Fig. 1.1 Map showing the location of Tel Zahara. Prepared by J. Rosenberg.

Gilboa mountains to the south, and with the northeastern edge of the Central Hills; to the north of the site is the hilly region of Ramat Issachar—the southernmost part of the Lower Galilee region (Maeir 2010).

1.1 Site Location and Setting (W. Więckowski)

The main geographic feature, which determines the character of the whole region, is the large and deep Jordan River Valley, which is itself part of the larger rift valley system starting in East Africa. The tectonic vertical movement has created steep slopes on both sides of the valley, leaving the river channels, such as the Jordan river system, as the only convenient routes for human movement.

Tel Zahara is located at the confluence of the Jezreel and Jordan Valleys, specifically in the Central Jordan Valley, which itself consists of three sub-regions—the Beth Shean Valley, the Harod Valley and the Kinrot Valley (Fig. 1.4). Tel Zahara is on the eastern side of the border between the Beth Shean and the Harod Valleys. The area borders the

1

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 1.2 View of Tel Zahara and the surrounding countryside from the southwest. Photo by W. Więckowski.

Fig. 1.3 Plan of Tel Zahara showing walking paths. Prepared by J. Rosenberg.

2

S. Cohen, with Contribution by W. Więckowski: Introduction

Fig. 1.4 Map of the geographic region around Tel Zahara. Prepared by W. Więckowski.

Volcanic activity covered the floors and the slopes of the valley with basaltic material and inland lakes have filled the Jordan Valley in various stages (for example, Lake Lisan filled parts of the area from ca. 70,000–15,000 B.P., and desiccated around 12,500 B.P., creating the geological layer known as the Lisan Formation).

time by a fertile alluvium, making it a desirable habitat for humans, as demonstrated by the plentiful remains of human activity in the area (Maier 2010; Zori 1962). 1.1.2 Geology and soils

Although the Central Jordan Valley is located in the northern part of the rift valley, the Harod valley is actually more similar to the Jezreel Valley in many features, such as the character of the soil (Nir 1989; Ben-Arzi 1993). In regard to the climate or settlement patterns, however, both the Harod and Jordan Valleys are integrally connected. The main water system of the Harod Valley naturally leads to the Jordan Valley, and the Harod Valley may be viewed as transitional in character between the eastern part of the rift valley system of the Jordan Valley and the western Mediterranean region and Jezreel Valley area.

The hills surrounding the system of the Central Jordan Valley are composed of either volcanic or sedimentary rock formations. Neogene/Quaternary volcanic formations comprise the area to the west and northwest (including the Ramat Issachar hills and the region west of the Sea of Galilee), and small Neogene sedimentary formations are also present in the valleys of the region. Eocene sedimentary rocks (in the northern part these are mainly Senonian, Turonian and Upper Cenomanian sedimentary formations) form the Gilboa mountains to the south of the region. To the northeast the Golan heights are built up almost entirely from volcanic rock.

Because of the availability of water (both the Jordan and Harod are perennial water sources), and the favorable geographical conditions, both valleys became extremely important routes for human travel in antiquity. In addition, these valleys figured significantly in trade patterns with the coastal areas, including that between Egypt and Syrian coastal cities, as well as between the coastal and inland locations in both the southern Levant and Mesopotamia. The higher valley floor is relatively flat and was covered in

The border between the valleys and the surrounding hills is very clear, with the exception of the area of the Harod Valley, where the change is more gradual in character. Two major morphological units can be distinguished in the Jordan Valley: 1) the flat bottom of the valley that runs up to the feet of the surrounding hills—the Ghor—and, 2) the lower terrace cut into the river bed—the Zor. In this regard, the area of the Harod Valley is often considered to be a part of the Ghor. Its area serves as a channel directing waters

3

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

eastwards from the central watershed, and as a result the Harod Valley soils are comprised almost completely with very recent, quaternary, alluvial and colluvial deposition originating from the surrounding hills (Nir and Ben-Arieh 1964).

between terraces. Tel Zahara is located on the edge of one such water system, starting from a spring and the Harod, which ultimately leads to the Jordan River.1

The two main types of soils in the region consist of residual valley soils and alluvial/colluvial soils washed down from the surrounding hills. The soils of the Harod Valley are of alluvial origin in the center of the valley and colluvial on the borders. They are mainly brown soils, whereas the soils in the neighboring Beth Shean and Jordan Valleys are often Rendzina soils formed on the Lisan marls or limestone tufa. A small portion of the overall area soils are of different origin; these include hydromorphic soils remaining from swamps that existed in the region until recent times. All of the soil types in the area are fertile soils, often used extensively for agricultural cultivation (Nir 1989).

Several surveys of the Jordan Valley mention Tel Zahara (Zori 1962:185; Maeir 2010:215). In addition, Israel Antiquity Authority records regarding the site, based on these earlier surveys and accessed by S. Cohen in August 2005, note the presence of pottery from the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Ages, as well as the Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic eras at Tel Zahara.2 A visit to the site by S. Cohen and W. Więckowski in spring 2005 confirmed many of the likely periods of occupation at the site as attested by the broad chronological range of the ceramics on the surface of the tel. The site was then topographically surveyed by J. Rosenberg, S. Cohen, and J. Baker in spring 2005 and a detailed map created showing heights at intervals of one meter as well as the absolute height below sea level (-95 m) on the top of the site (Fig. 1.3).

1.2 History of Excavations at the Site

1.1.3 Climate, flora and water sources In general, the climate of the area has not changed substantially since the Holocene (Horwitz 1971). The conditions can be classified as a “warm steppe climate” or an “arid Mediterranean bioclimate, warm variety” with an average precipitation between 300 – 400 mm, and high summer and moderate winter temperatures. Although the combination of accessible water sources and the moderate climate seems to create a perfect region for farming, it must be noted that the region borders with the arid desert areas to the south and east. That places it in a precarious position—a few years with dry weather can easily turn the whole region into an arid zone. The only exception is the western end of the Harod Valley (west of Tel Zahara), where independent water sources, rising isohyets (rainfall up to 450 mm), and slightly different climatic conditions reflecting gradual change into a Mediterranean climate, help to maintain the use of the land for agriculture.

Excavations began at Tel Zahara in June 2006, directed by S. Cohen, on behalf of Montana State University in association with the Israel Antiquities Authority. The plans for excavation at Tel Zahara focused on opening a broad exposure on the long eastern slope of the lower part of the tel. This area was chosen for several reasons: 1) the southern slope of the site was clearly damaged by recent kibbutz activities, as the initial survey uncovered rock piles and remains of discarded agricultural implements that suggested possible disturbances to the site that would hinder excavation in that area, 2) the western and northern slopes of the tel are much steeper and shorter, thus making it more difficult to excavate a broad exposure of each phase of settlement, and 3) large portions of the upper part of the tel, and much of the western slope have been disturbed by an extremely large porcupine occupation (Horwitz et al. 2012; Więckowski et al. 2013; Cohen and Więckowski forthcoming); the size and extent of the burrows, together with the accompanying bioturbation, would have provided an additional difficulty in examining the stratigraphic sequences in those areas. Discovery of additional modern damage to portions of the site in the 2007 season (see section 1.4 below) served to confirm this excavation strategy.

The same area of the Harod Valley is distinct also because of its phyto-geography, as it is more Mediterranean in character than the rest of the region. Woodland and steppe forests comprise the dominant vegetation. Further to the east the flora changes into the Irano-Turano zone, marked by the presence of shrubs and bushes and almost no trees. Because of the climatic conditions the Irano-Turano zone can be periodically desertic following years with lower rainfall, although sufficient water supply (from irrigation using independent water sources such as springs) can help make the region appropriate for farming, especially for cereal production.

1.2.1 Stratigraphy of the Site In addition to the Roman and Hellenistic occupation at Tel Zahara, which is the focus of the present volume, excavations also uncovered occupational remains dating to the Middle and Early Bronze Age periods at the site, as well as ceramics and other material culture dating to

This region has been subject to extensive agricultural use throughout its history. This is made possible through the relatively high average annual precipitation on the one hand, and the abundance of other water sources on the other. The area has several perennial streams including Wadi Harod and Wadi Amal as well as others in the nearby foothills; additional springs are located on the border

Although the water in the present system has decreased because of extensive irrigation in the region, in the past this was a perennial water system. 2 No remains dating to the Late Bronze Age were found during the 2006–2009 excavations. 1

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S. Cohen, with Contribution by W. Więckowski: Introduction

Table 1.1. Stratigraphic sequence and approximate dates of occupation at Tel Zahara.

Stratum

Period

Approximate Date

IA IB II

Muslim cemetery Byzantine, Islamic, Crusader mixed fills Roman Rebuilding and renovation Initial construction Leveling fills for construction Hellenistic Construction of buildings Leveling fills for construction Late Persian – Early Hellenistic Middle Bronze Age II Early Bronze Age II-III

Nineteenth – twentieth centuries C.E. Fifth – tenth centuries C.E. Early second – early third century C.E.

III IV V VI

IIA IIB IIC

IIIA IIIB

Late third – late second century B.C.E. Fourth – third centuries B.C.E. ca. 1725 – 1550 B.C.E. ca. 3100 – 2300 B.C.E.

Stratum IV

the Byzantine, Islamic, and Crusader periods (Cohen 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2008a, 2008b, 2009) (Table 1.1). No Late Bronze or Iron I/II material has been found at the site.

Remains from this stratum were again uncovered only in Square SE.A.7. These consisted of one mudbrick wall, running SE–NW, the remains of a tabun cut into surrounding courtyard layers, and fill below (section 2.1). The lowest layer lay just above the Bronze Age material discussed above.

Stratum VI This stratum was reached only in an extremely small exposure (ca. three by five m) in Square SE.A.7 (Fig. 1.5) at the end of the 2008 season. No architectural remains were uncovered; the nature of the small exposure suggested an outdoor work area or courtyard in this area. Excavations of these layers yielded a variety of Early Bronze Age ceramic material, including several sherds of net painted ware and numerous hole-mouth vessels. The Early Bronze Age deposits lay on virgin soil.

Stratum III The primary Hellenistic occupation at the site consists of a large structure located in the eastern half of the open excavation area (section 2.1); it has been divided into two sub-strata, IIIA and IIIB, based on architectural, rather than ceramic, considerations. Remnant of addtitional large buildings were also uncovered.

Stratum V

Stratum II

Stratified Middle Bronze Age occupational remains were uncovered also only in Square SE.A.7 (Fig. 1.5). Several courtyard layers were excavated across the entire square. These layers were consistent with an outdoor activity area deposit; ashy patches, mudbrick debris, and remnants of grinding stones were scattered throughout the area. The pottery from these loci included many cooking pots, both hand and wheel made, and fragments of storage jars. Although no architectural remains from the Middle Bronze Age were uncovered within Square SE.A.7 itself, the remains of a two course high mudbrick wall are visible in the northern baulk. In section it is apparent that the courtyard layers run up to the wall, and are clearly associated with it (Cohen and Więckowski in press).

Excavations uncovered the remains of several large and well-constructed Roman buildings on the eastern slope of the site (section 2.2), as well as a sophisticated drainage system and cistern (section 2.3). Based on architectural and stratigraphic considerations, Stratum II was divided into three sub-phases, IIA, IIB, and IIC. Stratum I Stratum IB consists entirely of large mixed fills and a few pits; the ceramic range is Early Bronze Age through Ayyubid. No architecture was excavated in this stratum (section 2.4). Stratum IA is represented by the Muslim cemetery situated on the top of the site (Chapter 11).

In addition to the occupational material, three Middle Bronze Age II primary burials were excavated at the base of the eastern slope of the tel (Cohen 2006; Cohen and Więckowski 2007; Cohen and Więckowski in press). Any additional burials, if any existed, were obliterated by the deep foundations of the later Stratum II buildings, which cut through to virgin soil in this area of the site.

1.3 Methodology At the beginning of each season, the overgrowth in the targeted excavation areas was removed. Following this the main excavation grid was established on the site. Tel Zahara was divided into four quadrants, NW, SW, NE, and SE,

5

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

with the center of the grid located on the highest portion of the tel at the point at which the absolute height below sea level was established (Fig. 1.5). Each quadrant was divided into five by five meter squares, using numerals to mark the east-west axis of the grid, and capital letters to indicate the north-south axis. With one exception (see sections 1.4 and 11.2), all excavation took place along the eastern slope of the site, in the northeast and southeast quadrants of the grid. Because the absolute fixed point on the top of the tel was located too high to be used in the daily excavation on the eastern slope, several additional benchmarks were then established lower on the site (Fig. 1.5).

excavated from the bottom of the probe, clearly indicating that this entire area of the site had been disturbed in modern times. The deposition suggests that the skeletal elements and plastic had been backfilled into this area, as had the very large stones excavated near the top of each square. As the extent and depth of the modern damage intrusion was unknown, these squares were immediately closed and the excavated pottery dumped back at the site. An additional square (SW.K.7) was then opened in the southern area of the top of the site (Fig. 1.5). At a depth of ca. 0.40 m, excavations uncovered the complete and undisturbed primary burial of a young child, aged approximately five years, from the Stratum IA Muslim cemetery (Burial B, see section 11.1). Significantly, the artificially flat stratigraphy of the top of the site as viewed in the baulks of the square revealed that the top of the site had been shaved flat, most probably by mechanized equipment, and in so doing disturbed the burials of the cemetery.4 The material removed during this process was then dumped over the side of the tel; this explains the presence of the skull of a young child in the probe dug in SE.C.5, cited above, as well as the shreds of plastic.

Excavation within each square used sequential locus and bucket numbers, with bucket numbers beginning again at one for each new excavation season. All material culture was excavated and tagged in relation to square and bucket number; a separate sequential material culture number was then assigned to each item. All ceramic material was washed, sorted, and read; all diagnostics from all loci were marked individually and assigned a separate sequential registration number. Following the initial examination of the pottery from all loci, and with permission granted from the Israel Antiquities Authority, body sherds and sherds from contaminated loci (section 1.4) were dumped back at the site

It is suggested here that modern activity has affected the topography and deposition at Tel Zahara as follows:

All architecture was photographed using digital cameras with an exposure set to 300 dpi, and drawn on a scale of 1:25 prior to removal and further excavation.3 Top plans of each square and baulks were drawn on a 1:25 scale as well. In addition, square supervisors kept daily logs of excavation in each square, and produced final reports for each area at the end of each season.

1. Within relatively recent history, most probably until 1948, local inhabitants of the region used the top of the site as a burial ground (Stratum IA). 2. Sometime in the more recent past, large sections of the eastern slope, and most probably the southern and western ones as well, were cut into using heavy machinery (perhaps to acquire the dirt necessary to cover the pipes used for drainage/irrigation in the nearby fields, to lay the path placed on the site, or for leveling fill for other construction activities in the area). This damage to the tel, however, was unrecorded. 3. The top of the site was leveled and flattened, again using heavy machinery, most probably when the paths on the site were laid, as part of the process of creating a “parklike” environment in the area; in the process of leveling the site, large parts of the pre-1948 Muslim cemetery on the top of the site were disturbed and/or destroyed. 4. The dirt from the leveling process was pushed over the sides of the site to fill in the areas removed previously, as evidenced by the child’s skull in the backfill of the probe dug in SE.C.5, the porcupine skeleton in this same fill, and the large rocks found in no discernable pattern near the surface of Squares SE.C.5 and SE.D.5. The pieces of plastic found in the probe also come from this backfilling activity.

1.4 Modern Damage to the Site Squares SE.C.5 and SE.D.5 (Fig. 1.5) were opened at the beginning of the 2007 excavation season with the goal of expanding the exposure of occupation on the site following the 2006 season. During the initial excavation in both new squares, several conglomerations of very large stones with no discernable pattern evident in their deposition were uncovered; they initially appeared to be tumble, but there was no evidence of structures of this size higher on the site from which these rocks could have fallen. After removal of these rocks, excavation continued to a depth of over half a meter, without uncovering any change in soil or any architectural elements. At a depth of almost one meter, excavations uncovered an almost complete skeleton of a small mammal, perhaps a porcupine, and shortly thereafter, the complete skull of a young child (aged approximately four years) (Burial A, see section 11.1); no pit lines or other differentiation in the soil was noted around either of these remains. At a depth of 1.8 m two pieces of very old and deteriorated plastic were

It should be noted that the porcupine burrows located at the northern side of the top of the site have also significantly disturbed this cemetery (Horwitz et al. 2012; Więckowski et al. 2013; Cohen and Więckowski forthcoming). It is probable that the damage by heavy machinery to the top of the site preceded the establishment of the colony, as the tel is unnaturally flat along the top and the animal burrows have been dug down into this flat surface. The shaving of the site clearly damaged and/or destroyed any graves on the top of the site, and the animal burrows then caused considerable further damage to those graves located at deeper levels. 4

Specific finds, such as the burials, and/or other architectural details, were drawn at 1:10. 3

6

S. Cohen, with Contribution by W. Więckowski: Introduction

Fig. 1.5 Plan of Tel Zahara showing all open excavation areas. Prepared by J. Rosenberg.

These modern activities have clearly disturbed large portions of the site, and without proper records of what activities have taken place, it is not possible to determine the full extent of the damage, which renders these areas impossible to excavate in any scientific manner. As such,

the only area of the site not disturbed by modern activity may be the northern half of the eastern slope of the site, and the northern slope of the site itself, which has been shielded from activity because of the wadi running along the northern side of the tel.

7

Chapter 2. The Stratigraphy S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker

Both the Hellenistic and Roman periods of settlement at Tel Zahara were relatively short-lived. Following a brief late Persian – early Hellenistic occupation (fourth – third century B.C.E.), the Hellenistic settlement at Tel Zahara was established in the late third century and lasted through the second half of the second century B.C.E. After a hiatus of several centuries, the site was again settled in the Roman period in the early second century C.E. and remained inhabited until the early third century C.E. at latest. During both eras, the rise, development and subsequent decline and/or abandonment were linked with the contemporary trajectory at the nearby urban site of Beth Shean (Scythopolis) (Chapter 12) (Cohen forthcoming).

the construction of the large buildings founded in Stratum IIIA. The excavated portion of this stratum consisted primarily of courtyard or outdoor deposits and other fills, with no associated architectural remains. 2.1.3 Stratum IIIA The main structure of Stratum IIIA (Building I) (Fig. 2.1) consisted of a long wall, angled NE–SW (NE.A.7.L0025= SE.A.7.L0027 = SE.B.7.L0016 = SE.B.6.L0020), and an E–W cross wall (SE.A.7.L0032 = SE.A.8.L0015) that then created two large rooms (one of which may have been subdivided) on the eastern side of the long wall. These primary walls of the building consisted of alternating courses of large and small unhewn field stones (Fig. 2.2). An additional series of facing stones (SE.A.7.L0031) were located on the eastern, interior, side of the long NE–SW wall.1

2.1 The Hellenistic Stratigraphy and Architecture (Strata IV – III) 2.1.1 Stratum IV Stratum IV (fourth – third century B.C.E) was reached only in one five by five meter square (SE.A.7) (see Fig. 1.5). As a result, little can be said about the nature of the architecture or organization of the settlement in this period. Excavations in Stratum IV uncovered one mudbrick wall (SE.A.7.L0057/L0065) which ran NW–SE, in the northern portion of the excavated area, at roughly the same orientation as the later Hellenistic Building I wall in this area. No other architecture was found, although a small N–S line of rocks in the SW corner of the area may have functioned as a divider in the open area to the south of the wall. Several pits and the remains of a tabun were also excavated. No clear surface was found in association with the mudbrick wall, although the small exposure of the excavated area precluded any clear understanding of the occupation in this area. The relatively small and insubstantial nature of the architecture, however, suggest that the late Persian – Hellenistic occupation at Tel Zahara was neither as large nor as prosperous as it was later in the Hellenistic and Roman eras when this small site was more closely linked to contemporary settlement at Beth Shean (Chapter 12) (Cohen forthcoming).

A break toward the eastern end of the primary E–W crosswall was filled with large fieldstones placed slightly out of line with the rest of the wall; this may indicate a blocked doorway between Rooms 1 and 2 (Figs. 2.1 and 2.3). In Room 1, on the north, excavations uncovered cobbled paving in two places (Fig. 2.3); in between the cobbled areas were patches of heavy burning and several layers of ashy patches. Room 2, in the south, also had a section of cobbles on the eastern side, although this was extant only in a relatively small area. A small single-course row of field stones (SE.A.8.L0019) divided Room 2 into eastern and western sections. Because of the relatively small exposure, it is difficult to ascertain the probable function for Building I, nor is it possible to determine whether this was a domestic or public structure. The ashy patches and burnt areas may be more consistent with the former, as these suggest cooking and/or work areas within a living space, but this is by no means conclusive. The other two partially excavated architecture dating to the Hellenistic era, Buildings II and III, had similar construction to Building I. Building II, located in the upper NW corner of the excavation area consisted of a N–S wall (NE.A.6.L0017) and a short E–W wall (NE.A.6.L0005), which was then re-used again in the Roman era as part

2.1.2 Stratum IIIB This sub-stratum was also exposed only in square SE.A.7. Although this provided only a very small exposure, the nature of the excavated remains in this area indicate an additional phase of Hellenistic settlement at the site prior to

It is possible that created a smooth surface for plaster on the interior of the building; although no traces of plaster or other surface treatment remained on the wall, very small pieces of painted plaster were occasionally found in associated fills inside the building (see Appendix 2). 1

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Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 2.1 Plan of Stratum IIIA architecture. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker.

2.2 The Roman Stratigraphy and Architecture (Stratum II)

of the Stratum IIB construction (section 2.2.2) (Fig. 2.4). Although exposed in only a small area, the construction of the corner of Building II is similar to Building I, and the walls are of an equally large size. Because of the depths of the Roman fills above and around this structure as well as the relatively small exposure, no surface was uncovered in association with this building.

2.2.1 Stratum IIC Stratum IIC represents the leveling and preparation for the foundation of the Stratum IIB buildings. No architecture was found associated with this stratum; Stratum IIC was composed entirely of large fills and pits. On the lower part of the eastern slope of the site, the fills of Stratum IIC either lay directly on virgin soil, or cut into and were mixed with earlier occupational material from the Middle Bronze Age, including the probable remains of an MB II cemetery (Cohen and Więckowski in press).

Even less information exists for Building III. All that remains of this structure is a short stub of an E–W wall (SE.A.6.L0003), found without associated surfaces or other architectural features, again because of the disruptive nature of the large Roman fills from Stratum IIC and the construction of the Stratum IIA cistern (sections 2.2.1 and 2.3). This wall is similar in construction to the other two buildings, however, and it may be supposed that it was part of third large structure erected as part of the Hellenistic occupation at Tel Zahara.

Two pits in this area are also assigned to Stratum IIC; although consistent with the remnants of several Middle Bronze Age pits in this area, these two yielded mixed 10

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.2 Corner and walls of Building I in Stratum IIIA, looking north. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.3 Blocked doorway and remains of cobbled paving in Building I in Stratum IIIA, looking west. Photo by S. Cohen.

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Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 2.4 Building II in Stratum IIIA, looking west. Photo by S. Cohen.

2.2.2 Stratum IIB

deposits, including large quantities of Roman ceramics. On the southern extent of the eastern slope, the modern damage to the site (section 1.4) also precluded a full determination of the extent of this leveling activity; the subsequent backfill following the bulldozer cuts contained large quantities of Roman ceramics, which may have created “false” fills at these levels associated with the Stratum IIC pre-building fills. Rather than risk contamination of the data, these areas were closed and backfilled.

Stratum IIB represents the main phase of Roman occupation at Tel Zahara (Fig. 2.5). It is during this period that the primary architectural construction took place, consisting of at least two large buildings uncovered on the eastern slope of the tel; architectural remnants near the edges of the excavation area or in areas of the site later disturbed by modern activities indicate that additional large buildings were constructed in this area as well, but very little remains of these structures. The Stratum IIB buildings were oriented primarily along an east-west axis, and are constructed similarly of large unhewn fieldstones.

In the areas between Building I and Building II, and again to the south of Building II (Fig. 2.5), the Stratum IIC leveling fill was laid in such a manner as to produce a sloping stratigraphy, consisting of clayey soils alternating with lighter sediment, which appears almost vertical in section. This vertical stratigraphy was located primarily in areas around the outsides of Buildings I and II. While the function of this layering technique remains unclear, a possible explanation is that this method of placing these different sediments prior to the building construction was related to an overall construction plan, and perhaps to facilitate drainage in the area.

In Building I, located on the lower section of the eastern slope, excavations uncovered a long east-west wall (NE.A.9.L0005 = NE.A.10.L0007 = NE.A.11.L0019) and four smaller rooms on the northern side of this wall (Fig. 2.6). To the north of these rooms, a cobblestone area, with a pillar base (NE.A.10.L0017) that suggests a portico, or partially open outdoor area (Fig. 2.7), indicates that the overall plan of this building may have been built around an open courtyard, with smaller rooms surrounding it. The rooms excavated to the south of this open area would then represent the rooms around a central courtyard; it is likely, therefore, that additional rooms were located further to the north of this open center area, outside the excavation area. There is nothing in any of the individual rooms to suggest specific function; in general, the floors were clean and very little material culture, including ceramic remains, was recovered from these areas. Building I was a massive construction, the walls of Rooms 3 and 4 were preserved to over a meter in height (Fig. 2.8); the foundations for these walls cut through the leveling fills of Stratum IIC as well as through whatever earlier occupational material

The associated material culture from Stratum IIC is consistent with the interpretation of this stratum as preconstruction activity, during which the building area was prepared with fill material acquired from other areas at the site. In addition to the large quantities of Roman pottery, ceramic material from all periods of occupation at the site was also excavated from these fills. The ceramic remains from Stratum IIC (Chapter 3) as well as the numismatic evidence (Chapter 5) suggest a second century C.E. date for the leveling activities and subsequent construction of the buildings.

12

Fig. 2.5 Plan of Stratum IIB architecture. Prepared by W. Więckowski.

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

13

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 2.6 Plan of Building I. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker.

may have existed in this part of the site and were set deep into virgin soil.

of the tel, identified as Building IV (Fig. 2.5). The majority of this structure would have extended further to the east.

Building II, further to the west, remained mostly unexcavated in Stratum IIB (Fig. 2.5). The bulk of the initial Stratum IIB structure extended to the north; based on the size of the one excavated east-west wall, it is probable that this was quite a large structure. Based on the one wall and corner, it is—like Building I—a massive construction of large unhewn fieldstones and it is likely that these walls were sunk deeply through the Stratum IIC leveling material into the earlier occupational material below.

2.2.3 Stratum IIA Following the initial construction of the Roman buildings in Stratum IIB, various architectural changes to Building I and II were added in Stratum IIA (Fig. 2.9). These renovations consisted of minor architectural changes in Building I, perhaps either for maintenance or to make structural changes to certain rooms, as well as significant additional construction and re-structuring of the area to the south of Building II (Fig 2.10). A further major addition in Stratum IIA was the construction of a cistern in the open area south of Building II and an associated drainage system (section 2.3). As noted above, there is little chronological difference between the original construction of Stratum IIB and the Stratum IIA additions and the distinction between these phases is purely architectural. These additions, however, did change the overall layout of the site, the relationship between the structures, and the means by which the site’s inhabitants could access water.

Two additional large stone walls suggest additional buildings were constructed in Stratum IIB (Fig. 2.5). South of Building I, Wall SE.A.10.L0002 followed the same eastwest orientation as the large walls of Buildings I and II, and was founded at roughly the same levels. Separated from Building I by approximately two meters, which would allow passageway between the two structures, it is likely that this wall formed the northern part of another large structure south of Building I, here labeled Building III (Fig. 2.5). No other elements of this structure were excavated, as this area was damaged by the modern activities at the site (section 1.4).

In Stratum IIA a small wall (NE.A.8.L0005) was constructed that connected Buildings I and II along the long east-west axis that forms the major orientation for both structures (Figs. 2.9, 2.11a-b). This wall was constructed of smaller stones than the major walls themselves—a phenomenon in keeping with the majority of the Stratum IIA architecture— and was not founded at the same deep level as the Stratum IIB structures. In the west, this wall was placed close to, but not abutting, the eastern edge of the corner of Building II; the center of the wall was partially destroyed by a later

To the east of Building I, Wall NE.A.12.L0006 runs at the same orientation as the major north-south walls of Building I and thus it is possible that it was another part of that structure. Its distance from Building I, as well as the difference in founding levels and relative elevation, however, instead suggest that this would have been a wall from yet another Roman building located at the very base 14

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.7 Courtyard 1 of Building I in Stratum IIB, looking south. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.8 Walls of Room 4, Building I, looking south. Photo by S. Cohen.

Stratum I pit, but it also ran up against the east-west wall of Building I, effectively connecting the two structures. The purpose for connecting the two structures is unclear; it may have been related to the new rooms added to Building II at this time, as the orientation of the latter building changed accordingly.

with the addition of low stone bench or reinforcing wall on the east side of the north-south wall separating the two rooms (Fig. 2.12). It is possible that the three rounded stones (NE.A.10.L0007) next to the re-used threshold in the major east-west wall of Building I were added at this time as well. A cobble floor was also added in Room 3 of Building I (Fig. 2.13). With the exception of the re-laying of these floors, no other additions or changes were made to Building I.

In Building I, new floors were laid in Rooms 1 and 2, replacing the previous plaster with cobbles; this coincided 15

Fig. 2.9 Plan of Stratum IIA. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker.

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

16

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.10 Plan of Building II in Stratum IIA. Prepared by W. Więckowski and J. Baker.

The majority of significant architectural changes in Stratum IIA were the additions to Building II. While in Stratum IIB, the long east-west wall and corner marked the southern extent of Building II, with the rest of the structure presumably extending further to the north and west, in Stratum IIA several walls were added to the south of this wall (Fig. 2.10). These walls, while similar in construction to the other architectural elements throughout the site, were less massive than the primary walls of the buildings in Stratum IIB, constructed for the most part of smaller, unhewn fieldstones, and were laid at higher levels than the original founding levels of the primary construction.

the center of the room. A small section of additional cobbles were also found the northwest corner of Room 4 and the southwest corner of Room 3; in Room 4 a tabun had been set directly above the cobbles (Figs. 2.14, 2.15). Like the rooms in Building I, in both Stratum IIA and IIB, the floors were extremely clean, with little pottery, faunal remains, or other finds on the surfaces. Stratum IIA was clearly a continuation of Stratum IIB, in which specific renovations and other minor building projects were conducted. The majority of the structural changes were related to the additions to Building II, and the construction of the water catchment system (section 2.3). As there is nothing to indicate the specific function of the buildings, the rebuilding may have been to accommodate domestic changes, or perhaps to account for different functions of the structures during the course of occupation at the site. As the ceramics of Stratum IIA are chronologically indistinguishable from those of the earlier phases of Stratum II, it is not possible to tell when during the span of the Roman occupation at Tel Zahara these architectural changes were implemented.

The construction of these walls in Stratum IIA added several additional rooms to Building II. Three north-south fieldstone walls (NE.A.6.L0003, NE.A.7.L0002=0009, =SE.A.7.L0004, NE.A.8.L0002) were constructed abutting the southern face of the east-west closing wall of the Stratum IIB Building II; a fourth north-south wall at the western end of the structure was robbed out. Construction of two east-west walls (NE.A.6.L0004, NE.A.7.L0005) provided closing walls for at least five additional rooms (Fig. 2.10). More small architectural remnants indicate that there may have been additional rooms added to the structure other than these five, but given the preservation on the site in these areas, this could not be determined with certainty.

2.2.4 Discussion Individual farms and settlements are attested in Palestine throughout the Roman period. Several varieties of Roman dwellings are known, which may be divided in three types (following Hirschfeld 1995): 1) the simple house, 2) the “complex” house, and 3) the “courtyard” house. In all cases,

The westernmost room, Room 1, had a very wellconstructed cobblestone floor (Fig. 2.14), with a reused upper portion of an Olynthus millstone (see Fig. 7.3) set in 17

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 2.11a Stratum IIA wall connecting Buildings I and II, looking west. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.11b Stratum IIA wall connecting Buildings I and II, looking east. Photo by S. Cohen.

the identification of the dwelling type is predicated on the nature of the structure in relation to a courtyard associated with it. Variations of the “simple” house include single room dwellings next to a courtyard, two perpendicular wings, often to the north of the courtyard, and a tower-like structure, often with several stories. The latter category is most common in more isolated areas (Hirschfeld 1995). The “complex” house is primarily identified as an expansion of the “simple” house by adding wings around the main

courtyard, while the “courtyard” house is a structure where the courtyard is surrounded on all four sides by the dwelling (Hirschfeld 1995). For all types, however, in general, the layout consisted of agricultural buildings arranged around an open courtyard, which stands out as the central feature of a Roman rural structure. The common features of all these rural sites included a tower, scattered agricultural buildings, stables

18

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.12 Stratum IIA wall between Rooms 1 and 2 in Building I , looking south. Photo by J. Baker.

Fig. 2.13 Cobble floor in Room 3 in Building I looking west. Photo by S. Cohen

and granary, olive and wine presses, and cisterns, etc.2 Often an elongated house was located at the rear of the courtyard, sometimes preceded by a portico; other configurations consisted of a house on one side of the courtyard and farm buildings on the other or a courtyard with a house in a tower along the edge (Sartre 2005: 225–226). The domestic

houses tended to follow the same basic structural pattern; the houses had two stories, often with an exterior staircase. Room-to-room communication took place from outside rather than inside, or else through the courtyard (Sartre 2005:227). The Roman structures in Stratum II at Tel Zahara, dating to the second and third centuries C.E., appear to be typical examples of rural Roman architecture for this era. While

The cisterns are typically bell or bottle shaped; the narrow neck slows evaporation, and the mouth was covered with stone slabs (section 2.3; Butcher 2003:165). 2

19

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 2.14 Cobble floor in Room 1 in Building II, looking east. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.15 Tabun in Room 4 in Building II. Photo by S. Cohen.

the limited exposure of the four buildings at Tel Zahara precludes identifying which category, or categories, of structure existed at the site, it is clear that Building I at least was composed of several rooms around a courtyard, and it is likely that Building II also followed this general pattern, while not enough information is available to categorize Buildings III and IV. The pillar in Courtyard 1 also suggests a portico, a feature attested on other Roman

structures from this era (Hirschfeld 1995:67). The numerous small pieces of painted plaster found throughout the fills of Strata I and II (Appendix 2) suggest that the interior walls may have been fully covered or decorated with frescos, which also has parallels elsewhere in Palestine (Hirschfeld 1995:67), such as the Roman buildings excavated at Gamala (Gutman 1993:462). Overall, the construction and layout of the buildings excavated at the site suggest that Tel Zahara

20

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.16 Drawing of cistern and channels. Prepared by W. Więckowski.

Fig. 2.17 Cistern section and view from the top. Drawing by W. Więckowski.

21

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

functioned as a farmstead or estate during its occupation in the second and third centuries C.E. (Chapter 12).3 2.3 The Stratum IIA Water System (S. Cohen with contribution by J. Baker) As part of the architectural additions to Building II in Stratum IIA the inhabitants of Tel Zahara constructed a water catchment system consisting of a small plaster-lined bell-shaped cistern (with an opening roughly 0.7 m across) and at least five plaster channels that drained into it (Figs. 2.16–2.17).4 The cistern was thickly plastered on the interior; during the period in which the cistern remained in use, the interior was re-plastered at least once, and possibly several times, as indicated by the multiple layers of plaster found on the interior (Fig. 2.18). One broken piece of a rounded stone with a socket or notch cut into it found within the cistern may be remains of a covering stone of some kind (Fig. 2.19). Four channels (Channels 1, 2, 3, and 5) drained directly into the cistern (Fig. 2.16). Channel 4 was a rebuild, or reAnother possible interpretation, based on the similarity of the Zahara architecture to the building remains at ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna (Glick 2006), is that the site may have functioned as a caravansary (see also Chapter 3, fn. 11), although—given the proximity of Tel Zahara to Beth Shean—this scenario is less plausible. 4 For logistical reasons and safety considerations, it was not possible to completely excavate the interior of cistern, and its full width and depth remain unknown. 3

Fig. 2.18 Plaster in the cistern. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.19 Possible cistern cover in situ. Photo by S. Cohen.

22

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

orienting, of Channel 3. The interface between the channels and cistern indicate that the entire system was constructed largely contemporaneously. With one exception in part of Channel 2, discussed below, the drainage channels were all of the same construction, consisting of a thick U-shaped plaster channel capped with cobble-sized stones (Fig. 2.20). The lowest, and least well-constructed, channel (Channel 1) ran diagonally from the eastern inside wall of Room 5 south of Room 4 (Fig. 2.21), and entered the cistern from the west (Fig. 2.22). While the base of the channel was composed of the typical thick plaster in a U-shape, the capping stones differed from the other channels in that they were unhewn field stones, rather than flat cobbles (Fig. 2.23). Channel 2 ran from the southern side of the cistern and connected with a north-south wall in the southeast of the open excavation area (Fig. 2.24). The northern end of Channel 2 was different from the other drainage channels associated with the cistern. Rather than a plastered U-shaped base, the western meter of this channel up to its connection with the cistern itself had no discernable constructed shape; instead there was a concretization of sand and perhaps bits of mortar that lined the sides of the channel (Fig. 2.25). No capping stones were found on the northern end of the channel. Farther to the south, however, Channel 2 exhibited a construction similar to all the other drainage channels.

Fig. 2.20 Close up of Channel 3 and capping stones. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.21 Close up of the end of Channel 1 (at upper right) in Room 5. Photo by S. Cohen.

23

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Channels 3 and 4 extended south from Room 2 of Building II (Fig. 2.26) and entered the northern side of the cistern. Although both channels were part of the Stratum IIA architectural additions, it appears that there was a slight temporal difference in the construction. Following the construction of the small bench or east-west dividing wall to the south of Room 2, which may have cut or blocked Channel 3, a secondary smaller channel (Channel 4) was added (Fig. 2.26). Channel 4 then drained from a different location in Room 2 into the southern half of the original Channel 3. Like the other drains, Channels 3 and 4 were U-shaped plaster channels with flat capping stones. The final channel to drain into the cistern—Channel 5— ran from the western side of the north-south wall between Rooms 4 and 5 into the cistern from the east (Figs. 2.16 and 2.17). This channel was very short and slightly curved; unlike the other drains, which stood alone, the U-shaped trough of Channel 5 was embedded within a conglomeration of cobble-sized field stones that also served as a closing wall for Room 4. A thick cobble and plaster layer then ran from the southern side of Channel 5 further to the south; this may have acted as some type of “spill-over” area for overflow from the channels and cistern. Overall, the water system excavated in association with Building II at Tel Zahara represents a well-constructed water management system designed to catch and store excess rainwater flowing from the structure. Given the

Fig. 2.22 Section showing Channels 1 and 5 opening into the cistern. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.23 View of Channel 1 with capping stones looking east. Photo by J. Baker.

24

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.24 Channel 2 looking east. Photo by S. Cohen.

Fig. 2.25 Opening of cistern with Channel 3 to the north and Channel 2 to the south. Photo by S. Cohen.

25

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 2.26 Close up of Channels 3 and 4. Photo by S. Cohen.

site’s proximity to Wadi Harod, however, the need for this water catchment system seems unusual. It is possible therefore that despite being perennial, the wadi may have failed to provide an adequate supply for the site’s needs. The channels and cistern may have provided an extra water storage system to allow for low seasons and to provide extra water to the site. The construction of the Stratum IIA cistern and drainage system coincides with the apparent prosperity noted at Beth Shean (Chapter 12) together with evidence for increased meat production for trade at Tel Zahara (Chapter 4) and it is possible that the site’s water consumption may have increased beyond what could be provided from the wadi alone.

rainwater collection systems.5 The atrium roofs, which inclined inward forming the compluvium, allowed rainwater to flow either through special spouted tiles or to fall freely to a collection trough, the impluvium, located on the atrium floor or in the gardens, the palaestrae. In the impluvium impurities in the water could settle before flowing through additional conduits to the sub-floor cistern. Water could be drawn either from a basin, above or near the opening to the cistern, and/or through a cylindrical conduit whose mouth was made either of marble or terracotta, which was often decorated. This conduit could be located either in the atrium, under the portico, or occasionally in the kitchen (Adam 2005:235–237).

2.3.1 A Comparative Analysis of the Tel Zahara Drainage System (J. Baker)

Cisterns were not only equipped with intake conduits, but also with overflow pipes. Overflow pipes were inserted into the cistern wall at a level slightly below that of the supply. The overflow conduit allowed excess water to flow into the street either above or below ground, preventing it from flooding the home during extremely heavy rain. This type of rainwater collection system became the standard throughout the Mediterranean; it was employed for numerous centuries and used in concert with wells and aqueducts. In seasons when wells and aqueducts went dry, the collection of rainwater from roofs for storage in cisterns remained the most reliable method (Adam 2005:235–238). The farmsteads of Roman Palestine appear to have utilized two types water of collection systems: a simple type that

The Roman buildings found at Tel Zahara incorporated contemporaneous engineering techniques and the architectural features necessary to collect and store rainwater. This system contributes important primary data to understanding second century C.E. water collection and storage methods and can be compared to domestic systems found at Pompeii as well as to several roughly contemporaneous sites in Roman Palestine such as Ramat Ha-Nadiv, Qalandiyeh, Qasr el-Lejah, Samaria, Khirbet el-Muraq, and Ein Yael. At Pompeii, the early inhabitants initially relied on the nearby Sarno River for their water supply; however, by the sixth century C.E., most houses were outfitted with

Although the structures at Pompeii are later than the structure at Zahara, their architectural style and remarkable preservation provide vivid examples for comparative purposes. 5

26

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.27 Farmhouses with courtyard cisterns. Qalandiyeh adapted from Magen 1993:1198; Qasr el-Leja adapted from Dar 1993:1315; and Ramat Ha-Nadiv adapted from Hirschfeld and Birger-Calderon 1993:1258 and Hirschfeld 1995:54, Fig. 31.

Fig. 2.28 Farmhouses with cisterns that use the natural slope of a mountain or hill. Otniel adapted from Peleg 2004:261, Fig. 2; Ein Yael adapted from Edelstein 1990:35.

made use of the natural slope of a hill or mountain and the more advanced method such as that found in the peristyle homes of Pompeii.

storage rooms and residential units. These estates tended to be large complexes, some measuring 2800 square meters, such as at Qalandiyeh, and usually included numerous rooms and buildings arranged around a sizeable courtyard, surrounded by an enclosure wall (Dar 1993; Hirschfeld 1995; MacDonald and Moxnes 2004; Richardson 2004). The cistern was often located in the courtyard in a central, easily accessible place. The courtyard also functioned as a

Farmsteads in Roman Palestine are easily identified by the size and layout of the structure(s) and associated installations such as wine presses, oil presses, threshing floors, food processing areas, animal pens, workshops,

27

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

catch-basin, or compluvium, collecting the rainwater runoff, guiding it into the cistern below.

45 and was a rock-cut, bottle-shaped cistern (6.29 x 6.61 m wide x 9.25 m deep) and was the larger of the two. The shaft of the cistern leading from the bedrock up to the paving stone of the courtyard was circular, ca. 90 cm in diameter, and was lined with masonry. The mouth of the cistern, at courtyard level, consisted of two large slabs, each with a half-circle cut out of the center, ca. 35 cm in diameter, which were placed on either side of the cistern’s shaft, similar to the one found in House C (Fig. 2.29). These slabs show wear marks from the ropes that had been used to pull water from the cistern. Although not found, it is assumed that a stone slab probably covered the opening of the cistern when not in use. Channels leading from Courtyard 31 through Portico 26 and Room 35 filled the cistern with rainwater collected from the portico roofs. To avoid flooding, an overflow channel extended from the cistern through the outer wall of Room 35, draining into Street Gamma. The walls of the channels were made of stone slabs set on their sides; those that formed the bottom and top were laid on their flat side and were plastered, making them watertight. Cistern 12 located in Room 36 was of the same type as Cistern 14, but smaller, measuring 3.98 m in diameter at the bottom and 5.26 m deep with a 45 meter square shaft. It is assumed this was a washing room, since the floor of Room 26 slanted to the east, away from the cistern, so that used water could drain into the street’s sewer via a drainage channel in the house’s outer wall (Reisner et al. 1924:140–147; Beebe 1975:92–93).

At Qalandiyeh (ca. second century B.C.E. – first century C.E.), for example, a combination of terracing and gutters, partly hewn into the bedrock and partly built with fieldstone and mortar, collected rainwater from the naturally sloping rock, directing it into a rock-cut cistern (Fig. 2.27). This cistern (F39) was located below the floor of central room in Building F (Magen 1993:1198; Hirschfeld 1995:52). Similarly, at Qasr el-Leja (ca. third and second centuries B.C.E. – first century C.E.) and Ramat Ha-Nadiv (ca. first century B.C.E. – first century C.E.), the cisterns were located in the courtyard (Fig. 2.27). Although not explicitly stated, these open courtyards may have been sloped toward the cisterns’ mouth; as the rain fell, the expanse of the courtyard would have acted as a catch-basin, directing water into the cistern (Hirschfeld and Birger-Calderon 1993:1258; Hirschfeld 1995, 1998:164–171). At Ramat Ha-Nadiv, another method for collecting rainwater was located outside the estate walls some five meters south of the farmstead walls. It was carved into the bedrock of the mountain spur and utilized the natural slope to capture rainwater for storage in a cistern (Hirschfeld and Birger-Calderon 1993:1258). As the rain fell and ran down the slope of the spur, it flowed into the rock-hewn cistern. Similarly at Otniel (ca. first century B.C.E. – first century C.E.), in the southern Mt. Hebron area (Fig. 2.28), the cisterns were located outside the compound walls. In this case, the main cistern was ca. 15 meters away from the farmhouse and the second ca. 200 meters. Both were irregularly shaped rock-hewn cisterns with plastered walls (Peleg 2004:271–272). An additional method employed a combination of the natural flow of a spring, a mountain slope, and a channeling system. At Ein Yael (ca. second century C.E.), near Jerusalem (Fig. 2.28), a series of channels, both rock-hewn and built, directed water from the mouth of a cave to the estate’s bath houses, pools, and for agricultural irrigation (Edelstein 1987:190–192; 1990). As effective as these water collection systems were, those of courtyard or peristyle villas were equally efficient and provided an immediate water supply closer to the home.

The first century C.E. Atrium House at Samaria contained three large cisterns (Fig. 2.29). These were filled with rainwater runoff collected from the atrium roof. Both a slanted atrium floor and channels guided water to the cisterns. The drainage channels were either made of stone slabs, such as the one leading to Cistern 5, or of hollowedout stone blocks, which were covered by slabs, such as the one leading to Cistern 2 in Room 368. Overflow channels removed excess water from the house to the street (Reisner et al. 1924:180–185; Beebe 1975:93–94; Hirschfeld 1995:87–90). The first century B.C.E. – first century C.E. palace of Hilkiya at Khirbet el-Muraq, located in the western Hebron Hills, was also a peristyle house. This villa was ca. 1600 square meters in size and contained a peristyle courtyard that measured ca. 10 x 11 meters. The peristyle roofs slanted inward, toward the courtyard, guiding rainwater into drains that were located in each of the four corners. Water also traveled to the drains via gutters that bordered the courtyard’s perimeter. From there, a system of channels guided water into several sub-floor cisterns (Damati 1982:118; Hirschfeld 1995:88–90).

Courtyard or peristyle villas, whose architectural design was dissimilar from the farmhouses, collected rainwater in a different way. The architectural arrangement of these dwellings included a central courtyard or atrium with a portico and rooms arranged symmetrically around it. Rather than depending on the natural slope of a mountain or the courtyard floor, these houses harnessed rainwater runoff from the roof and channeled it, via gutters and drains, to a cistern below the structure, much like the villas at Pompeii. Villas such as Preherodian House A, the Atrium House at Samaria and the Hilkiya palace at Khirbet el-Muraq were constructed in this manner (Fig. 2.29).

From this small sampling, it appears that farmsteads utilized one of two types of water collection systems, each commensurate with the architectural design and features of the dwelling or complex. Farmsteads whose structures exhibit traditional, local architectural design appear to have collected rainwater runoff with the help of the slope of a courtyard, hill, or mountain, whereas farmhouses of Roman-

Preherodian House A at Samaria (ca. late first century B.C.E. – early first century C.E.) was a large dwelling that contained two cisterns. Cistern 14 was located in Courtyard 28

S. Cohen, with Contribution by J. Baker: The Stratigraphy

Fig. 2.29 Peristyle houses with associated channel and cistern systems. Samaria House A adapted from Reisner 1924:141, Fig. 59; Samaria House C, Room 63 cistern curb adapted from Reisner 1924:187, Fig. 71; Samaria Atrium House adapted from Reisner 1924:181, Fig. 97; and Khirbet el-Muraq Hilkiya Palace adapted from Damati 1982:118.

29

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

style architectural design utilized the compluvium and impluvium method. The water collection system associated with the farmstead structures at Tel Zahara exhibits greater affinity with those of the peristyle houses of Samaria and Khirbet el-Muraq than it does with the farmhouses of Qalandiyeh, Ramat Ha-Nadiv, or Qasr el-Leja. The Tel Zahara structure appears to have collected rainwater runoff from the roof, carrying it via long U-shaped channels to a central cistern (see section 2.2.4), incorporating the more advanced architectural and engineering characteristics that were well known in contemporaneous Roman Palestine.

In sum, Stratum IB represents the ephemeral later activities at the site during later periods following the abandonment of the Roman occupation at Tel Zahara in the third century C.E. While the presence of ceramics (Chapter 3), coins (Chapter 5), and glass (Chapter 6) indicate that there may have been some later human activity at the site during the Islamic, Byzantine, and even Crusader periods, no trace of any permanent occupation was excavated there.9 2.4.1 Stratum IA At a much later date, during the Late Ottoman period up through 1948, the top of the tel was utilized as a cemetery (Stratum IA) most probably for the pre-1948 inhabitants of the nearby village of al-Sakhina (Khalidi 1992:58) (see section 1.4 and Chapter 11) (Cohen and Więckowski forthcoming).

2.4 Later deposits and the Muslim Cemetery (Stratum I) The topsoil at Tel Zahara reached depths of 10–30 cm over the entire site. While in some cases the topsoil sat directly on top of the Roman architecture of Stratum II, in many areas there was an upper layer of mixed ceramics, pits, and other rubble that postdated the Roman structures, designated Stratum IB. No architectural remains were uncovered; this stratum consisted of large mixed fills with ceramics from every occupational period at the site. In recent times, the top of the tel was utilized as a cemetery (Stratum IA). 2.4.1 Stratum IB In Stratum IB, pits NE.A.7.L0007, NE.A.9.L0007, NE.A.9.L0009, and NE.A.9.L0012 all cut down into the northern edge of the east-west wall NE.A.7.L0005 of Stratum II Building I (see Fig. 2.6). An almost complete small glass vessel (Figs. 6.2.10 – 6.3) was found in pit NE.A.9.L0009.6 Another extremely large pit NE.A.11. L0013 completely cut through one of the room corners of Building I on its eastern extent.7 This pit seemed to have functioned as a garbage dump; two almost complete dog skeletons (section 4.5) were unearthed in it as well as numerous ceramics, some of which were extremely large. The position of the canine skeletons indicated that the animal carcasses had been tossed into the pit, rather than deliberately deposited in any position that would indicate a meaningful interment. Fragments of glazed cooking ware found in the pit date it to the Crusader period;8 this provides a terminus ante quem for this locus and represents some of the latest activity at Tel Zahara until the modern era. The Stratum IIA cistern was also filled in during this time; while some of the debris excavated in the cistern resulted from material that accumulated inside it following the abandonment of the site, some desposits—such as the complete horse head (section 4.5) excavated from the interior—clearly represent deliberate use of the cistern for waste by later peoples at the site. No later material culture or pottery was found in this pit; thus it is possible that it was cut during the Roman period of occupation at Tel Zahara at a period just prior to the end of the occupation represented in Stratum II; the pit has, however, been phased with the Stratum IB material as there is no other evidence for a later Roman occupation on the site. 7 Three separate but highly contemporary pits were dug into one another in this area and excavated under one locus number. 8 Numerous Early Roman sherds were also found in this locus as well (see section 3.2). 6

It is possible that these remains may have been located elsewhere on the tel and not discovered during the 2006–2009 excavations. 9

30

Chapter 3. The Ceramics. The Roman Pottery R. Bar-Nathan

The Hellenistic Pottery R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner

This chapter presents an analysis of selected pottery recovered from the late Persian – early Hellenistic, Hellenistic, Roman, and later strata during the 2006– 2009 excavations at Tel Zahara. Because of the modern disturbances to the site (see section 1.4), the pits from Stratum IB (see section 2.4), and the extremely disruptive large Roman building fills in Stratum IIC (see section 2.2), the number of ceramics recovered from either the Hellenistic or Roman buildings themselves (Strata IV/ III and IIA/B, respectively) is quite small. This analysis therefore also includes material from these fills and Stratum IB, as this pottery is indicative of the nature of the Hellenistic and Roman ceramic corpora at the site. The catalog below uses the following abbreviations: SJ = storage jar; JG = jug; JT = juglet; CP = cooking pot; CS = casserole; CGJ = cooking jug; KR = krater; FP = frying pan; LP = lamp; AM = amphora; BL = bowl; UN = ungentarium; PL = plate; and ESA = Eastern Sigillata A.

there was again some activity when the site was disturbed, creating fills with the later and earlier material mixed together (see section 1.4). 3.1.1 Crusader Period Cooking Pots (Fig.3.1:1–2) The most defined cooking pot found in post-building fills at Tel Zahara is a wheel made globular cooking pot with pulled-up strap-handle, glazed inside. It is parallel to Types II.2.1.1–II.2.1.3 of Avissar and Stern (2005:91–94, Fig. 89). No rims were preserved, so it could reconstruct with either a thickened, out-turned, or simple rim. These cooking pots were common in the Crusader period, during the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century C.E. (Avissar and Stern 2005:91). 3.1.2 Early Islamic Period

3.1 The late pottery from Stratum IB

Only two types can safely be defined as belonging to the Abbasid period; both types were found in the fills of postbuilding activity of Stratum IB.

The pottery in the fills of Stratum IB ranges in date from the Early Bronze Age through the Crusader period; all periods are represented except the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age. The few pieces of Byzantine pottery (Fig. 3.1:6–7) and several sherds of Early Roman pottery found in pits (Fig. 3.2) were probably brought to the site during the Islamic/Crusader period or by modern activity. The few Abbasid sherds (Fig. 3.1:3–5) found in this stratum may attest to some activity at the site in the early Islamic period. The latest pottery (except modern/Bedouin ceramics) is dated to the Crusader Period (Fig. 3.1:1–2).

Polychrome splashed ware (Fig. 3.1:3–4) The two fragments of bowls have a flaring wall, an outcurved rim, and a shallow ridge below the rim on the outer side, with white slip on both sides, and splashed green and yellow glaze. These bowls are generally dated to the ninth– tenth century C.E. (Ramla Type 1.2c, Arnon 2007:41, Fig. 3:1; Yoqne’am Type 6, Avissar 1996b:77–81, Fig. XIII.6:3; Tiberias Type 2, Stacey 2004:108–110, Fig. 5.19: 9–13).1

The majority of the late pottery was found in the uppermost loci on the site in Stratum IB (see section 2.4), which also included several pits that cut down into the Roman structures. The ephemeral nature of this activity—numerous pits and a lack of any associated architectural remains— suggests some minimal activities, perhaps seasonal, took place at the site during the Islamic period. This activity would have created some of the pits; in the modern era

Jugs (Fig. 3.1:5) This jug has an outward flaring neck, rounded rim, and Thanks to Katherine Strange Burke for her useful comments of the dating of the Early Islamic material. 1

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Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

1

NE.B.11, L0012, B.13

R0783

IB

Body fragment with the handle broken off. Red ware (10R 5/6), patches of dark reddish brown glaze (5YR 3/3) on the interior.

2

NE.A.6, L0009, B.41

R2049

IB

Body fragment with pulled up strap-handle. Red ware (2.5YR 4/8).

3

NE.A.12, L0004, B.14

R0111

IB

Rim fragment (d. 34 cm). Weak red ware (10R 5/3), white grits. Thin white wash (2.5Y 8/2) and transparent yellow gritty glaze (5Y 7/8) with a tinge of green on the interior.

4

NE.B.11, L0012, B.21

R0853

IB

Rim fragment (d. 22 cm). Weak red ware (10R 4/4) and an incised floral decoration under transparent yellow glaze (5Y 7/8).

5

NE.A.11, L0010, B.12

R0623

IB

Rim fragment (d. 9.5 cm), loop handle starting from the rim. Pale yellow ware (5Y 8/3), gray core.

6

SE.A.11, L0001, B.1

R0538

IB

Rim fragment (d. 35 cm). Light reddish brown ware (2.5YR 6/4) and light red (10R 6/8) slip.

7

NE.A.10, L0004, B.10

R0109

IB

Rim fragment (d. 37.5 cm), light red ware (10R 6/6), red slip (10R 5/8), and dark gray slip (5YR 4/1) on the outer side of the rim.

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

8

NE.A.11, L0013, B.28

R0726

IB

Rim fragment (d. 9 cm) and shoulder. Reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4), sporadic white grits, gray core.

9

NE.A.11, L0013, B.33

R0738

IB

Rim fragment (d. 10 cm). Light red ware (2.5YR 6/6) with small white grits, gray core.

10

NE.A.11, L0013, B.28

R0729

IB

Rim fragment (d. 8.5 cm), light red ware, (10R 6/6).

11

NE.A.11, L0013, B.28

R0725

IB

Jug base (d. 6 cm). Reddish yellow ware (5YR 6/6).

12

NE.A.11, L0013, B.1

R0805

IB

Rim fragment (d. 20 cm), red ware (2.5YR 5/6), with some white grits, grey core.

13

NE.A.11, L0013, B.27

R0716

IB

Rim fragment (d. 5.5 cm) with complete handle. Weak red ware (10R 5/4).

14

NE.A.11, L0013, B.33

R0734

IB

Complete bowl, rim d. 15.5 cm, and base d. 8 cm. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 7/6), matte red slip (2.5YR 5/8).

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R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.1 Selected Crusader, Early Islamic, and Byzantine pottery from Stratum IB.

Fig. 3.2 Early Roman pottery from Pit NE.A.11.L00013 in Stratum IB.

33

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

ROM/SJ3A (Fig. 3.2:10)

a loop handle rising from the rim. This type belongs perhaps to the drinking jugs dated to the ninth century C.E. (Yoqne’am Type 2, Avissar 1996b:156, Fig. XIII.128).

Two bowl fragments of fine Late Roman Ware dated to the mid fifth–sixth century C.E. were found in Stratum IB.

Storage jar with triangular rim, a protruding ridge at the base of the neck. It is similar to Masada Type M-SJ8, dated to the second half of the first century C.E., and is a common storage jar in Judea (Bar-Nathan 2006:57–58, 85, Pl. 8:39–42). This type continues to the Middle Roman period at Tel Zahara, see the later variant SJ3B below (Fig. 3.3:15).

African Red Slip (ARS) (Fig. 3.1:6)

3.2.2 Jugs

Bowl with knobbed rim of Hayes Form 104B, dated to second half of the sixth century C.E. (Hayes 1972:160–166, Fig. 31:22).

ROM/JG1 (Fig. 3.2:11)

3.1.3 Byzantine Period

This ring base with a central knob is a typical base characteristic of different types of ovoid jugs during the Early Roman period such as Masada Types M-JG5 and M-JG9 (Bar-Nathan 2006:100–109, 119–121, Pls. 18–20).

Late Roman C. Ware (LRC) – Phocaean Red Slip Ware (Fig. 3.1:7) Bowl rim of Hayes LRC 3C, with an upright rim, decorated with rouletting, dated to second half of the fifth century C.E.(Hayes 1972:333, 337, Figs. 67:9, 68:10).

3.2.3 Cooking Ware

3.2 Early Roman pottery from Pit NE.A.11.L0013 in Stratum IB

ROM/CS1 (Fig. 3.2:12)

Casseroles

Casserole with an upward turned ledge rim, and rounded shoulder. This type continues into the Middle Roman period (see below CS1, Fig. 3.6:43).

Pottery characteristic mainly to the Early Roman period, up until ca. 70 C.E., was found in pit NE A.11.L0013 (Building I, Room 3) (see Fig. 2.6) assigned to the post-building activity of Stratum IB (Cohen 2007a:3, notes 3–4) (see section 2.4). The pit is dated to the Crusader period, based on a fragment of a glazed cooking pot (Fig. 3.1:1) found in the uppermost level. The early Roman pottery was probably brought to the pit from another, as yet unknown, area of the site during this late activity.

Cooking Jugs ROM/CJG1 (Fig. 3.2:13) Globular cooking jug with triangular rim, short flaring neck and a loop handle from the rim to the shoulder. This is a common cooking jug type from Early Roman Judea, introduced during the late first century B.C.E. (the period of Herod the Great). It is similar to cooking jugs from the palaces of Herod at Jericho, Type J-CJG1A (Bar-Nathan 2002:75–76, 263, Pl.13, Nos. 168–169; Bar-Nathan and Kamil-Gitler 2002:177, 277, Pl.27, No.504) and Masada Type M-CJG1A (Bar-Nathan 2006:174, 181, Pl.31, No.85).

3.2.1 Storage Jars ROM/SJ1 (Fig. 3.2:8) Squared rim jar, outward lip with an internal gutter for the lid. Beneath the neck is a depression and poorly defined ridge on the shoulder.The type is characteristic mainly of the Galilee (Nazereth, Magdala, Sepphoris), and it is predominant during the second third of the first century B.C.E. through the mid first century C.E. (Diez-Fernandez 1983:181–182, Nos 23–26, Type T1.3; Sepphoris, Balouka 2004:37–38, Pl.2:1–2).

3.2.4 Eastern Sigillata A ROM/ESA1 (Fig. 3.2:14) Small carinated plate on ring foot. The rim has a rouletted decoration. This plate is parallel to Hayes Form 33, dated to the first half of the first century C.E. (Hayes 1985:29, Tav. 5:3–5).

ROM/SJ2 (Fig. 3.2:9) Ridged neck jar with a simple rim. This is a well known type in Judea at the end of the first century B.C.E.through the early second century C.E. It corresponds to Jericho Type J-SJ7B1 (Bar-Nathan 2002:33–34, Pl. 6, Nos. 40–41, Ill. 22; Bar-Nathan and Gitler-Kamil 2002:151–152, Pl. 24, Nos. 397–405) and Masada Type M-SJ7B1 (Bar-Nathan 2006:55–56, Pl. 5, Nos. 21–26).

3.3 The pottery from the Roman buildings in Stratum II The pottery assemblage found in the main building phases (Strata IIA–B) seems to be homogenous and is dated to the Middle Roman period. The pottery found in the construction fill layers (Stratum IIC) under the buildings was mixed with Persian/Hellenistic and Roman pottery. The latest Roman

34

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

vessels, storage jars (SJ5), knife-pared lamps (LP1), together with a Roman lamp imitating Broneer XIII (LP3), suggest an early second century C.E. date as a possible terminus post quem for the erection of the buildings. This date may be reinforced by the numismatic data provided by a provincial coin of Tyre (MC 0327, Fig. 5.3), roughly dated to 104–167 C.E. (see Chapter 5).

is possible that the pottery of Zahara was bought at the markets of Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis 3.3.1 Storage jars Storage jars are the second dominant group in the assemblage, but their number is relatively small.3 Six types of storage jars were defined; these were found mostly in the construction leveling fills of Stratum IIC.The storage jars types are characteristic of the late first–second centuries C.E. Some are continuing the local first century C.E. types of ridged neck storage jars known from Judea, but the most dominant is Type SJ5 that was introduced in the early second century C.E., found mainly in Stratum IIC.

Although most of the pottery found at Tel Zahara came from fills, and only a few pieces were found in contexts from above floors, the occupation phases of the Stratum II buildings can be dated based on the numismatic finds (which range between 141–144, 151, and 104–167 C.E.) (see Chapter 5) and the ceramic typology which dates mostly to the second century C.E. The finding of a few pottery types continuing into the third century C.E. may offer a somewhat wider range, however, until the early third century C.E. Since no sherds that may be associated with the pottery assemblage of the earthquake destruction level of 363 C.E. identified in Sepphoris (Balouka 1999) were found in Stratum II at Tel Zahara, it indicates that the site was abandoned before that, possibly during the first half of the third century C.E.

ROM/SJ3B (Fig. 3.3:15) Storage jar with an everted flange-shaped rim, and a protruding ridge at the base of the neck. This jar is probably a later variant of SJ3A (above, Fig. 3.2:10) with a rim flattened on the top. It is parallel to jars from ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna (Glick 2006:52–53, Fig. 10:3, 11) dated to the late first–mid second century C.E. (79–161) and from Sepphoris, dated up to the earthquake destruction layer (363 C.E.) (Sepphoris Type SJ7, Balouka 1999:76, Fig. 5:3–5, 7). A parallel was also found in the Cave of the Letters in the Judean desert dated to the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (132–135 C.E.) (Yadin 1963:114, 117, Fig. 43:4.5).

The excavated pottery at the site is predominately represented by sherds; only a few complete vessels were found. The repertoire contains locally produced utilitarian ware consisting primarily of cooking ware and storage jars, with a smaller amount of table ware. Luxury vessels, represented by imported Italian wine amphora (ROM/ AM1), are few. The four sherds of Eastern Terra Sigillata (ROM/ESA1–ROM/ESA3)—the most widespread fine table ware of the Early Roman period—were not found in well defined contexts, but either in the construction fill layers of Stratum IIC or from Stratum IB. Nevertheless, these types were not continued later than the last quarter of the first century C.E.; the exception is plate ROM/ ESA3, which is dated to the end of the first century C.E. In contrast the reference sites include a wide distribution from the Galilee (Kefar Hananya, Sepphoris), Beth Shean/ Nysa-Scythopolis region/Jezreel Valley (‘Ein Ez-Zeituna), Caesarea in the western shore and Judea.

ROM/SJ4 (Fig. 3.3:16–17) Storage jar with an everted, pointed rim, sometimes slightly concave on the interior. It has either a sharp protruding ridge (Fig. 3.3:17), or a ring at the base of the neck (Fig. 3.3:16). This type is similar to jars from ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna (Glick 2006:53, Fig. 10:7–8), dated to the late first-mid second century (79–161) C.E., and Caperneum (Loffredo 1982:414, Pl. 85, Fig. 3:1), dated to the second half of the first century to the first decade of the second century C.E. It is also similar to Storage Jar Variant B found in the Promontory Palace at Caesarea in a context dated to the second–third centuries C.E. (Bar-Nathan and Adato 1986:163, Fig. 2:4–5).

The cooking wares in particular were produced in Galilean workshops, probably at the Kefar Hananya. Some of them show different fabric and may be produced elsewhere, perhaps in the area of Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis. The mold-made lamp (LP2) seems to have been produced at one of the northern workshops.

ROM/SJ5 (Fig. 3.3:18–20) Storage jar with an outward folded, thickened rim, slightly convex neck, mainly found in Stratum IIC. It is similar to Type M-SJ24 at Masada dated to 73/74–115 C.E. (BarNathan 2006:74–75, Pl. 16, Nos. 95–104). It is also found at ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna, dated to the late first–mid second century (79–161) C.E. (Glick 2006:52–53, Fig. 10:1, and especially No. 9). The jugs were found in a second century context at Shiqmona (Elgavish 1977: Fig. V:31), and in the Promontory Palace at Caesarea, dated to the second– third century C.E. (Bar-Nathan and Adato 1986:163,172, Fig.2:7–8, Storage Jar Variant C).

The variety of the ceramic assemblage at Tel Zahara is similar to the the ceramic repertoire found at Beth Shean/ Nysa-Scythopolis in the second–third centuries C.E.2 This flourishing commercial center and important Decapolis city, situated on a main cross-road leading to Caesarea via Legio or to Galilee and Judea via the Jordan Valley, would have been the primary urban center of the region. Therefore it Personal knowledge; this material will be published by Debora Sandhaus, forthcoming.

A total 23 diagnostic fragments were studied: ten in Stratum IIC, two in IIB, four in IIA, and seven in Stratum IB.

2

3

35

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

15

NE.A.11, L0008, B.19

R0629

Str. IIA, Building I, Room 3

Rim fragment (d. 9 cm), light reddish brown ware (2.5YR 6/4).

16

NE.A.11, L0013, B.33

R0736

Str. IB

Rim fragment (d. 10 cm) and shoulder. Pink ware (5YR 7/4), grey core with white grits.

17

NE.B.10, L0013, B.18

R1025

Str. IIB, Building Rim fragment (d. 9 cm). Red ware (10R 5/6) I, Courtyard 1 with small white grits.

18

NE.B.11, L0020, B.30

R0907

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 10 cm), reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4).

19

SE.A.11, L0013, B.20

R0548

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 8 cm), reddish yellow ware (5YR 6/6).

20

SE.A.11, L0012, B.20

R0553

Str. IIC

Two joined fragments of a rim (d. 9 cm). Coarse light reddish brown ware (2.5YR 6/4-5YR 6/3), gray core.

21

SE.A.7, L0028, B.42

R0389

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 8.5 cm), light red ware (2.5YR 6/6).

22

SE.B.7, L0003, B.81

R0611

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 7.5 cm). Reddish yellow ware (5YR 6/6).

23

NE.A.7, L0018, B.17

R0937

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 9 cm). Pinkish grey ware (7.5YR 6/2).

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

24

SE.B.7, L0003, B.1

R0613

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 7 cm), reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 7/6).

25

SE.A.7, L0012, B.13

R0153

Str. IIB, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 7 cm). Light red ware (2.5YR 6/6).

26

NE.A.7, L0018, B.18

R0974

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 16 cm), reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4).

27

NE.A.9, L0013, B.33

R0337

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 19.5 cm). Light gray ware (10YR 7/2) gray core, gray and white grits.

28

SE.A.7, L0018, B.30

R0440

Str. IIB, Building I, Rooms 1-2

Rim fragment (d. 11 cm), very pale brown ware (10YR 7/3).

29

NE.A.10, L0013, B.28

R0376

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 10 cm). Yellow ware (10YR 7/6).

30

NE.A.7, L0012, B.10

R0833

Str. IIA, Building II

Complete rim (d. 3 cm) with the start of the handle. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3) and gray core.

31

NE.A.8, L0003, B.3

R0956

Str. IB

Base (d. 3 cm) and the lower body with ribbing. Light red ware (2.5YR 6/8).

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R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.3 Storage jars from the Middle Roman period.

Fig. 3.4 Table ware from the Middle Roman period.

37

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

ROM/SJ6 (Fig. 3.3:21)

century C.E. This type is similar to the closed krater Masada Type M-KR1, dated from the late first century B.C.E. to the first century C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2006:124–125, Pl. 23, Nos. 1–3). It is also resembles kraters found at ‘Ein EzZeituna, dated to the late first-mid second century (79–161) C.E., although there this form was defined as a bowl (Glick 2006:48–49, Fig. 8:8).

This storage jar has a rounded rim with shallow depression on its outer side, and a long cylindrical neck separated with a shallow ridge from the shoulder. No exact parallel was found. ROM/SJ7 (Fig. 3.3:22)

ROM/KR2 (Fig. 3.4:27)

Storage jar with an everted rim, flattened at its top, and a long cylindrical neck, with a faint ridge at the base of the neck. Similar jars were found at Judea from the end of the first century B.C.E. to the early second century C.E. In Masada it corresponds to Type M-SJ9, dated to 28/26 B.C.E.–73/74 C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2006:58–59, Pl. 9, Nos. 43–46). These jars were also found in the kilnworks of the Tenth Legion Fretensis at Givat Ram, Jerusalem, dated to the late first–second century C.E. (Hershkovitz 2005:283–284, Fig. 1:2).

Krater with an outward flaring everted rim, thin walls, and a buff ware. This vessel is very fragmentary, and no exact parallel was found. The shape resembles casserole ROM/ CS1 (below Fig.3. 6:43). ROM/Bowls (Fig. 3.4:28)

The storage jar with outward flaring, folded rim is not a common type at Tel Zahara, it was found only in Stratum IIC. Although no exact parallels were found, it corresponds to Diez-Fernandez Type T1.10a from the Galilee, dated to the late first–second century C.E. (Diez-Fernandez 1983:187–189, T.1.10:106–131), but the neck of the vessel from Tel Zahara is significantly shorter.

Small bowl with an incurved rim and thin walls. This is the only bowl type found at Tel Zahara in the Roman period. It is the most common bowl of the Early Roman period in Judea. It is similar to Masada Type M-BL1B dated to the second half of the first century C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2006:129, 132–133, 149, Pl. 25, Nos. 4–16). The type continues till the mid second century in Judea (The Cave of the Pool, Avigad 1962: 174–177, Fig. 5:14), as well as in Northern Palestine (Diez-Fernandez 1983:130, 219, T17:2). It is the dominant bowl type at ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna, dated to the late first–mid second century C.E. (79–161) (Glick 2006:47–48, Fig. 8:1–4).

3.3.2. Table Ware

ROM/Cups (Fig. 3.4:29)

Table ware vessels are very rare in the buildings and display only a few examples, dated to the second half of the first century–second century C.E.

Cup with an out-curved rim and thin flaring wall. It is similar to Masada Type M-CU3 dated to the first century C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2006:144, 150, Pl. 26, No. 66).

Jugs

3.3.3. Juglets

ROM/JG1 (Fig. 3.4:24)

ROM/JT1 (Perfume bottle, Fig. 3.4:30)

Jug with a flaring triangular rim in section, with a concave, sharply carinated neck. It resembles pyriform jugs Type M-JG10 found at Masada dated to the second half of the first century C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2006:108, 121, Pl. 20, Nos. 32–33).

Cup-mouthed pyriform juglet with a short neck and handle that extends from the rim to body. This type is rather rare in the Galilee and has been found there in contexts from the mid first century B.C.E. until the late first century C.E. (Diez-Fernandez 1983:148, 196, especially Nos. 182, 182, Type T8.1). It is more common in Caesarea, dating from the late first century B.C.E. until the late first century C.E. (Caesarea Form RH/34, Gendelman 2006:131–132, Fig. 8.7:65–67). On the other hand, this is the most common type of the “balsam juglet” in Judean sites of Early Roman period from the early first century B.C.E. till the early second century C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2002:49–52). At the Winter Palaces of Jericho juglet Type J-JT1 is known from 85/75 B.C.E.through 48 C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2002:52–55, Pl. 10, Nos. 85–89; Bar-Nathan and GitlerKamil 2002:162–164, Pl. 25, Nos. 443–450). At Masada it corresponds to Type M-JT1 dated from 28/27 B.C.E.–80/87 C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2006:191–194, 211, Pl. 33, Nos. 1–14). This vessel is also known from second century contexts in

ROM/SJ8 (Fig. 3.3:23)

ROM/JG2 (Fig. 3.4:25) Jug with an everted rim, and very thin walls. It resembles an elongated pyriform jug, Masada Type M-JG21, dated to the second half of the first century C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2006:113–114, 122, Pl. 21, Nos. 58–60). Kraters ROM/KR1 (Fig. 3.4:26) This krater has a triangular grooved rim with an internal gutter. It is a common form during the late first–second

38

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

the kilnworks of theTenth Legion Fretensis at Givat Ram, Jerusalem (Hershkovitz 2005:284–285, Fig.1:6), and in the Cave of the Pool in the Judean Desert (Avigad 1962: Fig. 5:5).

Pls. 27–28, Nos. 1–25) and in the kilnworks of the Tenth Legion Fretensis in Givat Ram, Jerusalem (Hershkovitz 1987:315–316, Fig. 1:13–14) where it is dated to the first– second century C.E. It was uncovered in second century contexts in Judea and the Judean Desert sites during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (Cave of the Letter, Yadin 1963:111, 113, 117, Fig. 41:64.2).

ROM/JT2 (Fig. 3.4:31). Lower part of ribbed juglet with high disc base. This type is characteristic of the Galilee during the late first–late third century C.E. (Diez-Fernandez 1983:149, 197–198, Type T8.3). Although the juglet was not found in a stratified context, its date fits the chronological range of the occupation of the Stratum II buildings at Tel Zahara.

ROM/CP2 (Fig. 3.5:34) This cooking pot has a grooved triangular rim. This form is also a rare type at Tel Zahara. It is similar to vessels found at Herodium, dated to the first century C.E. (BarNathan 1981:60, 119, Pl. 5:1–6). There may perhaps also be parallels with the cooking pot found at Caesarea in a context of the end of the first century B.C.E. and the first quarter of the first century C.E. (Caesarea Form RC/5, Gendelman 2006:75–76, Fig. 6.2:13–15).

3.3.4. Cooking Ware The most common vessels in the buildings consisted of cooking ware.4 Most of the vessels come from the second architectural phase of the Roman buildings (Stratum IIA), concentrated in Building I at the area of Courtyard 1 and Room 3 (see Fig. 2.6), maybe a service area. Another concentration was in Building II, in the area of the drainage system (see Fig. 2.10), and north of the EW wall outside the building. Tabuns found near both of these areas may indicate another service unit.

ROM/CP3 (Fig. 3.5:35–38)

Most of the cooking ware represents types typical to Galilean workshops, perhaps Kefar Hananya, and a few types either from Judea or other local workshops in the Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis/Jezreel Valley area.

This cooking pot has a short splayed or straight neck, and everted rim with varied rim sections. The first version has a plain flattened rim, and varies in rim diameter, between a narrow mouth (d. 9.5 cm, Fig. 3.5:34) and a wider form (d. 17.5 cm, Fig. 3.5:35). The second variant (Fig. 3.5:36–37) has a flattened rim with two pronounced grooves (d. 15–17 cm). This latter form is similar to Kefar Hananya Form 4B (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:126–128, Pl. 4B:1–3) and is dated to the mid first–mid second century C.E.

Cooking Pots

ROM/CP4 (Fig. 3.5:39–42)

Four types of cooking pots were defined in buildings.5 These were typical of the first–second centuries C.E., with the exception of ROM/CP4 found in Stratum IIA, which may continue into the third century C.E.

This cooking pot has a flattened rim, a very short neck, and a broad handle curved in an elliptical shape. The type was produced in different sizes: a wide form (d. 20 cm, Fig. 3.5:38), a medium sized one (d. 14.5 cm, Fig. 3.5:39), and a small variant (d. 7.5–9 cm, Fig. 3.5:40–41). Fig. 3.5:41 is also different in its gritty fabric and medium sized white inclusion, and may belong to another type.

ROM/CP1 (Fig. 3.5:32–33) Triangular rim, short neck, and two loop handles from rim to shoulder of a globular cooking pot. This type is rare at Tel Zahara, and in the Galilee in general. It was found in Caesarea in a context dated to the late first century B.C.E. through the first century C.E. (Caesarea Form RC/1, Gendelman 2006:73–74, Fig. 6.1:1–5).

This type corresponds to the Horvat Ḥazon cooking pots dated to the second-early third century C.E. (Bahat 1974:166–167, Fig.4:7–9). It also resembles Kefar Hananya Form 4C, which is the dominant cooking pot in the Galilee during the early second–third centuries C.E., and continues until the mid fourth century C.E. (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:128–130, Pl. 4C:1–17); the Tel Zahara form seems to be a local manufacture.

Though absent from northern Palestine, the type that developed at the end of the first century B.C.E. became widespread in Judean sites during the first and second centuries C.E. At Jericho Type J-CP2C is dated from the late first century B.C.E. to the late first century C.E. (BarNathan 2002:71–72, Pl. 12, Nos. 149–150; Bar-Nathan and Gitler-Kamil 2002:170–172). It was also found at Masada (Masada Type M-CP1, Bar-Nathan 2006:154–158, 177,

Casseroles Two types of casseroles that are very common at Tel Zahara were mostly found in the construction leveling fill (Stratum IIC).6 Although the first type, ROM/CSI, was introduced in the first century B.C.E., both types are very common in the second century C.E.

Eighty-seven diagnostic sherds of different cooking wares were found. A total of 54 diagnostic sherds of the cooking pots were found: 24 in stratum IIA, seven sherds from Stratum IIB, and an additional 18 sherds were found in the construction leveling (Stratum IIC). 4

5

Of the five diagnostic sherds that were found, four of them were in Stratum IIC, and one came from Stratum IIA. 6

39

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

32

NE.A.12, L0008, B.26

R0298

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 10 cm). Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/4).

33

SE.B.7, L0003, B.3

R0605

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 10.7 cm ), weak red ware (10R 5/4).

34

NE.A.7, L0012, B.1

R0835

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 8 cm) with a concavity. Dark gray ware (2.5YR 4/0) with red core.

35

SE.A.7, L0015, B.18

R0178

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 9.5 cm) with square profile. The neck is vertical. Red ware (10R 5/6), gray core.

36

SE.A.7, L0007, B.1

R0009

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment and a complete handle (d. 17.5 cm), coarse red ware (2.5YR 5/6) with white grits.

37

SE.A.7, L0038, B.48

R0398

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 15 cm) with triangular profile, and a groove at its top. Short neck. Weak red ware (10R 5/3) and grey core.

38

SE.A.7, L0006(0003), B.5

R0008

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 17 cm), reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4).

39

NE.B.10, L0004, B.10

R0973

Str. IB

Rim fragment (d. 20 cm) and a complete handle. Reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4–2.5 YR 4/4), some sporadic grey grits.

40

SE.A.7, L0008, B.11

R0081

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 14.5 cm) and loop handle. Reddish brown ware (2.5YR 4/4).

41

SE.A.7, L0015, B.32

R0248

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 7.5 cm) with a complete handle. Reddish brown ware (2.5YR 4/3).

42

SE.A.6, L0001, B.2

R0529

topsoil

Rim fragment (d. 9 cm), red ware (10R 4/8) with medium sized white grits.

40

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.5 Cooking pots from the Middle Roman period.

41

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

43

NE.B.11, L0018, B.26

R0872

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 23.5 cm). Reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4), gray grits.

44

NE.A.11, L0020, B.29

R0694

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 27 cm). Red ware (2.5YR 5/5–4/6) with small gray grits.

45

NE.A.11, L0020, B.29

R0674

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 26.3 cm). Weak red ware (10R 5/4).

46

SE.B.7, L0003, B.6

R0664

Rim fragment (d. 20.5 cm), red ware (2.5YR 5/6).

47

SE.B.7, L0003, B.6

R0662

Str. IIA, Building II Str. IIA, Building II

48

SE.B.8, L0004, B.11

R0844

Str. III/II

Rim fragment (d. 12.3 cm), red ware (2.5YR 5/6).

49

SE.B.7, L0003, B.3

R0606

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 17.5 cm) with a handle. Red ware (2.5YR 5/8), white grits.

50

NE.B.10, L0005, B.16

R1016

Str. IB

Rim fragment (d. 23 cm) red ware (2.5YR 5/8), white grits.

51

SE.A.7, L0015, B.23

R0193

Rim fragment (d. 24 cm), red ware (2.5YR 4/6).

52

SE.B. 7, L0003, B.3

R0604

Str. IIA, Building II Str. IIA, Building II

53

SE.A.10, L0007, B.17

R0370

Str. IB

Rim fragment (d. 34 cm), reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4).

54

SE.B.7, L0003, B.3

R0607

Str. IIA, Building II

Rim fragment (d. 7.5 cm), red ware (2.5YR 4/6), gray core, small white grits.

55

SE.B.7, L0003, B.1

R0610

56

NE.B.11, L0009, B.14

R0844

Str. IIA, Rim fragment (d. 4 cm), red ware (2.5YR 4/8). Building II? Str. IB Fragment of a vessel, complete rim (d. 2.5 cm) and handle. Reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4), dark grey core (2.5YR 4/0).

Rim fragment (d. 19 cm). Reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4). Marks of soot on the lower part.

Rim fragment (d. 31.5 cm). Coarse reddish brown ware (2.5YR 5/4). Marks of soot on the lower part.

Fig. 3.6 Cooking ware from the Middle Roman period.

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R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

43

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

ROM/CS1 (Fig. 3.6:43)

(Adan-Bayewitz 1993:91–97, Pl. 1B:1–22; Diez-Fernandez 1983:169, 215–216, Type T.15.2a; Horvat Ḥazon, Bahat 1974:165–167, Fig. 4:2, 4). In the Promontory Palace at Caesarea this type dated to the second–third century C.E. (Bar-Nathan and Adato 1986:164, 172, Fig. 2:16). At Sepphoris this is the most common cooking bowl type from the mid second to the end of the third century C.E.; based on the few sherds found in the earthquake destruction layer (363 C.E.), its production lasted till the beginning of the fourth century C.E. (Sepphoris Type GB1b, Balouka 1999:63, Fig. 2:12).

This type usually has an up-turned ledge rim, but Fig. 3.6:43 has three ridges on its rim. Another fragment was found in the late pit NE.A.11.L0013 (see above Fig. 3.2:12). They were commonly found in Galilean sites, and are similar to Kefar Hananya Form 3A dated from mid-first century B.C.E. through the mid-second century C.E. (AdanBayewitz 1993:111–119, Pl. 3A:1–12; Diez-Fernandez 1983:211–212, Type T14). This type was also found in Judea in slightly later assemblages, as at Masada Type M-CS3 dating to the time of the First Revolt (66–73/74 C.E.) (Bar-Nathan 2006:167, 180, Pl. 30: 65–68) and in the Roman Villa built above the destroyed Winter Palaces at Jericho, dated to 70–112 C.E.

ROM/FP3 (Fig. 3.6:51) A thickened rim with a single defined groove on exterior. This type usually has small loop handles, or knob handles. It is similar to Kefar Hananya form 1C dated to the mid third – late fourth century C.E. (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:98–100, Pl. 1C:1–6). It is a relatively later type, but the type does appear in a second–third century context in the Promontory Palace at Caesarea (Bar-Nathan and Adato 1986:164, 172, 2:18). At Sepphoris most of the sherds found in pits dated to the second–third century C.E. and their absence from 363 C.E. earthquake destruction layer may reduce the chronological range between the second to the early fourth C.E. (Sepphoris Type GB1c, Balouka 1999:64).

ROM/CS2 (Fig. 3.6:44–45) Casserole with ledge rim, and sharp carination at the shoulder. This type usually has two flat strap handles from rim to shoulder. It is similar to Kefar Hananya Form 3B dated from the early second to late fourth century C.E. (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:119–124, Pl.3B:3–14). It is the dominant Galilean form during the second and third centuries C.E. (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:121, 124; Sepphoris Type OCP 2, Balouka 1999:58–59, Fig. 2:8–9; Horvat Ḥazon, Bahat 1974:165–166, Fig. 4:5–6). The few fragments of this type found in earthquake destruction layers (363 C.E.) at Sepphoris may indicate that the production ceased at the beginning of the fourth century C.E. (Balouka 1999:59).

ROM/FP4 (Fig. 3.6:52–53) This type is made of coarser ware; it has a beveled rim, probably horizontal strap handles, and a round bottom. Fig. 3.6:53 can also be a lid. The type was introduced in Judea in the mid first century C.E. and became common in the early second century C.E. (Masada Type M-FP2A, Bar Nathan 2006:172–173, Pl.31: Nos.80–83; Cave of the Horror, Aharoni 1962:191, Fig.2:4, 9–10). It is also found at ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna dated to the late first – mid second century, 79–161 C.E. (Glick 2006:48–49, Fig. 8:11). In the Promontory Palace at Caesarea it is dated to the second– third century C.E. (Bar-Nathan and Adato 1986:164,172, Fig. 2:15).

Frying pans (cooking bowls) The types found at Tel Zahara are mostly from Stratum IIA.7 Three types (FP1–FP3) of the frying pans are similar to Kefar Hananya forms and dated mostly to the second– third centuries C.E. The fourth type (FP4) probably was produced in another nearby local workshop. ROM/FP1 (Fig. 3.6:46–48)

Cooking Jugs

The frying pan has a single groove on the rim, and everted sides. It is similar to Kefar Hananya Form 1A common in Galilee and the Golan. Its earliest appearance is dated to the late first century, and becomes very common in second– third century assemblages (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:88–91, Pl.1A:1–10).

Few cooking jugs were found in relation to the cooking pots/casseroles/frying pans.8 Three types were defined: ROM/CJG1 was found in the early Roman pit (NE.A.11. L0013), and the two other types (ROM/CJG2 – ROM/ CJG3) are typical of the late first – second century C.E. Contrary to the other cooking wares they were not produced in a Galilean workshop, but their similarity to the cooking jugs at ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna may suggest a workshop in the Beth Shean/Jezreel Valley area.

ROM/FP2 (Fig. 3.6:49–50) This frying pan has two grooves on the rim, and small loop handles from rim to body. Fig. 3.6:49 is similar to Kefar Hananya Form 1B. Its earliest appearance is dated to the late first–early second century, and it is very common during the second–third century C.E. in Galilean sites. Its latest appearance is during the early–mid fourth century C.E.

ROM/CJG2 (Fig. 3.6:54–55) Triangular rim ends with flange made by deep groove and

A total of 21 diagnostic sherds of pans were found: six in Stratum IB, eleven from Stratum IIA, and three in Stratum IIB.

Seven diagnostic sherds were found, five came from Stratum IIA, and the rest from later activity in Stratum IB.

7

8

44

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

ROM/LP2 Mold made circular lamp with long arched nozzle (Fig. 3.7:59)

cylindrical neck. It is not a common type at Tel Zahara, although the ones found display varied sizes. Fig. 3.6:55 is a relatively smaller variation (d. 4 cm). There is no parallel to the type, but it is probably a later local development of the globular cooking jugs type CJG1 (see Fig. 3.2:13) common in Judea during the first–second century C.E. It may resemble a jug found at ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna dated to the late first–mid second century (79–161) C.E. (Glick 2006:54, 56, Fig. 11:5).

One nozzle fragment of a local mold made lamp was found at Tel Zahara, though not in a well stratified context (baulk). It is decorated with a palm tree, depicting a trunk, and spreading branches of a tree from the wick-hole toward the shoulder. These lamps were very abundant in Judea, and are known also as “Southern Lamps” (Sussman 1982:13–28, Nos. 1–246). Based on their absence from destructions levels in Jerusalem, and their presence in Judea in the refugee caves they are dated to 70–135 C.E. (Sussman 1982:16). Variants of these lamps were produced in several other local workshops (Samaria, Galilee, Beth Shean/NysaScythopolis), although in smaller numbers, and they were made in local workshops such as Sepphoris (Gärtner 1999:31–33, Figs. 3:10–12, 4:13–15, 27:123; Sussman 2001:45–46, Type 4).

ROM/CJG3 (Fig. 3.6:56) A small cooking jug with a cup shaped rim was found in fill in Stratum IB; the only parallels were found in the Roman villa built above the Winter Palaces at Jericho dated post 70–112 C.E. 3.3.5. Oil Lamps Four different local types of oil lamps were found at Tel Zahara. The two lamps found in the construction leveling fill (Stratum IIC) may be classified as Knife-pared (Herodian) lamps (LP1), and the local imitation of Broneer XXIII (LP3, Fig. 3.7:58, 60) belongs to the first–second century C.E. The mold-made lamp (LP2, Fig. 3.7:59), even though not found in a well defined context, seems to belong to the same chronological range.

The lamp found at Tel Zahara belongs to the northern workshop variants and resembles a lamp at Huqoq (Kahane 1961:126, Fig. 3:19), Type 6 found at Beth Shean/NysaScythopolis (Hadad 2002:16, Nos. 12–18, especially No. 15), and at Nazereth (Diez-Fernandez 1983:336–37, Type L 8.2, Nos. 89–91). ROM/LP3 Roman discus lamp (Broneer XXIII) (Fig. 3.7:60)

The latest lamps found in Stratum IIA and Stratum IB are Roman discus lamps Broneer Type XXV (LP4, Fig. 3.7:61– 62), dated to the late first to the third century C.E. Lamp types LP1–LP2 and LP4 are commonly found together in assemblages of the late first – early second century C.E. in Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis, and Judean Desert refugee caves (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:85; Hadad 2002:20; Amit and Eshel 1998:199).

Only a small fragment of this type was found at Tel Zahara in a construction leveling fill (Stratum IIC). The nozzle is round and separated from the body with a volute, and coated with a red slip. It resembles Broneer type XXIII, which is dated to the first–second century C.E. (Broneer 1930:78–79; Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:26–31, Nos. 78–108), but seems to be a local imitation.

ROM/LP1 Knife-pared lamp (Fig. 3.7:57–58)

ROM/LP4 Roman discus lamp (Broneer XXV) (Fig. 3.7:61–62)

Two fragments of spatulate nozzles of the so-called “Herodian Lamps” were found, one in the construction leveling fill (Stratum IIC), and the other in the post-building fills (Stratum IB). These lamps are the most popular local wheel-made lamps during the late first century B.C.E. till the late first century C.E. in Judea (Masada Type C, Barag and Hershkovitz 1994:24–58, Figs. 5–17, Nos. 27–101). These lamps were found also in sites connected with the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 C.E.), in an early second century context in the Judean Desert (Amit and Eshel 1998:196–197, Fig. 4:55–57).

Three fragments9 were found in Stratum IIA and in Stratum IB. They are all shoulder fragments of Roman discus lamps, decorated with leaves and floral decoration on their discus in high relief. These lamps are parallel to Broneer Type XXV (Broneer 1930:83–87, Pl. X, Nos. 505–525), and were very popular in Syria-Palestine, dating from the last quarter of the first century to the third century C.E. (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:86–90, Nos 347–367).

These lamps were abundant in northern sites as well, such as Nysa-Scythopolis (Hadad 2002:13, 15, Nos. 5–9,Type 4) and Sepphoris (Gärtner 1999:29–30, Pls. 3:9, 27:122, Type 3) in first–second century C.E. contexts. Based on petrographic analysis, it is possible that many of these lamps found in northern sites may originate from the area of Jerusalem and Judea, as well as being produced in local workshops (Adan-Bayewitz et al. 2008:77).

This type was found also at Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis (Hadad 2002:16–20, Nos. 19–24, especially No. 28, Type 7 Variant 1), at Sepphoris (Gärtner 1999:34–36, Figs. 4:16–17, 5, 6:25–26, 27:124–131, Type 5), ‘Ein Ez-Zeituna (Glick 2006:56–58, Fig. 12:1–4), and the Promontory 9

45

One fragment—R0021—is not published here.

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

57

NE.A.10, L0010, B.22

R0271

Str. IB

A short nozzle with marks of soot. Gray ware (5YR 5/1) with some small white grits.

58

NE.A10, L0013, B.28

R0374

Str. IIC

A short squat nozzle with an elongated mouth with marks of soot. Light red ware (2.5YR 6/6).

59

NE.A. 8, W. Baulk, B.20

R0978

Str. ?, Building II

Upper fragment of the arched nozzle. Pink ware (5YR 7/4).

60

NE.A.8, L0013, B.8

R1028

Str. IIC

Nozzle fragment, reddish yellow ware (5YR 6/6), light red slip (10R 6/6), marks of soot on the wickhole.

61

SE.A.7, L0007, B.80

R0054

Str. IB

Fragment of shoulder and discus from the upper half of the lamp. The discus is decorated with in high relief of a floral pattern. Red ware (2.5YR 5/8) and red slip (10R 4/6).

62

SE.A.7, L0004, B.27

R0194

Str. IIA Building II

Fragment of shoulder and discus from the upper half of the lamp. The discus is decorated with a branch in high relief. Red ware (2.5YR 5/8) and red slip (10R 4/6).

63

SE.A.11, L0015, B.19

R0668

Str. IIC

Rim fragment (d. 26 cm). Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 8/6), red slip (2.4YR 4/6).

64

NE.B.11, L0020, B.30

R0905

Str. IIC

Molded high ring base (d. 7 cm). The floor of the base was decorated with three concentric rows of roulette decoration. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 7/6) and red slip (2.5YR 5/6).

65

NE.A.11, L0013, B.36

R0753

Str. IB

Fragment of a plate. The rim (d. 17 cm) is square in its profile. High ring base (d. 9 cm). Pink ware (5YR 7/4), red slip (10R 4/8).

66

SE.B.7, L0003, B.4

R0586

Str. IIA Building II

Rim fragment (d. 6 cm), reddish yellow ware (5YR 7/6), light red slip (10R 6/6).

SE.B.7, L0004, B.5

R0641

Str. IIA, Building II

Fragment of bifid handle. Red ware (10R 5/6).

46

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.7 Lamps, Eastern Sigillata, and amphorae from the Roman period.

47

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

3.4 Summary of the Roman Pottery

Palace at Caesarea (Bar-Nathan and Adato 1986:164, 172, Fig. 2:22).

The date of the pottery, together with the coins (Chapter 5), suggests that the Roman occupation at Tel Zahara was established only in the second century C.E. after the Stratum III occupation in the late Hellenistic period went out of use (Chapters 2 and 12). This new phase in the history of the site was most probably connected to the prosperity of Nysa-Scythopolis, XII–XIII (Bar Nathan and Mazor 2007; Mazor 2007:1–11;Tsafrir and Foerster 1997:88–99) and her chora (χώρα), and it is possible that Tel Zahara was under the city’s jurisdiction, or, at the least, within her area of social, political and/or economic influence.

3.3.6. Eastern Sigillata A A relatively large number of ESA vessels were found in the construction leveling fill (Stratum IIC); most of them belong to the Hellenistic period and are discussed below (section 3.4.6). Only four fragments are clearly Roman forms, although none of them were found in the building occupation levels. The most common plate (ROM/ ESA2) was found in Stratum IIC. Type ROM/ESA1 was found in the early Roman pit (NE.A.11 L0013, see above Fig. 3.2:14). Both are found in well dated contexts until 73 C.E. at Judean sites such as Herodium (Bar-Nathan 1981:64, 112, 121, Pl. 1:22, 6:16–17), Masada, Kypros, and Jericho (Bar-Nathan and Gärtner forthcoming).

The fragmentary building remains from Stratum II allow analysis of their function only to a certain degree. The most probable interpretation is that the site was occupied by a farm linked to the economic sphere of Beth Shean/ Nysa-Scythopolis.11 The Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis region reached its peak during the second century C.E., and this prosperity may have been reflected in the rise of surrounding rural sites such as Tel Zahara (see Chapter 12).12 Overall, the ceramic corpus from the Roman strata at the site is consistent with the view of Tel Zahara as a nearby farmstead and/or villa within the political and economic sphere of the urban center at Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis.

ROM/ESA2 (Fig. 3.7:63–64) Plate with an incurved rim and ring base. The floor of the plate was decorated with concentric rouletting (Fig. 4.7:64). This type is similar to Hayes Form 3 (Hayes 1985:14, Tav. I:7–8) and Type 13c–e at Tel Anafa where it is first attested in the Hellenistic period during the late second century B.C.E. and continues into the Roman period (Slane 1997:288–297, Pl. 7–12).

3.5 The Hellenistic Pottery (R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner)

ROM/ESA310 (Fig. 3.7:65)

The pottery found in Strata IV-III at Tel Zahara dates to the Hellenistic period. The majority of the Hellenistic pottery assemblage, however, came mainly from fills in Strata II-III as well as some from the mixed deposits of Stratum IB; this later occupation and the very intrusive Roman building activity most probably contributed to the mixed nature of these fills. The small exposure of Stratum IV in Square SE.A.7 was further limited by the fact that the Stratum IIA cistern cut through the southwestern corner of this area, which disturbed a large portion of the earlier material.

Bowl with a high ring foot, high vertical side, and a flange at the transition between rim and base. It corresponds to Hayes Form 37A (Hayes 1985:31, Tav. V:12) dated to the second half of the first century, 60–100 C.E. 3.3.7. Miscellaneous (Fig. 3.7:66) Small bowl (or stopper) with an upright rim and outer setting, covered with red slip on both sides. This bowl form in various sizes was found in Caesarea (Form RH/39, Gendelman 2006:135, Fig. 8.8:76), dated to the late first century B.C.E. till the end of the first century C.E. It was also found in Judea, at Herodium (Bar-Nathan 1981:63, Pl. 6:22), and Masada, where it was identified as a pyxis (Bar-Nathan 2006:210, Pl. 35, No. 39).

The earliest vessels in this assemblage can be dated to the ca. fourth-third centuries B.C.E. (late Persian–early Hellenistic period), including the kraters, some of the storage jars, some bowls, a flask, an unguentarium, and a lamp (Nos. 67–72, 92, 95–104, 118, 123). The vessels which possibly can be associated with Stratum IV, especially HELL/KR3–KR4, and HELL/BL1were found in Stratum IIIA in Square SE.A.7.

3.3.8. Amphorae (Fig. 3.7:67) Only a fragment of a bifid handle of amphora remained. It corresponds to Peacock and Williams Class 10 (Dressel 2–4; imitating Cos Amphorae). It is a widespread imported wine amphora, probably of Italian origin, dating from the later first century B.C.E. to the early second century C.E. (Peacock and Williams 1986:105–106). The type was very common in Palestine (Bar-Nathan 2006).

The early fourth–early third century B.C.E. material is Another possibility, based on the striking similarity between Building I and the building remains at ‘Ein ez-Zeituna (Glick 2006) suggests that the site served as a caravansary near the major Roman road from Caesarea Legio to Nysa-Scythopolis (see also Chapter 2, fn. 3). 12 The fact that the buildings were abandoned without any sign of destruction in the third century C.E. may reflect some reduction in the rural area at that period of time, maybe even an attraction to the city (see discussion in Zori 1962:197; Fuks 1983:113–114, 104–106), or it may have been connected to some Roman or military administrative changes in the area. 11

Although Type ESA3 was found in the early Roman pit, its range of date is later, and it might have originated from the occupation of the Roman building. 10

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R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

similar to pottery found at sites dated approximately to the same period of time as at Dor (Guz-Zilberstein 1995), Tel Mikhal (Kapitaikin 2006), and Khirbet Qeiyafa (Sandhaus 2009), but the Tel Zahara corpus lacks the typical storage jars of this period, such as torpedo jars, and basket-handled, flat-shouldered jars (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:53–55).

HELL/SJ3 (Fig. 3.8:70–77)

On the other hand, many jars (HELL/SJ4, HELL/SJ/ JG), some unguentaria (HELL/UN2), fine ware (HELL/ PL1–PL2), and some EasternTerra Sigillata (BL4) were discovered in the earlier fill of Stratum IIIB, as well as in the later building phase in Stratum IIIA; this allows us to date Stratum III to the third–second centuries B.C.E. The latest vessels in the assemblage are the globular cooking pots with high everted rim (HELL/CP2) and a molded lamp (HELL/LP2) that could be continued into the end of second –early first century B.C.E., and which show trends that can be recognized in the Hasmonean pottery assemblages (BarNathan 2002).

This subtype includes the storage jars with a high rim, similar to stratigraphically dated examples at Dor (Type JR1a, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:311). Their appearance at Khirbet Qeiyafa is earlier, and can be dated to the late fourth–early third centuries B.C.E. (Sandhaus 2009:214– 215, Fig. 12.5:17).

Bag-shaped jar with a thickened, rounded, everted rim. These jars can be divided to two subtypes. HELL/SJ3a (Fig. 3.8:70–72)

HELL/SJ3b (Fig. 3.8:73–77) This subtype has no neck and is typical of the third and second centuries B.C.E. Parallels exist at Dor (Type JR 1a, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:311, Monnickendam-Givon 2011:82– 83, Pl. 32:11–12, 15) and Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006: Fig. 15.3:62–64).

3.5.1 Storage Jars Storage jars found at Tel Zahara belong to the bag-shaped jar typology; they were divided into seven separate types based on the differences in their rim and the presence of neck. These storage jars are the most typical type found during the Hellenistic period. Types HELL/SJ1, HELL/SJ2 and HELL/SJ3a are slightly earlier types and could have appeared already during the late fourth–early third centuries B.C.E. (early Hellenistic period) while the rest of the storage jar types at Tel Zahara are similar to assemblages dated to the third–second century B.C.E. at Dor (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:311; Monnickendam-Givon 2011:81–83, Pl. 32) and Beth Shean (Johnson 2006:532–533). The absence of the basket-handle, flat-shouldered jars, and torpedo jars typical of assemblages dated to the late Persian period in the fifth–fourth centuries B.C.E. (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:53–55) at Tel Zahara is noteworthy, and reinforces the conclusion that the assemblage at Tel Zahara dates to the third–second centuries B.C.E.

HELL/SJ4 (Fig. 3.9:78–81) Bag-shaped jar with outward folded, everted rim, no neck. Four examples are presented here; parallels at Dor (Type JR 1c, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:311, MonnickendamGivon 2011:82–83, Pl. 32:16, 20) and Beth Shean/NysaScythopolis (Johnson 2006:532, Fig. 15.3:66) seem to be a slightly later type from the second century B.C.E. HELL/SJ5 (Fig. 3.9:82) Bag-shaped jar with an outward folded rim triangular in profile. Similar storage jars were found at Dor (Type JR 1b, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:311, Fig. 6.36:5–9) and Beth Shean/ Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006: 532–533, Fig. 15.3:61). HELL/SJ6 (Fig. 3.9:83) Bag-shaped storage jar with an outward turned, thickened rim.

HELL/SJ1 (Fig. 3.8:67) Elongated storage jar with thickened, square rim, short neck. A similar rim fragment was found at Tel Mikhal dated to the Persian period (Kapitaikin 2006: Fig. 9.14:6)

HELL/SJ7 (Fig. 3.9:84–85) Storage jar with outward turned rim, triangular in profile and long neck. Two fragments were found. A similar rim was found at Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis, dated to the second– first centuries B.C.E. (Johnson 2006:533, Fig. 15.4:70).

HELL/SJ2 (Fig. 3.8:68–69) Bag-shaped storage jars with a thickened, everted rim, and a short cylindrical neck. Two examples were found at Tel Zahara. These storage jars are more typical in the third and second centuries B.C.E., but they might have appeared earlier. Parallels exist at Khirbet Qeiyafa (Sandhaus 2009:215, Fig. 12:5:24–26) and Nahal Tut (Alexandre 2006:156, Fig. 60:7).

HELL/SJ/JG (Fig. 3.10:86–91) Bag-shaped jar with everted, square rim, short or long neck. These rims could appear on both jars and jugs as HELL/JG2 (Fig. 3.10:93) shows. Jars with similar rims were found at Dor in contexts dated to the late Hellenistic period, during the last third of the second century to the last third of the first century B.C.E. (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:66–68, Pls. 24:8, 31:17, 32:13, 40:2).

49

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

67

NE.A.7, L0010, B.6

R0739

IB

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Pink ware (5YR 7/4), gray core, very pale brown outer wash (10YR 7/4).

68

NE.A.12, L0002, B.16

R0122

IB

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3), some white grits.

69

NE.A.11, L0021, B.2

R0823

IIIA

Rim (d. 10 cm) fragment. White ware (10YR 8/2), small gray grits.

70

NE.A.9, L0007, B.25

R0257

IB

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4), light gray core, some gray grits.

71

SE.B.7, L0011, B.7

R1085

IIC

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Yellowish red ware (5YR 7/6).

72

NE.B.10, L0014, B.17

R1015

IIA

Rim (d. 9 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3).

73

SE.B.8, L0001, B.3

R0964

IB

Rim (d. 6 cm) fragment. White ware (10YR 8/2), gray core.

74

SE.A.7, L0015, B.32

R0245

IIB

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Pinkish white ware (7.5YR 8/2).

75

NE.A.9, L0003, B.25

R0256

IB

Rim (d. 6 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4).

76

NE.B.11, L0020, B.33

R0917

IIC

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5 YR 8/4), gray core.

77

SE.A.7, L0015, B.18

R0176

IIB

Rim (d. 6 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3), gray ware.

50

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.8 Storage jars HELL/SJ1 – SJ3 from the Hellenistic period.

51

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

78

SE.A.6, L0015, B.21

R0745

IIC

Rim (d. 9 cm) fragment. Pink ware (5YR 7/4 to 7.5YR 8/4), small white grits.

79

NE.A.9, L0002, B.27

R0237

IIIA

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Pinkish white ware (7.5YR 8/2).

80

NE.A.11, L0020, B.29

R0695

IIIA

Rim (d. 7 cm) fragment. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 7/8).

81

NE.A.9, L0015, B.40

R0396

IIIB

Rim (d. 10 cm) fragment. Yellow ware (10YR 7/6).

82

SE.A.7, L0028, B.46

R0407

IIIA

Rim (d. 6 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 7/3).

83

NE.B.11, L0020, B.31

R0913

IIC

Rim (d. 9 cm) fragment. Light brown ware (7.5YR 6/4), white outer wash (2.5Y 8/2).

84

SE.A.7, L0015, B.23

R0192

IIB

Rim (d. 16 cm) fragment. Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/4).

85

SE.A.6, L0011, B.13

R0680

IIC

Rim (d. 7 cm) fragment. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 7/6).

52

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.9 Storage jars HELL/SJ4 – SJ7 from the Hellenistic period.

53

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

86

SE.A.7, L0074, B.4

R0890

IIIA

Rim (d. 11 cm) fragment. White ware (2.5Y 8/2), lots of small gray and white grits.

87

SE.A.7, L0074, B.4

R0896

IIIA

Rim (d. 12 cm) fragment. White ware (2.5Y 8/2), lots of small gray and some white grits.

88

SE.A.7, L0074, B.4

R0895

IIIA

Rim (d. 12 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 7/4), lots of small gray and some white grits.

89

SE.A.7, L0046, B.52

R0486

IIIA

Rim (d. 11.5 cm) fragment. Rough very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3), lots of small gray grits.

90

NE.A.7, L0013, B.9

R1003

IIC

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4).

91

SE.B.7, L0011, B.7

R1085

IIC

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment. Yellowish red ware (5YR 7/6).

92

SE.A.8., L0025, B.31

R2097

IIIA

Rim (d. 9 cm) fragment and complete handle. Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/3), yellow outer wash (10YR 8/8).

93

NE.A.8, L0007, B.13

R1002

IIA

Rim (d. 9 cm) and handle with body fragment. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 8/6).

94

SE.A.7, L0028, B.46

R0407

IIIA

Rim (d. 6 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 7/3).

95

SE.A.8, L0024, B.26

R1097

IIC/IIIA

Rim (d. 4 cm) and body fragment with two handles. Very pale brown (10YR 8/4) to yellow ware (10YR 8/6), gray core.

54

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.10 Jars, jugs, and flask from the Hellenistic period.

55

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

3.5.2 Table Ware

HELL/KR2 (Fig. 3.11:97)

Three jug fragments are presented here. Two of them, HELL/JG1–JG2 are from known types, while JG3 is a rim of a jug or perhaps a lagynos.

Krater with an everted, thickened rim triangular in section. A similar rim was found at Tel Mikhal and dated to the fifth–fourth centuries B.C.E. (Kapitaikin 2006:28, Fig. 4:6, 8); at Dor this type was found also in late fourth to midthird centuries B.C.E. contexts (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:Pls. 4:2, 9:3).

HELL/JG1 (Fig. 3.10:92) Jug with a globular body, outward folded, thickened rim, and flaring neck. These jugs were found at Dor through the Hellenistic period, dating to between the late fourth to the second century B.C.E. (Type JG 11, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:308, Fig. 6.30:1–2).

HELL/KR3 (Fig. 3.11:98) Krater or stand with a thickened square rim and a mending hole drilled after firing under the rim. A similar, but not identical, krater was found at Dor in a context dated to the fourth to mid-third century B.C.E. (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:66, Pl. 11:16). Mending holes can indicate recycling of this sherd, a phenomenon was recorded at Khirbet Qeiyafa dated to the same period (Sandhaus 2009:219, Fig. 12.9).

HELL/JG2 (Fig. 3.10:93) Jug with elongated, ovoid body, an everted, folded rim, flaring neck, and a loop handle from rim to shoulder. There is ribbing on the shoulder. Jugs with similar rim and ribbing on the body were found at Tel Kedesh dated to the early to mid second century B.C.E. (Stone 2012:210–211, Fig. 4.10:1–2) and at Tel Anafa, where they dated to the last quarter of the second century B.C.E. (Berlin 1997b:48–49, Pl. 8:PW 38–42).

HELL/KR4 (Fig. 3.11:99) Deep open krater with an everted grooved rim square in profile flaring walls. A similar, but not identical, holemouth krater with a grooved rim was found at Tel Mikhal dated to the fifth–fourth centuries B.C.E. (Kapitaikin 2006:27–28, Fig. 4:4). A similar form from Dor is dated to the Persian period.

HELL/JG3 (Fig. 3.10:94) Fragment with a slightly everted, thickened, rounded rim and cylindrical neck, it may belong to either a jug or lagynos.

HELL/KR5 (Fig. 3.11:100)

HELL/Flask (Fig. 3.10:95)

Deep open krater with an everted rim, square in profile. No exact parallel was found, but kraters with similar body and vertical rim were found at Dor (Type KR 11, GuzZilberstein 1995:297, Fig. 6.14:1–11), at Yoqneam where they were dated to the second century B.C.E. (Avissar 1996a:51, Pl. X.2:6), and at Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis where it was dated to the second half of the second–first century B.C.E. (Johnson 2006: Fig. 15.2:39).

Upper body fragment with a rounded thickened rim, and two handles from neck to shoulder. This flask is lacking the distinctive ridge of the flask found in the North. At Dor these dated to the end of the fourth through third centuries B.C.E. (early Hellenistic) (Type PF, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:310–311, Fig. 6.34:1). Other examples are from Kh. Qeiyafa (Sandhaus 2009:217, Fig. 12.6:16–17) and Har Adar (Dadon 1997:69, Fig. 10:16).

Mortaria

Kraters

HELL/MR1 (Fig. 3.11:101–103)

Five type of kraters have been identified at Tel Zahara: two closed kraters (HELL/KR1–KR2) and three open types (HELL/KR3–KR5). These kraters seem to be the earliest vessels in this assemblage; HELL/KR1–KR4 date to the fifth to mid-third centuries B.C.E. (the late Persian–early Hellenistic period), while HELL/KR5 may be dated to the second century B.C.E.

This mortarium or heavy bowl has a big thickened, everted (knob?) rim, flaring, rounded walls, and a high ring base. This is the typical mortarium during the sixth–fifth centuries B.C.E. of the Persian period, but it is also found in fourth–third centuries B.C.E. contexts (early Hellenistic) at sites like Dor (Type BL 14b, Stern 1995; Guz-Zilberstein 1995:295, Fig. 6.9:1–7) or Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006:530, P. 15.2:37). Other examples come from Nahal Tut (Alexandre 2006:154–155, Figs. 48:2, 53:2–4, 62:2–5),Tel Mikhal (Kapitaikin 2006:25, Fig. 2:1–7), and Khirbet Qeiyafa (Sandhaus 2009:211, Fig. 12.2:5–11).

HELL/KR1 (Fig. 3.11:96) Small open krater with a ledge rim, and flaring walls. A similar vessel was found at Tel Mikhal dated to the fifth– fourth centuries B.C.E. (Kapitaikin 2006:27–28, Fig. 4:3), while at Dor these kraters were found in the context of the Persian period and seem to continue with small changes into the late second–first century B.C.E. (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:42, 65, Pl. 4:1, 25:28, 33:26).

Bowls and Plates HELL/BL1 (Fig. 3.12:104) Large bowl with a thickened rim, rounded walls. Similar bowls were found at Nahal Tut (Alexandre 2006:154,

56

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Figs. 61:1) and Khirbet Qeiyafa (Sandhaus 2009:211, Fig. 12.2:3–4) in late fourth century B.C.E. contexts.

CP2b This is a slightly different variant (Fig. 3.13:116) with high straight neck and inward flattened rim also belongs to this type of cooking pots.

HELL/BL2 (Fig. 3.12:105) Big deep bowl with an incurved rim.

HELL/CS1 (Fig. 3.13:117)

HELL/BL3 (Fig. 3.12:106)

Casserole with an outward flaring rim and a ridge inside for the lid. Similar vessels were found at Tel Kedesh (Stone 2012: Figs. 3.4:6, 4.15:2–3) dated to the third– second centuries B.C.E., at Dor in second century B.C.E. contexts (Type CP8, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:300, Fig. 6.22; Monnickendam-Givon 2011:47–48, Pl. 34:14–16), and at Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006:531, Fig.15.3:53).

Bowl or lid with incurved rim, straight walls. No parallels were found. HELL/PL/LD (Fig. 3.12:107–110) These bowls are local imitations of imported fish plates but are undecorated and not slipped. They can be saucers, or lids. They were found at Maresha (Levine 2003:83, Fig. 6.2:28–30), Yoqneam (Avissar 1996a:51, Fig. X.2:2) and Stratum II (175–165 B.C.E.) at Beth Zur (Lapp and Lapp 1968:73, Fig. 23:12).

3.5.4 Perfume Containers Ungeuentaria HELL/UN1 (Fig. 3.14:118)

3.5.3 Cooking Ware

Fragment of a fusiform unguentarium with thick bulbous body. This type was in use for a long period of time, from the fourth to second centuries B.C.E. It was a popular vessel and is found in many sites such as Dor (Type UG 2b, GuzZilberstein 1995:304–305, Fig. 6.26:9–22), Beth Shean/ Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006: Fig. 15.5:105), Maresha (Levine 2003:113–114, Fig. 6.14:147), and other sites.

The cooking pots at Tel Zahara have a high everted neck and seem to appear during the second century B.C.E. Their characteristic features are a globular body, high everted or straight neck, and thin walls. Two types of cooking pots can be defined based on the rim and the neck profile. Similar cooking pots with slightly different rim profiles were found in the assemblage at Beth Zur, Stratum I (140–100 B.C.E.), dated to the second century B.C.E. (Lapp and Lapp 1968:73, Fig. 27:1–6). These were found also at Tel Kedesh in late second century B.C.E. contexts (Stone 2012: Figs. 5.8:3, 5.9:1–2, 4).

HELL/UN2 (Fig. 3.14:119–121) Three fragments of tall bulbous unguentaria were found at Tel Zahara. This very popular type had a bulging body, with a long neck and long foot and is the most common unguentarium of the Hellenistic period throughout the Mediterranean. Similar types have been found at Dor dated to the mid-second century B.C.E. (Type UG 2c, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:305, Fig. 6.26:23–31), at Beth Shean/ Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006:536–537, Fig. 15.5:108), as well as other sites.

HELL/CP1 (Fig. 3.13:111) Globular cooking pot with everted neck, simple rim. The walls of the pot are thicker then those of the rest of the pots. These pots were found at Dor from the second half of the fourth century through the second century B.C.E. (Type CP1, Guz-Zilberstein 1995: Fig. 6.17:2–4), and at Nahal Tut dating to the late fourth century B.C.E. (Alexandre 2006:155, Fig. 62:9).

Amphoriskoi HELL/AS 1 (Fig. 3.14:122) The amphoriskos has an elongated body, and a full base with a slightly rounded end; its two handles descend from the neck to the shoulder. The rim is missing. The walls of the vessel are very thick. The appearance of the amphoriskos is dated to the second century B.C.E., and other examples are found at Dor (Type AK1, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:308, Pl. 6.29-1-4; Monnickendam-Givon 2011:51–52, Pls. 24:7, 39:2), Tel Kedesh (Stone 2012:Fig. 4.7:3), Tel Anafa (Berlin 1997b:78–80), and Maresha (Levine 2003:100, Fig. 6.9:89).

HELL/CP2 (Fig. 3.13:112–116) This form has two sub-types. CP2a This is a globular cooking pot with high everted neck and triangular rim (Fig. 3.13:112–115). These cooking pots have thin walls. Similar cooking pots found at Yoqneam dated to the second century B.C.E. (Avissar 1996a:51, Fig. X.3:1–8), at Tel Kedesh (Stone 2012: Figs. 4.12:3, 4.14:3, 5.9:1–2, 4) in second century B.C.E. contexts, and at Beth Zur Stratum I (140–100 B.C.E.) (Lapp and Lapp 1968: 76, Figs. 26:8, 27:1–3).

3.5.5 Lamps Two lamp fragments characteristic to the Hellenistic eriod are presented here: a wheel made open lamp, and a closed mold made lamp.

57

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

96

NE.A.11, L0020, B.32

R0687

IIC

Rim (d. 16 cm) fragment. Red (2.5YR 4/6) to reddish brown (5YR 5/4) ware.

97

NE.A.11, L0003, B.11

R0636

IB

Rim (d. 20 cm?) fragment. Reddish yellow ware (5YR 7/6).

98

SE.A.7, L0041, B.52

R081

IIIA

Rim (d. 13 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 7/4), light gray core, some big white grits. A mending hole under the rim.

99

SE.A.7, L0038, B.51

R0473

IIIA

Rim (d. 16 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3), some big white grits.

100

NE.A9, L0009, B.6

R0135

IB

Rim (d. 14 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3), gray core, and lot of gray grits.

101

NE.A.6, L0018, B.43

R2109

IIC

Rim (d. 31 cm) fragment. White ware (2.5Y 8/2), lots of small gray grits.

102

NE.A.6, L0001, B.4

R2113

IB

Rim (d. 29 cm) fragment. White ware (2.5Y 8/2).

103

NE.A.6, L0018, B.43

R2111

IIC

Base (d. 15 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4), white outer wash (10YR 8/2–2.5Y 8/2).

58

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.11 Kraters and mortaria from the Hellenistic period.

59

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

104

SE.A.8, L0009, B.58

R0809

IB

Rim (d. 21 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4), lots of gray grits.

105

NE.A.10, L0008, B.7

R0057

IB

Rim (d. 20 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4).

106

SE.A.7, L0015, B.32

R0247

IIB

Rim (d. 20 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 7/3–7/4).

107

SE.A.7, L0019, B.32

R0246

IIB

Rim (d. 13 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4), light gray core.

108

SE.A.7, L0015, B.32

R0248

IIB

Rim (d. 17 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 7/3–7/4).

109

NE.A.11, L0020, B.32

R0687

IIC

Rim (d. 16 cm) fragment. Red (2.5YR 4/6) to reddish brown (5YR 5/4) ware.

110

SE.A.7, L0015, B.32

R0249

IIB

Rim (d. 16 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5 YR 7/4), lots of medium sized white grits.

60

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.12 Bowls and plates from the Hellenistic period.

61

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

111

NE.B.11, L0020, B.35

R0995

IIC

Rim (d. 11 cm) and handle fragment. Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/4).

112

NE.A.8, L0007, B.15

R0993

IIA

Rim (d. 8 cm) fragment and handle. Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/4).

113

SE.A.11, L0004, B.4

R0539

IB

Rim (d. 14 cm) and shoulder. Red ware (10R 5/6), gray core.

114

SE.A.11, L0007, B.12

R0560

IIB

Rim (d. 15 cm) and handle. Red ware (10R 5/6), gray core.

115

NE.A.11, L0013, B.36

R0754

IB

Rim (d. 10 cm) fragment and handle. Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/4).

116

NE.B.11, L0018, B.26

R0689

IIB

Rim (d. 10 cm) fragment and hande. Weak red ware (10R 5/2).

117

NE.B.11, L0009, B.9

R0841

IIB

Rim (d. 18 cm) fragment. Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/4).

62

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.13 Cooking ware from the Hellenistic period.

63

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

118

NE.B.10, L0013, B.18

R1026

IIC

Lower body fragment. Light brown ware (7.5YR 6/4).

119

SE.A.8, L0026, B.30

R2059

IIIB

Rim (d. 2 cm) and neck fragment. Pale yellow ware (2.5Y 7/4).

120

SE.A.7, L0041, B.52

R0471

IIIA

Base (d. 3 cm). Light yellowish brown ware (10YR 6/4).

121

SE.B.6, L0005, B.6/10

R0825

IB

Base (d. 3.5 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 7/4).

122

SE.A.6, L0015, B.21

R0768

IIC

Almost complete body and two handles preserved. Pink ware (7.5YR 7/4).

123

SE.A.7, L0026, B.39

R0331

IIB

124

NE.A.11, L0008, B.14

R0627

IIA

Lamp fragment . Decorated body fragment. Gray ware (10R 5/1), black slip (7.5YR N2/0) with splashes on the inside.

64

R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.14 Perfume containers and lamps from the Hellenistic period.

65

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

HELL/LP1 (Fig. 3.14:123) Open wheel made lamp, bowl shaped with a pinched wickhole. Parallels come from Dor (Stern 1995:67, Fig. 2.14) and Tel Mikhal (Kapitaikin 2006:40, Fig. 11:6–7).

the fish plates, a feature of the second century B.C.E. It was found at Dor (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:42, Pl. 21:10), Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006:525, Pl. 15.1:8), and Maresha (Form 65D, Levine 2003:85–86, Fig. 6.3:47–49; Regev 2003:176).

HELL/LP2 (Fig. 3.14:124)

HELL/PL3 (Fig. 3.15:131–133)

Mold-made closed lamp with rounded shoulders decorated with patterns in high relief with traces of black slip. It is similar to round-bodied lamps at Tel Anafa dated to the late Hellenistic period (ca. 125–75 B.C.E.) which are made of gray ware with black slip (Dobbins 2012:146–149, Fig. 4:L149, Pls. 8:149, 11:209–210, 227–228). Molded lamps made of gray ware seems to be local imitations of well-known types produced in workshops as Tyre (Dobbins 2012:110–113), or in the area of Beth-Shean/NysaScythopolis (Bar-Nathan and Mazor 1994:90–91), Pella (McNicoll et al. 1982: Pls. 129:14–15, 130:8) or Samaria (Crowfoot 1957:369–370) where gray lamps were popular during the late second century B.C.E.

Shallow plates with flat infolded rim and flaring walls. There is a groove on the inside of the rim. Matte red slip is on the interior and the rim. This type of bowl seems to be typical of the second century B.C.E., but at Dor they were already present during the early Hellenistic period (Dor, Type BL 5a, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:292–293, Fig. 6.4:1–9; Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis, Johnson 2006:526, Pl. 15.1:11–13). HELL/West Slope Technique Bowl (Fig. 3.15:134) Rim fragment of a bowl or kantharos with a simple rounded rim, slightly flaring inward, and decorated with two grooves on its outer side. The vessel has incised decoration which is accentuated against the black slipped background. The pattern preserved is a panel of concentric rectangles. The example found at Tel Zahara is a local product from an eastern workshop. This seems to be an imitation of the West Slope technique, which reached its peak during the third century and early second century B.C.E. (Rotroff 1997:38–43). Vessels with similar geometric pattern are known at Athens between the third century and the last third of the first century B.C.E. Pottery made in the West Slope technique, albeit of different types, were also found at Dor (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:222–230) and Beth Shean/ Nysa-Scythopolis (Johnson 2006:527, Figs.15.1:20–21, 15.2:22–24).

3.5.6 Imported fine wares and their local imitations The imported fine ware and their local imitations found at Tel Zahara includes fish-plates, relief bowls, West Slope technique bowl, painted ware, Eastern Terra Sigillata, and amphorae. Plates Three variants of fish plates fragments were found. These plates have a downward turned rim, sloping walls, and a ring base. They were invented in Athenian workshops and were very popular throughout the Mediterranean, both as imported vessels and local imitations. Fish plates and their variants made outside Athens appeared during the third century B.C.E. (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:42). At Tel Zahara only HELL/PL1 is black slipped and might be imported, while the rest of the plates were made perhaps in local workshops.

HELL/Mold-made Relief Bowls (Fig. 3.15:135–138) Four fragments of bowls with high relief decorations (Megarian bowls) were found. They all seem to differ in shape, thickness, and in quality and type of decoration. Since only body fragments were found, it is impossible to determinate the exact shape of these bowls. One fragment (Fig. 3.15:137) is black slipped while the rest have changing red brown slip.

HELL/PL1 (Fig. 3.15:125–128) This plate has a downturned rim without a groove, sloping rounded walls, and a ring base. It is perhaps a local variant of the Hellenistic fish plates, as is seems to lack the central depression in the base. The walls of the bowl are thick. The plate has a glossy dark gray slip. A rim fragment and three bases probably belonging to this type were found; similar types were found at Dor (Monnickendam-Givon 2011:42, Pl. 21:5).

The different fragments were decorated with a schematic ovolo (Fig. 3.15:135), possibly lotus petals (Fig. 3.15:136), and a dolphin (Fig. 3.15:138). Mold-made relief bowls were popular in the eastern Mediterranean and Syria-Palestina during the second and first century B.C.E. These bowls at Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis were dated to the second century B.C.E. (Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis, Johnson 2006:528, Fig. 15.2:25–26); similar types were found also at Maresha and Dor.

HELL/PL2 (Fig. 3.15:129–130) These plates have a drooping rim, and sloping rounded or slightly concave walls, red slip on the inner side and the outside of the rim, with occasional splashes on the outer side. A small depression at the bottom marks the base. Three fragments were found. These may be local imitations of

Fine Ware Bowls These bowls are characterized by different slip on the inside or outside of the vessels, or completely missing on one side.

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HELL/ESA6 (Fig. 3.16:146–147)

They were very popular, and were perhaps invented as local imitations of the Attic ware and other imported vessels.

Deep Eastern Sigillata A bowls with wide flaring walls and simple rim. They are reminiscent of dishes found at Tel Anafa, dated to the late second–first centuries B.C.E. (Type 14b, Slane 1997:297–299, Pl. 13:FW 135–136).

HELL/BL1 (Fig. 3.16:139–140) Deep small hemispherical bowls with inward turned rounded rim. Similar bowls were found at Dor dated between the late fourth to the second century B.C.E. (Type BL8a, Guz-Zilberstein 1995:289–290, Fig. 6.1:1–24).

HELL/Unassigned base (Fig. 3.16:148) Ring base with round walls.

HELL/BL2 (Fig. 3.16:141–42)

3.5.7 Amphorae

Two types of this bowl were found.

Six amphorae fragments were recovered in Hellenistic contexts at Tel Zahara. Four of them, three rims and a handle, seem to belong to the widely distributed Rhodian Amphora type (AM1), one is an amphora from Kos (AM2). Nine stamped Rhodian amphora handles were found also at Zahara, dated to ca. 153–126 B.C.E. (Chapter 9).

BL2a This is a shallow fine ware bowl or cup with an inward turned concave rim, and round walls, with carination between the rim and shoulder. A similar vessel with a more angular body was found at Samaria. This form was popular among the different fine wares, and different variations are known from Athens and Knidos (Rotroff 1997:117–119, Fig. 22:391–394); most of the time this form had a pinched handle. The bowl at Tel Zahara has a shiny red-brown slip on the inside and a dark red slip on the outside.

HELL/AM1, Rhodian Amphora (Fig. 3.17:149–152) This amphora has an outward thickened, rounded rim; the handle begins directly below the rim. Long cylindrical neck. HELL/AM2, Koan Amphora (Fig. 3.17:153)

BL2b

Fragment of a bifid handle which characterizes amphorae imported from Kos. Coan amphorae have been found at Ashdod (Kee 1971:49, Fig. 13:2) and Tel Anafa (Berlin 1997b, 163, Pl. 66: PW524–526).

This seems to be a local variant with a short, outward flaring, slightly concave rim, a shallow body with rounded walls and carination between the rim to the shoulder, and red slip. A small coil handle is attached on the shoulder. At Beth Shean/Nysa-Scythopolis similar forms dated to the third and second centuries B.C.E. (Johnson 2006:526–527, Fig. 15.1:18). This bowl was also found at Dor (Type BL 10a, Guz-Zilberstein 1995: Fig. 6.7:1) and Yoqne’am (Avissar 1996a:48, 50, Fig. X.1;6–7) and is similar to Lapp’s Type 151.4 (1961:204).

HELL/Unassigned amphora bases (Fig. 3.17:154–155) Two fragments were found. A hollow lower part without the tip, and a rounded solid base/toe. 3.6 Summary of the Hellenistic Pottery Based on these ceramics it seems that after some early activity during the late fourth-early third century B.C.E. (Str. IV), the main Hellenistic building phase at Tel Zahara (Str. III) can be dated to the second half of the third–second century B.C.E. The appearance of Terra Sigillata vessels, the stamped amphora handles dated to ca. 153–126 B.C.E. (see Chapter 9), and a bronze coin of Demetrius II found in Stratum I and dated to ca. 129–128 B.C.E. (see Chapter 5 Cat. No. 1 and Fig. 5.1) may suggest that the Hellenistic settlement at Tel Zahara reached its peak during the second century B.C.E. The latest pottery dated to end of second century B.C.E. and predates the Hasmonean pottery, which is a pottery assemblage clearly identifiable around 100 B.C.E., during the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (BarNathan 2002:5–6). This may attest to the abandonment of the site or perhaps its destruction by the Hasmoneans (e.g., John Hyrcanos) at the same time as the destruction of BethShean/Nysa-Scythopolis (106–107 B.C.E.) (Bar-Nathan and Mazor 1994:91).

Eastern Terra Sigillata HELL/ESA4 (Fig. 3.16:143–144) Deep Eastern Sigillata A bowls with thickened, inward turned rim. Similar examples were found at Tel Anafa, dated to the late second–first centuries B.C.E. (Type 13c, Slane 1997:288–292, Pls. 8–9), and at Samaria (Crowfoot 1957:309, Fig. 65:3), among other sites. HELL/ESA5 (Fig. 3.16:145) Deep conical bowl with inward thickened rim decorated with grooves on the inside. This form also was found at Dor (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:219, Fig. 5.7:3–5), Tel Anafa (TA 6, 26, Slane 1997:314–315, Pls. 3:FW30–31, 21:FW217–219), and Samaria (Crowfoot 1957:335–336, Fig. 80:15–22) and is dated to the second–first century B.C.E.

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Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

125

NE.A.7. L0004, B.5

R0654

IB

Rim (d. 22 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4), shiny black slip (2.5Y 2/0).

126

SE.A.10, L0013, B.8

R0186

NA

Ring base (d. 6 cm) fragment. Pink (7.5 YR 7/4 to reddish yellow (7.5 YR 7/6) ware, very dark gray slip (5Y 3/1).

127

SE.A.7, L0027, B.4

R0789

IIIA

Ring base (d. 7.5 cm) fragment. White ware (10YR 8/32) and glossy very dark gray slip (2.5Y N3/0).

128

SE.B.6, L0016, B.31

R1047

IIC

Ring base (d. 6 cm) fragment. Pinkish gray ware (7.5YR 7/2). Traces of dark gray slip

129

SE.A.11, L0015, B.19

R0673

IIC

Rim (d. 20 cm) and body fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 7/3), red slip (2.5YR 5/6–4/8).

130

NE.A.9, L0002, B.16

R0214

IB

Rim (d. 20 cm) fragment. White ware (10YR 8/2–2.5Y 8/2), small gray grits, reddish brown slip (2.5YR 6/4) on the inside

131

NE.A.9, L0015, B.40

R0797

IIC

Rim (d. 18 cm) and body fragment. Yellow ware (10YR 7/6), weak red (2.5YR 4/2) slip on the inside.

132

NE.A.11, L0020, B.31

R0710

IIC

Rim (d. 16 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/4), reddish brown slip (2.5YR 4/4) on the inside

133

Out of context.

NA

Rim fragment.

134

NE.A.8.L0006, B.6

R0947

IB

Rim (d. 12 cm) fragment decorated with grooves on the outside of the rim and incised concentric squares. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/4), very dark gray slip (2.5YR 3/0) on the outer side and reddish brown slip (2.5YR 4/3) on the inside

135

SE.A.6, L0025, B.31

R2094

IB

Body fragment decorated in high relief with an ovolo pattern. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3), red (2.5YR 6/8) to reddish black (10R 2.5/1) slip.

136

Out of context.

NA

Body fragment decorated with lotus petals in high relief.

137

NE.A.9, L0003, B. 28

R0234

IB

Decorated body fragment. Yellow ware (10YR 7/6), weak red slip (10R 4/4) on the inside, and glossy very dark gray slip (2.5YR 3/2) on the outside.

138

NE.B.11, L0004, B.2

R0813

IB

Body fragment decorated with two acing dolphins in high relief, and two row of dots above. Pink ware (7.5YR 8/4), red slip (2.5YR 4/8) on the inside and weak red slip (10R 4/2) on the outside.

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R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.15 Imported fine wares and local imitations: plates, West Slope Technique bowls, and mold made relief bowls.

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Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

139

SE.A.7, L0038, B.48

R0399

IIIA

Rim (d. 14 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/4), yellowish red slip (5YR 5/6) on the outside and very dark gray slip (5YR 3/1) on the inside.

140

NE.A.12, L0008, B.22

R0170

IIC

Rim (d. 16 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/4–7/4), yellowish red slip (5YR 5/6) on the inside, traces of reddish brown slip on the outside.

141

SE.A.6, L0015, B.21

R0767

IIA

Rim (d. 17 cm) and body fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 7/4) and glossy red slip (2.5YR 4/8) on the inside, matte dark red slip (2.5YR 3/6) on the outside.

142

NE.A.11, L0013, B.36

R0754

IB

Rim (d. 10 cm) fragment and small pinched horizontal handle. Reddish brown ware (5YR 5/6).

143

NE.A.9, L0015, B.40

R0797

IB

Rim (d. 18 cm) and body fragment. Yellow ware (10YR 7/6), weak red (2.5YR 4/2) slip on the inside.

144

NE.B.11, L0020, B.33

R0916

IIC

Rim (d. 20 cm) fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/4), red slip (2.5Y 4/6).

145

NE.A.10, L0020, B.32

R0683

IIIA

Rim (d. 12 cm) and flaring walls. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 8/6), matte red slip 2.5YR 5/6).

146

SE.A.8, L0024, B.26

R1098

IIIA

Rim (d. 12 cm) fragment. Pink ware (7.5YR 7/4) red slip (10R 5/6).

147

SE.B.7, L0004, B.2

R0616

IIA

Rim (d. 15 cm) fragment. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 8/6), red slip (10R 5/8).

148

SE.A.7, L0051, B.2

R0780

IIIA

Ring base (d. 5 cm) and lower body fragment. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/4), glossy red slip (10R 4/8).

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R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.16 Imported fine wares and local imitations: fine ware bowls and Eastern Terra Sigillata.

71

Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

N o.

Square, Locus, Bucket

Reg. No.

Stratum

Descriptio

149

SE.A.6, L0008, B.10

R0598

IIA

Rim (d. 10 cm) fragment with the starting of a handle. Pink (7.5YR 7/4) to reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 7/6).

150

SE.A.8, L0017, B.19

R0899

IIC

Handle fragment. Fine light brown ware (7.5YR 6/4), very pale brown outer wash (10YR 8/4).

151

SE.B.6, L0020, B.31

R1058

III

Rim (d. 10 cm) fragment and start of a handle. Very pale brown ware (10YR 7/3).

152

SE.B.8, L0003, B.4

R1020

IIC/IIIA

Rim (d. 11.5 cm) and neck. Fine pink ware (7.5YR 8/4), white (10YR 8/2) outer wash.

153

NE.A.10, L0017, B.31

R0457

IIA

Bifid handle fragment. Reddish yellow ware (7.5YR 7/6), some mica, white (10YR 8/2) outer wash.

154

SE.B.6, L0016, B.30

R1070

IIC

Hollow base fragment, the end is broken off. Very pale brown ware (10YR 8/3).

155

SE.A.6, L0011, B.13

R0679

IIA

Solid full base with rounded end. Pink (7.5YR 7/4) to light brown ware (7.5YR 6/4).

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R. Bar-Nathan and R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner: The Ceramics

Fig. 3.17 Amphorae from the Hellenistic period.

73

Chapter 4. The Faunal Remains L. K. Horwitz

The small mound of Tel Zahara lies in the fertile Harod Valley, five km west of Tel Beth Shean (Fig. 4.1). During the Roman and Hellenistic periods, sites in the Beth Shean and Harod Valleys (considered here as constituting a socio-political and geographically contiguous zone), held positions of strategic importance due to their location at the intersection of major trade routes going east-west and north-south (Fig. 4.1). The largest settlement in the area was Tel Beth Shean (Scythopolis), which served as the capital city of the Decapolis and home of the Roman Sixth Legion, and was the site of a large temple, first established in the Hellenistic period (Rowe 1930; Foerster and Tsafrir 1990; Tsafrir and Foerster 1997; Foerster 1993). The economic importance and success of this region thus partly resulted from trade. It was augmented by an extremely well-established agricultural sector, as attested by the fact that Beth Shean was one of the textile centers for flax in the Roman Empire (Sperber 1976). This situation is best expressed in the Talmudic saying by Resh Lakish (Tractate Erubin 19a): “If paradise is in the land of Israel, its gate is Beth Shean” (The Babylonian Talmud 1959). The Harod Valley and environs receive an annual rainfall of ≤350 mm per annum (Orni and Efrat 1980). The vegetation cover is Mediterranean in character with enclaves of hydromorphic soils and vegetation, remnants of more extensive swamps that existed in the past. These are fed by the perennial Harod Spring (Fig. 4.2). This, together with the rich and fairly superficial groundwater horizon, ensures that the Valley is exceptionally well-watered (Orni and Efrat 1980; also see Chapter 1).

Fig. 4.1 Map showing location of Tel Zahara and nearby sites mentioned in the text.

In the adjacent Beth Shean Valley, the soils are not considered very fertile (Singer 2007). In the past, however, this short-coming, as well as the erratic nature of rainfall in the area, would have been off-set by the presence of the perennial springs, as discussed above and in Chapter 1 of this volume, although some are highly saline. Cultivation in the Beth-Shean Valley most likely relied upon irrigation, as documented in the Byzantine period (Maeir 2010), with more extensive field systems in the fertile colluvial soils found in valleys, such as the Harod Valley, and the alluvial fans adjacent to the Beth Shean Valley (Nir 1989).

period. This report focuses on the faunal remains recovered during excavations of the Hellenistic and Roman levels at Tel Zahara and addresses issues relating to diet, animal husbandry practices and the role of the site as a supplier of animal products for Tel Beth Shean. Analysis of the material from the Islamic-Modern Strata is also presented here

The proximity of Tel Zahara to Beth Shean and its location in the midst of prime agricultural land, supports the excavators’ interpretation that Zahara functioned as an agricultural satellite of the city, especially in the Roman

The Tel Zahara assemblage was recovered primarily by hand collection with a small amount (approximately 10–20 percent) retrieved through dry sieving using a five mm mesh. Consequently, it is assumed that many small bones of terrestrial mammals and other species (birds,

4.1 Materials and Methods

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Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Fig. 4.2 Harod Spring— Shepherd and flock ca.1900– 1920 (The American Colony and Eric Matson Collection, US Library of Congress).

rodents, reptiles, amphibians, fish) have been lost. The low percentage of sediment which was sifted was related to the presence of numerous modern rodent and bird burrows on the tel, which the excavator considered increased the likelihood of intrusive material in the archaeological deposits (Horwitz et al. 2012; Więckowski et al. 2013).

for each species in the Islamic-Modern sample, since the remains were often recovered in anatomical association or inside pits and represented single events rather than timeaveraged deposits such as represented by the Roman or Persian-Hellenistic assmblages. MNI’s were calculated using the count of the highest number of a specific element by side, with epiphyseal ends (proximal and distal) and long bone shafts each counted separately. Age (fused/unfused) was used as a qualifying factor.

The first stage of laboratory analysis involved identification of all bones to skeletal element and species, to determine the relative abundance of taxa and body parts. Bone identification was based on morphological comparison with the modern skeletons held in the National Natural History collections of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Sheep and goats were separated based on criteria given in Boessneck et al. (1964) and Boessneck (1969). Where this was not possible, the two species were combined into a single sheep/goat category. Bones were placed in size groups where skeletal element but not species was identified: small mammal size (fox, hare), medium mammal size (goat, sheep, pig) and large mammal size (cattle, equids). Measurements taken on bones and teeth followed von den Driesch (1976). The relative frequency of the different species was calculated for each phase from the total number of identified bones (NISP). In addition, the minimum number of individuals (MNI) was estimated

The age of domestic taxa—sheep, goats, cattle and pigs— was assessed using epiphyseal bone fusion rates (Silver 1969), dental eruption stages (Silver 1969) and degree of dental attrition (Grant 1982; Payne 1973). Skeletal element representation was assessed by grouping all bones into five categories: cranial (skull, jaws and isolated teeth); upper forelimb (scapula, humerus, ulna and radius); upper hindlimb (pelvis, femur, tibia, fibula, patella, calcaneum and astragalus); lower fore- and hindlimbs (metapodials, carpals, tarsals); trunk (vertebrae, sternum and ribs) and feet (phalanges). The types of modifications to the bone surface was scored, including weathering and bleaching, presence of butchery marks (cut or chop marks, pressure fractures),

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L. K. Horwitz: The Faunal Remains

Fig. 4.3a Pig tibia shaft with carnivore gnawed proximal end, and scoring on proximal shaft (SE.A.7.L0071, B25).

Fig. 4.3b Sheep/goat

metacarpal shaft with carnivore gnawed distal end, proximal shaft is broken with a spiral fracture (SE.A.7.L0079, B10).

Fig. 4.3c Cattle tibia fragment with striations caused by carnivore gnawing (SE.A.7.L0056, MC#0227).

Fig. 4.3 Examples of bone modifications in the Persian-Hellenistic period assemblage (scales in mm).

Table 4.1 Species representation in Hellenistic (Stratum III) and Persian-Hellenistic (Stratum IV) periods. Species Sheep (Ovis aries) Sheep/Goat (Capra hircus/Ovis aries) Cattle (Bos taurus) Pig (Sus scrofa) Cape hare (Lepus capensis) Freshwater crab (Potamon potamios) Total Identified Total Unidentified

Stratum NISP -

Stratum IIIB NISP 4

Total Stratum III NISP % 4 11.7

Stratum IV NISP % 2 4.0

6

14

20

58.8

29

58.0

49

1 1 1

5 1

17.6 5.8 2.9 2.9

10 9

20.0 18.0

1

6 2 1 1

16 11 1 1

25 8

34 10

100

50 19

100

84 112

9 2

and/or animal-derived damage (gnawing, striations, pits, punctures) (Binford 1981; Lyman 1994), and/or burning (including color). A four-tier weathering score was used to record the bone surface based on a revised version of Behrensmeyer (1978) where: 0 = not weathered; 1 = slight roughness/pitting of bone surface; 2 = flaking, exfoliation; 3 = extensive fissures, cracks. In addition, skeletal element completeness was scored; the proportion of the preserved circumference follows Bunn (1983), and the presence/ absence of epiphyseal ends.

Total NISP 6

Only domestic taxa are represented, dominated by sheep/ goat, followed by cattle and pig, the last two in similar proportions (Table 4.1). Of the caprines, only remains of sheep were positively identified. For all taxa, a range of skeletal elements were identified belonging to all body parts. There is a relatively even distribution of caprine skeletal elements that are rich in meat (limb bones) and those which are poor in meat (cranial and trunk elements), suggesting that the population had access to whole carcasses. Dental wear stages of two sheep/goat mandibles denote the presence of adults aged 3–4 years. Together with the very limited data on bone fusion, it may be tentatively suggested that the majority of caprine remains belonged to mature animals aged three years or older, although animal activity may have modified the assemblage and contributed to the absence of immature animal remains (Table 4.2), as also occurred in the sample from Stratum III (see below

4.2 Results: Stratum IV (late Persian – early Hellenistic Period) The Stratum IV sample comprises 68 faunal remains, of which only 73.5 percent (N = 50) were identified. The small size of this sample has precluded a detailed analysis of mortality profiles and skeletal element representation.

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Excavations at Tel Zahara (2006–2009)

Table 4.2 Data on bone preservation and modification by species for combined Hellenistic-Persian period samples (Strata III and IV). Bone preservation/ Modification Long Bone Circumference Whole

Capra/Ovis

Bos taurus

Sus scrofa

Unid. Fragment

NISP

NISP

NISP

 NISP

13

1

Half

3

1

Less than half

3

Epiphyseal Ends Both present One absent Both absent Surface Damage

1 6 12

Cut marks

4 16

1 2

3

2 parallel, on humerus shaft; 3 on base of thoracic vertebra spine (Fig. 4.4); 1 on rib distal corpus and 1 on the proximal epiphysis 1 femur shaft

Bleaching Burning Animal Damage

1 burnt black 1 femur shaft; 1 tibia shaft (Fig. 4.3c)

Striations

3 pits on a fragment

Pits

Gnawing

pelvis ilium fragment—both ilium and ischium ends—rodent gnawed; metatarsal proximal epiphysis—rodent gnawed; scapula distal end—carnivore gnawed; humerus shaft ends—carnivore gnawed; metacarpal distal shaft—carnivore gnawed (Fig. 4.3a); thoracic vertebra spine tip—carnivore gnawed (Fig. 4.4)

thoracic vertebra spine with proximal tip— carnivore gnawed; hyoid with both endsrodent gnawed

tibia proximal shaft end— carnivore gnawed (Fig. 4.3b)

dismemberment when the trunk was divided (Binford 1981).

section 4.3). The pig remains are predominantly those of immature animals. This feature suggests the exploitation of domestic piglets, although their domestic status could not be corroborated by measurements or morphology (e.g. Payne and Bull 1988).

4.3 Results: Stratum III (Hellenistic period) As for the late Persian – early Hellenistic period sample, given the small size of the Hellenistic bone assemblage, material from Stratum IIIA and IIIB were pooled and only general trends are reported. Only 44 bones were recovered from the Hellenistic strata at the site. The vast majority of remains (N = 34) could be identified to species (77 percent of the sample) and of these, remains of domestic sheep/goat were by far the most common (N = 24, 54.5 percent). For caprines, only sheep were positively identified, but given the small size of the assemblage this finding may not be meaningful.

Gnaw damage from rodents and carnivores was observed on nine bones (Table 4.2). Carnivore gnawing is evident on: the distal end of a sheep/goat metacarpal shaft (Fig. 4.3a); the distal part of a sheep/goat scapula; and the proximal end of a pig tibia (Fig. 4.3b); the proximal tip of a cattle thoracic spine; ends of a cattle hyoid; and two cattle femur and tibia shafts exhibit striations caused by teeth on the bone surface (Fig. 4.3c); while an unidentified shaft fragment has pit marks. Although most of this damage can be attributed to carnivores (e.g. pits, gnawed bone ends), some bones, such as a proximal end of a sheep/goat metatarsal, had been gnawed by porcupines resulting in a typical crenellated pattern of damage caused by their incisors (Horwitz et al. 2012). Cut marks occur on a sheep/goat rib adjacent to the distal and proximal ends, probably representing carcass

The skeletal element breakdown demonstrates a predominance of limb bones, with few cranial, trunk or toe bones, which may be interpreted as signifying consumption rather than slaughter refuse (Hellwing and Gophna 1984).

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L. K. Horwitz: The Faunal Remains

Table 4.3a Age data for Sheep/Goat. Bone fusion. Period/Stratum Ovis/Capra

Hellenistic Stratum III

Late Persian – Hellenistic Stratum IV

N Unfused

N Fused

%UF

N Unfused

N Fused

Infant

Distal Scapula

2

0

0

2