Environmental Planning Guidelines for Offshore Oil and Gas Development 9780824887933

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Environmental Planning Guidelines for Offshore Oil and Gas Development

THE EAST-WEST ENVIRON-

THE EAST-WEST CENTER—

s t u d e n t s , m o s t of w h o m are

o f f i c i a l l y k n o w n as the C e n t e r

e n r o l l e d at the University of

MENT AND POLICY INSTITUTE

for Cultural and T e c h n i c a l In-

Hawaii. For e a c h C e n t e r par-

w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in O c t o b e r

t e r c h a n g e Between East a n d

t i c i p a n t f r o m the United

1977 to i n c r e a s e understand-

W e s t — i s a national e d u c a -

States, t w o p a r t i c i p a n t s are

i n g of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s

tional institution e s t a b l i s h e d

s o u g h t f r o m the Asian and

a m o n g p o l i c i e s d e s i g n e d to

in Hawaii by the U.S. Con-

P a c i f i c area.

m e e t a b r o a d r a n g e of h u m a n

g r e s s in 1960 to p r o m o t e bet-

C e n t e r p r o g r a m s are con-

and s o c i e t a l n e e d s o v e r t i m e

ter r e l a t i o n s and understand-

d u c t e d by institutes address-

and the natural s y s t e m s a n d

i n g b e t w e e n the United States

i n g p r o b l e m s of c o m m u n i -

resources on which these

and the n a t i o n s of Asia a n d

cation, culture learning,

p o l i c i e s d e p e n d or i m p a c t .

the P a c i f i c t h r o u g h c o o p -

e n v i r o n m e n t and p o l i c y ,

Through interdisciplinary and

e r a t i v e study, training, and

p o p u l a t i o n , and r e s o u r c e

m u l t i n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s of

r e s e a r c h . T h e C e n t e r is ad-

s y s t e m s . A l i m i t e d n u m b e r of

research, study, and t r a i n i n g ,

m i n i s t e r e d by a public, non-

" o p e n " g r a n t s are a v a i l a b l e

the Institute s e e k s to d e v e l o p

profit corporation whose

to d e g r e e s c h o l a r s and re-

a n d apply c o n c e p t s and ap-

i n t e r n a t i o n a l Board of Gov-

search f e l l o w s w h o s e a c a d e m -

p r o a c h e s u s e f u l In i d e n t i f y i n g

e r n o r s c o n s i s t s of distin-

ic interests are n o t e n c o m -

a l t e r n a t i v e s a v a i l a b l e to deci-

guished scholars, business

p a s s e d by institute p r o g r a m s .

sion m a k e r s a n d in a s s e s s i n g

leaders, and public s e r v a n t s .

T h e U.S. C o n g r e s s p r o v i d e s

the i m p l i c a t i o n s of such

basic f u n d i n g for C e n t e r pro-

c h o i c e s . P r o g r e s s and results

m e n and w o m e n f r o m m a n y

g r a m s and a v a r i e t y of

of Institute p r o g r a m s are

n a t i o n s and c u l t u r e s par-

awards to participants.

d i s s e m i n a t e d in the East-West

t i c i p a t e in C e n t e r p r o g r a m s

B e c a u s e of the c o o p e r a t i v e

C e n t e r r e g i o n t h r o u g h re-

that s e e k c o o p e r a t i v e solu-

nature of C e n t e r p r o g r a m s ,

s e a r c h reports, b o o k s , work-

t i o n s to p r o b l e m s of mutual

f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t and cost-

s h o p reports, w o r k i n g p a p e r s ,

c o n s e q u e n c e to East and

s h a r i n g are a l s o p r o v i d e d by

n e w s l e t t e r s , and o t h e r e d u c a -

West. W o r k i n g with the Cen-

Asian and P a c i f i c g o v e r n -

tional a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a l

ter's m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y a n d

ments, regional agencies,

materials.

Each y e a r m o r e than 1,500

multicultural s t a f f , par-

p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e and foun-

t i c i p a n t s include v i s i t i n g

d a t i o n s . T h e C e n t e r is on

s c h o l a r s and r e s e a r c h e r s ;

land a d j a c e n t to and provid-

l e a d e r s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s

ed by the University of

f r o m the a c a d e m i c , g o v e r n -

Hawaii.

m e n t , a n d business c o m m u nities; and g r a d u a t e d e g r e e

William H. Matthews, East-West

Environment

Policy

Institute

East-West

Center

1777 East-West Honolulu,

Hawaii

Director and

Road 96848

edited by

John T. E. Gilbert prepared by a Working Group of the East-West Environment and Policy Institute East-West Center Honolulu, Hawaii illustrated

by Sylvia J. Marcin

An East-West Center Book from the East-West Environment and Policy Institute Published for the East-West Center by The University Press of Hawaii

C o p y r i g h t © 1982 by the East-West Center, East-West E n v i r o n m e n t and Policy Institute All rights r e s e r v e d Printed in the United S t a t e s of A m e r i c a

Designed by Roger Eggers

JOHN T. E. GILBERT, coord i n a t o r of t h e Working Group, is senior i n v e s t i g a t i n g officer, C o m m i s s i o n for t h e Environm e n t , Mew Zealand. He was a r e s e a r c h fellow a t t h e EastWest E n v i r o n m e n t a n d Policy I n s t i t u t e from 1 December 1980 to 1 J a n u a r y 1982. JAMES SHARP is p r e s i d e n t of t h e Gulf Universities Research C o n s o r t i u m , Houston, Texas, U.S.A. REGIMA MIRANDA SANTERRE is an a s s i s t a n t lecturer in the D e p a r t m e n t of Zoology, University of J a f f n a , Sri Lanka. She was a r e s e a r c h intern a t t h e East-West E n v i r o n m e n t a n d Policy Institute from 12 December 1980 to 3 0 November 1981.

JAMES MARAGOS is h e a d of the Environmental Section, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A. THOMAS LINTON is an associa t e p r o f e s s o r in the Departm e n t of Wildlife a n d Fisheries Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, U.S.A. PETER HARRISON is a s s i s t a n t director, Energy a n d Res o u r c e s Policy, D e p a r t m e n t of Finance, Federal G o v e r n m e n t of C a n a d a , Ottawa. GARY GREENE is a m a r i n e geologist with t h e U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific-Arctic Branch of Marine Geology, Menlo Park, California, U.S.A.

PAUL L. COUTRIER is environm e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n coordinator with PERTAMINA, t h e I n d o n e s i a n National Oil a n d Natural Gas C o m p a n y , J a k a r ta, Indonesia. JAMES COLLINS is m a n a g e r of e n v i r o n m e n t a l affairs, Energy R e s o u r c e s Group, Cities Service C o m p a n y , Tulsa, O k l a h o m a , U.S.A. SHERYL R. BRYSON, a s c i e n c e w r i t e r / e d i t o r , is p u b l i c a t i o n s officer, East-West Environm e n t a n d Policy Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.

9

Foreword Acknowledgments

11

The Approach: Early for the Environment

Planning 13

Environmental Factors to Be Considered Geological and Physical Aspects Biological and Chemical Aspects Economic and Social Aspects

15 15 20 24

Exploration

28

Effects

Drilling Effects Exploratory Well Drilling Development Well Drilling

31 31 35

Production

37

Effects

Oil Storage and Transport Effects Offshore Storage Surface Transport Pipeline Transshipment Pipeline Landfall and Onshore Storage

41 42 42 43 44

Oil Spill Impacts Containment and Recovery Cleanup and Disposal

46 49 50

Onshore

55

References

Support

Effects

for Additional

Information

63

The Environment a n d Policy Institute (EAPI) of t h e East-West Center c o n d u c t s r e s e a r c h and e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s t h r o u g h multinational collaboration on issues of central concern to the United S t a t e s a n d n a t i o n s of Asia and the Pacific. The prog r a m of the Institute e m p h a s i z e s (1) analysis of various policies (e.g., e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , m a r i t i m e jurisdiction) to illuminate their d e p e n d e n c e a n d i m p a c t s on n a t u r a l s y s t e m s and t h u s on t h e objectives of the policies, a n d (2) a s s e s s m e n t of scientific and technical information a b o u t natural s y s t e m s for more c o h e r e n t policy formulation a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n t h r o u g h p l a n n i n g and m a n a g e m e n t . This s y s t e m a t ic a p p r o a c h avoids t h e polarization of environmental values v e r s u s sectoral goals. Offshore exploration for p e t r o l e u m is inc r e a s i n g at a rapid rate in many p a r t s of the world. It is e x p e c t e d t h a t significant a d d i t i o n s to known reserves will be in offs h o r e a r e a s . Very few c o u n t r i e s or c o m p a nies in t h e East-West region have a s yet developed a n d a d o p t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l guidelines for exploration or p r o d u c t i o n offshore, or for initial t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d s t o r a g e of the oil. The activity t h a t h a s p r o d u c e d this book h a s grown o u t of two p r o j e c t s in EAPI t h a t deal with t h e s e a n d o t h e r issues. The project on Environmental Dimensions of Energy Policies a d d r e s s e s a broad r a n g e of issues t h a t face c o u n t r i e s in the region a s they a t t e m p t to m e e t e x p a n d i n g

energy d e m a n d s with c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d n o n c o n v e n t i o n a l fuels a n d s o u r c e s . The project on Marine E n v i r o n m e n t a n d Ext e n d e d Maritime J u r i s d i c t i o n s f o c u s e s on resource and environmental m a n a g e m e n t i s s u e s a s c o u n t r i e s c o n s i d e r individual a n d collective s t r a t e g i e s for effective utilization of t h e o c e a n s . The topic of environm e n t a l p l a n n i n g for o f f s h o r e oil a n d g a s d e v e l o p m e n t e m e r g e d a s a high priority area early in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s e two projects. EAPI was f o r t u n a t e in a t t r a c t i n g the involvement of J o h n T. E. Gilbert, senior i n v e s t i g a t i n g officer of the Mew Zealand C o m m i s s i o n for t h e Environment, to initiate a m a j o r activity to fill s o m e of t h e g a p s in a p p r o a c h e s t h a t had been identified in earlier p l a n n i n g w o r k s h o p s . First a s an a d j u n c t r e s e a r c h a s s o c i a t e b a s e d in Mew Zealand and then as a r e s e a r c h fellow in r e s i d e n c e a t EAPI, Mr. Gilbert organized a n d led a Working Group to p r e p a r e t h e general guidelines t h a t a p p e a r in this volu m e . He also c o n d u c t e d a m a j o r w o r k s h o p with greatly e x p a n d e d participation u n d e r t h e c o - s p o n s o r s h i p of EAPI a n d t h e ASEAN Council on Petroleum to p r e p a r e an extensive set of technical guidelines. The general guidelines in this volume provide policymakers a n d c o n c e r n e d citiz e n s with a broad overview of t h e environm e n t a l a s p e c t s requiring a t t e n t i o n in t h e p l a n n i n g for offshore exploration, developm e n t drilling, a n d p r o d u c t i o n . They also provide a practical a p p r o a c h for incorp o r a t i n g p l a n n i n g to m e e t t h e s e c o n c e r n s in t h e early s t a g e s of p r o j e c t d e v e l o p m e n t .

The technical guidelines publication will provide a working manual for those closely involved in the technical aspects of environmental planning and management of offshore oil and gas development. It is intended for the use of technical advisors and regulatory officials at the central and regional government levels, and to provide a basis for oil company and government negotiations in the setting of environmentrelated conditions in exploration/development contracts. Such guidelines will also assist with training of officials and form a basis for the preparation of the environmental evaluation of offshore oil and gas exploration proposals, as well as assist with updating existing environmental management plans. Members of the Working Group that prepared this volume were drawn from participants in two small exploratory workshops on this subject conducted at the East-West Center in 1980 and 1981. Material in this document draws heavily on

input and discussions during those workshops as well as information and material from other sources. All members of the Working Group participated in their individual capacities and do not represent or speak for their organizations or countries. It should not be assumed that every Working Group member subscribes to every statement, although a broad consensus was reached on most major points. This volume is an initial step in communicating some of the results of EAPI's work on this topic. In future publications and in follow-up meetings, we anticipate that the work begun will continue and reach a wider audience. In this way, we hope we are contributing to a creative resolution of issues that are vital to national and international interests of countries in the region. William H. Matthews, Director, Environment and Policy Institute East-West Center

Work on these general guidelines began in early 1980 when two Mew Zealand planning consultants, Helen Tobin and J a m e s Clark, wrote a draft that was later reviewed during a small workshop in July that year at the East-West Environment and Policy Institute (EAPI) in Honolulu. Beginning with t h a t first Workshop on Environmental Guidelines for Offshore Oil and Qas Exploration, Development, and Production, considerable emphasis has been placed on the cooperative process during the development of the guidelines. A determined effort has been made to involve individuals with industrial, technical, and regulatory experience in offshore oil and gas development in different regions. EAPI has also been fortunate to have the interest of a number of organizations that have contributed to the production of the guidelines in the form of the time of their employees, funding for travel to and from Honolulu, or direct grants toward publication and distribution costs. These organizations are: the ASEAN Council on Petroleum (ASCOPE); the United nations Committee for Co-ordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in Asian Offshore Areas (CCOP); Cities Service Oil Company; Chevron Overseas Petroleum, Inc.; the Oil Industry International Exploration and Production Forum; the Gulf Universities Research Consortium; the new Zealand Commission for the Environment; PERTAMinA, the Indonesian national Oil

and natural Gas Company; the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers; and the U.S. Geological Survey. In the writing of this book, the Offshore Oil and Gas Environmental Guidelines Working Group was assisted by several persons who reviewed the content of the draft manuscript at various s t a g e s and provided many helpful suggestions. These individuals are: Richard A. Carpenter, EAPI research associate; Fereidun Fesharaki, research associate, East-West Resource Systems Institute (RSI); Jerry Gait, physical oceanographer, Office of Marine Pollution Assessment, national Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.A.; C. Bruce Koons, senior research associate, Exxon Production Company; C. Y. Li, senior consultant, CCOP; Don MacRae, assistant secretary, Environmental Studies Branch, Department of Home Affairs and Environment, Australia; Corazon Siddayao, research associate, RSI; Toufiq A. Siddiqi, EAPI research associate and coordinator for the project on Environmental Dimensions of Energy Policies; Helen Tobin, new Zealand planning consultant; and Mark J. Valencia, EAPI research associate and coordinator for the project on Marine Environment and Extended Maritime Jurisdictions. The function of editing a working group product of this type requires very considerable patience and determination to guide the work into print. I wish to extend t h a n k s to Sheryl R. Bryson, EAPI publications officer, who, in addition to serving as a coauthor, made a major contribution to-

ward bringing the guidelines to their published form. I thank illustrator Sylvia Marcin for her patience, perseverance, and excellent work. I also wish to acknowledge the help of Helen Takeuchi, publications

assistant, and Wanda McFall, secretary, for their work on the manuscript. John T. E. Gilbert Coordinator of the Working Group

The Approach: Early Planning for the Environment

Early planning is the key to recovering offshore oil and gas without the occurrence of unacceptable changes in the natural environment. Environmental concerns must be considered at the same time as the initial technical and economic planning of a project. If these guidelines are applied from the outset of the planning process and through the phases of development, it is possible to simultaneously develop oil and gas and also conserve and protect the resources of the region. The guidelines have been written to develop an awareness of environmental impacts that may be encountered at each stage of oil and gas exploitation: i.e., exploration, development, and production. They are designed to enable nontechnical but interested persons to understand the interactions between technological petroleum operations and environmental quality j u d g m e n t s at the project site, offshore, and nearby onshore. The guidelines are not policy directives nor is every concern relevant in each local situation. They are intended to be helpful to persons involved in making difficult policy decisions. Environmental objectives requiring attention with this approach are:

Early identification of environmental characteristics, offshore and nearby onshore, that may modify the development process for both industry and the country involved. •

Identification of specific, vulnerable environmental aspects of the ocean, seafloor, marine life, and the adjoining coastal zone.

•

Establishment of which environmental elements should be preserved and which ones may undergo alteration or even elimination.

•

Emphasis on cooperation, communication, and effective dissemination of information to establish a dialogue among government officials, prospecting company, environmental scientists, and, where possible, the affected public.

•

Establishment of sound and uncomplicated relationships between agencies with environmental responsibilities and those agencies responsible for offshore oil and gas operation.

As part of the planning process, national and local government environmental regulations and consequent compliance procedures should be examined to establish their adequacy for handling all facets of an offshore oil or gas development program. It is important to provide clarification of these mandates as early as possible, and, if necessary, for the government concerned to bring about any reorganization required.

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Environmental Factors to Be Considered

g e t oil f l o w i n g ? " a n d

What are the trade-

offs, choices, and alternatives?'

These

g u i d e l i n e s will provide s o m e a s s i s t a n c e in a n s w e r i n g these q u e s t i o n s .

There are two main q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g

Geological and Physical Aspects

environmental e l e m e n t s of o f f s h o r e ex-

C o n s i d e r a t i o n of g e o l o g y for o f f s h o r e oil

ploration, d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d p r o d u c t i o n

a n d g a s d e v e l o p m e n t is imperative for

that need to b e a s k e d d u r i n g the early

e c o n o m i c and technical s u c c e s s b u t a l s o

planning stage:

to avoid a d v e r s e e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s .

•

•

C a n current k n o w l e d g e a n d t e c h n o l o g y

Even b e f o r e a drill bit p e n e t r a t e s the

create facilities that can o p e r a t e

s e a f l o o r , possible d e p t h s of s h a l l o w g a s

reliably in the o f f s h o r e environment?

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in sediment, a s well as oil or g a s seeps, need to b e e s t i m a t e d s o that,

C a n these o p e r a t i o n s take place in a

where necessary, additional p r e c a u t i o n s

m a n n e r that will protect the o f f s h o r e a n d o n s h o r e environmental quality a n d other r e s o u r c e s of the area?

may b e taken to prevent b l o w o u t s . The stability of the s e a f l o o r s h o u l d b e ascertained b e f o r e any d e v e l o p m e n t struc-

The first question is a n s w e r e d by an

tures are placed on the s e a b e d . S u b m a r i n e

a s s e s s m e n t of g e o l o g i c a l a n d other physi-

landslides and s l u m p s can d i s l o c a t e drill-

cal a s p e c t s of the area. Within these g e o -

ing a n d production p l a t f o r m s , possibly

logical a n d physical p a r a m e t e r s , d e s i g n

l e a d i n g to blowouts, oil spills, a n d the loss

criteria for e q u i p m e n t construction are

of life. Proper e n g i n e e r i n g of d e v e l o p m e n t

set to a s s u r e s a f e operation. In r e s p o n s e

structures requires k n o w l e d g e of levels of

to the s e c o n d question, biological, chemi-

seismic activity in the region, k n o w l e d g e

cal, a n d s o c i o e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s of the

of locations of active faults, a n d p r o b -

a r e a ' s e n v i r o n m e n t are c o n s i d e r e d in

abilities of storm a n d t s u n a m i g e n e r a t i o n ,

relation to site selection a n d construction

both locally a n d regionally. A r e a s of

d e s i g n s , a n d the o p e r a t i n g p r o c e s s e s are

high erosion and s e d i m e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n

then reviewed to identify both positive a n d

s h o u l d be located s o that pipelines a n d

negative e f f e c t s on the local environment.

other structures p l a c e d on the s e a f l o o r will not b e buried or u n d e r m i n e d . The prob-

Additional q u e s t i o n s that s h o u l d b e a s k e d at this early p l a n n i n g s t a g e are:

If

o f f s h o r e o p e r a t i o n s are to take place with-

ability of the s e a f l o o r settling after fluids are w i t h d r a w n at d e p t h needs to b e deter-

out u n a c c e p t a b l e c h a n g e s to the environ-

mined early to prevent later distortion,

ment, h o w m u c h more will the o p e r a t i o n s

s u b m e r g e n c e , or dislocation of p l a t f o r m s

cost, a n d how m u c h longer will it take to

and other installations. The c h a n c e s of

v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s n e a r t h e area m u s t b e

p e n d e n c e o f o n s h o r e f a c i l i t i e s on local

c o n s i d e r e d b e f o r e any o f f s h o r e e x p l o r a t o r y

r e s o u r c e s such as g r o u n d w a t e r , and t h e

drilling takes place. G e o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m u s t play a r o l e a l s o in the p l a c e m e n t a n d d e s i g n of

a v a i l a b i l i t y of such r e s o u r c e s , n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d b e f o r e site s e l e c t i o n is m a d e . A n s w e r s t o m a n y of t h e g e o l o g i c a l q u e s -

o n s h o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s such as r e f i n e r i e s ,

t i o n s of w h e r e , w h e n , a n d h o w s h o u l d an

receiving depots, and support facilities.

o f f s h o r e or o n s h o r e f a c i l i t y b e c o n s t r u c t e d

T h e s a f e t y a n d l o n g e v i t y of t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s

c a n g e n e r a l l y be o b t a i n e d in t h e e x p l o r a -

is e n h a n c e d if they are c o n s t r u c t e d in

tion p h a s e of d e v e l o p m e n t . High-resolu-

a r e a s a w a y f r o m a c t i v e faults, v o l c a n o e s ,

tion, c o n t i n u o u s s e i s m i c r e f l e c t i o n s u r v e y s

l a n d s l i d e or t s u n a m i h a z a r d z o n e s , f l o o d -

and s e a f l o o r s a m p l i n g s t u d i e s can p r o v i d e

plains, and s u b s i d e n c e basins. T h e de-

rapid a n s w e r s t o g e o l o g i c h a z a r d prob-

Thorough

W'sl^

knowledge

about the

seafloor

lems; generally these can be accomplished within a year. Onshore, answers to many geologic questions can be found by reviewing previous work such as maps and reports. Sites for onshore facilities can be tentatively selected or eliminated within a year's time. In addition to geological aspects of an area, other physical properties and processes influence the biological communities and hence the potential of ecological change. Damage may occur as a result of

should

be acquired

before drilling

begins.

discharges or physical modifications to the environment by offshore operations. Detailed knowledge of currents, temperatures, salinity, wave energy patterns, and tides is necessary to determine the distribution paths of chemical discharges; the areas likely to be affected by accidents; and the efficiency or feasibility of oil spill control, containment, and recovery operations. Accurate information on physical characteristics of the environment can also help determine at what depth and

Ecological sensitivity to oil and gas operations is greater near shore where natural systems play critical roles in fisheries and recreation. X

distance drilling mud residues can be discharged without j e o p a r d i z i n g reefs or spawning grounds in the vicinity, or when and where oil slick dispersants could be used e f f e c t i v e l y with minimum ecological hazards. Knowing the physical and meteorological properties and processes of areas under consideration is important because hurricanes, storms, winds, waves, currents, and temperature, as well as geological factors, impose requirements on platforms, pipelines, and service vessel design and construction. These requirements, in turn, are reflected in both initial capital outlay and in operating costs.

Biological and Chemical Aspects In general, ecological sensitivity to offshore oil and g a s operations increases closer to the shore. Features or e c o t y p e s such as beaches, coral reefs, and mang r o v e s along the coast play critical roles in fisheries or recreational uses. Understanding these natural systems, and using that understanding to plan activities in the area, will help in reducing long-term disturbances to the environment.

Of all the scientific appraisals n e e d e d f o r j u d g i n g or f o r e c a s t i n g the environmental i m p a c t s of o f f s h o r e oil and g a s develo p m e n t , t h o s e used to describe and assess biological c o m p o n e n t s of marine ecosyst e m s are the least understood or standardized. Marine o r g a n i s m s exhibit periodic, and o f t e n wide, variations in population characteristics in response to normal physical, c h e m i c a l , and biological habitat fluctuations.

baseline a p p r o a c h , which o f t e n requires a three-year period of study, is i n a d e q u a t e in s e p a r a t i n g the e f f e c t s attributed t o temporal variations, such as c l i m a t i c irregularities or seasonal c h a n g e s , f r o m e f f e c t s attributed to p r o j e c t d e v e l o p m e n t . Baseline studies are normally c o m p l e x , expensive, and t i m e - c o n s u m i n g , and the final results are o f t e n not available until after offshore d e v e l o p m e n t and a s s o c i a t e d i m p a c t s have already occurred at the study sites.

The purpose and type of marine e c o l o g i cal study must be appropriate for the location, phase, and s c o p e of each o f f s h o r e oil and g a s d e v e l o p m e n t venture. Three app r o a c h e s t o marine e c o l o g i c a l study that d e s e r v e consideration are the multiples t a g e i n v e s t i g a t i o n also known as the environmental baseline, the exposure-level study, and the ecological inventory.

The exposure-level m e t h o d is the comparison of similar e n v i r o n m e n t s after o n e of t h e m has been a f f e c t e d by o f f s h o r e operations. Time-related variations have less r e l e v a n c e with this m e t h o d . Exposurelevel studies can be o r g a n i z e d and conducted o v e r shorter t i m e periods and usually at less c o s t than baseline studies. The m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e of the exposurelevel a p p r o a c h is the e l e m e n t of subjectivity in d e c i d i n g whether the e c o s y s t e m s at two or m o r e study sites are s u f f i c i e n t l y the " s a m e " to allow for c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n the sites. Extrapolating the results of both baseline and exposure-level studies t o " n e w " r e g i o n s involves similar s u b j e c t i v e judgments.

A widely used t e c h n i q u e is establishm e n t of a preoperational e n v i r o n m e n t a l baseline. This requires intensive study of selected resident o r g a n i s m s of the area, the c h e m i c a l and physical p r o c e s s e s they are s u b j e c t to, and b o t t o m characteristics of their habitats, o b t a i n e d o v e r a s p e c i f i c period. The data are then used to establish or predict c h a n g e s that may occur during d i f f e r e n t p h a s e s of o f f s h o r e operations. A principal o b j e c t i v e of the baseline approach is t o o b s e r v e and c o m p a r e e c o l o g ical c h a n g e s attributed t o d e v e l o p m e n t i m p a c t s f r o m normal c o m m u n i t y fluctuations in the vicinity. This is d o n e by repeated i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o v e r time at the s a m e sites using the s a m e procedures. Many scientists s u g g e s t , however, that the

The preoperational e c o l o g i c a l inventory is c o n d u c t e d during the early planning phase and is e x t e n s i v e in s c o p e , rather than intensive. It is d e s i g n e d t o obtain inf o r m a t i o n on the location and i m p o r t a n c e of e n v i r o n m e n t a l resources within a broad g e o g r a p h i c area so that d e v e l o p m e n t can be d e s i g n e d and located to avoid or red u c e e f f e c t s on i m p o r t a n t resources and e n v i r o n m e n t a l quality.

Shellfish: Adults are generally b o t t o m - l i v i n g and c o n f i n e d to particular areas, either attached or mobile, while y o u n g e r s t a g e s are surface dwellers and m o r e widespread. S p a w n i n g areas (usually estuaries) and shellfish f i s h i n g g r o u n d s should be kept free of pollutants, since the e g g s and larvae are very sensitive to t o x i c substances and adults e x p o s e d to pollutants such as oil can acquire o b j e c t i o n a b l e tastes. Shellfish can f o r m the basis of lucrative, export-oriented f i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n s e a r n i n g valuable foreign exchange.

Coral Reefs: Are the m o s t p r o d u c t i v e of b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s and support a variety of marine organisms, f o r m i n g important subsistence or c o m m e r c i a l fisheries. Coral reefs also act as natural breakwaters, p r o t e c t i n g the shoreline, other coastal ecosystems, and land areas. They are a source of beach sand. The reef is quite sensitive to pollutants, and recovery generally takes an e x t r e m e l y long period, while the c o m p l e x i t y of the reef m a k e s clean-up o p e r a t i o n s difficult.

Salt Marshlands: One of the m o s t p r o d u c t i v e sections of the coastal z o n e with high e c o l o g i c a l value as wildlife r e f u g e s , o f t e n s u p p o r t i n g rich f i s h i n g g r o u n d s o f f s h o r e . The slow but vital water circulation patterns and the typical mud or silt b o t t o m causes oil and other pollutants e n t e r i n g the ecosystem to remain in the s e d i m e n t s for l o n g periods, possibly c o n t a m i n a t i n g w a d i n g birds, b o t t o m living o r g a n i s m s , and other life f o r m s in the area.

Sensitive coastal

Estuaries: A r e s e m i e n c l o s e d b o d i e s of w a t e r with f r e s h w a t e r input and f r e e c o n n e c t i o n to the o c e a n . River f l o w at t h e s e p o i n t s p r o v i d e s the p r i m a r y s o u r c e of nutrients and m a k e s a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the p r o d u c t i v i t y of this e n v i r o n m e n t and a d j a c e n t c o a s t a l waters. Estuaries s e r v e as s p a w n i n g g r o u n d s and nurseries f o r the y o u n g of m a n y v a l u a b l e marine fish and s h e l l f i s h and a h o m e for c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s p e c i e s such as o y s t e r s and c r a b s . For fish such as s a l m o n and e e l , w h i c h s p e n d their lives both in f r e s h w a t e r and in the sea, the e s t u a r i e s are vital h i g h w a y s .

Mangroves: A r e salt-tolerant, w o o d y p l a n t c o m m u n i ties with a s s o c i a t e d f a u n a that o c c u p y the t r o p i c a l tidal z o n e . T h e y are p r o d u c t i v e e c o s y s t e m s t h a t rec e i v e nutrients and fresh w a t e r f r o m land, and exp o r t t o the sea m a t e r i a l s that are i m p o r t a n t to nearshore shellfish and finfish populations. They also s e r v e as p r o t e c t i v e nursery a r e a s for m a n y m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s . T h e y are very v u l n e r a b l e to humani n d u c e d c h a n g e s in salinity and to p o l l u t a n t s such as oil, which c o a t the b r e a t h i n g r o o t s and m u d sediments.

Sea Birds: Feed on a w i d e variety of m a r i n e fish, squid, and s h e l l f i s h and g a t h e r on islands or a l o n g c o a s t s in o r d e r to r e p r o d u c e . In c o l o n i e s , they are v u l n e r a b l e to i n t r o d u c e d terrestrial p r e d a t o r s (e.g., rats) and d i r e c t h u m a n d i s t u r b a n c e while n e s t i n g . At sea they are a f f e c t e d by d i r e c t c o n t a c t with pollutants, or by f e e d i n g on o r g a n i s m s c o n t a m i n a t e d with pollutants, and c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m h u m a n fisheries.

zone

communities.

This inventory technique normally includes a review of available e c o l o g i c a l and other e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n of the region under consideration, and it should involve local e c o l o g i s t s , g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s , c o m m e r c i a l users, residents of local c o m m u n i t i e s , fishermen, and others. A l t h o u g h this t e c h n i q u e will not provide detailed local i n f o r m a t i o n on the natural variability of these biological s y s t e m s , inf o r m a t i o n thus g a t h e r e d will help in identif y i n g and l o c a t i n g e x i s t i n g and potentially i m p o r t a n t e c o l o g i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l resources, such as coral reefs, m a n g r o v e s , marshlands, shellfish beds, habitats for rare, threatened, and e n d a n g e r e d species, f i s h i n g grounds, or bird nesting and f e e d i n g grounds. The p r e s e n c e or lack of available information will also g u i d e the design of field studies f o c u s i n g on the m a p p i n g and description of important e c o s y s t e m s and other e n v i r o n m e n t a l resources. R e m o t e s e n s i n g or aerial p h o t o g r a p h y surveys of study r e g i o n s can assist in the m a p p i n g e f f o r t and reduce the overall t i m e and c o s t of field surveys. At the very least, e c o l o g ical inventories result in the c o m p i l a t i o n of m a p s s h o w i n g the location and boundaries of e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y i m p o r t a n t areas and descriptions of e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s that can influence these resources, such as b o t t o m characteristics, tidal patterns, s e d i m e n t levels, salinity, dissolved o x y g e n content, and nutrient levels. If p e r f o r m e d early e n o u g h during planning, e c o l o g i c a l inventories are c a p a b l e of p r o v i d i n g valuable i n f o r m a t i o n that can f o r m the

basis for continued m o n i t o r i n g and cont i n g e n c y planning during d e v e l o p m e n t and production. Economic and Social Aspects O f f s h o r e oil and g a s d e v e l o p m e n t can benefit a country e c o n o m i c a l l y and socially, but t o realize the m a x i m u m benefits, early planning is necessary. Often, the national view of c o s t s and b e n e f i t s of o f f shore oil o p e r a t i o n s is d i f f e r e n t f r o m the local view. An i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of p r o j e c t planning is public u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the o b j e c t i v e s of the g o v e r n m e n t and the social and e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s and c o s t s of o f f s h o r e d e v e l o p m e n t for the nation. If possible, i n f o r m a t i o n about develo p m e n t planning should be m a d e available t o the local c o m m u n i t y at an early e n o u g h s t a g e t o allow for public understanding. This will provide for an information e x c h a n g e that will lead to d e v e l o p m e n t that also r e f l e c t s the needs of the local c o m m u n i t y . Marine areas and a d j a c e n t coastal c o m munities are s u b j e c t to multiple uses, and s o m e of t h e s e uses may be a f f e c t e d by o f f s h o r e activities. The nature, extent, and s i g n i f i c a n c e of e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t c o s t s need t o be considered. They can r a n g e f r o m higher living c o s t s in coastal c o m m u n i t i e s to the i m p a c t of an accidental oil spill. These c o s t s need to be included in the calculation of net b e n e f i t s to the licensing country since they involve questions of resource trade-offs. The phase of hydrocarbon d e v e l o p m e n t is i m p o r t a n t to e n v i r o n m e n t a l considera-

tions, but so too is the size of the actual or potential find. Small offshore fields have different and less important economic and social dimensions than do major finds. The probable reservoir size must be considered when economic benefits and costs are taken into account. Development of an offshore oil field will

i f «

need an influx of specially skilled personnel from outside the region. The number of people from outside will be highest during the construction and drilling periods, with fewer skilled workers needed during the operational stage. The potential social and cultural imbalance in the area must be understood by both the developer and the government of the country. Socioeconomic studies prior to construction may provide answers to minimize negative social impacts. The studies that have been suggested

-m

Coastal settlements may be affected by offshore activities.

25

here rely heavily on existing data or information collected during prospecting for oil and gas. Once these studies are completed and the environmental problems and data

needs identified, funding for additional studies should be considered. Preexploration environmental assessment involves all of these procedures.

Preexploration Planning •

Review literature on geology and geologic hazards, ecology, and the social and economic infrastructure of the region.

•

Consult with local geologists, sociologists, economists, local politicians, and commercial or community users of marine resources and shipping routes to obtain existing information about the area.

•

Determine the severity and potential impact of geological and physical hazards to general offshore oil and gas operations.

•

Learn about environmental characteristics that influence biologically and economically important resources in the vicinity.

•

Understand tides and currents that may affect accumulation or movement of pollutants.

•

Develop an index of environmental vulnerability and rank resources and e c o s y s t e m s according to degree of tolerance.

•

Conduct additional field studies if necessary to obtain knowledge of major sensitive socioeconomic characteristics such as unemployment rates, housing vacancies, and present educational-medical-retail facilities that could be altered because of oil and gas development.

•

Develop an index of socioeconomic vulnerability and rank sensitive areas and potential problems.

•

Produce maps that show geological hazards, biologically and economically important marine resource areas, and the sensitive socioeconomic areas.

•

note sensitive aspects that will require attention in the development of monitoring programs and contingency plans.

•

Develop a public information program.

28

Exploration Effects Early exploration efforts such as geophysical surveys are used to evaluate the oil and gas potential of the offshore area. In seismic exploration, a compressional sound wave is sent through potential oil bearing structures and is reflected to a listening device onboard or towed behind the survey vessel. Modern sound sources are confined explosion devices such as air guns, gas exploders, gas sleeve exploders, or sparkers that involve small,

controlled charges of chemical explosives, gas or air, or electrical discharges. Use of these sound sources has little adverse impact on the marine environment. Occasionally, because of the type of geology, depth of water, or depth of oil-bearing structures, lower frequency seismic sources may be required. Unconfined detonation of explosive charges in the water column is sometimes necessary to generate the desired lower frequencies, and this can have an adverse environmental impact. This type of seismic sound generation produces a strong compression

Seismic exploration evaluates oil and g a s potential of an offshore area.

Fishermen

should

be made aware of times and places

wave that can damage the ecosystem, mainly by small fish Kills near the source. Many geophysical survey vessels tow streamers or cables (some as long as 3 km) that can be a hazard to navigation. Extreme caution must be taken by all vessels in the area. Lobster and crab pots may be snagged and dragged away from their locations when a survey vessel is operating in the area. Sometimes, seines and drag lines are caught by the long, towed cables of the survey vessels. B e c a u s e of the poor maneuverability and 24-hour operation of survey vessels, these accidents occur when the vessel cannot

that exploration

activities will

occur.

move out of the path of or detect the fishing equipment. Discussions with the fishing industry should always take place when surveys in the area are planned. To prevent problems, fishermen should be made aware of the times and places activities will occur. They should be informed about the type of operations that will be conducted. When necessary, compensation should be available for lost fishing time and d a m a g e to fishing equipment. Reduction or elimination of adverse environmental impacts during the early exploration phase can be accomplished by implementation of these actions.

Exploration Planning •

Obtain approval of seismic instrumentation and s o u n d sources to be used in exploration.

•

Avoid, if possible, the use of large explosive charges, particularly in sensitive fishing grounds.

•

Motify mariners of time, date, and place of survey operations.

•

Communicate with fishermen and obtain cooperation in temporarily removing fishing equipment that would be affected by survey operations.

•

Assure that provisions are made so that fishermen are aware of how to apply for compensation for lost fishing time and fishing equipment damaged by the survey vessels.

Drilling E f f e c t s Many of the environmental concerns associated with drilling are common to both exploratory and development phases. Drilling generally follows after favorable structures for oil and gas traps have been found in the early exploration phase. Before a drilling rig is selected to drill in a particular marine environment, its strength and water depth capabilities must be matched to that of the environment. The operator must be confident that the drilling rig chosen will be able to operate safely in a wide range of worstcase physical environmental conditions. The primary considerations are (1) to protect the lives of the persons working on the drilling rig, and (2) to drill to the prospective oil formation. The major factors to be considered are the physical forces acting on the rig. These forces, which include winds, waves, currents, and ocean floor conditions, should be studied for normal and worst-case conditions. Exploratory Well Drilling

In exploratory well drilling, generally three types of drilling equipment may be used. Jack-up rigs can operate in up to 100 meters of water in mild sea conditions (e.g., offshore of the Philippines). Their use requires relatively level and firm seafloor conditions. Semisubmersible rigs can operate in up to 300 meters of water in rough (e.g., North Sea) conditions. Drill ships can drill in up to 1800 meters of

A jack-up rig requires level and firm seafloor

relatively conditions.

B

/i semisubmersible in rough

rig can operate sea conditions. S

,

/

I/Jjll

m^mwi

/ k

rsS

w m?

A drill ship can operate in deeper water and rough sea conditions.

water in rough (e.g., North Sea) conditions Whichever type of rig is used, it must be able to withstand the physical forces of the environment and operate safely and efficiently. The rig selection process requires consideration of water depth and answers to the following geological and physical questions: •

What is the stability of the sea floor? Is it such that rig legs and anchors would remain in position?

Is the slope of the seabed such that a rig with legs can be positioned without the possibility of tilting or turning over? Will the rig withstand winds and the wave height, strength, and frequency, and the types of storms in the area such as hurricanes or typhoons?

34

O n c e t h e drill bit p e n e t r a t e s the o c e a n f l o o r , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of d r i l l i n g

p r o p e r d e s i g n of t h e drill h o l e c a s i n g and d r i l l i n g m u d s y s t e m . T h e w e i g h t of the

o p e r a t i o n s is well c o n t r o l t o p r e v e n t a

d r i l l i n g m u d c i r c u l a t e d in the h o l e pre-

b l o w o u t . T h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e u n d e r l y i n g

v e n t s oil or g a s f r o m b l o w i n g o u t t o the

strata m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d , e s p e c i a l l y if oil

surface. Other blowout-prevention systems

a n d g a s z o n e s are t o b e s a f e l y c o n t a i n e d .

provide a backup to the mud system and

T h i s c o n t a i n m e n t d e p e n d s primarily on

m u s t t a k e o v e r if t h e m u d s y s t e m fails. During drilling operations, various types of w a s t e are p r o d u c e d . A l a r g e part of w a s t e is drilling m u d r e s i d u e . Drilling m u d c o n s i s t s m a i n l y of a h e a v y c l a y slurry used p r i m a r i l y t o c o n t r o l p r e s s u r e i n s i d e the h o l e . Drilling m u d s a l s o t r a n s p o r t drill cutt i n g s f r o m t h e b o t t o m of the h o l e t o the s u r f a c e , lubricate a n d c o o l t h e drill bit a n d d r i l l i n g s t r i n g , a n d s t a b i l i z e t h e wall of t h e hole. Drilling w a s t e s n e e d p r o p e r d i s p o s a l t o m i n i m i z e any i m p a c t o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . C o m m o n wastes and the normal disposal m e t h o d s are: Drill c u t t i n g s — d i s p o s e d of i n t o o c e a n after proper cleaning. Drilling m u d r e s i d u e s — d i s p o s e d of into o c e a n , e x c e p t under s e n s i t i v e e n v i r o n mental conditions when alternative disposal procedures should be sought. L u b r i c a t i n g oil w a s t e — m i x e d with c r u d e oil p r o d u c t i o n or d i s p o s e d of o n land. Sanitary w a s t e — t r e a t e d b e f o r e d i s p o s e d of i n t o o c e a n .

Ocean disposal of drilling muds is minimized by an efficient recirculation and cleaning system.

D e c k d r a i n a g e — d i s p o s e d of i n t o o c e a n . Solid w a s t e — b u r n e d or p r o p e r l y disp o s e d of o n land.

For development a permanent generally

moved

drilling, platform

is

to the site.

Development Well Drilling

tion p l a t f o r m s a r e to b e p l a c e d m u s t b e a s s e s s e d . Seafloor failures can c a u s e the

A f t e r t h e d i s c o v e r y of a n oil field, p l a n s

l o s s of a p l a t f o r m , with t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of

a r e m a d e to drill e n o u g h w e l l s in the field

a n oil or g a s b l o w o u t .

to e x t r a c t t h e oil or g a s . A d d i t i o n a l ex-

T h e i m p a c t s of d i s c h a r g e s f r o m a plat-

p l o r a t i o n w e l l s a r e s o m e t i m e s drilled to

f o r m d u r i n g d e v e l o p m e n t drilling a r e simi-

d e t e r m i n e t h e size a n d s h a p e of the field

lar to t h o s e d u r i n g e x p l o r a t o r y drilling.

s o that the n u m b e r of d e v e l o p m e n t wells

T h e only d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t w e l l s a r e d r i l l e d

n e e d e d a n d size of t h e p r o d u c t i o n facili-

from a permanent platform and several

ties c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d m o r e a c c u r a t e l y .

w e l l s will b e drilled f r o m t h e s a m e l o c a -

D e v e l o p m e n t facilities, s u c h as p l a t f o r m s

tion. A l t h o u g h this m u l t i p l i e s the dis-

or oil s t o r a g e b a r g e s , s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d

c h a r g e s o f drilling m u d r e s i d u e a n d cut-

for worst-case physical environmental con-

t i n g s , the e f f e c t s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to t h e

d i t i o n s at the site.

vicinity of t h e p l a t f o r m .

F o u n d a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s of the s e a f l o o r u p o n w h i c h the d e v e l o p m e n t or p r o d u c -

T h e n a v i g a t i o n h a z a r d to s h i p p i n g is i n c r e a s e d w h e n a p l a t f o r m is sited in

sea lanes. This hazard can be recognized in maritime regulations, and it may require ship traffic control s y s t e m s enforced by the national authority. Attention to g o o d engineering practices

and control s y s t e m s will reduce or eliminate environmental impacts associated with the drilling phases of offshore oil a n d g a s development operations.

Drilling Phase Planning •

Determine or predict the stability of the seafloor at the potential drilling site; if a jack-up rig is to be used, will its legs be on stable ground or on a landslide area? For a semisubmersible rig, is the sea floor able to hold anchors to prevent rig or platform movement that could cause blowouts and oil spills during drilling?

•

A s s e s s the seafloor gradient in all probable drilling locations; is the slope of the seabed low e n o u g h to allow a rig with legs to be positioned without the possibility of tilting or turning over?

•

Determine or predict subsurface geological conditions at any probable drilling site; are there shallow g a s overpressure zones that need to be avoided or prepared for during drilling operations?

•

Determine the physical e n v i r o n m e n t — m a x i m u m winds and wave height, or strength, frequency, and types of storms s u c h as hurricanes or t y p h o o n s — t h a t could lead to a drill rig capsizing; review and approve rig designs for worst-case conditions.

•

Establish a 500-meter safety zone around the platform and the means for keeping unnecessary marine traffic away from the area.

•

Review a n d approve safety equipment and procedures to be used during drilling operations. Will proper blowout preventers be u s e d ? Are instruments available to detect subsurface events reliably and anticipate h i g h and low pressure formations?

•

Assure that well-trained and properly supervised personnel are employed during drilling operations.

•

Predict quantity and types of drilling wastes, and assure proper processing and disposal sites, if needed.

Production Effects After development wells are drilled, the drilling rig is removed from the platform and replaced with oil and gas production and processing equipment. Water is normally produced in conjunction with the oil and gas and is separated in processing vessels on the platforms. This water separated from the oil and gas—"produced

Several development wells can be drilled from one platform.

water' — is similar in composition to sea water but varies in salinity and is normally discharged into the ocean. Because of its long coexistence with oil and gas, however, produced water typically contains measurable amounts of oil (100 to 1000 milligrams per liter). No significant impact has been measured from the discharge of produced water into a salt water ocean environment. There is some concern, however, about possible long-term cumulative e f f e c t s of

38

A permanent production platform requires an established waste monitoring program.

produced water, especially in nearshore areas. Most regulating agencies require operators to monitor the oil content in discharged produced water. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulation for U.S. waters restricts the maximum content of oil and grease to 72 milligrams per liter, with the monthly average to be less than 48 milligrams per liter. Proper treatment reduces the content of oil in produced water and therefore minimizes the a m o u n t of oil introduced into the marine environment. Other normal discharges from a production platform are sanitary waste and deck drainage. There is considerably less sanitary waste during production operations than during development operations because fewer people are on the platform during production. J u s t as in drilling operations, used lubricating oils and solid waste should either be burned or hauled to shore for land disposal. Emissions into the air from an offshore platform may require attention, depending on emission source, strength, and location; meteorological characteristics that will affect the transport and diffusion of emissions; and the existing air quality of the receiving area. The volume of air emissions from an offshore processing facility will depend on the processes undertaken on the platform, the number of platforms with processing in the vicinity, and the nature of the oil and gas produced from the field. Major sources of air emissions are gas and oil processing, evaporation, and flaring.

The primary air emission concerns are exhaust hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and carbon monoxide, and the contribution they will make to existing onshore levels of those gases or to existing problems, such as occurrence of photochemical smog. In most cases, the impact of offshore production on onshore or nearshore levels is lessened because emission sources are generally widely separate, emissions do not occur simultaneously, and pollution dispersion occurs in the distance between the processing facility and the shoreline. Generally, emissions will present a significant problem only where there is a large offshore production field close to shore and where meteorological conditions are such that air emissions contribute directly to an existing onshore air pollution problem. When an offshore operation is decommissioned, some problems have been encountered where part of a platform was left on the ocean bottom after abandonment, and trawler fishing in the area was disrupted. Recommended practice in these areas requires cutting the platform legs off below the seafloor, thus removing any restrictions. If the area has not been a fishing ground, however, a b a n d o n m e n t of the lower portion of the platform may be desirable to create a reef effect and attract fish to create a new fishery around the "reef." These actions will reduce or eliminate environmental impacts associated with offshore production operations.

Production Planning •

Ascertain the stability and characteristics of the ocean floor required for platform positioning.

•

Consider and a s s e s s the potential for e a r t h q u a k e s or t s u n a m i s before designing platform.

•

Consider physical e n v i r o n m e n t forces of winds, waves, and currents, including worst-case conditions s u c h as hurricanes and t y p h o o n s during platform design.

•

Install proper safety e q u i p m e n t s u c h a s s t o r m c h o k e s and a u t o m a t i c shut-down devices in c a s e of fires, e q u i p m e n t failures, or natural disasters.

•

Employ well-trained personnel to e n s u r e safe operations.

•

Assure t h a t all waste p r o d u c t s will be disposed of properly. In d e s i g n a t e d sensitive areas, monitoring of routine ocean d i s c h a r g e s may be necessary.

•

Consider i m p a c t s of platform air e m i s s i o n s on n e a r s h o r e and o n s h o r e air quality.

•

Indicate m e a n s of platform removal or a b a n d o n m e n t a f t e r oil or g a s production c e a s e s .

Oil Storage and Transport Effects

Offshore storage vessels discharge ballast water and should be considered during oil spill contingency planning.

The storage and transport systems for oil and gas vary and have different impacts on the environment. Oil can be stored offshore in floating barges and tankers or by constructed vessels that sit on the seafloor. All of these vessels have ballast water that normally is discharged during the filling process and sometimes needs to be treated in a fashion similar to that for produced waters. Barges, tankers, and pipelines are normal means of shipping oil and gas. Offshore Storage

Most offshore oil is transported by pipeline from the production platform to shore for storage, but when transfer is by ship, offshore storage facilities—surface or subsurface containers—are needed. Environmental impact from storage facilities occurs mainly from damage to the storage unit and through spills during transshipment of oil from well to storage or storage to

tanker. Damage to storage facilities is rare but could result in a major oil spill. Transshipment leakage is more common, but generally the quantities are small and the impact is localized. Fixed anchor loading systems called Single Buoy Moorings (SBMs) are commonly used to hold storage tankers to permit loading of transport tankers. By allowing the transport tankers to lie with least resistence to the wind, SBMs are capable of loading in moderate wind and weather conditions. SBMs must be designed or located so that mooring anchors will not pull out during storms or be carried away by submarine landslides. Procedures for loading during adverse conditions need to be outlined to reduce the likelihood of spills. Prevention of chronic discharges from storage requires the same precautions as those used for platform operations. Surface Transport

Potential pollution incidents related to oil transportation by tankers or barges fall essentially into two categories: operational (deliberate discharge) or accidental. A 1975 study by the U.S. national Academy

Single storage

Buoy

Moorings

anchor

tankers and allow

loading

of transport

safer

tankers.

of Sciences showed that about 35 percent of oil introduced into the world's oceans occurs during tanker operation. Of this, 60 percent can be classified as operational and 40 percent as accidental. Of the operational discharges, most occur when oil is not separated from the ballast water b e f o r e it is released into the ocean. New requirements by the Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), however, are designed to reduce discharges of oily water into the sea. Pipeline Transshipment Pipeline transshipment of oil is the safest way of transporting oil. Cost is the m a j o r determining factor in c h o o s i n g an oil transport system. Cost of a pipeline depends on the distance between the well and processing facilities, the seafloor topography, depth of water, and types of g e o l o g i c hazards along the route. If a pipeline is established, the m a j o r potential impacts on the environment are: •

Disruption of the seabed by d r e d g i n g for pipeline installation.

•

Sedimentation along pipeline route.

•

Consequences of leaks from fracturing or breaking of pipe caused by metal fatigue or corrosion, fishing trawlers and dredges, or seafloor failures.

Periodic and regular checking of pipelines is essential. In addition, operators of shipping and fishing vessels should be notified of pipeline locations. Maps and charts showing pipeline routes should be avail-

43

Oil and gas pipelines are laid after careful consideration of physical, geologic, and

Design of onshore storage facilities should provide for containment and recovery of oil in case of a spill.

able, and where appropriate, marker buoys should be used. Pipelines should be fitted with failsafe shut-off valves as a safeguard. Pipeline landfalls and crude oil storage tanks are generally located in lowlands, where estuaries, wetlands, and sand dune fields exist. These are environmentally

sensitive areas because of the special character of their biological communities. These areas are complex and need to be understood to ensure safe and long-term oil and gas transit and storage operations. Landslides and active faulting, sand dune encroachment, flooding, and liquefaction are particularly prevalent in these lowland, coastal environments. Pipeline or storage facilities placed in

this type of environment may need to be designed to withstand the loss of structural support and high seismic intensities. Where there are potential hazards, storage tanks need to have dikes constructed around them to confine oil spilled in case of a rupture. These dikes must be designed and built so that they can withstand the hazards that cause the failures. Visual inspections of onshore sections of pipeline or crude oil storage tanks should be made regularly. Onshore storage facilities may also cause air pollution due to emissions from storage tanks. The volume of such evapo-

rative losses depends on tank design, location, and use patterns. Emissions from oil storage tanks fall into three categories: breathing losses caused by temperature and pressure changes; working losses that occur during filling and emptying; and standing storage losses that may occur with floating-roof tanks. Pollution control devices may significantly reduce vapor loss from onshore storage, but these emissions should be taken into account during location of a storage facility site. All of these steps would help reduce losses of oil and gas from the storage and transportation of oil.

Storage and Transport Planning •

Identify and determine the significance of geologic hazards to be considered during the planning stages.

•

Assure that in the design and construction of storage units, pipelines, and SBMs proper care is given to reduce the risk of rupture or leaking of the system by natural or manmade hazards.

•

Ensure that special care is taken in the construction of pipelines and storage tanks in sensitive coastal areas or avoid construction altogether in such areas.

•

Implement proper ballasting-deballasting procedures to minimize oily discharge into the environment by tankers and barges.

•

Develop a regular monitoring and inspection procedure, particularly for pipelines.

•

notify shipping and fishing vessels of pipeline locations, and develop regulations to prevent anchoring and trawler fishing along pipeline zones.

Oil Spill I m p a c t s Oil has been naturally introduced into the environment for millions of years by oil seeps on land and in the sea. The most significant pollution incident from an offshore oil operation, however, is an accidental oil spill where a large quantity of oil suddenly escapes into the environment. These spills may be caused by an oil well blowout, a platform accident, a large marine pipeline rupture, or a heavily leaking tanker. Although preventive measures are built into the design and operation of the systems, accidents can still happen. History shows, for example, that most blowouts are caused by human error. Personnel must be trained to recognize potential blowout situations and be able to make the right decisions to act quickly to control the well and prevent a blowout. Environmental change or damage from an oil spill must be detectable and measureable in the presence of large natural temporal variations that occur in the " n o r m a l " environment. As noted earlier, however, there is no well-established method of defining and measuring a "norm a l " environment, with all its natural fluctuations. Furthermore, effects of offshore operations experienced in one environment are not necessarily representative of effects that would be produced by the same activities in another environment. The experiences of nations that have developed their offshore hydrocarbon potentials thus do not provide complete

models for other nations to follow. Hence, it is important that an initial ecological study, as outlined in the section on environmental considerations, be undertaken in the particular region in which offshore exploration and development is proposed. Contingency plans to abate and mitigate pollution from an oil spill should be prepared well in advance of drilling operations. Plans should include estimates of when, where, and how much oil could be introduced into the environment from any accident from offshore operations. These plans must be regularly updated. This will require projections of the expected development, historical analyses of spill records from similar gas and oil fields, and an evaluation of special regional hazards. Once the type of pollutant, the amount, and the location from which it was introduced into the environment are estimated, the next questions to be answered are: "Where will it g o ? " and "What will the distributed concentrations be?" This approach will require oceanographic, meteorological, and climatological data and research. The information generated by these studies gives guidance for the next area of concern: "What will be a f f e c t e d ? " Evaluation of oil spill impacts relies on geological, biological, and socioeconomic information discussed in the previous sections. This information will allow for identification of sensitive environmental areas and populations that may need to be protected or isolated. These appraisals should also include data on spill concentration

and duration of exposure, combined with the biological and economic census information. This evaluation of potential damage provides a basis for practical planning for a possible oil spill. Contingency planning, in turn, can result in considerable knowledge of the type of clean-up operation that

The most significant pollution from an offshore operation is an accidental oil spill.

should be mounted to minimize impacts on the physical and social environment. This planning process will also provide an opportunity to focus on local, regional, and, if necessary, extraregional resources that can be marshalled to deal with a spill. A quick-responding pollution abatement team with full authority to act according to professional standards should include industry professionals as well as authoritative government officials. To minimize communication problems, one person must be given overall authority in a definite chain of command for direction of

When a spill occurs, and recovery

is of immediate

containment concern.

all recovery and cleanup operations. The abatement team should use accident scenarios for training. These scenarios should be backed up with proper data about the strength and patterns of sea currents, wind forces, wave heights, and the type of oil being produced in the area. During an actual spill, the response activities of the abatement team generally fall into two phases: (1) initial containment and recovery operations, and (2) cleanup and disposal operations that occur after the oil spill has been brought under control, contained, and recovered.

Containment and Recovery

When a spill occurs, the i m m e d i a t e concern is to take steps to control and, if possible, stop the discharge of oil into the ocean environment. This action should be carried out in conjunction with various mechanical measures that are available to contain oil that has been spilled. A d e q u a t e measures taken near the source are much more e f f e c t i v e than those taken near the shore. The type of containment practice used will depend on e q u i p m e n t and prevailing sea conditions. There is little chance of containment during heavy surf, when w a v e height e x c e e d s 1 . 5 - 2 meters, in darkness, or when current speed is in excess of 1 knot. Containment e q u i p m e n t systems fall into three m a j o r categories: mechanical booms, pneumatic barriers, and chemical barriers. Containment e q u i p m e n t is particularly useful for protecting sensitive areas such as harbors, reefs, estuaries, and beaches. Recovery m e t h o d s include various kinds of skimmers, such as m o v i n g belts, suction devices, rotating disks, and weir systems. As with containment practices, their use is dependent on prevailing weather and sea conditions and availability of suitable marine vessels for deployment. The mechanical recovery approach is attractive from an environmental standpoint, because it physically r e m o v e s the oil without adding chemicals. In addition, the oil can o f t e n be collected, processed, and used. The opportunity for using me-

Containment barriers can help protect sensitive areas such as harbors, reefs, estuaries, and beaches.

chanical equipment following a large spill is limited by the ability to transport equipment to the oil spill site before prevailing conditions cause mixing of the oil and water and dispersion of the slick. Mechanical equipment is particularly useful in control of an on-going discharge such as a well blowout, provided weather conditions allow its use. Cleanup and Disposal

Combined mechanical and chemical methods are used for cleanup and disposal of an oil slick. They include use of sorbents, combustion, gellation, and the sinking of oil. Sorbents are most useful for cleanup of small quantities of oil or after the bulk of the oil from a major spill has been removed. With this method, organic, mineral, or synthetic materials with adsorptive

or absorptive properties are used for collection of oil. Adsorption occurs when oil is attracted to the surface of the sorbent material and adheres to it; absorption occurs when material soaks up the oil. Organic sorbents are typically plant materials, in particular agricultural wastes such as wheat straw and coconut husks. Mineral sorbents commonly used are perlite and volcanic ash; synthetic sorbents may be materials such as polyurethane or polyester foam. The ability of the material to adsorb or absorb oil varies with the material and the conditions. A major disadvantage is that if mechanical skimmers are used in conjunction with sorbents the skimmers become easily clogged by the sorbent material. Cost and the availability of a suitable material, as well as practical disposal methods, are also major constraints to this method. Gelling agents are an alternative system used in about a one to one ratio of gel to oil to increase the viscosity of the oil. This

method allows for a simpler collection of the gelled oil, although collection cannot begin until at least eight hours after gel application. Gellation has limited use, however, because of the high cost, and the gel can have a detrimental impact on marine life. Materials such as chalk and gypsum have been used to sink oil slicks from the water surface. Material used for sinking can physically weigh the oil down and carry it to the sea bottom, or it may adsorb the oil as it moves through the slick to the bottom. The purpose of sinking oil is to fix it on the ocean bottom and then rely on biodégradation. The practice can have long-lasting adverse environmental effects on bottom populations and fish in the vicinity, as well as the future use of the area for fishing. Generally, this technique is not favored and is unlikely to be approved for oil spill cleanup programs. Chemical dispersants have received much attention as a means of oil spill control. Major factors in the effectiveness of chemical dispersants are viscosity and thickness of the oil slick. There is a maximum viscosity and optimum thickness beyond which dispersants become less effective. Decisions on dispersant use should be made with the best possible knowledge of the marine environment in which the oil spill is located. The objective of a dispersant is to break down the oil slick into droplets that can be dispersed and biodegraded more rapidly in the ocean. In many countries, approval for use of dispersants is given when they will:

•

reduce hazards to h u m a n life or reduce explosion or fire hazards to property;

•

prevent or reduce the adverse effects on a major segment of the population or vulnerable wildlife species; and

•

cause less overall environmental damage or interference with a designated use than alternative methods.

In many instances, by the time oil spilled from offshore oil operations has reached the shore or coastal area, it has undergone considerable mixing with water. Two common forms of the oil-andwater mixture are "chocolate mousse"—a mixture of about 3 0 - 8 0 percent oil with water—and "tarballs." Disposal of these can often be acheived by mechanical raking and removal from the shoreline to a safe dumping site. Generally, removal is preferred to burning, because experiments have shown that burning on sand beach areas results in the oil becoming thinner and seeping into the sand. Chemicals are being developed that will separate the water content from the " m o u s s e " before it reaches land, reducing the volume and viscosity. This will aid in pumping, collection, and onshore disposal. The recovery period for a coastal area polluted by an oil spill varies, depending on the size of the spill, sensitivity of the area, wave energy patterns, climate, and the cleanup system used. Recovery can range from a few m o n t h s to several years. Recovery generally will be characterized by initial build-up of species that will take advantage of the temporary ecological imbal-

When weathered oil reaches the shore, it may be in two common forms— tarballs and "chocolate mousse."

ance before the area returns to the prespill conditions suitable for long-term species. The effects of oil spills on species in the open sea are still not fully understood. The assumption is that where large slicks move into the open ocean, they should be left to degrade naturally over a period of time. Microbes (bacteria, yeast, and fungi) in the ocean degrade petroleum hydrocarbons by using them as a carbon source. The rate and extent of biodégradation depend upon several factors such as microbial abundance, species variety, water

temperature, and oil composition. This approach was applied in cleanup operations associated with large spills in the north Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. It should be noted, however, that organisms floating on the water surface and certain bird species are known to be vulnerable to oil slicks. It is important to take these steps in development of contingency plans to abate and mitigate pollution impacts from an oil spill.

Contingency Planning •

Evaluate sensitive a s p e c t s of both the m a r i n e and c o a s t a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t would be d a m a g e d or c h a n g e d in the e v e n t of an oil spill.

•

Develop oil spill c o n t i n g e n c y plans, with input from both industry and appropriate governm e n t officials, prior to t h e exploration p h a s e .

•

Train p e r s o n n e l to recognize potential blowout s i t u a t i o n s and how to a c t to avoid accidents.

•

Train q u i c k - r e s p o n d i n g spill a b a t e m e n t t e a m s to i m p l e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y plans with an est a b l i s h e d c h a i n of c o m m a n d .

•

Install early d e t e c t i o n s y s t e m s , to l o c a t e the a c t u a l s o u r c e of a spill.

•

Qive full c o n s i d e r a t i o n to m e c h a n i c a l and c h e m i c a l m e a n s t h a t will reduce r a t h e r than increase environmental impacts.

•

Provide for special p r e c a u t i o n a r y m e a s u r e s s u c h a s t e m p o r a r y barriers to isolate valuable e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s o u r c e s from an oil spill.

Onshore Support Effects All offshore operations must be supported from land bases. This applies to all phases of offshore operations, including exploration, production, and development. B a s e s are required for worker and equipment assembly, storage, supply-boat loading, helicopter landing, tanker unloading, and pipeline landfall. Hydrocarbons once ashore must be refined, stored, and distributed to the final market. The location of onshore b a s e s and of landfall sites is a critical socioeconomic issue connected with offshore oil and gas development. Land area requirements of onshore b a s e s may vary considerably, depending on the phase of development, the location and scale of exploration, and the location and size of finds. Despite this variability, there are s o m e general questions relating to offshore impacts on coastal environments: "Where will these land b a s e s be and what will be their size and function?" "How will they affect the coastal environment and the local community?" and "What are the problems to be expected, and how can they be alleviated?" Exploration is a highly mobile phase of offshore hydrocarbon development and has relatively low s o c i o e c o n o m i c impact. A

small, highly skilled workforce is employed and moves from place to place with offshore exploration activity. Positions on board the platforms and at supply b a s e s may be available to local people, but they do not offer significant long-term benefits. Negative impacts can occur if a t t e m p t s are made to increase e c o n o m i c spinoff through extensive training and local business development to support exploration operations that may only last for one or two years if no significant discoveries are made. During the exploratory phase, government and industry should strive to keep the operation in perspective by providing effective public information. If a significant discovery is made, planning should begin for a s o c i o e c o n o m i c strategy that will benefit the area. Before decisions regarding land b a s e s can be made, for example, a clear inventory of existing facilities and potential industrial sites is needed. Next, a pían must be prepared for new facility locations and the way in which these facilities can be integrated into existing e c o n o m i c activities. This planning should include consideration of both local and regional needs. It is the key to orderly development and to minimizing negative s o c i o e c o n o m i c impacts. The biggest impact onshore normally c o m e s during the development drilling phase and when permanent production equipment such as SBMs, pipelines, and

57

p u m p i n g s t a t i o n s are installed. Once production begins, a n d a s s u m i n g t h a t there is no f u r t h e r exploratory drilling t a k i n g place, the r h y t h m a n d scale of s u p p o r t required d i m i n i s h e s rapidly. The regular t r a n s p o r t of s u p p l i e s to p r o d u c t i o n platf o r m s is still n e c e s s a r y d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n , but on a m u c h r e d u c e d scale. If several o f f s h o r e fields are in different s t a g e s of d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e overall level of activity o n s h o r e is greater, and c o n s i d e r a t i o n should be given to t h e possibility of several fields u s i n g t h e s a m e o n s h o r e facilities. Coastal land r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n n e c t e d with oil and g a s d e v e l o p m e n t may have to c o m p e t e with other, o f t e n existing, coastal activities s u c h a s tourism, recreation, agriculture, or forestry, a s well a s residential land uses. During planning, it is n e c e s s a r y to a s s e s s likely i m p a c t s of oilrelated d e v e l o p m e n t on the c o a s t and its relationship with o t h e r c o m p e t i n g land users. Studies to e v a l u a t e existing coastal locations should define alternative sites for o n s h o r e facilities a n d prepare priorities and policies r e g a r d i n g locations of services. The i m p a c t of o n s h o r e facilities on c o a s t a l c o m m u n i t i e s d e p e n d s on what already exists at or n e a r the p r o p o s e d cons t r u c t i o n site. In s o m e a r e a s with existing m a j o r p o r t s a n d industrial parks, t h e need for e x p a n s i o n may be minimal. But if the coastal area near an o f f s h o r e oil field is undeveloped or a "green-field" site, there will be a need to c o n s t r u c t totally new services.

In addition to the physical use of coastal land, t h e increased o n s h o r e activities may g e n e r a t e a s u b s t a n t i a l d e m a n d for labor, providing additional work opportunities a n d p e r h a p s placing s t r e s s on t h e existing labor m a r k e t . Dew workers who are b r o u g h t in will g e n e r a t e d e m a n d for h o u s i n g a n d general c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t services. The workers a n d their families also may have an e f f e c t on t h e social s t r u c t u r e , culture, a n d c u s t o m s of the area. This s t e a d y multiplication of social i m p a c t h a s significant implications for local j o b m a r k e t s , land values, general commercial activity, and, in fact, t h e overall economy. The c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e of o n s h o r e facilities and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p h a s e of t h e offshore fields may require a g r e a t a m o u n t of labor for a s h o r t period of time—similar to the c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c o m m i s s i o n i n g p h a s e s of s u c h p r o j e c t s a s hydro-electric s c h e m e s . This could c r e a t e a " b o o m - b u s t " cycle d e t r i m e n t a l to the region. Boom-andb u s t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o m m u n i t i e s g e a r i n g t h e m s e l v e s up to m e e t the additional d e m a n d for i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l services s u c h a s r o a d s , water supplies, schools, hospitals, fire a n d police services, a n d recreation a r e a s only to be faced, in time, with a rapid decline in d e m a n d . This eventuality n e e d s to be foreseen, a n d s t e p s should be t a k e n to reduce t h e adverse n a t u r e of this s h r i n k a g e . There is a t e n d e n c y a t this s t a g e to o v e r e s t i m a t e potential b e n e f i t s a n d t h e size of n e e d e d o n s h o r e s u p p o r t services; therefore, t h e r e is a need for good, ex-

new housing

may have to be brought

in to accommodate

oil and gas personnel

from outside

the

region.

isting data on the present service capacity. Typical actions taken to prevent a boom-bust situation include provision of relocatable housing (instead of permanent), the development of secondary oilbased industrial development (downstream processing of petrochemicals, for example), and the location of the onshore construction activities at larger, rather than smaller, existing settlements. Forward planning m u s t include this broader, public interest viewpoint, in addition to the oil industry requirements. As the scale of operations increases, countries with offshore development may find that the need for various kinds of emergency preparedness also increases. Initially, there should be adequate communication and surveillance equipment, backed up by systems to prevent loss of life and equipment if accidents occur. This may require founding a "coast guard" of one form or another, or it may mean extending existing rescue facilities.

Two issues related to onshore and offshore impacts have been of major concern in countries where offshore production has already taken place. The first involves other uses of ocean space—especially inshore fisheries and shell fisheries —and the second involves municipalities where additional costs are incurred by increased community needs. Since most direct financial benefits in the form of lease-sale or leasing fees and royalties go to the national level of government, the national government might consider establishing a fund to provide for groups such as fishermen and local communities who will bear indirect costs as a result of oil and gas development. Obviously, offshore development cannot be separated from onshore regional and local development. For offshore hydrocarbon resources to be produced regularly and on time, early thought m u s t be given to the construction and promotion of landbased planning procedures.

Onshore Flanning •

Prepare d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s for the coastal areas where i m p a c t m a y be expected.

•

Identify e x i s t i n g a n d potential sites for facility l o c a t i o n s a n d p o s s i b l e trade-offs with the e n v i r o n m e n t a n d other users.

•

Select l o c a t i o n s near the offshore site that c o u l d a b s o r b the influx a n d departure of large n u m b e r s of people with a m i n i m u m of social a n d e c o n o m i c distortion.

•

D e t e r m i n e the m o s t desirable a p p r o a c h for h o u s i n g the outside workforce a n d its dependents.

•

Give attention to indirect i m p a c t s o n s u p p o r t services that w o u l d be needed, a n d prepare a n i n v e s t m e n t plan to identify c o s t s a n d t i m i n g of development.

•

D e s i g n a strategy to define d e v e l o p m e n t needs a n d to a s s e s s a n d a c c o u n t for the " b o o m b u s t " nature of r e s o u r c e projects.

O

R e c o g n i z e that u n e x p e c t e d s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n s are likely to occur, a n d develo p m e c h a n i s m s to c o n s i d e r s u c h s i t u a t i o n s as part of a n on-shore s o c i o e c o n o m i c conting e n c y p l a n n i n g strategy.

Early environmental

planning

provides

for offshore development

that is compatible

with existing

local

use.

American Petroleum Institute, 1977. Oil Spill Studies: Strategies and Techniques. Washington, D.C.: API Publication » 4 2 8 6 . 101 pp. A s u m m a r y of techniques and s a m p l i n g strategies to study the e f f e c t s of oil spills on marine and estuarine animals and plants. Baldwin, P. L., and M. F. Baldwin, 1975. Onshore

Planning

for Offshore

OH: Lessons

from

Scotland.

Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation. 183 pp. Examines the onshore e f f e c t s that a c c o m p a n i e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of o f f s h o r e oil and g a s in Scotland, and describes how the g o v e r n m e n t a l planning process was conducted. Energy Research and D e v e l o p m e n t Administration, 1977. M a n a g i n g the Socio-Economic Impacts of Energy Development: A Guide for the Small Community. Washington, D.C.: NTIS Report No. ERDA 7 7 - 7 9 . 82 pp. A g u i d e for local o f f i c i a l s on assessing, planning for, and m a n a g i n g the s o c i o e c o n o m i c impacts of large-scale e n e r g y d e v e l o p m e n t . Fingns, M. F., W. S. Duval, and G. B. Stevenson, 1979. The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup: With Particular R e f e r e n c e to Southern Canada. Quebec: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada. 155 pp. A basic introduction to oil spill cleanup techniques and e q u i p m e n t and cleanup strategies used under varying e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions. Geyer, R. A. (ed). 1980. Marine Environmental

Pollution.

1. Hydrocarbons. Elsevier O c e a n o g r a p h y

Series v. 27A. Mew York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. 591 pp. This v o l u m e deals with the f a t e and e f f e c t s of hydrocarbons e n t e r i n g the marine e n v i r o n m e n t both naturally and as a result of human activities. Gillman, Katherine, 1977. Oil and Gas in Coastal Lands and Waters. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Council on Environmental Quality. U.S. Gov't. Printing O f f i c e Stock Mo. 0 4 0 - 0 0 0 - 0 0 3 8 6 - 0 . 153 pp. A general overview of the e f f e c t s of o f f s h o r e oil and g a s d e v e l o p m e n t on the coastal zone. IMCO/FAO/UriESCO/WMO/WHO /IAEA / UN Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific A s p e c t s of Marine Pollution (GESAMP), 1977. Impact of Oil on The Marine Environment. Rome: Food and Agticulture Organization, Rep. Stud.

#6.

250 pp.

Detailed documentation of the impact of oil discharges in the marine e n v i r o n m e n t and the eff e c t on marine plants and animals and on humans.

Kash, D. E., I. L. White, K. M. Bergey, M. A. Chartock, M. D. Devine, R. L. Leonard, S. N. Salomon, and H. W. Young, 1973. Energy Under the Oceans: A Technology Assessment of Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Oas Operations. Morman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press. 378 pp. A report of a technology assessment of oil and gas operations on the U.S. outer continental shelf made by an interdisciplinary research team. national Research Council, 1981. Safety and Offshore

Oil. Washington, D.C.: national Academy Press.

331 pp. A review of the adequacy of federal regulations and industrial technology for ensuring the safety of oil and gas operations on the outer continental shelf. Hew England River Basins Commission, 1978. Methodologies for OCS-Related Planning. Boston, Mass. 151 pp. A management guide with a systematic approach to (1) estimating the number and kinds of onshore support facilities required; (2) estimating levels of offshore exploration and development activity; and (3) identifying and assessing the impacts of alternative sites for facilities. Pattison, Malka L., 1977. Socioeconomic Impact of Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Development: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior. 63 pp. An annotated bibliography listing references (available as of 1977) on the s o c i o e c o n o m i c impacts of OCS oil and gas development. Wardley-Smith, J. (ed.), 1979. The Prevention

of Oil Pollution.

New York: John Wiley and Sons

(Halsted Press Book). 309 pp. Deals with sources of oil pollution and techniques for preventing oil pollution on land and sea; also with the human factor responsible for causing pollution and legal aspects of preventing oil pollution. Wheeler, R. B., 1978. The Fate of Petroleum in the Marine Environment. Special Report. Houston, Texas: Exxon Production Research Company. 32 pp. Outlines progress toward understanding the fate of petroleum spilled in the marine environment. UNEP, 1978. Environmental Aspects of the Petroleum Industry—An Overview. Paris: Industry and Environment Office. 62 pp. An overview of policy aspects of the environmental issues related to the petroleum industry. U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1975. Petroleum in the Marine Environment. Washington, D.C. 107 pp. Detailed treatment of the inputs, fates, and the effects of petroleum in the marine environment.

DIRECTOR'S OFFICE P O NOT REMOVE

production

offshore storage

/éonr'V'f/