Exam Kit in Social Science VIII 9789352745913, 9352745914

Table of contents :
1_History Class VIII
2_Geography Class VIII
3_POLITICAL SCIENCE
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CBSE CBSE in

2021

SOCIAL SCIENCE

2021

CBSE

2021 in

SOCIAL SCIENCE

8

The Ultimate Exam Preparation Kit Strictly based on CBSE Latest Syllabus  Basic Concepts  In a Nutshell  Keywords with explaina on  Date Line  NCERT Textbook Exercises  Objec ve Type Ques ons  Mul ple Choice Ques ons  Addi onal Ques ons  Self-Assessment Test 

ISBN 978-93-5274-591-3

9 789352 745913

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M.R.P. ` 299.00 X08-9055-299-EXAM KIT IN SOC SC VIII

8

CBSE 2020 in

SOCIAL SCIENCE

11 VIII

CBSE 2020 in

SOCIAL SCIENCE

By Bina Viswas

11 VIII

Exam-Kit in Social Science–VIII © by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd. All rights reserved including those of translation into other languages. In accordance with the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise. Any such act or scanning, uploading, and or electronic sharing of any part of this book without the permission of the publisher constitutes unlawful piracy and theft of the copyright holder’s intellectual property. If you would like to use material from the book (other than for review purposes), prior written permission must be obtained from the publishers.

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Contents

PART A: HISTORY (OUR PASTS-III) 1. How, When and Where 2. From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power 3. Ruling the Countryside 4. Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age 5. When People Rebel: 1857 and After 6. Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners 7. Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation 8. Women Caste and Reform 9. The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947 10. India After Independence

1 10 22 32 43 55 66 78 89 103

PART B: GEOGRAPHY

(RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT)

1. Resources 2. Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources 3. Mineral and Power Resources 4. Agriculture 5. Industries 6. Human Resources

v

114 123 134 146 155 168

vi PART C: SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE – III Unit I: The Indian Constitution and Secularism 1. The Indian Constitution 2. Understanding Secularism

180 191

Unit II: Parliament and the Making of Laws 3. Why do We need a Parliament? 4. Understanding Laws

199 209

Unit III: The Judiciary 5. Judiciary 6. Understanding Our Criminal Judicial System

217 227

Unit IV: Social Justice and the Marginalised 7. Understanding Marginalisation 8. Confronting Marginalisation

236 246

Unit V: Economic Presence of the Government 9. Public Facilities 10. Law and Social Justice

256 268

Sample Paper–I

280

Sample Paper–II

284

Sample Paper–III

287

Preface The latest series of Exam Kit in Social Science Class VI to VIII has been designed to cater to the needs of young learners as per the latest syllabus and guidelines provided by NCERT. The aim of the series is to provide a thorough solution to all the learning needs of the respective students. The latest changes have duly been incorporated. Each book of the series is complete in all respects and provides a comprehensive and complete explanation of each topic. The series will help both, the learners and educators, to have an in-depth knowledge of all the avenues of learning. Though the utmost care has been taken to provide error-free contents, there is always a scope for improvement. So any suggestion for the improvement will be duly considered in the latest editions and acknowledged with gratitude. Author

(vii)

PART A: HISTORY (OUR PASTS-III)

1

How, When and Where

Chapter

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS How Important are Dates? History is synonymous with dates.

How do We periodise? James Mill divided Indian into three periods: Hindu, Muslim, British

History records events that happen over time. History compares the past with present.

How do We know Administrator produces Records? One important source is the official records to the British administration.

What is Colonial? The word “colonial” refers to British rule.

The British felt all important documents and letters needed to be preserved.

It refers to the changes British rule brought about in values and tastes, customs and practices.

How do Official Records not tell? They do not tell about the needs of people of India. Many official records hide the truth. They only show one aspect of the event.

Why did Surveys become Important? The British believed in knowing the country properly before it could be administered. Therefore, surveys became popular.

In order to know the topography, the soil quality, the flora, the fauna, the local histories, and the cropping pattern, revenue surveys were conducted in the villages. From the end of the nineteenth century, census operations were held every ten years.

1

2

Social Science—VIII (History)

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• History is nothing but recording the changes that occur over time. Hence, from the time immemorial, history has always been associated with dates. Dates form an important part of history. •• However, over time, this notion of history being invariably associated with dates, has changed. Certain events cannot be traced back to a certain date. They occur gradually with the passage of time. •• In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political philosopher, published a massive three-volume work—A History of British India, where he divided Indian history into three periods—Hindu, Muslim and British. •• However, there were certain problems with his demarcation of Indian history. Other than the fact of his representing history in a subjective way, Mill basically divided Indian history on the basis of the faith of the ruler at a time when various religions co-existed happily. •• Certain changes have come about in the way of representing history in the modern era. Nowadays, historians deal with issues like the livelihood of people and the evolution of culture and civilisation rather than fixing dates of the birth and death of kings, rulers and leaders. •• In this book, we will find out the ways and methods of the British in colonising India. •• The British felt the need of writing down and preserving every important document and thus built record rooms in all important administrative institutions. •• In the early years of the nineteenth century, these documents were carefully copied out and beautifully written by calligraphists. •• In due course of time, the practice of surveying also became common under the colonial administration. The British believed that a country had to be properly known before it could be administered effectively. •• However, one must remember that this vast corpus of archived information only gives us an official account of various events. For getting a real picture of things, unofficial account of the diaries of people, narratives of pilgrims and autobiographies of important personalities need to be looked upon.

III. KEYWORDS •• Synonymous (adj.): having the same meaning. •• Criteria (noun): Something that is used as a reason for making a judgement or decision. Origin: borrowed from Greek Kriterion. •• Debate (noun): A discussion between people in which different opinions are expressed. Origin: from Anglo French debatre. •• Ancient (adj.): Very old. Origin Middle English ancient. •• Medieval (adj.): Relating to the Middle Ages. Origin: New Latin medium aevum.

How, When and Where

3

•• Modern (adj.): Of or relating to the present time or recent past. Origin: Late Latin modernus. •• Historians: Scholars who write histories. •• Stretch of Time: Duration, period. •• Colonial Periods: Associated with domination of the British, French, and Portuguese, where people did not have equality, freedom, and liberty. •• Calligraphists (noun): A person who practises calligraphy. Origin: French calligraphie •• Economist (noun.) A person who studies or specialises in economics. Origin: unknown. •• Taboos (adj.): Something that is banned on grounds of morality. Origin: Tongan tabu. •• Subjugation (verb.) To defeat or gain control of something by force. Origin: Middle English, from Latin subjugatus. •• Survey: The act of examining and recording the measurements, features, etc. to an area of land to prepare a map or plan for it. •• Archives: A place where historical documents or records of a government, an organisation, etc. are stored. •• Topography (noun.): The features which include the terrain in an area of land. Origin: Middle English topographie.

IV. DATE LINE •• 1773 : Warren Hastings became the first Governor General of India •• 1782 : The painting of James Rennel of the Brahmans offering the Shastras to Britannia was published •• 1817 : James Mill divided Indian history into three periods •• 1920 : The National Archives of India was set up in 1920

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 8) Let’s Imagine Imagine that you are a historian, wanting to find out about how agriculture changed in a remote tribal area after the independence. List the different ways in which you would find the information on this. Ans. If I were a historian, I would find out the information based on the following sources: •• Old records • Manuscripts •• Archives • Surveys •• Official documents and letters •• Speaking with tribal people who lived during the event

4

Social Science—VIII (History)

Let’s Recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) James Mill divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim, and Christian. (b) Official documents help us understand what the people of the country think. (c) The British thought that surveys were important for effective administration. Ans. (a) True,  (b) False,  (c) True Let’s Discuss 2. What is the problem with the periodisation of Indian history that James Mill offers? Ans. There are several problems with the way James Mill divided the Indian history into periods: (a) Firstly, James Mill’s way of periodisation basically divided the Indian history on the basis of the faith of the ruler at a time when various religions co-existed happily. (b) Mill’s way of weaving history is a subjective account and according to his version of Indian history, the Hindu and Muslim despots had ruled the country before the British came to India. (c) According to Mill, the British was the sole symbolisation of progress and civilisation and recognised Indians in a desperate need of enlightenment. 3. Why did the British preserve official documents? Ans. The British preserved all documents because of the following reasons: (a) The archived documents provided a detailed description of a place within a particular timeframe. (b) The British believed that the act of writing and preserving every document was very important because in this way, the information could be read, studied, copied or altered in due course of time when the need arises. 4. How will the historians get information from old newspapers that is different from the police reports? Ans. The information historians get from old newspapers are different from those found in police records: •• Information printed in newspapers are subject to the thoughts and opinions of the news editors and their staff correspondents. •• Many a time, the facts are twisted and tampered by the editors to please the government. Police records, on the other hand, provide correct information. Let’s Do 5. Can you think of examples of surveys in your world today? Think about how toy companies get information about what young people enjoy playing with or how the government finds out about the number of young people in school. What can a historian derive from such surveys?

How, When and Where

5

Ans. Hint: The census is a very popular survey conducted by the Indian government after every ten years. It was last conducted in 2011. (Think and write the Answers yourself)

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION ANSWERS I. Match the following Sentences: 1. Calligraphists (i) the first Governor General of India 2. Warren Hastings (ii) a Scottish economist and political leader 3. Census (iii) scholars who write history 4. Historians (iv)  experts in writing documents with stylised handwriting 5. James Mill (v) detailed records of the number of people in all the provinces of India after every ten years Ans. 1. (iv),  2. (i),  3. (v),  4. (iii),  5. (ii) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. _____________________ and natural history museums established by the British collected plant specimens and information about their uses. 2. The last Viceroy of British India was __________________. 3. James Mill divides Indian history into ___________ periods. 4. __________________ prepared the first map of India in 1782. 5. By the early nineteenth century detailed ___________ were being carried out to map the entire country. Ans. 1. Botanical gardens 2. Lord Mountbatten 3. three 4. James Rennel 5. surveys III. State whether True or False: 1. James Mill was a Malaysian historian who divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim, and British. 2. Lawrence was a prominent Viceroy of India. 3. The British did not believe in the act of writing. 4. According to the newspaper report of a police strike in 1946, more than 2000 policemen in Delhi refused to take their food as a protest against their low salary and bad quality of food. 5. The British came to India to learn about its ancient culture. Ans. 1. False, 2. True, 3. False, 4. True, 5. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. In which year did more than 2000 policemen in Delhi refuse to take their food as a protest against their low salary and bad quality of food? (a) 2000 (b) 1946 (c) 1958

6

Social Science—VIII (History)

2. The British considered writing surveys were important for (a) Effective administration (b) writing history (c) none of these 3. Which is not the source of describing history? (a) Diaries of people (b) Conversation between two people (c) Autobiographies of important personalities 4. Moving away from British classification, historians have usually divided Indian history into (a) Hindu, Muslim and Christian (b) Ancient, medieval and modern (c) None of these 5. The process of subjugation of one country by another which leads to political, economic, social and cultural changes is known as (a) Colonisation (b) Enlightenment (c) Civilisation 1. (b)

2. (a)

ANSWERS 3. (b) 4. (b)

5. (a)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. How important are dates? Ans. History is synonymous with dates. Dates tell about the events, kings and their policies and battles. 2. Who wrote “A History of British India” ? Ans. James Mill. 3. Who was the first Governor-in-General of British India? Ans. Warren Hastings. 4. According to the British, what did their rule represent? Ans. Forces of civilisation and progress. 5. Census operations were held once in how many years? Ans. Ten years. 6. What is history? Ans. History is a record of people, places and changes that occur over time. 7. Who was James Mill? Ans. James Mill was Scottish economist and political philosopher. 8. What is colonization? Ans. It is a process in which one country subjugates another and thus brings political, economic, social, and cultural changes.

How, When and Where

7

9. Write the name of the book which was published by James Mill. Ans. He published a massive three-volume work named A History of British India. 10. How did paintings project Governor-Generals as powerful figure? Ans. While history books narrated the deeds of Governor-Generals, biographies glorified them as persons and paintings projected Governor-Generals as powerful figures. 11. What did official records not tell? Ans. Official records did not tell what other people in the country felt, and what lay behind the actions. 12. How did the historians divide Indian History? Ans. The historian divided Indian history into ancient, medieval and modern periods. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What do the historians write about nowadays? Ans. Whereas conventional history accounts the birth, death, marriage and wars fought by kings and leaders, modern historians nowadays write about a host of other pertinent issues like the livelihood of people, their eating habits, the way cities and markets developed, how kingdoms were formed and new ideas spread, and how cultures and society changed. 2. Why is it incorrect to attach precise dates for long-term processes? Ans. Events which occurred and evolved through a vast period of time cannot be attached to a certain date. For example, the people of India did not start drinking tea one fine day, they gradually developed a taste for it. We can only refer to a span of time, an approximate period over which particular changes became visible. 3. What do you mean by colonisation? Ans. When the subjugation of one country by another leads to multifarious changes in political, economic, social and cultural spheres, we refer to the entire process as colonisation. 4. What did the British do to carefully preserve important documents and letters? Ans. In order to preserve document and letters of vital importance, the British set up record rooms attached to all administrative institutions like the village Tahsildar’s office, the Collectorate, the Commissioner’s office, the Provincial secretariats and the law courts. Specialised institutions like archives and museums were also established to preserve important records. 5. What was the report sent to the Home Department about Vizagapatnam in 1946 when a mutiny broke out on the ships of the Royal Indian Navy? Ans. In 1946, the colonial government in India was trying to subjugate a mutiny that broke out on the ships of the Royal Indian Navy. According to the report to the Home Department, Vizagapatnam was completely under control and it was reported that no violence had occurred there. Military guards had been placed on ships and establishments.

8

Social Science—VIII (History)

C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Why are official records important for British Administration? Ans. The official records are important for British Administration. (i) The British believed that the act of writing was important. (ii) They got written up every instruction, plan, policy decision, agreement, investigation, etc. (iii) They produced an administrative culture of memos, notings and reports. (iv) The British were very interested in preserving all important documents and letters. (v) For that, they established institutions, like archives and museums besides that records rooms were also established. 2. Why is British period in India referred to as 'colonial'? Ans. Colonial refers to the British rule. (i) British came to conquer the country. They established their rule, and subjugated local Nawabs and Rajas. (ii) They established control over the economy and society, collected revenue to meet all their expenses. (iii) British brought the goods they wanted at low prices, product of crops they needed for export. (iv) They also brought about in values and tastes, customs and practices. (v) When the subjugation of one powerful country over a weaker country leads to political, economic, social and cultural changes, we refer to the process as colonisation. 3. How did surveys become important under the colonial administration? Ans. The British gave importance to the practice of surveying: (i) They believed that a country had to be properly known before it could be administered effectively. (ii) They carried out detailed surveys to map the entire country. (iii) In the village revenue surveys were conducted. (iv) They made efforts to know the topography, the soil quality, the flora, the fauna, the local histories and the cropping pattern. (v) They also introduced the census operations, held every ten years. (vi) They carried on several other surveys such as botanical surveys zoological surveys, archeological surveys, forest surveys, etc. Activity (Page 1) Look carefully at Fig. 1 and write a paragraph explaining how this image projects an imperial perception. Ans. See picture based Q. 1. Students attempt themselves. Activity (Page 3) Interview your mother or another member of your family to find out about their life. Now divide their life into different periods and list out the significant events in each period. Explain the basis of your periodisation.

How, When and Where

9

Ans. Self-attempt. Hints: Early childhood Educational period Married life Her/his activities/works during this period. Activity (Page 7) Look at Sources 1 and 2. Do you find any differences in the nature of reporting? Explain what you observe. Ans. Yes, there is a difference in the nature of reporting. In source 1, the tone of the report clearly reflects the voice of the colonial. The report is strictly biased and brings out the Indian subjects as mutineers and the British masters trying to control them. Source 2, on the other hand, speaks about the real cause of the police strike in 1946 poor salary and bad food served to the policemen. It reflects the unabashed truth behind the cause of the strike which in turn demeans the image of the British.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Who divided Indian history into three periods? When did this happen? 2. When did the police strike happen? 3. Who was the first Governor General of India? When did he become the Governor General? 4. The painting of James Rennel of the Brahmans offering the Shastras to Britannia was published in ___________. 5. The National archives of India came up in ______________.

2 Chapter

From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS East India Company comes East

The Battle of Plassey

The East India Company acquired a charter from Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 granting it the sole right to trade with the East.

The Battle of Plasssey was fought on 23 June 1757. It was the first major victory of the British in India. Sirajuddaulah became the Nawab of Bengal in 1756.

East India Company bought goods at a cheaper rate and sold them at higher prices in Europe.

In 1757, Robert Clive led the Company's army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey.

The cotton and silk produced in India had a big market in Europe.

Sirajuddaulah was defeated due to Mir Jafar’s treachery.

Trade was carried on with arms and trading posts were protected through fortification.

The Claim to Paramountcy Under Lord Hastings a new policy of “paramountcy” was initiated. In order to protect its interests, it was justified in annexing or threatening to annex any Indian kingdom.

10

From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power

11

The Battle of Buxar and Expansion of Company Rule After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar was made the new Nawab and Sirajuddaulah was assassinated. In 1764, the Battle of Buxar was fought between the British and Mir Qasim. In 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. From the early eighteenth century its trade with India had expanded. The Company forced the states into ‘subsidiary alliance’.

The Doctrine of Lapse

The Company Army

The final wave of annexations occurred under Lord Dalhousie who was the Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.

Colonial rule in India brought in some new ideas of administration and reform but its power rested on its military strength.

He devised the Doctrine of Lapse. The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become part of The Company territory.

th

In the early 19 Century, the British began to develop a uniform military culture.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• The British originally came to India with the objective of trade but gradually annexed major territories of our land to become the supreme masters. •• In 1600, the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East. •• However, this charter could not prevent other European powers from entering the Eastern markets and hence the British had to compete with other European powers like French, Portuguese and Dutch who had also come to India for trade. •• The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651. •• The Company started building settlements around the factory and bribed Mughal officials into giving the Company zamindari rights over three villages, one of them being Kalikata which later became Calcutta. •• The Company soon got into conflicts with the local Nawabs as the British were reluctant to pay taxes for their trade. Their practice to trade duty free resulted in enormous loss of revenue in Bengal. •• The conflicts led to confrontations and finally culminated to the famous Battle of Plassey in 1757 with the defeat of Nawab Sirajuddaulah.

12

Social Science—VIII (History)

•• In 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal which was a major turning point for the British. It allowed the Company to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal. This revenue was now used by the Company to purchase cotton and silk in India while meeting the cost of further fortifications. •• The Company started to expand its power by annexing more land. After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in Indian states. •• After the introduction of “subsidiary alliance”, many territories were ceded by the British. •• Down south in Mysore, Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company in 1785 which infuriated the British and resulted in four battles. In the last battle, the Company defeated Tipu and forcibly imposed a subsidiary alliance on the state. •• In a similar way, from the late eighteenth century the Company also sought to curb and eventually destroy Maratha power. •• Under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823), a new policy of “paramountcy” was initiated which held the British as supreme and allpowerful. •• In the late 1830s, the East India Company worried that Russia might invade India from the north-west and hence they started annexing land in the northwestern parts of India. Afghanistan, Sind and ultimately Punjab was captured on this pretext. •• The final wave of annexations occurred under Lord Dalhousie when he introduced the Doctrine of Lapse. •• In 1856, Awadh was taken over on the pretext of ‘misgovernment’. •• New administrative reforms were undertaken and British territories were broadly divided into administrative units called Presidencies. •• From 1772 a new system of justice was established where each district was to have two courts – a criminal court and a civil court. •• The Collector became an important figure and the administration of each district was at his disposal. •• Major reforms were brought about in the army of the Company where cavalry was replaced with infantry regiments. •• Indian soldiers were subject to European training and discipline which created several caste and community tensions culminating the revolt of 1857. •• By 1857, the Company came to exercise direct rule over about 63 per cent of the territory and 78 per cent of the population of the Indian subcontinent.

III. KEYWORDS •• Charter (noun): a document issued by the government that gives rights to a person or group. Origin: Middle English charter. •• Venture: (verb): to start something new. Origin: Middle English venteren.

From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power

13

•• Fortification (noun): to build or strengthen a structure. Origin: Late Latin fortificare. •• Culminated (verb): to result in something. Origin: Medieval Latin culminates. •• Negotiation (noun) trying to reach an agreement. Origin: Latin negotiari. •• Confederacy: Alliance •• Mufti: A jurist of the Muslim community responsible for expounding the law that the Qazi would administer. •• Misgovernments: It means malfunctioning of government or administration. •• Paramountcy: Supreme power. •• Misgovernments: A heavy gun used by infanty soldiers. •• Matchlock: An early type of gun in which the powder was ignited by a match.

IV. DATE LINE •• 1600 : The East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East. •• 1498 : Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope. •• 1651 : The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli. •• 1757 : Battle of Plassey •• 1765 : Mir Jafar Died. The Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. •• 1764 : Robert Clive was appointed the Governor of Bengal. •• 1764 : Battle of Buxar •• 1785 : Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company. •• 1761 : Third Battle of Panipat •• 1849 : Punjab was annexed. •• 1856 : Company took over Awadh. •• 1857 : The Revolt of 1857 began. •• 1772 : A new system of justice was established.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 24–25) Lets’s Imagine You are living in England in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century. How would you have reacted to the stories of British conquests? Remember that you would have read about the immense fortunes that many of the officials were making. Ans. I would not have been very happy to hear the stories about the British making conquests in foreign land. About the fortunes that many officials were making, I would have been displeased about the shrewd policies, the ways and means through which they were making a lot of money.

14

Social Science—VIII (History)

Let’s Recall 1. Match the following: Diwani Tipu Sultan ‘Tiger of Mysore’ right to collect land revenue faujdari adalat Sepoy Rani Channamma Criminal court sipahi led an anti-British movement in Kitoor Ans. Diwani right to collect land revenue ‘Tiger of Mysore’ Tipu Sultan faujdari adalat criminal court Rani Channamma rani Channamma sipahi sepoy 2. Fill in the blanks: (a) The British conquest of Bengal began with the Battle of ___________. (b) Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan were the rulers of ___________. (c) Dalhousie implemented the Doctrine of ___________. (d) Maratha kingdoms were located mainly in the ___________ part of India. Ans. (a) Plassey,  (b) Mysore,  (c) Lapse,  (d) Western 3. State whether True or False: (a) The Mughal Empire became stronger in the eighteenth century. (b) The English East India Company was the only European company that traded with India. (c) Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the ruler of Punjab. (d) The British did not introduce administrative changes in the territories they conquered. Ans. (a) False,  (b) False,  (c) True, (d) True Let’s Discuss 4. What attracted European trading companies to India? Ans. European trading companies came to trade in India because of the fine quality of silk and cotton produced here which had a great demand in Europe. Also, spices like pepper, cardamom, cloves and cinnamon had a big market in Europe. 5. What were the areas of conflict between the Bengal Nawabs and the East India Company? Ans. Areas of conflict between the Nawabs and the East India Company are as follows: •• The Company’s continuous requests to grant concessions irritated the Nawabs of Bengal. •• The Company’s officials carried on trade duty-free and their practice to evade paying taxes caused an enormous amount of loss of revenue for Bengal. •• Furthermore, Sirajuddaulah, the Nawab of Bengal, was a strong ruler who denied the Company any right to mint coins, and stopped it from extending its fortifications.

From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power

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•• He complained of the Company undermining his authority and the latter writing disrespectful letters and trying to humiliate the Nawab and his officials. •• The Company’s desire of buying more land, enlargements of settlements and fortifications led to further conflicts. 6. How did the assumption of Diwani benefit the East India Company? Ans. 1765, Mir Jafar appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. •• The Diwani allowed the Company to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal which solved a major problem of the Company buying goods in India with gold and silver imported from Britain. •• This was because at that time Britain had no goods to sell in India. •• The outflow of gold from Britain had slowed after the Battle of Plassey, and entirely stopped after the assumption of Diwani. But after the assumption of Diwani, revenues from India could finance Company expenses. •• These revenues were used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India, maintain Company troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort and offices at Calcutta. 7. Explain the system of ‘subsidiary alliance’. Ans. ‘Subsidiary alliance’ was a system where Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They were to be protected by the Company but had to pay for the ‘subsidiary forces’ that the Company was supposed to maintain for the purpose of its protection. However, if the Indian rulers failed to make the payment, part of their territory was taken away as penalty. 8. In what way was the administration of the Company different from that of the Indian rulers? Ans. Company’s administration

Indian rulers’ administration

1. British territories were broadly Each Indian territory was divided divided into three Presidencies into four parts—District, Pargana, which were: Bengal, Madras Tehsil and Villages. and Bombay. 2. Each presidency was ruled Each part of the territory was by the Governor and the controlled by the supreme head of Governor-General was the the land—the Zamindar. supreme head. 3. Presidencies were divided into The Zamindar was the districts and each district was administrator of the land. under the administration of the collector.

sole

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9. Describe the changes that occurred in the composition of the Company’s army. Ans. Many reforms occurred in the composition of the Company’s army. They are as follows: •• The East India Company brought in some major military changes when they started to recruit local people for its own army. This was known as the Sepoy Army. •• As warfare technology changed from the 1820s, the cavalry requirements of the Company’s army declined and was replaced with infantry regiments. •• In the early nineteenth century, the British began to develop a uniform military culture. Soldiers were subjected to European style training methods. Let’s Do 10. After the British conquest of Bengal, Calcutta grew from a small village to a big city. Find out about the culture, architecture and the life of Europeans and Indians of the city during the colonial period. Ans. Hint: Take the help of books and magazines available in your school library. Also, you can ask your grandparents about the culture, architecture and lifestyle of the people of Calcutta at that time. Culture: western influence came about in the garments of both men and women. Songs were influenced by western melodies. Architecture: many important buildings and monuments sprang up in the heart of the city—Howrah Bridge, Victoria Memorial, Princep Ghat, metro rail and so on. Life: Many Europeans started living in Calcutta. They arranged for evening parties where Indian officials were also invited. The daily lives of Indians also started to get tainted by western influence. English became a popular language and Bengali ladies and gentlemen started to learn the language and spoke very fluently. 11. Collect pictures, stories, poems and information about any of the following – the Rani of Jhansi, Mahadji Sindhia, Haidar Ali, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Lord Dalhousie or any other contemporary ruler of your region. Ans. Rani of Jhansi: Rani Laskmibai was born on 19 Novenmber 1828 in Varanasi. She was born to a Marathi family. Her father, Moropat Tambe, worked for a court of Peshwa of Bithoor district. Lakshmibai was home-educated and an independent and courageous girl. Her studies included archery, horsemanship and self-defence. Rani Lakshmibai died bravely, fighting against the British to save her state of Jhansi.

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VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION ANSWERS I. Match the following: 1. Seringapatam (i) Puppet ruler 2. Lord Dalhousie (ii) Aurangzeb 3. Rani Channamma (iii) Tipu Sultan 4. Farman (iv) Kitoor 5. Mir Jafar (v) Doctrine of Lapse Ans. 1. (v),  2. (iii),  3. (iv),  4. (ii),  5. (i) II. Guess Who 1. In 1600, the East India Company acquired a charter from this important personality. 2. He discovered the sea route to India in 1498. 3. When the Company refused to pay duty for their trade, this infuriated the then Nawab of Bengal. 4. He marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar, captured the Company officials. 5. In 1757, he led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey. 6. The Governor General at the time when the Nawab of Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801. 7. He stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company. 8. The two famous Maratha soldiers and statesmen of the late eighteenth century. Ans. 1. Queen Elizabeth I,  2. Vasco da Gama,  3. Murshid Quli Khan,  4. Nawab Sirajuddaulah,  5. Robert Clive,  6. Richard Wellesly,  7. Tipu Sultan, 8. Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis III. State whether True or False: 1. The British originally came as traders. 2. Mercantile trading companies in those days made profit primarily by excluding competition. 3. The Company exported milk and honey from India. 4. The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Yamuna in 1651. 5. Murshid Quli Khan was a puppet ruler in the hands of the British. 6. On hearing the news of the fall of Calcutta, Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive. 7. After the Battle of Plassey, the Company appointed Residents in Indian states. 8. “Subsidiary alliance” was introduced for the profit of Indians. 9. Nawab of Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801. 10. From the late eighteenth century the Company also sought to curb and eventually destroy Maratha power. Ans. 1. True,  2. True,  3. False,  4. False,  5. False,  6. True,  7. False, 8. False,  9. True,  10. True

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IV. Fill in the Blanks: 1. _________________ was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. 2. In ___________ , the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I. 3. It was_____________ , a Portuguese explorer, who had discovered this sea route to India in 1498. 4. The East India Company persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a ____________ granting the Company the right to trade duty free. 5. After the Battle of Plassey, ___________________ was made the Nawab. 6. In 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the ___________ of the provinces of Bengal. 7. After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed _______________ in Indian states. 8. Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were the rulers of ___________. 9. Dalhousie implemented the _________________________. 10. Under Lord Hastings, a new policy of _______________ was initiated. Ans. 1. Aurangzeb,  2. 1600,  3. Vasco da Gama,  4. Farman,  5. Mir Jafar 6. Diwan,  7. Residents,  8. Mysore,  9. Doctrine of Lapse,  10. ‘paramountcy’

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Who acquired an enormous amount of wealth after the Battle of Plassey? (a) Warren Hastings (b) Lord Dalhousie (c) Robert Clive 2. Rani Channamma was the queen of: (a) Kitoor (b) Jhansi (c) Pune 3. Which of the following was not a presidency? (a) Bombay (b) Delhi (c) Madras 4. In the late 1830s, the East India Company became worried about: (a) France (b) Russia (c) Japan 5. After his death in 1839, two prolonged wars were fought with the Sikh kingdom: (a) Maharaja Ranjit Singh (b) Nawab Sirajuddaulah (c) Nana Phadnavis 6. Haidar Ali was the ruler of (a) Madras (b) Rajasthan (c) Mysore

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7. These regions were annexed by applying the policy of Doctrine of Lapse: (a) Satara, Sambalpur, Udaipur, Nagpur and Jhansi (b) Panipat, Plassey and Sind (c) Mysore, Hyderabad and Delhi. 8. The Company took over this region in order to free the people from the “misgovernment” of the Nawab: (a) Sind (b) Awadh (c) Cuttack 9. The Third Battle of Panipat was fought in the year: (a) 1761 (b) 1757 (c) 1880 (d) 1743 10. From which year was a new system of justice established? (a) 1850 (b) 1772 (c) 1670 Ans. 1. (c),  2. (a), 3. (b),  4. (b),  5. (a),  6. (c),  7. (a),  8. (b),  9. (a),  10. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Who devised the Doctrine of Lapse? Ans. Lord Dalhousie 2. Royal edict was also called? Ans. Farman 3. In which battle did the British defeat Tipu Sultan? Ans. Battle of Seringapatam 4. Who succeeded Alivardi Khan as the Nawab of Bengal in 1756? Ans. Sirajuddaulah 5. Who was the last Mughal ruler according to the British? Ans. Bahadur Shah Zafar 6. What is Mercantile? Ans. A business enterprise that makes profit by buying goods at cheap prices and selling it for higher prices. 7. Mention the kingdoms annexed using doctrine of lapse? Ans. Sambalpur, Nagpur, Satara, Jhansi, Udaipur etc. 8. To expand the rule, what strategy did the Company use? Ans. They tried to influence the king and his people. They did not directly attack them. 9. How did Robert Clive die? Ans. He committed suicide in 1774. 10. Why did the Battle of Plassey become famous? Ans. It was the first major victory the Company made in India.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What did the competition among the companies result in? Ans. The competition amongst the European companies resulted in the (a) rise of prices at which these goods could be purchased. (b) They reduced the profits of the companies. 2. What was the way for the Company to flourish? Ans. (i) The only way for trading companies could flourish was elimination of rival competitors. (ii) This led to force battles between the trading companies. (iii) Trade was done on with arms. (iv) Trading pasts were protected through fortification. 3. Who was Mir Jafar? What were the relations with the British? Ans. Mir Jafar was Sirajuddulah’s commander, who sided with the British in battle of Plassey and did not fight: •• He was made the nawab of Bengal and acted as a puppet for British. •• Later the relations sourced and Mir Qasim was installed as Nawab. •• He in turn was defeated in Battle of Buxar and Mir Jafar was reinstated. He remained a puppet in their hands till the death in 1765. 4. What was the highlight of Edmond Burke’s speech? Ans. The highlight was that Edmond Burke said, “I impeach (Warren Hastings) him in the name of people of India”. He further added that Warren Hasting turned India into a desert and trodden the rights of Indians, he should be impeached in the name of Humanity. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Who were ‘nabobs’? Ans. ‘Nabobs’ is an anglicised version of the Indian word ‘nawab’. ‘Nabobs’ were Company servants who had gained a considerable amount of money in India and led kingly lives. Those who managed to return to England with wealth led flashy lives and flaunted their riches. They were often seen as upstarts and social climbers in British society and were ridiculed or made fun of in plays and cartoons. 2. Why did the British fight with Tipu Sultan? Ans. The British fought with Tipu Sultan because: •• Tipu Sultan was a strong, aggressive and ambitious ruler of Mysore. •• He was seen as a threat to the growing power of the British. •• When he stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company, this infuriated the British and they engaged in war with him. 3. What was the Doctrine of Lapse? What were its results? Ans. The Doctrine of Lapse declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become part of Company territory.

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The results of the doctrine are as follows: •• Many kingdoms were annexed by the British in this pretext. •• Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854) were ceded to the Company. •• In 1856, the Company also took over Awadh. Activity (Page 15) Imagine that you are a young company official who has been in India for a few months. Write a letter home to your mother telling her about your luxurious life and contrasting it with your earlier life in Britain. Ans. Self-attempt. Activity (Page 18) Imagine that you have come across two old newspapers reporting on the Battle of Seringapatnam and the death of Tipu Sultan. One is the British paper and other is from Mysore. Write the headline for each of the two newspaper. Ans. British newspaper’s headline: “Company crushes Tipu’s arm”. Mysore newspaper’s headline: “Mysore Tiger sacrificed his life for Mysore”. Activity (Page 19) Imagine that you are nawab’s nephew and have been brought up thinking that you will one day be king. Now you find that this will not be allowed by the British because of the new Doctrine of Lapsex. What will be your feelings? What will you plan to do so that you can inherit the crown? Ans. I would be immensely angry for not being able to inherit the crown, more so because of some random policy made by foreigners. I would directly charge Lord Dalhousie and confront him about the unethical purpose of such a treacherous policy.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Who was the “Tiger of Mysore”? 2. How did the British see Haidar and Tipu as? 3. Who incorporated the “Doctrine of Lapse”? 4. What does Diwani mean? 5. What happened in the late 1830s?

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Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Revenue for the Company

Permanent Settlement

Although the Company had become Diwan, it still saw itself as traders.

The Company finally introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793.

Before 1865, the Company purchased goods in India by importing gold and silver from Britain.

By the terms of the settlement, the rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars.

Now the revenue collected in Bengal could finance the purchase of goods for export.

They were asked to collect rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the Company.

Economy in Bengal collapsed. In 1770, a terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal.

The amount to be paid was fixed permanently.

The Problems

The Munro System

Company officials soon discovered that the zamindars were in fact not investing in the improvement of land.

In the British territories in the south there was a similar move away from the idea of Permanent Settlement.

The revenue that had been fixed was so high that the zamindars found it difficult to pay.

The new system that was devised came to be known as the ryotwar (or ryotwari). Subsequently, developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended to all over south India.

Anyone who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari. Numerous zamindaris were sold off at auctions organised by the Company.

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Why the Demand for Indian Indigo?

The ‘Blue Rebellion’ and After

By the thirteenth century, Indian indigo was being used by cloth manufacturers in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth.

In March 1859, thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo.

However, only small amounts of Indian indigo reached the European market and its price was very high. Cloth dyers, however, preferred indigo as a dye. Indigo produced a rich blue colour. By the end of the eighteenth century, the demand for Indian indigo grew further. Britain began to industrialise, and its cotton production expanded dramatically, creating an enormous new demand for cloth dyes.

In 1859, the indigo ryots felt that they had the support of the local zamindars and village headmen in their rebellion against the planters. After the Revolt of 1857, the British government was particularly worried about the possibility of another popular rebellion. The government set up the indigo commission to enquire into the system of indigo production. It declared that indigo cultivation was not profitable for ryots.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• The East India Company was appointed as the Diwan of Bengal on 12 August, 1765. •• As Diwan, the Company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control. Now, the company could use the revenue in increasing trade and meeting its expenses. •• With the urge to increase revenue, the Permanent Settlement was introduced in 1793. •• By the terms of the settlement, the rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars and were asked to collect rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the Company. •• However, Permanent Settlement had its own problems and therefore, a new system was devised by Holt Mackenzie which came to be known as the Mahalwari System. •• Similarly, Thomas Munro formulated another system which was practised in the southern part of India. It was called the Munro System. •• The British also realised that the countryside could not only yield revenue, but it could also grow the crops that Europe required. Thus, in the late eighteenth century cultivation of opium and indigo was expanded. •• As the demand of indigo grew, Britain lost her existing supplies from West Indies and America. Now, the Company turned to India to produce indigo.

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•• From the last decades of the eighteenth century indigo cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly and Bengal indigo came to dominate the world market. •• There were two main systems of indigo cultivation – nij and ryoti. •• Both the systems had their own share of problems. While nij system required a huge investment on land and labour, under the ryoti system, the ryots fell under the vicious cycle of a contract and loan. •• In March 1859 thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo and the ‘Blue Rebellion’ started. •• The government set up the Indigo Commission to enquire into the system of indigo production which held the planters guilty and criticised them for the coercive methods they used with indigo cultivators. •• After the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal.

III. KEYWORDS •• Artisans (noun): Someone who is skilled at making things by hand. Origin: Middle French, from northern Italian dialect form of Tuscan artigiano. •• Optimistic (noun): A positive feeling that something good will happen in the future. Origin: French optimisme. •• Enterprising (adj.): Showing or having the ability to do new and difficult things in the future. Origin: unknown. •• Ryoti: Cultivator •• Indigo: A plant that produces rich blue colour. •• Bigha: A unit of measurement of land •• Satta: A contract or an agreement •• Vat: A fermenting or storage vessel •• Woad (noun): A yellow-flowered European plant of the cabbage family. It was formerly grown as a source of blue dye, which was extracted from the leaves after they had been dried, powdered, and fermented.

IV. DATE LINE •• 12 August 1765 : The Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal. •• 1770 : A terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal. •• 1793 : The Company introduced the Permanent Settlement. •• 1822 : Holt Mackenzie devised the Mahalwari system. •• March 1859 : Thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo. •• 1917 : Mahatma Gandhi visited Champaran.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 37–38) Let’s Imagine Imagine a conversation between a planter and a peasant who is being forced to grow indigo. What reasons would the planter give to persuade the peasant? What problems would the peasant point out? Enact their conversation.

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Ans. Planter: What is the problem of growing indigo on your land? Peasant: The cost of labour is too high and the process too slow. Planter: You don’t have to think of cost and revenue. That is the job of the Company. Peasant: I will not grow indigo. Planter: How dare you defy me? Your land will be taken away if you don’t grow indigo. Peasant: I will sell this land and find some other job to feed my family! Let’s Recall 1. Match the following: ryot village mahal peasant nij cultivation on ryot’s lands ryoti cultivation on planter’s own land Ans. Ryot peasant Mahal village Nij cultivation on planter’s own land Ryoti cultivation on ryot’s lands 2. Fill in the blanks: (a) Growers of woad in Europe saw ____________ as a crop which would provide competition to their earnings. (b) The demand for indigo increased in late eighteenth-century Britain because of __________. (c) The international demand for indigo was affected by the discovery of __________. (d) The Champaran movement was against __________. Ans. (a) indigo,  (b) industrialisation,  (c) synthetic dyes,  (d) indigo planters Let’s Discuss 3. Describe the main features of the Permanent Settlement. Ans. Most of the Company’s officials believed that in order to get an increased amount of revenue, investment in land and agriculture had to be encouraged. This led to the introduction of the Permanent Settlement in 1793. The features of the Permanent Settlement are as follows: •• Rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars under the terms of the settlement. •• These zamindars would not only act as agents and collect rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the Company, but also become the owners of the entire zamindari. •• The amount of revenue to be paid to the Company was fixed and it would never increase. •• It was felt that this would ensure a regular flow of revenue into the Company’s coffers and at the same time encourage the zamindars to invest in improving the land.

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•• Anyone who would fail to pay the revenue lost their zamindari to the Company. 4. How was the Mahalwari System different from the Permanent Settlement? Ans. Mahalwari system

Permanent settlement

1. The Mahalwari system was introduced by Holt Mackenzie and came into effect from 1822 in the north western provinces of the presidency.

The Company introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793 at a time when Lord Cornwallis was the Governor-General of India.

2. This system was devised as an This administrative setup was alternative to the Permanent introduced to maintain a steady Settlement. flow of revenue for the East India Company. 3. The village headman was The rajas and taluqdars were in given the duty of collecting the charge of collecting revenue. revenue. 4. In this system, the amount of Here, the revenue was fixed and was revenue was not fixed and was never to be increased in future. revised periodically. 5. Give two problems which arose with the new Munro system of fixing revenue. Ans. Two problems which arose from the Munro system of fixing revenue were. •• The revenue officials driven with the desire to increase the income from land fixed too high a rate of revenue. •• As a result, peasants were unable to pay, ryots fled the countryside and villages became deserted in many regions. 6. Why were the ryots reluctant to grow indigo? Ans. In the Ryotari System: •• In the ryot system, planters forced the ryots to sign a contract. •• Although cash advances were made to the ryot at low interest rates, the contract compelled the ryot to cultivate at least 25 per cent of holding with indigo. •• The ryot was permanently under debt as they were never in a position to recover their cost.When the crop was delivered to the planter after the harvest, a new loan was given to the ryot, and the cycle started all over again. •• While planters forced the ryots to grow indigo on the most fertile of lands, the cultivators wanted to use the same for growing rice. •• After indigo plantation, the soil would get exhausted and unfertile and thus, become unsuitable for growing rice. 7. What were the circumstances which led to the eventual collapse of indigo production in Bengal?

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Ans. The circumstances which led to the eventual collapse of indigo production in Bengal are as follows: •• The ‘Blue Rebellion’ started in March 1859 when thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo. •• Ryots refused to pay rents to the planters, and attacked indigo factories aided with the help of the local zamindars and village headmen. •• In many villages, headmen who had been forced to sign indigo contracts, mobilised the indigo peasants and fought pitched battles with the lathiyals. •• After the Revolt of 1857, the government was reluctant to entertain another possible revolt and thus, toured the region where the tension erupted. •• However, the tour coupled with magistrate Ashley Eden’s notice of the ryots no longer under compulsion to grow indigo was seen as sympathy. •• As the rebellion erupted, intellectuals from Calcutta rushed to the indigo districts, writing about the horrors of indigo plantations. •• Worried by the rebellion, the government brought in the military to protect the planters from assault, and set up the Indigo Commission to enquire into the system of indigo production. •• The Commission held the planters guilty and declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots. •• It declared that ryots should fulfil present contracts but could refuse the ones in future. •• All the above mentioned circumstances led to the fall of indigo production in Bengal. Let’s Do 8. Find out more about the Champaran movement and Mahatma Gandhi’s role in it. Hints: Find information about the Champaran Movement in libraries. Discuss the points on the oppressive attitude of the British, the rebellion of the ryots and Gandhi’s role in the rebellion. 9. Look into the history of either tea or coffee plantations in India. See how the life of workers in these plantations was similar to or different from those of indigo plantations. Hints: Find out about the wages, living conditions and facilities provided to these workers.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION ANSWERS I. Match the following: 1. Indigo (i) Chief finance administer 2. Vat (ii) Cultivation of planter’s own land 3. Nij (iii) Fixing revenue 4. New Munro System (iv) A plant producing blue colour 5. Diwan (v) Storage vessel Ans. 1. (iv),  2. (v),  3. (ii),  4. (iii),  5. (i)

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II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. From the last decades of the eighteenth century _______________ cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly and it came to dominate the world market. 2. There were two main systems of indigo cultivation – __________ and __________. 3. Subsequently developed by Thomas Munro, the ______________ system was gradually extended to all over south India. 4. In British revenue records _________ is a revenue estate which may be a village or a group of villages. 5. Under the ryoti system, the ___________ provided the seed and the drill, while the cultivators prepared the soil, sowed the seed and looked after the crop. Ans. 1. indigo,  2. nij, ryoti,  3. Munro,  4. mahal,  5. planter III. State whether True or False: 1. Birsa was born in a family of Santhal. 2. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him to rule his people. 3. The British described the tribal people as diku. 4. Birsa was arrested in 1895. 5. Birsa died in 1900. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. False,  4. True,  5. True

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The economy here was facing a deep crisis: (a) Bengal (b) Madras (c) Bombay 2. Permanent Settlement was introduced in the year: (a) 1880 (b) 1793 (c) 1757 3. The Company was appointed as the Diwan in Bengal in (a) 1793 (b) 1765 (c) 1756 4. This person formulated the new system of the mahalwari: (a) Queen Elizabeth (b) Charles Cornwallis (c) Holt Mackenzie 5. By the thirteenth century, Indian indigo was being used by cloth manufacturers in these countries to dye cloth. (a) Italy, France and Britain (b) Russia, Venezuela and Sri Lanka (c) China and Japan 6. Where was the indigo taken directly after harvesting? (a) Dye (b) Vat (c) None of these 7. Where did Gandhiji visit to witness the plight of the indigo planters? (a) Cuttack (b) Mahabaleshwar (c) Champaran 8. The demand for indigo was affected by the discovery of: (a) woad (b) lavender (c) synthetic dyes

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VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. When was rhe Permanent Settlement introduced by the Company? Ans. 1793 2. Who devised the system of Mahalwari Settlement? Ans. Holt Mackenzie 3. Name the plant that was used in Europe for violet and blue dyes? Ans. Woad 4. Name the Governor-General of India when the Permanent Settlement was introduced. Ans. Charles Cornwalls. 5. Who was William Morris? Ans. William Morris was a famous poet and artist of 19th century Britain. 6. What had William Morris designed? Ans. He designed a floral cotton print known as Morris cotton print. 7. What is indigo? Ans. It is a plant that produces rich blue colour used as a dye. 8. Where did English cultivate indigo? Ans. The English cultivated indigo in Jamaica. 9. Who were the gomasthas? Ans. They were the agents of planters. 10. Who were the lathiyals? Ans. The were the lathi-wielding strong men maintained by the planters. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Why the Company had to be cautious even after becoming the Diwan of Bengal? Ans. The company realised that they had to be cautious to pacify those who ruled the countryside. These rulers had enjoyed the authority and power; so they should be controlled, not eliminated. 2. What happened to the weakly bazaar during the economic crisis of Bengal? Ans. (i) A weekly market in Murshidabad in Bengal was very flourishing. (ii) Peasants and artisans from rural areas regularly came to these weekly markets to sell their goods. (iii) These markets were badly affected during the times of economic crisis. 3. How was the blue colour produced? Ans. The blue colour used in picture was produced from a plant called indigo. India was the biggest producer and supplier of Indigo in the world at that time. 4. How did the indigo planters revolt against the British? Ans. Many indigo cultivators refused to cultivate indigo for the British. •• Ryots refused to pay rent and attacked indigo factories.

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•• Those who worked for planters were socially boycotted. •• Gomasthas were beaten up. •• The zamindars supported the ryots as they were unhappy with the planters. 5. Why was the Indigo Commission set up? Ans. The Indigo Commission was set up by the government to protect the planters from the Blue Rebellion. It enquired into the system of indigo production. It recognised that indigo production was not profitable for the cultivators. It finally held the planters guilty. C. Long Answer Type Question 1. What were the results after the Company became Diwan? Ans. On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal. After assuming the Diwani rights, the Company now had the power to administrate the land as well as finance the company’s expenses by organising her revenue. Now, it could yield enough revenue to meet the ever-growing expenses of the Company. As it was primarily a trading company, it could now buy and sell products freely. 2. What were the problems in the Permanent Settlement? Ans. The Permanent Settlement had its own problems: •• Since many zamindars had lost their land in the previous settlement, they were not keen on improving the land. •• The revenue which was fixed by the Company was too high. •• Since the rate of revenue was high, the zamindars could not pay it. •• Anyone who could not pay the revenue lost his zamindari rights. •• Gradually, after the first decade of the nineteenth century, there was an increase in the income of zamindari but there was no gain for the Company. •• In the villages cultivator found the system extremely oppressive. The rent he paid to the zamindar was high and his right on the land was insecure. •• To pay the rent, the cultivator often took loans from the moneylender and when he failed to pay the rent, he was evicted from the land he had cultivated for generations. 3. Why was Indian indigo in demand? Ans. There was a demand for Indian Indigo because: •• Since indigo was a tropical plant, it could be produced in India on a large scale. •• Cloth dyers preferred indigo as a dye as it yields a rich blue colour. •• By the end of the eighteenth century, the demand for Indian indigo grew further. Since Britain began industrialisation, and its cotton production expanded dramatically, it created a huge market for cloth dyes. •• Indigo cultivation in West Indies and America collapsed for a variety of reasons. Between 1783 and 1789 the production of indigo in the world fell by half. •• Since demand was high and supply was meagre, there was an enormous market for Indigo and Britain started cultivating indigo in India.

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•• From the last decades of the eighteenth century, indigo cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly and Bengal indigo came to dominate the world market. 4. What was the nij system of indigo cultivation? Ans. Within the system of nij cultivation, the planter could produce indigo in lands that he directly controlled. He either bought the land or rented it from other zamindars and produced indigo by directly employing hired labourers. Activity (Page 28) Why do you think Colebrook is concerned with the conditions of the underryots in Bengal? Read the preceding pages and suggest possible reasons. Ans. •  Low prices paid to village artisans and farmers by the company. •  Famine in 1773. •  1/3 population perished due to hunger. •  Agricultural production deduced. •  Diwani rights to Company. •  Demand for revenues. •  Decreasing purchasing power of people. Activity (Page 30) Imagine that your are a company representative sending a report back to England about the conditions in rural areas under Company rule. What would you write? Ans. The condition in rural areas are very bad. Most of the people are poor. They live in human conditions. They are starving. Villages here become deserted. They don’t have source to pay Company. Activity (Page 36) Imagine you are a witness giving evidence before the Indigo Commission. W.S. Seton Karr asks you “On what conditions will ryots grow indigo?” What will your answers be? Ans. My answers will be: The ryots will grow indigo according to their own will and pay revenues at a reasonable rate. They will be free to take their own decisions and sell their produce in the local market.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. What were the two systems of indigo cultivation? 2. The Mahalwari system was devised by an Englishmen called ______________. 3. Why did cloth dyers prefer indigo as dye instead of woad? 4. Why did ryots leave from the countryside? 5. After the _________________, the British government was particularly worried about the possibility of another popular rebellion.

4 Chapter

Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age I.  BASIC CONCEPTS

How did Tribal People live? By the nineteenth century, tribal people in different parts of India were involved in a variety of activities. Some of them practised jhum cultivation, that is, shifting cultivation. In many regions tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce. The Khonds were such a community living in the forests of Odisha. Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. Even before the nineteenth century, many from within the tribal groups had begun settling down, and cultivating their fields in one place year after year, instead of moving from place to place.

How did Colonial Rule affect Tribal Lives?

Birsa Munda Birsa Munda started to organise a movement to revive the glorious past.

After the British came to India, tribal chiefs lost their authority. They were forced to follow the laws of the British.

British officials were worried with the political aim of the Birsa movement, for it wanted to drive out missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords, and the government and set up a Munda Raj.

The British wanted shifting tribal groups to settle down. The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful.

In 1895, Birsa Munda was arrested.

The British extended their control over all forests and declared that forests were state property.

He was released in 1897, but died of cholera in 1900.

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The Problem with Trade In the eighteenth century, Indian silk was in demand in European markets. Santhals reared cocoons in Hazaribagh. The traders dealing in silk sent in their agents who gave loans to the tribal people and collected the cocoons. The silk growers earned very little. Tribals had to move far away from their homes in search of work.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Tribes have their own customs and rituals different from those laid down by the Brahmans. Different tribes reside in different parts of India. •• Some tribes practised jhum cultivation or shifting cultivation. This was jhum done on small patches of land and mostly in forests. •• Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested tracts of north-east and central India. The lives of these tribal people depended on free movement within forests and on being able to use the land and forests for growing their crops. •• In many regions, tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce. The Khonds were such a community living in the forests of Odisha. •• Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals.The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats. •• Even before the nineteenth century, many from within the tribal groups had begun settling down, and cultivating their fields in one place year after year, instead of moving from place to place. •• British officials saw settled tribal groups like the Gonds and Santhals as more civilised than hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators. •• The British wanted groups to settle down and become peasant cultivators and also wanted a regular revenue source from the state. This led to the formulation of a new land settlement. •• The British extended their authority over the forest areas as well and restricted the free movement of tribes in the ‘Reserved Forests’. They were not allowed to practise jhum cultivation, collect fruits, or hunt animals. •• Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws and this led to many uprisings like the revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam, and the forest satyagraha of the 1930s in the Central Provinces. •• Meanwhile, the demand for Indian silk grew in the European market in the eighteenth century. •• Poor silk growers were paid a meagre amount of three to four rupees for a thousand cocoons while middlemen made huge profits by selling them in Burdwan or Gaya five times the price.

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•• The tribals led a life of misery and started looking for other jobs and started venturing outside their homes. •• From the late nineteenth century, tea plantations started coming up and mining became an important industry. •• Tribals were recruited in large numbers to work the tea plantations of Assam and the coal mines of Jharkhand. •• Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, tribal groups in different parts of the country rebelled against the changes in laws, the restrictions on their practices, the new taxes they had to pay, and the exploitation by traders and moneylenders. •• Birsa Munda emerged as a leader and dreamt of a golden age where people would lead honest and simple lives in harmony with Mother Nature. •• Birsa was deeply influenced by a prominent Vaishnav preacher he came in touch with in his growing-up years. Birsa’s movement was aimed at reforming tribal society. •• Birsa wanted to drive out the dikus or outsiders – missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords, and the government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its head. The movement identified all these forces as the cause of the misery. •• As the movement spread, the British officials arrested Birsa in 1895, convicted him on charges of rioting and jailed him for two years. •• In 1900, Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out. However, the movement was significant in introducing new laws in favour of the tribals and also recognised the fact that tribes also had the capacity to protest against injustice.

III. KEYWORDS •• Kinship: (noun): The state of being related to the people in your family. Origin: unknown. •• Potash (noun): A form of potassium that is used to make the soil fertile. Origin: singular of pot ashes. •• Pastoralists (noun): A sheep or cattle farmer. Origin: unknown. •• Diku: Diku is the name given to a person who comes from outside. •• Baigas: Baigas are tribal people who live in central India. •• Cocoons (noun): A silky case spun by the larvae of the silk worm. Origin: French cocoon. •• Akhara (noun): An Indian word for a place where local boys practise wrestling Origin: unknown.

IV. DATE LINE •• •• •• •• ••

1855 1910 1940 1895 1900

: : : : :

Santhals rose in revolt The Bastar Rebellion in central India broke out. The Warli Revolt in Maharashtra broke out. Birsa urged his followers to recover their glorious past. Birsa died of Cholera.

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V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 37) Let’s Imagine Imagine you are a jhum cultivator living in a forest village in the nineteenth century. You have just been told that the land you were born on no longer belongs to you. In a meeting with British officials you try to explain the kinds of problems you face. What would you say? Ans. “This land belongs to us. We were born and brought up here. We know nothing about outside except this forest and land. We survive from this forest. If you take away the forest, you are taking a part of us with it. We won’t be able to survive without it. We have no other means to earn livelihood. Hence, we shall not have any money to buy food if the forest is taken away from us.” Let’s Recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) The British described the tribal people as ____________. (b) The method of sowing seeds in jhum cultivation is known as ____________. (c) The tribal chiefs got ____________ titles in central India under the British land settlements. (d) Tribals went to work in the ____________ of Assam and the ____________ in Bihar. Ans. (a) Savage,  (b) broadcasting/scattering,  (c) land,  (d) tea plantations, coal mines 2. State whether True or False: (a) Jhum cultivators plough the land and sow seeds. (b) Cocoons were bought from the Santhals and sold by the traders at five times the purchase price. (c) Birsa urged his followers to purify themselves, give up drinking liquor and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery. (d) The British wanted to preserve the tribal way of life. Ans. (a) False,  (b) True,  (c) True,  (d) False Let’s Discuss 3. What problems did shifting cultivators face under British rule? Ans. The problems which the shifting cultivators faced under British rule are as follows: •• The British were uncomfortable with the idea of shifting cultivators not having a fixed settlement and tried to settle them down to a particular region and become peasant cultivators. •• But settled plough cultivation was not suitable in dry areas and jhum cultivators who took to plough cultivation often suffered as their fields did not produce good yields. •• The tribals earned their livelihood from the forests and since the British changed the forest laws, the lives of the shifting cultivators got badly affected.

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•• They were not allowed to enter, collect fruits or hunt animals in the ‘Reserved Forests’. As a result, they were forced to move to other areas. 4. How did the powers of tribal chiefs change under colonial rule? Ans. Under British rule, a considerable amount of change was noticed in the powers of the tribal chiefs: •• They were allowed to keep their land titles over a cluster of villages and rent out lands, but they lost much of their administrative power. •• Their independence was lost and they were forced to follow the laws made by British officials in India. •• In addition, they had to pay tribute to the British, and discipline the tribal groups on behalf of the British. •• They lost their earlier enjoyed authority and became just puppets in the hands of the British. They were unable to fulfil their traditional functions. 5. What accounts for the anger of the tribals against the dikus? Ans. Since the tribals had to sell their goods to buy items in the markets they did not possess, they depended on traders and moneylenders for money. •• The tribals wanted to oust the dikus—moneylenders, traders, missionaries and Hindu landlords because they regarded these forces as the sole cause of their misery. •• The forest laws of the British were destroying their traditional farming practises. •• The Hindu landlords and moneylenders were taking over their ancestral land. •• Missionaries were criticising their traditional culture. 6. What was Birsa’s vision of a golden age? Why do you think such a vision appealed to the people of the region? Ans. Birsa had a dream vision which he thought would change the condition of his people. •• His movement was aimed at reforming tribal society. •• He urged the Mundas to give up drinking liquor, clean their village, and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery. •• In 1895, Birsa urged his followers to recover their glorious past when Mundas lived a good and honest life, constructed embankments, tapped natural springs and lived in harmony with Mother Nature. •• He wanted to set up Munda Raj and drive out all the dikus whom he thought were the main culprits for their suffering. •• Such a vision appealed to the people of the region because: •• Birsa was successful in identifying the main sources of the problems of his fellow brethren. •• All his fellow tribals were undergoing a life of misery and he could connect with them and feel their suffering. •• By using traditional symbols and language he could arouse in them the feelings of anger and rebellion and a desire to drive out the dikus from their land.

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Let’s Do 7. Find out from your parents, friends or teachers, the names of some heroes of other tribal revolts in the twentieth century. Write their story in your own words. Ans. Tana Bhagat, Ramu Raju, Sidu Murmu. Tana Bhagats were formed by Oaron saints Jatra Bhagat and Turia Bhagat. Jatra Bhagat of Gumla, Ranchi said that he was divinely ordained to establish the Tana sect, which was markedly different from the Oraon community. The Tanas sought to reorder the Oraon society by opposing the traditional leadership of the pahan (Oraon priest) and Mahto (village representative in secular affairs), and by rejecting the practices of spirit worship and sacrifice. 8. Choose any tribal group living in India today. Find out about their customs and way of life, and how their lives have changed in the last 50 years. Ans. The Santhals. They are a tribal group of Jharkhand. Hints: Find out about their lifestyle and how it has changed over the years. You can take the help of books in your library or the Internet.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION ANSWERS I. Match the following: 1. Khonds (i) people of the forest who could only live on its produce 2. Mahua (ii) red flowers used as a colouring agent 3. Palash (iii) a community living in the forests of Odisha. 4. Baigas (iv) worshippers of Lord Vishnu 5. Vaishnav (v) flower used to make alcohol Ans. 1. (iii),  2. (v),  3. (ii),  4. (i),  5. (iv) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. Hazaribagh, in present-day Jharkhand, was an area where the ___________ reared cocoons. 2. Birsa was born in a family of __________ a tribal group that lived in Chottanagpur. 3. The __________ cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land to clear it for cultivation. 4. The ___________ saw themselves as people of the forest, who could only live on the produce of the forest. 5. The _____________ of the Punjab hills and the __________ of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders. 6. All member of the _________ were regarded as descendants of the original setter.

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7. In the 1930s, __________________ visited the land of the Baigas –a tribal group in central India. 8. From the late nineteenth century, ___________________ started coming up and __________ became an important industry. Ans. 1. Santhals,  2. Mundas,  3. cultivators,  4. Baigas,  5. Van Gujjars, Labadis,  6. Clan,  7 . Verrier Elwin,  8. tea plantations, mining III. State whether True or False: 1. In chait women gathered fruits like sago, tamarind and mushroom. 2. The Khonds ate fruits and roots collected from the forest and cooked food with the oil they extracted from the seeds of the sal and mahua. 3. Under British rule, the tribal chiefs regained their lost authority. 4. British officials saw settled tribal groups like the Gonds and Santhals as more civilised than hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators. 5. Birsa Munda belonged to the Santhal tribe. 6. Jhum cultivators were plough cultivators. 7. In the ‘Reserved Forests’ forests people were not allowed to move freely, practise jhum cultivation, collect fruits, or hunt animals. 8 The baigas lived off the forest resources. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. False,  4. True,  5. False,  6. False,  7. True, 8. True

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. In 1900, Birsa died of this disease and the movement faded out: (a) malaria (b) cholera (c) typhoid 2. The silk cocoons were exported to these places where they were sold at five times the price. (a) Burdwan or Gaya (b) Calcutta (c) Madras 3. Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws. One such revolt was: (a) Civil Disobedience Movement (b) Dandi March (c) Songram Sangma 4. A term used in Madhya Pradesh for shifting cultivation is: (a) Bewar (b) Khonds (c) Munda 5. The local weavers and leather workers turned to ______________ for supplies of kusum and palash flowers. (a) Labadis (b) Santhals (c) Khonds 6. Birsa’s followers included other tribals of the region. Who were they? (a) Santhals and Oraons (b) Santhals and Baigas (c) Oraons and Baigas 7. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him to save his people from trouble and free them from the slavery of: (a) British (b) Moneylenders (c) Dikus

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8. British officials saw settled tribal groups like the __________and __________ as more civilised than hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators. (a) Bewars, Santhals (b) Gonds, Santhals (c) Lambadis, Gaddis 9. The forest satyagraha in the Central Provinces rose in: (a) 1930s (b) 1940s (c) 1960s 10. The fine quality of Indian _________was highly valued and exports from India increased rapidly. (a) Cotton (b) Jute (c) Silk Ans. 1. (b),  2. (a),  3. (c),  4. (a),  5. (c),  6. (a),  7. (c),  8. (a),  9. (a),  10. (c)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Where is Jhum cultivation practised these days in India? Ans. In north-eastern states and Central India. 2. What do you mean by follow land? Ans. A field which is left uncultivated for one or more years to regain fertility is called follow land. 3. Name any two communities that herded cattle. Ans. Van Gujjars of Punjab Hills and Labadis of Andhra Pradesh 4. Where were the Khonds found? Ans. Odisha 5. When did the Warli Revolt break out in Maharashtra? Ans. 1940 6. Bewar is another term for? Ans. Jhum Cultivation 7. Who were Baigas? Ans. Baigas were a tribal community that lived off of forest produce. They preferred never to work as labourers. 8. Who were Dikus? Ans. Foreigners or outsiders were referred to as Dikus by the tribals. 9. Why did the British want the tribals to settle as peasants? Ans. The British wanted a stable and regular source of income for the state; moreover, settled peasants were easier to control and administer. 10. What was the political aim of the Birsa Movement? Ans. The forces that the Birsa Movement fought against were – harsh British policies, Hindu landlords, moneylenders and missionaries who were trying to destroy their culture.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What was the motivation behind establishing forest villages? Ans. The Jhum cultivators were forced to move out of forests, their homes, so that the British could freely use the Timber. But later, the British realised they could use the tribals as cheap labour for their forest departments. Hence, they established small forest villages and allowed jhum cultivation in exchange of labour. 2. Why Birsa had such a large following? Ans. People considered that Birsa could cure all diseases and increase grain output. He himself declared that he had been appointed by God to free people from trouble and slavery. Therefore, thousands began following him. 3. Why were the tribals unhappy with the British rule? Ans. (i) Their ways of life seemed to be disappearing. (ii) Their livelihoods were under threat. (iii) Their religion appeared to be in danger. 4. What problem did the British face when they stopped the tribals from entering the forests? What was the solution? Ans. Once the British stopped the tribal people from living inside forests, they faced a problem- they would no longer get cheap labour to cut trees for railway sleepers and to transport logs. Colonial officials came up with a solution and decided that they would give jhum cultivators small patches of land in the forests and allow them to cultivate these on the condition that those who lived in the villages would have to provide labour to the Forest Department and look after the forests. Therefore, the Forest Department established forest villages in many areas to ensure a regular supply of cheap labour. 5. How did the tribals react against the forest laws? Ans. The forest laws made by the British were in no way helpful to the tribals. •• The tribals disobeyed the new rules, continued with practices that were declared illegal, and at times rose in open rebellion. •• The revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam and the forest satyagraha of the 1930s in the Central Provinces are examples of protests. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What was the method of jhum cultivation? Ans. The methods of jhum cultivation are: •• Jhum cultivation was done on small patches of land, mostly in forests. •• The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land to clear it for cultivation. •• After clearing the land, they spread the ash from the firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil. •• They used the axe to cut trees and the hoe to scratch the soil in order to prepare it for cultivation.

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•• They broadcasted or scattered seeds on the field instead of ploughing the land and sowing the seeds. •• Once the crop was ready and harvested, they moved to another field. •• The field which was cultivated once was left fallow for several years. 2. How did the Khonds use forest resources? Ans. The Khonds of Odisha were very resourceful when it came to using the natural forests’ resources. •• They regularly went out on collective hunts and then divided the meat amongst themselves. •• They ate fruits and roots collected from the forest and cooked food with the oil they extracted from the seeds of the sal and mahua. •• They were resourceful in using many forest shrubs and herbs for medicinal purposes, and sold forest produce in the local markets. •• When the local weavers and leather workers needed supplies of kusum and palash flowers to colour their clothes and leather, they turned to the Khonds. 3. From where did these forest people get their supplies of rice and other grains? Ans. This is how the tribals got their supplies of rice and other grains: •• The tribals sometimes exchanged goods and got what they needed in return for their valuable forest produce. •• At other times they bought goods with the small amount of earnings they had. •• Some earned cash by doing odd jobs in the villages, carrying loads or building roads, while others laboured in the fields of peasants and farmers. •• When supplies of forest produce shrank, tribal people had to increasingly wander around in search of work as labourers. •• They often needed to buy and sell in order to receive goods that were not produced within the locality. This led to their dependence on traders and moneylenders. •• Traders sold goods at a high price to them and moneylenders gave loans through which they met their cash needs. 4. What were the features of the land settlement made by the British in the tribal areas? Ans. The features of the land settlement introduced by the British are as follows: •• They measured the land, defined the rights of each individual to that land, and fixed the revenue demand for the state. •• The British declared some peasants as landowners and others tenants. •• The tenants had to pay rent to the landowner who in turn paid revenue to the state. •• The British made major efforts to settle down jhum cultivation, but without much success since settled plough cultivation is not easy in areas where water is scarce and the soil is dry.

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5. Describe the picture of silk growers in the eighteenth century. Ans. Here is a clear picture of the silk-growers in the eighteenth century: •• In the eighteenth century, there was a huge demand for Indian silk owing to its fine quality. •• Hazaribagh was a region in Jharkhand where silk-growers reared cocoons. •• The traders sent their agents to these villages and gave loans to the tribals and collected the cocoons. •• The silk-growers were paid only ` 3 to 4 for a thousand cocoons and were sold in Burdwan or Gaya at five times the price. •• The middlemen who arranged the deals made huge profits. •• The silk growers earned very little and hence, many tribal groups saw the market and the traders as their main enemies. Activity (Page 42) Look carefully at the tasks that Baiga men and women did. Do you see any pattern? What were the differences in the types of work that they were expected to perform? Ans. Students do themselves with the help of internet and other sources. Activity (Page 47) Find out whether the conditions of work in the mines have changed now. Check how many people die in mines every year, and what are the reasons for their death? Ans. The mining industry is one of the most hazardous industries. Yes, it is true that working conditions have improved in India over the years, but it is still far from being satisfactory. There were a total of 65 deaths during the first six months in the year 2016.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Birsa died in __________. 2. ____________ rose in revolt in 1855. 3. Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested tracts of ___________ and __________ India. 4. What was the tribal community living in the forests of Odisha? 5. Name one tribal group which practised rearing and herding animals.

5

When People Rebel: 1857 and After

Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS A mutiny becomes a Popular Rebellion The English East India Company faced a massive rebellion that started in May 1857. Sepoys mutinied in several places beginning from Meerut. On 29 March, 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. Some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which were suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs. In protest, the sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10th May to reach Delhi. The soldiers met Bahadur Shah and proclaimed him as their leader. Nawabs lost Their Power Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power eroding. Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and in 1856 it was taken over. In 1856, Governor-General Lord Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king.

The Rebellion spreads In Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow, regiments mutinied. In the rebellion, many Indian rulers took part like Nana Saheb, Birjis Qadr, Begum Hazrat Mahal and Rani Laxmibai. The British were greatly outnumbered by the rebel forces.

The Company fights back Unnerved by the scale of the upheaval, the Company decided to repress the revolt with all its might. Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857. Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment. Although the rebellion continued in different parts of India, the British fought for two years to suppress the rebellion.

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II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Since the mid-eighteenth century there was a decline in the power of nawabs. •• Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests but in vain. •• Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed and was taken over in 1856 on the pretext of misgovernance. •• The Company decided to put an end to the Mughal dynasty and in 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as kings. •• In the countryside, peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and the rigid methods of revenue collection. •• The soldiers were unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service. •• Meanwhile, many laws and reforms were being undertaken by the Company which was in turn resented by the Indians as they felt that the British were interfering in the religious matters and destroying the traditional culture of our land. •• On 29 March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. •• A few days days later, some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which were suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs. •• The revolt started from Meerut when on 10 May, the soldiers marched to the jail and released the imprisoned sepoys. They attacked and killed British officers. •• The sepoys reached Delhi the next morning with the hope of reinstating the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah as the ruler of India. •• The soldiers in Delhi forced their way into the palace and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader. •• The ageing emperor wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and organise a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British. •• The small rulers and chieftains were inspired and supported the emperor. •• Regiments mutinied and took off to join other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow and the whole country joined the uprising. •• Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and expelled the British garrison from the city and proclaimed himself Peshwa. •• In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai rebelled against the British along with Tantia Tope, who was the General of Nana Saheb. •• The British were greatly outnumbered by the rebel forces and were defeated in a number of battles. •• However, unnerved by the scale of the upheaval, the Company decided to fight back and brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws and then charged directly into the storm centres of the revolt.

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•• Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857 and Bahadur Shah Zafar and his wife were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. •• Lucknow was taken in March 1858. •• Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858. •• The British also tried their best to win back the loyalty of the people. They announced rewards for loyal landholders. •• The British regained control of the country by the end of 1859. They however, made some major reforms. •• In 1858, the British parliament passed a new act which transferred all the powers of the East India Company to the British Crown. •• The Governor-General was given the title of Viceroy. •• All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future. They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. •• It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European soldiers would be increased. •• The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.

III. KEYWORDS •• Erode (verb): To gradually destroy. Origin: Latin erodere. •• Disbanded (verb): to end. Origin: Middle French desbander. •• Mutiny: The situation when the soldiers as a group disobey the orders of their officers in the army is termed mutiny. •• Triumphant (adj.): Resulting in victory or success. Origin: Latin triumphare. •• Implications (noun): a future effect. Origin: Latin implicare. •• Enthused (verb): filled with enthusiasm. Origin: back formation from enthusiasm. •• Firangis: A name given to the foreigners (British) out of the contempt and hatred. •• Garrison (noun): a military camp. Origin: Old French garir. •• Sepoy: The soldiers •• Sati: Former Hindu practice, a widow burning herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. •• Suzerainty (noun): the dominion of a suzerain. Origin: French suzeraineté.

IV. DATE LINE •• 1856 •• 1856 •• 1850

: The Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king. : the Company passed a new law which stated that every new person who took up employment in the Company’s army had to agree to serve overseas if required. : a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier.

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•• May 1857 : The Revolt of 1857 started. •• 29 March 1857 : A young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. •• September 1857 : Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces. •• November 1862 : Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail. •• June 1858 : Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed. •• 1858 : The British Parliament passed a new Act and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the British Crown.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 62–63) Let’s Imagine Imagine you are a British officer in Awadh during the rebellion. What would you do to keep your plans of fighting the rebels a top secret. Ans. I would have planned a sudden attack so that no one would have been able to prepare for strategies beforehand. Let’s Recall 1. What was the demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi that was refused by the British? Ans. The demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi was to recognise her adopted son as her heir and grant him the rightful succession of the throne after the death of her husband. 2. What did the British do to protect the interests of those who converted to Christianity? Ans. The British allowed the converts to inherit the property of their ancestors. 3. What objections did the sepoys have to the new cartridges that they were asked to use? Ans. The objections of the sepoys were: •• The cartridges were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. •• Since Hindus considered the cow to be sacred and the Muslims deemed pigs as unclean, the sepoys were unwilling to tear the cartridges with their mouth which had to be done for firing. •• They termed the usage of the cartridges to be a violation of their religious sentiments. 4. How did the last Mughal emperor live the last years of his life? Ans. Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal emperor of India. •• The British established their control over Delhi in September 1857 and imprisoned Bahadur Shah. •• He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in 1858. •• The emperor died in the prison in November 1862.

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Let’s Discuss 5. What could be the reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before May 1857? Ans. The reasons for the growing confidence of the British rulers about their position in India are as follows: •• Since the mid-eighteenth century, there was a steady decline in the powers of the nawabs and rajas. •• Since the placement of residents at their courts, their freedom and authority were constantly checked upon. •• Their armed forces were disbanded and their revenues and territories were taken away by the British by applying various policies and laws. •• Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh and in 1856 it was taken over. •• In 1849, Governor-General Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in. •• In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as king but as prince. 6. What impact did Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion have on the people and the ruling families? Ans. Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion produced great implications: •• Many small rulers and chieftains had ruled over different territories. They felt that if the Mughal emperor could become powerful again, they could regain control and power over their lost kingdoms. •• The emperor’s effort paved the way of a possible alternative to the British Raj. •• The old emperor’s blessings infused the people with new vigour and they were ready to take on the British. 7. How did the British succeed in securing the submission of the rebel landowners of Awadh? Ans. The British were victorious in the submission of the rebel landowners of Awadh: •• The British provided the rights of inheritance to the landowners who could savour the traditional rights over their lands. •• They were exempted from taxes. •• They were assured of safety and that their claims would not be denied. 8. In what ways did the British change their policies as a result of the rebellion of 1857? Ans. The British brought about a number of changes in their policies after the revolt of 1857: •• In 1858, the British parliament passed a new act which transferred all the powers of the East India Company to the British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.

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•• A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible for all matters related to the governance of India. •• The Governor-General of India was given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of the Crown. Through these measures the British government accepted direct responsibility for ruling India. •• All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territories would not be annexed in future and that their adopted sons too had the right to the throne. However, they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. •• The number of European soldiers in the army would be increased and more soldiers would be recruited from Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans. •• The land and property of Muslims were confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion and hostility. •• The British recognised the customary religious and social practices of the people in India. Let’s Do 9. Find out the stories and songs remembered by people in your area or your family about ‘San Sattavan ki Ladaai’. What memories do people cherish about the great uprising? Ans. Sinhasan hil uthe rajvanshon ne Bhrukuti taanii thi, burhe bhi, bharat me, Phir se ayi nayi jawaani thi, Khub lari mardani woh to Jhansi wali rani thi. People cherish the great national spirit and uprising that took place back then. 10. Find out more about Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi. In what ways would she have been an unusual woman for her times? Ans. Unlike other women of her time, Rani Lakshmibai was trained in fighting when she was young. Also, she was very courageous and took the lead to fight defiantly against the British.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Nana Saheb (i) A young soldier in the Barrackpore regiment 2. Awadh (ii) The general of Nana Saheb 3. Bahadur Shah Zafar (iii) one of the last territories to be annexed 4. Mangal Pandey (iv) adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II 5. Tantia Tope (v) The last Mughal Emperor Ans. 1. (iv),  2. (iii),  3. (v),  4. (i),  5. (ii)

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II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in ___________. 2. In Lucknow, ____________, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed the new Nawab. 3. In Jhansi, _________________ joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with ______________. 4. In Delhi, a large number of ___________ or religious warriors came together to wipe out the white people. 5. Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in _____________. 6. ________________ was defeated and killed in June 1858. 7. _____________ was captured, tried and killed in April 1859. 8. After the Revolt of 1857, the Governor-General of India was given the title of___________, that is, a personal representative of the Crown. 9. The British decided that more soldiers would be recruited from among the _____________, _____________ and ___________. 10. _____________ was one of the last territories to be annexed. Ans. 1. Rangoon, 2. Birjis Qadr, 3. Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope,  4. ghazis. 5. September 1857, 6. Rani Lakshmibai, 7. Tantia Tope, 8. Viceroy, 9. Gurkhas, Sikhs, Pathans,  10. Awadh III. State whether True or False: 1. Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and expelled the British garrison from the city. 2. On 29 March, 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Allahabad. 3. The British passed laws to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows. 4. Governor-General Dalhousie decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king. 5. Tantia Tope was the adopted son of Rani Lakhsmibai of Jhansi. 6. Ahmadullah Shah prophesied that the rule of the British would come to an end soon. 7. Bahadur Shah and his wife were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. 8. In 1858, the East India Company transferred its powers to the British Crown. 9. The British did not make any efforts in suppressing the revolt. 10. Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly, took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi. Ans. 1. True,  2. False,  3. True,  4. False,  5. False,  6. True,  7. True, 8. True,  9. False,  10. True

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Who continued to fight a guerrilla war against the British? (a) Bakht Khan (b) Tantia Tope (c) Rani Lakhsmibai

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2. Who was the last Mughal emperor of India? (a) Tipu Sultan (b) Sirajuddaulah (c) Bahadur Shah Zafar 3. The Mutiny started from (a) Meerut (b) Delhi (c) Lucknow 4. What was imposed on Awadh in 1801? (a) Doctrine of Lapse (b) Subsidiary alliance (c) None of these 5. In which year did Governor-General Dalhousie announce that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort? (a) 1849 (b) 1858 (c) 1838 6. What was the condition of the Indian sepoys who were working under the Company? (a) They were happy and contended with their job. (b) They were sad to be apart from their families but happy with their allowance. (c) They were unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service. 7. In 1824, the sepoys were told to go to this country by the sea route to fight for the Company. (a) Burma (b) Tibet (c) Andaman 8. When was the law conversion to Christianity made easier? (a) 1830 (b) 1850 (c) 1860 9. On 10 May 1857, the soldiers marched to the jail in _________ and released the imprisoned sepoys (a) Delhi (b) Calcutta (c) Meerut 10. Who wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and organise a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British? (a) Tantia Tope (b) Bahadur Shah Zafar (c) Rani Laksmibai Ans. 1. (b),  2. (c),  3. (a),  4. (b),  5. (a),  6. (c),  7. (a),  8. (b),  9. (c),  10. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Who was hanged to death on 29 March 1857? Ans. Mangal Pandey 2. Who was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao? Ans. Nana Saheb 3. Religious warriors were also known as? Ans. Ghazis 4. When was Rani Lakshmibai defeated? Ans. June 1858 5. Who was Nana Sahib? Ans. The adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.

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6. What was Bahadur Shah Zafar’s role in the revolt of 1857? Ans. Bahadur Shah Zafar, as a ruler, commanded his allies and rulers under him to unite and support the rebellion against the British. 7. What condition did the British Crown impose on the kings regarding inheritance? Ans. The kings could now pass on the kingdom to their heirs only on the condition that they acknowledge the Queen as their superior authority. 8. Who were firangis? Ans. The British were referred to as firangis. 9. What problems did the sepoys face under the British Regiment? Ans. The sepoys were unhappy with the wages and conditions of service. Some practices were against their religion. 10. State a positive effect of the British Raj, if any. Ans. British enforced a law to abolish Sati and promoted remarriage. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Which was one of the last territories to be annexed? What was done for this? Ans. (a) Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. (b) In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and in 1856 it was taken over and company fully took over control of the Awadh. 2. Who was Subedar Sitaram Pande? Ans. Sitaram Pande was a sepoy of Bengal Native Army. He was recruited in 1812 and retired in 1860. He helped the British in suppressing the rebellion, though his own was a rebel. 3. How does the power of state breakdown? Ans. (i) Struggle between rulers and the ruled are usual. (ii) Sometimes these struggles become quite widerspread as a popular resistance. (iii) Hence the power of the state break down. (iv) The mass of people begin to believe that they have a common enemy and rise up against the enemy at the same time. 4. Do you think that the British foresaw the rebellion? What changed the situation at that time? Ans. The British were taken aback. They thought that the disturbance caused by the issue of greased cartridges would die down. Bahadur Shah’s decision to bless the rebellion changed the course of revolt. This gave hope to the rebels and they were inspired to take on the British. 5. What happened after the defeat of the mutineers? Ans. After the defeat of the mutineers, the British tried their best to pacify the people of India: •• They announced rewards for loyal landholders who would be permitted to hold and savour traditional rights over their lands.

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•• Those who had rebelled were told that if they submitted to the British, and if they had not killed any white people, they would be given their rights, and claims to their land would also not be denied. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. How did the nawabs and rajas lose their power? Ans. Since the mid-eighteenth century, there was a steady decline in the powers of the nawabs and rajas: •• They gradually lost their honour and authority. •• The residents stationed in their courts interfered in the matters of the state and also curbed the freedom of the rulers. •• The rulers’ armed forces were disbanded and their revenues and territories were taken away by stages. •• Awadh was taken away on the pretext of being misgoverned by its ruler. 2. What steps did the Company take from 1849 to 1856 to bring an end to the Mughal rule? Ans. Some steps brought by the Company to end the Mughal rule were: •• The photo of the Mughal king was removed from the coins minted by the Company. •• In 1849, Governor-General Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in. •• In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as kings but only as princes. 3. What was happening to the peasants and sepoys of India at that time? Ans. Here is a some important points about the peasants and sepoys: •• The peasants resented the high taxes and rigid methods of revenue collection. •• Since many failed to repay their loans, their lands were taken away. •• The Indian sepoys were unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service. •• Some of the new rules violated their religious sensibilities and beliefs. When they were told to go to Burma by crossing the sea, the soldiers feared that they would lose their religion. •• Many of the soldiers were peasants and had families living in the villages. They were angry when they say their ancestral land being taken away by the British. 4. Why did Indians begin to feel that the British were destroying their religion? Ans. The British brought about many reforms which were represented by the Indians: •• Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows. •• English-language education was actively promoted.

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•• In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier and permitted an Indian who had converted to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors. •• After 1830, the Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even own land and property. •• Many Indians began to feel that the British were interfering in their religious matters and destroying their traditional culture. 5. How did the soldiers in Meerut rebel against the British? Ans. The soldiers in Meerut took an active part in the Revolt of 1857: •• On 10 May, the soldiers marched to the jail in Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys. •• They attacked and killed British officers. •• They captured guns and ammunition and set the buildings and properties of the British on fire and declared war on the British. •• The sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi in the early hours next morning only with the belief of reinstating the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as the ruler of India. Activity (Page 52) Imagine you are a sepoy in the company army advising your nephew not to take employment in the army. What reasons would you give? Ans. I would tell my nephew not to join the army because it was totally governed by the British. Activity (Page 55) 1. What were the important concerns in the minds of the people according to Sitaram and according to Vishnubhatt? Ans. According to Sitaram, the seizing of Oudh filled the minds of the sepoys with distrust to plot against the government. 2. What role did they think the rulers were playing? What role did the sepoys seem to play. Ans. They felt that the rulers were playing the role of responsible guardians and the sepoys were foolish, irresponsible and disloyal in their behaviour. Activity (Page 58) 1. Why did the Mughal emperor agree to support the rebels? Ans. The emperor had to accept the soldiers’ request because they were very hopeful that India would be restored to peace if he were reinstated as emperor. 2. Write a paragraph on the assessment he may have made before accepting the offer of the sepoys. Ans. He might have thought about these facts before accepting the offer. •• The country was prosperous when she was under Mughal rule. •• The Mughal dynasty had ruled over a very large part of the country and they thought of reviving the glorious past. •• He too felt that the British had been unfair and unjust in ruling our land and they should be rightfully banished.

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Activity (Page 59) Make a list of places where the uprising took place in May, June and July 1857. Ans. Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Malda, Awadh.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. In Jhansi who joined the rebel sepoys? 2. Who was the last Mughal King? 3. Who led the revolt in Kanpur? 4. Which were the two states which were annexed using the Doctrine of Lapse? 5. Where was Mangal Pandey posted?

6 Chapter

Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Indian Textiles in European Markets In 1720, the British Government enacted a legislation banning the use of printed cotton textiles – chintz – in England. Indian designs were now imitated and printed in England on white muslin or plain unbleached Indian cloth. Competition with Indian textiles led to the invention of the spinning jenny that increased the productivity of the traditional spindles. However, Indian textiles continued to dominate the world trade till the end of the eighteenth century.

Indian Textiles and the World Market Around 1750, India was by far the world's largest producer of cotton textiles. The cotton textiles which the Portuguese took back to Europe, along with the spices, came to be called “calico” (derived from Calicut), and subsequently calico became the general name for all cotton textiles. Amongst the pieces ordered in bulk were printed cotton cloths called chintz, cossaes (or khassa) and bandanna.

Iron and Steel Factories came up in India The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) that came up began producing steel in 1912. TISCO was set up at an opportune time. It was the time of expansion of railways in India which gave a huge market to TISCO. Also, in 1914 the First World War broke out and by 1919 the colonial government was buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by TISCO.

Cotton Mills came up The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay in 1854. By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay. The first mill in Ahmedabad was started in 1861. A year later, a mill was established in Kanpur in the United Provinces.

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The Decline of Indian Textiles The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India in several ways. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the English made cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe. Thousands of weavers in India were now thrown out of employment. By the 1830s, British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets. This affected many weavers and spinners.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Around 1750, before the British conquered Bengal, India was by far the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. •• When the Portuguese first landed in Calicut, the cotton textiles they took back to Europe came to be called as “calico”. •• From the 1680s, there started a craze for printed Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe mainly for their exquisite floral designs, fine texture and relative cheapness. •• By the early eighteenth century, worried by the popularity of Indian textiles, wool and silk makers in England began protesting against the import of Indian cotton textiles. •• In 1720, the British banned the use of printed cotton textiles – chintz – in England. This Act was known as the Calico Act. •• In 1764, the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the traditional spindles. •• The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India. •• By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the English cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe and as a result, thousands of weavers in India were now thrown out of employment. •• The handloom market continued to survive in India because machines could not produce such intricate patterns or borders on the cloths. •• Gradually, towns like Sholapur and Madurai emerged as important new centres of weaving in the late nineteenth century. •• The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay in 1854. •• However, in the first few decades of its existence, the textile factory industry in India faced many problems. It found it difficult to compete with the cheap textiles imported from Britain. •• By the late nineteenth century, however, the craft of iron smelting was in decline.

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•• New forest laws banned the iron smelters to enter the forest as a result of which they could not gather the wood for charcoal. •• The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) in Jamshedpur began producing steel in 1912. •• In 1914, imports from England declined due to the First World War and TISCO expanded its production.

III. KEYWORDS •• Weaving: Form fabric by interacting long threads passing in one director with others at a right angle to them. •• Exquisite (adj.): Very beautiful and delicate. Origin: Middle English exquisite. •• Armour (noun): A hard covering that soldiers wear to protect their bodies from injuries. Origin: Middle English amure. •• Furnace: An enclosed structure in which material can be heated to very high temperatures, e.g., for melting metals. •• Ingots (noun): A solid piece of metal that has been formed into a particular shape. Origin: Middle English, perhaps modification of Middle French lingot.

IV. DATE LINE •• 1720 : The British government enacted a legislation banning the use of printed cotton textiles – chintz – in England. •• 1764 : The spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye. •• 1786 : The invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright. •• 1854 : The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay. •• 1861 : The first mill in Ahmedabad was started. •• 1912 : TISCO started producing steel. •• 1914 : The First World War broke out. •• 1919 : The colonial government was buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by TISCO.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 93–94) Let’s Imagine Imagine you are a textile weaver in late nineteenth-century India. Textiles produced in Indian factories are flooding the market. How would you have adjusted to the situation? Ans. It would have been very difficult to adjust to the situation. I would have gone from door to door in my locality to make people understand the importance of the handloom industry. Also, I would have distributed pamphlets in the towns to explain the people about boosting the handloom industry. Let’s Recall 1. What kinds of cloth had a large market in Europe have? Ans. Chintz (chhint), cossaes (khassa) and bandanna had a large market in Europe.

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2. What is jamdani? Ans. Jamdani is a fine muslin cloth on which decorative motifs are woven on the looms, typically in grey and white colours. Often a mixture of cotton and gold thread was used. 3. What is bandanna? Ans. Bandanna is a brightly coloured and printed scarf for neck and head. This was derived from the word “bandhna” (Hindi for tying) and referred to a variety of brightly coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying. 4. Who are the Agaria? Ans. Agaria were the women and men who carried baskets of loads of iron ore on their heads in Chhattisgarh. 5. Fill in the blanks: (a) The word chintz comes from the word _________. (b) Tipu’s sword was made of_________ steel. (c) India’s textile exports declined in the _________ century. Ans. (a) chhint,  (b) wootz,  (c) nineteenth Let’s Discuss 6. How do the names of different textiles tell us about their histories? Ans. Names of different textiles tell us about their histories: •• When European traders encountered the fine muslin cloth India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul in present-day Iraq, they began referring to all finely woven textiles as “muslin”. •• When the Portuguese first came to India in search of spices, they landed in Calicut which lied on the Kerala coast in south-west India. The cotton textiles which they took back to Europe, along with the spices, came to be called “calico” (derived from Calicut), and subsequently calico became the general name for all cotton textiles. •• The names of the printed Indian cotton cloths also tell us about their histories. Chintz came from the word chhint, cossaes from khassa and bandanna from “Bandhna” which means in Hindi for tying. •• There were other cloths in the order book that were noted by their place of origin: Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore. 7. Why did the wool and silk producers in England protest against the import of Indian textiles in the early eighteenth century? Ans. By the early eighteenth century, worried by the popularity of Indian textiles, wool and silk makers in England began protesting against the import of Indian cotton textiles: •• At this time textile industries had just begun to develop in England. •• Unable to compete with Indian textiles, the English producers wanted a secure market within the country by preventing the entry of Indian textiles. 8. How did the development of cotton industries in Britain affect textile producers in India?

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Ans. These are the ways in which cotton industries in Britain had an adverse effect on the textile industry in India: •• Indian textiles now had to compete with British textiles in the European and American markets. •• Exporting textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since very high duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain. •• By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe. •• As a result, thousands of weavers in India were rendered jobless. •• English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods and their agents no longer gave out advances to weavers to secure supplies. •• By the 1830s, British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets and by the 1880s, two-thirds of all the cotton clothes worn by Indians were made of cloth produced in Britain. •• This affected not only specialist weavers but also spinners. Thousands of rural women who made a living by spinning cotton thread were rendered jobless. 9. Why did the Indian iron smelting industry decline in the nineteenth century? Ans. The Indian iron smelting industry declined in the nineteenth century because of the following reasons: •• The forest laws made by the British prevented the people from entering the reserved forests and hence, they could not find adequate wood for charcoal. •• Iron smelters who secretly entered the forests for collecting wood could not sustain their occupation for long. •• In areas where access was given, the iron smelters had to pay a very high tax to the forest department for every furnace they used. This reduced their income. •• By the late nineteenth century, iron and steel was being imported from Britain. Ironsmiths in India began using the imported iron to manufacture utensils and implements. 10. What problems did the Indian textile industry face in the early years of its development? Ans. The problems faced by the Indian textile industry in the early years of its development are as follows: •• It was difficult for India to compete with the cheap textiles imported from Britain. •• In most countries, governments supported industrialisation by imposing heavy duties on imports. This eliminated competition and protected infant industries. But the colonial government in India usually refused such protection to local industries.

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11. What helped TISCO expand steel production during the First World War? Ans. The following reasons helped TISCO to develop during the First World War: •• When in 1914 the First World War broke out, steel produced in Britain now had to meet the demands of war in Europe. So imports of British steel into India declined dramatically and the Indian Railways turned to TISCO for supply of rails. •• As the war dragged on for several years, TISCO had to produce shells and carriage wheels for the war. •• By 1919 the colonial government was buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by TISCO. Let’s Do 12. Find out about the history of any craft around the area you live. You may wish to know about the community of craftsmen, the changes in the techniques they use and the markets they supply. How have these changed in the past 50 years? Hints: Take help from the internet or history books in the library. 13. On the map of India, locate the centres of different crafts today. Find out when these centres came up. Hints: Carefully select the centres from each region in India – east, west, north, south and central.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION ANSWERS I. Match the following: 1. Chintz (i) a machine by which a single worker can handle several spindles for spinning thread. 2. Bandanna (ii) printed cotton cloth. 3. Spinning Jenny (iii) a device meant for pumping air. 4. Bellows (iv) fine muslin cloth on which decorative motifs are woven on the loom. 5. Jamdani (v) brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head. Ans. 1. (ii);  2. (v);  3. (i);  4. (iii);  5. (iv) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. In 1764, the _____________ was invented by John Kaye. 2. The first cotton mill in India was set up in ____________. 3. For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as __________. 4. The__________ came to represent India, and it was put at the centre of the tricolour flag of the Indian National Congress adopted in 1931. 5. Francis Buchanan has left us an account of the technique by which ______________ was produced in many hundreds of smelting furnaces in Mysore.

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6. ___________________ was the legendary scientist and discoverer of electricity and electromagnetism. 7. In Bihar and Central India the smelting was done by men while women worked the ____________. 8. In 1904, Charles Weld and ______________were travelling in Chhattisgarh in search of iron ore deposits. 9. The banks of the river Subarnarekha to set up the factory and an industrial township ______________. 10. As the war dragged on for several years, __________ had to produce shells and carriage wheels for the war. Ans. 1. spinning jenny, 2. Bombay, 3. rangrez,  4. charkha,  5. Wootz steel, 6. Michael Faraday,  7. bellows, 8. Jamshedji Tata, 9. Jamshedpur, 10. TISCO III. State whether the following are True or False: 1. Around 1750, India was by far the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. 2. Europeans referred to all finely woven textiles as ‘calico’. 3. There was no craze for printed Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe in the 1680s. 4. The invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786 revolutionised cotton textile weaving. 5. The East India Company collected revenues from peasants and zamindars in India, and used this revenue to buy Indian textiles. 6. Tipu Sultan fought ten wars with the British. 7. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English-made cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe. 8. Muslin became a symbol of nationalism. 9. From the early nineteenth century, Bombay had grown as an important port for the export of raw cotton from India to England and China. 10. Michael Faraday spent four years studying the properties of Indian Wootz steel. Ans. 1. True,  2. False,  3. False,  4. True,  5. True,  6. False,  7. True, 8. False,  9. True,  10. True

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. TISCO expanded steel production during the: (a) First World War (b) Second World War (c) Third World War 2. Which of the following was not a name of any Indian textile? (a) Chintz (b) Bandanna (c) Agaria 3. Who invented the steam engine? (a) Richard Arkwright (b) Michael Faraday (c) John Kaye 4. What was the weaver community in Bengal called? (a) Julahas (b) Devangs (c) Tanti

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5. What were the household spinning intsruments? (a) Rangrez and agaria (b) Charkha and takli (c) Charkha and momin 6. Where was Patola woven? (a) Surat, Ahmedabad and Patan (b) Bengal and Bangalore (c) Hyderabad and Meerut 7. Around 1750s, Indian textiles were traded in: (a) Central Europe (b) Southeast Asia and West and Central Asia (c) Russia and Africa Ans. 1. (a),  2. (c),  3. (a),  4. (c),  5. (b),  6. (a),  7. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Where did the Portuguese first land in India? Ans. Calicut, Kerala 2. When was the steam engine invented? Ans. 1786 3. What were the South Indian weavers called? Ans. Devangs, kaikollar, sale 4. Which metal was Tipu Sultan’s sword made of? Ans. Wootz 5. Where is TISCO located? Ans. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand 6. What is special about the names Muslin and Calico? Ans. The names Muslin, from Mosul and Calico, from Calicut were named after the place of discovery by the British. 7. What is the calico act? Ans. The British enforced a law to ban the use of printed Indian cotton textiles in England. 8. Who were the Agarias? Ans. Agarias were the ones who guided Dorabji Tata towards the Rajhara hills where iron ore was available. It led to setting up of the Bhilai Steel Plant. 9. Which two industries were important for industrial revolution? Ans. Textiles and ‘iron and steel’ were the two important industries. 10. Define the term ‘Aurang’. Ans. Aurang is a Persian term for warehouse. It is a place where goods are collected before being sold.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. How did the British purchase the Indian textiles? Ans. Initially, the British imported silver in to purchase Indian textiles, but later, with the establishment of British Company regime, they extorted taxes from the peasants and zamindars to make the purchases. 2. How did TISCO become the biggest steel industry within the British Empire? Ans Due to the first world war, the tables turned and Britain instead of importing Steel to India, had import from it from TISCO. This way, TISCO was catering not only to the domestic demands but also international demands, becoming the biggest steel industry within the empire. 3. What was the spinning jenny? Ans. Spinning jenny was a machine invented by John Kaye by which a single worker could operate several spindles on to which thread was spun. When the wheel was turned, all the spindles rotated. 4. Who were the weavers? Ans. Weavers were the people who belonged to communities that specialised in weaving. Their skills were passed on from one generation to the next. The tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of north India, sale and kaikollar and devangs of south India are some of the communities famous for weaving. 5. What were the advantages of Bombay as a cotton textile unit? Ans. Since Bombay was close to the vast black soil tract of western India where cotton was grown, it emerged as an important port for the export of raw cotton cloth from India to England and China. When the cotton textile mills came up, they could get the supplies of raw material with ease. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What were the stages of spinning? Ans. The stages of weaving are as follows •• The first stage of production was spinning which was done mostly by women. •• Charkha and the takli were household spinning instruments. The thread was spun on the charkha and rolled on the takli. •• When the spinning was over the thread was woven into cloth by the weaver. •• For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez. •• For printed cloth, the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as chhipigars. 2. Why did handloom weaving in India survive? Ans. Handloom weaving managed to survive because: •• Some types of cloths could not be supplied by machines. •• Machines could not produce saris with intricate borders or cloths with required traditional woven patterns.

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•• Handloom cloth had a wide demand not only amongst the rich but also amongst the middle classes. •• Also, the textile manufacturers in Britain could not produce the very coarse cloths used by the poor people in India, and hence the demand for handloom cloths remained. 3. Why was Tipu Sultan’s sword so special? Ans. Tipu Sultan’s sword was special because of the following reasons: •• The sword had an incredibly hard and sharp edge that could easily rip through the opponent’s armour. •• This quality of the sword came from a special type of high carbon steel called Wootz which was produced all over South India. •• Wootz steel when made into swords produced a very sharp edge with a flowing water pattern. •• This pattern came from very small carbon crystals embedded in the iron. 4. How was Wootz steel produced in Mysore? Ans. The procedure of making Wootz steel is as follows: •• Wootz steel was produced in smelting furnaces in Mysore. •• In these furnaces, iron was mixed with charcoal and put inside small clay pots. •• Through an intricate control of temperatures the smelters produced steel ingots that were used for sword making not just in India but in West and Central Asia too. Activity (Page 83) Why do you think the Act was called the Calico Act? What does the name tell us about the kind of textiles the Act wanted to ban? Ans. Since calico became the general name for all cotton textiles, the British termed the Act the Calico Act. The name of the Act itself reflects the kind of textiles it wanted to ban. Activity (Page 86) Read Sources 1 and 2. What reasons do the partition writers give for their condition of starvation? Ans. In Source 1, the weavers ask the Company to give them advances or they shall starve to death. Since they are weavers, they are not trained in any other activities and since the company is not paying them advances anymore, they are being unable to feed their families. In Source 2, the widowed petitioner asks for help–she needs people to buy her yarn, for it is the only source of income for her family. Activity (Page 89) Why would the iron and steel making industry be affected by the defeat of the nawabs and rajas? Ans. After the defeat of the nawabs and rajas, iron and steel industry suffered because the production of iron and steel required for making swords and

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armours was not required anymore. The British used rifles and guns unlike the Indian rajas.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Where was patola woven? 2. When the Portuguese first came to India in search of spices, they landed in ___________ on the Kerala coast in South-west India. 3. A mixture of which threads were used in jamdani? 4. The thread was spun on the charkha and rolled on the_________. 5. Which scientist spent four years studying the properties of Indian Wootz?

7 Chapter

Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation I.  BASIC CONCEPTS

The Tradition of Orientalism

Grave Errors of the East

In 1783, William Jones, a linguist was appointed as junior judge at the Supreme Court of the Company.

From the early nineteenth century many British officials began to criticise the Orientalist vision of learning.

William Jones started studying ancient Indian texts on various subjects.

James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientalists.

Together with some of his friends, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and started a journal called Asiatick Researches.

Thomas Babington Macaulay saw India as an uncivilised country that needed to be civilised.

Jones and Colebrooke went about discovering ancient texts, understanding their meaning, translating them, and making their findings known to others.

Macaulay emphasised the need to teach the English language. Following Macaulay's minute, the English Education Act of 1835 was introduced.

A madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law; and the Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts.

The decision was to make English the medium of instruction for higher education.

Education for Commerce

English Education has enslaved us

In 1854, the Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the GovernorGeneral in India. It emphasised once again the practical benefits of a system of European learning, as opposed to Oriental knowledge.

Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians. He strongly felt that Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching. Western education, Mahatma Gandhi said, focused on reading and writing rather than oral knowledge.

One of the practical uses the Despatch pointed to was economic.

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New Routines, New Rules

Tagore's Abode of Peace

After 1854, the Company decided to improve the system of vernacular education.

Rabindranath Tagore started Shantiniketan in 1901.

It appointed a number of government pundits, each in charge of looking after four to five schools. Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported through government grants. Those who were unwilling to work within the new system received no government support.

Tagore was of the view that creative learning could be encouraged only within a natural environment. So he chose to set up his school 100 kilometres away from Calcutta, in a rural setting.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• The British wanted to “civilise the natives”and change their customs and values. •• In 1783, a person named William Jones arrived in Calcutta who happened to be a linguist. •• Jones started studying ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion, politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine and the other sciences. •• Together with Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and started a journal called Asiatick Researches. •• They shared a deep respect for ancient cultures and went about discovering ancient texts, understanding their meaning, translating them, and making their findings known to others. •• Influenced by such ideas, many Company officials argued that the British ought to promote Indian rather than Western learning. •• With this object in view, a madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law; and the Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts. •• From the early nineteenth century, many British officials began to criticise the Orientalist vision of learning and criticised the knowledge of the East as full of errors and unscientific. •• James Mill who was one of the first to attack the Orientalists, argued that the aim of education ought to be to teach what was useful and practical. •• Macaulay urged that the British Government in India stop wasting public Money promoting Oriental learning, for it was of no practical use. He also emphasised the need to teach English language. •• Following Macaulay’s minute, the English Education Act of 1835 was introduced. The decision was to make English the medium of instruction for higher education, and to stop the promotion of Oriental institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa and Benaras Sanskrit College.

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•• In 1854, Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the Company, issued the Wood’s Despatch which outlined the educational policy that was to be followed in India. •• It proposed that European learning would improve the moral character of Indians. •• Following the 1854 Despatch, several measures were introduced by the British. •• In the 1830s, William Adam, a Scottish missionary, toured the districts of Bengal and Bihar and noted the flexible working system of pathshalas. •• After 1854, the Company decided to improve the system of vernacular education. •• Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians. •• Mahatma Gandhi strongly felt that Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching. •• Tagore was of the view that creative learning could be encouraged only within a natural environment. With this view, Tagore founded Shantiniketan 100 kilometres away from Calcutta, in a rural setting. •• Tagore wanted to combine elements of modern Western civilisation with what he saw as the best within Indian tradition. He emphasised the need to teach science and technology at Santiniketan, along with art, music and dance.

III. KEYWORDS Diffusion (noun): The state of being spread out. Origin: Latin diffundere. Emphatically (adj.): marked with emphasis. Origin: Greek emphatikos. Remunerative (adj.): related to money to be paid for a service. Origin: unknown. Literacy: The ability to read and write. Despising (verb): to dislike something very much. Origin: Middle English, from Anglo French despise. •• Abode (noun): place of stay. Origin: Middle English abade. •• •• •• •• ••

IV. DATE LINE •• •• •• ••

1783 1781 1791 1854

: : : :

A person named William Jones arrived in Calcutta. A madrasa was set up in Calcutta The Hindu College was established in Benaras The Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the Governor-General in India. It was called the Wood’s Despatch. •• 1901 : Tagore started Shantiniketan.

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V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 106–107) Let’s Imagine Imagine you were witness to a debate between Mahatma Gandhi and Macaulay on English education. Write a page on the dialogue you heard. Ans. Mahatma Gandhi •• Colonial education creates a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians. •• It makes them see Western civilisation as superior, and destroyed the pride they had in their own culture. •• It is sinful, it enslaves Indians, it casts an evil spell on them. •• Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching. Macaulay •• No branch of Eastern knowledge could be compared to what England had produced. •• “A single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”. •• Oriental learning was of no practical use, teaching English could civilise people. Let’s Recall 1. Match the following: William Jones promotion of English education Rabindranath Tagore respect for ancient cultures Thomas Macaulay gurus Mahatma Gandhi learning in a natural environment Pathshalas critical of English education Ans. William Jones respect for ancient cultures Rabindranath Tagore learning in a natural environment Thomas Macaulay promotion of English education Mahatma Gandhi critical of English education Pathshalas gurus 2. State whether True or False: (a) James Mill was a severe critic of the Orientalists. (b) The 1854 Despatch on education was in favour of English being introduced as a medium of higher education in India. (c) Mahatma Gandhi thought that promotion of literacy was the most important aim of education. (d) Rabindranath Tagore felt that children ought to be subjected to strict discipline. Ans. (a) True,  (b) True,  (c) False,  (d) False Let’s Discuss 3. Why did William Jones feel the need to study Indian history, philosophy and law?

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Ans. William Jones felt the need to study Indian history, philosophy and law because: •• They shared a deep respect for ancient cultures, both of India and the West. •• He felt that Indian civilisation had attained its glory in the ancient past, but had subsequently declined. •• He decided to rediscover the glorious past of India by reading and understanding the ancient legal and sacred texts. For only those texts could reveal the real ideas and laws of the Hindus and Muslims, and only a new study of these texts could form the basis of future development in India. •• Jones and Colebrooke started discovering ancient texts, understanding their meaning, translating them, and making their findings known to others. •• They believed that this project would not only help the British learn from Indian culture, but it would also help Indians rediscover their own heritage, and understand the lost glories of their past. 4. Why did James Mill and Thomas Macaulay think that European education was essential in India? Ans. These were the reasons why James Mill and Thomas Macaulay thought that European education was essential in India: •• James Mill declared that British effort should not be to teach what the natives wanted, or what they respected, in order to please them and ‘win a place in their heart’. •• The aim of education according to him was to teach what was useful and practical. So Indians should be made familiar with the scientific and technical advances that the West had made, rather than with the poetry and sacred literature of the Orient. •• Macaulay saw India as an uncivilised country that needed to be civilised and according to him, no branch of Eastern knowledge could be compared to what England had produced. •• He urged that the British Government in India should stop wasting public money in promoting Oriental learning, for it was not practical. •• Macaulay emphasised the need to teach the English language. •• He felt that knowledge of English would make them aware of the developments in Western science and philosophy. •• Teaching of English could thus be a way of civilising people, changing their tastes, values and culture. 5. Why did Mahatma Gandhi want to teach children handicrafts? Ans. Mahatma Gandhi wanted to teach handicraft children because: •• People could work with their hands. •• This would develop their mind and their capacity to understand. 6. Why did Mahatma Gandhi think that English education had enslaved Indians? Ans. According to Mahatma Gandhi, English education had enslaved Indians because:

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•• Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians. •• It made them see Western civilisation as superior, and destroyed the pride they had in their own culture. •• Mahatma Gandhi wanted an education that could help Indians recover their sense of dignity and self-respect. •• During the national movement he urged students to leave educational institutions in order to show to the British that Indians were no longer willing to be enslaved. •• Mahatma Gandhi strongly felt that Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching for he thought education in English crippled Indians, distanced them from their own social surroundings, and made them ‘strangers in their own lands’. •• Western education for Gandhi focused on reading and writing rather than oral knowledge which valued textbooks rather than lived experience and practical knowledge. •• For Gandhi, literacy – or simply learning to read and write – by itself did not count as education. He argued that education ought to develop a person’s mind and soul. Let’s Do 7. Find out from your grandparents about what they studied in school. Ans. My grandparents studied in a Bengali medium school where they learned all subjects in Bengali. 8. Find out about the history of your school or any other school in the area you live. Ans. A school in our locality •• Name of school- Sherwood Middle School •• Date of establishment- 1848 •• Who funded the school- Daughters of the Cross •• Furniture in the school classes- old wooden furniture •• Pictures of the school

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Orientalists (i) Scottish missionary who helped establish the Serampore College. 2. William Carey (ii) Outlined the educational policy in India 3. Wood’s Despatch (iii) Shantiniketan 4. Rabindranath Tagore (iv) People who have scholarly knowledge of the culture and language of Asia. Ans. 1. (iv),  2. (iii),  3. (ii),  4. (i)

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II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. _______________ is a term generally used to refer to a local language or dialect as distinct from what is seen as the standard language. 2. The Hindu College was established in Benaras in ____________. 3. Along with William Jones, ­_______________ and ________________ were also busy discovering the ancient Indian heritage, mastering Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English. 4. In _________, the Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the Governor-General in India. 5. In the 1830s, ______________, a Scottish missionary, toured the districts of Bengal and Bihar. 6. Mahatma Gandhi strongly felt that _________languages ought to be the medium of teaching. Ans. 1. Vernacular; 2. 1791; 3. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Nathaniel Halhed;  4. 1854;  5. William Adam;  6. Indian III. State whether True or False: 1. Rabindranath Tagore loved going to school. 2. In 1783, a person named William Jones arrived in Calcutta. 3. Jones set up the Calcutta Society of Bengal. 4. A madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law. 5. Macaulay was an admirer of ancient Indian texts and culture. 6. Hindu College was established in Benaras to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts. 7. William Jones studied ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion, politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine and the other sciences. 8. Orientalists were the upholders of British education and culture. Ans. 1. False;  2. True;  3. False;  4. True;  5. False;  6. True;  7. True; 8. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. A linguist is a person who: (a) Studies astronomy (b) studies several languages (c) studies the culture of ancient times 2. Together with Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed, William Jones set up: (a) Asiatic Society of Bengal (b) Asiatic Society of Madras (c) Asiatic Society of Bombay

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3. What was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be useful for the administration of the country? (a) A madrasa (b) Serampore College (c) Hindu College 4. From the early nineteenth century many British officials began to criticise the _____________ vision of learning. (a) Western (b) Orientalist (c) Mystic 5. He was one of the first persons to attack the Orientalists: (a) James Mill (b) William Jones (c) Thomas Babington Macaulay 6. Wood’s Despatch also argued that __________ learning would improve the moral character of Indians. (a) Eastern (b) European (c) American 7. In 1857, while the sepoys rose in revolt in Meerut and Delhi, which were the cities where the universities were being established? (a) Madras and Ahmedabad (b) Bombay and Delhi (c) Calcutta, Madras and Bombay 8. What were pathshalas? (a) Big institutions of education (b) Small playgrounds (c) Small institutions with no more than 20 students each 9. Who argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians? (a) Rabindranath Tagore (b) James Mill (c) Mahatma Gandhi 10. Tagore was of the view that creative learning could be encouraged only within a ____________________. (a) natural environment (b) small classroom (c) none of these Ans. 1. (b);  2. (a);  3. (c);  4. (b);  5. (a);  6. (b);  7. (c);  8. (c);  9. (c);  10. (a)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. What was a Persian scholar known as? Ans. Munshi 2. Which journal was started by William Jones? Ans. Asiatick Researches 3. What is a Madrasa? Ans. A place for learning

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4. When was the English Education Act introduced? Ans. 1835 5. What was Macaulay’s idea of civilisation using English language? Ans. Macaulay believed that by learning English, the Indians would have access to European literatures and scientific and philosophical developments, thereby ‘civilising’ themselves. 6. What were M.K. Gandhi’s views on British education? Ans. Gandhi believed that British education was an attempt to subdue the Indian culture, knowledge and heritage. 7. What did the British consider as their obligation or mission? Ans. Other than the mission to control more territories, its people and their economy, the British felt it was their obligation or mission to ‘civilise the natives’. 8. Why was Tagore’s school called Shantiniketan? Ans. Tagore believed that creativity could be best harnessed in a natural environment, hence he set up Shantiniketan, meaning ‘abode of peace’, away from the city closer to nature. 9. Who are linguists? Ans. Linguists are people who know and study several languages. 10. What do you mean by vernacular? Ans. Vernacular is a term used to refer local language or dialect as distinct from standard language. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Who were Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed? Ans. Both Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathanil Halhed were the scholars of Sanskrit and ancient sacred writings of Hinduism. They were busy discovering the ancient Indian Heritage, mastering Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English. 2. What was Wood’s Despatch? Ans. A despatch issued by Charles Wood in 1854 was sent to the governor-general in India, regarding the educational policy, the benefits of European knowledge, how it will be useful in creating demand for British goods and how it also would improve moral character of Indians. 3. How did Orientalists gather knowledge? Ans. Orientalists like Warren Hastings took help from Pundits or Munshi to know about local customs and law. With the help of local scholar ancient texts were translated and interpreted. 4. How was the flexible education system suitable to local needs? Ans. Adam discovered that the flexible education system was suitable for the local needs. In this system, classes were not held during harvest time when the local children worked in the fields. Classes started again after the crops were cut and stored.

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5. What were the thoughts of others individual Indians? Ans. Many individuals and thinkers thought about the way a national educational system could be fashioned. •• Some wanted changes within the system set up by the British, and felt that the system could be extended so as to include wider sections of people. •• Others urged that the alternative system be created so that people were educated into a culture that was truely national. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Why was a madrasa set up in Calcutta in 1781? Ans. Here are the reasons why a madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781: •• Influenced by Jones’ and Colebrooke’s ideas on reviving the texts of ancient Indian culture, many Company officials argued that the British ought to promote Indian rather than Western learning. •• They felt the need to set up institutions where the students should learn ancient Indian texts and Sanskrit and Persian literature and poetry. •• The officials also thought that Hindus and Muslims ought to be taught what they were already familiar with, and not subjects that were alien to them. •• Also, in order to win a place in the subject’s hearts by teaching their very own language, a madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law. 2. What was the Wood’s Despatch? Ans. In 1854, the Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the Governor-General in India which was issued by Charles Wood and hence the name Wood’s Despatch was named after Mr. Charles Wood. •• The Wood’s Despatch outlined the educational policy that was to be followed in India. •• It emphasised once again the practical benefits of a system of European learning, as opposed to Oriental knowledge. •• Wood’s Despatch argued that European learning would enable Indians to recognise the advantages that of expansion of trade and commerce, and make them see the importance of developing the resources of the country. •• It was created with a motive of introducing Indians to European ways of life, and creating a demand for British goods. •• Wood’s Despatch also argued that European learning would improve the moral character of Indians and make them truthful and honest, thus, providing efficient civil servants to the Company. •• Wood’s Despatch considered the literature of the East as one filled with grave errors. •• Following the 1854 Despatch, several measures were introduced by the British. •• Education departments of the government were set up to extend control over all matters regarding education. •• In 1857, universities were being established in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.

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3. How were the pathshalas flexible? Ans. These were the ways in which the pathshalas were flexible: •• There were no fixed fee, no printed books, no separate school building, no benches or chairs, no blackboards, no system of separate classes, no roll call registers, no annual examinations, and no regular time-table. •• The location of the pathshalas was also flexible. In some places classes were held under a banyan tree, in other places in the corner of a village shop or temple, or at the guru’s home. •• Fee depended on the income of parents: the rich had to pay more than the poor. •• The method of teaching was also flexible: teaching was oral which was decided by the guru, in accordance with the needs of the students. •• Students were not separated out into different classes: all of them sat together in one place. The guru interacted separately with groups of children from different levels of learning. •• Class timings were also flexible keeping in mind the harvesting season. Classes were not held during harvest time when rural children often worked in the fields. •• The pathshala started once again when the crops had been cut and stored. 4. What were Tagore’s views on education? Ans. Tagore’s views on education are as follows: •• Tagore emphasised the need for self-learning outside the rigid and restricting discipline of the schooling system set up by the British. •• Tagore understood the need for imagination and fulfilling the curiosity of the child. •• According to Tagore, the existing schools killed the natural desire of the child to be creative, her sense of wonder. •• Tagore was of the view that creative learning could be encouraged only within a natural environment. •• Tagore wanted to combine elements of modern Western civilisation with what he saw as the best within Indian tradition. •• He emphasised the need to teach science and technology at Shantiniketan, along with art, music and dance. Activity (Page 99) Imagine you are living in the 1850s. You hear of Wood’s Despatch. Write about your reactions. Ans. I would be rather displeased. Wood’s Despatch not only would influence the education sector but would also bring about a change in our lives- our lives would be influenced by European values and create a demand for British goods. This would totally ruin our Indian industries. Activity (Page 102) 1. Imagine you were born in a poor family in the 1850s. How would you have responded to the coming of the new system of government-regulated pathshalas?

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Ans. I would not have been very pleased. As I am a farmer’s son, I need to help my father during the harvest season. The new rules demanded regular attendance. During the harvest season, I would be unable to attend school. The previous system was much more flexible for us. 2. Did you know that about 50 per cent of the children going to primary school drop out of school by the time they are 13 or 14? Can you think of various possible reasons for this fact? Ans. It is mostly out of poverty and need for employment that so many children drop out of school.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. In 1783, William Jones arrived in _____________. 2. Tagore chose to set up his school 100 kilometres away from Calcutta. What was its name? 3. In the 1830s, William Adam, a ___________missionary, toured the districts of Bengal and Bihar. 4. Wood’s Despatch also argued that ___________ learning would improve the moral character of Indians. 5. Who was a munshi?

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Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Working towards Change

Changing the Lives of Widows

From the early nineteenth century, we find debates and discussions on social customs and practices taking on a new character.

Rammohun Roy was particularly moved by the problems widows faced in their lives. He began a campaign against the practice of sati.

All kinds of issues–social, political, economic and religious–could now be debated and discussed.

He showed that widow burning had no sanction in ancient texts. In 1829, sati was banned.

Raja Rammohun Roy founded a reform association known as the Brahmo Sabha (later known as the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta.

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry. A law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage.

Women write about Women From the early twentieth century, Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal played a notable role in promoting education among women. By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities. Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women. In the twentieth century, leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose lent their support to demands for greater equality and freedom for women. Girls begin Going to School Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for girls. In the latter part of the century, schools for girls were established by the Arya Samaj in Punjab, and Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra. In aristocratic Muslim households in North India, women learnt to read the Koran in Arabic.

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Who could enter Temples?

Caste and Social Reform

In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement, in which his Mahar caste followers participated.

The Prarthana Samaj adhered to the tradition of Bhakti that believed in spiritual equality of all castes.

Ambedkar led three such movements for temple entry between 1927 and 1935.

In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste.

Demands for Equality and Justice

The Non-Brahman Movement

Gradually, by the second half of the nineteenth century, people from within the Non-Brahman castes began organising movements against caste discrimination, and demanded social equality and justice.

In the early twentieth century, the nonBrahman movement started. The initiative came from those non-Brahman castes.

The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by Ghasidas. In eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur's Matua sect worked among Chandala cultivators.

Convinced that untouchables had to fight for their dignity, Periyar founded the Self-respect Movement. He said that ancient texts had been used to establish the authority of Brahmans over lower castes and the domination of men over women.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Two hundred years ago, our country was infested with practices such as sati, child marriage and discrimination based on caste and sex. •• Brahmans and Kshatriyas considered themselves as upper castes. Traders and moneylenders were referred to as Vaishyas. Then came the Shudras consisting of peasants and artisans such as potters. At the lowest step were those who laboured to keep cities and villages clean and were considered as untouchable. •• New forms of communication such as books, newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets led to movements for social change through discussions and debates on social, political, economic and religious issues. •• Raja Rammohun Roy founded a reform association known as the Brahmo Samaj which worked towards greater freedom and equality for women. He later began a campaign against the practice of sati and it was finally banned in 1829. •• Due to the efforts of Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, in 1856, law was passed permitting widow remarriage. •• In the mid nineteenth century, Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for girls. •• By the end of the nineteenth century, women themselves were actively working for reform. They wrote books, edited magazines, founded schools and training centres, and set up women’s associations.

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•• In the twentieth century, leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose lent their support to demands for greater equality and freedom for women. •• Jyotirao Phule, emphasized that the ‘upper’ castes had no right to their land and power and in reality, the land belonged to indigenous people, the so-called low castes. •• B. R. Ambedkar led various movements for temple entry of dalits and lower castes in India between 1927 and 1935. •• E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures and asserted that these texts had been used to establish the authority of Brahmans over lower castes and the domination of men.

III. KEYWORDS •• Reformer (noun): A person who makes changes to something in order to improve it. Origin: unknown. •• Conservative (adj.): Averse to change or innovation and holding traditional values. Origin: Late Latin conservare. •• Abolition (noun): the act of officially ending or stopping something. Origin: Latin abolere. •• Subjugate verb.: Bring under domination or control, especially by conquest. Origin: Late Latin subjugare. •• Ascetic (adj.): Characterised by severe self-discipline and abstention from all forms of indulgence, typically for religious reasons. Origin: Greek askein. •• Assertion (noun): A confident statement of fact or belief. Origin: Latin asserere. •• Exhortation (noun): An address or communication emphatically urging someone. Origin: unknown. •• Sati: The woman who burn herself, willingly or unwillingly, on the funeral pyre of her dead husband. •• Untouchable: Those people who did manial work like cleaning and scavenging were called untouchable. •• Orthodox: Fanatic, fundamentalists. •• Suffrage: Right to Vote.

IV. DATE LINE •• •• •• •• •• ••

1829 1830 1856 1875 1929 1927

: : : : : :

Sati was banned. Brahmo Samaj was formed. A law was passed permitting widow remarriage. Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanad Saraswati. The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed. Ambedkar started a temple entry movement, in which his Mahar caste followers participated.

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V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 122) Let’s Imagine Imagine you are a teacher in the school set up by Rokeya Hossain. There are 20 girls in your charge. Write an account of the discussions that might have taken place on any one day in the school. Ans. •• In the past, women were not allowed to go to schools. Rokeya Hossain was one courageous lady who fought against this anomaly. •• There is a tremendous need for girls to get good education. •• Many men and women in the past have fought for women empowerment and education. •• It is the rightful duty of every girl child to get education. Let’s Recall 1. What social ideas did the following people support? Rammohun Roy Dayanand Saraswati Veerasalingam Pantulu Jyotirao Phule Pandita Ramabai Periyar Mumtaz Ali Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar Ans. The social ideas followed by the following are: Rammohun Roy: Freedom and equality for women and abolishing the practice of Sati. Dayanand Saraswati: Widow remarriage and reform of Hinduism. Veerasalingam Pantulu: Widow remarriage Jyotirao Phule: Education for girls and caste equality Pandita Ramabai: Shelter for widows and training for economic independence of women Periyar: Self-respect Movement, caste equality Mumtaz Ali: Education for women Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar: Widow remarriage and education for women 2. State whether True or False: (a) When the British captured Bengal, they framed many new laws to regulate the rules regarding marriage, adoption, inheritance of property, etc. (b) Social reformers had to discard the ancient texts in order to argue for reform in social practices. (c) Reformers got full support from all sections of the people of the country. (d) The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1829. Ans. (a) True,  (b) False,  (c) False,  (d) False

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Let’s Discuss 3. How did the knowledge of ancient texts help the reformers promote new laws? Ans. The strategy adopted by Raja Rammohun Roy was used by later reformers whereby, whenever they wished to challenge a practice that seemed harmful, they tried to find a verse or sentence in the ancient sacred texts that supported their point of view. This helped in many ways: •• The reformers could suggest that a particular practice as it existed at present was against early tradition. Practices like sati, caste discrimination and child marriage were not accepted in ancient texts. •• Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry. His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage. •• As the ideas supported by reformers were backed by inscriptions in ancient texts, the society was more willing to accept them. 4. What were the different reasons people had for not sending girls to school? Ans. The main reasons why people did not allow girls to go to school were: •• In many parts of the country people believed that if a woman were educated, she would become a widow. •• People feared that schools would take girls away from home, prevent them from doing their domestic duties. Women were forced to bear the burden of domestic work, confined to the home and the kitchen. •• In order to go to school, girls had to travel through public places. Many felt that this would have a corrupting influence on them. They felt that girls should stay away from public spaces. 5. Why were Christian missionaries attacked by many people in the country? Would some people have supported them too? If so, for what reasons? Ans. During the course of the nineteenth century, Christian missionaries began setting up schools for ‘lower’-caste children. These children were, thus, equipped with some resources to make their way into a changing world. This was not readily accepted and the missionaries were opposed on following grounds: •• Many Hindu nationalists and Orthodox Muslims felt that women were adopting Western ways and that this would corrupt Hindu culture and erode family values. •• The missionaries tried to change those habits and practices which provoked the contempt of dominant castes. They tried to create a sense of self-esteem among the subordinate castes. •• The objective of many associations was to uphold caste distinctions as a cornerstone of Hinduism, and show how this was sanctified by scriptures. •• Many so called low caste people, who were oppressed, saw the work of the Christian Missionaries as an opportunity to get away from the oppressive hold of the dominant castes.

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6. In the British period, what new opportunities opened up for people who came from castes that were regarded as ‘low’? Ans. In the British period, new opportunities opened up for people who came from castes that were regarded as “low”. •• With the opening of factories, the poor and the ‘low’ caste began leaving their villages to work in cities. •• As the cities expanded, new demands of labour were created for construction of buildings, roads and drains. •• The poor from the villages and small towns, many of them from low castes, also went to work in plantations in Assam, Mauritius, Trinidad and Indonesia. •• The army also offered opportunities. A number of Mahar people, who were regarded as untouchables, found jobs in the Mahar Regiment. 7. How did Jyotirao the reformers justify their criticism of caste inequality in society? Ans. Jyotirao Phule and other reformers justified their criticism of caste inequality in society on the following grounds: •• Phule argued that the Aryans were foreigners, who came from outside the subcontinent, and they began looking at the defeated population as inferior, as low caste people. •• The ‘upper’ castes had no right to their land and power. In reality, the land belonged to indigenous people, the so-called low castes. •• Phule claimed that before Aryan rule there existed a golden age when warrior-peasants tilled the land and ruled the Maratha countryside in just and fair ways. •• He proposed that Shudras (labouring castes) and Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to challenge caste discrimination. •• The Satyashodhak Samaj, an association Phule founded, propagated caste equality. 8. Why did Phule dedicate his book Gulamgiri to the American movement to free slaves? Ans. Jyotirao Phule wrote a book named Gulamgiri, in 1873 meaning slavery. Phule extended his criticism of the caste system to argue against all forms of inequality. •• Some ten years before this, the American Civil War had been fought, leading to the end of slavery in America. •• Phule dedicated his book to all those Americans who had fought to free slaves, thus establishing a link between the conditions of the ‘lower’ castes in India and the black slaves in America. 9. What did Ambedkar want to achieve through the temple entry movement? Ans. B.R. Ambedkar was born into a Mahar family. As a child, he experienced what caste prejudice meant in everyday life. In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement with the following aim: •• His aim was to make everyone see the power of caste prejudices within society.

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•• Entry of ‘untouchables’ inside temples meant equal rights to all the castes to enter religious places and other facilities. 10. Why were Jyotirao Phule and Ramaswamy Naicker critical of the national movement? Did their criticism help the national struggle in any way? Ans. Jyotirao Phule was one of the most vocal amongst the ‘low-caste’ leaders. He studied in schools set up by Christian missionaries. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar, as he was called, came from a middle-class family. Both of these reformers were critical of the national movement. •• They set out to attack the Brahmans’ claim that they were superior to others, since they were Aryans. •• The forceful speeches, writings and movements of lower caste leaders did lead to rethinking and some self-criticism among upper-caste nationalist leaders. •• Phule extended his criticism of the caste system to argue against all forms of inequality. This movement for caste reform was continued in the twentieth century by other great dalit leaders like E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in the south.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION ANSWERS I. Match the following: 1. Suffrage (i) An important untouchable caste of Andhra Pradesh. 2. Orthodox (ii) The women who died on the funeral of her dead husband. 3. Shudras (iii) Right to vote 4. Sati (iv) Fanatic, fundamentalists 5. Madigas (v) Peasants, artisans like weavers and potters Ans. 1. (iii),  2. (iv),  3. (v),  4. (iv),  5. (i) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. In the north, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the reform association called _______________, also supported widow remarriage. 2. ________________, a great scholar of Sanskrit, felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women. 3. In 1873, Jyotirao Phule wrote a book named _____________, meaning slavery. 4. Women who chose death by burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands, whether willingly or otherwise, were called “________”. Ans. 1. Arya Samaj,  2. Pandita Ramabai,  3. Gulamgiri,  4. Sati III. State whether True or False: 1. The Indian reformers were fully supported by the people of our country. 2. Raja Rammohun Roy founded the Arya Samaj. 3. Muslim Women like Begums of Bhopal promoted education among women. 4. Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 in Calcutta. 5. Pandita Ramabai was a great scholar of Sanskrit. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. True,  4. False,  5. True

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VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in the year: (a) 1929 (b) 1927 (c) 1930 2. Ati Shudras were known as _____________ (a) Brahmans (b) Vaishyas (c) Untouchables 3. The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by (a) Ghasidas (b) Rammohun Roy (c) Vivekananda 4. According to Phule, which castes had no right to their land and power? (a) Lower castes (b) Untouchables (c) Upper castes 5. Who founded the Self Respect Movement? (a) Phule (b) Periyar (c) Rammohun Roy Ans. 1. (a),  2. (c);  3. (a),  4. (c),  5. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. When was the law permitting widow remarriage passed? Ans. 1856 2. Who established schools for girls in Maharashtra? Ans. Jyotirao Phule 3. Who wrote the Stripurushtulna? Ans. Tarabai Shinde 4. ‘Right to vote’ is also called? Ans. Suffrage 5. Which tradition believed in spiritual equality of all castes? Ans. Bhakti Tradition 6. Who was Raja Rammohun Roy? Ans. Raja Rammohun Roy was a reformer who founded the Brahmo Sabha and fought against evil taboos and practices in the society. 7. Who was Periyar? Ans. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker was the founder of the self-respect movement. He fought against the Brahman supremacy. 8. What was the strategy adopted by reformers? Ans. Reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy adopted a strategy to fight the evil practices in the society by referring to ancient sacred texts which contained no trace of such practices. 9. What is the Satyashodak Samaj? Ans. It was founded by Jyotirao Phule to promote caste equality. 10. Who was Pandita Ramabai? Ans. Pandita Ramabai highlighted the issues present in upper-caste Hindu traditions. She wrote books about the lives of Hindu women. She was born in a Hindu family, but later she converted to Christianity.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Why did E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker leave the Congress? Ans. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker left the Congress because he founded nationalists adhering to case distinctions. As a feast organised by them, the lower castes were made to sit at a distance from the upper castes. 2. Name the ritual festival which came under attack. Describe. Ans. Hook swinging festival. In which, the devotees underwent a particular form of suffering as part of ritual worship. With hooks pierced through their skin they swung themselves on a wheel. In the early 19th century, when European officials began criticising Indian customs and rituals as barbaric, this was one of the rituals that came under attack. 3. Enumerate the laws passed by British to improve the status of women. Ans. Many laws were passed to improve the status of women in society by the British. •• Anti Sati Act was passed in 1829. •• Widow remarriage Act passed in 1856. 4. Who started the non-Brahman movements and why? Ans. Non-Brahman movements were started in the early 20th century by the educated non-Brahman castes. They had acquired wealth and influence. They argued that Brahmans were the heirs of Aryan invaders who had conquered land from indigenous Dravidians. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What was the role of Raja Rammohun Roy in changing the lives of women? Ans. Rammohun Roy was particularly moved by the problems widows faced in their lives. •• He tried to show through his writings that the practice of widow burning had no sanction in ancient texts. •• Many British officials had also begun to criticise Indian traditions and customs. They were therefore more than willing to listen to Rammohun who was reputed to be a learned man. •• In 1829, due to Rammohun’s efforts, sati was banned. •• He wrote about the way women were forced to bear the burden of domestic work, confined to the home and the kitchen, and not allowed to move out and become educated. 2. How did education for girls bring about a reform in the society? Ans. Education for girls brought about reforms in the way the society treated women: •• Many of the reformers felt that education for girls was necessary in order to improve the condition of women. •• With the growth of women’s organisations and writings on these issues, the momentum for reform gained strength. People challenged another established custom–that of child marriage.

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•• Women were trained so that they could support themselves economically. •• By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities. Some of them trained to be doctors, some became teachers. Many women began to write and publish their critical views on the place of women in society. 3. How was the situation of slavery in America similar to caste system in India? Ans. The situation prior to the American Civil War was similar to caste system in India in the following ways: •• The condition of life of the black slaves in America was similar to ‘lower’ castes in India. •• The upper castes also treated many of these groups at the bottom as ‘untouchable’. They were not allowed to enter temples, draw water from the wells used by the upper castes, or bathe in ponds where upper castes bathed. •• They were seen as inferior human beings in both the countries. Activity (Page 109) Can you think of the ways in which social customs and practices were discussed in the pre-printing age when books, newspapers and pamphlets were not readily available? Ans. In the past, thinkers and reformers used to have regular meetings in various public places or their own houses where social customs were discussed and debated. They used to read a lot of books from which they received information about various rituals and practises. Activity (Page 111) This argument was taking place more than 175 years ago. Write down the different arguments you may have heard around you on the worth of women. In what ways have the views changed. Ans. Arguments I have heard include the points that women are not capable of doing work outside their houses as they are weak. Nowadays, views have changed and women have taken over every sector in the world and are capable of doing both indoor and outdoor work with ease. Activity (Page 116) 1. Imagine that you are one of the students sitting in the school veranda and listening to the lessons. What kind of questions would be rising in your mind? Ans. I would be very curious to know as to why we were kept outside the class? What extra do the other children have that I don’t? 2. Some people thought this situation was better than the total lack of education for untouchable people. Would you agree with this view? Ans. No, I don’t agree with this view. Education should be equal for all and that includes the conditions of classroom arrangements. Activity (Page 117) Carefully read Source 3. What do you think Jyotirao Phule meant by “me here and you over there again”?

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Ans. There would be no division between upper castes and low castes. It means the society would move forwards equality and non-discrimination. Activity (Page 119) Why does caste remain such a controversial issue today? What do you think was the most important movement against caste in colonial times? Ans. I feel that the Self Respect Movement founded by Periyar was a significant movement as it held that untouchables were the true upholders of an original Tamil and Dravidian culture which had been subjugated by Brahmans.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. What was founded in 1875? 2. What was the real name of Periyar? 3. In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement, in which his ____________ caste followers participated. 4. Who proposed that Shudras (labouring castes) and Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to challenge caste discrimination? 5. Who used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry?

9 Chapter

The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947 I.  BASIC CONCEPTS

The Emergence of Nationalism

A Nation in the Making

India was the people of India – all the people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed, language, or gender.

The Congress in the first twenty years was “moderate” in its objectives and methods.

This consciousness that the British were exercising power began to be clearly stated by the political associations that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s.

A greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration was demanded.

They worked with the idea that the people should be sovereign.

The demand for Indianisation of the administration was part of a movement against racisim.

The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from possessing arms. In the same year the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an effort to silence those who were critical of the government.

Other demands included the separation of the judiciary from the executive, the repeal of the Arms Act and the freedom of speech and expression. The Moderate leaders wanted to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule.

The Indian National Congress was established in December 1885. Freedom is Our Birthright

By the 1890s, many Indians began to raise questions about the political style of the Congress. They criticised the Moderates for their 'politics of prayers', and emphasised the importance of self-reliance and constructive work. In 1905, Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal. The partition of Bengal infuriated people all over India. I brought about the Swadeshi movement which sought to oppose the British rule and encourage the ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise, national education, and use of Indian languages.

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The Rowlatt Satyagraha

The Advent of Mahatma Gandhi

In 1919 Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act that the British had just passed.

Gandhiji arrived in India in 1915 from South Africa.

Gandhiji asked the Indian people to observe 6 April 1919 as a day of nonviolent opposition to this Act. The Rowlatt Satyagraha turned out to be the first all-India struggle against the British government, although it was largely restricted to cities.

His South African campaigns had brought him in contact with various types of Indians. His earliest interventions were in local movements in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad where he came into contact with Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel.

After the Jallianwala Bagh atrocities, Tagore renounced his knighthood.

People's Initiatives In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British. In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed. In Bengal too, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave enormous communal unity and strength to the national movement.

The Happenings of 1922–29

The March to Dandi

Gandhiji called off the Non-cooperation Movement when in February 1922 a crowd of peasants set fire to a police station in Chauri Chaura.

In 1930, Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march to break the salt law.

Two important developments of the mid1920s were the formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu organisation, and the Communist Party of India.

Gandhiji and his followers marched over 240 miles from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi. The Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the government announced elections to the provincial legislatures in 1937.

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Towards Independence and Partition

Quit India and Later

In 1940, the Muslim League had moved a resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country.

Mahatma Gandhi decided to initiate a new phase of movement against the British—that they must quit India.

From the late 1930s, the League began viewing the Muslims as a separate ‘nation’ from the Hindus.

Gandhiji and other leaders were jailed at once but the movement spread.

The Congress's failure to mobilise the Muslim masses in the 1930s allowed the League to widen its social support. In March 1946, the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to examine the demand for Pakistan and to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India. However, Cabinet Mission failed and the Muslim League announced 16 August, 1946 as “Direct Action Day”. The joy of our country's independence from the British rule came mixed with the pain and violence of Partition.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• As the people of India became conscious of their motherland and its resources and systems, people started realising that the British were exercising control over the resources of India and the lives of its people, and until this control was ended India could not be for Indians. •• The Indian National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at Bombay in December 1885. •• The Moderate leaders wanted to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of the British rule. They published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed how the British rule was leading to the economic ruin of the country. •• By the 1890s many Indians began to raise questions about the political style of the Congress. They criticised the Moderates for their ‘politics of prayers’, and emphasised the importance of self-reliance and constructive work. •• In 1905, Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal. •• Mass protest and struggle that unfolded all around the country came to be known as the Swadeshi Movement. •• Mahatma Gandhi arrived in India in 1915 from South Africa. He led to various non-violence movements like Rowlatt Satyagraha, Khilafat agitation, NonCooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, Dandi March and the Quit India Movement. •• Revolutionary nationalists such as Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Sukhdev and others wanted to fight against the colonial rule and the rich exploiting classes through a revolution of workers and peasants.

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•• The combined struggles of the Indian people bore fruit when the Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the government announced elections to the provincial legislatures in 1937. •• Communications and symbols of state authority were attacked all over the country. •• Nationalists and leaders like Subhash Chandra Bose, C. Rajagopalachari, Sarojini Naidu, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel and the general people of India, all contributed immensely to the freedom movement. •• Towards 1930s, the Muslim League began viewing the Muslims as a separate “nation” from the Hindus. •• The joy of our country’s independence from the British rule came mixed with the pain and violence of Partition in 1947.

III. KEYWORDS •• Nationalization: A feeling of pride for one’s country. •• Consciousness (noun): The state of being aware of and responsive to one’s surroundings. Origin: Latin conscius •• Sovereign: Being independent without outside interference. •• Furore (noun): An outbreak of public anger or excitement. Origin: Latin furor. •• Publicist: Someone who publicises an idea by circulating information, writing reports, speaking of public meetings. •• Swaraj: Self-government •• Moderates: A group of Congress, who believed in peaceful struggles, had great faith in British rule. •• Council: Anappointed or elected body of people with an administrative advisory or representative function. •• Picket: A person or a group of people protesting outside a building or shop to prevent others from entering. •• Boycott (verb): Withdraw from commercial or social relations as a punishment or protest. Origin: from the name of Captain Charles C. Boycott (1832–97), an Irish land agent so treated in 1880, in an attempt instigated by the Irish Land League to get rents reduced. •• Monopoly (noun): The exclusive possession or control of the supply of or trade in a commodity or service. Origin: Latin monopolium •• Formidable (adj): Inspiring fear or respect through being impressively large, powerful, intense or capable. Origin: Middle English, from Latin formidabilis. •• RSS: Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh •• Refugee: One who has been forced to leave his country or home due to some political, religious or social reasons. •• Repression (noun): Origin: unknown •• Rebellion (noun): An act of armed resistance to an established government or leader. Origin: Latin rebellis

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IV. DATE LINE •• 1878

: The Arms Act was passed, disallowing Indians from possessing arms. •• December 1885 : The Indian National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at Bombay. •• 1905 : Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal. •• 1906 : A group of Muslim landlords and nawabs formed the All India Muslim League at Dacca. •• 1907 : The Congress split. •• 1915 : Congress was reunited again. Gandhiji arrived in India. •• 1919 : Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act that the British had just passed. •• 13 April, 1919 : Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place. •• 1920 : The British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa. •• February 1922 : Gandhiji abruptly called off the Non-Cooperation Movement when a crowd of peasants set a police station in Chauri Chaura on fire. •• 17 December, 1928 : Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru assassinated Saunders. •• 26 January, 1930 : “Independence Day” was observed all over the country. •• 6 April, 1930 : Dandi March. •• 1935 : The Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy to the provincial legislatures. •• September 1939 : Second World War started. •• 1942 : Quit India Movement. •• January 1941 : Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose secretly left his Calcutta home, went to Singapore, via Germany, and raised the Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA). •• March 1946 : the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to examine this demand and to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India. •• 16 August 1946 : “Direct Action Day”

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 159) Let’s Imagine Imagine that you are involved in the Indian national movement. Based on your reading of this chapter, briefly discuss your preferred methods of struggle and your vision of a free India. Ans. My preferred methods of struggle would be non-violence, like Gandhiji. I would protest through hartals and ahimsa. My vision of a free India would be one where there would be no discrimination of caste, religion, creed or gender. People from all religions should be united.

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Let’s Recall 1. Why were people dissatisfied with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s? Ans. The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the 1870s and 1880s. The main reasons for such dissatisfaction were: •• The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing the Indians from possessing arms. •• Vernacular Press Act was also passed to empower government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing presses if the newspapers published anything that was found objectionable. •• The withdrawal of Ilbert Bill which provided for the trial of British or European persons by Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. 2. Who did the Indian National Congress wish to speak for? Ans. The Indian National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at Bombay in December 1885. The Indian National Congress wished to speak for: (a) As Badruddin Tyabji addressed, Congress was composed of the representatives, not of any one class or community of India, but of all the different communities of India. (b) Congress demanded a greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration. (c) It wanted the Legislative Councils to be made more representative, given more power, and introduced in provinces where none existed. (d) It demanded that Indians be placed in high positions in the government. For this purpose it called for civil service examinations to be held in India. 3. What economic impact did the First World War have on India? Ans. The First World War had a mixed impact on India. •• On one side taxes increased and burden was passed on to the common public. On the other hand, Indian industries expanded as a result of increasing demand. •• The war led to a huge rise in the defence expenditure of the Government of India. The government in turn increased taxes. •• Increased military expenditure and the demands for war supplies led to a sharp rise in prices which created great difficulties for the common people. •• Indian industries expanded during the war, and Indian business groups began to demand greater opportunities for development. 4. What did the Muslim League resolution of 1940 ask for? Ans. The Muslim League passed a resolution in 1940 demanded for the following: (a) ‘Independent States’ for Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country. (b) It may be mentioned that the resolution did not mention partition of Pakistan.

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Let’s Discuss 5. Who were the Moderates? How did they propose to struggle against British rule? Ans. The Moderates were those section of nationalists who had faith in British sense of justice, fair play and integrity. Therefore, they felt it was necessary to express the demands, and make the government aware of the feelings of Indians. The Congress in the first twenty years was moderate in its objectives and methods. Their modus operandi of struggle against British rule was: •• Development of public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. •• They published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed how British rule was leading to the economic ruin of the country. •• They criticised British rule in their speeches and sent representatives to different parts of the country to mobilise public opinion. •• The moderates felt that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and justice, and so they would accept the just demands of Indians. 6. How was the politics of the Radicals within the Congress different from that of the Moderates? Ans. The politics of the Radicals within the Congress was different from that of the Moderates. •• The Moderates felt that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and justice, and so they would accept the just demands of Indians. The radicals on the other hand used boycott and swadeshi as tools of resistance. •• In Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were beginning to explore more radical objectives and methods. They criticised the Moderates for their “politics of prayers”, and emphasised the importance of self-reliance and constructive work. •• The radicals argued that people must rely on their own strength, not on the “good” intentions of the government; people must fight for swaraj. •• Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!” The Moderates, on the other hand, felt that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and justice, and so they would accept the just demands of Indians if they were made aware. 7. Discuss the various forms that the Non-Cooperation Movement took in different parts of India. How did the people understand Gandhiji? Ans. The Non-Cooperation Movement took various forms in different parts of India:•• In 1920, Indian Muslims were furious about the harsh treaty imposed on the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa. The leaders of the Khilafat agitation, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, wished to initiate a full-fledged NonCooperation Movement. •• Gandhiji supported their call and urged the Congress to campaign against “Punjab wrongs” (Jallianwala massacre), the Khilafat wrong and demanded swaraj.

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•• Many lawyers such as Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asaf Ali gave up their practices. British titles were surrendered and legislatures boycotted. •• Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges. •• People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth. •• The imports of foreign cloth fell drastically between 1920 and 1922. In many cases people resisted British rule non-violently. In others, different classes and groups, interpreting Gandhiji’s call in their own manner, protested in ways that were not in accordance with his ideas. In either case, people linked their movements to local grievances. People thought of Gandhiji as a kind of messiah, as someone who could help them overcome their misery and poverty. The different interpretations of Gandhiji’s call for non-violence and satyagraha: •• In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British. •• In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed. •• In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants staged a number of ‘forest satyagrahas’, sometimes sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing fee. •• In Sind (now in Pakistan), Muslim traders and peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call. •• In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants, supported by the British, from their gurdwaras. •• In Assam, tea garden labourers, shouting “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai”, demanded a big increase in their wages. 8. Why did Gandhiji choose to break the salt law? Ans. Mahatma Gandhi chose to break the salt law because of the following reasons: •• Mahatma Gandhi along with other nationalists reasoned that it was sinful to tax salt since it was such an essential item of their food. •• According to the Salt law, the state had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. •• Hence, in 1930, Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march to break the salt law. 9. Discuss those developments of the 1937–47 period that led to the creation of Pakistan. Ans. The developments of the events of 1937–47 period that led to the creation of Pakistan are as follows: •• The provincial elections of 1937 seemed to have convinced the League that Muslims were a minority, and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. •• It feared that Muslims may even go unrepresented. The Congress’s rejection of the League’s desire to form a joint Congress League government in the United Provinces in 1937 also annoyed the League. •• At the end of the war in 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India.

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The talks failed because the League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India’s Muslims. The Congress could not accept this claim since a large number of Muslims still supported it. •• In March 1946 the British cabinet sent a mission to Delhi to examine to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India. But it could not get the Congress and the Muslim League to agree to specific details of the proposal. Partition now became more or less inevitable. •• After the failure of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League decided on mass agitation for winning its Pakistan demand. It announced 16 August 1946 as ‘Direct Action Day’ which resulted in riots in different parts of the country. •• This further led to partition of India and Pakistan in 1947. Let’s Do 10. Find out how the national movement was organised in your city, district, area or state. Who participated in it and who led it? What did the movement in your area achieve? Ans. Do it yourself. 11. Find out more about the life and work of any two participants or leaders of the national movement and write a short essay about them. You may choose a person not mentioned in this chapter. Ans. Do it yourself.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Indian National Congress (i) 1930 2. Partition of Bengal (ii) wahadat-i-deen 3. Direct Action Day (iii) 1905 4. Rajaji (iv) 1919 5. Dandi March (v) December 1885 6. Rowlatt Satyagraha (vi) 16 August 1946 7. Maulana Azad (vii) C. Rajagopalachari Ans. 1. (v),  2. (iii),  3. (vi),  4. (vii),  5. (i),  6. (iv),  7. (ii) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. The Arms Act was passed in _______________, disallowing Indians from possessing arms. 2. The ____________________________was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at Bombay in December 1885. 3. _______________________ raised the slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!” 4. In 1905 ____________________________________ partitioned Bengal.

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5. In 1919 Gandhiji gave a call for a _______________against the Rowlatt Act that the British had just passed. 6. In 1940 the _____________________had moved a resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country. Ans. 1. 1878,  2. Indian National Congress,  3. Bal Gangadhar Tilak,  4. Viceroy Curzon,  5. Satyagraha,  6. Muslim League III. State whether True or False: 1. Kesari, a Marathi newspaper edited by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, became one of the strongest critics of British rule. 2. Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact and decided to work together for representative government in the country. 3. Sarojini Naidu was the first Indian woman to become President of the Indian National Congress. 4. The radicals felt that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and justice, and so they would accept the just demands of Indians. 5. Civil disobedience movement was launched in 1930. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. False,  4. False,  5. True

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Who wrote the book – “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India” which offered a scathing criticism of the economic impact of British rule? (a) A.O. Hume (b) Dadabhai Naoroji (c) Mahatma Gandhi (d) Chitta Ranjan Das 2. Who was the first governor general of free India? (a) C. Rajagopalachari (b) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (c) Mohammad Ali Jinnah (d) Maulana Azad 3. Who was the founder of the Khudai Khidmatgars, a powerful non-violent movement among the Pathans of his province? (a) Maulana Azad (b) Subhas Chandra Bose (c) Baji Mohammed (d) Abdul Ghaffar Khan 4. Who raised the Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA) to free India from British control? (a) Lala Lajpat Rai (b) Subhash Chandra Bose (c) Mahatma Gandhi (d) Bhagat Singh 5. On learning about the atrocities of Jallianwala Bagh, which of the following renounced his knighthood? (a) Rabindranath Tagore (b) Balgangadhar Tilak (c) Lala Lajpat Rai (d) Dadabhai Naoroji Ans. 1. (b),  2. (a),  3. (d),  4. (b),  5. (a)

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VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. What is one key feature of nationalism? Ans. Sovereignty 2. When was the Vernacular Press Act passed? Ans. 1878 3. Which event united the moderates and radicals? Ans. Partition of Bengal 4. When was the Independence Day first observed? Ans. 26 January 1930 5. Which act granted provincial autonomy to India? Ans. Government of India Act 1935 6. What was the Rowlatt Act? Ans. Under the Act, the British were free to arrest the rebelling Indians without warrants or trials. 7. Why was the Non-Cooperation called off? Ans. The Chauri Chaura incident, where an agitated group of peasants set a police station on fire, was the reason why Gandhiji called off the movement. 8. What was the Cabinet Mission? Ans. The mission of 1946 that came to officially hand over power to the Indian leaders. 9. Who was Balgangadhar Tilak? What was his contributions to National Movement? Ans. He was a freedom fighter. He edited Kesary, a Marathi newspaper. It became strongest critics of British rule. 10. Define the term knighthood. Ans. Knighthood was an honour given by the British Crown for exceptional public service or personal achievement. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What was the Salt Law that Gandhiji broke? Ans. The British had complete control over the production and sale of salt. They imposed heavy salt taxes. Indians were prohibited from producing their own salt. This is the law Gandhiji broke through the Dandi March. 2. Who were Moderates? Ans. Moderates were those leaders who sought to expose the unjust practices and policies of the British through writing or speaking. Their mode of revolt was through discussion and deliberation not weapons. 3. Name some important political associations between 1857 and 1900. Ans. The important associations were: •• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha •• The Indian Association

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•• The Bombay Presidency Association •• The Indian National Congress •• The Madras Mahajan Sabha 4. What happened when the Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum? Ans. Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum through 1921–1922. During the period students left government schools and colleges. Eminent lawyers like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das gave up their practice. People returned British titles and honours given to them. Legislatures were boycotted. Bonfires of foreign clothes were lit and their imports were drastically reduced. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. How did the people from different classes and groups interpret Gandhiji’s call for satyagraha? Ans. In many cases, people resisted British rule non-violently. In others, different classes and groups, interpreting Gandhiji’s call in their own manner, protested in ways that were not in accordance with his ideas. In either case, people linked their movements to local grievances. •• In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British. •• In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed. •• In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants staged a number of ‘forest satyagrahas’. •• In Sind (now in Pakistan), Muslim traders and peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call. •• In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants – supported by the British – from their gurdwaras. •• In Assam, tea garden labourers, shouting ‘Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai’, demanded a big increase in their wages. •• In the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) managed to stop illegal eviction of tenants. 2. What was the purpose of the march to Dandi? Ans. According to the Salt law, the state had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. •• In 1930, Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march to break the salt law. •• Mahatma Gandhi along with other nationalists reasoned that it was sinful to tax salt since it was such an essential item of their food. •• The Salt March related the general desire of freedom to a specific grievance shared by everybody, and thus did not divide the rich and the poor. •• Gandhiji and his followers marched for over 240 miles from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi where they broke the government law by gathering natural salt found on the seashore, and boiling sea water to produce salt.

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3. What events led to the partition of India? Ans. The events which led to the partition of India were: •• From the late 1930s, the Muslim League began viewing the Muslims as a separate “nation” from the Hindus. •• The provincial elections of 1937 seemed to have convinced the League that Muslims were a minority, and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. •• The Congress’s rejection of the League’s desire to form a joint Congress League government in the United Provinces in 1937 also annoyed the League. •• In 1940, the Muslim League had moved a resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country. •• In 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India. The talks failed because the League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India’s Muslims. The Congress could not accept this claim since a large number of Muslims still supported it. •• In March 1946, the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India. It could not get the Congress and the Muslim League to agree to specific details of the proposal. Partition now became more or less inevitable. •• The Muslim League decided on mass agitation for winning its Pakistan demand. It announced 16 August 1946 as ‘Direct Action Day’. On this day riots broke out in Calcutta and violence spread to different parts of northern India. •• Many hundred thousand people were killed and numerous women had to face untold brutalities during the Partition. Millions of people were forced to flee their homes. Partition also meant that India changed, many of its cities changed, and a new country–Pakistan was born. Activity (Page 143) From the beginning the Congress sought to speak for, and in the name of, all the Indian people. Why did it choose to do so? Ans. The Congress, right from the beginning, demanded a greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration. That is why they spoke for all Indians. Activity (Page 144) What problems regarding the early Congress does this comment highlight? Ans. It reveals that the Congressmen were too complacent with the idea that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and justice, and so they would accept the just demands of Indians. They remained busy in their own personal work and their voice of protest was not strong enough.

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Activity (Page 146) Find out which countries fought the First World War. Ans. The Allies included Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States. These countries fought against the Central Powers which included Germany, Austria, Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. Activity (Page 148) Find out about the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. What is Jallianwala Bagh? What atrocities were committed there? How were they committed? Ans. The Jallianwalla Bagh is a public garden, located in Amritsar in Punjab. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on 13 April, 1919 when troops of the British Indian Army under the command of Colonel Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of Indians, who had gathered in Jallianwala Bagh. On hearing that a meeting had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, Dyer went with his regiment and they entered the garden, blocking the main entrance after them, took up position on a raised bank, and on Dyer’s orders fired on the crowd for about ten minutes, directing their bullets largely towards the few open gates through which people were trying to flee, until the ammunition supply was almost exhausted. The massacre killed almost 1000 people. Activity (Page 151) Read source 4: According to this report, how did people view Mahatma Gandhi? Why do you think they felt that he was opposed to zamindars but not to the government? Why do you think they were in favour of Gandhiji? Ans. According to this report, people viewed Gandhi as Mahatma or sadhu, a Pundit or even a Brahman. People felt he was opposed to zamindars because he got bedakhli stopped in Pratapgarh. They were in support of Gandhi because he felt for the common man, recognised their problems and fought for them.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. The literal meaning of ‘sarvajanik’ is ____________________. 2. Which act was passed in 1878? 3. Who was Naoroji? 4. It has often been said that the Congress in the first twenty years was ______________ in its objectives and methods. 5. Who partitioned Bengal in 1905?

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Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS A New and Divided Nation When India became independent in August 1947, it faced a series of very great challenges. The problems of the refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed immediately. The new nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by increasing the productivity of agriculture and by promoting new job-creating industries. Unity and development had to go hand in hand.

A Constitution is Written

How were States to be formed?

Between December 1946 and November 1949, the Indian Constitution was framed which came into effect on 26 January, 1950.

After independence, the Congress did not take any steps to honour the promise of giving each major linguistic group its own province.

One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of universal adult franchise.

Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against the creation of linguistic states.

A second feature of the Constitution was that it guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens, regardless of their caste or religious affiliation.

The strongest protests, however, came from the Telugu-speaking districts of what was the Madras Presidency.

The practise of untouchability was abolished.

On 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra came into being, which subsequently became Andhra Pradesh.

The Constitution brought forward three lists: Union, State, and Concurrent List. Hindi was made the official language of India.

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Planning for Development

The Nation, Sixty Years On

In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development.

On 15 August 2007, India celebrated sixty years of its existence as a free nation.

In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated which focused strongly on the development of heavy industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams.

India is still united and democratic. There is a free press, as well as an independent judiciary. However, despite constitutional guarantees, the Dalits face violence and discrimination. There is a great divide between the rich and the poor.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• India’s independence brought along many new challenges. There was a large population which was divided between caste, religion and language and there was immediate need for homes and jobs. There were princely states which had to be persuaded to join the mainstream. •• Between December 1946 and November 1949, a series of meetings were held at New Delhi which resulted in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950. Dr B.R. Ambedkar was Chairman of the Drafting Committee, under whose supervision the document was finalised. •• India chose to grant this right to all its citizens regardless of gender, class or education. •• The Constitution guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens, regardless of their caste or religious affiliation. •• The Constitution offered special privileges for the poorest and most disadvantaged Indians. •• The Constitution provided three lists of subjects: a Union List, with subjects such as taxes, defence and foreign affairs, which would be the exclusive responsibility of the Centre; a State List of subjects, such as education and health, which would be taken care of principally by the states; a Concurrent List, under which would come subjects such as forests and agriculture, in which the Centre and the states would have joint responsibility. •• While Hindi would be the ‘official language’ of India, English would be used in the courts, the services, and communications between one state and another. •• Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against the creation of linguistic states. But after the creation of Andhra, other linguistic communities also demanded their own separate states.

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•• In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development. •• In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated. This focused strongly on the development of heavy industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams. •• On 15 August 2007, India celebrated sixty years of its existence as a free nation. Contrary to the fears, linguistic states have not threatened the unity of India but deepened it.

III. KEYWORDS •• Provocation (noun): Action or speech that makes someone angry, specially deliberately. Origin: Middle English provocacioun. •• Autonomy (noun): The right or condition of self-government. Origin: Greek autonomos. •• Contradiction: (noun): A combination of statements, ideas or features which are opposed to each other. Origin: Latin contradictus. •• Devastation (noun): Great destruction or damage. Origin: Latin devastatus. •• Franchise: Franchise is defined as a right to vote. •• Linguistic: The concept related to language is called Linguistic. •• Gandhian: Follower of Gandhiji’s ideas and actions is called Gandhian. •• State: State is the concept related to Government. In other words state is the Government.

IV. DATE LINE •• •• •• •• •• ••

1945 August 1947 26 January, 1950 15 December 1952 1 October 1953 1960

•• 1966 •• 1950 •• In 1956

: : : : : :

United Nations was formed. India became independent. The Indian Constitution was framed. Potti Sriramulu died. the new state of Andhra came into being. The bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati speakers. : The state of Punjab was also divided into Punjab and Haryana. : The government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development. : the Second Five Year Plan was formulated.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 172–173) Let’s Imagine You are witness to an argument between an Adivasi and a person who is opposed to the reservation of seats and jobs. What might be the arguments you heard each of them put forward? Act out the conversation.

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ns. Adivasi: We need more reservations in the education and employment sector. A A person: What for? You have enough reservations already. Adivasi: No! We have been suppressed for generations. We are economically and socially backward till now. A person: God helps those who help themselves. Stop asking for reservations. Find out your path by studying hard, you will get jobs automatically. Adivasi: Things are not as easy as it may seem. We are poor and backward. We need more support. The government will surely assist us. Let’s Recall 1. Name three problems that the newly independent nation of India faced. Ans. Newly independent nation of India had to face many problems. The main problems were: •• There was a problem of providing homes and jobs to around 8 million refugees had come into the country from what was now Pakistan. •• Then there was the problem of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be persuaded to join the new nation. •• India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345 million, i.e., 34.5 crores which was divided between high castes and low castes, between the majority Hindu community and Indians who practised other faiths. •• The citizens of this vast land spoke many different languages, wore many different kinds of dress, ate different kinds of food and practised different professions. Bringing about unity in diversity was the major concern. 2. What was the role of the Planning Commission? Ans. The Planning Commission was set up in 1950 and it has been given the major role: •• The government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development. •• In the “mixed economy” model, planning commission was entrusted to decide which industries should be initiated by the state and which by the market, how to achieve a balance between the different regions and states. 3. Fill in the blanks: (a) Subjects that were placed on the Union List were _________, _________ and _________. (b) Subjects on the Concurrent List were _________ and _________. (c) Economic planning by which both the state and the private sector played a role in development was called a _________ _________ model. (d) The death of _________ sparked off such violent protests that the government was forced to give in to the demand for the linguistic state of Andhra. Ans. (a) taxes, defence, foreign affairs,  (b) forests and agriculture, (c) mixed economy, (d) Potti Sriramulu 4. State whether True or False: (a) At independence, the majority of Indians lived in villages. (b) The Constituent Assembly was made up of members of the Congress party.

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(c) In the first national election, only men were allowed to vote. (d) The Second Five Year Plan focused on the development of heavy industry. Ans. (a) True,  (b) False,  (c) False,  (d) True. Let’s Discuss 5. What did Dr. Ambedkar mean when he said that “In politics we will have equality, and in social and economic life we will have inequality”? Ans. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee and under his supervision the document was finalised. In his final speech, he said that “In politics we will have equality, and in social and economic life we will have inequality”. The reason for this statement was: •• Dr. Ambedkar pointed out that political democracy had to be accompanied by economic and social democracy. •• Giving the right to vote would not automatically lead to the removal of other inequalities such as between the rich and the poor, or between the upper and the lower castes. •• In politics, recognition of the principle of one man one vote and one value would continue but on the other hand, in social and economic life, by reason of social and economic structure, people shall be denied the principle of one man one value. 6. After Independence, why was there a reluctance to divide the country on linguistic lines? Ans. After Independence, there was a reluctance to divide the country on linguistic lines: •• India had been divided on the basis of religion. As a result of the partition of India, more than a million people had been killed in riots amongst Hindus and Muslims. •• Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against the creation of linguistic states. •• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel opined that everything which helps the growth of nationalism has to go forward and everything which throws obstacles in its way has to be rejected … “We have applied this test to linguistic provinces also, and by this test, in our opinion [they] cannot be supported.” •• The leaders feared dividing the country into linguistic states may threaten the unity of India. 7. Give one reason why English continued to be used in India after Independence. Ans. English continued to be used in India after Independence because: •• India being a country where many languages are spoken, imposing Hindi language on all non-Hindi speaking states could threaten the unity of the country. •• Speaking in the Assembly, T.T. Krishnamachari conveyed “a warning on behalf of people of the South”, some of whom threatened to separate from India if Hindi was imposed on them.

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8. How was the economic development of India visualised in the early decades after Independence? Ans. In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated. This focused strongly on the development of heavy industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams. •• These sectors would be under the control of the State. •• This focus on heavy industry, and the effort at state regulation of the economy was to guide economic policy for the next few decades. •• This approach had many strong supporters, but also some vocal critics. Let’s Do 9. Who was Mira Behn? Find out more about her life and her ideas. Ans. Mira Behn was Madeleine Slade—a British woman who left her home in Britain to live and work with Mohandas Gandhi, the leader of the Indian Independence Movement. Mira Behn was born into an aristocratic British family in 1892. She was very passionate about Beethoven’s music. She also visited Vienna and Germany to see the places where Beethoven had lived. After independence, she established the Pashulok Ashram near Rishikesh and a settlement named Bapu Gram and the Gopal Ashram in Bhilangana in 1952. She took to dairying and farming experiments in these ashrams and also spent a while in Kashmir. 10. Find out more about the language divisions in Pakistan that led to the creation of the new nation of Bangladesh. How did Bangladesh achieve independence from Pakistan? Ans. When the state of Pakistan was formed in 1947, East Pakistan and West Pakistan, were split along cultural and linguistic lines. On 23 February, 1948, the Government of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Pakistan. After years of conflict, the Central Government relented and granted official status to the Bengali language in 1956. The Bengali population under the leadership of Mujibur Rahman formed the Mukti Vahini. His efforts bore fruit and Bangladesh came into existence on 16 December, 1971.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following sentences: 1. Potti Sriramulu (i) taxes, defence and foreign affairs 2. Union List (ii) separate state for Telugu speakers 3. Concurrent list (iii) B.R. Ambedkar 4. Babasaheb (iv) forests and agriculture 5. Dharavi (v) world’s largest slum Ans. 1. (ii),  2. (i),  3. (iv),  4. (iii),  5. (v) II. State whether True or False: 1. The Indian Constitution came into effect on 26 January 1947. 2. Soon after Independence, India chose to guarantee this right to all its citizens regardless of gender, class or education.

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3. State List of subjects, such as education and health, would be taken care of principally by the states. 4. Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel supported the creation of linguistic states. 5. A third feature of the Constitution was that it offered special privileges to the poorest and most disadvantaged Indians. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. True,  4. False,  5. True III. Fill in the Blanks: 1. In 1950, the government set up a ____________________to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development. 2. ___________________, who was Chairman of the Drafting Committee, and under whose supervision the document was finalised. 3. All Indians above the age of _________ would be allowed to vote in state and national elections. 4. The Bhilai Steel Plant was set up with the help of the former Soviet Union in___________. 5. In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and ____________speakers. Ans. 1. Planning Commission,  2. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar,  3. 21,  4. 1959, 5. Gujarati

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The model whereby both the State and the private sector would play important and complementary roles in increasing production and generating jobs. (a) Combined Economy (b) Mixed Economy (c) Democracy 2. In 1966, the state of Punjab was also divided into Punjab and which state? (a) Rajasthan (b) Haryana (c) Uttar Pradesh 3. In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated. This focused strongly on: (a) Agriculture (b) Dairy (c) Heavy Industries 4. “Power rivalries and ideological conflicts between the USA and USSR with both countries creating military alliances.” What does this mean? (a) Cold War (b) Foreign Treaties (c) Second World War 5. The Constitution sought to provide Union List with subjects such as: (a) Agriculture (b) Defence (c) Education Ans. 1. (a),  2. (b),  3. (c),  4. (a),  5. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. When was the Constitution adopted? Ans. 26 January 1950

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2. Who was the last British governor general? Ans. Lord Mountbatten 3. Which two leaders were against creation of linguistic states? Ans. Jawaharlal Nehru and Vallabhbhai Patel 4. When were Punjab and Haryana divided? Ans. 1966 5. When did Andhra Pradesh come into being? Ans. 1 October 1953 6. Define Universal Adult Franchise. Ans. Universal Adult Franchise is the right to vote granted by the Indian Constitution to every citizen of India above the age of, initial 21, now 18, regardless of caste, class and gender. 7. Who was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar? Ans. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar is known as the architect of the Indian Constitution. He played the key role in drafting the Constitution. He fought for the lower and outcastes. 8. Who was the first chairman of the Planning Commission? What replaced it in 2014? Ans. Jawaharlal Nehru. Niti Ayog replaced the Planning Commission in 2014. 9. Which five-year plan focussed on heavy industries? Ans. The second five-year plan 10. Which practice was described as ‘slum and a blot’ on the fair name of India? Ans. Practice of ‘untouchability’ was described as ‘slum and a blot’ on the fair name of India. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What were the immediate results of the Partition of India? Ans. The immediate results after the partition of India were: •• Immediately after the partition, 8 million people came to the country searching for jobs and homes. •• There were almost 500 princely states whose rulers had to be persuaded to join the new nation. •• We had to adopt a political system which would fulfil the hopes and aspirations of its population. 2. Why was the nation in mourning within less than 6 months after independence? Ans. The nation was in mourning within less than 6 months after independence because on 30 January, 1948 Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse as he disagreed with Gandhiji’s conviction that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony. 3. What created problems in unifying the people of India after it got independence? Ans. The points that created problems were: (i) At the time of independence, India’s population was large. It was divided too. There were divisions between upper castes and lower castes, between the majority Hindu community and Indians who practised other faiths.

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(ii) The citizen of this country spoke different languages, wore different kinds of dresses, ate different kind of foods and practised different professions. 4. Why was Hindi made the official language of India? Ans. Hindi was to replace the English language all over India, however some leaders like T.T. Krishnamachari from South India strongly opposed the idea and threatened separation of states from the country. Hence, Hindi was made the official language of the central government. States could use their own laguages as official languages. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. How did different states come into being on the basis of languages? Ans. After the creation of Andhra Pradesh, other linguistic communities also demanded their own separate states. •• A States Reorganisation Commission was set up. It submitted its report in 1956, recommending the redrawing of district and provinicial boundaries form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu speakers respectively. •• The large Hindi-speaking region of north India was broken up into several states. •• A little later, in 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati speakers. •• In 1966, the state of Punjab was also divided into Punjab and Haryana. Punjab for the Punjabi speakers and Haryana for the rest who spoke Haryaanvi dialect or Hindi. 2. How can we say that Prime Minister Nehru was a great supporter of Five Year Plans? Ans. Prime Minister Nehru was a great supporter of five year plans. He wrote letters to the Chief Ministers of different states explaining his ideals and purposed the essence of the one such letter written on 22nd December was: •• Behind five year plans lies the conception of India’s unity. •• Our people must have the sensation of partnership. •• The plans and calculations made by economists are very important but the people are the life of the schemes. •• The plans made in cold prints should capture the imagination of the people. 3. Comment on, “The search for an independent foreign policy”. Ans. The search for an independent foreign policy •• India gained independence soon after the devastations of the Second World War. •• At that time a new international body—the United Nations was formed in 1945. •• The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of the Cold War, power rivalries and ideological conflicts between the USA and the USSR. •• Both the countries created military alliances.

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•• This was also the period when colonial empires were collapsing and many countries were attaining independence. •• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was also the foreign minister of newly independent India, developed free India’s foreign policy in this context. •• Non-alignment formed the bedrock of this foreign policy of India. •• Led by statesmen from Egypt, Yugoslavia, indonesia, Ghana and India, the non-alignment movement urged countries not to join either of the two major alliances. •• But this policy of staying away from alliances was not a matter of remaining ‘isolated’ or ‘neutral’. The former means remaining aloof from world affairs whereas non-aligned countries like India played an active role in mediating between the American and Soviet alliances. •• They tried to prevent war—often taking a humanitarian and moral stand against war. However, for one reason or another, many non-aligned countries including India got involved in wars (for example: one war with China and 3 wars with Pakistan). •• By the 1970s, a large number of countries had joined the non-aligned movement. Activity (Page 161) Imagine that you are a British administrator leaving India in 1947. You are writing a letter home where you discuss what is likely to happen to India without the British. What would be your views about the future of India? Dear Martha, I am coming back home. India is a free country now, no longer under the British rule. India is happy to achieve her long lost freedom at last. However, I feel she would not last. There are so many problems. It’s a huge country with huge language differences. There is inequality in status, castes, religions, tastes, language—you name it. It is like an amalgamation of multiple nations in one. Without the wise and authoritative British rule, India will get to nowhere. Yours Loving, Siddharth Activity (Page 163) Imagine a conversation between a father and son in a muslim family. After partition, the son thinks it would be wiser for them move to Pakistan while the father believes that they should continue to live in India. Taking information from the chapter so far (and Chapter 11), act out what each would say. Son : Let us go to Pakistan- it is our land. Father : Don’t be stupid. India is our motherland. We have lived here for ages. It’s the place where our forefathers lived. Son : Don’t you see? We will be killed anyways if we stay here longer. So many of our brothers have fled or died in the attempt.

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Father : I understand. But how can we embrace a nation which is unknown to us? Pakistan is alien to us. Son : Trust me, Abba. Pakistan is created for Muslims. We will have a majority there. Here, we belong to the minority group. It’s unsafe for us to live here anymore. Activity (Page 164) Discuss in your class one advantage and one disadvantage today of the decision to keep English as a language of India. Ans. Advantage: Indians learnt a new language which helped them advance in every field—education, employment, industries, etc. Disadvantage: Our own languages were neglected. Vernacular medium schools are very less in number with low population. Activity (Page 167) Look at Figs. 5(a), 5(b) and 5(c) in NCERT Book. Notice how the Princely states disappear in 5(b). Identify the new states that were formed in 1956 and later and the languages of these states. Ans. Odisha, West Bengal, Assam, Madras, Cochin and Andhra Pradesh were formed. Oriya, Bengali, Assamese, Tamil, Kannada and Telugu were the respective languages. Activity (Page 169) Discuss in your class whether Mira Behn was right in her view that science and machinery would create problems for human beings. You may like to think about examples of the effects of industrial pollution and de-forestation on the world today. Ans. Yes, I think Mira Behn was right. Science and machinery has made huge advancements, true. But it has also led to immense depletion of natural resources and has created life threatening problems of pollution, global warming, glacial meltdown etc. Our future generations will bear the burden of this great industrialisation and scientific advancements.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. In which year was the Second Five Year Plan? 2. Who killed Mahatma Gandhi? 3. After whose death was Andhra Pradesh created? 4. Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee? 5. A second feature of the Constitution was that it guaranteed ________ before the law to all citizens.

PART B: GEOGRAPHY

1

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Resources

Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Types of Resources Natural resources, on their basis of development and use, can be classified into two groups – actual resources and potential resources. Resources can be biotic or abiotic based on their origin. Natural resources can be renewable or non-renewable. Renewable resources are those which can be replenished quickly. For example—water and soil. Non-renewable resources are those which have a limited stock. On the basis of their distribution, resources can be ubiquitous or localised. Human Resources

Conserving Resources

People are human resources.

Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation.

Improving the quality of people's skills so that they are able to create more resources is known as human resource development.

Balancing the need to use resources and also conserving them for the future is called sustainable development.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Utility or usability is what makes an object or substance a resource. •• Time and technology are the two important factors that can change substances into resources. •• Resources that are drawn from nature and used without much modification are called natural resources. The air we breathe is a natural resource. •• Natural resources, on their basis of development and use can be classified into two groups–actual resources and potential resources. •• Actual resources are those resources whose quantity is known and can be used in the present.

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•• Potential resources are those whose entire quantity is not known and they can be used in the future. •• Resources can be biotic or abiotic based on their origin. •• Natural resources can be renewable or non-renewable. •• Renewable resources are those which can be replenished quickly. For examplewater and soil. •• Non-renewable resources are those which have a limited stock. They take a lot of time to get replenished. •• On the basis of their distribution, resources can be ubiquitous or localised. •• People use natural resources to make buildings, bridges, roads, machinery and vehicles, which are known as human made resources. •• Using resource carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation. •• Balancing the need to use resources and also conserving them for the future is called sustainable development.

III. KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

Natural Resource: Natural resources are those that are taken from nature. Abiotic Resource: An abiotic resource is a non-living resource. Biotic Resource: A biotic resource is a living resource. Utility: A substance has utility if it can be used in any possible way to satisfy our needs. Value: Worth of a substance assessed on the basis of utility. Patented (adj.): the exclusive right over an idea. Origin: unkown. Technology: Technology is the application of latest knowledge and skill in doing or marketing things. Renewable Resource: It can be used without any risk of its ending up because they existing unlimited quantity. Non-renewable Resource: Non-renewable resource is one which is present in limited quantity. Localised Resource: A resource that is found only in certain parts in the world and not anywhere. Resource (noun): anything that can be sued to satisfy a need. Origin: French resourse. Human Resource: Resources invented by human beings by using their intelligence are called human made resources. Stock of Resource: The amount of resource available for use is called its stock. Hydroelectricity (noun): relating to the production of electricity through water. Origin: unkown. Replenished (verb): to fill up. Origin: Old French repleniss. Sustainable Development: It is concept of using resources in a balanced way so that our purpose to solved, as well as they are conserved for the future.

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IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 6–8) 1. Answers the following questions: (i) Why are resources distributed unequally over the earth? Ans. Resources are distributed unequally over the earth because of varied of factors like different natural conditions and physical factors like terrain, altitude and climate. (ii) What is resource conservation? Ans. Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation. (iii) Why are human resources important? Ans. Human resources are important because humans are a special resource. Humans can make the best use of nature to create more resources when they have the knowledge, skill and the technology to do so. (iv) What is sustainable development? Ans. Sustainable development is the careful use of resources to meet the needs of the present as well as conserving them for the future generation. 2. Tick the correct answers: (i) Which of the following does NOT make substance a resource? (a) utility (b) value       (c) quantity (ii) Which of the following is a human-made resource? (a) medicines to treat cancer (b) spring water  (c) tropical forests (iii) Complete the statement. Biotic resources are (a) derived from living things (b) made by human beings (c) derived from non-living things Ans. (i) – (c); (ii) – (a); (iii) (a) 3. Differentiate between the followings: (a) Potential and actual resources

Ans.

Potential resources Actual resources 1. They are the resources whose 1. They are the resources whose entire quantity may not be quantity is known. known. 2. They are not being used at the 2. They are being used at the present. present but can be used in the future. 3. Example: Uranium found in 3. Example: Coal deposits in Ladakh. Ruhr region of Germany.

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(b) Ubiquitous and localised resources

Ans.

Ubiquitous resources Localised resources 1. The resources that are found 1. The resources that are found everywhere only in certain places 2. Example: Land, water, air 2. Example: Coal, iron ore, copper, etc.

4. Activity “Rahiman paani raakhiye, Bin paani sab soon, Paani gaye na ubere Moti, manus, choon…” [Says Rahim, keep water, as without water there is nothing. Without water, pearl, swan and dough cannot exist.] These lines were written by the poet Abdur Rahim Khankhana, one of the nine gems of Akbar’s court. What kind of resource is the poet referring to? Write in 100 words what would happen if this resource disappeared? Ans. The poet is referring to natural resource of water. Hints: Write about these points: •• Earth would become an arid space •• There would be no rainfall •• There would be no animal and plant life •• If there would be no plant life, there would be no oxygen •• Ultimately, humans would die without oxygen •• Marine ecosystem would suffer •• No vegetation would exist 5. For Fun (i) Pretend that you live in the prehistoric times on a high windy plateau. What are the uses you and your friends could put the fast winds to? Can you call the wind a resource? Ans. We cannot put the fast winds to any use since we can’t use any technology. Here, wind is not a resource. Now imagine that you are living in the same place in the year 2018. Can you put the winds to any use? How? Can you explain why the wind is an important resource now? Ans. We can put the wind into use by using wind mills to generate power. As the wind as a resource can be put into use to generate power, the wind becomes a resource. (ii) Pick up a stone, a leaf, a paper straw and a twig. Think of how you can use these as resources. See the example given below and get creative.

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You can use a stone To play stapu As a paper-weight To crush spices To decorate your garden/room To open a bottle In a catapult You can use a leaf To use as a spice To draw a figure In a flower pot

As a decorative piece

You can use a straw As fodder



As a decorative piece As a decorative piece

You can use a twig As a catapult To draw a figure As indicator

Use/utility

toy tool tool decorative piece tool weapon

Use/utility commodity drawing decorative piece tool food tool

weapon tool tool

Use/utility

Use/utility

V. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. comes from water and coal 2. found in Ladakh 3. Ruhr region of Germany 4. resources which have limited stock Ans. 1. (ii), 2. (iii), 3. (iv), 4. (i)

(i) non-renewable resources (ii) electricity (iii) uranium (iv) coal

II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. Anything that can be used to satisfy a need is a ___________. 2. All resources have some ____________. 3. ___________ and ______________ are two important factors that can change substances into resources. 4. _____________ resources are those resources whose quantity is known. 5. Natural resources are classified into different groups depending upon their level of development and ______; ______________; _________ and ______________.

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6. Based on their origin, resources can be _________ or ___________. 7. Natural resources can be broadly categorised into _____________ and ___________________ resources. 8. On the basis of their distribution resources can be _____________ or ____________. 9. Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called ______________. 10. People are ____________________. Ans. 1. resource,  2. value,  3. Time, technology,  4. Actual,  5. use, origin, stock, distribution, 6. biotic, abiotic, 7. renewable, non-renewable, 8. ubiquitous, localised,  9. resource conservation, 10. human resources III. State whether True or False: 1. Solar energy and wind energy are examples of potential resource. 2. Natural resources cannot be classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. 3. Wind is an example of natural resource. 4. Soils and rocks are biotic resources. 5. Technology is a human made resource. Ans. 1. False,  2. False,  3. True, 4. False,  5. True

VI. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Coal and petroleum are examples of (a) Potential resources (b) Renewable resources (c) Non-renewable resources 2. Which of the following is a special resource? (a) Human beings (b) Rocks (c) Iron ore 3. Localised resources are: (a) Found everywhere (b) Found in certain places (c) Found nowhere 4. Windmills are used to generate: (a) Electricity (b) Iron ore (c) Copper 5. Which of the following is a man-made resource? (a) Icebergs (b) Tropical forests (c) Medicine to treat cancer Ans. 1. (c);  2. (a);  3. (b);  4. (a);  5. (c)

VII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Questions: 1. What makes an object or substance a resource? Ans. Its utility or usability

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2. Which technology turns flowing water into an energy source? Ans. Hydroelectricity 3. How are resources classified on the basis of development and use? Ans. Actual and Potential 4. Where can you find windmill farm in India? Ans. Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu 5. The other name for resources found everywhere is? Ans. Ubiquitous resources. 6. What is a patent? Ans. It is an exclusive right on an invention 7. Why are people considered an important resource? Ans. It is people’s knowledge, education and inventions that lead to developments. 8. What are natural resources? Ans. Resources extracted from the nature and used without much processing are natural resources. Examples are water, air and land. 9. How can one conserve resources? Ans. Reducing, reusing, recycling are some ways in which resources can be conserved. 10. What is sustainable development? Ans. Using the resources in a way to meet present requirements while protecting them for future generations is called sustainable development. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What are natural resources? Give examples. Ans. Natural resources are the supply of something that a country or an organisation or a person can use to increase their wealth. Example: air, water, soil and minerals. 2. Differentiate between biotic and abiotic resources. Ans.

Biotic resources Abiotic resources 1. Resources which are living are 1. Non-living resources are called called biotic resources abiotic resources 2. Examples: plants and animals 2. Examples: soil, rocks and minerals

3. How are natural resources classified? Ans. They are classified into different groups: 1. Level of development 2. Origin 3. Stock 4. Distribution 4. On the basis of origin, classify natural resources. Ans. Based on their origin, resources are biotic or abiotic. •• Abiotic resources: Abiotic resources are non-living resources. Examples: Soils, rocks and minerals are abiotic. •• Biotic resources: These are living objects or substances. Examples: Plant and animals.

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5. What are factors affecting distribution of resources? Ans. • Physical factors like terrain, climate, and altitude affect the distribution of resources. •• The distribution of resources is unequal because these factors differ very much over the globe. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What are human resources? How are they developed? Ans. Human Resources and their Development. •• People make the best use of nature to create more resources with their knowledge, skill and the technology. •• Hence, human beings are special and most important resource. •• People are human resources.  Education and health help in making them a valuable resource.  Improvement in people’s skills to create more resources is termed human resource development.  Example: A carpenter, a teacher, an engineer, a skilled labourer, etc. 2. Enumerate six principles of sustainable development. Ans. Six Principle of Sustainable Development •• Respecting and caring for all forms of life. •• Improving the quality of human life. •• Conserving the earth’s vitality and diversity. •• Minimising the depletion of natural resources. •• Changing personal attitude and practices towards the environment. •• Enabling communities to care for their own environment. 3. What is the future of our planet? Ans. • The future of our planet and its people is linked with our ability to maintain and preserve the life support system that nature provides. •• It is our duty to ensure the following:  All the uses of renewable resources are sustainable.  The diversity of life on the earth is conserved.  The damage to natural environmental system is minimised. Let’s Do (Page 1) List out five resources you use in your home and five you use in your classroom. Ans. Home- water, cotton cloth, electricity, radio, gas Classroom- paper, electricity, textbook, chalk, pen Activity (Page 2) Circle those resources from Amma’s list that are regarded as having no commercial value. Ans. Medical knowledge, beautiful scenery, old folk songs, good weather, grandmother’s home remedies, affection from friends and family. Let’s Do (Page 3) Think of a few renewable resources and mention how their stock may get affected by overuse. Ans. Water: Overuse of water results in wastage. Forest: Cutting down trees from forests results in deforestation.

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Let’s Do (Page 4) Make a list of five human made resources that you can observe around you. Ans. Buildings, bridges, roads, auto, bus Activity (Page 2) Circle those resources from Amma’s list that are regarded as having no commercial value. Amma’s list 1. Cotton cloth 2. Iron ore 3. Intelligence 4. Medicinal plants 5. Medical knowledge 6. Coal deposits 7. Beautiful scenery 8. Agricultural land 9. Clean environment 10. Old folk songs 11. Good weather 12. Resourcefulness 13. A good singing voice 14. Grandmother’s home remedies 15. Affection from friends and family Ans. The following items do not have commercial value: 3. Intelligence 7. Beautiful scenery (natural) 9. Clean environment 10. Old folk songs 11. Good weather 12. Resourcefulness 14. Grandmother’s home remedies 15. Affection from friends and family Some of these indirectly affect the commercial value of other items like intelligence, old folk songs, grandmother’s home remedies.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. People are _______ resources. 2. What is resource conservation? 3. Name one renewable resource. 4. Non-renewable resources are those which have a _________stock. 5. Based on their _____ resources can be abiotic or biotic.

2 Chapter

Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources I.  BASIC CONCEPTS

Land Use Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries. The use of land is determined by physical factors such as topography, soil, climate, minerals and availability of water. People and their demands are ever growing but the availability of land is limited. Factors of Soil Formation

Conservation of Land Resource

The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock and climatic factors.

Afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of chemical pesticide and fertilisers and checks on overgrazing are some of the common methods used to conserve land resources.

Other factors are topography, role of organic material and time taken for the composition of soil formation.

Degradation of Soil and Conservation Measures Factors which lead to soil degradation are deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilisers or pesticides, rain wash, landslides and floods. Some methods of soil conservation are mulching, contour barriers, rock dam, terrace farming, intercropping, contour ploughing and shelter belts. Water

Natural Vegetation and Wildlife

Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Only 1 per cent of fresh water is deemed fit for human use.

In the biosphere living beings are interrelated and interdependent on each other for survival. This life supporting system is known as ecosystem.

Discharge of industrial effluents, agricultural chemicals or untreated sewage are major contaminants of water.

Animals big or small, all are integral to maintaining balance in the ecosystem.

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Conservation of Water Resources

Distribution of Natural Vegetation

Discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents in water bodies are major contaminants.

The growth of vegetation depends primarily on temperature and moisture. The major vegetation types of the world are grouped as forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra.

Water pollution can be controlled by treating these effluents suitably before releasing them in water bodies.

Forests ar e broadly c ategorised evergreen and deciduous depending on when they shed their leaves.

Conservation of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife In our planet, many species of animals are on the verge of extinction due to many natural and man-made factors. One of the major factors is poaching. National parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves have been made to protect our natural vegetation and wildlife. Many countries have passed laws against the trade as well as killing of birds and animals. CITES, which is an international agreement between government aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants do not threaten their survival.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Land is the most important resource as it sustains different forms of life. It covers 30 per cent of the earth. •• Land resources can be conserved by afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of fertilisers and checks on overgrazing. •• Soil formation depends on a variety of factors such as the nature of parent rock, climactic factors, relief, time and flora, fauna and micro-organisms. •• Factors which lead to soil degradation are overgrazing, deforestation, rain wash, fertilisers, landslides and floods. •• Some methods like mulching, terrace farming, rock dams, intercropping, contour ploughing, contour barriers and shelter belts can be used for soil conservation. •• Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Only 1 per cent of fresh water is deemed fit for human use. •• Discharge of industrial effluents, agricultural chemicals or untreated sewage are major contaminants of water. •• Water harvesting, sprinklers, drip irrigation are methods which are useful for conserving water. •• The growth of vegetation depends primarily on moisture and temperature. •• The major vegetation types of the earth are forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra.

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•• Forests are broadly classified as evergreen and deciduous depending on when they shed their leaves. •• In our planet, many species of animals are on the verge of extinction due to many natural and man-made factors. One of the major factors is poaching. •• National parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves have been made to protect our natural vegetation and wildlife. •• Many countries have passed laws against the trade as well as killing of birds and animals. •• CITES, which is an international agreement between government aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

III. KEYWORDS •• Soil: The upper most layer of the earth’s crust, fragmented and useful for growing plants. •• Not Sown Area: The agricultural land which is cultivated every year. •• Cultivated Land: The land which is continuously under cultivation. •• Pastures: Pastures are the portions of the land covered with grass shrubs on which animals grazed freely in the natural environment. •• Groundwater: Water which is obtained from a depth of more than 15 metres is known as groundwater. •• Cubic Water: The space of one metre long, one metre wide and one metre thick is known as cubic water. •• Hydro-electricity: It is the power or energy produced or generated with the help of running and falling water. •• Biomas: Groups of plant communities in areas having similar climatic conditions. •• Private Land: It is owned by individuals. •• Community Land: It is owned by the community for common uses. •• Desertification (noun): the process by which an area becomes a desert. Origin: unknown. •• Conjunction (noun): a situation in which two or more things happen at the same time. Origin: Middle English, from Latin conjunctus. •• Havoc (noun): a situation in which there is destruction or confusion. Origin: Middle English havok. •• Dwindling (verb): to gradually become smaller. Origin: Old English dwinan. •• Vulnerable (adj.): open to attack or harm. Origin: Late Latin vulnerabilis. •• Creeks (noun): a small stream. Origin: Middle English crike.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 22–23) 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Which are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil formation? Ans. Temperature and rainfall

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(ii) Write any two reasons for land degradation today. Ans. Deforestation and overgrazing (iii) Why is land considered an important resource? Ans. Land is considered an important resource because a variety of different activities are carried out on land like agriculture, forestry, mining etc. (iv) Name any two steps that government has taken to conserve plants and animals. Ans. Steps taken by the government to conserve plants and animals: •• Awareness programs like social forestry and Vanamohatasava. •• Construction of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. (v) Suggest three ways to conserve water. Ans. Three ways to conserve water are as follows: •• Water harvesting •• Planting more trees to prevent surface runoff •• Drip or trickle irrigation 2. Tick the correct answers: (i) Which one of the following is NOT a factor of soil formation? (a) Time (b) Soil texture (c) Organic matter (ii) Which one of the following methods is most appropriate to check soil erosion on steep slopes? (a) Shelter belts (b) Mulching (c) Terrace cultivation (iii) Which one of the following is NOT in favour of the conservation of nature? (a) Switch off the bulb when not in use. (b) Close the tap immediately after using. (c) Dispose polypacks after shopping. Ans. (i) (b), (ii) (c), (iii) (c) 3. Match the following: (i) Land use (a) prevent soil erosion (ii) Humus (b)  narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere (iii) Rock dams (c) productive use of land (iv) Biosphere (d) organic matter deposited on top soil (e) contour ploughing Ans. (i) – (c),  (ii) – (d),  (iii) – (a),  (iv) – (b) 4. State whether the given statement is True or False. If True, write the reasons. (i) Ganga-Brahmaputra plain of India is an overpopulated region. Ans. True. Reason – The region Ganga-Brahmaputra plain is a fertile land due to which agriculture is the main occupation. Also, since agriculture is the main occupation, it has developed agricultural industries. (ii) Water availability per person in India is declining. Ans. True. Reason – It is due to overpopulation, pollution and water overuse

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(iii) Rows of trees planted in the coastal areas to check the wind movement is called intercropping. Ans. False (iv) Human interference and changes of climate can maintain the ecosystem. Ans. False 5. Activity Discuss some more reasons which are responsible for changes of land use pattern. Has your place undergone any change in the land use pattern in recent years? Find out from your parents and elderly people. You can conduct an interview by asking the following questions: Place

Rural Number of cattle and poultry owned Number of trees and ponds in the village Main occupation of the head of the family Urban Number of cars owned Number of rooms in the house Number of metalled roads Number of flyovers in the city Number of parks and playgrounds

When your When your Why do you grandparents parents were think this is were in their in their 30s happening? 30s

Are common areas and open spaces disappearing?

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Based on the table you have just completed, draw a picture of land use, patterns that you foresee in your neighbourhood after 20 years. Why do you think that land use patterns change over the years? Ans. Reasons responsible for change of land use pattern: •• Population is growing and the availability of land is limited. •• Encroachment of land is taking place to build up housing complexes and shopping complexes in urban areas and agriculture in rural areas. Place

When your When your Why do you grandparents parents were think this is were in their in their 30s happening? 30s

Are common areas and open spaces disappearing?

Rural Number of cattle 3 cattle per and poultry family owned

none

Shifting jobs from agriculture

yes

Number of trees Ponds- 7 and ponds in the Trees- many village

Ponds- 4 Number of trees reduced

Increasing population

yes

Main occupation agriculture of the head of the family

Worker in factories

Due to unproductive land

Few families had 1 car

Increase in income

Urban Number of cars owned

none

Number of rooms in the house

5

3

Nuclear family

yes

Number of metalled roads

1

4

Urbanisation and initiative of government

yes

Number of flyovers in the city

none

3

Due to overpopulation and road congestion

yes

Number of parks and playgrounds

A few

many

Due to population growth

yes

Land use patterns change over the years because: •• Increase in population •• Change in occupation and lifestyle

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V. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Vanamohatasava (i) cold Polar Regions 2. CITES (ii) saves surface runoff 3. Tundra vegetation (iii) an international agreement between governments 4. Water harvesting (iv) awareness program Ans. 1. (iv),  2. (iii),  3. (i),  4. (ii) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. Human factors such as ________________________ and ___________________ are also important determinants of land use pattern. 2. _____________ are simply defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. 3. ____________ determines thickness of soil profile. 4. ______________ is a method of soil conservation. 5. Fresh water accounts for only _____________ of the earth. 6. Countries located in _________________ most susceptible to droughts face great problems of water scarcity. 7. Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere that we call ____________. 8. Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a ____________. 9. Forests are broadly classified as ____________ and __________________ depending on when they shed their leaves. 10. The ______________ have been established that lists several species of animals and birds in which trade is prohibited. Ans. 1. population, technology, 2. Landslides,  3. Time,  4. Intercropping,  5. 2.7 per cent,  6. climatic zones,  7. biosphere,  8. scavenger,  9. evergreen, deciduous,  10. cites III. State whether True or False: 1. Human interference and changes of climate are good for the ecosystem. 2. Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. 3. Killing of tigers in India is legal. 4. Land degradation, landslides and soil erosion are major threats to the environment. 5. The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called biosphere. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. False,  4. True,  5. False

VI. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which of these is not a factor of soil formation? (a) Climate (b) Time

(c) Atmosphere

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2. A massive landslide occurred in this region: (a) Himachal Pradesh (b) Kolkata (c) Puri 3. Which of these is a method of soil conservation? (a) Deforestation (b) Mulching (c) Overgrazing 4. Which of the following is a major contaminant of water? (a) Industrial effluents (b) Soil (c) Leaves and twigs 5. This is an important factor for the growth of vegetation: (a) Weather (b) Terrain (c) Moisture Ans. 1. (c),  2. (a),  3. (b),  4. (a),  5. (c)

VII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. What per cent of the Earth is land? Ans. 30% 2. What is the term used for the distribution or physical features of a region? Ans. Topography 3. Land owned by a community is called? Ans. Common property resources 4. Land on which agriculture is possible is called? Ans. Arable Land 5. What is the contact zone of land, water and air called? Ans. Biosphere 6. Why are plains and river valleys densely populated? Ans. They are suitable for agriculture due to fertility of soil and easy access to water resources. 7. List some threats to environment that occur due to agricultural expansion and construction activities? Ans. Landslides, soil pollution, soil erosion, desertification etc. 8. List some factors of soil formation? Ans. Factors could be climatic, nature of parent rock, topography etc. 9. Name any two methods of soil conservation? Ans. Mulching and Intercropping 10. State one way in which underground water is recharged? Ans. Forest and vegetation covers slow down water run-off which percolates into the soil and recharges the underground water. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What are the common methods used for conserving land resources? Ans. Common methods for conserving land resources are: •• Afforestation •• Land reclamation

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•• Regulated use of chemical pesticide and fertilisers •• Checks on overgrazing 2. What is soil? What are the factors of soil formation? Ans. The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called soil. The factors of soil formation are: •• Nature of parent rock •• Climate •• Relief •• Flora, fauna and micro-organism •• Time 3. Explain water cycle. Ans. The total volume of water on the earth is constant. Its abundance only seems to vary because it is in constant motion, cycling through the oceans, the air, the land and back again, through the processes of evaporation, precipitation and run-off. This entire process is known as water cycle. 4. What are the factors leading to shortage in fresh water supply? Ans. The factors leading to shortage in fresh water supply are: •• Increasing population •• Rise in demands for food and cash crops •• Increasing urbanisation •• Rising standards of living 5. Write about evergreen forest and deciduous forest? Ans. Evergreen forests: They do not shed their leaves simultaneously in any season of the year Deciduous forests: They shed their leaves in a particular season to conserve loss of moisture through transpiration 6. Why are some species of animals on the verge of extinction? Ans. Many species are on the verge of extinction due to the following reasons: •• Deforestation •• Soil erosion •• Constructional activities •• Forest fires •• Tsunami •• Landslides •• poaching 7. What are the causes of forest fires? Ans. The following reasons are the main causes of forest fires: •• natural fire due to lightning •• fire generated due to the heat generated in the litter due to carelessness of people •• Fire purposely caused by local inhabitants or mischief makers.

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C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What is land used for? What are the factors of land use? Ans. Land is used for different purposes such as: •• Agriculture •• Forests •• Mining •• Building homes and roads •• Setting up industries The physical factors of land use are: •• Topography •• Soil •• Climate •• Minerals •• Availability of water The human factors are: •• Population •• Technology 2. What are landslides? Mention some mitigation techniques for landslides. Ans. Landslides can be defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. Some mitigation techniques of landslides are as follows: •• Hazard mapping to locate areas prone to landslides. These areas can be avoided for building settlements •• Construction of retention wall to stop land from slipping •• Increase in vegetation cover to arrest landslide •• The surface drainage control works to control the movement of landslide along with rainwater and spring flows. 3. Explain three methods of soil conservation. Ans. Soil conservation can be done by applying the following methods: •• Mulching—the bare ground between plants is covered with a thin layer of organic matter like straw. This process helps to retain soil moisture. •• Rock dams—rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water which prevents gullies and further soil loss. •• Intercropping—different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash. Activity (Page 14) In India soils could be alluvial, black, red, laterite, desertic and mountain soil. Collect a handful of different types of soil and observe. How are they different? Ans. Alluvial – good consistency black soil – a bit sticky in texture red soil- red in colour and good consistency laterite soil-rich in iron and aluminium Desertic soil – dry in nature mountain soil-rich in humus

Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

Activity (Page 16) An average urban Indian uses about 150 litres of water everyday. Use Drinking Cooking Bathing Flushing Washing clothes Washing utensils Gardening Total

Litres per person per day 3 4 20 40 40 20 23 150

Can you suggest some ways to bring down this amount? Ans. 1. Use less water 2. Use bucket instead of shower when bathing. 3. Do not leave tap open while washing utensils and brushing. 4. Start rainwater harvesting.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. What are rock dams? 2. What are the factors of soil formation? 3. What is land use? 4. Name one major threat of the environment. 5. Name a few contaminants of water.

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Mineral and Power Resources

Chapter

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Types of Minerals On the basis of composition, minerals are classified mainly as metallic and non-metallic minerals. Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form. Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth's surface is called mining.

Distribution of Minerals

Power Resources

Minerals occur in different types of rockigneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Conventional sources of energy are those which have been in common use for a long time. Firewood and fossil fuels are the two conventional energy sources.

China and India have large iron ore deposits. Europe is the leading producer of iron ore. The mineral deposits in North America are located in three zones-the Canadian region, the Appalachian region and the mountain ranges of the west.

Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels. Coal is used for generating thermal power while petroleum is called Black Gold as it is very valuable.

Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron ore in the world.

Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface.

Africa is the world's largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum.

Hydel power is also a conventional source of energy.

Australia is the largest producer of bauxite.

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Non-conventional Sources of Energy Non-conventional sources of energy include solar, wind and tidal energy. Solar energy is trapped in solar cells to produce electricity. Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy. Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radio active elements. Heat energy obtained from earth is called geothermal energy. Energy generated from tides is called tidal energy. Organic waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Minerals are not distributed evenly all over the world but are concentrated in particular areas of rock formations. •• Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying conditions. •• On the basis of their composition, minerals can be classified as metallic and non-metallic minerals. •• The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining. •• Power or energy is a vital resource which we need in industries, agriculture, transport, communication and defense. •• Power resources can be categorised as conventional and non-conventional energy sources. •• Conventional sources of energy comprise firewood, coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydel power. •• Non-conventional sources of energy comprise sola, nuclear, wind, geothermal, tidal energy and biogas. •• The increasing usage of fossil fuels is leading to shortage in their reserves which is the reason why preference is being given to non-conventional sources of energy.

III. KEYWORDS •• Mining: It is a process of extraction of taking out minerals from rocks under the earth’s surface. •• Mineral: Mineral is a natural chemical compound that is uniform in composition and structure. •• Mineral Ore: Mineral ore is the raw metal extracted from the earth mixed with earth and other impurities. •• Petroleum: It is a thick black liquid fossil fuel found layers of rocks and drilled from oil fields.

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•• Thermal Power: The electricity obtained from coal. •• Coal: It is fossil fuel that was formed million years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the layers of the earth. •• Solar Cell: They are devices to convert solar energy into electricity. •• Bores (verb): A cylindrical hole. Origin: Middle English boren. •• Strata (noun): layer. Origin: unknown •• Ferns (noun): A kind of plant having large leaves. Origin: Old English fearn. •• Derivatives (noun): Something that is a result of something else. Origin: unknown. •• Windfarm (noun): An area of land with a lot of wind mills for producing electricity. Origin: unknown. •• Fission (verb): Splitting up od atomic nucleus. Origin: Latin fission.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 37–38) 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Name any three common minerals used by you every day. Ans. salt, iron and copper (ii) What is an ore? Where are the ores of metallic minerals generally located? Ans. Rocks from which minerals are mined are called ores. Ores of metallic minerals are located in igneous or metamorphic rocks. (iii) Name the two regions rich in natural gas resources. Ans. Jaisalmer and Krishna-Godavari Delta. (iv) Which sources of energy would you suggest for (a) rural areas (b) coastal areas (c) arid regions   Ans.  (a) Solar energy, (b) Tidal energy, (c) Wind energy (v) Give five ways in which you can save energy at home. Ans. We can save energy at home by: •• switching off lights when not in use •• turning off lights during day time •• keeping gas cylinders off at home when not in use •• replacing old wire fittings •• using biogas as cooking fuel 2. Tick the correct answers: (i) Which one of the following is NOT a characteristic of minerals? (a) They are created by natural processes (b) They have a definite chemical composition (c) They are inexhaustible (d) Their distribution is uneven. (ii) Which one of the following is NOT a producer of mica? (a) Jharkhand (b) Rajasthan (c) Karnataka (d) Andhra Pradesh (iii) Which one of the following is a leading producer of copper in the world? (a) Bolivia (b) Chile (c) Ghana (d) Zimbabwe

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(iv) Which one of the following practices will NOT conserve LPG in your kitchen? (a) Soaking the dal for some time before cooking it. (b) Cooking food in a pressure cooker. (c) Keeping the vegetables chopped before lighting the gas for cooking. (d) Cooking food in an open pan kept on low flame. Ans. (i) (c), (ii) (b), (iii) (c), (iv) (d) 3. Give reasons: (i) Environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before building huge dams. Ans. Building of huge dams causes displacement of local people. Also, it causes destabilisation of the natural habitats of flora and fauna which thrives in that area. (ii) Most industries are concentrated around coal mines. Ans. Since coal is used as means of power to generate electricity as used as a domestic fuel in industries, most industries are concentrated around coal mines. (iii) Petroleum is referred to as “black gold”. Ans. Petroleum is its crude form look as a thick black liquid and since it is very valuable, it has been given the name “Black Gold”. (iv) Quarrying can become a major environmental concern. Ans. Quarrying is a major concern since a lot of dust is raised from quarrying activities and it also causes deforestation. 4. Distinguish between the following: (i) Conventional and non-conventional sources of energy. Ans.

Conventional sources Non-conventional of energy sources of energy 1. Conventional sources of 1. These sources of energy energy are those which have generally been have been used for a long recognised in the recent time. past. 2. These sources of energy 2. They are inexhaustible in are exhaustible nature. 3. The use of these sources 3. They are generally of energy often cause pollution-free. pollution. 4. Examples: firewood, coal, 4. Examples: Solar energy, petroleum, natural gas, wind energy, tidal energy, hydel power. nuclear energy, biogas, geothermal energy.

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(ii) Biogas and natural gas Ans.

Biogas Natural gas 1. Biogas is obtained from 1. It is obtained from human and animal wastes, petroleum deposits. farm wastes and shrubs. 2. It is mainly used in 2. It is used as a form rural areas for domestic of energy, as a fuel in purposes. electricity generation and as a raw material is fertiliser plants. 3. It can be produced 3. It is produced in Jaisalmer, anywhere in India since Krishna Godavari delta, the materials from which Tripura and some areas it is obtained is readily offshore Mumbai in India. available.

(iii) Ferrous and non-ferrous minerals Ans.

Ferrous minerals Non-ferrous minerals 1. Ferrous minerals have 1. Non-ferrous minerals do iron content in them. not have any iron content in them. 2. Examples: Iron ore, 2. Examples: copper, tin, manganese, chromium. gold, silver.

(iv) Metallic and non-metallic minerals Ans.

Metallic minerals Non-metallic minerals 1. Metallic minerals contain 1. They do not contain metal in raw form. metals. 2. Examples: Iron ore, 2. Examples: Limestone, bauxite, manganese. mica, gypsum.

5. Activity (i) Use pictures from old magazines to show different kinds of fuels used by us in our daily lives and display them on your bulletin board. (ii) Design a poster highlighting energy conservation tips you would take for your school. (iii) Salma’s class took up an action campaign to do an energy audit of their school by surveying electricity consumption. They prepared survey sheets for the students of the school.

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139

Electricity Audit Sl. no.

Appliance

1.

Fluorescent Tube light 40 W

2.

Incandescent Bulb 40 W/60 W

3.

Co-impact fluorescent lamps

4.

Fans

5.

Exhaust fans

6.

Electric bell/ Buzzer

7.

TV

8.

Computers

9.

Air Conditioners

10.

Refrigerators

11.

Oven/Hot Case

12.

Public Address System

13.

Water Pump/Water Cooler

14.

Overhead Projector

15.

Photostat Machine

16.

Any other

Quantity (No. being used)

Usage time (Approx No. of working hours)

Quantity (No. actually needed)

Is it switched on even when not in use? (yes or no)

Using the data collected during the survey, students calculated the units consumed for one month and the approximate expenditure and compared it with the electricity bill of the previous month. They also calculated the approximate cost of electricity consumed by fans, lights and other appliances not switched off. Thus, they highlighted the amount that could be saved and suggested simple energy conservation habits like: •• Switching off the appliances when not in use. •• Minimal usage as per requirement. •• Maximising the use of natural breeze and light by keeping the windows open. •• Keeping the lights dust-free. •• The appropriate maintenance and usage of appliances as per the given instructions.

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Can you add some more tips to this list? You could conduct a similar survey at home and then extend it to your apartment and make your neighbours also energy-wise. Ans.

Electricity Audit

Sl. No.

Appliance

Quantity (No. being used)

Usage time (Approx No. of working hours)

Quantity (No. actually needed)

Is it switched on even when not in use? (yes or no)

1.

Fluorescent Tube light 40 W

42

6

50

Yes

2.

Incandescent Bulb 40 W/60 W

20

6

40

Yes

3.

Co-impact, fluorescent lamps

4.

Fans

60

6

70

Yes

5.

Exhaust fans

20

6

40

No

6.

Electric bell/ Buzzer

6

6

6

No

7.

TV

10

6

14

Yes

8.

Computers

35

6

50

Yes

9.

Air Conditioners

10

6

15

Yes

3

6

3

No

10.

Refrigerators

11.

Oven/hot case

12.

Public Address System

4

2

4

Yes

13.

Water Pump/Water Cooler

3

2

3

No

14.

Overhead Projector

2

3

4

No

15.

Photostat Machine

—

—

—

—

16.

Any other

V. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Black Gold 2. ferrous minerals 3. Coal 4. mica Ans. 1. (iv),  2. (iii),  3. (i),  4. (ii)

(i) thermal power (ii) non-metallic mineral (iii) contains iron (iv) petroleum

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II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. Minerals are formed in different types of ________________________ environments, under varying conditions. 2. ____________ and natural gas occur far below the Earth’s surface. 3. Although more than 2,800 types of minerals have been identified, only about 100 are considered __________ minerals. 4. Generally, metallic minerals are found in _____________ and ______________ rock formations. 5. Europe is the leading producer of ___________ in the world. 6. __________________ used in the computer industry is obtained from quartz. 7. Heat energy obtained from the earth is called __________________ energy. 8. _______________ have been used for grinding grain and lifting water since times immemorial. 9. ________________ is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. 10. One fourth of the world’s electricity is produced from _________ power. Ans. 1. geological, 2. Petroleum,  3. ore,  4. igneous, metamorphic, 5. iron-ore, 6. Silicon,  7. geothermal,  8. Wind mills,  9. Natural gas,  10. hydel III. State the followings are True or False: 1. Nuclear energy generates radioactive wastes. 2. Energy generated form tides as called geothermal energy. 3. Minerals are equally divided across the globe. 4. USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants. 5. The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called quarrying. Ans. 1. True,  2. False,  3. False,  4. True,  5. False

VI. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Minerals which contain metal in their raw form are called: (a) Ferrous minerals (b) Metallic minerals (c) Non ferrous minerals 2. Deep bores which have to be made to reach mineral deposits at great depths are known as: (a) Drills (b) Lofts (c) Shafts 3. The Caucasus region of France has deposits of which non-metallic mineral? (a) Limestone (b) Sandstone (c) Copper 4. Europe is the leading producer of (a) Mica (b) Gypsum (c) Iron-ore 5. Which continent is the world’s largest producer of diamonds? (a) India (b) USA (c) Africa Ans. 1. (b),  2. (c),  3. (a),  4. (c),  5. (c)

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VII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Questions 1. What kind of ores are Manganese and Chromites? Ans. Ferrous Ores 2. Where are metallic minerals usually found? Ans. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 3. Which country leads in production of lead, antinomy and tungsten? Ans. China 4. Which metal is obtained from Bauxite? Ans. Aluminium 5. What is referred to as buried sunshine? Ans. Coal 6. How are minerals found in nature? Ans. They are found concentrated in an area or in rock formations 7. What are the types of mining? Ans. Open-cast mining, shaft mining, drilling and quarrying are some types mining types. 8. Why is it important to reduce wastage in process of mining minerals? Ans. It takes years for the minerals to form, hence it must be extracted in the most efficient way. 9. Why can fossil fuels exhaust? Ans. The rate of extraction and consumption of fossil fuels is far higher than its rate formation and replenishment. 10. Why is petroleum called black gold? Ans. Because not only petroleum but also its by products are valuable in the market. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What is open cast mining? Ans. Minerals lie inside the earth’s surface. Those minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer. This process is known as open-cast mining. 2. Which minerals are found in Antarctica? Ans. The following minerals are found in Antarctica: •• Coal •• Gold •• Iron •• Silver •• Iron-ore •• Oil 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of biogas? Ans. Advantages of biogas: •• Low cost •• Easy to operate •• Makes use of biowaste

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Disadvantages of biogas: •• It causes greenhouse effect 4. Explain physical properties of mineral. Ans. Physical properties: Colours density, and hardness. (i) Coal is black and brown. (ii) Quartz is red, black, pink or purple. On the basis of hardness, a mineral may be as soft as talc. A mineral can be as hard as a diamond. 5. Define the terms – one and alloy. Ans. • Oral is the raw material extracted from the earth mixed with impurities. •• Alloy is material that is composed of two or more different metals. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Name and describe briefly the method of extraction. Ans. Mining, drilling and quarrying are methods of extraction. Mining is a process of extraction minerals from rock under the earth’s surface. Open Last Mining: Minerals lying at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer. Shaft Mining: Deep bores are made to reach the mineral deposits lying at large depths. Drilling: Deep wells are bored to take out minerals. Quarrying: It is the process of extraction in which the minerals lying very close to the surface are extracted just by digging. 2. How is hydro electricity generated? Ans. The process of generating hydroelectricity is as follows: •• Stored rain or river water is made to fall from great heights •• The falling water flows through pipes inside the dam over turbine blades placed at the bottom of the dam. •• The moving blades turn the generator to produce hydro electricity. 3. Why is there a need to use non-conventional sources of energy? Ans. There is a great need to use non-conventional sources of energy because: •• The use of fossil fuels has increased at an alarming rate and its continuous use will lead to its shortage. •• The reserves of the fossil fuels will get exhausted in the near future. •• The use of fossil fuels also causes environmental pollution. •• Hence, there is a need to use non-conventional sources of energy. Let’s Do (Page 27) Identity the Canadian Shield, the Appalachians, Western Cordilleras and Lake superior with the help of an Atlas. Ans. Students do with the help of teacher or parents.

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Let’s Do (Page 28) With the help of an Atlas, on an outline map of India, mark the distribution of iron, bauxite, manganese and mica. Ans.

Mineral and Power Resources

Let’s Do (Page 29) List uses of any five minerals. Ans. Iron: used in the railway industry Copper: used for making copper wires Gold: used for making ornaments Mica: used in the electrical industry Silicon: used in the computer industry

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Name the world’s largest producer of diamonds. 2. Name the world’s largest producer of high grade iron ore. 3. Name the world’s largest producer of bauxite. 4. Is limestone a metallic or non-metallic mineral? 5. Coal is referred to as ____________.

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Agriculture

Chapter

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Types of Farming Subsistence farming is a type of farming practised to meet the needs of the farmer's family. Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting and nomadic herding. In commercial farming, crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market. In mixed farming, the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock. Plantations are a type of commercial farming where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown. Major Crops

Agricultural Development

Rice is the major food crop in the world.

Agricultural development refers to as the efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing population.

Wheat, millet, maize and cotton are grown extensively in India. Jute is known as 'Golden Fibre'. Tea and coffee are the beverages grown widely in India.

This can be achieved in many ways such as increasing cropped areas, the number of crops grown, improving irrigational facilities, use of fertilisers and high yielding varieties of seeds.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• The transformation from a plant to a finished product requires three types of economic activities – primary, secondary and tertiary activities. •• Agriculture is a primary activity wherein 50 per cent of the world’s population is engaged. •• Two thirds of India’s population is dependent on agriculture.

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•• Soil and climate are the two conditions of favourable topography which are vital for agricultural activity. •• Farming can be classified into two main types—subsistence farming and commercial farming. •• Subsistence farming is practised to meet to needs of the farmer and his family. •• In intensive subsistence agriculture, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour. •• Shifting cultivation is a farming system where farming is done by shifting from one place to another. It is also called ‘slash and burn’ agriculture since land is cleared by felling trees and then burning them. •• Nomadic herding is practised by herdsmen moving with their families and animals along defined routes. •• In commercial farming, crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in the market. •• Plantation is a type of commercial farming where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown. •• Major food crops are wheat, rice maize and millets. The fibre crops are wheat and rice, beverage crops are tea and coffee.

III. KEYWORDS •• Primary Activities: Activities which involved direct extraction and production of natural resources. •• Secondary Activities: Activities which are concerned with possessing of natural resources. •• Tertiary Activities: Activities which provide support to primary and secondary sectors through services. They do not use natural resources directly. •• Mixed Farming: In which crops are raised and livestock are kept on the farm to have animal products. •• Food Crops: Crops like rice, wheat, maize, millets are called food crops. •• Fiber Crops: Crops like jute and cotton are called fibre crops. Their usage is not as food. •• Nomading Herding: This is the type of farming in which herdsmen move from place to place with their livestock in search of fodder and water. •• Arable (adj.): Fir for growing crops. Origin: Latin arabilis. •• Constraints (noun): Something that limits or restricts something. Origin: Middle French constrainte •• Loamy Soil (adj.): A type of soil that is good for growing plants. Origin: Middle English lom. •• Thresher (noun): a machine for separating grain crops into grain or seeds. Origin: unknown. •• Leveller (noun): a kind of machine. Origin: unknown.

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IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 48–49) 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What is agriculture? Ans. Agriculture is a primary activity which includes growing of crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock. (ii) Name the factors influencing agriculture. Ans. The factors influencing agriculture are favourable topography of soil and climate. (iii) What is shifting cultivation? What are its disadvantages? Ans. Shifting cultivation is a process where agricultural activities are shifted from one place to another when the soil of the former field loses its fertility. The disadvantages of shifting agriculture are: •• Deforestation •• Soil erosion (iv) What is plantation agriculture? Ans. Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming where: •• a single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown. •• large amount of labour and capital are required. •• the produce may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories. (v) Name the fibre crops and name the climatic conditions required for their growth. Ans. Jute and cotton are fibre crops. The conditions required for jute are: •• Alluvial soil •• High temperature •• Heavy rainfall •• Humid climate The conditions required for cotton are: •• High temperature •• Light rainfall •• Two hundred and ten frost free days •• Bright sunshine •• Black and alluvial soil 2. Tick the correct answers. (i) Horticulture means (a) Growing of fruits and vegetables (b) Primitive farming (c) Growing of wheat (ii) Golden fibre refers to (a) tea (b) cotton (c) jute (iii) Leading producers of coffee (a) Brazil (b) India (c) Russia Ans. (i) (a), (ii) (c), (iii) (a)

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3. Give reasons. (i) In India, agriculture is a primary activity. Ans. Agriculture is a primary activity in India because: •• Two-thirds of India’s population is dependent on agriculture •• India’s tropical climate and suitable topography aids in cultivation •• Agriculture feeds millions of Indians (ii) Different crops are grown in different regions. Ans. Different crops are grown in different regions because of varying climate, rainfall, soil and humidity which are different in different regions and each requirement of a single crop is unique. 4. Distinguish between the following: (i) Primary activities and tertiary activities Ans.

Primary activities Tertiary activities 1. It includes those activities 1. It includes all those which are linked with activities which provide extraction and production support to primary and of natural resources. secondary sectors through services. 2. Examples: agriculture, 2. Examples: banking, trade, fishing and gathering. transport, insurance and advertising.

(ii) Subsistence farming and intensive farming Ans.

Subsistence farming Intensive farming 1. It is a type of farming where 1. In this type of farming, the farmer cultivates to farmer cultivates a small sustain himself and his plot of land. family members. 2. Household labour is used. 2. More labour is required for this method of farming.

5. Activity (i) Collect seeds of wheat, rice, jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, oilseeds and pulses available in the market. Bring them to the class and find out in which type of soil they grow. Ans. wheat – well-drained loamy soil rice – alluvial clayey soil jowar – desert soil bajra – desert soil ragi – desert soil maize – well-drained fertile soil oilseeds – alluvial, black soil pulses – alluvial soil

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(ii) Find out the differences between the lifestyle of farmers in the USA and India on the basis of pictures collected from magazines, books, newspapers and the Internet. Ans. Comparison between lifestyles of a farmer in USA and India Farmers in India Farmers in USA 1. Farmers own 1.5 hectares of 1. Farmers own 250 hectares of land in an average. land in general. 2. Farmers are mostly tenants. 2. Farmers have freehold ownership. 3. No regular soil testing 3. Regular soil testing is happens. conducted for nutrient deficiency. 4. Mainly food crops are grown. 4. Specialised farming like corn, soya bean, wheat, cotton etc. 5. Lack of scientific knowledge. 5. Use of latest scientific knowledge and satellites for information. 6. Lack of good transport and 6. Better transport and communication. communication. 6. For Fun Solve the crossword puzzle with the help of given clues: 1

2

3 4

6

5 7

8

9 10

11 12

14

13

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Across: 1. Crop that needs well drained fertile soils, moderate temperatures and lots of sunshine (5) 2. Increasing production through use of HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers and pesticides (5,10) 4. USA, Canada, Russia, Australia are major producers of this crop (5) 10. Type of farming to meet family needs (11) 13. Rearing of animals for sale (9) 14. Growing grapes for wines (11) Down: 1. Coarse grains are also called (7) 3. Cultivation involving slash and burn (8) 5. Growing of crops, fruits and vegetables (11) 6. Tea, coffee, sugarcane and rubber are grown in (11) 7. Requires 210 frost-free days for growth (6) 8. Growing of flowers (12) 9. Also called ‘Golden Fibre’ (4) 11. Also known as paddy (4) 12. Activity concerned with extraction of natural resources (7) Ans. Across Down 1. maize 1. millets 2. green revolution 3. shifting 4. wheat 5. agriculture 10. subsistence 6. plantation 13. livestock 7. cotton 14. viticulture 8. horticulture 9. jute 11. rice

V. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Sri Lanka (i) Primary activities 2. Viticulture (ii) Farms, farms animals, and farmers together 3. Fishing (iii) Cultivation of grapes 4. Farming ecosystem (iv) Famous for rubber plantation. 5. Coarse grains (v) Millets Ans. 1. (iv),  2. (iii),  3. (i),  4. (ii),  5. (v) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. In ____________ the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour. 2. _________________ herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.

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3. Shifting cultivation is known as ____________ in North-East India. 4. The land on which the crops are grown is known as __________ land. 5. ___________ and ___________ are fibre crops. Ans. 1. Intensive subsistence agriculture,  2. Nomadic,  3. Jhumming, 4. Arable,  5. Jute, cotton III. State whether True or False: 1. Cotton requires 210 frost-free days for its growth. 2. Rice is called ‘Golden Fibre’. 3. Tea requires cool climate and well distributed rainfall throughout the year. 4. Pisciculture is the commercial rearing of silkworms. 5. Shifting agriculture is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. Ans. 1. True,  2. False, 3. True,  4. False,  5. True

VI. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. In this type of farming, organic manure and natural pesticides are used: (a) Shifting agriculture (b) Plantation agriculture (c) Organic farming 2. In this type of farming, the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock: (a) Mixed farming (b) Jhumming (c) Subsistence farming 3. Which of these is NOT a tertiary activity? (a) Banking (b) Ploughing (c) Transport 4. The cultivation of grapes is known as: (a) Sericulture (b) Horticulture (c) Viticulture 5. Which of these is NOT a technique of subsistence farming? (a) Clearing of land by felling trees (b) Use of household labour (c) Use of low levels of technology Ans. 1. (c),  2. (a), 3. (b),  4. (c),  5. (a)

VII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. What is arable land? Ans. The land on which agriculture is possible. 2. Subsistence farming is classified into? Ans. Intensive and Primitive subsistence farming. 3. Name any two commercial crops. Ans. Maize and Wheat 4. What is jute popularly known as? Ans. Golden Fibre

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5. Which country leads the production of Coffee? Ans. Brazil 6. State one difference between intensive subsistence farming and commercial farming. Ans. Intensive subsistence farming is more labour-intensive and uses simple tools whereas commercial farming uses large machines. 7. What are Plantations? Ans. They are a kind of commercial farming where a single crop is grown. It is labour- and capital-intensive. 8. What is agricultural development? Ans. It is the adoption of methods and policies to increase agricultural yield and quality to meet the growing demands. 9. Name some major agriculture crops. Ans. Major crops are—Food crops, Fibre crops, beverage crops, plantation crops. 10. Name the different variant of world culture. Ans. Different variant of world culture: Agriculture, sericulture, pisciculture, viticulture, horticulture. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Name the major agricultural crops. Ans. Food crops: Rice, wheat, millets and maize. Fibre crops: Jute and cotton. Beverage crops: Tea and coffee. Plantation crops: Rubber. 2. What are the characteristics of a farm system? Ans. The following are the characteristics of a farm system: •• The important inputs are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and labour. •• The operations involved in farming are ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding and harvesting. •• The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy and poultry products. 3. What are the conditions required for growing rice? Ans. The following are the conditions for growing rice: •• High temperature •• High humidity •• High rainfall •• It grows best in alluvial clayey soil which can retain water 4. Explain the conditions required for growing coffee. Ans. These are the conditions required for growing coffee: •• Warm and wet climate •• Well drained loamy soil •• Hill slopes are most suitable for growing coffee 5. What is meant by tertiary activities? Ans. The activities which provide support to primary and secondary activities through services. Examples: Transport, track communication, banking insurance, teaching, advertising, etc.

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6. What is shifting cultivation? Ans. Shifting cultivation is a farming method in which a plot of land is cleared by cutting or burning the vegetation. The ash strengthens the soil. After the fertility exhausts, the land is abandoned and left to replenish while farmers move on to other land. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Explain nomadic herding. Ans. Nomadic herding is a practice where herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water, along defined routes. •• It is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. •• Nomadic herding is mainly practised due to climatic constraints and terrain. •• Sheep, camel, goats and yaks are most commonly reared and their products feed the families and provide wool and hide. 2. What are the characteristics of commercial grain farming? Ans. The following are the characteristics of commercial grain farming: •• Crops are grown for commercial purpose and animals are reared for sale in the market. •• Large area is cultivated. •• Amount of capital required is heavy. •• Most of the work is done by machines. •• It includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation agriculture. •• Wheat and maize are common commercially grown grains. •• It is practised in the temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia. •• These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hectares. 3. What do you mean by Agricultural Development? Ans. Agricultural Development refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing population. This can be achieved in many ways: •• Increasing the cropped area •• Increasing the number of crops grown •• Improving irrigational facilities •• Use of fertilisers •• Use of high yielding varieties of seeds.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Name some important crops. 2. What is horticulture? 3. Write the requirement of plantation agriculture. 4. What is Nomadic herding? 5. What is known as Green Revolution?

5

Industries

Chapter

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Classification of Industries Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership. Agro-based industries use plant and animal-based products as their raw materials. Mineral-based industries are primary industries that use mineral ores as their raw materials. Based on size, industries can be small-scale industries or large-scale industries. Industries can be classified into private sector, state owned or public sector, joint sector and cooperative sector. Factors Affecting the Location of Industries The factors affecting the location of industries are the availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and market. Cotton Textile Industry

Iron and Steel Industry

The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world.

The inputs for the industry include raw materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone along with labour, capital, site and other infrastructure.

The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854. Ahmedabad became the second largest textile industry of India, after Mumbai. In Japan, Osaka is an important cotton textile centre. It is known as “Manchester of Japan”.

In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and market. All the important steel producing centres are located in Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela and Bokaro.

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Information Technology The information technology industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution of information. The main factors guiding the location of these industries are resource availability, cost and infrastructure. The major hubs of IT industry are the Silicon Valley, California and Bengaluru, India. Bengaluru is located on the Deccan Plateau from where it gets the name 'Silicon Plateau'. There are other emerging information technology hubs in metropolitan centres of India such as Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad and Chennai.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of good, extraction of minerals or the provision of services. •• Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership. •• On the basis of raw materials, industries can be agro-based, mineral-based, marine-based or forest-based industries. •• On the basis of size, industries can be small-scale or large-scale industries. •• On the basis of ownership, industries can be classified into private sector, state-owned or public sector, joint sector and cooperative sector. •• Factors influencing the location of industries are the availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and market. •• The world’s major industries are the iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the information technology industry. •• The iron and steel industry is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw materials for other industries. •• Steel is often called the backbone of modern industry because steel is used in almost everything. •• In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and market. •• The Tata Iron and Steel Industry or TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai. Later Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur. •• Geographically, Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country. •• The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world. •• The first successful mechanised textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854. •• After Mumbai, another cotton textile mill was soon established in Ahmedabad in 1859. It soon became the second largest textile city of India. •• Osaka, an important textile centre of Japan, is also known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’.

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•• The information technology is an emerging industry which deals in storage, processing and distribution of information. Today, this has become a global industry. •• The major hubs of the IT industry are the Silicon Valley, California and Bengaluru, India.

III. KEYWORDS •• Manufacturing: Refers to changing raw materials to a usable form, which can be more valuable to people. •• Product: A product is something obtained from raw materials certain processes. •• Agro-based Industries: Industries which use plant and animal based product as raw material. •• Mineral-based Industries: Industries which use mineral ores as raw material. •• Merine-based Industries: Industries which use sea and ocean products as raw material. •• Forest-based Industries: Industries which use forest produce as raw material. •• Small-scale Industries: Industries which run on little capital and infrastructure. •• Large-scale Industries: Industries which run on large amount of capital and have a big infrastructure. •• Private Sector Industries: These are owned by individual or a group of individuals. •• Public Sector Industries: These are owned and operated by government. •• Joint Sector Industries: These are industries are owned and operated by both governments and individuals jointly. •• Cooperative Sector Industries: Cooperative sector industries are those industries which are owned and operated by producers and suppliers of raw materials, workers or both. •• Smelting: Smelting is process in which metals are extracted from their ores by heating beyond the melting point. •• Refining: It is the process of yielding the highest possible purity of metal obtained from mineral. •• Textile: The term ‘textile’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘texere’ which means to weave. •• Steel: It is an alloy of iron obtained from the iron ore. •• Alloy (noun): A metal made by melting or mixing two or more metals. Origin: French aloi. •• Pulp Mill: A manufacturing facility that converts plant fibre into a thick fibre board. Origin: unknown •• Pharmaceuticals (noun): Relating to a drug or medicine. Origin: Late Latin pharmaceuticus.

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•• Infrastructure (noun): Basic equipment. Origin: unknown •• Ancillary (adj.): Something additional to the main part. Origin: unknown.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 63-65) 1. Answer the following questions. (i) What is meant by the term ‘industry’? Ans. Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services. (ii) Which are the main factors which influence the location of an industry? Ans. Main factors influencing the location of an industry are as follows: •• Availability of raw material •• Power •• Land •• Capital •• Water •• Transport •• Labour •• Market (iii) Which industry is often referred to as the backbone of modern industry and why? Ans. Steel industry is often called the backbone of modern industry because of the following reasons: •• La •• Almost everything we use is either made of iron or steel or has been made with tools and machinery of these metals •• Ships, trains, autos and trucks are largely made of steel •• Tiny things like safety pins and needles are also made of steel •• Oil wells are drilled with steel machinery •• The oil is transported in steel pipelines •• Minerals are mined with steel equipment •• Farm machines are made from steel •• Large buildings have steel framework (iv) Why cotton textile industry rapidly expanded in Mumbai? Ans. Cotton textile industry rapidly expanded in Mumbai because of the following reasons: •• Mumbai has a warm and moist climate which is excellent for growing cotton •• The Mumbai port was useful for importing machinery •• Availability of raw material •• Lot of skilled labour was available (v) What are the similarities between information technology industry in Bangaluru and California? Ans. Similarities between information technology industry in Bangaluru and Silicon Valley in California: •• Both the cities have skilled and experienced workforce •• They have lots of educational, scientific and technological centres •• Both the cities have clean environments

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•• Both the places have favourable climate throughout the year •• They are located close to major roads, markets and airports 2. Tick the correct answer: (i) Silicon Valley is located in (a) Bengaluru (b) California (c) Ahmedabad (ii) Which one of the following industries is known as sunrise industry? (a) Iron and steel industry (b) Cotton textile (c) Information technology (iii) Which one of the following is a natural fibre? (a) Nylon (b) Jute (c) Acrylic Ans. (i) (b), (ii) (c), (iii) (b) 3. Distinguish between the followings: (i) Agro-based and mineral based industry Ans.

Agro-based industry Mineral-based industry 1. They are industries which 1. They are industries which obtain raw materials from obtain minerals as raw agriculture. materials. 2. Examples: food processing, 2. Examples: iron and vegetable oil, cotton steel industry, aluminium texture, dairy products industry. and leather industries.

(ii) Public sector and joint sector industry Ans.

Public sector industry Joint sector industry 1. They are owned and ope- 1. They are owned and rated by the government. operated by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. 2. Examples: Indian Rail- 2. Examples: Maruti Udyog ways, Steel Authority of Limited. India Limited.

4. Give two examples of the following in the space provided: (i) Raw Materials: _______________ and _______________. (ii) End products: __________________ and ___________________. (iii) Tertiary activities: ________________ and ________________. (iv) Agro-based industries: _______________ and _______________. (v) Cottage industries: __________________ and ______________. (vi) Co-operatives: __________________ and _________________. Ans. (i) Iron ore, limestone, (ii) Iron, steel, (iii) Banking, transport, (iv) Jute, sugar,  (v) Basket weaving, pottery,  (vi) Sudha Dairy, Anand Milk Union Limited

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5. Activity (i) How to identify a location for establishing an industry? Ans. Divide your class into groups. Each group is a Board of Directors faced with the problem of choosing a suitable site for an iron and steel plant of Developen Dweep. A team of technical experts have submitted a report with notes and a map. The team considered access to iron ore, coal, water and limestone, as well as the main market, sources of labour and port facilities. The team has suggested two sites, X and Y. The Board of Directors has to take a final decision about where to locate the steel plant.

•• Read the report submitted by the team. •• Study the map to find out the distances of the resources from each site. •• Give each reasource a ‘weight’ from 1 to 10, according to its importance. The greater the ‘pull’ of the factor on the industry, the higher the weight from 1 to 10. •• Complete the table on the next page. •• The site with the lowest total should be the most satisfactory site. •• Remember each group of directors can decide differently.

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Report Factors/resources affecting the location of a proposed iron and steel plant on Developen Dweep. Ans. • Iron ore: This is a very large deposit of low grade iron ore. Long distance transportation of the ore would be uneconomic. •• Coal: The only coalfield contains rich deposits of high grade coal. Transportation of the coal is done by railway, which is relatively cheaper. •• Limestone: This is widely available over the island, but the purest deposits are in Chuna Mountains. •• Water: Both the tributaries of River Nile carry sufficient water to supply a large iron and steel plant in all seasons. The sea water because of its high salt content is unsuitable. •• Market: It is expected that the chief market for the plant’s products will be the engineering works of Rajdhanipur. Transport costs for the products— mainly small steel bars and light steel plates would be relatively low. •• Labour supply: This will have to be recruited mainly from the unskilled workers in the 3 fishing villages of Hil, Rah and Sing. It is expected that most workers will commute daily from their present homes. •• Port facilities: These are at present minimal. There is a good, deep natural harbour at port Paschimpur developed to import metal alloys. Resource

Distance Distance Weighting* Distance* Distance* from X from Y 1-10 weight weight for site X for site Y

Iron ore Coal Limestone Water Chief market Labour supply Total =

*the larger the pull, the higher the weighing.

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Ans. Resource

Distance Distance Weighting* Distance* Distance* from X from Y 1-10 weight weight for site X for site Y

Iron ore

6

2

1

6

2

Coal

10

16

1

10

16

Limestone

11

5

2

22

10

Water

1

1

2

2

2

Chief market

20

25

5

100

125

Labour supply

6

12

3

24

36

Total =

164

191

Site X is more suitable.

V. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Steel (i) Silicon Plateau of India 2. Basket weaving (ii) Backbone of modern industry 3. Bangaluru (iii) First successful mechanised textile mill 4. Mumbai (iv) Cottage industry Ans. 1. (ii), 2. (iv), 3. (i), 4. (iii) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. _____________ give steel unusual hardness, toughness, or the ability to resist rust. 2. __________________ industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both. 3. Ahmedabad is located on the banks of the river ______________ in Gujarat. 4. _________________ use products from the sea and oceans as raw materials. 5. TISCO was started in 1907 at ____________ , near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai. Ans. 1. Steel,  2. Co-operative sector, 3. Sabarmati, 4. Marine based industries,  5. Sakchi III. State the following are True or False: 1. Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country.

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2. Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the limestone industry for their basic infrastructure. 3. Durgapur is an important steel producing centre in India. 4. Sudha Dairy is an example of a joint sector industry. 5. Ahmedabad is referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’. Ans. 1. True,  2. False,  3. True,  4. False,  5. True

VI. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which city is known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’? (a) Taipei (b) Osaka (c) Tokyo 2. Which of the following is one of the oldest industries in the world? (a) Jute (b) Steel (c) Cotton 3. Which one of the following is NOT an important steel producing centre in India? (a) Srinagar (b) Durgapur (c) Bokaro 4. Which of the following is NOT an industrial region of India: (a) Mumbai-Pune cluster (b) Meghalaya-Assam belt (c) Hugli region 5. In Pittsburgh, the iron ore comes from the iron mines at: (a) Los Angeles (b) Chicago (c) Minnesota Ans. 1. (b),  2. (c),  3. (a),  4. (b),  5. (c)

VII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Which industries use animal products as raw material? Ans. Agro-based industries 2. State any two examples of large-scale industries. Ans. Heavy machinery and automobile production 3. Which sector does Hindustan Construction Company belong to based on ownership? Ans. Joint Venture 4. Which material is often called the backbone of modern industries? Ans. Steel 5. Which company had monopoly over iron and steel production before independence? Ans. TISCO

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6. How does a finished product have more value than a raw material? Ans. From the first stage of production to the final stage, a raw material undergoes a lot of value addition which makes the final product much more useful than the raw material. 7. Why are mineral based industries primary industries? Ans. It is because, the products of these industries are used as raw materials in other industries. They are also called feeder industries. 8. What are joint-sector industries? Ans. Companies that are jointly owned by the public and the private player. 9. Why are alloys made? Ans. Alloys offer additional strength, durability, corrosion resistance. 10. Why were iron and steel plants located on seaports? Ans. Iron ores were imported from overseas. To reduce transportation costs, iron and steel industries were located near seaports. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What do you understand by the term ‘industry’? Ans. It is an economic activity that is related to production of goods (iron and steel industry) or extraction of minerals (coal mining). Provision of services also come under this category (tourism). 2. What were the disadvantages of the traditional hand woven cotton textile industry in India? Ans. The disadvantages of the traditional hand-woven cotton textile industry in India were: •• Production of hand-woven cotton textile was expensive •• Production required a lot of time •• It could not face competition with the newer and faster textile mills of the West •• In the West, the mechanised textile mills produced cheap and good quality fabrics. 3. What are the inputs of the iron and steel industry? Ans. The inputs of the iron and steel industry are: •• Raw materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone •• Labour •• Capital •• Site and other infrastructure 4. What are forest-based industries? Ans. Forest-based industries utilise forest produce as raw materials. The industries associated with forests are pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture and buildings.

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5. What are government incentives for location of industries in backward areas? Ans. • Subsidised power •• Lower transport costs. •• This leads to development and growth of towns. •• Other infrastructure. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Why is Pittsburgh an important steel city of the USA? Ans. The reasons why Pittsburgh emerged as an important steel city of the USA are as follows: •• Pittsburgh enjoys several locational advantages •• Raw materials like coal is available locally •• Iron ore comes from the iron mines at Minnesota, about 1500 km from Pittsburgh •• Between Pittsburgh and these mines lies the Great Lakes waterway which is one of the world’s best routes for shipping ore cheaply. •• Trains carry the ores from the Great Lakes to the Pittsburgh area •• Rivers Ohio, Monogahela and Allegheny provide abundant water supply. 2. Why was Sakchi chosen for establishing TISCO? Ans. Sakchi was chosen for establishing TISCO because: •• Sakchi was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway line. •• It was close to iron ore, coal and manganese deposits. •• It was close to Kolkata which provided a huge market. •• Because of its location, TISCO would get its coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, dolomite, manganese and limestone from Odisha and Chhattisgarh. •• Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers would provide abundant water supply. 3. What is information technology? What are the main factors guiding the location of these industries? Ans. Information technology industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution of information. The main factors guiding the location of these industries are: •• resource availability •• cost •• infrastructure Activity (Page 50) Trace the journey of your shirt from a cotton field to your wardrobe. Ans. Journey of shirt from cotton field to our wardrobe •• Cotton •• Ginning

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166 •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

Spinning of thread Weaving Cloth to market from mills Selling of cloth Tailoring Stitching Packing Buying by customers Wardrobe

Activity (Page 51) Give some examples of agro based industries. Ans. Food processing, dairy products, textile industries are agro based industries. Activity (Page 52) Find out the inputs, outputs and processes involved in the manufacture of leather shoe. Ans. • Inputs: leather, labour, land cost, power •• Output: leather shoe Activity (Page 57) With the help of an atlas identify some iron and steel industries in India and mark their location on an outline map of India. Ans. Bolero, Burnpur, Bhilai, Jamshedpur, Rourkela and Durgapur. Activity (Page 60) Collect different types of pieces of cloth from a tailor’s shop and classify them under cotton, silk, synthetic and woollen. Find out the raw materials used in their manufacturing. Ans. Cloths

Raw material

1. Cotton

Cotton

2. Silk

Silkworm, cocoons

3. Synthetic

Synthetic fibre

4. Woollen

Wool

Activity (Page 61) Bengaluru has some important public sector industries and research institutions. Find out the full forms of the organisations listed below: BEL, BHEL, HAL, NAL, DRDO, ISRO, ITI, IISc, NCBS and UAS Ans. • BEL : Bharat Electronics Limited • BHEL : Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited

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• HAL : Hindustan Aeronautics Limited • NAL : National Aeronautics Limited • DRDO : Defence Research Development Organisation • ISRO : Indian Space Research Organisation • ITI : Industrial Training Institute • IISC : Indian Institute of Science • NCBS : National Centre for Biological Sciences • UAS : University of Agricultural Sciences

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Which city is located on the bank of the river Sabarmati? 2. What is the city of Bengaluru called? 3. Which city is called ‘Manchester of Japan’? 4. Name a manmade fibre. 5. Which is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country?

6

Human Resources

Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Distribution of Population The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is known as the pattern of population distribution. More than 90 per cent of the world's population lives in about 30 per cent of the land surface. Some areas are very crowded while some are sparsely populated. Sixty per cent of the world's population stays in just 10 countries. Factors Affecting Distribution of Population The geographical factors that affect the distribution of population are topography, climate, soil, water and minerals. Others include social, cultural and economic factors.

Patterns of Population Change Rates of population growth vary across the world. Although the world's population is rising rapidly, not all countries are experiencing this growth. In UK, population growth is slowing down due to low death and birth rates.

Population Change Population change refers to change in the number of people during a specific time. The world population has increased manifold due to changes in the number of births and deaths. Birth rate is the number of live births per 1000 people. Death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 people. The population increase in the world is mainly due to rapid increase in natural growth rate. Migration is another way in which population size changes.

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Population Composition Population composition refers to the structure of the population. The composition of population helps us know how many are males or females, which age group they belong to, how educated they are and what types of occupation they are employed in. An interesting way of studying the population composition of a country is by looking at the population pyramid. The shape of the population pyramid tells the story of the people living in that country. It also tells us how many dependants are there in the country.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• People are a nation’s greatest resource because they are able to harness nature’s bounty in a useful way. •• However, human resources are not equally distributed over the world. •• The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is known as the pattern of population distribution. •• More than 90 per cent of the world’s population lives in about 30 per cent of the land surface. •• Sixty per cent of the world’s population stays in just 10 countries. •• Population density is the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface. South Central Asia has the highest density of population followed by East and South East Asia. •• Factors affecting distribution of population are topography, climate, soil, water, minerals as well as social, cultural and economic factors. •• Population change refers to change in the number of people during a specified time. •• In 1804, the world’s population reached one billion and in 1999 the population doubled to 6 billion. •• Births and deaths are the natural causes of population change. •• The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country is known as the natural growth rate. •• The population increase in the world is mainly due to rapid increase in natural growth rate. •• Migration is another way in which population size changes. •• The general trend of international migrations is from the less developed nations to the more developed nations in search of better employment opportunities. •• Population composition refers to the structure of population. •• An interesting way of understanding the population composition of a country is by looking at the population pyramid. •• The shape of the population pyramid helps us understand the story of the people living in that particular country.

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•• The population pyramid of a country in which birth and death rates both are high is broad at the base and rapidly narrows at the top. •• In countries where death rates, especially among the very young are decreasing, the pyramid is broad in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to reach adulthood. This can be seen in India. •• India has relatively a large number of young people which means a strong and expanding labour force.

III. KEYWORDS •• Population: The total number of persons living in a certain area. •• Birth Rate: It refers to number live births per 1000 people every year. •• Death Rate: It refers to number of dead people per thousand of persons per year. •• Migration: Migration is the movement of people in and out of area. •• Natural Death Rate: Difference between the birth and death rate. •• Manifold (adj.): many and various. Origin: Old English mnigfeald •• Immigration (verb): the activity of arriving at a country to live there. Origin: Latin immigrates. •• Emigration (verb): to leave a country to live elsewhere. Origin: Latin emigrates. Life expectancy is the number of years for which an average man expects to live.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 74–75) 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Why are people considered a resource? Ans. People are the greatest resource since it is only humans that can utilise nature’s bounty. It is people with their demands and abilities that turn them into resources. (ii) What are the causes for the uneven distribution of population in the world? Ans. The causes for the uneven distribution of population in the world are: Geographical factors: ••Favourable topography – people prefer to stay on plains than mountains or hill stations. ••Climate – People usually avoid places with extreme temperatures like deserts or cold mountains. ••Soil – Fertile soil provides suitable land for agriculture. ••Water – People prefer to live in areas where fresh water is available. ••Minerals – Areas with mineral deposits are more populated. Social factor: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated. Cultural factor – places with cultural heritage attract more people. Economic factor – Industrial areas provide employment opportunities.

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(iii) The world population has grown very rapidly. Why? Ans. The world population has grown rapidly because ••the natural growth rate is high due to better medical and food facilities leading to growth in population. ••of better food supplies, good medical facilities and reduced death rate. ••many people move from one country to another due to reasons like employment, better medical facilities, etc. This leads to growth in population. (iv) Discuss the role of any two factors influencing population change. Ans. Factors influencing population change: Migration – Due to migration, the population pattern changes. People may move within the country or between two countries. Countries like USA and Australia have gained immigrants causing a rise in population whereas countries like Sudan have lost emigrants who have moved to other countries. Growth in natural growth rate – Births and deaths are the natural causes of population change. The difference between the birth and death rate of a country is called the natural growth rate. The population increase in the world is mainly due to rapid increase in natural growth rate. (v) What is meant by population composition? Ans. Population composition refers to the structure of population. (vi) What are population pyramids? How do they help in understanding about the population of a country? Ans. Population pyramid is the distribution of various age groups in human population. A population pyramid shows the percentage of total population subdivided into males and females in each of those groups: ••The shape of the population pyramid tells the story of the people living in that particular country. ••The number of children (below 15 years) are shown at the bottom and reflect the level of births. The size of the top shows the number of aged people (aged 65 years) and reflects the number of deaths. ••It also tells us about how many dependants are there in a country. 2. Tick the correct answers: (i) Which does the term ‘population distribution’ refer to? (a) How population in a specified area changes over time. (b) The number of people who die in relation to the number of people born in a specified area. (c) The way in which people are spread across a given area. (ii) Which are the three main factors that cause population change? (a) Births, deaths and marriage (b) Births, deaths and migration (c) Births, deaths and life expectancy (iii) In 1999, the world population reached (a) 1 billion (b) 3 billion (c) 6 billion

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(iv) What is a population pyramid? (a) A graphical representation of the age, sex composition of a population. (b) When the population density of an area is so high that people live in tall buildings. (c) Pattern of population distribution in large urban areas. Ans. (i) (c), (ii) (b), (iii) (c), (iv) (a) 3. Complete the sentences below using some of the following words: sparsely, favourable, fallow, artificial, fertile, natural, extreme, densely When people are attracted to an area it becomes _____________ populated. Factors that influence this include ____________ climate; good supplies of ____________ resources and ____________ land. Ans. densely, favourable, natural, fertile 4. Activity Discuss the characteristics of a society with ‘too many under 15s’ and one with ‘too few under 15s’. Hint: need for schools, pension schemes, teachers, toys, wheel chairs, labour supply, hospitals. Ans. Society with too many under 15s •• Need for crèches •• Need for day care •• Need for schools •• Dependence on working population •• Less per capita income Society with too few under 15s •• Need for pension schemes •• Need for employment •• Need for labour supply •• Need for old age homes •• Need for health care institutes.

V. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Birth rate (i) Highest density of population 2. Varanasi (ii) A number of live births per 1000 people 3. Population density (iii) A place of cultural significance 4. South Central Asia (iv) A number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface Ans. 1. (ii), 2. (iii), 3. (iv), 4. (i)

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II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. In 1804, the world’s population reached ______________. 2. The population increase in the world is mainly due to rapid increase in ____________________. 3. ______________ are the people who leave a country. 4. _______________________ was started in 2015 aiming to train one crore Indian youth from 2016 to 2020. 5. More than 90 per cent of the world’s population lives in about ___________ per cent of the land surface. Ans. 1. one billion,  2. natural growth rate,  3. Emigrants,  4. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna,  5. 30 III. State whether True or False: 1. People are a nation’s greatest resource. 2. The way in which people in a particular part of the earth’s surface is known as the pattern of population distribution. 3. Very few people live in high latitude areas, tropical deserts, high mountains and areas of equatorial forests. 4. Sixty per cent of the world’s population line in just 10 countries. 5. Fertile plains such as Ganga and Brahmaputra in India are sparsely populated. Ans. 1. True,  2. False,  3. True,  4. True,  5. False

VI. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents which are: (a) Asia and Africa (b) Australia and Europe (c) North America and Antarctica 2. Emigrants are people who (a) stay in a country (b) leave a country (c) arrive in a country 3. The general trend of international migrations is from (a) more developed nations to less developed nations (b) developed nation to a developing nation (c) less developed nation to more developed nations 4. Population composition refers to (a) pattern of population (b) structure of population (c) density of population

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5. What does a population pyramid NOT show? (a) The total population divided into various age groups (b) The percentage of the total population subdivided into males and females (c) The food habits of the total population Ans. 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (c)

VII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. What is the average density of population in the world? Ans. 51 persons per square kilometre. 2. Which is the most densely populated region in the world? Ans. Ganga Plains 3. What is the sudden increase in population called? Ans. Population Explosion 4. What is the movement of people in and out of a region called? Ans. Migration 5. What is it called when people move out of a country? Ans. Emigration 6. Why is the distribution of world population uneven? Ans. More than 90% of the world population lives on less than 30% of land surface. 7. Why do people prefer to live on plains? Ans. Because plains are more suitable for agriculture when compared to mountains and plateaus. 8. When was HRD industry created? Ans. Ministry of Human Resource Development (HRD) was created in 1986 to improve people’s skills as HRD is the most important resource of a nation. 9. Give an account of the distribution of population in the world. Ans. It is approximately close to 8 billion in 2015. The distribution is extremely uneven. 10. What is life expectancy? Ans. Life expectancy is the number of years for which an average man can expect to life. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Until 1800s, the world population grew slowly, why? Ans. Until 1800s, there were no proper health facilities, farming issues persisted, technology was not developing – as a result the quality of people’s lives was poor. Hence, the death rates were on the high. This is the reason why population grew very slowly.

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2. Explain the population pyramid of India. Ans. From the population pyramid of India, we can understand that India has a large number of youths. In India, death rates, especially amongst the very young are decreasing which can be realised from the broad base of the pyramid in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to adulthood. Hence, India has a large number of young people which means a strong and expanding labour force. 3. How people are a nation’s greatest resource? Ans. People turn nature’s gifts into resources with their demands and abilities. Hence, they are ultimate resource. Healthy educated and motivated people use resources as per their requirements. 4. Name the ten most populous countries of the world. Ans. 1. China 6. Pakistan 2. India 7. Bangladesh 3. United States 8. Nigeria 4. Indonesia 9. Russia 5. Brazil 10. Japan 5. What are the economic and social factors that affect the population distribution. Ans. The economic and social factors that affect the population are: 1. Mineral resources 2. Industries 3. Transport network. 4. Good infrastructure 5. Government policies 6. What is meant by human resources? Ans. All humans who are engaged in some useful activities meant human resources. Humans are a potential resource for the society. Humans make efforts when they produce various goods and services. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Explain the distribution of population. Describe the pattern of population distribution. Ans. The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is known as the pattern of population distribution. •• More than 90 per cent of the world’s population lives in about 30 per cent of the land surface. •• The distribution of world population is very uneven. Some areas are very crowded while some areas are sparsely populated. •• Southeast Asia, Europe and north-eastern North America are crowded areas. •• Very few people live in high latitude areas, tropical deserts, high mountains and areas of equatorial forests.

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•• Almost three quarters of the world’s people live in two continents–Asia and Africa. •• Sixty per cent of the world’s people stay in just 10 countries. 2. Explain the social, cultural and economic factors affecting the distribution of population. Ans. Social factor – Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated, like Pune. Cultural factor – Places with religion or cultural significance attract people. Varanasi and Vatican City are the best examples. Economic factor – Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. A large number of people are attracted to these areas. Osaka in Japan and Mumbai in India are two densely populated areas. 3. How does migration affect population? Ans. Migration is another way by which population size changes. People may move within a country or between countries. •• Emigrants are the people who leave a country and immigrants are those who arrive in a country. •• Countries like the United States of America and Australia have gained immigrants. •• Sudan, on the other hand, has lost many of its people who have moved to other countries. •• Generally, the trend of migration is from less developed nations to more developed nations due to better employment opportunities. •• Within countries a large number of people may move from rural to urban areas in search of employment, education and health facilities. Activity (Page 67) Study Fig. 6.1 and find out: of the world’s total population which continent has – (a) only 5 per cent (b) only 13 per cent (c) only 1 per cent (d) only 12 per cent

Human Resources

Ans. (a) Northern America : 5% (c) Oceania : 1%

(b) Africa : 13% (d) Europe : 12%

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Activity 2 (Page 68) Look at Fig. 6.2 and find out: of these countries how many are in Asia? Colour them on world map. Ans. There are seven countries in Asia: 1. Japan,  2. India,  3. Russia (some part only),  4. China,  5. Bangladesh, 6. Pakistan,  7. Indonesia

World’s most popular countries

Note: Students will find out the countries themselves and colour them on world map.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. When was HRD created? 2. The distribution of the population in the world is ________. 3. __________ is the major resource of a nation. 4. What is birth rate? 5. What is life expectancy?

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PART C: SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE–III

1 Chapter

UNIT I: THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND SECULARISM

The Indian Constitution

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Why does a Country need a Constitution? A Constitution lays out certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that we as citizens aspire to live in. A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way in which they want the country to be governed. The second important purpose of a Constitution is to define the nature of a country's political system. The third significant reason why we need a Constitution is to save us from ourselves.

The Indian Constitution: Key Features 1. Federalism: This refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. In India, we have governments at the state level and at the centre. of 2. Parliamentary Form Government: The different tiers of government that you have just read about. It consists of the representatives who are elected by the people.

3. Separation of Powers: According to the Constitution, there are three organs of government. These are the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. 4. Fundamental Rights: The section on Fundamental Rights has often been referred to as the ‘conscience’ of the Indian Constitution. 5. Secularism: A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state religion.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• A written document in which we find such rules is called a Constitution. •• The Constitution lays out certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that we as citizens aspire to live in. •• The second important purpose of a Constitution is to define the nature of a country’s political system. •• In democratic societies, the Constitution often lays down rules that guard against this misuse of authority by our political leaders.

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•• Constitution helps protect us against certain decisions that we might take that could have an adverse effect on the larger principles that the country believes in. •• The long experience of authoritarian rule under the colonial state convinced Indians that free India should be a democracy in which everyone should be treated equally and be allowed to participate in government. •• Around 300 people who were members of the Constituent Assembly in 1946 met periodically for the next three years to write India’s Constitution. •• The writing of the Constitution was not easy as India was going through a lot of turmoil. •• The partition of the country into India and Pakistan was imminent, some of the Princely States remained undecided about their future, and the socioeconomic condition of the vast mass of people appeared dismal. •• The key features of the Indian Constitution are Federalism, Parliamentary form of Government, Separation of Powers, the Fundamental Rights and Secularism. •• The Indian Constitution has been amended over the years to reflect new concerns of the polity.

III. KEYWORDS •• Ideal: It refers to a goal or a principle in its most excellent or perfect form. •• Polity (noun): A society that has an organised political structure. Origin: Late Latin politia. •• Acrimonious (adj.): angry or bitter. Origin: Middle French acrimonie. •• Dismal (adj.): unhappy. Origin: Middle English, from dismal. •• Grappling (verb): struggling. Origin: Old French grapil. •• Trafficking: Trafficking refers to the practice of illegal buying and selling of commodities across national border. •• Tiers (noun): series or levels. Origin: French tier. •• Sovereign: It refers to independent people in a democratic form of government. •• Arbitrary (adj.): Based on random choice or whim. Origin: Latin arbitrarius. •• Tyranny: Tyranny refers to the cruel and unjust use of power or authority.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 6 1. Discuss with your teacher what you understand by the term ‘constitutive’. Provide one example of ‘constitutive rules’ from your everyday life. Ans. Constitutive means related to constitution. A handball player cannot touch the ball with his foot. It is against the constitutional rules of handball. 2. Why do the people of Nepal want a new Constitution? Ans. The people of Nepal want a new Constitution because the new Constitution will guarantee them democracy.

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Page 7 3. In what way is the class monitor misusing his power? Ans. The monitor is telling lies to the teacher about his friend and picking on him. 4. In which of the following situations is a minister misusing the power: (a) refuses to sanction a project of his ministry for sound technical reasons; (b) threatens to send his security staff to rough up his neighbour; (c) calls up the police station asking them not to register a complaint that is likely to be filed against his relative. Ans. Both (b) and (c) Page 8 5. Who is in a minority in the above story board? In what way is the minority being dominated by the decision taken by the majority? Ans. The girls are in the minority. The minority is being dominated by the majority by being imposed to play cricket. Page 9 6. Why was Shabnam happy that she had not watched TV? What would you have done in a similar situation? Ans. Shabnam was happy because she did not watch TV and revised the last two chapters as many questions in the test were from that chapter. Page 13 7. Discuss the difference between State and Government with your teacher. Ans. Self-attempt. Page 14 8. Which Fundamental Rights with the following situations violate: •• If a 13 year old child is working in a factory manufacturing carpets. •• If a politician in one state decides to not allow labourers from other states to work in his state. •• If a group of people are not given permission to open a Telugu-medium school in Kerala. •• If the government decides not to promote an officer of the armed forces for being a woman. (a) Right against Exploitation (b) Right to Freedom (c) Cultural and Educational Rights (d) Right to Equality Page 15 9. The Constitution also mentions fundamental duties. Find out with the help of your teacher what these include and why it is important for citizens in a democracy to observe these. Ans. Article 51A : Fundamental duties It shall be the duty of every citizen of India – (a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;

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(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom; (c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; (d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so; (e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women; (f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture; (g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures; (h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform; (i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence; (j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement. (k) to provide opportunities for education by the parent the guardian, to his child, or a ward between the age of 6–14 years as the case may be.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 16–17) 1. Why does a democratic country need a constitution? Ans. A democratic country needs a constitution because: •• In a democracy, the people choose their representatives and the chosen representatives might misuse their powers. Thus, the Constitution provides safeguard against the misuse of powers in a democracy. •• In a democracy, the Constitution ensures that the dominant group does not use power against less powerful groups. •• The Constitution also guarantees fundamental rights to the citizens for their social, economic and political welfare. 2. Look at the wordings of the two documents given below. The first column is from the 1990 Nepal Constitution. The second column is from the more recent Constitution of Nepal. 1990 Constitution of Nepal 2007 Interim Constitution Part 7: Executive Part 5: Executive Article 35: Executive Power: The Article 37: Executive Power: The executive power of the Kingdom of executive power of Nepal shall, be Nepal shall be vested in His Majesty vested in the Council of Ministers. and the Council of Ministers What is the difference in who exercises ‘Executive Power’ in the above two Constitutions of Nepal? Keeping this in mind, why do you think Nepal needs a new Constitution today?

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Ans. Difference in the executive powers: 1990 Constitution of Nepal •• Nepal was a monarchy. •• •• All the executive powers rested •• in the hands of the King.

2007 Interim Constitution Nepal was going to be a democracy. The executive powers rested in the hands of the Council of Ministers.

Nepal needs a new constitution because only a new constitution would guarantee the people of Nepal the joy of democracy. 3. What would happen if there were no restrictions on the power of elected representatives? Ans. In such a case, the leaders would misuse their authority and it would result in unjust practices and mismanagement. 4. In each of the following situations, identify the minority. Write one reason why you think it is important to respect the views of the minority in each of these situations. (a) In a school with 30 teachers, 20 of them are male. (b) In a city, 5 per cent of the population are Buddhists. (c) In a factory mess for all employees, 80 per cent are vegetarians. (d) In a class of 50 students, 40 belong to more well-off families. Ans. (a) 10 female teachers are in minority. It is important to respect the view of the female teachers because their needs might go unnoticed. (b) 5 per cent Buddhists are in minority. It is important to respect the minority group’s views because they might get dominated by the majority. (c) 20 per cent non-vegetarians are in the minority. Their views of eating non-veg food should be respected as it is their personal choice. (d) 10 students who are not from well-off families are in the minority. Scholarships and other benefits like free sale of books, stationary, etc. should be given to them. 5. The column on the left lists some of the key features of the Indian Constitution. In the other column write two sentences, in your own words, on why you think this feature is important: Key features Federalism Separation of Powers Fundamental Rights Parliamentary Form of Government

Significance

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Ans. Key features

Significance

Federalism

Under federalism, the states are not merely agents of the federal government but they draw their authority from the Constitution as well.

Separation of Powers

Separate powers to the legislature, executive and judiciary act as checks and balances.

Fundamental Rights

They protect citizens from the absolute exercise of power by the state.

Parliamentary Form of Government

This means that the people of India have a direct role in electing their representatives.

6. Colour in the following countries in this map: (a) Colour India in red. (b) Colour Nepal in green. (c) Colour Bangladesh in yellow Ans.

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7. Write down the names of the Indian states, which share borders with the following neighbouring nations: (a) Bangladesh  (b) Bhutan  (c) Nepal Ans. (a) West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura (b) Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh (c) Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Sikkim

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. inter-community domination 2. intra-community domination 3. 2015 4. 1946 Ans. 1. (iii),  2. (iv),  3. (ii),  4. (i)

(i) Constituent Assembly was formed. (ii) Nepal adopted a new Constitution. (iii) One community dominating the other. (iv) Members of one community dominating each other.

II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. ______________ is a country which gives fundamental rights to the citizens to practise their individual religion. 2. The Constitution usually contains rules that ensure that _____________ are not excluded from anything that is routinely available to the majority. 3. The previous Constitution of Nepal, which had been adopted in 1990, reflected the fact that the final authority rested with the _________. 4. _____________ refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. 5. The ____________ refers to the system of courts in this country. Ans. 1. India,  2. minorities,  3. King,  4. Federalism,  5. judiciary III. State whether True or False: 1. Indian Constitution promotes Sikhism. 2. The Constituent Assembly was formed in 1950. 3. Constitution of India guarantees universal adult suffrage for all citizens. 4. People of India have a direct role in electing their representatives. 5. The Constitution also has a section called Directive Principles of State Policy. Ans. 1. False,  2. False,  3. True,  4. True,  5. True

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Indian Constitution is: (a) Flexible (b) Rigid 2. Indian Constitution promotes: (a) Hinduism (b) Secularism

(c) Constant (c) Monotheism

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3. Which of the following is not a fundamental right? (a) Right to Equality (b) Right to Freedom (c) Right to Kill 4. According to our Constitution, which is not an organ of the government? (a) Judiciary (b) Legislature (c) Press 5. What does Right to Equality mean? (a) All persons are equal before law. (b) All persons should have equal property. (c) All persons should be equally qualified. Ans. 1. (a),  2. (b),  3. (c),  4. (c),  5. (a)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Are all countries that have a constitution democratic? Ans. No. It is not necessary. 2. When did Nepal become a democratic nation? Ans. In 2006 3. When was Constituent Assembly formed? Ans. In 1946 4. What is it called when there are multiple layers of government in a country? Ans. Federalism 5. What are the three organs of government? Ans. Legistlature, Executive and Judiciary. 6. Is India a democratic nation? Ans. India is not a direct democracy, it is a representative democracy. 7. Why was the universal adult franchise adopted? Ans. It was adopted to encourage equality and democratic ideals among people regardless of caste, race, gender, religion and birth. 8. What is human trafficking? Ans. Illegal practice of buying and selling of human beings across borders, particularly of women and children, is called human trafficking. 9. What is the meaning of sovereign? Ans. Sovereign means a country is free and its people are not subordinate of any other power. 10. Explain Secular. Ans. Secular means a country has no state religion and people are free to practice any religion. B. Short Answer Questions 1. What happens in a democracy? Ans. These are the characteristics of a democracy: •• In a democracy, we choose our leaders so that they can exercise power

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responsibly on our behalf. However, there is always the possibility that these leaders might misuse their authority and the Constitution usually provides safeguards against this. •• In democratic societies, the Constitution often lays down rules that guard against this misuse of authority by our political leaders. The Indian Constitution does exactly so. 2. What was the need of setting up a democracy in India? Ans. These were the reasons why India became a democracy: •• By the beginning of the twentieth century, the Indian national movement had been active in the struggle for independence from British rule for several decades. •• During the freedom struggle, the nationalists had devoted a great deal of time to imagining and planning what a free India would be like. •• Under the British, they had been forced to obey rules that they had very little role in making. •• The long experience of authoritarian rule under the colonial state convinced Indians that free India should be a democracy in which everyone should be treated equally and be allowed to participate in government. 3. What do you mean by Secularism? Ans. Secularism is one of the characteristics of the Indian Constitution. A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state religion. 4. Why is it important to provide safeguards against misuse of power? Ans. The public elects a representative to power. The powers, however, aren’t absolute. They are safeguarded by the Constitution against potential misuse by the leaders. It is important as misuse can lead to corruption, wrongdoings and injustice. 5. Why does the Constitution protect minorities? Ans. The Constitution contains the provisions that protect the minorities against the majorities and their domination. Majority communities could influence the governance of a region and affect the culture and opportunities of the minorities. It is imperative for a democracy to treat its people equally. 6. What is secularism? Is there any country that is non-secular? Ans. A secular country doesn’t endorse any religion, it allows its people to follow or not follow any. A non-secular country endorses on faith. Though there are no openly non-secular states in the world, but Iraq, Syria and Pakistan are known for their Islam-inclined policies. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Why did Nepal adopt a new Constitution in 2015? Ans. These are the reasons why Nepal adopted a new Constitution in 2015: •• Since Nepal was a monarchy, the previous Constitution of Nepal, which had been adopted in 1990, reflected the fact that the final authority rested with the King.

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3. Ans.

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•• A people’s movement in Nepal fought for several decades to establish democracy and in 2006 they finally succeeded in putting an end to the powers of the King. •• The people had to write a new Constitution to establish Nepal as a democracy because they did not want to continue with the previous Constitution as it did not reflect the ideals of the country that they wanted Nepal to be, and that they had fought for. •• Nepal, by moving from a monarchy to a democratic government, needed to change all its constitutional rules in order to usher in a new society. That is why, the people of Nepal adopted a new Constitution for the country in 2015. Explain Federalism as a characteristic of the Indian Constitution. Federalism refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. •• In India, we have governments at the state level and at the centre. Panchayati Raj is the third tier of government. •• The vast number of communities in India required a government that did not involve only persons sitting in the capital city of New Delhi and making decisions for everyone. •• It was important to have another level of government in the states so that decisions could be made for that particular area. •• While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on certain issues, subjects of national concern require that all of these states follow the laws of the central government. •• The Constitution contains the lists that detail the issues that each tier of government can make laws on. •• In addition, the Constitution also specifies where each tier of government can get the money from for the work that it does. •• Under federalism, the states are not merely agents of the federal government but draw their authority from the Constitution as well. •• All the persons in India are governed by the rule of laws and policies made by each of these levels of government. List the Fundamental Rights and explain each of them. The Fundamental Rights of India are: •• Right to Equality •• Right to Freedom •• Right against Exploitation •• Right to Freedom of Religion •• Cultural and Educational Rights •• Right to Constitutional Remedies Right to Equality: This means that all the persons in India are equal before the law and shall be equally protected by the laws of the country. It also states that no citizen can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, caste or sex. Every person has access to all public places including playgrounds,

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hotels, shops, etc. The State cannot discriminate against anyone in matters of employment. Right to Freedom: It includes the right to freedom of speech and expression, the right to form associations, the right to move freely and reside in any part of the country, and the right to practise any profession, occupation or business. Right against Exploitation: The Constitution prohibits human trafficking, forced labour, and employment of children under 14 years of age. Right to Freedom of Religion: This right provides religious freedom to all citizens. Every person has the right to practise, profess and propagate the religion of their choice. Cultural and Educational Rights: The Constitution states that all minorities, religious or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions in order to preserve and develop their own culture. Right to Constitutional Remedies: This allows citizens to move the court if they believe that any of their Fundamental Rights have been violated by the State.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Match the following: (a) INC (i) Mahatma Gandhi (b) Independence Day of India (ii) 26th January, 1950 (c) Constitution of India (iii) Indian National Congress (d) Father of Nation (iv) Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar (e) Republic Day (v) 15th August, 1947 2. Define the term ‘Constitution’. 3. What are Directive Principles? 4. Explain Indian Secularism. 5. Outline our Fundamental rights. Briefly explain any two of them.

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Understanding Secularism

Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS What is Secularism? The Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by their religious beliefs and practices as they interpret these. Secularism refers to this separation of religion from the State. What is Indian Secularism? The Indian Constitution mandates that the Indian State be secular. According to the Constitution, only a secular State can realise its objectives to ensure the following: 1. That one religious community does not dominate another; 2. That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community; 3. That the State does not enforce any particular religion nor does it take away the religious freedom of individuals.

Why is It Important to Separate Religion from the State? This is important for a country to function democratically. This tyranny of the majority could result in the discrimination, coercion and at times even the killing of religious minorities. We also need to protect the freedom of individuals to exit from their religion, embrace another religion or have the freedom to interpret religious teachings differently.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• In keeping with the idea of religious freedom for all, India adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and the power of the State. This separation of religion from the State refers to Secularism. •• This separation of religion from the State is important for a country to function democratically, for if a person from the majority religion wields power in the State, it may lead to tyranny. •• Also, this feature helps to protect the freedom of individuals to exit from their religion, embrace another religion or have the freedom to interpret religious teachings differently.

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•• The Indian State is not ruled by a religious group and nor does it support any one religion. •• In India, government spaces like law courts, police stations, government schools and offices are not supposed to display or promote any one religion. •• In order to respect the sentiments of all religions and not interfere with religious practices, the State makes certain exceptions for particular religious communities. •• However, to ensure that laws relating to equal inheritance rights are respected, the State may have to intervene in the religion-based ‘personal laws’ of communities. •• Unlike the strict separation between religion and the State in American secularism, in Indian secularism the State can intervene in religious affairs. •• In Indian secularism, though the State is not strictly separate from religion, it does maintain a principled distance from religion. •• The Indian Constitution guarantees Fundamental Rights that are based on these secular principles.

III. KEYWORDS Exclusion (noun): the act of excluding. Origin: Latin exclusion. Persecution (noun): to treat cruelly or bitterly. Origin: unknown. Coercion (noun): doing something by force. Origin: Middle English cohercion. Intervention (noun): to come in between and influence on what happens. Origin: Latin intervenire. •• vis-à-vis (noun): in relation to. Origin: Old French vis. •• •• •• ••

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 19 1. Re-read the introduction to this chapter. Why do you think retaliation is not the proper response to this problem? What would happen if different groups followed the path? Ans. Retaliation is not a proper response to this problem because it creates negative effects in the society. If different groups followed the path, the security would be affected and nation would break. Page 20 2. Discuss in class: Can there be different views within the same religion? Ans. Yes •• Arya Samaj and Sanatan Dharam views among the Hindus. •• Shia vs Shunni views among the Muslim religion. Page 22 3. In the above storyboard, discuss the answer given by the teacher. Ans. In the above storyboard, the teacher says that celebration of the religious

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festival within the school would have been a violation of the government’s policy of treating all religions equally. Government schools cannot promote any one religion either in their morning prayers or through religious celebrations. This rule does not apply to private schools. Page 23 4. Government schools often have students from different religious backgrounds. Re-read the three objectives of a secular state and write two sentences on why it is important that government schools do not promote any one religion. Ans. Government schools can’t promote any one religion because the State does not enforce any particular religion nor does it take away the religious freedom of individuals. Also, if the government school tries to promote one particular religion, that particular community can dominate the other. This goes against the mandate of a secular state. Page 25 5. Can you think of a recent incident, from any part of India, in which the secular ideals of the Constitution were violated and persons were persecuted and killed because of their religious backgrounds? Ans. Banning beef by Indian Government is the best example where the secular ideals of the constitution were violated. 20 out of 29 states in India currently have various regulations prohibiting either the slaughter or sale of cows. Kerala, Goa, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura are the states where there are no restrictions on cow slaughter.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 26–27) 1. List the different types of religious practice that you find in your neighbourhood. This could be different forms of prayer, worship of different gods, sacred sites, different kinds of religious music and singing, etc. Does this indicate freedom of religious practice? Ans. Religion Different Worship of Sacred Different kinds forms of different gods sites of religious prayers music and singing Hinduism Pooja, Ram, Krishna, Haridwar, Bhajan, Kirtan chanting Shiva, Durga, Varanasi, Kali, Ganesh Tirupati Islam namaz Allah Mecca, Azan, Qawwali Madina, Ajmer 2. Will the government intervene if some religious groups says, that their religion allows them to practise infanticide? Give reasons for your answers. Ans. Yes, the government will intervene. This act is against the right to freedom to live.

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3. Complete the following table: Objective

Why is it important?

Example of a violation of this objective

Why is it important?

Example of a violation of this objective Christians trying to convert Hindus

One religious community does not dominate another. The State does not enforce any particular religion nor does it take away the religious freedom of individuals. That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community. Ans.

Objective One religious community does not dominate another The State does not enforce any particular religion nor does it take away the religious freedom of individuals. That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community.

To promote harmony To promote secularism and show that all citizens, irrespective of our religions are equal before law. In order to promote equality and harmony in society.

The state declares that Durga Puja shall not be celebrated in certain parts of West Bengal. Brahmans inflicting pain on Dalits.

4. Look up the annual calendar of holidays of your school. How many of them pertain to different religions? What does this indicate? Ans. Do this on your own. 5. Find out some examples of different views within the same religion. Ans. Hinduism Arya Samaj Jainism Digambar, Shwetambar Islam Shiya, Sunni 6. The Indian State both keeps away from religion as well as intervenes in religion. This idea can be quite confusing. Discuss this once again in the class using examples from the chapter as well as those that you might have come up with. Ans. Hints: Use the example of untouchability.

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7. This poster (NCERT Page 27) alongside highlights the need for ‘Peace’. It says, “Peace is a never-ending process....It cannot ignore our differences or overlook our common interests.” Write in your own words what you think the above sentences are trying to convey? How does it relate to the need for religious tolerance? This chapter had three drawings on religious tolerance made by students of your age. Design your own poster on religious tolerance for your peers. Ans. The above sentences are trying to convey that peace respects our common interests and helps us remove our differences. Religious tolerance is needed for maintaining peace between all religions. If we are not tolerant towards each other, peace cannot be fostered.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Hindu (i) Pooja, meditation 2. Muslim (ii) Religious festival 3. Sikh (iii) National festival 4. Diwali (iv) Mecca, Madina 5. Republic Day (v) Golden Temple Ans. 1. (i),  2. (iv),  3. (v),  4. (ii),  5. (iii) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. India has adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and the power of the _____________. 2. One of the objectives of India as a secular state is that one religious community does not ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­___________ another. 3. The second way in which Indian secularism works to prevent the above domination is through a strategy of________________. 4. The Indian State recognises that wearing a ____________ is central to a Sikh’s religious practice and in order not to interfere with this, allows an exception in the law. 5. To ensure that laws relating to equal inheritance rights are respected, the State may have to _____________ in the religion-based ‘personal laws’ of communities. Ans. 1. State,  2. dominate,  3. non-interference, 4. pugri or turban, 5. intervene III. State whether True or False: 1. India is a secular country. 2. Indian secularism follows a strategy of interference. 3. The Indian Constitution promotes the domination of the majority. 4. The Indian Constitution grants the right to religious communities to set up their own schools and colleges. 5. In the U.S, the legislature cannot declare any religion as the official religion. Ans. 1. True,  2. False,  3. False,  4. True,  5. True

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VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The Indian Constitution mandates that the Indian state be: (a) Democratic (b) Secular (c) Anarchy 2. In India, secularism works to prevent the domination through strategy of: (a) Interference (b) Non-interference (c) Coercion 3. This country prohibits the legislature from making laws “respecting an establishment of religion” or that “prohibits the free exercise of religion”. (a) U.S.A (b) France (c) India 4. The Indian Constitution bans (a) Free worship (b) Singing in public (c) Untouchability 5. The Indian State is secular and works in various ways to prevent: (a) religious domination (b) religious harmony (c) freedom of worship Ans. 1. (b),  2. (b),  3. (a),  4. (c),  5. (a)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS I. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Who were prosecuted by Hitler’s Germany? Ans. Jewish People. 2. Is converting to another religion punishable by law? Ans. No. 3. How would a person feel if he is discriminated against? Ans. A person who is discriminated against might be resentful and angry, more, so if their complaint is also not heard. 4. What should be the reaction of such a person? Ans. The discrimination might make a person retaliate and speak against particular religion or caste. The person might think that their would be justice for all. 5. What examples does history provide on the ground on the religion. Ans. Exclusion and persecution on the ground of religion. 6. What happened in Hitler’s Germany? Ans. • Jews were persecuted in Hitler’s Germany. •• Several million people, mostly Jews were killed. 7. What do you mean by non-interference? Ans. Non-interference means to respect the sentiments of all religions and not interfere with religious practices. 8. What happens when a person is discriminated against? Ans. When people are discriminated against they lose the right to live like a human being. •• They may feel angry or lose their self-respect. •• They do not get the right to equality with every citizen must get.

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9. Why are the Sikhs exempt from wearing helmets? Ans. The Sikh men wear ‘pugri’ or a turban on their heads. The Constitution recognises it as a practice important to the Sikhs, which is why they are exempt from wearing helmets. 10. In what ways is it made sure that no religion is endorsed by the state? Ans. Government institutions like courts, offices, schools etc., are instructed not to bear any symbols of any religion. It is either recognising all or none. II. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What is secularism? Ans. The Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by their religious beliefs and practices as they interpret these. In keeping with this idea of religious freedom for all, India also adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and the power of the State. Secularism refers to this separation of religion from the State. 2. Does the Constitution intervene with religion of its people? Ans. The Constitution of a secular state cannot and doesn’t intervene with the choices of its citizens regarding religion, however, it can intervene in case fundamental human rights are being violated. For example, untouchability, practised in Hindu society was abolished. 3. What are the objectives of a secular state? Ans. The Indian Constitution mandates that the Indian State be secular. According to the Constitution, only a secular State can realise its objectives to ensure the following: 1. That one religious community does not dominate another. 2. That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community. 3. That the State does not enforce any particular religion nor does it take away the religious freedom of individuals. III. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Why is it important to separate religion from the State? Ans. The most important aspect of secularism is its separation of religion from State power. •• This ensures that a country works democratically. •• If religion is not separated from the State, any person from the majority group who has access to state power can use this power to discriminate against other religious groups. •• This tyranny of the majority could result in the discrimination, coercion and at times even the killing of religious minorities. •• The majority group can prevent minorities from practising their religions. •• The tyranny of the majority and the violation of Fundamental Rights that can result in one reason why it is important to separate the State and religion in democratic societies.

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•• Another reason to separate religion from the State in democratic societies is because we also need to protect the freedom of individuals to have the freedom to interpret religious teachings differently. 2. What are the ways in which the Indian State works to prevent domination of a majority religious group? Ans. The Indian State works in various ways to prevent the above domination. •• First, it uses a strategy of distancing itself from religion. In India, government offices like law courts, police stations, government schools and other institutions are not supposed to display or promote any one religion. •• The second way in which Indian secularism works to prevent the above domination is through a strategy of non-interference. This means that in order to respect the sentiments of all religions and not interfere with religious practices, the State makes certain exceptions for particular religious communities. •• The third way in which Indian secularism works to prevent the domination listed earlier is through a strategy of intervention. •• The State intervenes to end a social practice of discrimination. •• The State may also intervene in the religion based personal laws of different communities. 3. How is Indian secularism different from that of the USA? Ans. Indian secularism differs from the dominant understanding of secularism as practised in the United States of America. This is because unlike the strict separation between religion and the State in American secularism, in Indian secularism the State can intervene in religious affairs. In Indian secularism, though the State is not strictly separate from religion, it does maintain a principled distance vis-à-vis religion. This means that any interference in religion by the State has to be based on the ideals laid out in the Constitution.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Who was the chancellor of Germany? 2. What has been banned in Indian Constitution? 3. What is the paradox of Jewish State of Israel? 4. Why was ‘Untouchability’ banned? 5. Give an example to show secularism is important in a democracy. 6. Highlight the difference between the secularism as practised in India and USA.

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UNIT II: PARLIAMENT AND THE MAKING OF LAWS

Why do We need a Parliament?

Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Why should People decide?

The Role of the Parliament?

The experience of colonial rule as well as the participation of different people in the struggle for freedom left little doubt in the minds of the nationalists that all persons in independent India would be able to participate in making decisions.

The Parliament in our system has immense power because it is the representative of the people.

The Constitution of independent India that laid down the principle of universal adult franchise, i.e. that all adult citizens of the country have the right to vote.

A. To select the National Government

The Parliament performs the following functions: B. To control, guide and inform the Government C. Law-making

Who are the People in Parliament? Parliament now has more and more people from different backgrounds. There has also been an increase in political participation from the Dalits and backward classes. Some seats are reserved in Parliament for SCs and STs.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• In 1885, under colonial rule, the Indian National Congress demanded that there be elected members in the legislature with a right to discuss the budget and ask questions. The Government of India Act 1909, allowed for some elected representation. •• However, they did not allow for all adults to vote nor could people participate in decision-making. •• The dreams and aspirations of the freedom struggle were made concrete in the Constitution of independent India that laid down the principle of universal adult franchise, i.e. that all adult citizens of the country have the right to vote. •• India is a democratic state and the main idea in a democracy is consent or approval.

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•• It is the decision of people that creates a democratic government and decides about its functioning. •• People would elect their representatives to the Parliament, then, one group from among these elected representatives forms the government. •• The Parliament, which is made up of all representatives together, controls and guides the government. •• Created after 1947, the Indian Parliament is an expression of the faith that the people of India have in principles of democracy. •• The Parliament in our system has immense powers because it is the representative of the people. •• The country is divided into numerous constituencies and each of these constituencies elects one person to the Parliament. •• Once elected, these candidates become Members of Parliament or MPs and these MPs together make up the Parliament. •• Parliament of India consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. •• For a political party to form the government, they must have a majority of elected MPs. •• The Opposition in Parliament is formed by all the political parties that oppose the majority party/coalition formed. The largest amongst these parties is called the Opposition party. •• One of the most important functions of the Lok Sabha is to select the executive. The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the ruling party in the Lok Sabha. •• When it becomes difficult for a single party to form a majority, they join together with different political parties who are interested in similar concerns to form what is known as a coalition government. •• The Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representative of the states of India in the Parliament. •• It has an important role of reviewing and altering (if alterations are needed) the laws initiated by the Lok Sabha. •• The Parliament begins with a question hour which is an important mechanism through which MPs can elicit information about the working of the government. •• The Opposition parties play a critical role in the healthy functioning of a democracy. •• The MPs, as representatives of the people, have a central role in controlling, guiding and informing Parliament and this is a key aspect of the functioning of Indian democracy. •• Law making is also an important function of the parliament. •• The parliament has people from different backgrounds. •• In order to ensure that marginalised communities are adequately represented in the parliament, some seats are reserved in Parliament for SCs and STs.

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III. KEYWORDS •• Representatives: The person elected by the people are called representatives of the people. •• Consent (verb): To agree to something. Origin: Anglo French consenter. •• Coalition (noun): A temporary alliance of groups or parties. Origin: Latin coalescere. •• Parliament: The highest lawmaking body of the country consisting of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha is known as Parliament. •• Executive (adj.): A branch of government that deals with making laws. Origin: unknown. •• Initiate (verb): Start. Origin: Late Latin initiatus. •• Mobilise (verb): To put into action. Origin: French mobiliser. •• Ruling Party: Political party or a combination of political parties with more than 50% members is termed to be ruling party. •• Opposition: The combined strength of all political parties in the parliament with less than 50% of the representatives is called opposition. •• Unresolved (adj.): Not settled. Origin: unknown.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 31 1. What do you think the artist is trying to convey through the image of Parliament? Ans. The artist is trying to show that the Parliament enables all the citizens of India to participate in decision-making and control the government, Thus, making it the most important symbol of Indian democracy. Thus, people from all regions, castes and sex are shown. Page 32 2. Give one reason why you think there should be universal adult franchise. Ans. Universal Adult Franchise is necessary because it gives each and every citizen of our country a voice. 3. Do you think there should be any difference of the class monitor was selected by the teacher or elected by the students? Discuss. Ans. If the class monitor was elected by the students, he would be able to understand the problems of his or her classmates better. Page 35 4. Use the table alongside to answer the questions below: •• Who will form the government? Why? •• Who will be present for discussions in the Lok Sabha? •• In this process similar to what you have read about in class VII. Ans. BJP will form the government because they have maximum number of MPs. BJP, CPI, CPM, INC and NCP will be present in Lok Sabha. (a) Uttar Pradesh. It is a large state.

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(b) Manipur and Tripura (c) Congress (d) Congress will form the opposition party because it has secured maximum number of seats. 5. The photograph on page 28 shows results from the 3rd Lok Sabha elections held in 1962. Use the photograph to answer the following questions: (a) Which state has the highest number of MPs in the Lok Sabha? Why do you think this is so? Ans. Highest number of MPs are 86 in Uttar Pradesh, because Uttar Pradesh is the highest populated state. (b) Which state has the least number of MPs in the Lok Sabha? Ans. Least number of MP 2 in Manipur. (c) Which political party has won the most seats in all states? Ans. Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) Alliunce (NDA). (d) Which party do you think will form the government? Give reasons why? Ans. BJP. Because it has 353 MPs out of 545, which is a very comfortable majority.

Page 38 6. In the above question, what information is being sought from the minister of women and child development? Ans. The information being sought is whether the Government proposes to converge various schemes and policies for children in the country and if so, its details. 7. If you were a Member of Parliament (MP), list two questions that you would like to ask. Ans. Had I been an MP, I would have asked as to what schemes are being taken by the government to promote the health of new born children and their mothers who are below BPL. Also, I would ask the steps of bringing in more students in the primary section in government schools. Page 39 8. Looking at this table (in book) would you say that people’s participation during the past 50 years has: decreased/increased been stable after initial increase? Ans. People’s participation has increased. Page 40 9. Why do you think there are so few women in Parliament? Discuss. Ans. There are so few women in Parliament because our society is still a mail dominating society. People don’t ready to accept women as rulers. So, they avoid giving power of them.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 41) 1. Why do you think our national movement supported the idea that all adults have a right to vote?

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Ans. The nationalists supported the idea that all adults should have the right to vote because: •• The experience of colonial rule as well as the participation of different people in the struggle for freedom left little doubt in the minds of the nationalists that all persons in independent India would be able to participate in making decisions. •• The nationalists felt that the government had to be sensitive to people’s needs and demands. 2. In this 2004 map of Parliamentary constituencies alongside, roughly identify the constituencies in your State. What is the name of the MP from your constituency? How many MPs does your state have? Why are certain constituencies coloured black while others are coloured grey? Ans. My State: West Bengal My constituency: Kolkata Uttar M.P. from my constituency: Sudip Bandyopadhyay

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Our state has 46 MPs. Green Constituencies: Reserved for STs. Blue Constituencies-Reserved for SCs. 3. You have read in Chapter 1 that the ‘Parliamentary form of government’ that exists in India has three tiers. This includes the Parliament (central government) and the various State Legislatures (state governments). Fill in the following table with information on the various representatives from your area: Which political party/parties is/are currently in power? Who (name) is the current representative from your area? Which political parties currently form the Opposition? When were elections last held? When will the next elections be held? How many women representatives are there (from your state)?

State Government

State Government Ans. Which political party/ Bharatiya parties is/are currently Janata Party in power? Who (name) is the Chandrakant Khaire current representative from your area? Which political parties Nationalist Congress currently form the Party Opposition? When were elections 2014 last held? When will the next 2019 elections be held? How many women 20 representatives are there (from your state)?

Central Government

Central Government BJP led NDA

Congress 2014 2019 31

Hints: Read the local newspaper, seek help from your parents or elders or browse the Internet. Find out the ANSWERS yourself.

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VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Lok Sabha (i) Government of India Act 2. Rajya Sabha (ii) Member of Parliament 3. MP (iii) Lower house of Parliament 4. CPM (iv) Upper house of Parliament 5. 1909 (v) Communist Party of India (Marxist) Ans. 1. (iii), 2. (iv), 3. (ii), 4. (v), 5. (i) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. The take-off point for a democracy is the idea of ____________. 2. The Lok Sabha is usually elected once every ________years. 3. The candidates who contest elections usually belong to different political parties. Once they are elected, they become ____________________. 4. Parliament of India consists of the ___________, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. 5 One of the most important functions of the Lok Sabha is to select the ______________. Ans. 1. consent,  2. five,  3. Members of Parliament or MPs,  4. President, 5. executive III. State whether True or False: 1. The President of India is the leader of the ruling party in the Lok Sabha. 2. For a political party to form the government, they must have a majority of elected MLAs. 3. From the MPs who belong to their party, the Prime Minister selects ministers to work with her to implement decisions. 4. The Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representative of the districts of India in the Parliament. 5. The Opposition parties play a critical role in the healthy functioning of a democracy. Ans. 1. False,  2. False,  3. True,  4. False,  5. True

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The Government of India Act was passed in: (a) 1910 (b) 1909 (c) 1911 2. Universal adult franchise means (a) all adult citizens of the country have the right to vote (b) All minors of the country have the right to vote (c) Only NRIs have the right to vote

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3. Parliament enables citizens of India to participate in (a) Decision making (b) Decision making and controlling the government (c) Controlling the government 4. Representatives of the Parliament are chosen by (a) The Government (b) The MLAs (c) The people 5. The upper house of the Parliament is called (a) Lok Sabha (b) Rashtrapati Bhawan (c) Rajya Sabha Ans. 1. (b),  2. (a),  3. (b),  4. (c),  5. (c)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Which act allowed elected representation for the first time? Ans. Government of India Act 1909 2. The most important component of democracy is: Ans. The People 3. Which house is elected every 5 years? Ans. Lok Sabha 4. What are the three components of the Parliament? Ans. The President, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. 5. Who selects the executive? Ans. The Lok Sabha 6. What is the take-off point for a democracy? Ans. It is the approval and participation of the public that is utmost importance in a democracy. 7. What is the Opposition? Ans. Opposition is the party that opposes the majority or coalition party that forms the government. 8. What is the role of Rajya Sabha? Ans. The Rajya Sabha represents the states of India. In order for a bill to become a law, it has to be passed by the Rajya Sabha. It ‘reviews and alters’ the bills passed by the Lok Sabha. 9. Why are some seats reserved in the Parliament for the SCs and STs? Ans. It is done so that the marginalised communities have adequate representation in the Lok Sabha. 10. Is our democracy representative enough? Ans. Issues like minimal women representatives, no reservation for women in the Parliament persist, which is an indication that our democracy is not representative enough.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. How are people important in a democracy? Ans. People are important in a democracy because it is the decision of people that creates a democratic government and decides about its functioning. 2. How are MPs elected? Ans. MPs are elected in the following way: •• India has many constituencies and each of these constituencies elects one person to the Parliament. •• The candidates who contest elections usually belong to different political parties. •• Once elected, these candidates become Members of Parliament or MPs. These MPs together make up the Parliament. 3. What is the Opposition Party? Ans. The Opposition Party in the Parliament is formed by all the political parties that oppose the majority party/coalition formed. The largest amongst these parties is called the Opposition party. 4. What is a coalition government? Ans. When it becomes difficult for a single party to form a majority, they join together with different political parties who are interested in similar concerns to form that is known as a coalition government. 5. Why is the question hour important? Ans. The question hour is important because: •• This device allows an MP to elicit information about the working of the government. •• This is a very important way through which the Parliament controls the executive. •• By asking questions the government is alerted to its shortcomings, and also comes to know the opinion of the people through their representatives in the Parliament, i.e. the MPs. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. How does the individual give approval to the government? Ans. The individual gives approval to the government through elections. •• People would elect their representatives to the Parliament, then, one group from among these elected representatives forms the government. •• The Parliament, which consists of all representatives together, controls and guides the government. In this sense, people through their chosen representatives, form the government and also control it. 2. What is Rajya Sabha? How does it help in making laws? Ans. Rajya Sabha is the upper house of the Parliament. The Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representative of the states of India in the Parliament. •• The Rajya Sabha can also initiate legislation and a bill is required to pass through the Rajya Sabha in order to become a law. •• It, therefore, has an important role of reviewing and altering (if alterations are needed) the laws initiated by the Lok Sabha.

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3. What is the role of the Opposition Party? Ans. The Opposition Party plays a very important role: •• In the Parliament, the Opposition parties play a critical role in the healthy functioning of a democracy. •• They highlight drawbacks in various policies and programmes of the government and mobilise popular support for their own policies. •• The government gets valuable feedback and is kept on its toes by the questions asked by the MPs. 4. Why are there reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Parliament? Ans. It has been observed that representative democracy cannot produce a perfect reflection of society becomes: •• there are various communities in India. •• our national struggle made us realise that when interests and experiences separate us it is important to ensure that communities that have been historically marginalised are given adequate representation. •• therefore, some seats are reserved in Parliament for SCs and STs so that the MPs elected from these constituencies will be familiar with and can represent Dalit and Adivasi interests in Parliament.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Which constitutional body makes or amend laws? 2. Methods used to protest or show dissent. 3. Define the ‘Rule of Law’. 4. Write features of ‘seditious Act of 1870.’ 5. What do we mean by ‘Domestic Violence’? 6. How are new laws formed?

4

Understanding Laws

Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Do Laws apply to All?

Unpopular and Controversial Laws

All persons in independent India are equal before the law. The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender.

Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to people because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful.

Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment as well as a process through which the guilt of the person has to be established. With the adoption of the Constitution, this document served as the foundation on which our representatives began making laws for the country.

In a democracy like ours, citizens can express their unwillingness to accept repressive laws framed by the Parliament. The court has the power to modify or cancel laws if it finds that they don't adhere to the Constitution.

How do New Laws come about? The role of citizens is crucial in helping Parliament frame different concerns that people might have into laws. This voice can be heard through TV reports, newspaper editorials, radio broadcasts, local meetings - all of which help in making the work that Parliament does more accessible and transparent to the people.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• All persons in independent India are equal before the law. The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender. •• In ancient India, there were innumerable and often overlapping local laws. This slowly began to change as this system of law began to further evolve during the colonial period.

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•• It is often believed that the British colonialists introduced the rule of law in India. However, historians have disputed this claim on several grounds, the first of which that was colonial law was arbitrary. •• Indian nationalists began protesting and criticising this arbitrary use of authority by the British. •• By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indian legal profession also began emerging and demanded respect in colonial courts. •• There were several ways in which Indians played a major role in the evolution of the rule of law during the colonial period. •• After the adoption of the Constitution, it served as the foundation on which our representatives began making laws for the country. •• The Parliament has an important role in making laws. •• The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act came into effect in 2006. It was a civil law which aimed at providing relief to millions of women, including wives, mothers, daughters and sisters affected by violence in their homes. •• Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to people. •• The people can protest by using newspapers and the media to carefully chart the work that is being done by our MPs and criticise their actions when it is required.

III. KEYWORDS •• Colonies: The countries which are under foreign rule are called colonies. •• Overlapping verb: to extend over or a part and cover a part of. Here, it means confusing. Origin: unknown. •• Penalised (verb): to punish. •• Disputed (verb): to fight or argue about something. Origin: Middle English, from Anglo-French desputer. •• Legal Profession: The activity of a trained lawyer in respect of laws is termed legal profession. •• Illegal Activities: Activities which are done against the law. •• Evolution: Evolution refers to process of development from simple to a complex form and is often used to discuss the development of a species of plants or animals. •• Sedition (noun): The crime of saying, writing or doing something that encourages people to disobey the government. Origin: Latin seditio. •• Prominent (adj.): Important and well-known. Origin: Middle English prominent. •• Repressive (verb): To control severely. Origin: Middle English, from Anglo French represser.

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•• Hawking (verb): the act of selling something on the streets. Origin: late 15th century: probably a back-formation from hawker.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 45 1. State one reason why you think the Sedition Act of 1870 was arbitrary? In what ways does the sedition Act of 1870 contradict the rule of law? Ans. The Sedition Act of 1870 was arbitrary because this act did not state any proper reason for arresting Indians. This act was against the rule of law because the rule of law means that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law. Here, in this act, Indians were not treated as equals. Page 48 2. Study the storyboard and answer the questions that follow it. 1. What do you understand by ‘domestic violence’? List the two rights that the new law helped achieve for women who are survivors of violence. 2. Can you list one process that was used to make more people aware of the need for this law? 3. From the storyboard can you list two different ways in which people lobbied Parliament? Ans. 1. Domestic violence refers to the injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by an adult male usually by the husband against his wife. Injury may be caused by physically beating up the woman or by emotionally abusing her. Abuse of the woman can also include verbal, sexual and economic abuse. This law recognises a woman’s right to a violence-free home and the right of women to live in a shared household. 2. The process of public hearing. 3. Equal relationships are violence-free—This means that if there is equality in a relationship, there will be harmony, each will recognise the other’s rights and needs. 4. Rallies, hunger strike and protestations. Page 48 3. In the following poster, what do you understand by the phrase ‘Equal Relationships are Violence Free’ ? Ans. Equal relationship means both husband and wife have equal rights. They are equal level before law. Either or them is not superior to each other. Such equal relationships are violence free because husband cannot use any violence against his wife and same in case of wife.

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4. Read the newspaper/watch news on TV for a week and find out if there are any unpopular laws that people in India or around the world are protesting. List the three forms of protest that you see in the photos below. 1.

3.

2.

Ans. 1. Hunger strike,  2. Dharna,  3. Rally

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 51) 1. Write in your own words what you understand by the term the ‘rule of law’. In your response include a fictitious or real example of a violation of the rule of law. Ans. ‘Rule of law’ refers to the equal application of laws to all citizens irrespective of caste, religion, creed, sex, etc. Two people were caught red-handed selling drugs in a hotel. One of them was an influential personality. He was given a mild warning by the police and was then set free. The other person was arrested by the police and kept in lock-up. 2. State two reasons why historians refute the claim that the British introduced the rule of law in India. Ans. Two reasons why historians refute the claim that the British introduced the rule of law in India are: •• Colonial law was arbitrary. The British passed the Sedition Act of 1870 under which any person who criticised or protested against the malpractices of the British Government could be arrested without any trial. •• Indian nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India. 3. Re-read the storyboard on how a new law on domestic violence got passed. Describe in your own words the different ways in which women’s groups worked to make this happen. Ans. • Hearing complaints of domestic violence •• Holding public meetings to discuss the issue of domestic violence

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•• Discussing the definition of domestic violence •• Discussing the possible modification of the law •• Holding meetings with different organisations 4. Write in your own words what you understand by the following sentence on pages 44-45: They also began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to law as including ideas of justice. Ans. The Indian Nationalists advocated for greater equality for Indians before the law.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following:

1. The Sedition Act 2. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 3. Civil Rights Act 4. Rowlatt Act Ans. 1. (ii), 2. (iii), 3. (iv), 4. (i)

(i) 1919 (ii) 1870 (iii) 2006 (iv) 1964

II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. The law cannot _____________ between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender. 2. With the adoption of the____________, this document served as the foundation on which our representatives began making laws for the country. 3. Indians played a major role in the evolution of the _______________during the colonial period. 4. The court has the power of_________________ to modify or cancel laws. 5. An important role of Parliament is to be ____________to the problems faced by people Ans. 1. discriminate, 2. Constitution,  3. rule of law,  4. judicial review, 5. sensitive III. State whether True or False: 1. Daughters cannot inherit their father’s property. 2. The Parliament has an important role in making laws. 3. The Sedition Act of 1870 was arbitrary in nature. 4. In ancient India, there were innumerable and often overlapping local laws. 5. It is often believed that it was the French colonialists who introduced the rule of law in India. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. True,  4. True,  5. False

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VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. When did the Rowlatt Act come into effect? (a) 1920 (b) 1919 (c) 1925 2. Who opened fire in the Jalianwala Bagh massacre? (a) General Dyer (b) Lord Canning (c) Robert Clive 3. When did the Hindu Succession Amendment Act come into effect? (a) 2006 (b) 2007 (c) 2005 4. What does domestic violence mean? (a) The injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by an adult male, usually the husband, against his wife. (b) The injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by a minor male against his sister. (c) The injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by a minor female against his brother. 5. Who was the African-American woman, refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man on 1 December, 1955? (a) Dylan Parker (b) Rosa Parks (c) Molly Simpson Ans. 1. (b),  2. (a),  3. (c), 4. (a),  5. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Is the President of India above law? Ans. No. 2. Which document serves as the foundation of law-making? Ans. The Constitution 3. When was the Hindu Succession Amendment Act passed? Ans. 2005 4. What does rule of law mean? Ans. It means that it applies to everyone and that no one is above or below it. 5. What was the Sedition Act of 1870? Ans. The British, under the Sedition Act of 1870, could arrest and prosecute anyone who protested against their government without trial or warrant. 6. How does the ‘voice’ of the citizen reach the lawmakers? Ans. The voice reaches the lawmakers through newspaper, radio, public meetings and nowadays, social media. 7. Why are some laws unpopular? Ans. They are unpopular because the people think it might be unfair or harmful. 8 What special power does a court exercise regarding laws? Ans. It can change or scrap a law if they aren’t Constitutionally binding.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What was the law system in ancient India? Ans. The system of law in ancient India: •• In ancient India, there were innumerable and often overlapping local laws. •• Different communities enjoyed different degrees of autonomy in administering these laws among their own. •• In some cases, the punishment that two persons received for the same crime varied depending on their caste backgrounds, with lower castes being more harshly penalised. 2. As citizens of India, what is our role in lawmaking? Ans. As responsible citizens, we also have an important role in the lawmaking process. •• If it is required, we must use newspapers and the media to carefully chart the work that is being done by our MPs and criticise their actions as and when necessary. •• Thus, what we should bear in mind is that it is the extent, involvement and enthusiasm of the people that helps Parliament perform its representative functions properly. 3. Explain coalition government. Ans. • Sometimes, it becomes difficult for a single political party to get the majority that is required to form the government. •• And then, join together with different political parties who are interested in similar policies and programmes to form the governement. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. How did Indians react to the Sedition Act? Ans. According to the Sedition Act, any person protesting or criticising the British government could be arrested without due trial. •• Indian nationalists began protesting and criticising this arbitrary use of authority by the British. •• Angry due to the arbitrariness of the law, they also began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to law as including ideas of justice. •• By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indian legal profession also began emerging and legal professionals demanded respect in colonial courts. •• They began to use law to defend the legal rights of Indians. •• Indian judges also began to play a greater role in making decisions. 2. What do you mean by domestic violence? What is the Domestic Violence Act of 2006? Ans. Domestic violence refers to the injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by an adult male, usually the husband, against his wife. Injury may be caused by physically beating up the woman or by emotionally abusing her. Abuse of the woman can also include verbal, sexual and economic abuse.

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The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2006 extends the understanding of the term ‘domestic’ to include all women who ‘live or have lived together in a shared household’ with the male member who is perpetrating the violence. The law recognised a woman’s right to a violence-free home and provided a comprehensive definition of domestic violence. It was a civil law aimed at providing relief to millions of women, including wives, mothers, daughters and sisters affected by violence in their homes. 3. What happens when the Parliament passes an unpopular law? Ans. Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to people because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful. •• In such cases people might criticise this law, hold public meetings, write about it in newspapers, report to TV news channels, etc. •• In a democracy like ours, citizens can express their unwillingness to accept repressive laws framed by the Parliament. •• When a large number of people begin to feel that a wrong law has been passed, then there is pressure on the Parliament to change this.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. What was the most important provision in the Constitution of India? 2. The Rosa Parks incident happened in which year? 3. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act came into effect in __________. 4. What did the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act aim at? 5. What is the Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005?

UNIT III: THE JUDICIARY

5

Judiciary

Chapter

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS What is the Role of the Judiciary?

What is an Independent Judiciary?

The work that the judiciary does can be divided into the following:

The Indian Constitution provides for the independence of the judiciary.

Dispute Resolution, Judicial Review, Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights.

One aspect of this independence is the 'separation of powers' which means that other branches of government – the legislature and the executive – cannot interfere in the work of the judiciary.

What is the Structure of Courts in India?

Does Everyone have access to the Courts?

The courts that most people interact with are what are called subordinate or district courts.

In principle, all citizens of India can access to the courts in this country.

Each state is divided into districts that are presided over by a District Judge. Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state. At the top is the Supreme Court that is located in New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of India.

However, in reality access to the courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the poor in India since legal procedures involve a lot of money and paperwork. The Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL to increase access to justice.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• As an organ of government, the judiciary plays a crucial role in the functioning of India’s democracy. •• The judiciary has many roles to play: dispute resolutions, the act of judicial review and upholding the law and enforcing fundamental rights.

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•• The Indian Constitution provides independence of the judiciary. It means that the other branches of government – the legislature and the executive – cannot interfere in the work of the judiciary. •• The judges in the High Court as well as the Supreme Court are appointed with very little interference from these other branches of government. •• The judiciary also plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens. •• There are three different levels of courts in our country. There are several courts at the lower level while there is only one at the apex level. •• The decisions made by the Supreme Court are binding on all other courts in India. •• We in India have an integrated judicial system means that the decisions made by higher courts are binding on the lower courts. •• Criminal law and civil law are the two different branches of the Indian legal system. •• In principle, all citizens of India can access to the courts in this country. •• The Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL to increase access to justice. •• The legal process was greatly simplified due to PIL. •• The judiciary has played a crucial role in democratic India, serving as a check on the powers of the executive and the legislature as well as in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens.

III. KEYWORDS •• Interpreter (noun): a person who translates. Here, it means that the judiciary can interpret or understand the Constitution without interference from any other organs of the government. Origin: Latin interpretari. •• Compensation (noun): something that is done or given to make up for damage, trouble, etc. Origin: Latin compensare. •• Encroached (verb): to advance beyond someone’s limit. Origin: Old French encrochier. •• Apex (noun): the topmost level. Origin: Latin apex. •• Subordinate (adj.): In a position of less power. Origin: Latin sub + ordinare. •• Integrated (adj): having different parts working together as a unit. Origin: Latin integrat. •• Subjected (verb): under the control or dominion. Origin: Latin subjectus. •• Convicted (verb): to prove that someone is guilty of a crime. Origin: Middle English: from Latin convict. •• Verdict (noun): the decision made by the jury in a trial. Origin: Middle English: from Anglo-Norman French verdit. •• Acquitted (verb): to decide that someone is not guilty of a crime. Origin: From Old French acquiter. •• Evictions (verb): the act of forcing someone to leave a place. Origin: unknown. •• Inordinately (adj.): going beyond what is usual. Origin: unknown. •• Envisioned (verb): to think of something that you believe might exist or happen in the future. Origin: unknown.

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IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 56 1. Do you think that any ordinary citizen stands a chance against a politician in this kind of judicial system? Why not? Ans. Yes, any ordinary citizen stands a chance against a politician in this kind of judicial system. It is because, we have an independent judiciary where the judge is not under anyone’s control or pressure. Activity (Page 56) With the help of your teacher, fill in the blank spaces in the table below: Type of dispute 1. Dispute between centre and the state. 2. Dispute between two states. 3. Dispute between two citizens. 4. Laws that are in violation of the construction.

Example

Ans. 1. Dissolution of Bihar Assembly. 2. Kaveri water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. 3. Land between two persons. 4. Arresting any person without giving any reason. Page 57 2. List two reasons why you believe an independent judiciary is essential to democracy. Ans. An independent judiciary is necessary in a democracy because in a democracy all people are equal in the eyes of law and an independent judiciary only does justice to this principle. Activity (Page 57) The structure of the courts from the lower to the highest level is such that it resembles a pyramid. Heaving read the description above, can you fill out which type of courts would exist at what level in the adjoining figure? Ans. Yes 1. Lower courts or district courts 2. High courts 3. Supreme courts

3 2 1

Page 59 3. Write two sentences of what you understand about the appellate system from the given case. Ans. Under the appellate system in our country, any person who is convicted can appeal for his or her innocence in a higher court. Also, the verdict of the higher court would be final and binding on all previous verdicts.

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Page 59 Give the different names of subordinate courts. Ans. The different names of subordinate courts are: – Trial court – Civil judge – Metropolitian magistrate – Court of district judge Page 60 4. Fill in the table given below based on what you have understood about criminal law and civil law. Description of violation Branch of law Procedure to be followed A group of girls are persistently harassed by a group of boys while walking to school. A tenant, who is being forced to move out, files a case in court against the landlord. Ans. Description of violation Branch of law Procedure to be followed A group of girls are persistently Criminal • Filling of FIR. Investiharassed by a group of boys while gation, filing a case, a walking to school. judgement to send a jail. A tenant, who is being forced to move Civil law • Filing of the case against the landlord trial. Relief out, files a case in court against the to tenant. landlord.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 64–65) 1. You read that one of the main functions of the judiciary is ‘upholding the law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights’. Why do you think an independent judiciary is necessary to carry out this important function? Ans. One of the main functions of the judiciary is upholding the law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: •• Since the judiciary is an independent force, it does not succumb to pressure from the legislature or executive and can work on its own to protect the Fundamental rights of the people of India. •• As the final interpreter of the Constitution and an independent working unit, the judiciary also has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. •• Since the judiciary is independent, no person wielding power can influence the judge to bring the verdict in his or her favour. The Indian Constitution protects against this kind of situation by providing for the independence of the judiciary.

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2. Re-read the list of Fundamental Rights provided in Chapter 1. How do you think the Right to Constitutional Remedies connects to the idea of judicial review? Ans. Right to Constitutional remedies empowers the citizen to move the court of law in case of violations of the Fundamental rights. When the judgement given by the court violates any constitutional provision, the power of judicial review comes into play. As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down the particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. 3. In the following illustration, fill in each tier with the judgments given by the various courts in the Sudha Goel case. Check your responses with others Supreme in class. Court Ans. Lower court: Laxman Kumar, Shakuntala and High Court Subhash Chandra were sentenced to death. High Court: All the three were acquitted. Supreme Court: Laxman and Shakuntala were Lower Court sentenced to life imprisonment and Subhash was acquitted. 4. Keeping the Sudha Goel case in mind, tick the sentences that are true and correct the ones that are false. (a) The accused took the case to the High Court because they were unhappy with the decision of the Trial Court. (b) They went to the High Court after the Supreme Court had given its decision. (c) If they do not like the Supreme Court verdict, the accused can go back again to the Trial Court. Ans. (a) True (b) False. The Supreme Court is the apex court and it did not give its verdict back then. After the Supreme Court’s verdict, no other court has the power to challenge or change it. (c) False. The Supreme Court’s verdict is final. 5. Why do you think the introduction of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the 1980s is a significant step in ensuring access to justice for all? Ans. The introduction of the PIL was a significant step in ensuring access to justice for all: •• Before 1980s, filing of litigation was very costly and time consuming. •• The poor were illiterate and could not afford to go to courts. •• After introduction of the PIL, the legal process was greatly simplified and even a letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated as a PIL. 6. Re-read excerpts from the judgment on the Olga Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation case. Now write in your own words what the judges meant when they said that the Right to Livelihood was part of the Right to Life. Ans. In the Olgo Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation case, the judges interpreted a wider meaning of the Right to Life. An equally important facet of that right

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was the right to livelihood because no person can live without the means of living, that is, the means of livelihood. 7. Write a story around the theme, ‘Justice delayed is justice denied’. Ans. Pradip was just parking his car when the two robbers bumped into him. Pradip was stunned when one of them placed a blood stained dagger in his hand and started running. The road was deserted and Pradip was dumbfounded. Within a few seconds policeman steered around his car and saw him with a blood stained dagger in his hand. The police arrested him and convicted him of murder. No one listened to his pleas. The case went on for 25 years. After 25 years, the court acquitted him. In all these years, Pradip grew old, the condition of his family deteriorated, his wife was bedridden. After the delay, justice was meted out but it was of no use for anyone. 8. Make sentences with each of the glossary words given on the next page. Ans. Acquit – After serving a trial of five years in prison, Shambhu was acquitted of the charge of robbery. To appeal – Mrs. Sinha will appeal to the High Court as the verdict of the district court is against her. Compensation – Sofia will be given a compensation of INR 5 lakh due to the accidental death of her father. Eviction – The landlord threatened to evict Mr Poddar and his family if he did not pay the rent on time. Violation – Violation of the Fundamental Rights is punishable under law. 9. The following is a poster (See NCERT Page 65) made by the Right to Food campaign. Read this poster and list the duties of the government to uphold the Right to Food. How does the phrase “Hungry stomachs, over flowing godowns! We will not accept it!!” used in the poster relate to the photo essay on the Right to Food on textbook page 61? Ans. Duties of the government are: •• All persons should get food •• To see that no one goes to sleep on an empty stomach •• To see that persons who are most vulnerable to hunger get special attention. •• To see that no death occurs due to malnutrition The photo essay on page 61 demonstrates a similar case when Odisha and Rajasthan faced a severe drought which killed many people of hunger while the government godowns were fully stacked with grains.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Supreme Court 2. High Court 3. PIL 4. Article 21 of the Constitution Ans. 1. (ii), 2. (iv), 3. (i), 4. (iii)

(i) Public Interest Litigation (ii) Apex court (iii) Right to Life (iv) Highest court of the state

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II. Fill In the Blanks: 1. Other organs of government – the ___________ and the ___________ – cannot interfere in the work of the judiciary. 2. As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the ____________ also has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament. 3. Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court or the High Court if they believe that their ________________have been violated. 4. In the case of Hakim Sheikh, the Supreme Court ruled that Article 21 which provides every citizen the Fundamental Right to Life also includes the _________________. 5. It is the ___________________of the judiciary that allows the courts to play a central role in ensuring that there is no misuse of power by the legislature and the executive. Ans. 1. legislature, executive,  2. judiciary,  3. Fundamental Rights,  4. Right to Health,  5. independence III. State whether True or False: 1. There are two different levels of courts in our country. 2. Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state. 3. The Supreme Court is presided over by the Chief Justice of India. 4. The Supreme Court plays a crucial role in violating the Fundamental Rights of citizens. 5. PIL was introduced in 1999. Ans. 1. False,  2. True,  3. True,  4. False,  5. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The Supreme Court is situated in (a) Calcutta (b) Bengaluru

(c) New Delhi

2. The courts that the most people interact with are called (a) Subordinate courts (b) High court (c) Supreme Court 3. When was the High Court under British rule first established? (a) 1962 (b) 1862 (c) 1920 4. What type of cases does not come under the civil law? (a) divorce (b) sale of land (c) murder 5. PIL was devised by (a) High Court of Calcutta (b) Supreme Court

(c) High Court of Ranchi

6. Who is the final interpreter of our Constitution? (a) Legislature (b) Executive

(c) Judiciary

7. Which of the following schemes are as a result of PIL? (a) Mid-day meal (b) Atal Pension Yojana (c) Digital India

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8. At present how many High Courts are there in India? (a) 23 (b) 24 (c) 28 Ans. 1. (c),  2. (a), 3. (b),  4. (c),  5. (b),  6. (c),  7. (a),  8. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Who is the final interpreter of the Constitution? Ans. The Judiciary 2. Who can approach the Supreme Court? Ans. Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court. 3. Which Article features the Fundamental Right to Life? Ans. Article 21 4. Which court is subordinate to a state high court? Ans. District Courts 5. Where is the Supreme Court located? Ans. New Delhi 6. What are three broad functions of the Judiciary? Ans. Dispute Resolution, Judicial Review, Upholding the law and enforcing fundamental rights. 7. Why is the independence of the judiciary important? Ans. If the judiciary were to be dependent or under the control of politicians, it could never give unbiased judgements, thereby denying justice to a citizen. 8. State any one way in which the judiciary is integrated? Ans. The appellate system is proof that the judicial system in integrated. One can appeal to higher courts in case of dissatisfaction. 9. What is PIL? Ans. Public Interest Litigation, was a mechanism devised by the supreme court in the 1980s. It allows an individual to file petitions on behalf of a larger group. 10. State any one issue that affects a common man’s access to justice. Ans. The courts take a very long time, some times years together, to hear a case. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What is a judicial system? What is its role in dispute resolution Ans. A judicial system is a mechanism of courts that a citizen can approach when a law is violated. It plays a very significant role in resolving dispute between (i) citizens, (ii) citizens and the government, (iii) the centre and state government. 2. How can we say that India has integrated judical system? Ans. In judiciary system, the decisions made by the higher courts are binding on other lower courts. We also have the appellate system. Under this system people can appeal to the higher courts if they are not satisfied with the lower court judgement.

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3. Define the terms acquit and compensation? Ans. Acquit refers to the decision of court that the person is not guilty of the crime for which she/he was tried for by the courts. Compensation defers to the money or benefit given to victim to make amend for an injury or loss. 4. Do all citizens of India have access to courts? Ans. Yes, all citizens can go to court. It implies that every citizen has a right to get justice through courts. If any citizen believes that his/her rights are being violated he/she can approach the court. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What are the three main functions of the judiciary? Ans. The three main functions of the judiciary are: •• Dispute resolution: The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between the citizens, between citizens and the government, between the two state governments and between the centre and the state governments. •• Judicial Review: As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. This is called judicial review. •• Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court or the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated. As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. 2. What is the structure of courts in India? Ans. The structure of the court system in India is as follows: •• There are three different levels of courts in our country. •• There are several courts at the lower level while there is only one at the apex level. •• The courts that most people interact with are called subordinate or district courts. These are usually at the district or Tehsil level or in towns and they hear many kinds of cases. •• Each state is divided into districts that are presided over by a District Judge. •• Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state. •• At the top is the Supreme Court that is located in New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of India. The decisions made by the Supreme Court are binding on all other courts in India.

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3. What is PIL? Give examples of how PIL benefitted the common man? Ans. In the early 1980s, the Supreme Court devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL to increase access to justice. It allowed any individual or organisation to file a PIL in the High Court or the Supreme Court on behalf of those whose rights were being violated. •• In the early years, PIL was used to secure justice on a large number of issues such as rescuing bonded labourers from inhuman work conditions. •• PIL also secured the release of prisoners in Bihar who had been kept in jail even after their punishment term was complete. •• The mid-day meal that children now receive in government and governmentaided schools is because of a PIL. 4. What is the difference between criminal law and civil law? Ans. Difference between criminal law and civil law: Criminal law Civil law 1. It deals with conduct or acts that 1. It deals with any harm the law defines as offences. For or injury to rights of example, theft, harassing a woman individuals. For example, to bring more dowry, murder. disputes relating to sale of land, purchase of goods, rent matters, divorce cases. 2. It usually begins with the lodging 2. A petition has to be filed of an FIR with the police who before the relevant court investigate the crime after which by the affected party only. a case is filed in court. In a rent matter, either the landlord or tenant can file a case. 3. If found guilty, the accused can be 3. The court gives the specific sent to jail and also fined. relief asked for. For instance, in a case between a landlord and a tenant, the court can order the flat to be vacated and pending rent to be paid.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. How many High Courts are there in India? 2. Give two points of difference between criminal and civil law. 3. How is Judiciary made independent? 4. Does everyone have access to courts in India? 5. What are PILS?

6 Chapter

Understanding Our Criminal Judicial System I.  BASIC CONCEPTS

What is the Role of the Police in Investigating a Crime? One important function of the police is to investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime. If the police think that the evidence points to the guilt of the accused person, they file a chargesheet in the court.

What is the Role of the Judge?

What is the Role of a Public Prosecutor? In court, it is the Public Prosecutor who represents the interests of the State. The role of the Prosecutor begins once the police has conducted the investigation and filed the chargesheet in the court.

The judge is like an umpire in a game and conducts the trial impartially and in an open court. The judge is like an umpire in a game and conducts the trial impartially and in an open court.

What is a Fair Trial? Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the Right to Life states that a person's life or liberty can be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure. A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld. Every citizen, irrespective of their class, caste, gender, religious and ideological backgrounds gets a fair trial when accused.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• It is the court of law and not the police, who decides if the accused is guilty or not. •• According to the Constitution, every individual charged of a crime deserves a fair trial.

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•• The police, the Public Prosecutor, the defence lawyer and the judge are the four key players in the criminal justice system. •• They form an opinion only after collecting various evidences and recording statements of witnesses. •• The police are not allowed to torture, beat, shoot or inflict any kind of pain on the accused during investigation. •• The police can commence their investigations into a crime after the registration of an FIR. •• A Public Prosecutor has no role to play in the investigation. He/she conducts the prosecution on behalf of the state without being partial. •• The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the defence and gives the verdict whether the accused person is guilty or innocent. •• The judge can pronounce a sentence if the accused is convicted. •• Article 21 of the Constitution guarantees that the Right to Life states that a person’s life or liberty can be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure. •• Every citizen, irrespective of their class, caste, gender, religious and ideological backgrounds gets a fair trial when accused.

III. KEYWORDS •• Detention: Detention is the act of keeping the accused in custody by the police. •• Frantically (adverb): Anything done in a distraught way owing to fear, anxiety, or other emotion. Origin: Middle English frenetic. •• Surety (noun): a person who takes responsibility for another’s performance of an undertaking, for example their appearing in court or paying a debt. Origin: Middle English seurté. •• Offence: It refers to any act that the law defines as a crime. •• Charge Sheet (noun): a record made in a police station of the charges against a person. Origin: unknown. •• Witness: It means the person who is called upon in court to provide a first hand account of what he/she has seen, heard or knows. •• Testimonies (noun): formal written or spoken statements, especially one given in a court of law. Origin: Middle English testimonie. •• Acquitted (verb): Free (someone) from a criminal charge by a verdict of not guilty. Origin: Middle English acquiten. •• Fair Trial: To free a case in courts as per law. •• Detention (noun): the action of detaining someone or the state of being detained in official custody. Origin: Middle English detencion. •• FIR: First Information Report, filed in the police station. •• Cognizable (adjective): within the jurisdiction of a court. Origin: unknown.

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IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 71 1. Why do you think there is a rule that confessions made during police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused? Ans. It is so because that the police may have adopted illegal methods, such as torture to make the accused confess his/her guilt. Page 72 2. Now let us return to the story of Shanti and answer the following questions: (a) When Shanti was arrested for theft, S.I. Rao also kept her brother Sushil in the police lock up for two days. Was it legal for the police to detain him? Does it violate the D.K. Basu guidelines? (b) Did S.I. Rao do enough to question witnesses and compile evidence before arresting Shanti and filing a case against her? In keeping with the duties of the police as stated above, what else do you think S.I. Rao could have done as part of his investigation? Ans. (a) No, it was not legal. It violates the D.K. Basu’s guidelines. (b) No, S.I. Rao should have made wider investigations by making enquiries in the locality. 3. Now let us take a slightly different scenario. Shanti and her brother Sushil go to the police station to complain that Mr. Shinde’s 20-year old son had stolen ` 15,000 that they had been saving up. Do you think that the officer in charge of the Police Station will promptly lodge an FIR? List a few factors that in your opinion may influence the decision of the police to register or not register an FIR. Ans. The police officer must promptly lodge an FIR in such a situation. But this may not happen as Mr. Shinde, with his power and wealth, might try to use his influence. Police may try to tell Shanti and her brother not to fight against their employer. Page 73 4. What did the judge say in Shanti’s case after hearing the testimony of all the witness? Ans. The judge acquitted Shanti from the charge of theft and said that the police would hand over INR 10,000 that they had sealed. Also, in his written judgment, he made it a point to highlight S.I. Rao’s role in conducting such a shoddy investigation that made you spend time in jail. Page 75 5. All of the processes, written in bold, on page 74, are crucial to fair trial. Write in your own words what you understand of the following processes based on the above description of Shanti’s case. (a) Open Court (b) Basis of Evidence (c) Cross-examination of Prosecution Witnesses

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Discuss in class what might have happened in Shanti’s case if the following procedures had not been observed. (a) If she were not defended by a lawyer. (b) If the court had not assumed her to be innocent.

Ans. (a) Open court means the court without any restriction. (b) Basis of evidence means the proof given by the witnesses and other evidences. (c) Question/counter questions asked by the lawyers to the accused and witness. Discussion (i) Shanti would have been punished. (ii) She would have been sent to jail for no fault of hers.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 76) In a town called Peace Land, the supporters of the Fiesta football team learn that the supporters of the Jubilee football team in the nearby city about 40 km away have damaged the ground on which the Final between both teams is to be held the following day. A crowd of Fiesta fans armed with deadly weapons attacks the homes of the supporters of the Jubilee football team in the town. In the attack, 10 men are killed, 5 women are gravely hurt, many homes are destroyed and over 50 people injured. Imagine that you and your classmates are now part of the criminal justice system. First divide the class into the following four groups of persons: 1. Police  2. Public Prosecutor  3. Defence lawyer  4. Judge The column on the right provides a list of functions. Match these with the roles that are listed on the left. Have each group pick the functions that it needs to perform to bring justice to those who were affected by the violence of the Fiesta fans. In what order, will these functions be performed?

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Roles 1. Police

Functions

4. Judge

(vii) Writes the judgement (viii) Argue the case for the victims (ix) decide for how many years the accused will be put in jail (x) examine the witnesses in court (xi) pass the judgement (xii) get the assaulted women medically examined (xiii) conduct a fair trial (xiv) meet the accused persons

(i) hear the witnesses (ii) record the statements of witnesses (iii) cross examine the witnesses 2. Public Prosecutor (iv) Take photographs of burnt homes (v) Record the evidence 3. Defence (vi) Arrest the Fiesta fans Lawyer

Now take the same situation but ask one student who is a supporter of the Fiesta Club to perform all the functions listed above. Do you think the victims would get justice if only one person performed all of the functions of the criminal justice system? Why not? State two reasons why you believe that different persons need to play different roles as a part of the criminal justice system. ns. 1. (ii), (iv), (v), (vi), (xii);  2. (viii), (x);  3. (iii), (xiv);  4. (i), (vii), (ix), A (xi), (xiii) No, the victims would get justice if only one person performed all the functions of the criminal justice system. This is because, he or she would not have been able to avoid the prejudices. Also, in order to give a fair trial, the same person should not perform all functions.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following sentences: 1. Public Prosecutor 2. Police 3. Article 21 4. Judge Ans. 1. (iv), 2. (i), 3. (ii), 4. (iii)

(i) FIR (ii) Right to Life (iii) decides if the accused is guilty (iv) appointed by the government.

II. Fill In the Blanks: 1. One important function of the police is to investigate any complaint about the ____________________. 2. The police are not allowed to ___________ or ________ or _______ anyone during investigation.

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3. A boy under _______ years of age and _______ cannot be called to the police station only for questioning. 4. It is compulsory for an ___________________ of a police station to register an FIR whenever a person gives information about a cognizable offence. 5. If the police find the accused guilty, a ______________ is filed in the court. Ans. 1. Commission of a crime,  2. Torture, beat, shoot,  3. 15, women, 4. Officerin-charge, 5. Chargesheet III. State whether True or False: 1. It is the responsibility of the police to decide if the accused is guilty or not. 2. Sushil is treated soberly and in a dignified manner by the police. 3. A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning. 4. The police officials who carry out the arrest or interrogation should wear clear, accurate and visible identification and the name tags with their designations. 5. Article 25 of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee to every arrested person the Fundamental Right–the Right to be informed at the time of arrest for the offence for which the person is being arrested. Ans. 1. False,  2. False,  3. True,  4. True,  5. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Whom do we inform when we see someone violating the law? (a) The public prosecutor (b) The police (c) A lawyer 2. Where did Mr. Shinde go to file an FIR? (a) Court of law (b) Magistrate’s office (c) Police station 3. Which Article states that every individual has the Fundamental Right to be defended by a lawyer? (a) Article 22 (b) Article 39A (c) Article 18 4. The specific requirements and procedures that the police and other agencies have to follow for the arrest, detention and interrogation of any person is known as (a) Emblems’ Act (b) Legal Aid Organisation (c) DK Basu guidelines 5. The full form of FIR is (a) First Investigation Report (b) First Information Report (c) First Interrogation Report Ans. 1. (b),  2. (c),  3. (a),  4. (c),  5. (b)

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VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Which article in the Constitution protects the arrested person’s fundamental rights? Ans. Article 22 2. Who represents the interest of the state in court? Ans. Public Prosecutor 3. What is the first step towards investigation of a crime by the Police? Ans. Filing a First Information Report. 4. What is the indication of a fair trial? Ans. An impartial judge who judges only basis of evidence provided. 5. Who are the four key players in the criminal justice system? Ans. Police, Public Prosecutor, Defense Lawyer and Jury. 6. What is ‘NOT’ the job of the police? Ans. It is not the job of the police to determine if the person in question is guilty or not. Their job is to ascertain facts and produce them in the court. 7. Who is accused? Ans. Accused is a person who is tried by a court for a crime. 8. Which type of advocate who pleeds on behalf of the accused person? Ans. Public prosecutor. 9. Which article in the constitution ensure a fair trial? Ans. Article 21. 10. Who decided whether a person is guilty or no? Ans. Judge decide whether a person is guilty or not. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What do you mean by a fair trial? Ans. A trial which is observed by a judge or by a jury impartially is known as a fair trial. The judge must decide the matter and come to a conclusion only on the basis of evidence. Justice must be served to every citizen irrespective of their caste, class, gender and religion. Everyone is equal before the eyes of law and hence, every citizen is guaranteed a fair trial by the Constitution. 2. State the provisions of Article 21. Ans. Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the Right to Life states that a person’s life or liberty can be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure. A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld. 3. Discuss the role of the police in investigating a crime. Ans. The police play a crucial role in investigating a crime. They are as follows: (a) The police record statements of witnesses and collect different kinds of evidences of the crime.

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(b) Based on the investigation, the police form an opinion whether the accused is guilty or not. (c) If the accused is found guilty, the police file a chargesheet in the court. 4. What does Article 22 of the Constitution state? Ans. Article 22 of the Constitution guarantees to every arrested person the following Fundamental Rights: •• The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is being arrested. •• The Right to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest. •• The Right not to be ill-treated or tortured during arrest or in custody. •• Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused. •• A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning. 5. When can the police begin their investigation into a crime? Discuss in brief. Ans. The police can begin their investigation into a crime with the registration of an FIR. It is compulsory for the officer-in-charge to register an FIR whenever a person gives an account of a cognizable offence. An FIR usually mentions the date, time and place of the offence, details the basic facts of the offence, including a description of the events. The identity of the accused and the witness are also noted down. The FIR also states the name and address of the complainant. 6. Why was Advocate Kamala Roy appointed by the Magistrate? Ans. Advocate Kamala Roy was appointed as the Shanti’s defence lawyer at the government’s expense. It is so because according to Article 22 of the Constitution, every individual has the fundamental right to be defended by a lawyer and in case the individual is unable to engage one due to poverty or other disability, it is the duty upon the state to provide a lawyer to the citizen. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Discuss in brief the role of a public prosecutor. Ans. • The Public Prosecutor represents the interests of the State in the court. •• The role of the Prosecutor begins once the police has conducted the investigation and filed the chargesheet in the court. •• He/she has no role to play in the investigation. •• The Prosecutor must conduct the prosecution on behalf of the State. •• As an officer of the court, it is his/ her duty to act impartially and present the full and material facts, witnesses and evidence before the court to enable the court to decide the case. 2. “The judge is like an umpire in a game and conducts the trial impartially and in an open court.” How far do you agree to this statement? Ans. “The judge is like an umpire in a game and conducts the trial impartially and in an open court.”

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•• The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the defence. •• The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the law. •• If the accused is convicted, the judge pronounces the sentence. •• He may send the person to jail or impose a fine or both, depending on what the law prescribes.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. After a person is arrested, it is a ___________that decides whether the accused person is guilty or not. 2. One important function of the ________is to investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime. 3. Article ____ of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee to every arrested person some Fundamental Rights. 4. A boy under ____ years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning. 5. Whose guidelines are followed in the Supreme Court of India when it comes to specific requirements and procedures that the police and other agencies have to follow for the arrest, detention and interrogation of any person?

7

UNIT IV: SOCIAL JUSTICE AND THE MARGINALISED

Chapter

Understanding Marginalisation

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Who are Adivasis? Adivasis are community who lived, and often continue to live, in close association with forests. Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. Adivasis have their own languages which have often deeply influenced the formation of 'mainstream' Indian languages, like Bengali.

Adivasis and Development

Muslims and Marginalisation

Forests covered the major part of our country till the nineteenth century and the Adivasis had a deep knowledge of access to as well as control over most of these vast tracts at least till the middle of the nineteenth century.

According to 2011 census, Muslims are 14.2 per cent of India's population and are considered to be a marginalised community in India.

This is radically contrary to our image of Adivasis today as somewhat marginal and powerless communities. For the past 200 years, Adivasis have been increasingly forced to migrate to live as workers in plantations, at construction sites, in industries and as domestic workers. Losing their lands and access to the forest means that tribals lose their main sources of livelihood and food. Many tribal children are malnourished. Literacy rates among tribals are also very low.

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Government reports suggest that on a range of social, economic and educational indicators the situation of the Muslim community is comparable to that of other marginalised communities like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. It suggests that on a range of social, economic and educational indicators, the situation of the Muslim community is comparable to that of other marginalised communities like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

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Minorities and Marginalisation The Indian Constitution recognised that the culture of the majority influences the way in which society and government might express themselves. Thus, safeguards are needed to protect minority communities against the possibility of being culturally dominated by the majority. The Constitution provides these safeguards because it is committed to protecting India's cultural diversity and promoting equality as well as justice.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• In our social environment, there are groups of people or communities who may have the experience of being excluded. Their marginalisation can be because they speak a different language, follow different customs or belong to a different religious group from the majority community. •• Adivasis – the term literally means ‘original inhabitants’ – are communities who lived, and often continue to live, in close association with forests. •• There are over 500 different Adivasi groups in India. •• Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism and Christianity. •• During the nineteenth century, substantial numbers of Adivasis converted to Christianity, which has emerged as a very important religion in modern Adivasi history. •• Adivasis have their own languages and Santhali has the largest number of speakers. •• In India, Adivasis are shown as exotic, primitive and backward. Often Adivasis are blamed for their lack of advancement as they are believed to be resistant to change or new ideas. •• Forests covered the major part of our country till the nineteenth century and the Adivasis had a deep knowledge of, access to, as well as control over most of these vast tracts at least till the middle of the nineteenth century. •• For the past 200 years Adivasis have been increasingly forced – through economic changes, forest policies and political force applied by the State and private industry – to migrate to other areas. •• A recent survey report by organisations working among Adivasis shows that 79 per cent of the persons displaced from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand are tribals. •• The term minority is most commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically smaller in relation to the rest of the population. •• Safeguards are needed to protect minority communities against the possibility of being culturally dominated by the majority. •• The Constitution provides these safeguards because it is committed to protecting India’s cultural diversity and promoting equality as well as justice.

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•• According to 2011 census, Muslims are 14.2 per cent of India’s population and are considered to be a marginalised community in India today. •• Muslim customs and practices are sometimes quite distinct from what is seen as the mainstream because of which they tend to be identified differently. •• All of us have a stake in protecting the rights defined in the Constitution and the laws and policies framed to realise these rights.

III. KEYWORDS •• Hierarchy (noun): A graded system or arrangement of persons or things. Origin: Middle English ierarchie. •• Exotic (adj.): mysteriously unusual. Origin: Latin exōtikos. •• Colluded (verb): To work with others secretly. Origin: Latin colludere. •• Deprivation (noun): State of being deprived of something. Origin: Middle English depriven. •• Accentuated (verb): to make something more noticeable. Origin: borrowed from Medieval Latin accentuates. •• Prejudice (noun): preconceived notion or judgement. Origin: Latin praejudicium. •• Militarised: Millitarised is an area where the presence of the military is considerable. •• Adivasis: Adivasis literally means the originally inhabitants. Advasis are those communities who lived and continue to live in close association with forests. •• Madarsas: The small institution where the religious education is imported to the students, belonging especially to Muslims.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 83 1. Explain at least three different reasons why groups may be marignalised. Ans. Groups may be marginalised due to the following reasons: 1. Speak different languages 2. Follow different customs 3. Poverty 4. Less education 2. Why was Dadu forced to leave his village in Odisha? Ans. Dadu was forced to leave his village in Odisha because companywallah took his land for mining iron ore there. 3. In your own city or villages, who would you think are the marginalised groups? Discuss. Ans. In my village, Dalits are the outcast. They are not allowed to enter temples and they live separately. They are not included in any holy festivals or rituals.

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4. Can you name some Adivasis communities that live in your state? Ans. Santhals and Adivasis in our state. They speak Santhali. They live close to the forests and migrate to other places for work. 5. What languages do they speak? Ans. They speak Santhali. 6. Do they close to the forests? Ans. Yes, they live close to the forests. 7. Do they migrate to other regions looking for work? Ans. Yes, they migrate to other places for work. Page 85 8. What metals are important in present-day India? Why? Ans. Metals like iron, copper, gold, silver and diamonds are important in India. These metals are expensive and iron and copper are required in industries in huge amounts. 9. Where do they come from? Are there Adivasi population there? Ans. They come from the forests. Yes, there are Adivasis there. 10. List five products that you use at home that come from the forests. Ans. Tables, glass, saucepan, ladle, chair. 11. By whom were the following demands being made on forest land? • Timber for construction of houses and railways. • Forest land for mining. • Forest land for agriculture by non-tribal people. • Reserved by government as wildlife peaks. Ans. Builders  •  Miners  •  Big farmers  •  Government wildlife lovers. 12. In what ways would this affect tribal people? Ans. Tribals people cannot earn their livelihood in villages. They would move from forest areas to cities and towns in search of jobs and petty works. 13. What do you think this poem is trying to convey? Ans. The poem is try to convey the pain and deception that the Adivasi had faced when they reached Assam in hopes of a better life. Page 87 14. In your opinion, why is it important that Adivasis should have a say in how their forests and forest lands are used? Ans. When Adivasis are displaced from their lands, they lose much more than a source of income. They lose their traditions and customs – a way of living and being. This is why they should have a say in how their forest lands are being used.

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Page 88 15. Why do we need safeguards for minorities? Ans. We need safeguard for minorities in order to protect them from being dominated by the majority. Page 89 16. Read the data related to schooling provided by the Sachar Committee Report: 25 per cent of Muslim children in the 6-14 year age group have either never been enrolled in school or dropped out. This percentage is much higher than that of any other socio-religious community (Page 58). Do you think special measures are required to address this situation. Ans. Yes, special measures are required to address this situation. Page 90 17. T he essay has been written by a child around your age. What do you think she is trying to convey? Ans. She is trying to convey that people hide their identity in order to avoid tension. Clothes are linked to identify as certain types of clothing are used by certain communities. People avoid such dresses at the time of communal tensions.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 92) 1. Write in your own words two or more sentences of what you understand by the word ‘marginalisation’. Ans. Marginalisation means communities which live on the fringes of society due to their cultural, educational and linguistic differences. Sometimes they are marginalised because they are considered to be of ‘low’ social status and viewed as being less human than others. 2. List two reasons why Adivasis are becoming increasingly marginalised. Ans. Adivasis have been marginalised because: •• They speak a different language which is distinct from the majority community. •• Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism and Christianity. 3. Write one reason why you think the Constitution’s safeguards to protect minority communities are very important. Ans. The Constitution provides safeguards to minorities because it is committed to protecting India’s cultural diversity and promoting equality as well as justice. 4. Re-read the section on Minorities and Marginalisation. What do you understand by the term ‘minority’? Ans. The term ‘minority’ is most commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically smaller in relation to the rest of the population. 5. You are participating in a debate where you have to provide reasons to support the following statement: ‘Muslims are a marginalised community’. Using the data provided in this chapter, list two reasons that you would give.

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Ans. ‘Muslims are a marginalised community’ because: •• In comparison to other communities, they have over the years been deprived of the benefits of socioeconomic development. •• They have less share in government jobs 6. Imagine that you are watching the Republic Day parade on TV with a friend and she remarks, “Look at these tribals. They look so exotic. And they seem to be dancing all the time”. List three things that you would tell her about the lives of Adivasis in India. Ans. Three things that I would tell my friend about the Adivasis are: •• We should stop looking at Adivasis as primitive, exotic and backward since they have a culture which is different from ours. •• The Adivasis had a deep knowledge of, access to, as well as control over most of the forests at least till the middle of the nineteenth century. •• In the pre-colonial world, they were traditionally ranged hunter gatherers and nomads and lived by shifting agriculture and also cultivating in one place. 7. In the storyboard you read about how Helen hopes to make a movie on the Adivasi story. Can you help her by developing a short story on Adivasis? Ans. The following points should be developed in the story: •• A family of four adivasis is living in Delhi. •• The eldest member is the grandfather- he recalls his sweet memories of the good old days. •• He talks about how rich their adivasi childhood was. Their village in Odisha was beautiful. They got everything they needed from the land and the forests around them. •• Suddenly, their lives changed one fine day. Forest officials and contractors cut down a large part of the forests. When they protested, they beat us and then took us to court, where they did not have their lawyers and could not fight the case. •• Then other men came from big companies and promised the Adivasis jobs and money if they sold off their lands to them. Then they beat and threatened the Adivasis till eventually everyone was forced to sell and abandon the land of their forefathers. They had the support of the authorities. The Adivasi way of living vanished overnight. 8. Would you agree with the statement that economic marginalisation and social marginalisation are interlinked? Why? Ans. Yes, economic and social marginalisation is interlinked: •• Since tribals lived in the fringes of societies, they were not connected to proper education. And hence, they did not develop economically. A person’s social identification is often assessed by his economic base.

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VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro (i) marginalised section of society 2. Justice Rajindar Sachar (ii) Adivasi areas 3. burqa (iii) chaired the high-level committee in 2005 4. Dalits (iv) a dress worn by Muslim women Ans. 1. (ii), 2. (iii), 3. (iv), 4. (i) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. To be ________________ is to be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the centre of things. 2. Around ____ per cent of India’s population is Adivasi. 3. ____________ is home to more than 60 different tribal groups. 4. _____________ has the largest number of speakers and has a significant body of publications including magazines on the internet or in e-zines. 5. ____________ covered the major part of our country till the nineteenth century. Ans. 1. marginalised,  2. 8, 3. Orissa,  4. Santhali,  5. Forests III. State whether True or False: 1. In the pre-colonial world, Adivasis were traditionally ranged hunter-gatherers and nomads. 2. Today, there are 70 lakh Adivasis in Assam alone. 3. 45 per cent of Dalits live in rural areas and 35 per cent in urban areas live below the poverty line. 4. The term ‘minority’ is most commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically larger in relation to the rest of the population. 5. The Indian Constitution recognised that the culture of the minority influences the way in which society and government might express themselves. Ans. 1. True,  2. True,  3. False,  4. False,  5. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. According to the Report in 2005, the average years of schooling for Muslim children between which age group is much lower than that of other socio‑religious communities. (a) 7–14 (b) 7–16 (c) 5–15 2. _______ per cent of Muslim children in the 6-14 year age group have either never been enrolled in school or have dropped out. (a) 25 (b) 29 (c) 32 3. _______ per cent of Adivasis live in urban areas below the poverty line. (a) 33 (b) 26 (c) 25

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4. Which of the following states have a large number of tribal population? (a) Goa and Himachal Pradesh (b) Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh (c) Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab 5. The Adivasis worship (a) Ancestors (b) Houses (c) ancestors, village and nature spirits 6. ___________________ is the term used for Adivasis used by the Indian Government in various official documents. (a) Scheduled Caste (b) Dalit (c) Scheduled Tribes 7. Adivasi religions themselves have influenced dominant religions of the empires around them. Which of the following traditions have been influenced by them? (a) Jagannath cult of Odisha (b) Shakti and Tantric traditions in Bengal and Assam. (c) All of the above Ans. 1. (b),  2. (a),  3. (c),  4. (b),  5. (b),  6. (c), 7. (c)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Who are Adivasis? Ans. The term ‘Adivasis’ means the original in habitants—communities who lived in close association with the forests. 2. Adivasis make up for how much of the Indian population? Ans. About 8% of the population. 3. Whom do the Adivasis worship? Ans. Spirits of nature, their ancestors and the forest. 4. What was crucial for settled civilisations in India? Ans. Forests. 5. What is the grouping together of a community called? Ans. Ghettoization 6. Who headed the Sachar committee? Ans. Rajinder Sachar 7. How are the Adivasis different from other communities? Ans. The Adivasis are bound by very little hierarchy unlike the Hindu society. 8. Which language has the largest number of speakers? Ans. The Santhali language. 9. What are some stereotypes associated to the Adivasis? Ans. Headgears, colourful outfits, wild dances etc. 10. Which marginalisation who are interlinked? Ans. Economic and social marginalisation are interlinked.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. How have the Adivasis lost control of the forests? Ans. The Adivasis were driven off from the forests, their homes, by the private industries and also some political intervention. The government’s forest policies also have forced the Adivasis to migrate. 2. Is marginalisation same as minorities? Ans. Minorities are communities that a less in number relative to the majority community. Whereas marginalised communities are those that have been sidelined by the mainstream culture and majoritarian domination. 3. What does it mean to be socially marginalised? Ans. To be marginalised is to be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the centre of things. In the social environment, groups of people or communities may have the experience of being excluded. Their marginalisation can be because they speak a different language, follow different customs or belong to a different religious group from the majority community. 4. What is the language of Adivasis? Ans. Adivasis have their own languages (most of them radically different from and possibly as old as Sanskrit), which have often deeply influenced the formation of ‘mainstream’ Indian languages, like Bengali. 5. What happens when Adivasis are displaced from their land? Ans. Losing their lands and access to the forest means that tribals lose their main sources of livelihood and food.When Adivasis are displaced from their lands, they lose much more than a source of income. They lose their traditions and customs – a way of living and being. 6. Mention two findings of the 2005 Report chaired by Justice Rajindar Sachar. Ans. Two findings of the 2005 Report chaired by Justice Rajindar Sachar: •• According to the Report, the average years of schooling for Muslim children between the ages of 7-16 is much lower than that of other socio-religious communities. •• 25 per cent of Muslim children in the 6-14 year age group have either never been enrolled in school or have dropped out. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. “Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions”. Elaborate. Ans. Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism and Christianity. •• These often involve the worship of ancestors, village and nature spirits, the last associated with and residing in various sites in the landscape – ‘mountain-spirits’, ‘river-spirits’, ‘animal-spirits’, etc. •• The village spirits are often worshipped at specific sacred groves within the village boundary while the ancestral ones are usually worshipped at home. •• Additionally, Adivasis have always been influenced by different surrounding religions like Shakta, Buddhist, Vaishnav, Bhakti and Christianity.

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Simultaneously, Adivasi religions themselves have influenced dominant religions of the empires around them, for example, the Jagannath cult of Odisha and Shakti and Tantric traditions in Bengal and Assam. 2. What is the relation between forests and Adivasis? Ans. The relation between forests and Adivasis: •• Forests covered the major part of our country till the nineteenth century and the Adivasis had a deep knowledge of, access to, as well as control over most of these vast tracts at least till the middle of the nineteenth century. •• This meant that they were not ruled by large states and empires. Instead, often empires heavily depended on Adivasis for the crucial access to forest resources. 3. Why have they been forced to migrate to other places? Ans. Adivasis have been forced to move to other places because •• through economic changes, forest policies and political force applied by the State and private industry, Adivasis have been increasingly forced to migrate to live as workers in plantations, at construction sites, in industries and as domestic workers. •• forest lands (which was their home) have been cleared for timber and to get land for agriculture and industry. •• Adivasis have also lived in areas that are rich in minerals and other natural resources. These are taken over for mining and other large industrial projects. •• having gradually lost access to their traditional homelands, many Adivasis have migrated to cities in search of work where they are employed for very low wages in local industries or at building or construction sites.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. _______ per cent of Muslim children in the 6-14 year age group have either never been enrolled in school or have dropped out. 2. Around ____ per cent of India’s population is Adivasi and many of India’s most important mining and industrial centres are located in Adivasi areas. 3. When did a substantial number of Adivasis get converted to Christianity? 4. In India, to which place did Adivasis migrate from 1830 onwards? 5. 45 per cent of tribal groups in rural areas and ____ per cent in urban areas live below the poverty line.

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Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Invoking Fundamental Rights

Laws for the Marginalised

Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished.

There are specific laws and policies for the marginalised in our country.

Article 15 of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

As part of their effort to implement the Constitution, both state and central Governments create specific schemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population.

Therefore, Dalits can 'invoke' or 'draw on' a Fundamental Right (or Rights) in situations where they feel that they have been treated badly by some individual or community, or even by the government.

Protecting the Rights of Dalits and Adivasis

The Indian Constitution provides for reservation of seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis.

Adivasi Demands and the 1989 Act

The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 was framed in 1989 in response to demands made by Dalits and others that the government must take seriously the ill treatment and humiliation Dalits and tribal groups face. This Act contains a very long list of crimes, some of which are too horrible even to contemplate.

The 1989 Act is important for another reason – Adivasi activists refer to it to defend their right to occupy land that was traditionally theirs. They have also pointed to the fact that this Act merely confirms what has already been promised to tribal people in the Constitution – that land belonging to tribal people cannot be sold to or bought by non-tribal people.

II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, women and other marginal groups are citizens of a democratic country and they possess equal rights that must be respected.

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•• The Constitution lays down the principles that make our society and polity democratic which are defined through the Fundamental Rights which are available to all Indians equally. •• As far as the marginalised are concerned, they have drawn on these rights. •• In some instances, the struggles of the marginalised have influenced the government to frame new laws, in keeping with the spirit of the Fundamental Rights. •• Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished. •• Article 15 of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. •• Therefore, Dalits can ‘invoke’ or ‘draw on’ a Fundamental Right (or Rights) in situations where they feel that injustice has been done to them. •• Likewise, other minority groups have drawn on the Fundamental Rights section of our Constitution. They have particularly drawn upon the right to freedom of religion and cultural and educational rights. •• Both state and central governments create specific schemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population. •• One such law/policy is the reservation policy that today is both significant and highly contentious. •• In addition to policies, our country also has specific laws that guard against the discrimination and exploitation of marginalised communities. •• The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 was framed in response to the demands made by Dalits and others that the government must take seriously the ill-treatment and humiliation that the Dalits and tribal groups are forced to face in an everyday sense. •• While such treatment had persisted for a long time, it had acquired a violent character in the late 1970s and 1980s. •• Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, The Adivasi people successfully organised themselves and demanded equal rights and for their land and resources to be returned to them. •• The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes. •• At another level, the Act recognizes that crimes against Dalit and tribal women are of a specific kind and, therefore, seeks to penalise anyone who violates the law. •• In some places in India, the act of manual scavenging which refers to the practice of removing human and animal waste/excreta using brooms, tin plates and baskets from dry latrines and carrying it on the head to disposal grounds some distance away is still carried on by the Dalits. •• In 1993, the government passed the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act. This law prohibits the employment of manual scavengers as well as the construction of dry latrines. •• The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act came into force on 6 December 2013. •• Adivasi activists refer to the 1989 Act to defend their right to occupy land that was traditionally theirs. •• The Act confirms that the land belonging to tribal people cannot be sold to or bought by non-tribal people. In cases where this has happened, the Constitution guarantees the right of tribal people to re-possess their land.

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III. KEYWORDS •• Contentious (adj.): involving a lot of arguing. Origin: Middle English contencioun. •• Confront: It refers to groups challenging their marginalisation. •• Salvation (noun): deliverance from the power and effects of sin. Origin: Middle English salvacion. •• Wrath (noun): extreme anger. Origin: Old English wræththo •• Ostracise (verb): to exclude someone from a group. Origin: Greek ostrakizein. •• Assertive (adj.): confident in behaviour or style. Origin: Latin assertus. •• Stringent (adj.): very strict or severe. Origin: Latin stringent. •• Indulge (verb.): to give free rein to. Origin: Latin indulgēre. •• Horrific (adj.): causing horror or shock. •• Scourge (noun): an instrument of punishment. Origin: Middle English, from Anglo-French escorge. •• Fundamental rights: These are those rights which the Constitution of India has conferred on every citizen without any discrimination. •• Untouchability: Not touchability, not to touch. •• Social justice: Equal justice to all the members of the society.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 97 1. State one reason why you think reservations play an important role in providing social justice to Dalits and Adivasis? Ans. It is important to reserve seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis because in a society like ours, where for centuries some sections of the population have been denied opportunities to learn and to work in order to develop new skills or vocations, a democratic government needs to step in and assist these sections. Page 99 2. In your opinion does the force put on Rathnam to perform this ritual violate his fundamental rights? Ans. Yes, it does violate his Fundamental Rights. 3. Why do you think the Dalit families were afraid of angering the powerful castes? Ans. The Dalit families were afraid of angering the powerful castes because many worked on their fields as daily-wage labourers. If the dominant castes decided not to call them then what would they earn? How would they survive? They also declared that the wrath of the local deity would strike them if they refused to give in.

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Page 100 4. Can you list two different provisions in the 1989 Act? Ans. The Act lists the modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and morally reprehensible. It also lists actions that dispossess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre resources or which force them into performing slave labour. 5. Look up the glossary and write in your own words what you understand by the term ‘morally reprehensible’. Ans. By the term ‘morally reprehensible’, we understand an act violates all norms of decency and dignity. Page 101 6. What do you understand by manual scavenging? Ans. Manual scavenging refers to the practice of removing human and animal waste/excreta using brooms, tin plates and baskets from dry latrines and carrying it on the head to disposal grounds some distance away. 7. Re-read the list of Fundamental Rights provided on page 14 and list two rights that this practice violates? Ans. It violates the Right to Equality and Right against Exploitation. 8. Why did the Safai Karamchari Andolan file a PIL in 2003? Ans. Inspite of act passed in 1993, manual scavenging was still in use. 9. What did they complain about in their petition? Ans. The petitioners complained that manual scavenging still existed and it continued in government undertakings like the railways when in 1993, the government had already passed the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act. 10. Why did Supreme Court do on hearing their case in 2005? Ans. The court observed that the number of manual scavengers in India had increased since the 1993 law. It directed every department/ministry of the union government and state governments to verify the facts within six months. If manual scavenging is found to exist, the government department has to actively take up a time-bound programme for their liberation and rehabilitation.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 103) 1. List two Fundamental Rights in the Constitution that Dalits can draw upon to insist that they be treated with dignity and as equals. Re-read the Fundamental Rights listed on page 14 to help you answer this question. Ans. The two Fundamental Rights are: •• Right to Equality •• Right against Exploitation 2. Re-read the story on Rathnam as well as the provisions of the 1989 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. Now list one reason why you think he used this law to file a complaint.

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Ans. Rathnam filed the complaint because: •• He and his family was dominated by the powerful castes. •• They were being inflicted to violence and were forced to leave the village. 3. Why do Adivasi activists, including C.K. Janu, believe that Adivasis can also use this 1989 Act to fight against dispossession? Is there anything specific in the provisions of the Act that allows her to believe this? Ans. Adivasis, including C.K. Janu, believe that Adivasis can also use this 1989 Act to fight against dispossession because the 1989 Act confirms that that land belonging to tribal people cannot be sold to or bought by non-tribal people. In cases where this has happened, the Constitution guarantees the right of tribal people to re-possess their land. Yes, the Act sets out to punish anyone who wrongfully occupies or cultivates any land owned by, or allotted to, … a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe or gets the land allotted to him transferred. 4. The poems and the song in this Unit allow you to see the range of ways in which individuals and communities express their opinions, their anger and their sorrow. In class, do the following two exercises: (a) Bring to class a poem that discusses a social issue. Share this with your classmates. Work in small groups with two or more poems to discuss their meaning as well as what the poet is trying to communicate. (b) Identify a marginalised community in your locality. Write a poem, or song, or draw a poster, etc. to express your feelings as a member of this community. Ans. (a) Do this activity yourself. (b) Yes. The Schedule caste community in our locality is marginalised. Draw a poster of this community being marginalised in society. Hints: Think of an Indian temple where a SC is not being allowed to enter.

VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Article 17 2. Soyrabai 3. Kabir 4. 1989 5. C.K. Janu Ans. 1. (iv), 2. (i), 3. (v), 4. (iii), 5. (ii)

(i) wife of bhakti poet Chokhamela (ii) Adivasi activist (iii) The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (iv) banishment of untouchability (v) bhakti poet

II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. ____________ of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished. 2. ____________ of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. 3. Dalits can ‘invoke’ or ‘draw on’ a _______________ in situations where they feel that they have been treated badly by some individual or community, or even by the government.

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4. There are laws which ___________ seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis. 5. ____________ was a fifteenth century poet and weaver who also belonged to the Bhakti tradition. Ans. 1. Article 17,  2. Article 15,  3. Fundamental Right,  4. reserve,  5. Kabir III. State whether True or False: 1. Kabir’s poetry idolises the upper castes and admires their beautiful qualities. 2. During 1970s and 1980s, in parts of southern India, a number of assertive Dalit groups came into being and asserted their rights. 3. The 1989Act reinstated untouchability in India. 4. One lakh persons from Dalit communities who continue to be employed in manual scavenging in this country. 5. Chokhamela was a Bhakti poet from Bihar. Ans. 1. False, 2. True,  3. False,  4. True,  5. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Who among these did not belong to the Bhakti Movement? (a) Chokhamela (b) Kabir (c) Tagore 2. Which of the following rights can be used by Dalits: (a) Right to Equality (b) Right against Exploitation (c) Both of these 3. The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act came out in: (a) 1969 (b) 1989 (c) 1990 4. Safai Karamchari Andolan is based in (a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Maharashtra (c) Rajasthan 5. Which of the following groups are NOT considered untouchables? (a) Bhangis in Gujarat (b) Pakhis in Andhra Pradesh (c) Kayasthas in West Bengal 6. Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act was passed in: (a) 1893 (b) 1993 (c) 2002 7. The central government passed the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act in: (a) 2006 (b) 2002 (c) 2000 8. What did the above Act state? (a) It recognises forest dwellers’ right to homestead, cultivable and grazing land and to non-timber forest produce.

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(b) points out that the rights of forest dwellers includes conservation of forests and bio-diversity (c) All of the above 9. According to C.K. Janu, who are the violators of Constitutional rights guaranteed to tribal people? (a) Government (b) Brahmins (c) Businessmen 10. What did Kabir’s poetry speak of? (a) The duties of citizens of India (b) Love for the supreme being free from rituals and priests (c) Admiration of beautiful women Ans. 1. (c),  2. (c),  3. (b),  4. (a),  5. (c),  6. (b),  7. (a),  8. (c), 9. (a),  10. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Which practice does article 17 of the Constitution abolish? Ans. Untouchability 2. Despite reservations, why can’t all people get admissions in the institutes of professional education? Ans. Due to cut-off marks and limited number of seats. 3. Which important act was passed in 1989? Ans. Prevention of Atrocities Act 4. What is the practice of removing human waste called? Ans. Manual Scavenging 5. Which law prohibits manual scavenging? Ans. Employment of Manual Scavenging and Construction of Dry Latrines Prohibition Act 6. What is provided in the Article 15 of the Constitution? Ans. It provides that no citizen of the country would be discriminated on the basis of caste, religion, birth, gender or race. 7. How does the Constitution ensure cultural justice to certain groups? Ans. The Constitution grants different cultural rights to minorities so that the majority community does not affect or overpower their cultures. 8. What is reservation? Ans. The reservation policy was proposed by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar for the upliftment of the backward communities. It reserves seats in colleges and government offices for the minority and backward communities. 9. What is the precondition to avail the benefits of Reservation? Ans. The person’s community must be in the state or central list of backward classes.

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10. How does the government violate the rights of the Adivasis according to C.K. Janu? Ans. C.K. Janu argues that it is the government that gives permissions to the private investors to encroach and mine in the forests which leads to eviction and displacement of the Adivasis. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Elaborate on Article 17. Ans. Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished – what this means is that no one can henceforth prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities etc. It also means that it is wrong to practise untouchability and that this practice will not be tolerated by a democratic government. In fact, untouchability is a punishable crime now. 2. What is the important argument of the reservation policy? Ans. The laws which reserve seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis are based on an important argument-that in a society like ours, where for centuries sections of the population have been denied opportunities to learn and to work in order to develop new skills or vocations, a democratic government needs to step in and assist these sections. 3. What is main argument of the marginalised? Ans. The Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, women and other marginalised groups and individuals argue that by being the citizens of a democratic country, they possess equal rights which must be respected. Many look up to the Constitution to address their issues. 4. Which principles are ensured by our Constitution? Ans. • The Constitution ensures the principles that make our society and nation democratic. •• They are defined in and through the list of fundamental rights. 5. Who is a manual scavenger? Ans. A manual scavenger does the job of carrying fifth, this job is mainly done by Dalit women and Dalit young girls there are 13 lakh people employed in this job by private people or municipalities. C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. How can the marginalised assert their Fundamental Rights? Ans. The Fundamental Rights are available to all Indians equally. As far as the marginalised are concerned, they have drawn on these rights in two ways: •• First, by insisting on their Fundamental Rights, they have forced the government to recognise the injustice done to them. •• Second, they have insisted that the government enforces these laws. In some instances, the struggles of the marginalised have influenced the government to frame new laws, in keeping with the spirit of the Fundamental Rights.

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2. How can minorities draw from Fundamental Rights? Ans. Minority groups can also draw from the Fundamental Rights section of our Constitution. They have particularly drawn upon the right to freedom of religion and cultural and educational rights. In the case of cultural and educational rights, distinct cultural and religious groups like the Muslims and Parsis have the right to be the guardians of the content of their culture, as well as the right to make decisions on how best this content is to be preserved. Thus, by granting different forms of cultural rights, the Constitution tries to ensure cultural justice to such groups. The Constitution does this so that the culture of these groups is not dominated nor wiped out by the culture of the majority community. 3. How does the reservation policy work? Ans. This is how the reservation policy work: •• The Governments of all states across India have their own list of Scheduled Castes (or Dalits), Scheduled Tribes and backward and most backward castes. The Central Government too has its list. •• Students applying to educational institutions and those applying for posts in government are expected to furnish the proof of their caste or tribe status, in the form of caste and tribe certificates. •• If a particular Dalit caste or a certain tribe is on the government list then a candidate from that caste or tribe can avail of the benefit of reservation. •• For admission to colleges, especially to institutes of professional education, such as medical colleges, governments define a set of ‘cut-off’ marks. •• This means that not all Dalit and tribal candidates can qualify for admission, but only those who have done reasonably well and secured marks above the cut-off point. •• Governments also offer special scholarships for these students. 4. Elaborate on The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Ans. This Act was framed in 1989 in response to demands made by Dalits and others that the government must take seriously the ill treatment and humiliation that Dalits and tribal groups face in everyday life. •• The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes. •• Firstly, it lists modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and morally reprehensible and seeks to punish those who (i) force a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe to drink or eat any inedible or obnoxious substance; … (iii) forcibly removes clothes from the person of a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe or parades him or her naked or with painted face or body or commits any similar act which is derogatory to human dignity. •• Secondly, it lists actions that dispossess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre resources or which force them into performing slave labour. •• Thus, the Act sets out to punish anyone who (iv) wrongfully occupies or cultivates any land owned by, or allotted to, … a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe or gets the land allotted to him transferred.

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•• At another level, the Act recognizes that crimes against Dalit and tribal women are of a specific kind and, therefore, seeks to penalise anyone who (xi) assaults or uses force on any woman belonging to a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe with intent to dishonour her.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Article _______ of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. 2. Article _____ of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished. 3. Who is the husband of Soyrabai? 4. Seats are reserved for which community in our Constitution? 5. When did the Adivasi people successfully organise themselves and demand equal rights and for their land and resources to be returned to them?

9

UNIT V: ECONOMIC PRESENCE OF THE GOVERNMENT

Chapter

Public Facilities

I.  BASIC CONCEPTS Water as Part of the Fundamental Right to Life Water is essential for life and for good health. The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21. There have been several court cases in which both the High Courts and the Supreme Court have held that the right to safe drinking water is a Fundamental Right. The Government’s Role

Public Facilities

One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure that these public facilities are made available to everyone.

Healthcare, sanitation, electricity, public transport, schools and colleges are known as public facilities.

The Right to Life that the Constitution guarantees is for all persons living in this country.

The important characteristic of a public facility is that once it is provided, its benefits can be shared by many people.

Water Supply to Chennai: Is It Available to All? Water supply in Chennai, as we saw at the beginning of the chapter, is marked by shortages. The burden of shortfalls in water supply falls mostly on the poor. Apart from the availability of water, access to 'safe' drinking water is also available to some and this depends on what one can afford. In Search of Alternatives A similar scenario of shortages and acute crisis during the summer months is common to other cities of India. Within India, there are cases of success in government water departments, though these are few in number and limited to certain areas of their work. In Chennai, the department has taken several initiatives for harvesting rainwater to increase the level of groundwater.

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II. IN A NUTSHELL •• Water is essential for life and for good health. •• Over 1,600 Indians, most of the children below the age of five, reportedly die every day because of water-borne diseases. •• The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21. •• Like water, there are other essential facilities that need to be provided for everyone like healthcare, sanitation, electricity, public transport, schools and colleges. These are known as public facilities. •• The important characteristic of a public facility is that once it is provided, its benefits can be shared by many people. •• One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure that these public facilities are made available to everyone. •• Public facilities relate to people’s basic needs. Any modern society requires that these facilities are provided so that people’s basic needs are met. •• While there is no doubt that public facilities should be made available to all, in reality we see that there is a great shortage of such facilities. •• Water supply in Chennai, as we saw at the beginning of the chapter, is marked by shortages. •• Apart from the availability of water, access to ‘safe’ drinking water is also available to some and this depends on what one can afford. •• The shortage of water has opened up opportunities for private companies in a big way. Many private companies are providing water to cities by buying it from places around the city. •• The shortage in municipal water is increasingly being filled by an expansion of private companies who are selling water for profit. •• The supply of water per person in an urban area in India should be about 135 litres per day. •• A city in Brazil, Porto Alegre’s water department has achieved universal access to safe water and this is the main reason behind the lower number of infant deaths. •• Besides safe drinking water, sanitation is a must in prevention of water-borne diseases. However, the sanitation coverage in India is even lower than that of water. •• Sulabh, a non-government organisation, has been working for three decades to address the problems of sanitation facing low-caste, low-income people in India. •• Public facilities relate to our basic needs and the Indian Constitution recognises the right to water, health, education, etc as being a part of the Right to Life.

III. KEYWORDS •• Sanitation (noun): The promotion of hygiene and prevention of disease by maintenance of sanitary conditions.

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•• Universal Access: Universal access is achieved when everyone has physical access to goods and can afford them. Origin: unknown •• Accrue (verb): To increase in value or amount gradually. Origin: Middle English acrewen •• Basic Needs: Basic needs are primary requirements of food, water, shelter, sanitation, health care and education necessary for survival. •• Campaign (noun): a series of activities designed to produce a particular result. Origin: French campagne. •• Brackish: Salty •• Drastically (adj.): Extreme in effect or action. Origin: Greek drastikos. •• Acute (adj.): Very serious or sharp. Origin-Middle English, from Latin acutus. •• Sulabh: Sulabh is an organisation which arrange toilet facilities in the cities and towns.

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 108 1. You have seen the four situations illustrated. Based on these, what impression do you get of the water situation in Chennai? Ans. Water supply in Chennai is marked by shortages. Municipal supply meets only about half the needs of the people of the city. 2. Pick out the various sources of water for household use from the description alongside. Ans. Tap water, water tanker, private borewells, bottled water. 3. What in your view, is similar, and what is different in Subramanian’s and Padma’s experiences. Ans. Both Subramanian and Padma suffer from a situation of water shortage and both use water from borewells. Subramanian spends up to ` 500-600 per month on buying water from the tankers while Padma can’t afford it. 4. Write a paragraph describing the water supply situation in your area. Ans. The water supply situation in our area is better than most places. Corporation water is available for three times a day. Most of the people in our area have private reservoirs in which they store water. 5. Why does water flow in a trickle in summer in most places in India? Find out. Ans. Water flows in a trickle in summer in most places in India because rivers dry up in summers. 6. Discuss is there a general shortage of water for everyone in Chennai? Can you think of two reasons why different people get varying amounts of water? Ans. While there is a general shortage of water in Chennai, different people get varying amounts of water because some people who are economically more sound, can arrange for water by paying money, while the others can’t. Also, some influential people use their sources to arrange for water tankers when there is a shortage of water.

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Page 111 7. Whose point of view do you agree with? Ans. I agree with Amu. Page 112 8. What are public facilities? Why should the government be responsible for providing public facilities? Ans. The essential facilities like water, electricity, public transport, sanitation facilities that are to be provided for everyone are known as public facilities. The benefits of public facilities are shared by all, poor and rich. So government should provide these. 9. Why do you think the government must assume the overall responsibility for public facilities even when it gets private companies to do part of the job? Ans. The public facilities relate to people’s basic needs and so they are very important. Therefore, it becomes the responsibility of the government to provide these facilities to all. The fact is that, private companies basically work for profits. Otherwise also they are not interested in works like sanitation, cleaning of drains, etc. Though they may be interested in education or medical sectors where they can have huge profits. The fact remains that the private companies would provide the facilities for a price which only some can afford. Others who cannot afford will be deprived of such facilities. The right to Life guarantees the basic facilities, therefore it becomes the responsibility of the government to provide all of them. 10. Look at your water bill and find out what the minimum rate is for municipal water in your area. Does the rate increase as the use of water increases? Why do you think the government charges a higher rate for greater use of water? Ans. Minimum rate of my water bill ` 100. The rate increases as the use of water increases. The government charges higher rates for greater use of water as the government incurs costs in pumping water, laying down pipes for distribution, for treating water and making it safe. Generally people using more water are from middle or rich classes. So they can afford this. 11. Find out the various kinds of taxes people pay to the government by taking to a salaried person, a person running his or her own factory/business and a shopkeeper. Share your findings in the classroom with your teacher. Ans. Different types of taxes that salaried people pay to the government are: 1. income tax 2. house tax 3. property tax 4. water tax 5. road tax 6. electricity tax 7. education tax 8. entertainment tax. Some taxes by factory/business/shopkeeper. 1. service tax 2. VAT 3. excise 4. custom duties 5. P.F. 6. E.S.I.

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Page 114 12. Do you think this would be a right step? What do you think would happen if the government withdraws from the task of supplying water? Ans. No, the government should bear the responsibility of supplying water if the government withdraws from the task of supplying water, there would be a steep rise in the price of water making it unaffordable for many. Page 115 13. The main ideas in the above section. What do you think can be done to improve water supply? Ans. To improve water supply, the technique of rainwater harvesting should be applied. 14. Do you think it is also important to conserve resources like water and electricity, and to use more public transport? Ans. Yes, it is also important to conserve resources like water and electricity, and to use more public transport. Page 116 15. Do you think the lack of access to proper sanitation facilities affects people’s lives? How? Ans. Yes, lack of access to proper sanitation facilities affects people’s lives because it spreads water-borne diseases which kill many lives. 16. Why do you think that this would impact women and girls more acutely? Ans. Females are more prone to catching infection like UTI and therefore, they should use proper sanitation methods.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Page 118) 1. Why do you think there are so few cases of private water supply in the world? Ans. There are less cases of private water supply in the world because: •• Throughout the world, water supply is a function of the government. There are very few instances of private water supply. •• In a few cases, where the responsibility for water supply was handed over to private companies, there was a steep rise in the price of water, making it unaffordable for many. Cities saw huge protests, with riots breaking out in places like Bolivia, forcing the government to take back the service from private hands. 2. Do you think water in Chennai is available to and affordable by all? Discuss. Ans. Water in Chennai is not available and affordable by all. •• Water supply in Chennai is marked by shortages. Municipal supply meets only about half the needs of the people of the city, on an average.

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•• There is no balance in the supply of water depending upon areas. Areas that are close to the storage points get more water whereas colonies further away receive less water. •• The burden of shortfalls in water supply falls mostly on the poor. The middle class, when faced with water shortages, are able to cope through a variety of private means such as digging borewells, buying water from tankers and using bottled water for drinking. •• Apart from the availability of water, access to ‘safe’ drinking water is also available to some and this depends on what one can afford. 3. How is the sale of water by farmers to water dealers in Chennai affecting the local people? Do you think local people can object to such exploitation of groundwater? Can the government do anything in this regard? Ans. In Chennai, water is taken from nearby towns like Mamandur, Palur, Karungizhi and from villages to the north of the city using a fleet of over 13,000 water tankers. •• Every month, the sale of water by the farmers to the water dealers affects the local people as that water is used not only for agriculture but also as drinking water supplies. •• Also, groundwater levels have dropped drastically in all these towns and villages as a result. Yes, the local people should protest to this exploitation of water. Government has an important role to play in this case. It should restrict the use of groundwater and make strict laws against overuse. 4. Why are most of the private hospitals and private schools located in major cities and not in towns or rural areas? Ans. Private hospitals and schools are located in cities because: •• private organisations can get a lot of profit in these public facility domains. •• people in the cities are richer than towns and villages, and hence they can afford such facilities. •• private hospitals and schools provide better infrastructure which is desired by the people living in the cities. 5. Do you think the distribution of public facilities in our country is adequate and fair? Give an example of your own to explain. Ans. No, distribution of public facilities is not adequate and fair in our country. People living in the slum areas of major cities get access to tap water only one or twice a day for just a few hours. In some places, water is available only once in a day. Serpentine queues are witnessed during the hours when water is being supplied. Sometimes water is not safe for drinking as it is not treated properly. 6. Take some of the public facilities in your area, such as water, electricity, etc. Is there scope to improve these? What in your opinion should be done? Complete the table.

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Is it available?

How can it be improved?

Water Electricity Roads Public Transport Ans.

Is it available? How can it be improved? Water Only for a few hours in a There should be an increase day. in the duration of water supply. Electricity Interrupted supply. There should be a continuous service without interference, especially in summer. Roads Roads are filled with Roads should be newly potholes. constructed or potholes should be filled up. Public Transport No, buses are not Number of buses should be sufficiently available. increased. Old buses should be repaired and made fit for use

7. Are the above public facilities shared equally by all the people in your area? Elaborate. Ans. No, the above public facilities are not equally shared by the people in our areas. •• People living in slum areas have no access to clean drinking water. •• Charges in public transport is too high for the poor. As a result, they are unable to board buses or cabs. 8. Data on some of the public facilities are collected as part of the Census. Discuss with your teacher when and how the Census is conducted. Ans. Discuss with your teacher and write the answers. 9. Private educational institutions – schools, colleges, universities, technical and vocational training institutes are coming up in our country in a big way. On the other hand, educational institutes run by the government are becoming relatively less important. What do you think would be at impact? Discuss. Ans. In such a situation, the children from deprived sections of the society will have to suffer, since they do not have the economic status to go to private schools.

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VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. NDMC (i) town in Chennai 2. Article 21 (ii) New Delhi Municipal Corporation 3. Mamandur (iii) city in Brazil 4. Porto Alegre (iv) Right to Life Ans. 1. (ii), 2. (iv), 3. (i), 4. (iii) II. Fill in the Blanks: 1. Not only it is necessary for us to be able to meet our daily needs but __________________can also prevent many water-borne diseases. 2. The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the ___________ under Article 21. 3. Public facilities relate to people’s _____________. 4. Many __________ companies are providing water to cities by buying it from places around the city. 5. The supply of water per person in an urban area in India should be about _________ litres per day. Ans. 1. safe drinking water,  2. Right to Life,  3. basic needs,  4. private, 5. 135 III. State whether True or False: 1. People in slums have to make do with less than 20 litres a day per person. 2. Porto Alegre’s water department has achieved universal access to safe water. 3. In Chennai, there is abundant water supply. 4. The water supply department in Mumbai raises enough money through water charges to cover its expenses on supplying water. 5. Sulabh, a government organisation, has been working for three decades to address the problems of sanitation. Ans. 1. True,  2. True,  3. False,  4. True,  5. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which areas in Chennai face severe water shortage? (a) Madipakkam (b) Porto Alegre (c) Patia 2. Official figures for 2001 show that __________ per cent of the households in India have access to drinking water. (a) 36 (b) 68 (c) 48 3. How many public toilets have Sulabh constructed? (a) 1 million (b) 5,600 (c) 7,500 4. What is the main source of water in Chennai? (a) Municipal water (b) Borewell and river water (c) All of the above

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5. The Census of India, 2001 puts rural household electrification at ______ per cent (a) 44 (b) 23 (c) 66 6. Riots broke out in this country when the responsibility for water supply was handed over to private companies: (a) Bolivia (b) Venezuela (c) Brazil 7. In Chennai, the water department has taken several initiatives for harvesting rainwater to increase the level of ___________ (a) Drinking water (b) Groundwater (c) River water 8. The Indian Constitution guarantees the ________________ for all children between the ages of 6–14 years. (a) Right to Food (b) Right to Education (c) Right to Sanitation Ans. 1. (c),  2. (b),  3. (c),  4. (c),  5. (a),  6. (a),  7. (b),  8. (b)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. Who carry the responsibility of providing public facilities to the people? Ans. Government carries the responsibility of providing public facilities to the people. 2. Name any three types of public facilities? Ans. Electricity, water supply and public transport. 3. What is a far cry from the goal of universal access to water? Ans. The fact that the rich have access to safe water and poor don’t. 4. What is the standard of water supply set by the Urban Water Commission? Ans. 135 litres of water per day per person. 5. What is the idea of universal access to water? Ans. Access to clean and safe water regardless of economic status, is a Fundamental Right to Life under Article 21 of the Constitution. 6. What is one important characteristic of public facilities? Ans. It is that, once it is provided, it can be shared by a large number of people. 7. Are private players a good solution for providing public facilities? Ans. No. The poor won’t be able to afford them. 8. Which is the following of water disease? Ans. Cholera 9. What is borewell? Ans. Borewell is the type of tubewell which supplies water in row form. 10. Which area has more greenery in Chennai? Ans. Anna Nagar in Chennai has lots of greenery. 11. Which is the most important public transport? Ans. Horses are used as the most important public transport over short distance.

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B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Why is it important that Government provide public facilities and not private players? Ans. When private players provide public facilities, they try to generate revenue from it, which increases the cost. It then cannot be afforded by all. That is why it is important for the government to provide the facilities keeping the poor in mind. 2. How does the burden of water shortage fall on the poor? Ans. During water shortage, the poor and the middle class manage by being able to afford private water supply, tankers and borewells. The poor are left stranded as they cannot afford it. 3. The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21. Discuss. Ans. The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21. This means that it is the right of every person, whether rich or poor, to have sufficient amounts of water to fulfil his or her daily needs at a price that he or she can afford. In other words, there should be universal access to water. 4. What are public facilities? Ans. The essential services that need to be provided to everyone irrespective of caste, creed or sex is known as public facilities. Public facilities relate to people’s basic needs. Water, healthcare, sanitation, electricity, public transport, schools and colleges are known as public facilities. The important characteristic of a public facility is that once it is provided, its benefits can be shared by many people. 5. Why should the government provide public facilities? Ans. The government has the responsibility of providing the public facilities to everyone. The Right to Life that the Constitution guarantees is for all persons living in this country. The responsibility to provide public facilities, therefore, must be that of the government. 6. Where does the government get money for public facilities? Ans. The government gets money for public facilities from the budget which is presented in the Parliament every year. In the budget, the government also announces the various ways in which it plans to meet these expenses. The main source of revenue for the government is the taxes collected from the people and the government is empowered to collect these taxes and use them for such programmes. 7. Why are more and more private companies selling water in Chennai? Ans. There is shortage in municipal water which is increasingly being filled by an expansion of private companies who are selling water for profit. Since a shortage of municipal water is often taken as a sign of failure of the government, more and more private companies are taking over the task of water supply at a cost which not all people can bear.

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C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What did the High Court in Andhra Pradesh state do in 2007? Explain the case. Ans. More recently, in 2007, the Andhra Pradesh High Court restated that the right to safe drinking water is a Fundamental Right. •• The High Court made this announcement while hearing a case based on a letter written by a villager of Mahbubnagar district on the contamination of drinking water. •• The villager’s complaint was that a textile company was discharging poisonous chemicals into a stream near his village, contaminating groundwater, which was the source for irrigation and drinking water. •• The judges directed the Mahbubnagar district collector to supply 25 litres of water to each person in the village. 2. Why are private companies more interested in building schools and hospitals than running an anti-malaria campaign? Ans. Private companies are more interested in building schools and hospitals than running an anti-malaria campaign because: •• There is practically no profit in running anti-malaria campaigns or services like keeping the drains clean. •• But, for other public facilities such as schools and hospitals, private companies may well be interested because if it makes an investment in these sectors, the private companies will gain back huge profits since people in the cities want to educate their children in private schools which provide better infrastructure. Even hospitals which are privately sponsored have advanced medical equipment which is needed for doing various medical tests. 3. “Within India, there are cases of success in government water departments”. Explain. Ans. Within India, there are cases of success in government water departments: •• The water supply department in Mumbai raises enough money through water charges to cover its expenses on supplying water. •• In Hyderabad, a recent report shows that the department has increased coverage and improved performance in revenue collection. •• In Chennai, the department has taken several initiatives for harvesting rainwater to increase the level of groundwater. It has also used the services of private companies for transporting and distributing water but the government water supply department decides the rate for water tankers and gives them permission to operate. Hence, they are called ‘on contract’. 4. How does Sulabh work? Ans. Sulabh is a non-government organisation, has been working for three decades to address the problems of sanitation facing low-caste, low-income people in India.

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•• Sulabh enters into contracts with municipalities or other local authorities to construct toilet blocks with government funds. •• Local authorities provide land and funds for setting up the services, whereas maintenance costs are sometimes financed through user charges.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. How many private toilet’s have Sulabh constructed? 2. The water supply department in _________ raises enough money through water charges to cover its expenses on supplying water. 3. In Chennai, the department has taken several initiatives for harvesting _______ water to increase the level of groundwater. 4. In Chennai, water is taken from nearby towns like________, Palur, Karungizhi. 5. What are the most important forms of public transport over short distances?

10

Law and Social Justice

Chapter I.  BASIC CONCEPTS To ensure that workers are not underpaid, or are paid fairly, there is a law on minimum wages. As with the law on minimum wages, which is meant to protect workers, there are also laws that protect the interests of producers and consumers in the market. Through making, enforcing and upholding these laws, the government can control the activities of individuals or private companies so as to ensure social justice. The Constitution lays down “no child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or mines or engaged in any other hazardous employment.” What is a Worker’s Worth One reason why foreign companies come to India is for cheap labour. Cost cutting can also be done by other more dangerous means. Lower working conditions including lower safety measures are used as ways of cutting costs. In India, since there is so much unemployment, there are many workers who are willing to work in unsafe conditions in return for a wage.

New Laws to Protect the Environment In 1984, there were very few laws protecting the environment in India. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy brought the issue of environment to the forefront. In the years following the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Indian Government introduced new laws on the environment.

Enforcement of Safety Laws As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to ensure that safety laws are implemented. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy happened because the safety laws were lax in India. Second, even these weak safety laws were not enforced. Government officials refused to recognise the plant as hazardous and allowed it to come up in a populated locality.

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II. IN A NUTSHELL •• To protect people from such exploitation, the government makes certain laws. •• To ensure that workers are not underpaid, or are paid fairly, there is a law on minimum wages. •• As with the law on minimum wages, which is meant to protect workers, there are also laws that protect the interests of producers and consumers in the market. •• To ensure that every worker gets fair wages, the government has to regularly inspect work sites and punish those who violate the law. •• Through making, enforcing and upholding these laws, the government can control the activities of individuals or private companies so as to ensure social justice. •• The Right against Exploitation says that no one can be forced to work for low wages or under bondage. •• The world’s worst industrial tragedy took place in Bhopal at midnight on 2 December 1984 when methyl-isocyanite (MIC) a highly poisonous gas - started leaking from the Union Carbide Plant. •• Within three days, more than 8,000 people were died. Hundreds of thousands were maimed. •• Due to gas leakage nearly 50,000 people are today too sick to work. Among those who survived, many developed severe respiratory disorders, eye problems and other disorders. •• UC had deliberately ignored the essential safety measures in order to cut costs due to which this disaster took place. •• Despite the overwhelming evidence pointing to UC as responsible for the disaster, it refused to accept responsibility. •• Foreign companies come to set up their factories in India due to cheap labour available in our country. •• It must be noted that there are sharp differences in safety standards across countries. •• As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to ensure that safety laws are implemented. •• The Bhopal Gas Tragedy took place because safety laws were lax in India. Second, even these weak safety laws were not enforced. •• Government officials refused to recognise the plant as hazardous and allowed it to come up in a populated locality. •• With more industries being set up both by local and foreign businesses in India, there is a great need for stronger laws protecting workers’ rights and better enforcement of these laws. •• In 1984, there were very few laws protecting the environment in India. •• The Bhopal disaster brought the issue of environment to the forefront. Following the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, the Indian government introduced new laws on the environment.

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•• While the government has a leading role to introduce and enforce laws protecting safe working conditions of workers and protecting the environment, people can also exert pressure so that both private companies and the government act in the interests of the society.

III. KEYWORDS •• Consumer: Consumer is a person who buys goods for personal use and not for resale. •• Producer: Producer is person or organisation who produces goods for sale in the market. •• Contractors (noun): One that contracts to perform work or provide supplies. Origin: unknown. •• Peculiar (adj.): Not usual or normal. Origin: Middle English peculiar. •• Blatant (adj.): Very obvious and offensive. Origin: Latin blatire. •• Disaster: Even in which large scale loss occurs to life and property and outside help is required to bring the life back on track. •• Lax (adj.): not strict enough. Origin: Middle English, from Latin laxus. •• Pollution: Contamination, not pure •• Relocated (verb): to move to a new place. Origin: unknown. •• Vulnerable: Liable to be adversely affected. •• Toxic: Unsafe environmentally, unfriendly. •• Porionious: Venomous

IV. NCERT TEXTBOOK IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Page 121 1. Why do we need a law on minimum wages? Ans. Private companies, contractors, and businesspersons normally want to make as much profit as they can. In the drive for profits, they might deny workers their rights and not pay them wages and that is why we need a law on minimum wages. 2. Find out: (a) What is the minimum wage for a construction worker in your state? Ans. INR 7776 per month (b) Do you think the minimum wage for a construction worker in adequate, low or high? Ans. Its adequate (c) Who sets the minimum wages? Ans. The government Page 127 3. Why do you think experiment of safety laws is important in any factory? Ans. Safety laws are important in any factory because there is always the fear of life risk for the workers. It is important to wear helmets when riding a motorbike but few people wear them.

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4. Can you point to a few other situations where laws (or rules) exist but people do not follow them because of poor enforcement? (For example, over-speeding of motorists). Ans. Yes, they are: •• Boarding in a running bus. •• Not to urinate at public places. •• Employing children under 14 years age for domestic help. •• Urinating at public places. 5. What are the problems in enforcement? Ans. The laws regarding the situations are not enforced does not take them seriously, moreover, public is so aware. 6. Can you suggest some ways in which enforcement can be improved? Ans. Yes, we, the citizens of the country, can take initiative to improve the enforcement. Page 128 7. A ‘clean environment is a public facility’? Can you explain this statement? Ans. The environment is a public property, it is something that people over generations will share. So, a clean environment will be beneficial to all. 8. Why do we need new laws? Ans. Since times are changing, we need to brace up with new laws. 9. Why are companies and contractors able to violate environmental laws? Ans. Companies and contractors are able to violate environmental laws because the laws are always not enforced. Page 129 10. Do you think everyone got justice in the case cited above? Ans. No, everyone did not get justice. 11. Can you think of other ways in which the environment can be protected? Discuss in class. Ans. Environment can be protected when each and every person will take the initiate to keep the environment clean.

V. NCERT TEXTBOOK EXERCISES (Pages 131–132) 1. Talk to two workers (For example, construction workers, farm workers, factory workers, workers at any shop) to find out if they are receiving the minimum wages laid down by law. Ans. After having conversation with the two workers, I found out that the workers were not getting minimum wages. 2. What are the advantages to foreign companies in setting up production in India? Ans. The advantages of foreign companies setting up production units in India are as follows:

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•• One reason why foreign companies come to India is for cheap labour. Wages that the companies pay to workers, say in the U.S.A., are far higher than what they have to pay to workers in poorer countries like India. For lower pay, companies can get longer hours of work. •• Additional expenses such as for housing facilities for workers are also fewer. Thus, companies can save costs and earn higher profits. •• Cost cutting is also another reason why foreign countries set up their units here in India. Lower working conditions including lower safety measures are used as ways of cutting costs. In the UC plant, every safety device was malfunctioning or was in short supply. •• In India, one worker can replace another as there is a lack of employment and Indian workers are willing to work in unsafe conditions in return for a wage. •• Also, the safety laws in India are lax. Thus, foreign companies can get away by planting hazardous industries and polluting the environment. 3. Do you think the victims of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy got justice? Discuss. Ans. The victims of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy did not get justice. •• First of all, the victims of the gas tragedy got a compensation of a lowly $470 million against the $3 billion claimed. •• Even years after the tragedy took place, the people are still suffering and many have developed abnormalities. •• 324 years later, people are still fighting for justice: for safe drinking water, for health-care facilities and jobs for the people poisoned by UC. They also demand that Anderson, the UC chairman who faces criminal charges, be prosecuted. 4. What do we mean when we speak of law enforcement? Who is responsible for enforcement? Why is enforcement so important? Ans. When we speak of law enforcement, we mean that the laws made must be implemented and executed without any discrimination. •• Enforcement becomes even more important when the law seeks to protect the weak from the strong. For instance, to ensure that every worker gets fair wages, the government has to regularly inspect work sites and punish those who violate the law. •• Through making, enforcing and upholding these laws, the government can control the activities of individuals or private companies so as to ensure social justice. •• If laws under the Constitutional Rights are not enforced, the people of our country, especially the working class and the poor, will continue to be exploited and our environment will become even more unclean and hazardous for the future generations. 5. How can laws ensure that markets work in a manner that is fair? Give two examples to support your answer. Ans. (i) The government should make and execute laws controlling the activities of

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individuals, private companies, contractors and business persons so that they are not able to be unfair or exploitative of the workers. (ii) The government should inspect worksites regularly and in case of violations, the government should take immediate actions in the form of heavy fines or punishment. 6. Imagine yourself to be a worker working in a chemical factory, which has received orders from the government to move to a different site 100 kms away from the present location. Write about how your life would change? Read out your responses in the classroom. Ans. Hints: Think about relocation, housing facilities, daily commuting, wage and time spent with family. 7. Write a paragraph on various roles of the government that you have read about in this unit. Ans. The various roles of the government: •• To protect people from such exploitation, the government makes certain laws. •• To ensure that workers are not underpaid, or are paid fairly, there is a law on minimum wages. •• Laws that protect the interests of producers and consumers in the market. •• To ensure that every worker gets fair wages, the government has to regularly inspect work sites and punish those who violate the law. •• Through making, enforcing and upholding these laws, the government can control the activities of individuals or private companies so as to ensure social justice. •• The Right against Exploitation says that no one can be forced to work for low wages or under bondage. •• In 2016, Parliament amended the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, banning the employment of children below the age of 14 years in all occupations and of adolescents (14–18 years) in hazardous occupations and processes. •• The government should ensure that the Right to Life guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution is not violated. 8. What are the sources of environmental pollution in your area? Discuss with respect to (a) air; (b) water and (c) soil. What are the steps being taken to reduce the pollution? Can you suggest some other measures? Ans. Sources of environment pollution in our areas: Air: emissions from vehicles and factories Water: harmful factory effluents discharged in water, pesticides, and garbage Soil: plastics dumped in the soil Steps that are being taken: •• Treating the harmful chemical effluents before discharging them in the water. •• Measures to introduce CNG for automobiles to reduce air pollution.

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Suggestion: •• Waste disposal and idol immersion in rivers should be banned •• Compulsory use of CNG •• Plastics should be banned 9. How was environment treated earlier? What has been the change in perception? Discuss. Ans. • In 1984, there were very few laws protecting the environment in India, and there was hardly any enforcement of these laws. •• The environment was treated as a ‘free’ entity and any industry could pollute the air and water without any restrictions. •• Whether it was our rivers, air, groundwater—the environment was polluted and the health of people disregarded. The Bhopal disaster brought the issue of environment to the forefront. •• In response to this pressure from environmental activists and others, in the years following the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, the Indian government introduced new laws on the environment. •• Henceforth, the polluter was to be held accountable for the damage done to environment. •• The courts also gave a number of judgments upholding the right to a healthy environment as intrinsic to the Fundamental Right to Life. •• The courts directed industries in residential areas in Delhi to close down or shift out of the city. 10. What do you think the famous cartoonist R.K. Laxman is trying to convey in this cartoon? How does it relate to the 2006 law that you read about on page 123? Ans. The cartoonist is trying to convey the message that people care for their own children but often neglect the children of others. We ourselves are responsible for child labour as we hire small kids to work for us in order to lessen our work pressure. It relates to incident when in 2016, Parliament amended the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, banning the employment of children below the age of 14 years in all occupations and of adolescents (14–18 years) in hazardous occupations and processes. 11. You have read about the Bhopal gas tragedy and the ongoing struggle. Students from countries across the world have come together to support this struggle for justice. From protest marches to awareness campaigns, you can read about their activities on the website www.studentsforbhopal.com. The website also has resources such as photos, posters, documentaries, victims’ statements, etc. Use this and other sources to make a wallpaper/exhibition on the Bhopal Gas Tragedy for your classroom. Invite the whole school to see and talk about it. Ans. Do this on your own.

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VI. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS I. Match the following: 1. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (i) Compressed Natural Gas 2. Article 21 (ii) Union Carbide 3. CNG (iii) Right to Life 4. UC (iv) methyl isocyanite 5. MIC (v) 1984 Ans. 1. (v),  2. (iii),  3. (i),  4. (ii),  5. (iv) II. Fill In the Blanks: 1. Union Carbide (UC) an American company had a factory in the city in which it produced__________________. 2. Merely making laws is not enough. The government has to ensure that these laws are_____________. 3. The __________________ says that no one can be forced to work for low wages or under bondage. 4. In __________, Parliament amended the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, banning the employment of children below the age of 14 years in all occupations and of adolescents (14-18 years) in hazardous occupations. 5. In Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar (1991), the Supreme Court held that the ______________ is a Fundamental Right under Article 21 of the Constitution and it includes the right to the enjoyment of pollution-free water and air for full enjoyment of life. Ans. 1. pesticides,  2. implemented,  3. Right Against Exploitation,  4. 2016, 5. Right to Life III. State Whether True or False: 1. Union Carbide was a British Company. 2. The world’s worst tragedy took place in Ahmedabad in 1984. 3. Emissions from vehicles are a major cause of environmental pollution. 4. Recent research on environmental issues in India has highlighted the fact that the growing concern for the environment among the middle classes is often at the expense of the poor. 5. Developing countries are relocating the toxic and hazardous industries to advanced countries to take advantage of the weaker laws in these countries and keep their own countries safe. Ans. 1. False,  2. False,  3. True,  4. True,  5. False

VII. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which type of pollution is created by vehicle’s smoke? (a) Air pollution (b) Soil pollution (c) Water pollution

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2. Which of the following is a poisonous gas? (a) Oxygen (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Methyl isocyanite 3. Which of the following is not a hazardous industry? (a) Ship manufacturing industry (b) Handloom industry (c) Pesticide industry 4. What is the role of the government? (a) to control the activities of private companies (b) to create and implement laws protecting the environment (c) all of the above 5. In the legal battle between the government and Union Carbide, how much compensation did the victims receive? (a) $ 3 billion (b) 300 million (c) 470 million 6. How many people died after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy? (a) 8000 people (b) 800 people (c) 1000 people 7. How do private companies earn more wages? (a) Giving high wages (b) Giving accommodation (c) Giving poor wages 8. What is the name of the company which now owns the plant of Union Carbide at Bhopal? (a) Dow Chemical (b) GlaxoSmithKline (c) IFFCO Ans. 1. (a),  2. (c),  3. (b),  4. (c),  5. (c),  6. (a),  7. (c),  8. (a)

VIII. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS A. Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. What is more important than making laws? Ans. Implementing or Enforcing them. 2. Which right protects people from forced labour under low wages? Ans. Right against Exploitation. 3. State any one reason foreign companies came to India? Ans. Cheap labour 4. Why did the government allow Union Carbide to run? Ans. Because it brought investment and job opportunities. 5. Which event brought the issue of environment to the forefront? Ans. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy 6. Why are laws important that protect the interest of consumers and producers? Ans. It is important to ensure that there is no exploitation between the producers, consumers and workers and it is possible when laws are in place.

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7. Why is it important to enforce laws? Ans. Through enforcement, the government can control the public and the private companies and their activities to ensure social justice. 8. How was the government partially responsible for the gas tragedy? Ans. The safety laws were lax and even those laws hadn’t been properly enforced. 9. What was the new law enforced following the gas tragedy? Ans. The polluter was to be held responsible and accountable for the contamination of the environment. 10. What is Right against Exploitation? Ans. The Right against Exploitation upholds that no one can be forced to work for low wages or under bondage. B. Short Answer Type Questions 1. What was the cause of the Bhopal gas tragedy? Ans. At Union Carbide, the company involved, the safety devices were malfunctioning and they were not taken care of. Minimal working conditions and low safety measures were a method to cut costs. 2. Was the Bhopal Gas Tragedy an accident? Ans. No, the Bhopal Gas Tragedy was not an accident. UC had deliberately ignored the essential safety measures in order to cut costs. Much before the Bhopal disaster, there had been incidents of gas leak killing a worker and injuring several. 3. Give the comparison between UC’s safety system in Bhopal and its other plant in the US. UC’s safety system in UC’s safety system in Bhopal Ans. its other plant in US 1. The UC plant in Bhopal relied 1. At West Virginia (U.S.A.) on manual gauges and the computerised warning and human senses to detect gas monitoring systems were in leaks. place. 2. There were no emergency 2. At the West Virginia plant, evacuation plans. emergency evacuation plans were in place. 4. What happened in the Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar (1991) case? Ans. In Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar (1991), the Supreme Court held that the Right to Life is a Fundamental Right under Article 21 of the Constitution and it includes the right to the enjoyment of pollution-free water and air for full enjoyment of life.

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C. Long Answer Type Questions 1. What amendment in 2016 has parliament made in Child Labour Act, 1986? What direction has Central Government given to state governments? Ans. • In 2016, Parliament amended the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, banning the employment of children below the age of 14 years in all occupations and of adolescents (14-18 years) in hazardous occupations and processes. •• It made employing these children or adolescents a cognizable offence. •• Anyone found violating the ban was to be be penalised with a punishment ranging from a jail term of six months to two years and/or fine of INR 20,000 to 50,000. •• The Central Government had asked state governments to develop plans to rescue and rehabilitate children who are working. 5. Was the government responsible for the Bhopal Gas Tragedy? Give reasons. Ans. Yes, the government also was responsible for the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. •• First, the safety laws were lax in India. Second, even these weak safety laws were not enforced. •• Government officials refused to recognise the plant as hazardous and allowed it to come up in a populated locality. •• When some municipal officials in Bhopal objected that the installation of an MIC production unit in 1978 was a safety violation, the position of the government was that the state needs the continued investment of the Bhopal plant, which provides jobs. •• It was unthinkable, according to them, to ask UC to shift to cleaner technology or safer procedures. •• Government inspectors continued to approve the procedures in the plant, even when repeated incidents of leaks from the plant made it obvious to everybody that things were seriously wrong. 3. “In recent years, while the courts have come out with strong orders on environmental issues, these have sometimes affected people’s livelihoods adversely.” Elaborate. Ans. In recent years, while the courts have come out with strong orders on environmental issues, these have sometimes affected people’s livelihoods adversely. •• For instance, the courts directed industries in residential areas in Delhi to close down or shift out of the city. •• Several of these industries were polluting the neighbourhood and discharge from these industries was polluting the river Yamuna because they had been set up without following the rules.

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•• But, while the court’s action solved one problem, it created another. •• Because of the closure, many workers lost their jobs. Others were forced to go to far-away places where these factories had relocated. •• The same problem now began to come up in these areas – for now these places became polluted. And the issue of the safety conditions of workers remained unaddressed.

SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1. UC stands for? 2. To which South Asian countries are advanced countries shifting their industries in? 3. In Delhi, which river was being polluted? 4. Who was the chairman of Union Carbide? 5. What amount of money did UC give as a settlement in 1989?

Sample Paper—I Time: 3 Hours

Maximum Marks: 80

General Instructions (i) The question paper has 14 questions in all. All questions are compulsory. (ii) Question paper is divided among 3 sections. Section A: History contains 5 questions with 30 marks. Section B: Geography contains 5 questions with 25 marks. Section C: Social and Political Life contains 4 questions with 25 marks.

SECTION A (HISTORY) 1. Choose the correct answer from the given options: (i) The Indian constitution was adopted on: (a) 26 Dec. 1949 (b) 26 Nov. 1949 (c) 26 Jan. 1949 (d) 26 Oct. 1949 (ii) Shimla Agreement was signed in: (a) 1972 (b) 1994 (c) 1971 (d) 1973 (iii) China attacked India in: (a) 1961 (b) 1964 (c) 1963 (d) 1962 (iv) Raja Ram Mohan Roy knew (a) English (b) Hebrew (c) Sanskrit (d) All of these (v) ‘Anand Math’ was written by (a) S. Bharti (b) B. C. Chatterjee (c) Tagore (d) Bibuti Bhushan 2. State whether the following statements are True or False: (a) Cotton is also called ‘universal fibre’. (b) Birsa was born in a family of Santhals. (c) Kukas were the followers of Guru Ram Singh. (d) Sati was abolished by a decree in 1833. 3. Answer the following questions in short: (a) What are the aims of Congress? (b) Who was Raja Ravi Varma? (c) What was Santhal rebellion? 4. Answer the following questions: (a) Why did the British preserve official documents? (b) What attracted European trading companies to India? (c) What was the impacts of forest laws?

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[5 × 1 = 5]

[4 × 1 = 4]

[3 × 2 = 6]

[4 × 3 = 12]

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(d) Match the columns: Column A Column B 1. James Mill (i) Sepoy 2. Qazi (ii) Cultivation on ryot’s lands 3. Ryoti (iii) Judge 4. Custard Apple (iv) A History of British India 5. Sipahi (v) India 6. Indigo (vi) Botanical Garden 5. On an outline map of India, label and locate two main centres of social reform movement of the nineteenth century. [3 × 1 = 3]

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SECTION B (GEOGRAPHY) 6. Choose the correct answer from the given options: [4 × 1 = 4] (i) Which one of the following is a human made resource? (a) Tropical forests (b) Spring water (c) Medicines of treat cancer (d) None of these (ii) Coal and petroleum are examples of (a) actual resources (b) potential resources (c) renewable resources (d) non-renewable resources (iii) The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called (a) air (b) soil (c) water (d) oxygen (iv) A ________ diamond is the rarest diamond. (a) tin (b) land (c) salt (d) bauxite 7. Define the following terms: [3 × 1 = 3] (a) Population pyramid (b) Textile (c) Manufacturing 8. Answer the following questions in short: [3 × 2 = 6] (a) Why are human resources important? (b) Explain water cycle. (c) What are the common methods used for conserving land resources? 9. Answer the following questions: [3 × 3 = 9] (a) What are human resources? How are they developed? (b) What are landslides? Mention some mitigation techniques for landslides. (c) How is hydro-electricity generated? 10. Match the columns: [3] Column A Column B 1. Ruhr region of Germany (i) Prevent soil erosion 2. Rock dams (ii) Coal 3. Black Gold (iii) Non-metallic mineral 4. Mica (iv) First successful mechanised textile mill 5. Steel (v) Petroleum 6. Mumbai (vi) Backbone of modern industry

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SECTION C (SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE) 11. The column on the left lists some of the key features of the Indian Constitution. In the other column write two sentences, in your own words, on why you think this feature is important: [4 × 1 = 4] Key Features

Significance

1. Federalism 2. Separation of Powers 3. Fundamental Rights 4. Parliamentary form of Government 12. Choose the correct answer from the given options: [3 × 1 = 3] (i) Indian Constitution is: (a) Flexible (b) Rigid (c) Constant (ii) The Government of India Act was passed in: (a) 1910 (b) 1909 (c) 1911 (iii) The upper house of the Parliament is called (a) Lok Sabha (b) Rashtrapati Bhawan (c) Rajya Sabha 13. Give short answers to the following questions: [3 × 2 = 6] (a) What do you mean by Secularism? (b) What are the objective of a secular state? (c) How are MPs elected? 14. Answer the following questions: [4 × 3 = 12] (a) List the Fundamental Rights. (b) Why is it important to separate religion from the state? (c) Why are there reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Parliament? (d) What happens when the Parliament passes on unpopular law?

Sample Paper—II Time: 3 Hours

Maximum Marks: 80

General Instructions (i) The question paper has 14 questions in all. All questions are compulsory. (ii) Question paper is divided among 3 sections. Section A: History contains 5 questions with 30 marks. Section B: Geography contains 5 questions with 25 marks. Section C: Social and Political Life contains 4 questions with 25 marks.

SECTION A (HISTORY) 1. State whether the following statements are True or False: [5 × 1 = 5] (a) Mir Jafar was the puppet in the hands of Britishers. (b) Flora refers to plants. (c) Lord Dalhousie introduced Subsidiary Alliance System. (d) The French fought the first Carnatic War. (e) In 1914, World War I broke out. 2. Answer the following questions in a word or two: [4 × 1 = 4] (a) In which year, Bangladesh found? (b) Shanti Dama belongs to which school of art? (c) Who was a prominent Viceroy of India? (d) Royal edict was also called? 3. Answer the following questions in short: [3 × 2 = 6] (a) Who was Johann Zoffany? (b) Name some early leaders of Indian National Congress. (c) Describe Universal Adult Franchise. 4. Answer the following questions: [4 × 3 = 12] (a) Why were ryots reluctant to grow indigo? (b) Give an account of photography in India. (c) What economic impact did the First World War have on India? (d) What was the final speech of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to the Constituent Assembly? 5. Do as directed. A. Tick () the correct option. [1½] (i) He was born in 1827. (a) Periyar (b) Haridas Thakur (c) Jyotirao Phule (d) Ram Mohan Roy (ii) .................. is a wall painting. (a) Mural (b) Western (c) Indian (d) Kalighat

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Sample Papers (iii) It means to undo law (a) Refill (b) Repeal (c) Appeal (d) Reppeal B. Match the columns: Column A Column B 1. Veda Samaj (i) Thomas & William Daniell 2. Clive Street (ii) 1915 3. Arrival of Gandhi in India (iii) 1864

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[1½]

SECTION B (GEOGRAPHY) 6. Choose the correct answer from the options. [4 × 1 = 4] (i) Which country has no known mineral deposit in it? (a) India (b) Europe (c) America (d) Australia (ii) Which animal is not the part of nomadic herding? (a) Camel (b) Elephant (c) Yak (d) Sheep (iii) Cottage or household industries are ............. scale industry. (a) short (b) large (c) long (d) small (iv) About how much per cent of the world’s people stay in just 10 countries? (a) 30% (b) 60% (c) 10% (d) 50% 7. Define the following terms: [3 × 1 = 3] (a) Smelting (b) Manufacturing (c) Nomading Herding 8. Answer the following questions in short: [3 × 2 = 6] (a) How can we conserve minerals? (b) What do you mean by organic farming? (c) Explain joint sector industries. 9. Answer the following questions: [3 × 3 = 9] (a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of conventional source of energy? (b) Compare farming in India and USA. (c) Briefly explain the factors affecting the location of industries. 10. Match the columns: [3] Column A Column B 1. Found in Ladakh (i) Contains iron 2. Ferrous minerals (ii) A number of live births per 1000 people 3. Basket weaving (iii) Silicon plateau of India. 4. Birth rate (iv) Uranium 5. Population density (v) Cottage industry 6. Bangaluru (vi) A number of people living in a unit area of the Earth’s surface

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SECTION C (SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE) 11. Fill in the blanks: [4 × 1 = 4] (a) ................ refers to the system of courts in this country. (b) Parliament of India consists of the ................, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. (c) The court has the power of ................ to modify or cancel laws. (d) ................ covered the major part of our country fill the nineteenth century. 12. Choose the correct answer from the given options: [3 × 1 = 3] (i) The constitution divides the state into ................ organs. (a) four (b) three (c) one (d) two (ii) The Indian constitution guarantees: (a) Home (b) Electricity (c) Food (d) Fundamental Rights (iii) How many members are elected in Lok Sabha? (a) 543 (b) 545 (c) 542 (d) 544 13. Answer the following questions in short: [3 × 2 = 6] (a) What is the importance of laws? (b) Describe Public Interest Litigation. (c) Give two reasons to support the statement “Muslims are a marginalised community.” 14. Answer the following questions: [4 × 3 = 12] (a) Elaborate the rights of equality. (b) What is the role of Rajya Sabha in the Parliament? (c) Why are laws required? (d) Distinguished between civil law and criminal law.

Sample Paper—III Time: 3 Hours

Maximum Marks: 80

General Instructions (i) The question paper has 14 questions in all. All questions are compulsory. (ii) Question paper is divided among 3 sections. Section A: History contains 5 questions with 30 marks. Section B: Geography contains 5 questions with 25 marks. Section C: Social and Political Life contains 4 questions with 25 marks.

SECTION A (HISTORY) 1. State whether the following statements are True or False: [5 × 1 = 5] (a) The partition of India took place in 1857. (b) Steam engine was invented in 1764. (c) The British established Universities in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. (d) Shri Naryana Guru proclaims the ideals of unity. (e) Mir Zafar was awarded the title of Amir. 2. Answer the following questions in a word or two: [4 × 1 = 4] (a) Which Act was introduced in 1870? (b) Who attacked the orientalists? (c) In 1875 which samaj was founded? (d) Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of our Constitution? 3. Answer the following questions in short: [3 × 2 = 6] (a) How did the tribals react against the forest laws? (b) What was the demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi that was refused by the British? (c) How was the power of state breakdown? 4. Answer the following questions: [4 × 3 = 12] (a) Why was the Indian indigo in demand? (b) How did the Khonds use forest resources? (c) Why did Phule dedicate his book Gulamgiri to the American movement to free slaves. (d) Match the following columns: Column A Column B 1. Official documents (i) 1757 2. Battle of Plassey (ii) Criminal court 3. Faujdari adalat (iii) Village 4. Mahal (iv) A History of British India 5. Ahmedullah Shah (v) 1947 6. The partition of India (vi) A Maulvi

287

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5. On a political map of India, mark mica, Iron and a coal producing state.

SECTION B (GEOGRAPHY) 6. Choose the correct answer from the given options: (i) Which one of the following is a natural resource? (a) Railways (b) Building (c) Wind (d) Airways (ii) How many centimetres of soil forms in hundreds of years. (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 3

[4 × 1 = 4]

Sample Papers (iii) Minerals occur in different types of (a) rocks (b) plain (c) plateau (d) Canada (iv) The full form of CNG is (a) Compressed Natural Gas (b) Compulsory None Gas (c) Compressed None Gas (d) Composite Natural Gas 7. Define the following terms: (a) Potash (b) Firangis (c) Boycott. 8. Answer the following questions in short: (a) What are common methods used for conserving land resources? (b) Petroleum is referred to as “Black Gold.” (c) Name the agricultural crops.

289

[3 × 1 = 3]

[3 × 2 = 6]

9. Answer the following questions: [3 × 3 = 9] (a) Distinguish between the following conventional and non-conventional sources of energy. (b) Name and describe briefly the method of extraction. (c) Explain the distribution of population and also describe the pattern of population distribution. 10. Match the columns: [3] Column A Column B 1. Africa (i) Pune 2. Topography (ii) Organic 3. Osaka (iii) Diamonds matter deposited on top soil 4. Loamy soil (iv) Plains 5. Social place (v) Japan 6. Humus (vi) Wheat

SECTION C (SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE) 11. Fill in the blanks: [4 × 1 = 4] (a) Pangi village is in ................ . (b) ................ was the general of Nana Saheb. (c) The ................ make laws for the entire country. (d) Cotton and jute are ................ crops. 12. Choose the correct answer from the given options: [3 × 1 = 3] (i) Nij and Ryoti were the types of (a) Indigo cultivation (b) Coffee cultivation (c) Cotton cultivation (d) None of these (ii) ‘Vaishnavas’ are the worshippers of ................ (a) Shiv (b) Vishnu (c) Ratwari (d) Brahma (iii) A person enjoys rights to life under which article of the constitution? (a) Article 22 (b) Article 21 (c) Article 19 (d) Article 20

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13. Give short answers to the following questions: (a) What is secularism? (b) What is the meaning of ‘Coalition’? (c) What does TISCO stands for? 14. Answer the following questions: (a) Name the different types of surveys. (b) What is Rajya Sabha? (c) What is reservation policy? (d) What are the disadvantages of hydel power?

[3 × 2 = 6]

[4 × 3 = 12]

CBSE CBSE in

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